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4069115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Ratulangi | Sam Ratulangi | Dr. Gerungan Saul Samuel Jacob Ratulangi (also written as Ratu Langie; 5 November 1890 – 30 June 1949) was a Minahasan teacher, journalist, politician, and national hero from North Sulawesi, Indonesia. He was part of the committee that ratified the Constitution of Indonesia and served as the first Governor of Sulawesi.
Early life
The son of Jozias Ratulangi and Augustina Gerungan, both from wealthy, well-respected Minahasa families, Sam Ratulangi was born on 5 November 1890 in Tondano in North Sulawesi, which at the time was a part of the Dutch East Indies. Jozias was a teacher at the Hoofden School (middle school for children of local village heads) in Tondano. He received teacher training in Haarlem, Netherlands around 1880. Augustina was the daughter of Jacob Gerungan, the Majoor (district chief) of Tondano-Touliang.
Ratulangi was a gifted student, who studied at the local Dutch language elementary school (ELS or Europeesche Lagere School) and then at the Hoofden School. In 1904, he left his home to attend STOVIA (a medical school in Java) after receiving a scholarship from the school. Once in Batavia (now Jakarta), he had a change of heart and decided to attend the technical high school Koningin Wilhelmina. Ratulangi graduated in 1908 and started work on railroad construction in the south Priangan area of West Java. There he experienced unequal treatment in wages and employee lodging compared to those who were of Indo (Eurasian) descent.
Time in Europe
Studies in the Netherlands and Switzerland
In 1911, Ratulangi returned home, because his mother was seriously ill. His mother died on 19 November 1911. His father had died when he was in Java. After their mother's death, Ratulangi and his two sisters divided their parents' inheritance. Ratulangi planned to use the money he received to fund his education in Europe. He arrived in Amsterdam in 1912 and continued his studies that he started in Java, which had been cut short due to his mother's illness. In 1913, he received a certificate to teach middle school level mathematics (Middelbare Acte Wiskunde en Paedagogiek).
Ratulangi continued his studies at a university in Amsterdam for two more years. However, he was not able to complete his studies, because he was prohibited from taking the examination. The university required a high school level certificate, which Ratulangi did not have, because he never completed studies at either a Hogere Burgerschool (HBS) or Algemene Middelbare School (AMS). At the advice of Mr. Abendanon, a Dutchman who was sympathetic to those from Indonesia or what was called Indië at the time, Ratulangi applied and was accepted to the University of Zurich in Switzerland. In 1919, he obtained a doctorate in mathematics and science from the university.
Nationalist activism
During his time in Amsterdam, Ratulangi frequently met with Sosrokartono (R.A. Kartini's brother) and the three founders of the Indische Party, Ernest Douwes Dekker, Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, and Soewardi Soerjaningrat. Ratulangi was also active in the association for Indonesian students (Indische Vereeniging or Perhimpunan Indonesia). He was elected as chairman of the association in 1914. He invited speakers who were sympathetic to the Indonesian cause, such as Conrad Theodor van Deventer and Jacques Henrij Abendanon. In Switzerland, he was active in the Association of Asian Students (Associations d'étudiants asiatiques) where he met Jawaharlal Nehru from India.
Ratulangi was also active in writing articles. In one article entitled "Sarekat Islam" that was published in Onze Kolonien (1913), Ratulangi wrote about the growth of Sarekat Islam (a cooperative of local merchants in Indonesia) and also praised the Boedi Oetomo movement in Indonesia. Toward the end of the article, Ratulangi wrote the following:
Independence struggle
Return to Indonesia
On his return to Indonesia in 1919, Ratulangi moved to Yogyakarta to teach math and science at the technical high school Prinses Juliana School. After three years of teaching, he moved to Bandung and started the insurance company Assurantie Maatschappij Indonesia with Roland Tumbelaka, a medical doctor by profession and fellow Minahasan. The company name contained the first known instance of the word "Indonesia" being used in official documents. It has been noted that Sukarno first met Ratulangi when he was visiting Bandung for a conference. He noticed the name of Ratulangi's company that included "Indonesia". He was curious about the owner of the business and met Ratulangi in his office.
Return to Minahasa
In 1923, Ratulangi was nominated by the Minahasa Union party (Perserikatan Minahasa) to become secretary of the regional representative body of Minahasa in Manado (Minahasa Raad). He held this position from 1924 to 1927. During his time as secretary, Ratulangi lobbied for more rights for Minahasans. He was widely credited with getting the colonial government to abolish forced labor (Herendiensten) in Minahasa. He was also instrumental in the opening the areas of Modoinding and Kanarom in south Minahasa for transmigration and the establishment of a foundation to support the education of students with financial needs.
On 16 August 1927, Ratulangi and R. Tumbelaka started the Minahasa Unity party (Persatuan Minahasa). Its predecessor, the Minahasa Union party (Perserikatan Minahasa), included both civilian and military members. Some of the members from the military had revolted against the Dutch and hence they were prohibited from participating in political organizations. Ratulangi and Tumbelaka decided to form a new party, the Minahasa Unity party, which would only have civilian members. The existence of this party representing a specific region of Sulawesi gave its members local identity, but it also served the purpose of promoting national unity. The party "called for the 'solidarity of all population groups of Indonesia'". In 1939, Persatuan Minahasa was one of the political parties that formed the Indonesian Political Federation (GAPI or Gabungan Politik Indonesia). The others were Gerindo (Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia), Parindra (Partai Indonesia Raya), Pasundan, PPKI (Persatuan Partai Katolik Indonesia), and PSII (Persatuan Sarekat Islam Indonesia).
Member of the Volksraad
Appointed to the People's Council Volksraad in 1927 to represent the constituents in Minahasa, Ratulangi continued to agitate for equal rights and advocating Indonesian nationalism by aligning himself with the Nationalist Caucus (Fraksi Kebangsaan) that was started by Mohammad Husni Thamrin. He was a co-sponsor of the Soetardjo Petition, which expressed the desire for political autonomy through gradual reforms within a ten year period. The petition passed the Volksraad, but was not accepted by the colonial government. This response to the petition led to the formation of GAPI (described earlier). Ratulangi was not hesitant to criticize the authorities and would eventually be considered a risk to them. He continued to serve in the Volksraad until 1937, when he was arrested due to his increasing political views. He was jailed for several months in Sukamiskin in Bandung.
In 1932, Ratulangi was one of the founding members of the United Scholars of Indonesia (Vereniging van Indonesische Academici). He was also part of a group of church leaders and nationalists (including B.W. Lapian and A.A. Maramis) who wanted a church denomination that was free and separate from the official church institution of the Dutch East-Indies (called Protestantsche Kerk in Nederlandsch-Indie or Indische Kerk). In March 1933, the independent Convention of Protestant Churches in Minahasa (KGPM or Kerapatan Gereja Protestan Minahasa) was established.
In June 1937, Ratulangi's book "Indonesia in de Pacific" was published. The book was considered to be visionary in its content, in which Ratulangi warned against the militarisation of Japan and foresaw the possibility that Japan might invade the Indonesian archipelago because of its natural resources which Japan lacks. He described the leading role that Indonesia and other countries in Southeast Asia around the Pacific Rim could play — the Pacific Ocean could equal the Atlantic in importance.
After being released from prison in 1938, Ratulangi became the editor of Nationale Commentaren, a Dutch-language news and issues magazine. He used the magazine to write opinions against the colonial government's unfair actions and also to make his fellows Indonesians aware of the current state. Subscribers of the magazine included the offices of the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Colonies, and the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.
Japanese occupation
After the Dutch surrendered the Dutch East Indies to the Japanese, on 20 March 1942 the Japanese authorities prohibited any kind of political activity. Because all political organizations were disbanded, Ratulangi participated in the relief effort of the families of Dutch Colonial army (KNIL or Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger) soldiers. In 1943, Ratulangi was assigned as adviser to the occupying military government. In 1944, he was transferred to advise the military government in Makassar in South Sulawesi, which was part of the eastern territory that was controlled by the Japanese Navy. In June 1945, Ratulangi established an organization called Source of People's Blood (SUDARA or Sumber Darah Rakyat). The naming is very close to the Indonesian word "saudara", which in means brother/sister. Ratulangi used the organization to energize nationalist sentiments in Sulawesi in anticipation of possible independence in the near future.
After Independence
Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence
In early August 1945, Ratulangi was appointed as one of the members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI or Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia) from Sulawesi. On 17 August 1945, Sukarno announced the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence. Ratulangi had already arrived in Batavia with the other PPKI appointees from the eastern territory for meetings and hence he was present during the proclamation ceremony. The subsequent PPKI meetings starting on the day after the proclamation produced the Constitution of Indonesia and the appointment of Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta as President and Vice President, respectively, by acclamation. The meetings also organized the country into administrative regions where Ratulangi was appointed Governor of Sulawesi.
Governor of Sulawesi
Upon returning to Makassar and formally announcing the proclamation of independence, Ratulangi was faced with a very delicate situation. The Japanese were initially not ready to surrender their weapons. The Allied Forces under the command of Australian Brigadier General Ivan Dougherty arrived in September 1945 with the appointment as Military Governor. With him came elements of the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA or Nederlandsch-Indische Civiele Administratie) who were ready to assume the Dutch East Indies state as before the war. Along with NICA came KNIL soldiers to assist the Dutch civil government. With all the foreign influx, the local youth in Sulawesi were prepared to fight at all costs to maintain Indonesian independence. In addition, Ratulangi received support from the local traditional chiefs (raja-raja) including from the Sultanate of Bone and the Kingdom of Luwu who pledged their allegiance to the newly established Republic.
Ratulangi was able to hold negotiations in an effort to maintain the peace, but it only held for two months. Nevertheless, he was able to organize some semblance of a region government that operated for nine months. On 5 April 1946, Ratulangi and several of his staff were taken from their homes and held by the Dutch military police. They were imprisoned for three months until their exile to Serui Island in the Yapen Islands archipelago in Western New Guinea.
Exile in Serui
Ratulangi was exiled to Serui with six of his staff and their families: Josef Latumahina, Lanto Daeng Pasewang, Willem Sumampouw Tanod 'Wim' Pondaag, Suwarno, I. P. Lumban Tobing, and Intje Saleh Daeng Tompo. In Serui, the group looked for activities and interactions with the local community. They established a local school and a social organization to assist the women in the community. Politically, Ratulangi was involved in the establishment of the Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) in Irian that was led by Silas Papare with Ratulangi as an adviser.
Return from exile and death
On 23 March 1948, after the signing of the Renville Agreement, the Dutch released Ratulangi and his colleagues. They were transferred to Surabaya and then escorted to the demarcation line near Mojokerto and Jombang where they made their way to the capital of the republic in Yogyakarta. They were greeted warmly on their arrival in Yogyakarta and a reception was held by Sukarno with many Indonesian leaders in attendance. Ratulangi was appointed special adviser to the Indonesian government and a member of the Indonesian delegation in negotiations with the Dutch. He also visited troops in East Java and attended a financial conference in Kaliurang. Around this time, his was having issues with his health.
On 10 November 1948, a manifesto was announced by the Radio Republik Indonesia that urged the people of eastern Indonesia who were under the control of the Dutch to keep their unity with the Republic of Indonesia in order to one day become fully independent throughout Indonesia. The manifesto was called Manifes Ratulangie or Manifes Djokja and in addition to Ratulangi, it was also signed by I Gusti Ketut Pudja, Sukarjo Wiryopranoto, and others. The first point of the manifesto reads:
During Operation Kraai (the second Dutch military aggression against Indonesia), Yogyakarta was captured and the Indonesian leaders including Sukarno and Hatta were captured and exiled to Bangka. Ratulangi was captured by the Dutch on 25 December 1948. He was transferred to Jakarta on 12 January 1949 to be subsequently transferred to Bangka. However, due to his failing health, he was allowed to stay in Jakarta on house arrest. Ratulangi died on 30 June 1949. Ratulangi was temporarily buried in Tanah Abang, Jakarta. On 23 July 1949, his remains were transported to Manado on the KPM ship Swartenhondt. On 1 August 1949, the ship reached Manado. The next day Ratulangi's remains were transported and buried in his hometown of Tondano.
Family
Ratulangi was married twice. He married Emilie Suzanne Houtman and had two children, Corneille Jose Albert 'Odie' Ratulangi and Emilia Augustina 'Zus' Ratulangi. Ratulangi and Houtman divorced in 1926. Ratulangi married Maria Catharina Josephine 'Tjen' Tambajong in 1928. They had three children, Milia Maria Matulanda 'Milly' Ratulangi, Everdina Augustina 'Lani' Ratulangi, and Wulan Rugian Manampira 'Uki' Ratulangi.
Ratulangi had two older sisters, Wulan Kayes Rachel Wilhelmina Ratulangi and Wulan Rachel Wilhelmina Maria Ratulangi. Both had notable achievements. Wulan Kayes was the first Indonesian woman to pass the klein-ambtenaars examination for low-level government jobs in 1898. Her marks were higher than the men who took the exam. Wulan Rachel was the first Indonesian woman to receive the hulpacte basic certificate for elementary education in Dutch in 1912.
Honours and legacy
In August 1961, Ratulangi was posthumously awarded the title of National Hero of Indonesia by Sukarno. He also received posthumously the Bintang Gerilya in 1958, the Bintang Mahaputera Adipradana in 1960, and the Bintang Satyalancana in 1961.
Ratulangi is well-regarded in the Minahasa region of North Sulawesi. Main artery roads in all cities in Minahasa (Bitung, Manado, Tomohon, and Tondano) are named after Ratulangi. Manado's international airport is also named after him as is the state university in Manado. Statues and busts of Ratulangi can be found on the intersection between Jalan Sam Ratulangi and Jalan Bethesda in Manado, on the campus of Sam Ratulangi University, beside Ratulangi's tomb in Tondano, in Jakarta and Serui, and even in a park in Davao City (Philippines), which is located just north of the island of Sulawesi. In 2016, the Ministry of Finance issued new 2016 series notes in which the Rp. 20,000 valued note depicts Ratulangi on the front of the note. Sam Ratulangi is also featured on the newer 2022 series.
Notes
References
Bibliography
1890 births
1949 deaths
Indonesian Christians
Indonesian collaborators with Imperial Japan
Members of the Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)
Minahasa people
National Heroes of Indonesia
Politicians from North Sulawesi
PPKI
STOVIA alumni |
4069143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magog%20%28DC%20Comics%29 | Magog (DC Comics) | Magog is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, generally as an enemy and foil to Superman. He first appeared in Kingdom Come #1 (May 1996), and was created by Mark Waid and Alex Ross. In 2009, Magog was ranked as IGN's 75th-greatest comic book villain of all time.
In Kingdom Come, Magog's lack of the conventional heroic qualities of idealism puts him at odds with Superman's morality. After taking over Superman's place within the world's superhero community, his reckless actions with other would-be superheroes ultimately caused a nuclear disaster in the Midwestern United States; overwhelmed by guilt, he then realizes that Superman was right and seeks to atone for his crimes. In 2008, a parallel universe version of the character is introduced in DC Comics' main continuity; his destiny seemingly parallel to the original version's and some fear him due to their awareness of his counterpart's actions, yet granting him a benefit of doubt to prove himself as a true hero differing from his doppelgänger.
Publication history
Creation and development
Magog debuted in the first issue of the Elseworlds mini-series Kingdom Come in May 1996. Within this possible future, he represents the violent, modern-style heroes who come into conflict with the classic, moralistic heroes of the past.
Kingdom Come is a graphic novel rife with biblical references. Gog and Magog are both biblical characters from the Book of Genesis, the Book of Ezekiel, and the Book of Revelation as well as names that appear in a variety of subsequent legends. In addition to taking his name from the Old Testament, Magog represents the Golden calf, that is, a false idol.
The character's appearance was based on that of the Marvel Comics character Cable. Magog's character design was based on superhero design trends of the time, especially Cable, and Cable's creator Rob Liefeld himself. Alex Ross explained the design's decision: "As I remember, Mark originally told me, 'Make him look like everything we hate in modern superhero design'". Ross has gone into more detail in an interview with Comic Book Resources:
After Kingdom Come
The character was featured in Justice Society of America vol. 3. Introduced in Justice Society of America (vol. 3) #12 as Lance, the character was introduced as Magog in Justice Society of America (vol. 3) #18.
Following the appearance in Justice Society of America, the character received his own eponymous title, written by Keith Giffen and penciled by Howard Porter. Giffen commented on the series and his reaction to character:
Scott Kolins took over the series with issue #11 as both writer and artist. However, the planned five-issue story was cut to two when the series was canceled with issue #12 because of low sales, but the story would be finished in a double-sized issue of Justice Society of America Special #1.
Fictional character biography
Kingdom Come
Magog, "The New Man of Tomorrow", is a hero with a rising career in the last days of Superman's declining popularity. His true origins are never revealed in the story. His most controversial act at the time was killing the Joker, who was in custody for the murder of Lois Lane and dozens of other members of the Daily Planet. Magog then surrenders to Superman and the authorities. When put on trial for murder, Magog is acquitted, the feeling being that it is time for psychotic supervillains like the Joker to be killed off rather than preserve the belief of heroes of Superman's generation that all life is sacred no matter what the crime or risk of recidivism.
Superman publicly denounces Magog and the acquittal, prompting Magog to challenge him to a fight. Superman, disgusted with the verdict, refuses the challenge and instead goes into self-imposed exile. During the next ten years, a new generation of heroes following Magog's violent approach begins to arise. Magog himself begins operating with a team of heroes known as the Justice Battalion (a group composed of characters based on the heroes of Charlton Comics, who also inspired Alan Moore's Watchmen). During a one-sided and unnecessarily brutal battle with the villainous Parasite, Magog's teammate Captain Atom is critically injured, causing him to explode with the force of an atomic bomb. This disaster leaves Kansas completely destroyed, over a million people killed, and much of America's heartland is covered in deadly radiation, destabilizing the American economy.
Magog and Alloy are the only survivors of the Kansas blast. This cataclysm is the event which finally draws Superman and many of the heroes of his generation out of retirement, thus leading to the story's inevitable generational conflict. Initially, Magog is considered the most wanted and dangerous criminal in the world and is hunted by Superman's new Justice League. They finally confront him as he tries with little success to put some small order back amongst the ruins of Kansas. Superman goads him with the remark "You must be proud (of this destruction)", which results in Magog lashing out at the Man of Steel, blaming him for the present crisis since he would not adapt to modern ways. After the attack fails to harm Superman, Magog quietly surrenders. It becomes apparent that he is traumatized by his experience and seeks forgiveness.
He is taken into custody by the League and held in their special prison where he and others are lectured about their violent ways, although Magog appears to spend most of his time remorsefully in his cell. However, the jail's walls are pierced by a brainwashed Captain Marvel and in the battle that follows, Magog noticeably avoids fighting and just sticks to saving as many lives as he can. At the end of Kingdom Come, Magog retires to Paradise Island, where he is seen caring for the crippled Japanese superheroine Tokyo Rose, and giving Swastika a hard clout when he fails to show proper respect to Wonder Woman and the Amazons. In the Elliot S! Maggin novelization, it is revealed that Magog even becomes the dean of students at Themyscira.
Justice Society of America
Lance Corporal David Reid, great-grandson of Franklin D. Roosevelt, was with the Marine platoon assigned to halt the looting of the National Museum of Iraq during the Iraq War. Reid tracked one of the looters and found an artifact that was a stone fragment of the Old God Gog. Upon touching it, Reid blacked out, waking up three weeks later to find that he was now filled with plasma energy and that a mark shaped like the Eye of Providence had opened up on his left arm. With the aid of a pointed hand-held device (which earned him the nickname "Lance"), Reid was able to project focused blasts of energy.
Because the modern Justice Society of America tries to keep the legacies of former heroes alive, and because Franklin Roosevelt was credited with bringing the JSA together in the first place, the Society asked Reid to join them.
When the Justice Society encounters the Third World survivor Gog, several of their number have themselves "healed" by him. When Gog sets out to save a village from a rogue military attack, the JSA assist him. During the conflict, Lance is struck by an RPG missile and killed. Gog stands over Lance and brings him back to life, replacing his ruined left arm and right eye with gold metal. Gog then dubs Reid Magog. Thankful for Gog's gift, Magog then leads half of the Justice Society in support of Gog, using his staff to send the members who don't agree with Gog's ways back to the Justice Society's headquarters. The Justice Society discovers that Gog is rooting himself to the Earth, which would cause the planet's destruction if he were ever to leave, and seek to destroy Gog to prevent this. Magog protects Gog until he sees him remove the gifts he gave to the Justice Society and use the corpses of Mister Terrific's wife and Alan Scott's daughter to torture them. Magog then turns on Gog as well. Gog orders Magog to serve him or have his gift of life taken from him. Magog refuses, saying that he would rather die than live without freedom. The Society finally manages to topple Gog, and Magog kills Gog with his staff. After Gog's head is removed from his body, his effects on the Justice Society are reversed, except for Magog, who for some reason remains in his altered state.
Soon after, David leaves the JSA, returning to his family's farm. He later returns to the team, but his military training causes him to chafe under the Society's comparatively lax security and combat ethics. After the team barely survives a mass supervillain attack and returns to the brownstone to find Mister Terrific had been stabbed by All-American Kid, Magog greatly voices his disdain for the Society's methods, even getting into a brief altercation with the original Wildcat.
JSA All-Stars
After the split that occurs in the Justice Society, Magog forms and joins the newly formed All-Stars (a team composed mostly of the Justice Society's younger heroes), alongside Power Girl, and helps lead the team along with her. The team had a new ongoing series beginning in December 2009, written by Lilah Sturges and illustrated by Freddie Williams II.
Solo series
In September 2009, a Magog solo series was launched, written by Keith Giffen and illustrated by Howard Porter. The series, while loosely tied into the events of Justice Society of America (vol. 3) and the JSA All-Stars spin-off series, focuses on Magog as his own character. As such, Giffen gave Magog his own rogues gallery as well as explored Magog's origin, powers and relationships. The series was canceled with issue #12 because of low sales.
The first story arc revolves around Magog's origins and his fight against a mysterious weapons-development group called Flashpoint, run by the warden of Haven Prison (first introduced in the pages of 52), D.P. Macklin. Magog meets his mother, a high-ranking woman called Alba, Firstborn of the Thirty-Three and Duchess of Blighted Albion, and his friend Axel, a former soldier who owns a gasoline station and auto repair shop who has created a souped-up search engine called Mirage, and teaches a young waitress named Lauren self-defense techniques after noticing that she is being beaten regularly by the man she lives with. Additionally, Magog meets and fights a once-rich, now-deformed homeless man known as Miasma, who was the leader of an underground city.
When Magog attacks Haven's underground Flashpoint facilities, D.P. Macklin contacts the Justice Society of America and frames Magog for the ensuing prison break. After a lengthy skirmish with both prisoners and his fellow JSA members, Magog is officially kicked out of the All-Stars.
In recent events, Axel has surmised that David Reid may, in fact, be possessed by an extradimensional entity, which is the root of his powers. Magog is skeptical of such allegations and a visit with Zatanna has turned up no evidence to support Axel's theory thus far.
In the final issue, Magog faces his old friend Eric, who is now the cyborg warrior N.I.L.8., along with his group who are using Gog's technology to bring destruction.
Magog finds he has been controlled by the cult of Gog. When the Justice Society learn of Gog's technology, they arrive to save the planet. The JSA free Magog from the cult's control and he destroys N.I.L.8. Magog seemingly sacrifices himself when he finds the heart of Gog's technology and defeats it. He awakens in Albion with his enemy Kiera at his side. He refuses to be a pawn any longer and walks away.
Generation Lost
Following the events of Blackest Night, murderer and former Justice League International founder Maxwell Lord is returned to life and uses his psychic abilities to erase his existence from the memories of all but a handful of people. Lord then uses his powers to influence several high-ranking members of the military into believing Captain Atom should be apprehended for alleged wrongdoings. Magog is called in to restrain Atom in the event that he tries to flee, but ultimately fails as the hero defeats him and escapes.
Shortly after this event, Maxwell Lord is informed by the Entity that he has been resurrected to prevent Magog from instigating a massive war involving Earth's metahumans. Max then sees a vision of himself killing a distraught Magog with Magog's own staff as Magog begs for mercy. Max later sees a vision of the future where a team led by Magog attacks Parasite. Parasite's absorption of Captain Atom causes an explosion that destroys everything within a large radius and annihilates over a million people (tying into the Kingdom Come future).
Afterward, Magog is seen talking to Max who instructs Magog to find and kill Captain Atom. To this end, Max upgrades Magog's staff, giving him "the right tools for the job". Magog then locates the JLI at an OMAC factory and attacks Captain Atom. In their battle, Captain Atom manages to convince Magog he's being used and Magog remembers Max's existence; however, Max is on hand using his powers to force Magog to kill himself with his own staff, then makes everyone in the vicinity believe Captain Atom killed Magog. After Max escapes and undoes the global mindwipe, he releases a statement onto the Internet exonerating Captain Atom of the deaths in Chicago, saying far worse would have happened if he had not intervened.
The New 52
The New 52 reboot of Magog occurred in the 4-issue Superman/Wonder Woman story arc "Casualties of War" by Peter J. Tomasi and Doug Mahnke, harkening back to the origin of the Justice League where they repel an invasion of Parademons on Metropolis, but there are civilian casualties, including David Reid's mother (which he blames on them). Five years later, the two heroes are fighting two supervillains Major Disaster and the Atomic Skull while the new hero, Wonderstar, a.k.a. an amnesic Reid, aids them. Later in issue #14, Wonderstar's powers go out of control while Superman and Wonder Woman restrain him until a magic portal appears in the sky, dropping a golden staff weapon that looks like a two-pronged trident. Wonderstar touches it and becomes Magog, under the command of Circe, who had cast spells to transform David Reid and make his wish come true (revenge on Superman and Wonder Woman). In Superman/Wonder Woman #17, Circe's desire is for Diana to suffer and watch the death of Superman. Circe captures the couple and gloats, but when Wonder Woman outsmarts her, Circe retreats from Superman through a magic portal admitting defeat. Magog is defeated by Wonder Woman and deprived of his now-powerless staff, reverting him to a 10-year-old boy.
Collected editions
Magog: Lethal Force (collects Magog #1–5)
Powers and abilities
Reid possesses great amounts of plasma energy within him, which were originally focused into energy blasts by the device on his left arm. After his resurrection as Magog, his left arm is now metal and his energy blasts are focused through a staff given to him by Gog. He also possesses enhanced strength and endurance as the original Magog did. The staff was later upgraded by Max Lord to emit a form of radiation that harmed Captain Atom. He is capable of flight, as well as teleportation of himself and others, though this last ability has not been seen since Gog's death. Keith Giffen, however, has stated that much of his power remains unexplored for the time being. When powered up, Magog is granted enhanced vision in his blind eye (despite the fact it keeps the appearance of a pupiless orb) and is able to switch to infrared or tap into more exotic wavelengths.
Magog is also able to take on a more normal appearance, with skin (or a close approximation of it) magically covering his right arm. As David Reid, Magog is half-blind and scarred.
Other versions
In the alternate timeline of the 2011 "Flashpoint" storyline, David Reid was a member of Team 7, an elite unit of soldiers led by Grifter. David and most of his teammates were ultimately killed during a botched attack on a terrorist training camp.
Magog appears as the main villain of the canon Arrowverse comic miniseries Earth-Prime. He is first seen in an unnamed appearance springing Clayface (Tanner Freyr) from Arkham Asylum so that he can help Magog take down Batwoman. Magog travels to the unnamed Earth where John Henry Irons originates, recruiting the evil Superman to his side after saving him from his Earth being erased during the Crisis on Infinite Earths. Magog went to Earth-2 and approached an elderly Needle after he visited Pat Dugan and Courtney Dugan during their vacation in Yellowstone National Park and approached an elderly Needle (who has become a changed man since serving time) to inform him that his Earth is different from Earth-Prime and wants to make use of his services. While he was unable to recruit Needle who drove off, Magog took one of the needles that Needle shot at him during their confrontation and prepared to make a clone of Needle that obeys his every command.
In other media
David Reid appears in the Young Justice episode "Failsafe", voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, as a soldier under General Wade Eiling's command in Martian Manhunter's mental training exercise. His real world counterpart is never shown, but is mentioned to exist and be a member of the Justice League in the third-season finale "Nevermore".
References
Characters created by Mark Waid
Characters created by Alex Ross
Comics about time travel
Comics characters introduced in 1996
DC Comics characters who can teleport
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman senses
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics cyborgs
DC Comics military personnel
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional corporals
Fictional United States Marine Corps personnel
Fictional Iraq War veterans
Vigilante characters in comics
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4069515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Doulton | Royal Doulton | Royal Doulton is an English ceramic and home accessories manufacturer that was founded in 1815. Operating originally in Vauxhall, London, and later moving to Lambeth, in 1882 it opened a factory in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, in the centre of English pottery. From the start, the backbone of the business was a wide range of utilitarian wares, mostly stonewares, including storage jars, tankards and the like, and later extending to drain pipes, lavatories, water filters, electrical porcelain and other technical ceramics. From 1853 to 1901, its wares were marked Doulton & Co., then from 1901, when a royal warrant was given, Royal Doulton.
It always made some more decorative wares, initially still mostly stoneware, and from the 1860s, the firm made considerable efforts to get a reputation for design, in which it was largely successful, as one of the first British makers of art pottery. Initially this was done through artistic stonewares made in Lambeth, but in 1882 the firm bought a Burslem factory, which was mainly intended for making bone china tablewares and decorative items. It was a latecomer in this market compared to firms such as Royal Crown Derby, Royal Worcester, Wedgwood, Spode and Mintons, but made a place for itself in the later 19th century. Today Royal Doulton mainly produces tableware and figurines, but also cookware, glassware, and other home accessories such as linens, curtains and lighting.
Three of its brands were Royal Doulton, Royal Albert, and (after a post-WWII merger) Mintons. These brands are now owned by WWRD Holdings Limited (Waterford Crystal, Wedgwood, Royal Doulton), based in Barlaston near Stoke-on-Trent. On 2 July 2015, the acquisition of WWRD by the Finnish company Fiskars Corporation was completed.
History – 19th century
The Royal Doulton company began as a partnership between John Doulton, Martha Jones, and John Watts, as Doulton bought (with £100) an interest in an existing factory at Vauxhall Walk, Lambeth, London, where Watts was the foreman. They traded as Jones, Watts & Doulton from 1815 until Martha Jones left the partnership in 1820, when the trade name was changed to Doulton & Watts. The business specialised in making salt glaze stoneware articles, including utilitarian or decorative bottles, jugs and jars, much of it intended for inns and pubs. In 1826 they took over a larger existing pottery on Lambeth High Street.
The company took the name Doulton & Co. in 1854 after the retirement of John Watts in 1853, and a merger with Henry Doulton and Co. (see below), although the trading name of Doulton & Watts continued to be used for decades. For some of the 19th century there were three different businesses, run by the sons of John Doulton, and perhaps with cross-ownership, which later came back together by the end of the century. By 1897 the total employees exceeded 4,000.
Pipes and other utilitarian wares
Manufacturing of circular ceramic sewage pipes began in 1846, and was highly successful; Henry Doulton set up his own company specializing in this, Henry Doulton and Co., the first business to make these. This merged with the main business in 1854. His brother John Junior also later set up his own pipe-making business. Previously sewers were just channels made of brick, which began to leak as they aged. The 1846–1860 cholera pandemic, and the tracing by Dr John Snow of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak in London to a water supply contaminated by sewage led to a huge programme of improving sewage disposal, and other forms of drainage using pipes. These and an expanding range of builder's and sanitary wares remained a bedrock of Doulton into the 20th century. Metal plumbing items such as taps and cast iron baths were added to the range later. Kitchen stonewares such as storage jars and mixing bowls, and laboratory and manufacturing ceramics, were other long-standing specialities. Further facilities were set up for making these in Paisley in Scotland, Smethwick, St Helens near Liverpool, and Rowley Regis in England, and eventually Paris.
Decorative wares
By the 1860s Henry Doulton became interested in more artistic wares than the utilitarian ceramics which had grown the business enormously. British stoneware had languished somewhat in artistic terms, although Wedgwood and others continued to produce jasperware and some other stonewares in a very refined style, competing with porcelain. The Doulton wares went further back to earlier salt-glazed styles, with a varied glaze finish. This "gave stoneware an entirely new impetus, realizing the potential of the material".
As the company became interested in diversifying from its utilitarian wares into more decorative objects, it developed a number of earthenware and stoneware bodies. The so-called "Lambeth faience" (from 1872) was "a somewhat heavily potted creamware much used in decorative plaques and vases", often with underglaze painting. Other bodies were called "Impasto" (1879); "Silicon" (1880), "a vitrified unglazed stoneware decorated with coloured clays"; "Carrara" (1887), white earthenware, also used as architectural terracotta; "Marquetrie" (1887), "marbled clays in checker work", then glazed; "Chine" impressed with fabrics to texture the clay, these burnt away in the kiln.
By 1871, Henry Doulton, John's son, launched a studio at the Lambeth pottery, and offered work to designers and artists from the nearby Lambeth School of Art. The first to be engaged was George Tinworth followed by artists such as the Barlow family (Florence, Hannah, and Arthur), Frank Butler, Mark Marshall, Eliza Simmance and John Eyre. John Bennett was in charge of the "Lambeth faience" department until he emigrated to America in 1876, where he had success with his own pottery.
Doulton was rather unusual in that most of the Lambeth studio pieces were signed by the artist or artists, usually with initials or a monogram incised on the base. Many are also dated. Until 1882, "every piece of the company's art stoneware was a unique item" but after that some pieces were made in batches, as demand grew.
There were initial technical difficulties in producing the "art" pieces; at first they were fired in the open kiln with other wares, but later saggars were used. They were not especially profitable, sometimes not profitable at all, but there were huge profits in other parts of the business. Like other manufacturers, Doulton took great trouble with the wares submitted to international exhibitions, where it was often a medal winner. The period 1870–1900 saw "the great years of Doulton's art stoneware", which remains popular with collectors.
In 1882, Doulton purchased the small factory of Pinder, Bourne & Co, at Nile Street in Burslem, Staffordshire, which placed Doulton in the region known as The Potteries.
Architectural ceramics
Doulton also manufactured architectural terracotta (in fact usually stoneware), mainly at Lambeth, and would execute commissions for monumental sculpture in terracotta. Their late Victorian catalogues contained a wide range of architectural elements with, for example, tall Tudor-style chimney pots in many different designs. The Tudor originals of these were built up in shaped brick, but Doultons supplied them in a single piece. There were ranges of small Gothic arches, columns and capitals.
When the Anglican St. Alban's Church was built in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1887 with Alexandra, Princess of Wales as one of the driving forces, Doulton donated and manufactured an altarpiece, a pulpit and a font. They were executed in terracotta with glazed details to the design of Tinworth.
The Hotel Russell in Russell Square (1900) has a large facade in buff terracotta, including life-size statues of "British queens" by Henry Charles Fehr, sculpted coats of arms and other large ornamental elements. This was somewhat old-fashioned for 1900, and the new taste for Art Nouveau favoured the glazed white "Carrara" material, which remained popular through to the Art Deco of the 1930s, often combined with bespoke decoration in bright colours, as at the Turkey Cafe in Leicester, also of 1900. William James Neatby was the Royal Doulton's chief designer from 1890 to 1901 and designed some of the finest Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style) architectural ceramics and sculptures. Everard's Printing Works is a leading surviving example of an exterior in Doulton's Carrara glazed architectural terra-cotta.
One of the largest schemes they made is , now in Glasgow Green, given by Sir Henry Doulton for the International Exhibition of 1888. When the over life-size statue at the top was destroyed in a lightning strike in 1901, Doulton paid for a second hand-made statue to be produced. Sir Henry's mausoleum is another fine example of Doulton's exterior terracottas, as are the pedimental sculptures for the department store Harrods (1880s).
By this time Doulton was popular for stoneware and ceramics, under the artistic direction of John Slater, who worked with figurines, vases, character jugs, and decorative pieces designed by the prolific Leslie Harradine. Lambeth continued to make studio pottery in small quantities per design, often in stoneware and typically ornamental forms like vases, while Burslem made larger quantities of more middle market bone china tablewares and figures. By 1904 over 1,200 people were employed at Burslem alone.
The retirement and death of Sir Henry Doulton, both in 1897, led to the company going public at the start of 1899.
20th century
In 1901 King Edward VII awarded the Burslem factory the Royal Warrant, allowing that part of the business to adopt new markings and a new name, Royal Doulton. The bathroom ceramics and other utilitarian wares initially continued to be branded Doulton and Co. The company added products during the first half of the 20th century, and the tableware and decorative wares tended to shift from stonewares to high-quality bone china. Figurines in fashionable styles became increasingly important, for example a series of young girls in bathing costumes, in a mild version of Art Deco. Figures continued to be important throughout the 20th century, but the peak of quality in modelling and painting is generally thought to have been between the world wars.
The well-known artist Frank Brangwyn designed a pattern for a dinner service in 1930 (see gallery), which continued to be made for some time. He created the design, but specified that the factory painters actually decorating the pieces be allowed some freedom in interpreting his designs.
1938, Doulton acquired the works of George Skey and Co. in Tamworth, Staffordshire, which had been producing drain pipes, chimney pots and chemical stoneware. Doulton modified the factory to produce a range of technical ceramics, including porcelain insulators, chemical porcelain, grinding media and for other applications. A high voltage laboratory for the testing of insulators was subsequently built.
The headquarters building and factory of Royal Doulton were in Lambeth in London, on the south bank of the Thames. This Art Deco building was designed by T.P.Bennett. In 1939 Gilbert Bayes created ceramic relief friezes that showed the history of pottery through the ages.
In 1963, a ceramic filter company Aerox Ltd., of Stroud, Gloucester, was acquired and subsequently integrated with the water filter division of Doulton Industrial Porcelains. Following various mergers and acquisitions over the years this company still exists, and under the name Doulton., but is no longer connected to Royal Doulton.
In 1969 Doulton bought Beswick Pottery, long a specialist in figurines, mostly of animals, including some Beatrix Potter characters. Their factory in Longton, Stoke-on-Trent was used to make the popular "Bunnykins" range of anthropomorphic rabbits, originally produced in 1936 to designs by the then managing director's daughter, Sister Barbara Bailey, who was a nun.
1972 Doulton was taken over by Pearson and Son Ltd., and a year later restructured the Doulton group into five divisions: Royal Doulton Tableware; Doulton Glass Industries; Doulton Engineering Group; Doulton Sanitaryware and Doulton Australia.
The whole English pottery industry was losing ground in the post-war period, and Doulton's purchases of other companies was not enough to stem decline. The Lambeth factory closed in 1956 due to clean air regulations preventing urban production of salt glaze. Following closure, work was transferred to The Potteries. The factory building was demolished in 1978 and the friezes transferred to the Victoria & Albert Museum. The office building in Black Prince Road survives, complete with a frieze of potters and Sir Henry Doulton over the original main entrance, executed by Tinworth.
In 1980 Pearson purchased Fairey Holdings, which historically had been well known for its aircraft. In the next few years some parts of Doulton were spun off, including the glass and sanitaryware divisions, Doulton Engineering (brought under the management of Fairey, with the insulator division merged with Allied Insulators in 1985).
The Churchbank factory was closed in 2000. The Beswick factory in Longton closed and the Doulton factory in Baddeley Green closed in 2003. The Nile Street factory in Burslem closed on 30 September 2005, and was demolished in 2014.
Corporate
In 1971, S. Pearson & Son Ltd, a subsidiary of the Pearson industrial conglomerate acquired Doulton & Co. Pearson & Son owned Allied English Potteries and merged operations into Doulton & Co. All brands from Allied English Potteries and Doulton & Co. Ltd. including Royal Doulton, Minton, Beswick, Dunn Bennett, Booths, Colclough, Royal Albert, Royal Crown Derby, Paragon, Ridgway, Queen Anne, Royal Adderley and Royal Adderley Floral were moved under the umbrella of Royal Doulton Tableware Ltd. Royal Doulton Tableware Ltd was a subsidiary of Doulton & Co. Ltd, itself a subsidiary of the Pearson Group Doulton & Co. became Royal Doulton plc in 1993. Pearson spun off Royal Doulton in 1993. Waterford Wedgwood completed a takeover of Royal Doulton in 2005, acquiring all assets and brands.
Parts of the business were progressively sold off. The sanitaryware division was bought by Stelrad. In 1983 David Edward Dunn Johnson bought the hotelware division of Royal Doulton, now renamed Steelite and, as of 2022, was still operating in Stoke-on-Trent.
In 1995 Royal Doulton commissioned a new factory just outside Jakarta, Indonesia; this division is called PT Doulton. By 2009 the factory employed 1,500 persons producing bone china under both Wedgwood and Royal Doulton brands. Annual production was reported to be 5 to 7 million pieces. In order to reduce costs the majority of production of both brands has been transferred to Indonesia, with only a small number of high-end products continuing to be made in the UK.
Royal Doulton Ltd., along with other Waterford Wedgwood companies, went into administration on 5 January 2009. Royal Doulton is now part of WWRD Holdings Limited. On 11 May 2015, Fiskars, a Finnish maker of home products, agreed to buy 100% of the holdings of WWRD. On 2 July 2015 the acquisition of WWRD by Fiskars Corporation was completed including the brands Waterford, Wedgwood, Royal Doulton, Royal Albert and Rogaška. The acquisition was approved by the US antitrust authorities.
Cultural references
In the comedy television series Keeping Up Appearances her Royal Doulton china "with the hand-painted periwinkles" was frequently mentioned with great pride by the main character, Hyacinth Bucket.
A Royal Doulton bowl features prominently in the 2018 film Mary Poppins Returns, and is the basis for the song "The Royal Doulton Music Hall".
In the James Bond 007 franchise films, Judi Dench's M character has a Royal Doulton's "Jack the Bulldog" figurine on her desk at MI6.
Notable designers
Hannah and Florence Barlow, two painter sisters
Leslie Harradine
Agnete Hoy
Charles Noke
Gallery
See also
List of Royal Doulton figurines
List of Bunnykins figurines
Notes and references
References
Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus,
Furnival, W.J., Leadless decorative tiles, faience, and mosaic, 1904, W.J. Furnival, Stone, Staffordshire, reprint , 9781176325630, Google books
Godden, Geoffrey, An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of British Pottery and Porcelain, 1992, Magna Books,
"Grace's": "Doulton & Co.", Grace's Guide to British industrial history
Hughes, G Bernard, The Country Life Pocket Book of China, 1965, Country Life Ltd
Wood, Frank L., The World of British Stoneware: Its History, Manufacture and Wares, 2014, Troubador Publishing Ltd, , 9781783063673
External links
Official website
Examples in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Ceramics manufacturers of England
English brands
English pottery
Figurine manufacturers
Kitchenware brands
Staffordshire pottery
Waterford Wedgwood
Companies based in Stoke-on-Trent
Manufacturing companies established in 1815
1815 establishments in England
Privately held companies of the United Kingdom
British royal warrant holders
Fiskars
British porcelain
Art pottery |
4069518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Abominable%20Snowman%20%28film%29 | The Abominable Snowman (film) | The Abominable Snowman (US title: The Abominable Snowman of the Himalayas) is a 1957 British fantasy-horror film directed by Val Guest and written by Nigel Kneale, based on his own BBC television play The Creature. Produced by Hammer Films, the plot follows the exploits of British scientist Dr. John Rollason (Peter Cushing), who joins an American expedition, led by glory-seeker Tom Friend (Forrest Tucker), to search the Himalayas for the legendary Yeti. Maureen Connell, Richard Wattis and Arnold Marle appear in supporting roles.
Plot
Dr. John Rollason (Peter Cushing), his wife, Helen (Maureen Connell), and assistant Peter Fox (Richard Wattis), are guests of the Lama (Arnold Marlé) of the monastery of Rong-buk while on a botanical expedition to the Himalayas. A second group, led by Tom Friend (Forrest Tucker) accompanied by trapper Ed Shelley (Robert Brown), photographer Andrew McNee (Michael Brill) and Sherpa guide Kusang (Wolfe Morris), arrives at the monastery to search for the legendary Yeti or Abominable Snowman. Rollason, despite the objections of his wife and the Lama, decides to join Friend's expedition. Whereas Rollason is motivated by scientific curiosity to learn more about the creature, Friend seeks fame and fortune and wants to capture a live Yeti and present it to the world's press.
The expedition climbs high into the mountains and finds giant footprints in the snow, evidence of the Yeti's existence.
As the tensions between Rollason and Friend rise, McNee is injured by a bear trap laid by Shelley to catch the Yeti.
When a Yeti is seen up-close by Kusang, he cries that he has "Seen what man must not see..." and flees down the mountain at double-speed back to the monastery, from where Helen and Fox decide to mount a rescue mission. McNee is also psychically sensitive to the Yeti's proximity, which finally leads to Shelley shooting and killing a Yeti. The next day, McNee, hearing the haunting calls of the Yeti, hobbles from his tent and falls off a cliff.
Friend now hatches a plan to trap a live Yeti by having a steel net rigged to the ceiling of a cave, with Shelley waiting, as bait, to spring the trap. Friend has given him a rifle, but unbeknownst to Shelley, it's loaded with rounds that do not fire. A Yeti does show up, ostensibly to retrieve its fallen comrade's body, and as it tangles with the net, Shelley tries firing the rifle, but dies of acute terror.
Friend finally decides to cut his losses and leave with the body of the dead Yeti. However, the Yeti telepathically plant thoughts in Rollason's mind, and then make Friend hear the dead Shelley's voice calling for help. Friend rushes outside, firing his gun and dies in a crushing avalanche that he caused.
Rollason takes refuge in the cave and watches in amazement as two Yeti arrive to take away the body of their fallen compatriot. He realizes the Yeti are an intelligent species biding their time to claim the Earth for themselves after humanity has destroyed itself.
The rescue party finds Rollason outside a halfway-point hut, where the Yeti have actually brought him. At the monastery Rollason asserts to the Lama that "What I was searching for, does not exist."
Cast
Forrest Tucker as Tom Friend
Peter Cushing as Dr John Rollason
Maureen Connell as Helen Rollason
Richard Wattis as Peter Fox
Robert Brown as Ed Shelley
Michael Brill as Andrew McNee
Arnold Marlé as The Lama
Wolfe Morris as Kusang
Arnold Marlé as Lhama (as Arnold Marle)
Anthony Chinn as Majordomo (as Anthony Chin)
John Rae as Yeti
Joe Powell as Yeti
Jack Easton as Yeti
Fred Johnson as Yeti
Production
Development
Writer Nigel Kneale and television director/producer Rudolph Cartier had collaborated on several BBC dramas, including The Quatermass Experiment (1953) and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1954), an adaptation of the George Orwell novel. Their next production had been The Creature, a morality play written by Kneale about a search for the mysterious Yeti in the Himalayas. Kneale wished to write a story about the Yeti that would "not make him a monster but put a twist on it that really he was better than us". He was influenced by numerous reports of the Yeti that had appeared in the news at the time, including discoveries of footprints by explorer Eric Shipton in 1951 and by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay on the first complete ascent of Mount Everest in 1953. In particular, he was influenced by an unsuccessful 1954 expedition to find the Yeti sponsored by the Daily Mail newspaper. The play starred Stanley Baker as Tom Friend and Peter Cushing as John Rollason with Arnold Marlé as the Lama, Eric Pohlmann as trapper Pierre Brosset, Simon Lack as photographer Andrew McPhee and Wolfe Morris as Nima Kusang. It was broadcast live from Lime Grove Studios on Sunday, 30 January 1955 and a repeat performance was broadcast live the following Wednesday, 2 February. The broadcast was not recorded and the only record of the production that survives is a series of screen images, known as tele-snaps, taken by photographer John Cura.
The play received mixed reviews: the critic in The Times found it unrealistic and dull. Similarly, Philip Hope-Wallace of The Listener found it “a Boy's Fiction standard with a conversational cut and thrust to the dialogue which sounded as dry and powdery as the snows of the film inserts”. On a more positive note, Peter Black in the Daily Mail found the play to be a “rousing, outdoor adventure story” while Clifford Davis in the Daily Mirror described it as “gripping stuff and, for this viewer, packed with terror”. The play was spoofed by The Goon Show in the episode "Yehti", broadcast on 8 March 1955. Hammer Films purchased the rights to The Creature on 2 November 1956. They had enjoyed success with The Quatermass Xperiment (1955), an adaptation of the first Quatermass serial and would achieve similar success with Quatermass 2 (1957), an adaptation of the television sequel. Val Guest, who had directed the two Quatermass films, was assigned to direct; this would be his third, and last, collaboration with Nigel Kneale.
Writing
Nigel Kneale wrote the screenplay, which is a generally faithful adaptation of his original television script, both of which run to approximately 90 minutes. It was initially titled The Snow Creature until it was discovered there was a 1954 film of the same name. According to Kneale, Hammer wanted a title more literal than The Creature, which played on the ambiguity as to whether the real monster of the piece was the Yeti or its human pursuers, and settled on The Abominable Snowman. The screenplay adds two characters: Rollason's wife Helen and his assistant Peter Fox. The addition of the character of Helen, who is named after Cushing's wife, was prompted by Cushing's desire to flesh out Rollason's character by representing a woman's point of view of his obsession with the Yeti. Kneale was able to modify the ending of the story by using the characters of Mrs Rollason and Peter Fox to develop a subplot in which they mount a rescue mission for the expedition. The characters of Pierre Brosset and Andrew McPhee are renamed as Ed Shelley and Andrew McNee respectively; these names were used by Kneale in early drafts of The Creature. Although Kneale is the only credited screenwriter, Guest performed his own rewrite of the script in advance of the production, removing a lot of dialogue he felt to be unnecessary. Guest said, “You can't have long speeches with people on the screen unless it's a closing argument in a court case or something”.
Casting
The American producer Robert L. Lippert co-produced many of Hammer's films in the early 1950s, including The Abominable Snowman. Under these co-production deals, Lippert provided an American star in return for the rights to distribute Hammer's films in the United States. For The Abominable Snowman, Lippert approached Forrest Tucker, who had previously appeared for Hammer in Break in the Circle (1954), also directed by Val Guest. Nigel Kneale considered Tucker's performance to be on a par with Stanley Baker, who had played the part in The Creature, saying, “Baker played it as a subtle, mean person, Forrest Tucker as more an extroverted bully but they were both good performances and I found very little to choose. Tucker was, I think, an underrated and very good actor”. According to make-up artist Phil Leakey, Val Guest was disappointed with the casting of Tucker; he recalled, "Forrest Tucker might have been very good at some things but, to many people's minds, acting wasn't one of them and I think he rather spoilt the picture". The Abominable Snowman was the first of three horror films Tucker made in Britain around this time; the other two being The Strange World of Planet X (1958) and The Trollenberg Terror (1958).
Cushing reprised the role of John Rollason that he had played in The Creature. At this point in his career, he was best known as a television actor, having starred in productions of Pride and Prejudice (1952) and Beau Brummell (1954) as well as the Cartier/Kneale production of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Abominable Snowman was his second picture for Hammer; the first had been The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), the film that would bring him international fame and establish his long association with the Hammer horror brand. Recalling how the cast and crew were entertained by Cushing's improvisation with props, Val Guest said, “We used to call him 'Props Cushing' because he was forever coming out with props. When he was examining the Yeti tooth, he was pulling these things out totally unrehearsed and we found it very difficult keeping quiet”.
Like Cushing, Arnold Marlé and Wolfe Morris reprised their roles from The Creature as the Lama and Kusang, respectively.
Filming
The Abominable Snowman was the only film to be produced for Hammer by Aubrey Baring, who was a member of the Barings banking family. Shooting began with a ten-day second unit location shoot at La Mongie in the French Pyrenees between 14 and 24 January 1957. Guest and Baring led a crew that included cinematographer Arthur Grant, camera operator Len Harris and focus puller Harry Oakes. Local trade union rules required that they were accompanied by a French crew. None of the principal performers were brought on location and doubles were used for the actors. Most of the filming was done in the vicinity of the observatory at the summit of Pic du Midi de Bigorre, reached by cable car from La Mongie. Although a helicopter was used for some of the panoramic shots of the mountains, many of them were shot from the cable car as it ascended the mountain. Cognisant of the conditions they would be working in, Harris used a Newman-Sinclair clockwork camera whereas the French crew used a conventional Mitchell BFC camera, which failed numerous times on account of the cold.
The film was shot in an anamorphic wide screen format called Regalscope, renamed "Hammerscope" by the company. Val Guest found it an unsatisfactory format to work in, which made getting in close to the actors difficult and required careful framing of scenes. This was the first film Arthur Grant worked on for Hammer as cinematographer and his reputation for being fast and cheap meant he soon replaced Jack Asher as Hammer's regular cinematographer. Just as he had done with the Quatermass films, Guest tried to give the film "an almost documentary approach of someone going on an expedition with a camera for Panorama or something". To this effect, he made extensive use of hand-held camera and overlapping dialogue.
Principal photography took place between 28 January and 5 March 1957 at Bray and Pinewood studios. The sets for the monastery were constructed at Bray by production designer Bernard Robinson, assisted by art director Ted Marshall and draughtsman Don Mingaye, and required detailed research in books and libraries. Nigel Kneale was particularly impressed by the monastery set, feeling that it acted not just as a background but as a participant in the story. These sets were later reused for the series of Fu Manchu movies made in the 1960s, starring Christopher Lee. Assistance was provided by members of a Buddhist temple in Guildford to choreograph the monks chanting. Most of the extras were waiters in Chinese restaurants in London. It was realised early in production that there was insufficient space at Bray for the sets depicting the snowscapes of the Himalayas and so production shifted to Pinewood. Each element of the set was built on a wheeled rostrum so the set could be reconfigured to show many different panoramic backdrops. The set was decorated with artificial snow made of polystyrene and salt. Matching the footage shot in the Pyrenees with the scenes filmed in Pinewood represented a major challenge for Guest and his editor Bill Lenny. Guest had a Moviola editing machine brought on set so he could view scenes from the location shoot and synchronise them up with the scenes being shot at Pinewood.
It was Val Guest's view that the Yeti should be kept largely off-screen, bar a few glimpses of hands and arms, leaving the rest to the audience's imagination. By contrast, Nigel Kneale felt that the creatures should be shown in their entirety to get across the message of the script that the Yeti are harmless, gentle creatures. In the climactic scene where Rollason comes face to face with the Yeti, their bodies are silhouetted and only the eyes are seen close up and distinctly: Guest used Fred Johnson to play the Yeti in this scene, relying on his "eyes of worldly understanding" to convey the benign nature of the Yeti.
Music
The musical score was provided by Humphrey Searle, his only score for Hammer. The score was heavily influenced by that of another film with the theme of exploration: Scott of the Antarctic (1948), composed by Ralph Vaughan Williams.
Reception
The Abominable Snowman was released on 26 August 1957, with an 'A' Certificate from the British Board of Film Censors, as part of a double bill with Untamed Youth, starring Mamie Van Doren. In the United States it was released under the title The Abominable Snowman of the Himalayas. Reviews were positive and it is now considered something of a minor classic. Derek Hill of the Evening Standard found it to be "among the best of British science-fiction thrillers".
The release of the film was overshadowed somewhat by the huge success of Hammer's The Curse of Frankenstein, released the same year, and it was a relative financial failure, a fact Val Guest attributed to the intelligence of the script, saying, "It was too subtle and I also think it had too much to say. No one was expecting films from Hammer that said anything but this one did ... audiences didn't want that sort of thing from Hammer." This was the last film Hammer made in association with Robert L. Lippert; following the success of The Curse of Frankenstein, Hammer was now in a position to be able to deal directly with the major American distributors.
Critical views of the film in the years since its release generally consider it to be one of the lesser films in the Hammer and Nigel Kneale canon. Critic Bill Warren finds it to be "an intelligent but commonplace adventure thriller with the Yeti little more than background figures ... a little too ponderous and hence unexciting". Similarly, John Baxter felt that "in recreating a peak in the Himalayas, the set designer had more control over the film than the director, and despite some tense action the story drags". Baxter acknowledged, however, that the film exercises "a certain eerie influence", a view echoed by Hammer historians Marcus Hearn and Alan Barnes that "the film conveys a taut, paranoid atmosphere; set largely in wide open spaces, it's remarkably claustrophobic in scale". Nigel Kneale's biographer, Andy Murray, finds the film "eerie and effective" and also suggests the scenes of the expedition members calling out to their lost colleagues across the wastelands influenced similar scenes in The Blair Witch Project (1999).
Home media
In addition to standalone releases, the film can be found as part of the 3-DVD box set Superstars of Horror: Volume 1: Peter Cushing (Umbrella Entertainment, 2005).
References
Bibliography
External links
The Abominable Snowman at Hammer Films
1957 horror films
1950s fantasy adventure films
1950s monster movies
Bigfoot films
British black-and-white films
British fantasy adventure films
British horror films
British monster movies
1950s English-language films
Films directed by Val Guest
Films scored by Humphrey Searle
Films set in the Himalayas
Films shot at Bray Studios
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in France
Mountaineering films
Hammer Film Productions horror films
Warner Bros. films
20th Century Fox films
Films about Yeti
Avalanches in film
1950s British films |
4069889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banu%20Abs | Banu Abs | The Banu Abs (, "sons of Abs") are an ancient Bedouin tribe that originated in central Arabia. They form a branch of the powerful and numerous Ghatafan tribes. They still inhabit the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa but have spread to many other regions of the world, as well. Their descendants today include the large Al Qubaisat tribe located in United Arab Emirates, Bani Rasheed tribe located in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Yemen, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Sudan, Eritrea, and Jordan, and the Banu Rawaha located mostly in Oman and the UAE. They are known to be the second strongest tribe after The Prophet's Tribe. Parts of the Mahas tribe of the Butana region in Sudan are also linked by blood to the Banu Abs due to intermarriage between the Sudanese Rashaida tribe and the Mahas peoples. One of the earliest stories concerning this tribe was the famous classical love and war story of Antar and Abla.
Genealogy
The Banu Abs are of the Northern Adnanite Arabs, meaning they descend from Adnan. The Banu Abs line of patrilineal descent, from Abs all the way back to Adnan, is as follows: Abs ibn Baghid ibn Rayth ibn Ghatafan ibn Sa'd ibn Qays ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'ad ibn Adnan.
History
The Banu Abs was a branch of the Ghatafan clan, inhabiting the outskirts of Medina in modern Hejaz, an area called today Hurrat Bani Rasheed.
The tribe is known for its independence and bravery, as it had been called one of the Jamarat of the Arabs, or the most powerful tribes that took no allegiance to anyone but themselves. The earliest stories regard tales of war and chivalry before Islam, in the famous war of al-Dahhas wal Ghabra, between them and their brother tribe, the Banu Dhubyan, which had lasted almost 40 years. The war had ended when Zuhayr ibn Jadhima of the Banu Abs had called for an end to the bloodshed, asking the wealthy merchants of both tribes to pay the losses caused by the war. Their traditions further recall 3,000 of them repelling a Sasanian attack of 20,000.
Absi traditions tell of their prophet Khalid ibn Sinan who taught them Biblical monotheism, and the worship of God as "al-ahad al-samad", prior to Muhammad. It was told that Khalid saved his tribe (accounts differ on how) and that most men of the Abs rejected this prophet at the time.
During the Arab conquests some Absis remembered their prophet Khalid again; others, like Ubayy ibn Amara ibn Malik, accepted Muhammad as Prophet and are now ranked as Companions. Some Absis settled at Manbij in Syria, others at the Nile. In North Africa one Ka'b, a close relative of Khalid (some say the son of his daughter), adopted some Berbers as clients, and spread the word of Khalid amongst them alongside that of Muhammad.
As Muslims the Abs (and some Berbers) insisted on their veneration for Khalid; some have claimed that Khalid prophesied the 'last' prophet after him, who in Islam is Muhammad. Another tradition has it that King Zuhayr had predicted Muhammad, but Zuhayr is not called prophet for that.
On Khalid's status, the Muslims have historically been divided. Other Arab tribes had either suffered false prophets, as the Asad suffered Tulayha; or, like the 'Ad and the Thamud, they received the preachings of their Prophets, disbelieved, and were destroyed(although some living tribes have claimed a rebirth from those dead tribes' surviving prophets, as Yemenis claim of Hud). Also if the bedouin Khalid were accepted as a prophet between Jesus and Muhammad this is constrained by Q. 12:109, which insists that Apostles must come from the towns.
Antarah ibn Shaddad
Antarah ibn Shaddad al-Absi (–615), or 'Antar al-Absi, was one of the seven great pre-Islamic Arab poets and the protagonist of the great story Antar and Abla. Throughout this non-fiction story, he displayed chivalry, bravery, and eloquence in the Arabic language. This earned him the name among all of the Arabs of the Peninsula as the "Complete Knight". Furthermore, he was the author of the Divan and he was a warrior. His father was a leader of the Banu ʿAbs tribe named Shaddad and his mother was Zabiba, an African Abyssinian princess-turned-slave who was originally captured during a battle between the invading Banu Abs tribe and the ancient Abyssinian army (specifically the Kingdom of Aksum).
This most famous member of the Banu Abs tribe has had a cultural impact beyond Arabia and even into the modern era. A number of modern cultural artistic works are inspired by the warrior-poet 'Antar. These include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's Symphony No. 2, which is based on the legend of ʿAntar, as well as the first Palestinian opera composed in 1988 by Mustapha al-Kurd, of which Antarah ibn Shaddad was the primary subject.
Role in medieval Syria
The Banu Abs gained significant wealth and property in Syria and influence in the Umayyad caliphal court mainly through the marriage of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik () to the Absi noblewoman Wallada, the daughter of al-Abbas ibn al-Jaz ibn al-Harith, a great-grandson of Zuhayr ibn Jadhima. Wallada mothered Abd al-Malik's sons and successors al-Walid I () and Sulayman (). Abd al-Malik granted estates to Wallada's father al-Abbas and her first cousin al-Qa'qa ibn Khulayd ibn al-Jaz, including the massive estate which developed into the town of Hiyar Bani Qa'qa or Hiyar Bani Abs in northwestern Syria near Manbij where the family established itself. Al-Walid I granted further estates to al-Qa'qa near Damascus and Manbij and made him his katib (scribe or secretary). The caliph appointed another member of the tribe, Khalid ibn Barz ibn Kamil ibn Barz, governor of Jund Dimashq (military district of Damascus). Al-Qa'qa backed the abortive efforts by al-Walid I to replace Sulayman with his son Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Walid as caliphal successor. Al-Qa'qa's uncle Abd Allah ibn al-Jaz was a prominent dignitary in Syria and al-Qa'qa's brother Husayn was a companion of Caliph Sulayman.
Al-Qa'qa's sons al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, both named after their Umayyad kinsmen, served as the governors of the junds (military districts) of Qinnasrin and Homs under Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (). Al-Walid and Abd al-Malik (al-Qa'qa's sons) played a role in the unsuccessful attempt to install Hisham's son Maslama as his successor over his nephew, the appointed successor al-Walid II (). As a result, they were both tortured to death by al-Walid II's governor of Qinnasrin, Yusuf, the son of Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari. Al-Walid ibn Qa'qa's son Thumama later served as a commander under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750, and led summer expeditions against the Byzantine Empire. His son Uthman became a semi-autonomous local leader in Jund Qinnasrin in the aftermath of the Fourth Muslim Civil War (813–819).
As late as the 10th and 11th centuries, the Banu Abs continued to occupy Hiyar Bani Qa'qa and the neighboring Wadi Butnan valley, as well as Hadhir Qinnasrin south of Aleppo. The tribe, like other old-established tribes in Jund Qinnasrin, had become largely sedentarized while maintaining their tribal structure and customs. The local 14th-century historian Abu'l-Fida that in his time, the lands of Kura al-Hiyar (Hiyar Bani Qa'qa) were desert and inhabited by wild animals, but that the Abs and their brother tribe of Fazara, and other Arabs, still encamped there.
Modern era
The modern Banu Abs tribe is quite large and scattered across the region. Significant populations of this tribe can be found in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Palestine, Yemen, Sudan, Kuwait, Egypt, and Jordan. In addition, branches of the tribe can be found in the United Arab Emirates and elsewhere in the Arab World, as well as in Malaysia, Europe, the United States, and Brazil. Members and descendants of the tribe may carry the tribal name or some variation thereof, such as: Alabsi, Al-Absy, al-Absy, Al'Absy, Al Absy, Al-Absi, al-Absi, Al'Absi, Al Absi, Absy, Absi, Absey, Abzi, etc.
Culture
The modern Bedouins in Arabia value ancient Arab traditions including chivalry, honor, bravery, honesty, nobility, hospitality, and generosity. While the Banu 'Abs share such values with their tribal neighbors, they are famous for their unique tribal cultural values. In addition to the aforementioned Bedouin mores, the Banu 'Abs greatly value very ancient traditions that are held in high regard. This helps distinguish them from the many other tribes in Arabia. The main branch of the Banu 'Abs tribe has succeeded in preserving their traditional dress, language, and ethics despite the Westernization of some of their neighbors. The traditional dialect of the tribe is a form of Hejazi and Najdi Arabic. Specifically, it is a mix between the dialect of the northern peoples of Ha'il, the standard Bedouin dialect and Hijazi Arabic.
The Banu 'Abs tribe has its own tribal emblem or symbol, which is a practice that is common amongst Arab tribes. This symbol has been lost to some branches of the tribe which settled in other regions.
Branches of the Banu Abs located in other countries uphold their clan-based traditions such as maintaining a clan head to whom all respect is directed and from whom tribal edicts are delivered, upholding traditional codes of honor and utmost family loyalty, and establishing and holding tribal Diwans. Maintaining and respecting family traditions is an important aspect of what differentiates members of the Banu Abs diaspora. At the same time, they have also adapted to their local cultures, incorporating traditions, stories, legends, foods, and music from the lands where they have settled.
While the original Banu Abs have their own tribal emblem, many of the scattered branches outside of Saudi Arabia have developed their own independent tribal crests and flags to identify, and take pride in, their section of the extended family. Some branches of the tribe have also developed their own mottos, fables, and proverbs.
It is a common practice for branches of the Banu Abs tribe to maintain private family genealogies and histories that trace their patrilineal lines from their modern members all the way back to Abs, Adnan, Ishmael, Abraham, and ultimately to Adam. These private family histories of their ancestors also record notable details about historical members of the tribe. These histories can include dates of birth and/or death, mention of wars or battles participated in, various deeds done and honors earned, details of personalities and reputations, information on the crafts, trades, and businesses that the people engaged in, any peculiar or interesting causes of death, and other notable events or actions.
Social work
The sheer numbers, and widespread nature, of the Banu Abs clan have contributed to the formation of various tribal organizations, divans, cultural groups, and charitable trusts.
One example is the 'Abs Universal Organization for Social Development. This is a non-profit organization dedicated to:
"Social, cultural, economic and humanitarian organization. It aims to improve the living conditions of Rashaida people and in particular the Rashaida people in the Sudan, Eritrea and poor areas. Also, it aims to raise the level of education and cultural knowledge for Rashaida people in the whole Arabic world."
- The organization includes some charities. The charities are going to build some schools and hospitals in some poor countries that are home to Rashidi people.
The President is Mr. Fayez Albghaili Al- Rashidi
Secretary-General is Mr. Mubarak Al-Duwailah
Deputy of Secretary-General Dr. Abdullah Saad Alawaimrai"5
Descendant branches
Banu Rasheed
The Bani Rasheed or Rashaida peoples are the sons of Rasheed Al-Zaul Al-Absi. Rasheed Al-Zaul was one of the Banu Abs tribe's most famous warriors, living in the 7th century. Afterwards, his progeny named themselves after him. The Rashaida peoples are currently located in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Sudan, Eritrea, Jordan, Yemen, Libya, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Oman.
Al Hubus
The Al Hubus, or Habsi tribe, are one of the largest tribes of Oman. The inhabitants of this tribe reside in the Eastern region of Oman, and Ras al-Khaimah alongside the Shuhooh. They descend directly from Banu Abs, and branch into several other large tribes. Some of the most notable are: the Jawaber (Al Jabry, which is distinct from Bani Jabir of Yemen or Hamdan, present in other parts of Oman), Yal Thaneen, Aial Mahara, Aial Abdu, Awlad Habn, Al Ghassassina, Bani Bu Said, Maqadima, Ghananima, Sawalem, Najyah, and the Asiyrah.
Like their central Arabian cousins, the Habsi tribe and its many branches are known for their courage, strength, and bravery.
Mahas people
The Mahas people are a tribe that are descended on the matrilineal side from a combination of the Banu Khazraj of Arabia (of whom the Nasrid dynasty of Granada was also descended) and the Nubians. There is some intermarriage between the Rashaida peoples and the Mahas peoples of the Butana region in Sudan. Due to their intermarriage with the Rashaida peoples, some branches of the Mahas are partially linked to the Banu Abs tribe, as well. It is unclear when exactly they intermarried, and which full name they would carry, whether back to Adnan (of the Rashaida and Banu Abs) or Qahtan (of the Khazraj). Members of the Mahas that are descended from the Banu Abs are, by blood, technically a combination of Adnanite, Qahtanite, and Azdite.
Notable members
Pre-modern
Khaled ibn Sinan
Antarah ibn Shaddad
Harith ibn Rab'i al-Absi: Also known as Abu Qatada al-Ansari, he was one of the companions, or Sahabah, of Muhammad. He participated in the battle of Uhud in 625 CE and he took part in the events of Hudaybiyyah. He also took part in the Battle of the Camel in 656 CE, serving in the Rashidun Caliph Ali's forces. During this battle he was armed with a bow and sword and wore a white turban while he served as a commander of a contingent of 1000 cavalrymen. His wife was Kabsha bint Kab ibn Malike and his son was named Qatada ibn al-Harith.
Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman: Hudhayfah (died in 656 CE) was one of the Sahabah (companions) of Prophet Muhammad.
Qurra ibn Sharik al-Absi: Qurra ibn Sharik (or Sharif) al-Absi was the governor of Egypt in 709–715 CE, under the Umayyad Caliphate. A sharif from Qinnasrin, he was previously the governor of his home province in Syria before being relocated to Egypt by Caliph Al-Walid I.
Ka'b ibn Hamid al-Absi: Served as commander of the Caliph's household guard under the Umayyad Caliph Sulayman, and his successor Caliph Umar II, between 715 and 720 CE (History of al-Tabari, Vol. XXIV, The Empire in Transition). According to the cited source, after Sulayman's death, Ka'b assisted in the initial transition of power between him and his son, Umar II.
Hudhaifa ibn al-Ahwas al-Absi: Ruled as the Umayyad-appointed governor of newly conquered Islamic Spain (al-Andalus) for a period of one year in 728 CE (1984, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad Maqqarī, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain: Extracted from the Nafhu-t-tíb Min Ghosni-l-Andalusi-r-rattíb Wa Táríkh Lisánu-d-Dín Ibni-l-Khattíb, Volume 2, 665pp).
al-Qa'qa' ibn Khulayd (or Khalid) al-Absi
Thumama ibn al-Walid
Ali ibn Ziyad: Ali ibn Ziyad at-Tarabulsi al-Tunisi al-'Absi (d. 799) more commonly referred to in Islamic scholarship as Ali ibn Ziyad or Imam al-Tarabulsi, was an 8th-century Tunisian Muslim jurist from Tripoli.
Uthman al-Absi al-Kufi: He was a traditionalist, a hàfiz, a lawyer, an historian, and commentator born in Kufa, Iraq (159 - 235 AH / 775 -849 CE). (Sourced from: Review of The Muslim West and the Mediterranean , Issues 31–34, Association for the Study of the Humanities in North Africa , 1981)
Abd Allah al-Qaysi: Abu Muhammad Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Qasim ibn Hilal ibn Yazid ibn Imran al-Absi al-Qaysi was an early Muslim jurist and theologian. He died in 885 or 886.
Al-Tutili: Abu'l-ʿAbbās (or Abū Dj̲aʿfar) Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hurayra al-ʿUtbī (or al-Qaysī) al-Absi (died 1126), nicknamed al-Aʿmā al-Tuṭīlī or the Blind Poet of Tudela, was an Andalusian mūwallad poet who composed in Arabic.
Sidi Khaled ibn Sinan al Absi (or Sidi Khaled ibn Sounan Elabsi): A prominent Muslim holy man. The Algerian town in which he is buried is named after him.
Modern
Ali ibn Salim Al-Ajiylan Al-Diqbasii: The Speaker of the Arab Parliament and member of the Kuwait National Assembly where he represents Kuwait's Fourth District. He is a member of the Al-Rashaydah tribe. He maintains a good relationship with Kuwait's royal family, the House of Sabah.
Mabrouk Mubarak Salim: Sudan's State Minister of Transport and Roads. This prominent and highly respected individual is the founder of the Sudanese Rashaida Free Lions and the leader of the Rashaida tribe in Sudan.
Talal Al-Absi: A Saudi Arabian football player who currently plays as a defender for Al-Taawoun FC.
Hassan Al-Absi: Hassan Al-Absi (born 1966) is a Saudi Arabian former cyclist. He competed in the individual road race and team time trial events at the 1984 Summer Olympics.
Ahmed Saad Al Rashidi: Kuwaiti footballer currently playing with Al Arabi of Kuwait.
Fahad Al-Rashidi: Kuwaiti football player. He currently plays for Kuwaiti Premier League side Al Arabi.
Fahad Al-Rashidi: Saudi football player who plays for Al-Raed FC.
Nasser Al-Duwailah: Politician and member of the Kuwaiti National Assembly, representing the fourth district. Former army commander and member of the Al-Rashaydah tribe.
Noor Al-Rashidi: A Saudi football player.
See also
Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
References
Bibliography
Tribes of Arabia
Tribes of Saudi Arabia
Tribes of the United Arab Emirates
Yemeni tribes
Tribes of Iraq
Tribes of Syria
Tribes of Jordan
Tribes of the State of Palestine
Tribes of Lebanon
Ghatafan
Bedouin groups |
4069977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375%20in%20English%20football | 1974–75 in English football | The 1974–75 season was the 95th season of competitive football in England.
Diary of the season
4 July 1974: Don Revie accepts the offer from The Football Association to become the new manager of the England national football team, ending thirteen years as manager of Leeds United, the defending league champions.
12 July 1974: Bill Shankly stuns Liverpool by announcing his retirement after fifteen years as manager. He is to be succeeded by 55-year-old coach Bob Paisley.
30 July 1974: Leeds United's search for a new manager ends with the appointment of Brian Clough, who had managed Third Division side Brighton & Hove Albion since November after his controversial dismissal from Derby County, the side he managed to title glory in 1972. However, he is not joined at Elland Road by his long serving assistant Peter Taylor, who is promoted to the manager's seat at the Goldstone Ground.
10 August 1974: This year's FA Charity Shield is played at Wembley Stadium between league champions Leeds United and FA Cup holders Liverpool, both sides having appointed new managers for the first time in over a decade. The match ends in a 1–1 draw and Liverpool win 6–5 on penalties, but it is marred by the dismissal of Leeds captain Billy Bremner and Liverpool striker Kevin Keegan.
17 August 1974: The First Division season begins. Clough's first League match in charge of Leeds ends in a 3–0 defeat to Stoke City. Carlisle United, in the First Division for the first time in their history, win 2–0 at Chelsea, and Manchester City beat West Ham United 4–0. Manchester United play their first game outside the top flight since 1938, beating Orient 2–0 at Brisbane Road in the opening Second Division fixture. Football hooliganism was rife at the Orient match, with reports of clashes between United supporters and police, damaged Underground trains and fighting in the ground.
24 August 1974: Carlisle United move to the top of the league after winning their first three games in the First Division. In the Second Division, Old Trafford hosts its first Second Division game in 36 years as Manchester United beat Millwall 4–0, with Gerry Daly scoring a hat-trick and Stuart Pearson scoring the other goal.
29 August 1974: Following a poor start to the season and a 2–1 defeat by Manchester City at White Hart Lane, longtime Tottenham Hotspur manager Bill Nicholson resigns, citing burnout and the growing rift between him and younger players.
31 August 1974: At the end of August, Liverpool have gained the lead of the First Division under new manager Bob Paisley, one point ahead of Ipswich Town, Everton and Manchester City, whose 2–1 defeat of Leeds United leaves the champions just one point off the bottom.
12 September 1974: Brian Clough is sacked after 44 days and six league matches in charge of Leeds United, who have won just once in the league and stand 19th of 22 clubs in the First Division. He receives a pay-off in the region of £98,000.
14 September 1974: Leeds United lose 2–1 to Burnley in their first match after the departure of Brian Clough.
30 September 1974: With eight wins from their first ten games, Ipswich Town top the First Division table at the end of September. They lead Manchester City by two points. At the bottom, Queens Park Rangers, Tottenham Hotspur, Arsenal and Leeds United are level on points.
4 October 1974: After nearly a month, Leeds United finally appoint a successor to Brian Clough by naming Jimmy Armfield of Bolton Wanderers as their new manager.
5 October 1974: Leeds United beat Arsenal 2–0 at Elland Road to send the Gunners, who have been in the First Division since 1919, to the bottom of the table.
22 October 1974: Don Revie's first England squad is announced, featuring six U23 players without full senior caps: Kevin Beattie of Ipswich Town, Middlesbrough's Willie Maddren, Birmingham City forward Trevor Francis, Stoke City's Alan Hudson and QPR pair Gerry Francis and Dave Thomas.
30 October 1974: England beat Czechoslovakia 3–0 at Wembley in a European Championship qualifier, Don Revie's first match as manager.
31 October 1974: Liverpool regain top spot in the First Division at the end of the month, one point ahead of Manchester City. Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur continue to struggle in the relegation zone, where they have been joined by Luton Town.
9 November 1974: Manchester City take over at the top of the First Division as Liverpool lose 3–1 at home to Arsenal.
20 November 1974: England are held to a goalless draw by Portugal in their second 1976 European Championship qualifier.
30 November 1974: Stoke City beat Leicester City 1–0 to move to the top of the First Division, but just three points separate the top nine clubs. Carlisle United's early form has deserted them, and they now lie in the relegation zone with Luton Town and Chelsea.
7 December 1974: Manchester United come back from being 3–1 down against Sheffield Wednesday to draw 4–4. An eight-man on-pitch "brawl" breaks out in the match between Carlisle United and Arsenal.
11 December 1974: Derby County's UEFA Cup campaign is ended at the third round stage by Velež, leaving Leeds United as Britain's only club still in any of the European competitions. Newcastle United retain the Texaco Cup after beating ten-man Southampton 3–1 on aggregate.
18 December 1974: Fourth Division Chester reach the semi-finals of the League Cup after beating Newcastle United 1–0 in a replay. Middlesbrough lose 3–0 to Manchester United, leaving no First Division clubs in the competition.
31 December 1974: At the end of the year, the race for the First Division title remains remarkably close, with five points separating the top thirteen teams. Ipswich Town lead the table, alongside last year's Second Division champions Middlesbrough. Chelsea have moved out of the relegation zone at the expense of Leicester City.
4 January 1975: Isthmian League Leatherhead reach the fourth round of the FA Cup by beating Brighton & Hove Albion 1–0. They are joined by Southern League side Wimbledon, who win 1–0 away to First Division Burnley. Non-league Altrincham and Wycombe Wanderers hold First Division opponents, Everton and Middlesbrough respectively, to draws.
7 January 1975: Third Division underdogs Walsall knock Manchester United out of the FA Cup by winning the third round replay 3–2 at Fellows Park, three days after the first match at Old Trafford ended in a goalless draw.
11 January 1975: Ipswich beat high-flying Middlesbrough and register their fifteenth win of the season to go top of the First Division, but seven other clubs are within three points of the Suffolk club. Everton, in second, put three past bottom club Leicester without reply, and sit one point off the lead. Division Two leaders Manchester United open up a six-point gap at the summit with a victory over Sheffield Wednesday, while Sunderland in second are beaten by lowly Portsmouth.
18 January 1975: Everton, who have lost just three League games so far, take over leadership of the First Division with a 3–0 win over Birmingham City. Ipswich Town and Burnley are one point behind.
22 January 1975: Aston Villa and Norwich City complete aggregate victories in their League Cup semi-finals over Chester and Manchester United respectively.
25 January 1975: Wimbledon hold Leeds United to a 0–0 draw at Elland Road in the FA Cup fourth round. Leatherhead's run comes to an end with a 3–2 defeat to Leicester City. FA Cup holders Liverpool are knocked out of this season's competition 1–0 by Ipswich Town. Walsall's FA Cup run continues with a 1-0 home win over last season's runners-up Newcastle United.
10 February 1975: Wimbledon's FA Cup run finally ends in the fourth round replay with a 1–0 defeat to Leeds United.
15 February 1975: Walsall's FA Cup run comes to an end in the fifth round when they lose 1-0 at Birmingham City.
28 February 1975: At the end of February, the destination of the League title is no clearer, as five points separate the top half of the First Division, which Everton led by one point from Stoke City and Burnley. Carlisle United have dropped to last place, one point behind Luton Town and Leicester City.
1 March 1975: Aston Villa beat Norwich City 1–0 in the all-Second Division final of the League Cup at Wembley, ending their 14-year wait for a major trophy which began when they won the first ever League Cup.
8 March 1975: Second Division Fulham beat Carlisle United 1–0 in the FA Cup quarter-finals. West Ham United and Birmingham City join them in the last four.
12 March 1975: England beat world champions West Germany 2–0 in a friendly in their 100th international at Wembley.
15 March 1975: Wolverhampton Wanderers beat Chelsea 7–1 in the biggest win of the First Division season. Ipswich Town beat Newcastle United 5–4, but Everton now lead the table by three points from Burnley with a game in hand.
27 March 1975: After three draws, Ipswich Town beat Leeds United 3–2 in the third replay of their FA Cup quarter-final at Filbert Street.
29 March 1975: Everton suffer a 3–0 defeat away to bottom-placed Carlisle United, and relinquish top spot in the First Division to Liverpool.
31 March 1975: Everton beat Coventry City 1–0 to move back to the top of the table, as Liverpool lose 2–0 to Stoke City. They lead Liverpool and Stoke by one point with a game in hand, and have just five matches remaining, but Ipswich Town, Derby County and Middlesbrough also remain in contention. Tottenham Hotspur have slipped back into the relegation zone alongside Carlisle United and Luton Town.
5 April 1975: Both FA Cup semi-finals, Birmingham City versus Fulham and Ipswich Town versus West Ham United, require replays after ending in draws. In the Second Division, Manchester United win 1-0 at Southampton (who went down with them last season) to seal an instant return to the First Division.
9 April 1975: Everton lose 2–1 to relegation-threatened Luton Town, and Derby County take advantage by beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 1–0 to move two points clear at the top of the table with three matches left. West Ham United and Fulham reach the FA Cup final after narrow victories in their semi-final replays.
12 April 1975: Stoke City's title challenge ends with defeat to Sheffield United, leaving Derby County, Liverpool, Everton and Ipswich Town as the remaining contenders. Carlisle United are relegated after losing at Anfield.
16 April 1975: Malcolm Macdonald scores all five goals as England beat Cyprus 5–0 in a European Championship qualifier. He is the first England player for 37 years to achieve this feat.
19 April 1975: Liverpool, Everton and Ipswich Town all lose to hand the initiative in the title race to Derby County. Although the Rams can only draw with Leicester City, only Ipswich can now prevent them from winning their second title in four seasons. At the bottom, Tottenham Hotspur beat Chelsea 2–0 in a vital relegation clash.
23 April 1975: Derby County win the title after Ipswich Town can only draw 1–1 with Manchester City.
26 April 1975: Derby County lie two points clear at the top at the end of the season after drawing their last match against Carlisle United. Liverpool finish ahead of Ipswich Town in second on goal average, with Everton fourth. Chelsea's 1–1 draw with Everton sees them relegated, and Tottenham Hotspur slip into the relegation zone after losing the North London derby to Arsenal. They must take a point from their final match to stay in the First Division.
28 April 1975: Tottenham Hotspur beat Leeds United 4–2 to survive in the First Division and relegate Luton Town one year after promotion.
3 May 1975: West Ham United win the FA Cup at the end of their first season under the management of John Lyall, beating Fulham 2–0 at Wembley in the final with two goals from Alan Taylor.
11 May 1975: England beat Cyprus 1–0 to move three points clear at the top of their European Championship qualifying group.
24 May 1975: England win the Home Championship by thrashing Scotland 5–1 at Wembley.
28 May 1975: Leeds United are beaten 2–0 by West German side Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Paris. Peter Lorimer has a goal disallowed, which sparks a furious pitch invasion and rioting by a section of Leeds fans.
National teams
UEFA competitions
1973–74 League champions Leeds United reached the European Cup final at the Parc des Princes in Paris, where they lost 2–0 to Bayern Munich. Leeds fans ran riot following the match, in which Peter Lorimer had a goal disallowed, and the club was banned from European competition for four years, later reduced to two on appeal.
FA Cup
John Lyall kicked off his management career in style by guiding West Ham United to FA Cup glory over Fulham at Wembley. On the losing Fulham side was former West Ham captain Bobby Moore.
League Cup
Ron Saunders guided Aston Villa to League Cup success against Norwich City in the only final of the competition between two Second Division teams. Both clubs were also promoted to the First Division at the end of the season.
Fourth Division side Chester reached the semi-finals after accounting for top-flight giants Leeds United and Newcastle United. They lost the semi-final to Aston Villa 5–4 on aggregate. Manchester United, also of the Second Division, lost the other semi-final.
Football League
First Division
Derby County won the First Division title for the second time in four seasons, in their first full season under the management of Dave Mackay. Liverpool finished runners-up under Bob Paisley, who had been promoted to the manager's seat from the coaching staff following Bill Shankly's retirement a month before the start of the season. Ipswich Town enjoyed their best finish since being champions in 1962. Everton lost just eight games during the season, the fewest of any side in the league that season, but a poor run of form at the end of the season cost Billy Bingham's side league glory.
With Don Revie now in charge of the England team, Leeds United made a dismal start to the season under Brian Clough, who was sacked after just 44 days in charge. His successor Jimmy Armfield steered Leeds to a ninth-place finish and to their first European Cup final, which they lost to Bayern Munich. West Ham United compensated for a disappointing season in the league by winning the FA Cup. It was a disappointing season in North London as Arsenal finished 16th and Tottenham finished 19th.
Carlisle United had incredibly topped the First Division in late August after winning their first three games in the top flight, but failed to keep up their good form and finished the season relegated in bottom place. Luton Town also went straight back down. Financially troubled Chelsea, plagued by falling attendances and rising debts, were also relegated.
Second Division
Manchester United kept faith in manager Tommy Docherty after their relegation to the Second Division and sealed an instant return to the First Division by winning the Second Division title. FIFA finally lifted George Best's worldwide ban from football, but Manchester United manager Tommy Docherty was not prepared to give him another chance at Old Trafford, and he joined Stockport County on a free transfer.
Norwich City also sealed an instant return to the First Division by finished third. Also going up were runners-up Aston Villa, who took the League Cup up with them and ended their eight-year exile from the First Division.
Sunderland, the 1973 FA Cup winners, just missed out on promotion, as did Bristol City. Don Howe paid for a second failure to take West Bromwich Albion back into the First Division and was replaced as manager by veteran player Johnny Giles. Nottingham Forest, battling against a second relegation in three seasons, turned to Brian Clough in hope of turning the club around, and the turnaround started with Clough guiding them to Second Division survival.
Cardiff City and Millwall were relegated to the Third Division, along with Sheffield Wednesday, who would be playing Third Division football for the first time in their history.
Third Division
Blackburn Rovers won their first promotion in nearly twenty years when they sealed the Third Division title to climb back into the Second Division after four seasons away. Plymouth Argyle finished a point behind them as runners-up, with Charlton Athletic sealing the final promotion place. Swindon Town missed out on promotion by two points. Crystal Palace finally enjoyed some good form after two successive relegations, but fifth place was not enough for promotion.
Huddersfield Town, who had become the first English team to win three successive league titles back in the 1920s, went down to the Fourth Division with a third relegation in four seasons. They went down with Watford, Tranmere Rovers and Bournemouth.
Fourth Division
Mansfield Town won the Fourth Division title by a six-point margin, and went up along with Shrewsbury Town, Rotherham United and League Cup semi-finalists Chester, who enjoyed their first promotion since joining the Football League in 1931. Lincoln City, managed by the league's youngest manager, Graham Taylor, missed out on promotion on goal average.
Scunthorpe, Workington, Swansea and Darlington retained their league status as the Football League voted for the third successive season to re-elect its four lowest-placed members.
Top goalscorers
First Division
Malcolm Macdonald (Newcastle United) – 21 goals
Second Division
Brian Little (Aston Villa) – 20 goals
Third Division
Dixie McNeil (Hereford United) – 31 goals
Fourth Division
Ray Clarke (Mansfield Town) – 28 goals
Non-league football
Star players
Colin Todd added the PFA Players' Player of the Year award to the league championship medal he collected with Derby County.
19-year-old West Ham goalkeeper Mervyn Day collected the PFA Young Player of the Year along with an FA Cup winners medal.
Fulham's experienced midfielder Alan Mullery was voted FWA Footballer of the Year.
Star managers
Dave Mackay helped Derby County win the league championship in his first full season as manager.
John Lyall had a fine first season as West Ham United manager by guiding them to FA Cup glory.
Ron Saunders guided Aston Villa to promotion and League Cup glory.
Tommy Docherty helped Manchester United regain their First Division status at the first time of asking.
Bobby Robson continued to raise standards at Ipswich Town – and almost guided them to league championship glory.
References |
4070630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Girl%20like%20Me%20%28Rihanna%20album%29 | A Girl like Me (Rihanna album) | A Girl like Me is the second studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was released on April 10, 2006, by Def Jam Recordings. For the production of the album, Rihanna worked with Evan Rogers, Carl Sturken, Stargate, J. R. Rotem, and label-mate Ne-Yo, who wrote the album's second single. A Girl like Me is a pop and reggae album influenced by Rihanna's Caribbean roots. The album also incorporates elements of dancehall and rock, as well as ballads, which music critics were ambivalent towards.
Some critics gave the album positive reviews, stating that Rihanna gracefully avoided the sophomore disappointment while others compared the album to her previous effort. A Girl like Me was released less than eight months after Rihanna's debut album. It peaked at number five on the US Billboard 200 and on the UK Albums Chart. The album was successful in other countries as well, entering the top ten in Ireland, New Zealand, Australia and Japan, while topping the Canadian Albums Chart.
A Girl like Me spawned four singles: "SOS", which became Rihanna's first single to reach number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, "Unfaithful" and "Break It Off", both reaching the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100. However, the album's third single, "We Ride", failed to reprise the success of the album's other singles. The album was re-released as an expanded two-disc deluxe package in Germany, which includes remixes to both Rihanna's debut single, "Pon de Replay", and "If It's Lovin' That You Want". The album has been certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). To promote both A Girl like Me and her debut record, Rihanna embarked on her debut headlining concert tour, entitled Rihanna: Live in Concert in 2006.
Background and title
Rihanna released her debut album Music of the Sun in August 2005. An R&B album, Music of the Sun incorporated musical elements of dance-pop and Caribbean music genres such as dancehall and reggae. The album received mixed reviews from music critics, who complimented its dancehall and Caribbean-inspired songs, while others criticized some of the production. Music of the Sun debuted at number 10 on the US Billboard 200 and peaked in the top-forty of album charts in Germany, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. It produced two singles: "Pon de Replay" and "If It's Lovin' that You Want", the former of which peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart.
When discussing the conception for her second studio album with L.A. Reid—Chairman and CEO of The Island Def Jam Music Group—Rihanna talked about experimenting with different music by incorporating some rock on the album. In February 2006, Rihanna announced that she was going to release her second studio album in April 2006 under the name A Girl like Me. When asked about the album in an interview with MTV News, Rihanna stated: "Vocally I've matured so much, and lyrically I'm speaking about stuff I would never sing about [before]. Now I'm singing about experiences that I've gone through and stuff that other 18-year-old girls go through, so it's all about progression." In regards to the title of the album, Rihanna explained: "It's called A Girl Like Me because it's a very personal album, it's my baby. It's all about what it's like to be a girl like me, speaking of personal experiences as well as things that girls like me have gone through."
Recording
For writing and production of A Girl like Me Rihanna teamed up once again with record producers Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers, who produced most of the tracks on her previous album, J. R. Rotem and Norwegian production duo Stargate. While recording the track "If It's Lovin' That You Want" for her debut album, Rihanna received a visit from American singer Ne-Yo, in which they met for the first time, although they never got the chance to collaborate on Music of the Sun. When production started, she came up with the idea of working with Ne-Yo. When asked about collaborating with Ne-Yo, Rihanna stated: "We never got around to it on the first album. So for the second album, I was like, 'You know what? I have to work with that guy Ne-Yo.' And it made it a lot easier because he's on the same label I am." For the album, Rihanna also worked with Jamaican reggae and dancehall artist Sean Paul on the track "Break It Off", which was recorded in Paul's hometown of Kingston, Jamaica.
While working on A Girl like Me, Rihanna not only recorded songs but also promoted Music of the Sun. She commented: "We were so busy promoting the first album while trying to get this one done, working some crazy hours. That's why this album is so close to me, 'cause I really put my heart and soul into it." "SOS" was the first recorded track for the album, a song which was originally intended for Christina Milian's third studio album So Amazin'; however, she rejected it. L.A. Reid had Rihanna in mind as the next artist to record the song. The song was recorded within three days and eventually later released as the lead single from A Girl like Me. "Kisses Don't Lie" was penned and produced by Evan Rogers and Carl Sturken and it was one of the three songs on the album on which Rihanna received writing credit. The song was written and recorded in her native Barbados, and was described by Rihanna as mixed with rock and reggae.
In the song "Unfaithful", penned by Ne-Yo, Rihanna wanted to speak about personal things that girls her age at the time were experiencing, which was inspired by the album's title and according to her it is one of her favorite songs on the album. "We Ride" was written and produced by StarGate, who also produced and co-wrote "Unfaithful". For the song "Break It Off", which features Jamaican artist Sean Paul, Rihanna flew down to Jamaica to record the song. The song was written by Donovan Bennet and it was co-written by Sean Paul and Rihanna herself. The album's closing tracks were written by Rogers, Sturken and Rihanna, who co-wrote the album's title track "A Girl like Me". Rogers and Sturken produced and wrote eight of the album's 16 tracks.
Music and lyrics
Musically, A Girl like Me reveals new types of musical genres compared to Rihanna's light and uptempo debut effort, Music of the Sun. Her goal on the album was to find songs that express the many things young women want to say, but might not know how. In an interview, Rihanna said: "Now I'm singing about experiences that I've gone through and stuff that other 18-year-old girls go through, so it's all about progression." Reggae music, present in her debut album, subsequently continues into A Girl like Me. For the album, Rihanna used influences of different music genres, including rock music, while keeping the reggae and dancehall roots of her previous album. The new effort also presents Rihanna's new side with some balladic elements. Although the album mostly follows the disco-ish mode of its predecessor, it was noted for its introduction of the rock genre to Rihanna's music, mostly represented by the rock and reggae mash-up "Kisses Don't Lie", though Rihanna herself stated that the album is not overall driven by rock influence. In an interview, Rihanna commented: "Growing up in Barbados, I wasn't exposed to a lot of rock music. We really love reggae and soca music and hip-hop. But when I moved to the United States last year, I was exposed to a lot of different types of music, rock being one of them, and I fell in love with it. [Now] I love rock music." Celia SanMiguel of Vibe magazine wrote that A Girl like Me is "a pop album, one informed but not bounded by Rihanna's Caribbean roots", and that it "dispels any lingering notions of her as a dancehall-meets-R&B ambassador." Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called the album "a record that almost identically" veered between "sunny dancehall/dub-pop", "hip-hop-infused club bangers", and "adult-oriented ballads".
Lyrically, the album's theme speaks of girls' experiences. The album was widely addressed a personal album, speaking about what it is like to be "a girl like me"—things that girls Rihanna's age at the time were going through—as well as every aspect of her life: people being cheated on, falling in and out of love, people hating on you, having feelings towards a guy and partying. "SOS" tells about a guy who gives the girl a feeling that is very overwhelming—he drives the girl crazy, and she needs someone to rescue her from it. "Kisses Don't Lie" talks about a girl who's in love with a guy but is stuck between an ultimatum because she's afraid of getting hurt. "Unfaithful" documents the decay of a relationship when another person starts cheating. According to Rihanna, "I'm referred to as a murderer in that song, meaning I'm taking this guy's life by hurting him, cheating on him. He knows, and it makes him feel so bad. It's killing him to know that another guy is making me happy." "We Ride" talks about how a guy promises a girl that they will be together forever, while the girl describes moments which he did things that could tear them apart. The lyrics of "Dem Haters" portray a message about how "haters" try to bring people down and recommends excluding them from your life. "Final Goodbye" talks about a woman who wants to spend the rest of her life with a man but feels that she needs to reveal a secret before moving on. "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" continues the theme of love in a similar vein to "SOS", however, "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" portrays a message about being in love, whereas "SOS" talks about having an overwhelming feeling towards a guy.
Songs
The album's opening track "SOS" is an uptempo dance song incorporating the key section, bass line, and drum beat of the 1981 recording of "Tainted Love" as performed by Soft Cell, although "SOS" contains a more dance-oriented beat to create a soulful anthem of young love. The song received positive reviews by critics, who called it "a sexy club tune." The song also features three different music videos, including two promotional music videos for Agent Provocateur and Nike, and the official music video, which was directed by Chris Applebaum. "Kisses Don't Lie", the album's second song, uses a mixture of Caribbean elements and electric guitar together with a mesmerizing bassline. On the ballad song "Unfaithful", the background instrumentation features a piano and strings. The song is the third track and the second single from the album, and was written by labelmate and fellow R&B musician Ne-Yo. Despite its strong chart performance, the song was panned by critics, who stated that "Rihanna's voice [on the song was] not particularly strong." The fourth track, "We Ride", features gently strummed acoustic guitar, with production handled by Stargate. The song received mixed reviews from critics and was less successful than the other singles. In the song's music video, directed by Anthony Mandler, Rihanna was featured hanging with her friends and scenes of her at the beach. After the song failed to chart in the United States, the song became the last single from the album to feature a music video.
"Dem Haters" features guest vocals by Barbadian singer Dwane Husbands. The song is the album's fifth track and was produced by Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers. The sixth track, "Final Goodbye", is a mid-tempo ballad containing ambient of strummed acoustic guitar. The seventh track, and the album's fourth and final single, "Break It Off", is a collaboration with Jamaican recording artist Sean Paul. The song contains dancehall influence. Although "Break It Off" did not feature a music video for its promotion, it still managed to reach the top ten in the singles charts in the United States, in ironic contrast to "We Ride", which did count with the support of an official music video. "Crazy Little Thing Called Love", the album's eighth track, is another collaboration song featuring Jamaican music group J-Status. The Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers-produced "Selfish Girl", is the ninth song of the album and contains reggae elements. The tenth track, "P.S. (I'm Still Not Over You)", is an R&B song also produced by Sturken and Rogers. "A Girl like Me", the album's eleventh song and title track, is another R&B song also containing reggae elements. The album's third ballad, "A Million Miles Away", is the twelfth song on the album. It received mixed reviews from music critics, who commented that the song "kills whatever momentum the album has." The closing track on the standard version of the album is a remix serving as a sequel to "If It's Lovin' That You Want", which was Rihanna's second single from her debut album. The track, titled "If It's Lovin' That You Want - Part 2", features American rapper Corey Gunz.
Singles
"SOS" was released as the album's lead single on February 14, 2006, and as a physical maxi single on March 27, 2006. The maxi single included both the radio edit and instrumental versions of "SOS", as well as the album track "Break It Off", which features Jamaican reggae singer Sean Paul. "SOS" contains a sped up sample of "Tainted Love", which was originally written by Ed Cobb in 1965 and popularized by English synthpop duo Soft Cell, when they released their cover version in 1981. It received positive reviews from music critics, especially for its energy and Rihanna's vocal performance. It peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, and became the singer's first number one single on the chart. It also peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play and Pop Songs charts, as well as number two on the UK Singles Chart. Two music videos, an official version and a Nike promotional version, were directed by Chris Applebaum.
"Unfaithful" was released as the second single from A Girl Like Me on May 2, 2006. Written by American singer Ne-Yo and Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate, the song was originally titled "Murderer" and was inspired by the works of American rock band Evanescence. It garnered a mixed response from critics; many praised its powerful balladry, but some criticized the lyrics. The single peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart as well as at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler, and features Rihanna in a love triangle in which she struggles to choose between her husband and her romantic interest, and regrets having cheated on the former. Rihanna performed the song at the 2006 MOBO Awards and it has been included on the set lists of her concert tours, the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour (2007–09), the Last Girl on Earth (2010–11) and the Loud Tour (2011).
"We Ride" was released as the third single from the album; the song was sent to US mainstream and rhythmic radio stations on August 21, 2006. It was written by Makeba Riddick, Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen, while production of the song was handled by Eriksen and Hermansen under their production team name, StarGate. "We Ride" was well received by critics, many of whom praised it as a good cruising song. It failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100, but managed to top the US Hot Dance Club Play chart and peaked at number 34 on the US Pop Songs chart. It failed to match the success of the album's previous singles, though peaking within the top twenty of the singles charts in Ireland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom. Its accompanying music video was also directed by Anthony Mandler, who had previously directed the music video for "Unfaithful". According to Rihanna, the video for "We Ride" is not as "out there" as the videos for "SOS" and "Unfaithful" were, as she wanted to do something less provocative to re-connect with people her own age.
"Break It Off" was released as the album's fourth and final single; it was released first in the United States on November 13, 2006 and internationally over four months later on February 27, 2007. The song was written by Donovan Bennett, Sean Paul, K. Ford and Rihanna, and it was recorded in Jamaica, where Rihanna joined Paul on vacation. The single garnered a positive reaction from critics, who hailed it as one of the album's highlights and a return to Rihanna's dancehall roots. "Break It Off" managed to attain chart success, in contrast to previous single "We Ride", and peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the US Pop Songs chart. Aside from the US charting, the only singles chart the song made an appearance on was in Belgium, where it attained a peak position of number 10. No music video for the song was shot, although Rihanna performed the song at the Radio One Big Weekend in 2007, after her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad had been released, and performed "Break It Off" as part of the set list with other songs from all three of her albums up to that point. The song was also included on the setlist of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour (2007–09).
Other charted songs
"A Girl Like Me" and "A Million Miles Away" made chart appearances on the Spanish Singles Chart in 2009, three years after the release of the album. The title track, co-written by Rogers, Sturken and Rihanna, peaked at number 25. The song prompted a mixed reaction from critics; Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised "A Girl Like Me", writing that the song is "refreshingly unpretentious" compared to "Unfaithful", which Huff labelled as "overboard with melodrama." However, Celia San Miguel of Vibe magazine criticized the song, and called it a "stumble" on the album and a "yawn-inducing slow jam." "A Million Miles Away" was also written by Rogers and Sturken, and peaked at number 38 on the Spanish Singles Chart. Huff wrote that the song, along with "Unfaithful", was not as good as the album's sixth track, "Final Goodbye".
Promotion
During the recording process of A Girl Like Me, Rihanna served as the opening act for Gwen Stefani during the Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 in Japan to promote Music of the Sun. While performing on the tour, she performed some of the songs that would appear on A Girl Like Me. Before the release of the album, Rihanna was given substantial promotional support from MTV, which highlighted "SOS" on Total Request Live when she premiered the single's music video on March 23, 2006. She then took part in advertising Nike and J.C. Penney by shooting a promotional music video for the album's lead single supported by Nike. The album was released through Def Jam Recordings in North America as a digital download on April 11, 2006, and as a physical CD on April 25, 2006. On the album's release date, Rihanna made a guest appearance on MTV's Total Request Live to promote the album.
The album was released only eight months after Music of the Sun had been released. Rihanna stated regarding the rapid album succession: "We just felt like it was time. It made no sense waiting...you should never put time on music. You should never say, "Okay, Music of the Sun has to be out at least a year and a half before we start with--" No. That's what's great about the music business. When you feel it's time, you just go for it. And we felt like it was time to come up with a new album." "SOS" was included on the soundtrack of the film Bring It On: All or Nothing, where Rihanna made a cameo in the film as herself; her debut single, "Pon de Replay", was also included in the soundtrack.
An expanded double-disc deluxe edition of the album was re-released in Germany, titled A Girl Like Me: Deluxe Edition, on November 17, 2006. Aside from the original track listing, the new edition features a bonus CD containing leftover tracks from A Girl Like Me and Music of the Sun. It also included an enhanced CD featuring two of Rihanna's music videos. In order to promote further the album, Rihanna embarked on the Rock Tha Block Tour and then toured with the Pussycat Dolls on the PCD World Tour, from November 2006 to February 2007 in the United Kingdom. She also recorded songs for advertising the Happy fragrance by Clinique and deodorant Secret of the company Procter & Gamble.
Live performances
Rihanna performed the album's lead single "SOS" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 20, 2006, and at the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards on June 18, 2006. Rihanna then performed her single "Unfaithful" on AOL Music, where Rihanna recorded her first Sessions@AOL broadcast, among other content exclusive to AOL members. On July 27, 2006, she performed "SOS" and "Unfaithful" on the MTV series Total Request Live. On September 20, 2006, Rihanna opened the 2006 MOBO Awards at the Royal Albert Hall in London with a performance of "Unfaithful". On November 2, 2006, Rihanna performed "SOS" live at the 2006 MTV Europe Music Awards held in Copenhagen, Denmark. On November 15, 2006, Rihanna performed "Unfaithful" at the 2006 World Music Awards, which also took place in London. On November 22, 2006, Rihanna performed "SOS" and "Unfaithful" on the Australian morning show Sunrise.
Tour
Rihanna further promoted A Girl Like Me through her debut concert tour, the Rihanna: Live in Concert. Taking place during the summer of 2006, the tour also supported her debut studio album Music of the Sun and traveled across North America.
Critical reception
A Girl Like Me received generally mixed-to-positive reviews from music critics. Dan Charnas of The Washington Post observed a "much broader musical palette than the wannabe-yoncés" and stated: "Sophomore slump avoided, Rihanna actually digs into some ambitious pop ballads". David Jeffries of AllMusic commented: "Versatile urban dance-pop singer Rihanna gracefully avoids the sophomore slump with A Girl like Me, a less tropical-flavored, more urban effort than her sun-and-fun debut." Jeffries compared the track "Kisses Don't Lie" to Damian Marley's "Welcome to Jamrock" and commented that "the album gets bolder and seamlessly bounces from genre to genre... Rihanna goes from a film noir song that elegantly uses murder as a metaphor for cheating ("Unfaithful") to an easy-flowing weekend cruiser ("We Ride")." Ruth Jamieson of The Observer noted: "Chuck in a bit of Sugababes-esque harmony, some M.I.A.-style electro and a dollop of reggae, and you're even closer to getting Rihanna. If you liked last year's ridiculously catchy "Pon de Replay", there's more of the same here."
In a negative review, Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that apart from "SOS", "Unfaithful", and "Break It Off", "this scattershot album is full of duds". Barry Walters of Rolling Stone felt that the album "doesn't deliver anything else as ingenious as its lead single: Lightweight dancehall and R&B jams lack the single's ear-bending boldness. But the burning rock guitar of "Kisses Don't Lie" and haunted strings of "Unfaithful" help make A Girl Like Me much more likable." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine felt that the album's ballads are "at least a decade too mature for the teenage singer's minor vocal talents." He added that, despite the clever sampling on "SOS", "comparatively gooey and spineless slow numbers like "Final Goodbye" and "A Million Miles Away" kill whatever momentum the album has." Robert Christgau of MSN Music graded the album a "dud", indicating "a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought."
Commercial performance
A Girl like Me debuted at number five on the US Billboard 200, selling 115,000 copies in its first week, nearly twice the debut sales of Rihanna's debut album Music of the Sun, which sold 69,000 copies in its first week. The album has since been certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in the United States. As of June 2015, the album has sold 1.4 million copies in the US. The album debuted at number six in Ireland on the Irish Albums Chart. A Girl Like Me was later certified 2× Platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association (IRMA). It also debuted at number six in the United Kingdom on the UK Albums Chart with sales of 24,000 copies on the issue dated April 24, 2006. The album reached its peak of number five in July 2006 due to the popularity of the single "Unfaithful" and it has so far sold almost 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In Europe, the album achieved a Platinum certification, granted by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. In Canada, the album topped the Canadian Albums Chart, becoming Rihanna's first number-one album in the country, and was later certified Platinum there.
In Australia, the album debuted at number 12 on the ARIA Albums Chart. The album later reached the number nine position and remained on the chart for twenty-one weeks. It was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipping 70,000 units. In Switzerland, A Girl Like Me peaked at number six and remained there position for two consecutive weeks and charted for 39 weeks. The album was certified Platinum there for selling over 30,000 copies. In Belgium, A Girl Like Me debuted at number 45 on the Belgian Albums Chart in April 2006. The album further climbed up the chart and reached the chart's top 10 by peaking at number 10. A Girl Like Me managed to reach the top 20 in Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, France and Denmark. The album ended 2006 as the 20th-best-selling album in the world that year and sold an estimated 3,600,000 units worldwide.
Track listing
Notes
denotes a vocal producer
denotes a co-producer
denotes a remixer
"SOS" contains excerpts from the composition "Tainted Love" (1981), written by Ed Cobb and performed by Soft Cell. "Tainted Love" was originally performed by Gloria Jones.
"If It's Lovin' That You Want – Part 2" contains interpolations from the composition "The Bridge Is Over", written by Scott La Rock and Lawrence Parker.
Personnel
Credits for A Girl like Me adapted from liner notes.
Musicians
Rihanna – lead vocals (all tracks), backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 4–6, 8–11)
Evan Rogers – backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 5)
Mikkel S. Ericksen – multi-instrumentalist (track 4)
Sue Pray – viola (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Donovan "Vendetta" Bennett – multi-instrumentalist (track 7)
Ann Leathers – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Andy Bassford – guitar (track 9)
Yuri Vodovoz – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
John Beal – double bass (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Jill Jaffe – viola (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Luke McMaster;– guitar (track 6)
Eugene Briskin – cello (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Kevin Batchelor – trumpet (track 9)
Yana Goichman – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Clark Gayton – trombone (track 9)
Marti Sweet – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Richard Locker – cello (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Tor Erik Hermansen – multi-instrumentalist (track 4)
Maura Giannini – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Carl Sturken – guitar (track 12), piano (12), keyboards (6, 9), drum machine (9), multi-instruments (2, 8, 10–11)
Ted Hemberger – percussion (track 12)
Abe Appleman – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Cenovia Cummins – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Jeanne Ingram – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Jan Mullen – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Gene Moye – cello (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Crystal Garner – viola (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Richard Sortomme – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Katherine LiVolsi Stern – violin (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Production
Carl Sturken – music producer (tracks 2, 6, 8–12), executive producer, vocal producer (1, 4–5)
Evan Rogers – record producer (tracks 2, 6, 8–12), executive producer, vocal producer (1, 4–5)
The Carter Administration – executive producer
Augustus "Gussie" Clarke – record producer (track 8)
Don Corleon – record producer (track 7)
Poke & Tone – record producer (track 13)
Mike City – music producer, audio mixer (track 5)
James Auwarter – recording engineer (track 4)
Donovan "Vendetta" Bennett – recording engineer, audio mixer (track 7)
Dawn Boonyachlito – stylist, wardrobe
Jay Brown – A&R
Andrea Derby – production coordination
Rob Heselden – production assistant
Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen – music producer (tracks 3–4, 13), recording engineer (3-4), remixing (13)
Chris Gehringer mastering
Franny "Franchise" Graham – recording engineer (track 5)
Jeremy Harding – recording engineer (track 7)
Al Hemberger – recording engineer (tracks 1–6, 8–12), audio mixer (2, 5–6, 8–12)
Patrick Viala – mixer
Doug Joswick – package production
Ann Leathers – concert master (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Debbie Mounsey – production assistant (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Rob Mounsey – conductor, string arrangements (tracks 3, 6, 12)
Adrienne Muhammad – A&R
Malcolm Pollack – recording engineer (track 3)
Makeba Riddick – vocal producer (track 3)
J.R. Rotem – music producer, recording engineer (track 1)
Tippi Shorter – hair stylist
Rob Skipworth – audio mixing assistant (track 1)
Tyran "Ty Ty" Smith – A&R
Phil Tan – audio mixer (tracks 1, 3–4)
Tiger Stylz – recording engineer (track 3)
Nichell Delvaille – photography, art coordinator
Tracey Waples – marketing
Alli Truch – art direction
Tony Duran – photography
Valerie Wagner – design
Accolades
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
|-
Release history
References
2006 albums
Albums produced by Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers
Albums produced by J. R. Rotem
Albums produced by Stargate
Albums produced by Ne-Yo
Albums produced by Trackmasters
Albums with cover art by Tony Duran
Def Jam Recordings albums
Rihanna albums
Albums produced by Jay-Z |
4070714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive%20Mantle | Clive Mantle | Clive Andrew Mantle (born 3 June 1957) is an English actor. He played general surgeon Mike Barratt in the BBC hospital drama series Casualty and Holby City in the 1990s, and Little John in the 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood. He returned to Casualty in 2016 as Mike Barratt for the show's 30th anniversary.
Mantle was educated at Kimbolton School, Cambridgeshire between 1970 and 1975 and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) between 1978 and 1980. He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978, and began carving a successful career as a stage actor in the 1980s, alongside various television roles. In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men. That year he was cast as Little John in Robin of Sherwood, a role which he considers the most enjoyable of his career and which has remained one of his best-known roles. He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV: The Quest for Peace in 1987, but his scenes were cut from the film; they were later included with other deleted scenes when the film was released on DVD.
After playing several minor roles in other Hollywood films such as White Hunter Black Heart (1990) and Alien 3 (1992), Mantle was cast as consultant Dr Mike Barratt in Casualty, becoming one of its most popular characters. He left Casualty in 1996 after appearing in 85 episodes between October 1992 and November 1996 (and then briefly returning for 2 episodes in 1998), but after struggling with his acting career, he returned to the role in 1999 in Holby City, and appeared in another 32 episodes until 2001.
On stage, Mantle has appeared in plays such as Coming Clean, A Streetcar Named Desire, and Educating Rita, and has continued his successful stage career since departing from Holby City. In 2003 he appeared in Rattle of a Simple Man; in 2006 he played the part of The Narrator in The Rocky Horror Show; and over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007–2008, he portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath. In 2010 he portrayed comedian Tommy Cooper in the stage entertainment show Jus' Like That! A Night Out with Tommy Cooper; it was one of his most challenging roles, due to the various skills the performance required. More recently, Mantle has become known for his roles on television as Lord Greatjon Umber in HBO's Game of Thrones and as Tony Curry, Ollie's (Will Mellor's) father, in the BBC's White Van Man.
Early life
Mantle was born in Barnet, Hertfordshire, in 1957. He was the cousin of John Hallam and was a keen supporter of Chelsea Football Club from a young age. Mantle studied at the boarding school Kimbolton School in Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire between 1970 and 1975, and was a chorister in the Choir of St John's College, Cambridge for four years. He first worked on a farm in Cambridgeshire during his studies and soon became interested in theatre. He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978.
As a student, Mantle lived in a basement flat in Islington. He trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) between 1978 and 1980, where he initially found his towering height of 6' 5½" (1.97 m) to be a hindrance to the sort of roles he could convincingly perform in his acting. He said that he was discouraged early on by people who said, "You'll never work, you're too tall to be an actor."
He later said about his height:
Career
1980s
In 1980, Mantle debuted on the screen with a small role as Ewen in Christian Marnham's short thriller feature The Orchard End Murder. In 1981, he appeared in the national tours of The Ideal Gnome Expedition for David Wood's Whirligig Theatre and Deborah Warner's play, Woyzeck, which showed at the University Theatre during the Edinburgh Festival. In 1982, he appeared in an episode of the TV series Minder, before taking on the voice of Private Smith in the animated military comedy series Jane. From 3 November 1982, Mantle portrayed Jurgen opposite Eamon Boland, C. J. Allen, Philip Donaghy and Ian McCurrach in David Hayman's award-winning stage production of Coming Clean at the Bush Theatre in London.
In 1983, Mantle was cast in the fantasy series Robin of Sherwood as "Little John", a legendary fellow outlaw of Robin Hood, who was said to be Robin's chief lieutenant and second-in-command of the Merry Men, in a cast which included Michael Praed as "Robin Hood", Peter Llewellyn Williams as "Much", Ray Winstone as "Will Scarlet", and Judi Trott as "Maid Marian". Footage for the series was shot in rural Somerset and Wiltshire, with the Saxon Tithe Barn in Bradford-on Avon functioning as the great hall of Nottingham Castle, Great Chalfield Manor near Melksham doubling as Maid Marion's family home, and numerous battles were shot at Leaford Grange and Nettleton Mill near Castle Combe, locations which Mantle considered to be "wonderfully realised and breathtaking".
The waterfall scene for the quarterstaff battle between Robin and Little John in the first episode "Robin Hood and the Sorcerer" was shot at Bowood House. Helen Phillips said of his performance as Little John, "excellently played by Clive Mantle, the series' John at first appears to conform to a, by then, well-established stereotype." Mantle has said of his role: It is the job I've enjoyed doing more than anything else on TV. I have the greatest memories of beautiful, halcyon days-out filming on location and we had such a great, fun crew working on the show. We still get together once a year. Not just the cast but also the directors, producer, props guys, it's like a family! I think the key to part of the series' success was that this great camaraderie came across on screen.
In 1984, he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men. Following the success of the play, it was transferred from the Nuffield Theatre in Southampton to the Mermaid Theatre in London. He went on to tour extensively as Lennie in Of Mice and Men, and has appeared in six different productions of the play. He also played Little John in the theatrical production of Robin Hood at the Young Vic Theatre; and Mitch in Tim Albery's production of A Streetcar Named Desire at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield. Other theatrical credits include The Relapse; The Red Devil Battery Sign; King John; Johnny Johnson; The Ideal Gnome Expedition; East; Blood on the Neck of the Cat and Bedroom Farce. He has also appeared as the guest star at the Wyndham's Theatre and Theatre Royal Bath, in the award-winning production of The Play What I Wrote. Also in 1984, Mantle was one of four in the live BBC radio comedy show In One Ear. with Nick Wilton, Helen Lederer and Steve Brown. He transferred to TV with a version of it in 1987 called Hello Mum which was also live.
In 1986, Mantle replaced Alan Rickman as Achilles in Howard Davies's Royal Shakespeare Company production of Troilus and Cressida at the Barbican Theatre in London. London Theatre Record said that Mantle "gives a curious performance: virtually a mirror-image of Ajax in his nasal, bovine stolidity." He continued with minor screen roles as a ruffian on a bus in Ronald Neame's film Foreign Body and as "Big Ben" Davis in Dempsey and Makepeace in 1986. He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), but the role was left on the cutting room floor. Some of his deleted footage from Superman IV was released on DVD in a Special Edition as part of Superman Ultimate Collector's Edition in November 2006. The footage was included as "Additional Scenes" but was not re-incorporated into the main feature. In 1987–1998 he appeared in two episodes of Smith & Jones, and in 1989 played a policeman in the TV series The Return of Shelley and had a small role as Johnny Ladder in the Menahem Golan-directed film Mack the Knife, a 19th-century set crime comedy which starred Raúl Juliá, Richard Harris, and Julia Migenes in the leading roles. He also appeared in the radio plays Farewell, My Lovely; Frozen Assets; and The Rise and Fall of the Romanov Autocracy.
1990s
In 1990, Mantle had a small role as an electricity meter reader in the One Foot in the Grave episode "The Return of the Speckled Band", and played Harry, a man who "gave Clint Eastwood a pounding" in White Hunter Black Heart. In 1991, Mantle played an irate husband whose wife is chatted up by Richie (Rik Mayall) in the first episode of Bottom, "Smells", and also had a role as a police inspector in an episode of Drop the Dead Donkey. In 1991–92 he played Dave in Sandi Toksvig's The Pocket Dream at the Nottingham Playhouse and Albery Theatre in London. In 1992 he played a minor character as a bald monk in the film Alien 3, in which he had to shave his head for the role. In applying for the film, Mantle sent off photographs of himself from a RADA play he had once starred in, sporting a similar shaven look. In an interview at the time, he spoke of his role in Alien 3:
I'm playing a heinous criminal. In fact, there are about 12 or 15 of us, the last remaining prisoners on a prison asteroid, which is hurtling through space. It was a hard labour prison, which is about the best place to send all your hardened, nastiest pieces of work. We're not nice people.
Also in 1992, he starred in the CITV series WYSIWYG.
Mantle is best known for his long stint as general surgeon Dr Mike Barratt in 85 episodes of the TV series Casualty from October 1992 to November 1996 (with a brief return in February 1998), and 32 episodes of Holby City between 1999 and 2001. He previously appeared in Casualty as the brother of a patient in 1988. Mantle received much acclaim for his role and was one of the show's most popular characters. He was praised for being entirely convincing as a hospital consultant and very dominant and authoritative in his role, "shouting orders in incomprehensible hospital-speak." Daily Mirror described him as a "heart-throb consultant" and said that the role brought him "an army of female fans". A 2001 poll by the Scottish Sunday Mail voted him 7th on a list of Top "10 heart-throb docs on the box" in a list which included the likes of George Clooney and Goran Višnjić. Mantle has said that during his role as the doctor he received a lot of fan mail, some of which were medically related and asking for his advice, believing him to be a real doctor, but professed that he couldn't even stand the sight of real blood. He has said, "It's funny because people always treat me like a doctor. Not a day goes by without someone coming up to me and asking me for advice." In 1996, he turned down an offer of £250,000 to continue playing the character, and last appeared in Casualty in November 1996. He said of his departure:
I've had a great time, but I'm frightened that, if I stick around too long, I'll end up unable to do anything else. It's not about money, it's about doing other things and not wanting Mike to pale into insignificance.
In 1995, Mantle was honoured with a surprise This Is Your Life edition, presented by Michael Aspel; the title theme drew upon the "Robin of Sherwood", after his role as Little John. During the life tribute, Mantle met his heroes from Worcestershire County Cricket Club, and the Chelsea FA Cup winners from 1970.
Also in 1995 Mantle appeared alongside Imelda Staunton on A Bit of Fry & Laurie.
In 1994, he played a prophet in Jo Brand Through the Cakehole, and in 1995 he performed on stage as Frank in Educating Rita, a No.1 National Tour. In 1996 he visited Ghana on an eight-day tour for the charity Save The Children. Mantle was a friend of Jill Dando, and played the prosecuting barrister in a TV dramatisation of the trial of Barry George in a Tonight With Trevor McDonald special, Nothing But The Truth.
In 1997, Mantle was cast opposite Sarah Lancashire as Jack Deakin in the comedy series Bloomin' Marvellous, written by playwright John Godber, described as "a comedy about a couple who decide to start a family." The series was panned by most critics, and Mantle sarcastically remarked that "I've seen murderers and rapists get a better press than we did."
In 1998, he appeared in Stephen Daldry's production of The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists at the Liverpool Playhouse and the Theatre Royal Stratford East theatres. In 1998-9 he portrayed Simon Horton, younger brother of David Horton in the British sitcom The Vicar of Dibley for two episodes; Stevyn Colgan said that his imposing height was "used to great comic effect" in this role when he became the love interest of 5' 0" (1.52 m) tall Reverend Geraldine Granger (Dawn French). From March 1999, Mantle played Victor in Jan Sargent's production of The Price at the Bristol Old Vic. Ian Shuttleworth of the Financial Times describes Mantle's Victor as a character who "sacrificed a promising academic career in science to become a cop on the beat simply in order to keep his shattered father" and said that "Clive Mantle expresses his obstinacy through gritted teeth and cold, civil smiles rather than letting it loose", also remarking that both he and his wife Esther (played by Susan Wooldridge) seemed several years too young for their roles.
In May 1999, Mantle, a cricket fan, agreed to participate in a celebrity international cricket tournament with the likes of Caprice Bourret, Rory Bremner, Ainsley Harriott, Lawrence Dallaglio, Lesley Garrett, Barry Norman, and Robbie Earle, and played Sri Lanka on 14 May 1999.
2000s
After experiencing mixed fortunes in his acting career after leaving Casualty, Mantle agreed to return to the role as Dr Mike Barratt in Holby City in 1999. Claire Stoker of Liverpool Echo said that "Clive will always be the best consultant Holby had ever had." Mantle finally left his role in Holby City after 32 episodes in 2001. That year, Mantle participated in a charity trek of the Annapurna circuit in the Himalayas and to Everest Base Camp, reaching 18,420 ft in aid of Hope and Homes for Children. In 2002, Mantle appeared in an episode of Heartbeat. He played a character called Vinny Sanders
In 2003, Mantle played Maynard in Ben Bolt's TV movie, Second Nature, which starred Alec Baldwin in the leading role, and appeared in the first episode of the series Fortysomething. He portrayed Percy, described as a "big, bashful Northern mill-worker who lives with his mum", in Patrick Sanford's stage production of Rattle of a Simple Man at the Clwyd Theatr Cymru in Mold, Flintshire. Gail Cooper of the Western Mail praised his performance and said: Mantle, better known as dishy and confident consultant Mike Barrett in Casualty, is cast completely against type as Percy, the 42-year-old virgin who admits to being only 35. His body language is superb: awkward, self-effacing, obsessively tidy – Coronation Street fans should think Roy Cropper if they want to imagine the sort of man Percy is. In 2003, Mantle began filming The Bingo Club, one of five specially commissioned one-hour plays which were screened in January 2004 on BBC1. Co-starring Paula Wilcox and John McArdle, The Bingo Tales relates the story of three women facing romantic hardship and growing old. During production, Mantle fell on his face while shooting a fencing scene and was rushed to Selly Oak Hospital with a ruptured ligament in his leg.
In 2004, Mantle appeared in an episode of The Afternoon Play, and in 2005 appeared in John Putch's two-part TV movie The Poseidon Adventure, opposite Adam Baldwin, Steve Guttenberg and Rutger Hauer. He also appeared in an episode of Doctors. In 2006, he guest-starred in the Doctor Who audio drama The Settling by Big Finish Productions, and had a role in Simon Shore's TV movie about a boy with autism, After Thomas, He toured as "The Narrator" in The Rocky Horror Show, and also played Brauner opposite Robin Hood's Michael Praed in Haymarket Productions's National Tour of Brian Stewart's Killing Castro. The play was performed at the Festival Theatre in Malvern in June 2006, and was described by the Birmingham Mail as an "acclaimed comedy" which "chronicles the more bizarre of America's attempts to kill the Cuban leader Fidel Castro – including filling his shoes with poison and inventing an exploding cigar."
Over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 and 2008, Mantle portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath, described as an attempt by a theatre spokesman for Mantle to "throw off his gentle giant persona and transform himself into a classic panto baddie for the audience to boo and hiss wildly." He performed in 64 shows over the duration of five and a half weeks. In 2008, he appeared in an episode of The Invisibles, opposite Anthony Head, Warren Clarke and Jenny Agutter. In 2009, Mantle had minor roles in Lucy Akhurst's Morris dancing comedy Morris: A Life with Bells On and in the Thaddeus O'Sullivan historical biopic of Sir Winston Churchill, Into the Storm, co-starring Iain Glen, Brendan Gleeson, and James D'Arcy.
2010s
In 2010, Mantle portrayed Tommy Cooper in the successful stage entertainment show Jus' Like That! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper, which appeared at the Edinburgh Festival. To train for the role, Mantle mastered many of Cooper's magic tricks, studying under Geoffrey Durham for several months. Mantle was thrilled to take on the role as Cooper is his ultimate comic hero, saying "It's such a big privilege playing Tommy – I genuinely love the man. He is one of the funniest comedians this country has ever produced. So this whole tour for me is just an immense thrill." Mantle considered the role highly challenging, given that he had to combine several aspects of skill, from the magic tricks to the joke-telling, the physical comedy, and emulating the distinctive voice.
Some people initially questioned the suitability of Mantle for the character, given that he was well known for playing a solemn doctor in Casualty, but he and the play were warmly received by critics. South Wales Echo called it a "compelling, funny and moving play" and said "Clive, best known for his role as Dr Mike Barratt in Casualty, has had to get used to wearing a fez and conjuring up some magic for his title role of Jus' Like That! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper."
In 2011 he took a supporting role in the TV series White Van Man as Tony Curry, father of the central character, Ollie "Rogan" Josh Curry, played by Will Mellor. He also has an ongoing role in HBO's Game of Thrones as Lord Greatjon Umber, a close ally of Robb Stark, and has provided the voice to the audio editions of Andy McNab's Nick Stone thrillers. In 2012, Mantle appeared in the Sherlock episode "The Hounds of Baskerville" as Dr Frankland.
In 2013, Mantle performed in the black comedy The Ladykillers, playing the part of Major Courtney. He was forced to withdraw from the touring production in March 2013 after he was attacked at the Travelodge hotel in Newcastle. On the night of Saturday 23 March, he became involved in a brawl after asking a group of fellow guests to keep the noise down, during which part of his right ear was bitten off. He had to have emergency surgery at the Royal Victoria Infirmary hospital to have it sewn back on. A 32-year-old man from Hamilton, South Lanarkshire was charged over the incident and appeared before a magistrate in April 2013, and another man was released on bail in connection to the incident; a third man has been released without charge. In June 2014, the two accused were found not guilty of all charges.
In 2014, Mantle supplied the voice of Gator in the eighteenth season of the British children's television series Thomas & Friends as well as its sixth CGI animated film Tale of the Brave. He voiced Gator in both British and American dubbed versions.
Filmography
References
External links
Audio interview at BBC Wiltshire
1957 births
Living people
21st-century English male actors
20th-century English male actors
Alumni of RADA
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
Male actors from London
National Youth Theatre members
People educated at Kimbolton School
People from Chipping Barnet
Male actors from Hertfordshire |
4070802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Vampiri | I Vampiri | I Vampiri ( The Vampires) is a 1957 Italian horror film directed by Riccardo Freda and completed by the film's cinematographer, Mario Bava. It stars Gianna Maria Canale, Carlo D'Angelo and Dario Michaelis. The film is about a series of murders on young women who are found with their blood drained. The newspapers report on a killer known as the Vampire, which prompts young journalist Pierre Lantin to research the crimes. Lantin investigates the mysterious Du Grand family who lives in a castle occupied by Gisele Du Grand who is in love with Lantin. She lives with her aunt, who hides her face in a veil, as well as the scientist Julian Du Grand, who is trying to find the secret to eternal youth.
The film was developed during a growth in the Italian film industry which allowed for the market to expand beyond a local Italian audience and would allow Italian film makers to explore new genres of filmmaking. Freda made a deal with producers at the Italian film studio Titanus to create a low budget horror film by writing a story in one day and filming it in two weeks. The producers agreed and Freda began filming. On the final day of shooting, Freda left the set which led to the cinematographer Mario Bava to direct the rest of the film, which changed various plot points and added the inclusion of stock footage.
On the film's release in 1957, it became Italy's first horror film of the sound era. It was not successful in Italy, which Freda interpreted as an audience not interested in horror films made by Italians. The film was released theatrically as The Devil's Commandment and Lust of the Vampire in the United States and United Kingdom respectively. English critics predominantly discuss the film in terms of its cinematography and place in film history. Despite being the first of the Italian horror films, it was not until the British film Dracula (1958) and the international hit Black Sunday were released that a greater amount of horror films began being produced in Italy.
Plot
In 1957 Paris, a series of mysterious killings are committed against young women of the same blood type who are found dead and drained of their blood. The press reported these killings as being performed by a murderer coined "The Vampire". The journalist Pierre Lantin begins to investigate and becomes more involved when his fiancée, the dancer Nora Duval, is kidnapped. As Inspector Chantal examines the crime scene, Lantin arrives predicting that the crime was committed by the Vampire. Lantin investigates the school that the latest murder happened at to search for clues and finds that the woman was being followed by a tall man before the murder. Elsewhere, a man named Joseph begs for "his fix" in a dark room, but is told to go after a woman named Lorette and that he "knows what to do" at Rue Saint Etienne. Joseph arrives at the location and is spotted by Lantin, but manages to get away from him. Joseph arrives at the clinic of Professor Julian Du Grand and demands money to leave town or he will report what is happening to the police. He is strangled by Du Grand's assistant when a shadowed woman named Marguerite arrives and states that if the police track them down, it will be the end of Du Grand's career. A newspaper headline later reveals that Professor Julian Du Grand has died unexpectedly.
After a funeral procession for Julian, a group of men arrive and reveal that the body buried was that of Joseph. Joseph's corpse is taken to a castle, where he is experimented on by Julian who is attempting to discover the secret for eternal life. Later, Lorette meets a blind man in the street who asks her to drop off a letter. On dropping the letter off, she is kidnapped and finds herself locked in a bedroom with the skeletons of the Vampire's previous victims. As the police try and track down Lorette's kidnappers, Lantin is reassigned from following the Vampire story and is set to cover a ball at the castle of Du Grand. At the castle, he meets Gisele, who expresses admiration for Lantin as he reminds her of his father. Lantin leaves the party and is pursued by the photographer Ronald. Lantin states he does not want to lead on Gisele with her emotions, which leads to Ronald re-entering the castle to profess his love for Gisele. Gisele turns him down as her face begins to grow old before his eyes and she reveals that each person killed restores her youth for a short time. Knowing her secret is his death warrant as she reaches for a pistol and murders Ronald. Gisele then calls upon Professor Julian to make her eternally young. Julian states that under her fragile emotional state it may not work, but begins an experimental transfer Lorette's youth and beauty to Giselle.
Gisele meets Pierre the next day when she is picking up a painting where he spots odd behavior in her such as writing with the wrong hand, which leads him to return to her castle to investigate further. Gisele begins growing ill from her previous experiment and calls upon Professor Du Grand to aid her. As he leaves, Joseph awakens in Du Grand's lab. Pierre triggers an alarm, which has him race out the castle where he meets the disoriented Joseph. Pierre takes Joseph to the police station where he reveals he was the kidnapper of the young women, but the people in the castle are the real murderers. The police arrive looking for Marguerite, but only find Gisele who denies any knowledge of Joseph. Pierre and the police explore the castle without finding clues. On leaving, Gisele begins transforming back into Marguerite before their eyes, prompting for an emergency search of the castle. A gun battle ensues between Du Grand's assistant and the police, leaving the assistant and Du Grand shot. This leads the police to open his grave, where they find Lorette. Lorette is sent home and Inspector Chantal reveals that Giselle confessed to the crimes and died shortly after.
Production
Background and development
Around the time I Vampiri was in development, Italian film productions had grown exponentially. Italian film productions rose from 25 films in 1945, to 204 in 1954. This growth allowed film makers in Italy to approach new genres and new styles not attempted before. In 1956, the chief executive officer of Titanus, Goffredo Lombardo, stated that Italian film productions should be aimed a European market opposed to just an Italian one. During the production of the film Beatrice Cenci (1956), director Riccardo Freda and his friend, cinematographer Mario Bava discussed the idea of developing a horror film. Horror films had been previously banned in Italy during the 1930s and 1940s, while a new taste for the macabre was developing. Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi stated in 1963 that "ghosts, monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing, and are accompanied by a state of well-being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years"
Freda's ambition to make a horror film derived from his desire to make films in the fantastique style, feeling that only the Americans and German expressionists were able to make such films in the past. Freda approached film producer Luigi Carpentieri with the idea of the film despite not having a treatment ready. Promising them that he would have something for them by the next day, he returned with a tape of his treatment that was complete with sound effects. Carpentieri phoned Goffredo Lombardo to convince him further. Freda followed up his tape with the promise that his script could pass the censors and could be filmed in 12 days. This convinced the producer who allowed Freda to create what became I Vampiri. I Vampiri was a low-budget production with Donati and Capentieri of Athena and Lombardo's Titanus investing 32 million lire each initially into the film. The initial budget was 97,000,000 Italian lire which increased to 142,000,000 for its post-production and release after the film's format was switched to panoramic CinemaScope.
Pre-production
The screenplay of I Vampiri is credited to Piero Regnoli and the fictional writer and scenarist Rijk Sijöstrom. The story of the film features contributions from Freda, who has only mentioned Regnoli during the writing process. Both Freda and Regnoli have uncredited roles in the film as the autopsy doctor and Mr. Bourgeois respectively. Freda had the film set in the 1950s opposed the 18th or 19th Century to lower the cost of re-creating a period set as well as making the film's plot feel like it could actually happen. The film's story borrows from uncredited stories. This includes the crimes committed by Gianna Maria Canale's character Giselle Du Grand, which are based upon the legend of Elizabeth Bathory who bathed in the blood of virgins to stay young. Another influence that Freda acknowledged was Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher", with its suggested parallel between decaying, dissipated interiors and the Canale's vampire-like character.
Gianna Maria Canale took the female lead in the film, despite not initially wanting the role. The film was the last of her many films she made with Freda. Freda and Canale had first worked together on Il cavaliere misterioso (1948); their relationship led to Freda leaving his wife to go with Canale to Brazil where they made two more films. On their return to Italy, Canale would have the female lead role in nearly all his films including The Iron Swordsman, Sins of Rome and Theodora, Slave Empress.
Production
Filming began in Rome in 1956. The film was a low budget production as Lombardo did not care for horror films. Freda and his crew utilized mostly existing sets with only a single scene at the Aniene river filmed outside the studio. The film was shot in black-and-white by cinematographer Mario Bava, who felt that that style would better suit the special effects in the film and keep the budget down. Bava worked on the special effects on the film without credit. One of his effects involved Gianna Maria Canale aging make-up that would only be revealed when certain coloured lights were revealed on her. This effect had been done previously in older films, such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931) and contemporary films, including The Man Who Turned to Stone (1957).
Freda's deal with his producers failed when he left the set on the 12th day of production. After an argument with the producers, Freda left the production allowing Mario Bava to step in to finish the film in the next two days. Reasons for Freda leaving production differ and range from Freda having a misunderstanding with the producers to Bava stating that Freda was taking too long to make the film. Bava's ending was different than Freda's initial ending, which involved finding the heroine hanged. Among the changes Bava made to finish the film included changing the supporting character of the journalist becoming the lead and removing a subplot about a dismembered criminal who returns to life on being reassembled. Bava also extended other portions of the film with stock footage and montages of newspaper presses.
Release
I Vampiri was released in Italy on 5 April 1957 in San Remo. It grossed a total of 125.3 million Italian lire on its initial theatrical run. The film was not a box office success in either Italy or France. It was released in the U.S. in 1960 in a heavily altered version under the title The Devil's Commandment. This version of the film featured new scenes written by J. V. Rhems and filmed by Ronald Honthauer in New York. In the United Kingdom, the film was released under the title Lust of the Vampire. Mario Bava biographer Tim Lucas wrote in 1992 that another version of the film, also titled Lust of the Vampire, was assembled in the U.S., which incorporated scenes of nudity.
Home media
A photonovel version of I Vampiri was released in Italy. Photonovels were similar to comic strips in that they use a succession of panels and speech captions. The main difference is that they rely on photographs of films as opposed to illustrations. I Vampiri'''s photonovel was titled Quella che voleva amare (), which appeared in I Vostri Film in August 1958.I Vampiri was released uncut for the first time on DVD in the United States on June 12, 2001 by Image Entertainment. IGN gave a positive review of the DVD, referring to the image quality as "stunning" and that the film was the original cut, "not the butchered Devil's Commandment version aired on late night television over the years." It was also released on DVD as a bonus feature from Arrow Films on their Black Sunday Blu-ray on February 4, 2013.
Critical reception
In a contemporary review, The Monthly Film Bulletin described the film as a "bizarre and grisly Italian effort" that "drags in everything from drug addiction to perpetual youth, crypts to skeletons, but has only a few moments which can claim to be genuinely macabre." The review praised the special effects involving a transition between a young to aged woman and back again, and concluded that "if only story, treatment and performance ... had been comparable, the film might have been really high in its class." Variety described the film as an "attempt at a horror film which doesn't quite come off with only a few moments in succeeding in being chilling." The review concluded that the film was "strictly for devotees of the genre" In Italy, La Stampa noted the surprise that the film avoided being banned by Italian censors and that when the film takes on thriller motives, it achieves some effective moments.
In their retrospective review, AllMovie wrote "While I Vampiri is more important for its place in history than for it ultimate effectiveness as a film, it is nevertheless an entertaining horror flick." Danny Shipka, who discussed this film in his book on European exploitation films, noted that the film "set the standard for visual style that would be the foundation for most Italian gothic films of this nature." He also described the film as "a little ponderous and talky" while praising Canale's transformation scenes and the "masterful filming of cobwebs, creaking doors, and decay, along with great lighting". IGN wrote that "anyone interested in the history of [Italian horror cinema] should see the film" and that the film was "showing its age and is incredibly tame compared with the gore shockers that Italy would eventually become famous for". Martyn Conterio, in his book on Black Sunday stated that it would be "pushing it to declare I Vampiri as a neglected masterpiece, but it is a hugely underrated work and very cleverly sets out what a horror film with a modern edge and sensibility could achieve." Louis Paul wrote a negative review of the film in his book Italian Horror Film Directors, opining that the film suffered some damaging influences from neorealistic cinema, which turned on very static scenes. He also opined that the film spends too much time with Dario Michaelis character, and the "mind-numbingly dull and endless police procedural scenes"
Aftermath and influence
Freda felt that I Vampiri did not succeed financially in Italy due to the country's audience reluctance to an Italian interpretation of the horror genre. For Freda's next film, Caltiki – The Immortal Monster, he used an English pseudonym of Robert Hampton to give the impression that the film was not Italian. Freda attempted a Gothic horror film again five years later with his film The Horrible Dr. Hichcock. Other crew members would go on to direct horror films following I Vampiri, such as screenwriter Piero Regnoli, who directed The Playgirls and the Vampire (1960) and Bava, who became the cinematographer on Freda's Caltiki as well as directing Black Sunday (1960).I Vampiri was the first Italian horror film of the sound era, following the lone silent horror film Il mostro di Frankenstein (1920) The film did not start a new wave of Italian horror productions. The British Film Institute stated that it required the international success of Mario Bava's Black Sunday to initiate the start of horror film production in Italy. Italian screenwriter Ernesto Gastaldi suggested that it was when Terence Fisher's film Dracula'' (1958) was released in Italy that a "hailstorm of vampire movies flooded the screens".
See also
List of horror films of the 1950s
List of Italian films of 1957
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
1957 films
1957 horror films
Italian horror films
Italian black-and-white films
1950s Italian-language films
Gothic horror films
Films shot in Rome
Films set in castles
Films set in Paris
Films set in 1957
Titanus films
Films directed by Mario Bava
Films directed by Riccardo Freda
1950s Italian films
Films scored by Roman Vlad |
4071088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum%20industry%20in%20Canada | Petroleum industry in Canada | Petroleum production in Canada is a major industry which is important to the economy of North America. Canada has the third largest oil reserves in the world and is the world's fourth largest oil producer and fourth largest oil exporter. In 2019 it produced an average of of crude oil and equivalent. Of that amount, 64% was upgraded from unconventional oil sands, and the remainder light crude oil, heavy crude oil and natural-gas condensate. Most of the Canadian petroleum production is exported, approximately in 2019, with 98% of the exports going to the United States. Canada is by far the largest single source of oil imports to the United States, providing 43% of US crude oil imports in 2015.
The petroleum industry in Canada is also referred to as the "Canadian Oil Patch"; the term refers especially to upstream operations (exploration and production of oil and gas), and to a lesser degree to downstream operations (refining, distribution, and selling of oil and gas products). In 2005, almost 25,000 new oil wells were spudded (drilled) in Canada. Daily, over 100 new wells are spudded in the province of Alberta alone. Although Canada is one of the largest oil producers and exporters in the world, it also imports significant amounts of oil into its eastern provinces since its oil pipelines do not extend all the way across the country and many of its oil refineries cannot handle the types of oil its oil fields produce. In 2017 Canada imported 405,700 bbl/day (barrels per day) and exported 1,115,000 bbl/day of refined petroleum products.
History
The Canadian petroleum industry developed in parallel with that of the United States. The first oil well in Canada was dug by hand (rather than drilled) in 1858 by James Miller Williams near his asphalt plant at Oil Springs, Ontario. At a depth of he struck oil, one year before "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first oil well in the United States. Williams later went on to found "The Canadian Oil Company" which qualified as the world’s first integrated oil company.
Petroleum production in Ontario expanded rapidly, and practically every significant producer became his own refiner. By 1864, 20 refineries were operating in Oil Springs and seven in Petrolia, Ontario. However, Ontario's status as an important oil producer did not last long. By 1880 Canada was a net importer of oil from the United States.
Canada's unique geography, geology, resources and patterns of settlement have been key factors in the history of Canada. The development of the petroleum sector helps illustrate how they have helped make the nation quite distinct from the United States. Unlike the United States, which has a number of different major oil producing regions, the vast majority of Canada's petroleum resources are concentrated in the enormous Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), one of the largest petroleum-containing formations in the world. It underlies of Western Canada including most or part of four western provinces and one northern territory. Consisting of a massive wedge of sedimentary rock up to thick extending from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Canadian Shield in the east, it is far distant from Canada's east and west coast ports as well as its historical industrial centres. It is also far from American industrial centres. Because of its geographic isolation, the area was settled relatively late in the history of Canada, and its true resource potential was not discovered until after World War II. As a result, Canada built its major manufacturing centres near its historic hydroelectric power sources in Ontario and Quebec, rather than its petroleum resources in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Not knowing about its own potential, Canada began to import the vast majority of its petroleum from other countries as it developed into a modern industrial economy.
The province of Alberta lies at the centre of the WCSB and the formation underlies most of the province. The potential of Alberta as an oil-producing province long went unrecognized because it was geologically quite different from American oil producing regions. The first oil well in western Canada was drilled in southern Alberta in 1902, but did not produce for long and served to mislead geologists about the true nature of Alberta's subsurface geology. The Turner Valley oil field was discovered in 1914, and for a time was the biggest oil field in the British Empire, but again it misled geologists about the nature of Alberta's geology. In Turner Valley, the mistakes oil companies made led to billions of dollars in damage to the oil field by gas flaring which not only burned billions of dollars worth of gas with no immediate market, but destroyed the field's gas drive that enabled the oil to be produced. The gas flares in Turner Valley were visible in the sky from Calgary, away. As a result of the highly visible wastage, the Alberta government launched vigorous political and legal attacks on the Canadian Government and the oil companies that continued until 1938 when the province set up the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board and imposed strict conservation legislation.
The status of Canada as an oil importer from the US suddenly changed in 1947 when the Leduc No. 1 well was drilled a short distance south of Edmonton. Geologists realized that they had completely misunderstood the geology of Alberta, and the highly prolific Leduc oil field, which has since produced over of oil was not a unique formation. There were hundreds more Devonian reef formations like it underneath Alberta, many of them full of oil. There was no surface indication of their presence, so they had to be found using reflection seismology. The main problem for oil companies became how to sell all the oil they had found rather than buying oil for their refineries. Pipelines were built from Alberta through the Midwestern United States to Ontario and to the west coast of British Columbia. Exports to the U.S. increased dramatically.
Most of the oil companies exploring for oil in Alberta were of U.S. origin, and at its peak in 1973, over 78 per cent of Canadian oil and gas production was under foreign ownership and over 90 per cent of oil and gas production companies were under foreign control, mostly American. This foreign ownership spurred the National Energy Program under the Trudeau government.
Major players
Although around a dozen companies operate oil refineries in Canada, only three companies – Imperial Oil, Shell Canada and Suncor Energy – operate more than one refinery and market products nationally. Other refiners generally operate a single refinery and market products in a particular region. Regional refiners include North Atlantic Refining in Newfoundland, Irving Oil in New Brunswick, Valero Energy in Quebec, Federated Co-operatives in Saskatchewan, Parkland in British Columbia, and Cenovus Energy in Alberta, BC, and Saskatchewan. While Petro Canada was once owned by the Canadian government, it is now owned by Suncor Energy, which continues to use the Petro Canada label for marketing purposes. In 2007 Canada's three biggest oil companies brought in record profits of $11.75 billion, up 10 percent from $10.72 billion in 2006. Revenues for the Big Three climbed to $80 billion from about $72 billion in 2006. The numbers exclude Shell Canada and ConocoPhillips Canada, two private subsidiaries that produced almost 500,000 barrels per day in 2006.
Canadian Natural Resources Limited
Imperial Oil
Suncor Energy
Cenovus Energy
Divisions
Approximately 96% of Canadian oil production occurs in three provinces: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2015 Alberta produced 79.2% of Canada's oil, Saskatchewan 13.5%, and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador 4.4%. British Columbia and Manitoba produced about 1% apiece. The four Western Canada provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba all produce their oil from the vast and oil rich Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, which is centered on Alberta but extends into the other three Western provinces and into the Northwest Territories. The province of Newfoundland and Labrador produces its oil from offshore drilling on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland in the western Atlantic Ocean.
Alberta
Alberta is Canada's largest oil producing province, providing 79.2% of Canadian oil production in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, crude bitumen, synthetic crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. In 2015 Alberta produced an average of of Canada's of oil and equivalent production. Most of its oil production came from its enormous oil sands deposits, whose production has been steadily rising in recent years. These unconventional deposits give Canada the world's third largest oil reserves, which are rivaled only by similar but even larger oil reserves in Venezuela, and conventional oil reserves in Saudi Arabia. Although Alberta has already produced over 90% of its conventional crude oil reserves, it has produced only 5% of its oil sands, and its remaining oil sands reserves represent 98% of Canada's established oil reserves.
In addition to being the world's largest producer of oil sands bitumen in the world, Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and natural gas liquids products in Canada.
Oil sands
Alberta's oil sands underlie of land in the Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River areas in northern Alberta - a vast area of boreal forest which is larger than England. The Athabasca oil sands is the only large oil field in the world suitable for surface mining, while the Cold Lake oil sands and the Peace River oil sands must be produced by drilling. With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude. This technology grew and developed in Alberta. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional methods to extract the bitumen from the Athabasca deposit. About of the remaining oil sands are considered recoverable at current prices with current technology. The city of Fort McMurray developed nearby to service the oil sands operations, but its remote location in the otherwise uncleared boreal forest became a problem when the entire population of 80,000 had to be evacuated on short notice because of the 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire which enveloped the city and destroyed over 2,400 homes.
Oil fields
Major oil fields are found in southeast Alberta (Brooks, Medicine Hat, Lethbridge), northwest (Grande Prairie, High Level, Rainbow Lake, Zama), central (Caroline, Red Deer), and northeast (heavy crude oil found adjacent to the oil sands.)
Structural regions include: Foothills, Greater Arch, Deep Basin.
Oil upgraders
There are five oil sands upgraders in Alberta which convert crude bitumen to synthetic crude oil, some of which also produce refined products such as diesel fuel. These have a combined capacity of of crude bitumen.
The Shell Canada Scotford Upgrader at Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta has a capacity of of crude bitumen.
The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta has a capacity of of crude bitumen.
The Syncrude Mildred Lake upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of
The China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) Long Lake upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of
The Canadian Natural Resources Ltd (CNRL) Horizon upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of
Oil pipelines
Since it is Canada's largest oil producing province, Alberta is the hub of Canadian crude oil pipeline systems. About of Canada’s oil and gas pipelines operate solely within Alberta’s boundaries and fall under the jurisdiction of the Alberta Energy Regulator. Pipelines that cross provincial or international borders are regulated by the National Energy Board.
Major pipelines carrying oil from Alberta to markets in other provinces and US states include:
The Interprovincial Pipeline System (now called the Enbridge Pipeline System) was built in 1950 to transport crude oil from Edmonton, Alberta to Superior, Wisconsin where it supplies the Midwestern United States. In 1953 it was extended to Sarnia, Ontario to supply the Ontario market, and in 1976 to Montreal, Quebec.
The Trans Mountain Pipeline System was built in 1953 to transport crude oil and refined products from Edmonton to Vancouver, BC. It also supplies feedstock to large US oil refineries in the state of Washington. Only crude oil and condensate are shipped to the United States.
The Norman Wells Pipeline (now owned by Enbridge) was built in 1985 to carry crude oil from Norman Wells, NWT to Zama City, Alberta, where it connects with the Alberta pipeline network.
The Express Pipeline was built in 1997 to carry oil from the Alberta pipeline hub at Hardisty, Alberta to the US states of Montana, Utah, Wyoming and Colorado.
The Keystone Pipeline was built in 2011 to carry oil from Hardisty, Alberta to the major US pipeline hub at Cushing, Oklahoma, where it connects to pipelines to Texas, Louisiana, and many of the Eastern United States.
Oil refineries
There are four oil refineries in Alberta with a combined capacity of over of crude oil. Most of these are located on what is known as Refinery Row in Strathcona County near Edmonton, Alberta, which supplies products to most of Western Canada. In addition to refined products such as gasoline and diesel fuel, the refineries and upgraders also produce off-gases, which are used as feedstock by nearby petrochemical plants.
The Suncor Energy (Petro Canada) refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of of crude oil.
The Imperial Oil Strathcona Refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of .
The Shell Canada Scotford Refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of . It is located adjacent to the Shell Scotford Upgrader, which provides it with feedstock.
The Husky Lloydminster Refinery at Lloydminster, in eastern Alberta has a capacity of . It is located across the provincial border from the Husky Lloydminster Heavy Oil Upgrader at Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, which provides it with feedstock. (Lloydminster is not a twin city but is chartered by both provinces as a single city that crosses the border.)
Other oil-related activities
Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. There are hundreds of small companies in Alberta dedicated to providing various services to this industry—from drilling to well maintenance, pipeline maintenance to seismic exploration.
While Edmonton (population 972,223 thousand in 2019) is the provincial capital and is considered the pipeline, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the Canadian oil industry, its rival city Calgary (population 1.26 million) is the main oil company head office and financial centre, with more than 960 senior and junior oil company offices. Calgary also has regional offices of all six major Canadian banks, some 4,300 petroleum, energy and related service companies, and 1,300 financial service companies, helping make it the second largest head office city in Canada after Toronto.
Oil and gas activity is regulated by the Alberta Energy Regulator (AER) (Formerly the Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB)and the Energy and Utility Board (EUB)).
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan is Canada's second-largest oil-producing province after Alberta, producing about 13.5% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. Most of its production is heavy oil but, unlike Alberta, none of Saskatchewan's heavy oil deposits are officially classified as bituminous sands. In 2015 Saskatchewan produced an average of oil and equivalent production.
Oil fields
All of Saskatchewan's oil is produced from the vast Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, about 25% of which underlies the province. Lying toward the shallower eastern end of the later the sedimentary basin, Saskatchewan tends to produce more oil and less natural gas than other parts. It has four major oil-producing regions:
The Lloydminster area in west-central Saskatchewan has very large reserves of very heavy crude oil. (The oil field crosses the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, as do the production facilities.)
The Kindersley area in south-central Saskatchewan produces light crude oil using hydraulic fracturing from Saskatchewan's portion of the Bakken Formation, which also produces most of North Dakota's oil.
The Swift Current area in southwest Saskatchewan produces mostly conventional oil.
The Weyburn area in southeast Saskatchewan produces oil using carbon dioxide flooding in the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project, the world's largest carbon capture and storage project.
Oil upgraders
There are two heavy oil upgraders in Saskatchewan.
The NewGrade Energy Upgrader, part of the CCRL Refinery Complex in Regina, processes of heavy oil from the Lloydminster area into synthetic crude oil.
The Husky Energy Bi-Provincial Upgrader on the Saskatchewan side of Lloydminster processes of heavy oil from Alberta and Saskatchewan to lighter crude oil. In addition to selling synthetic crude oil to other refineries, it supplies feedstock to the Husky Lloydminster Refinery on the Alberta side of the border. (Lloydminster is not twin cities but is a single bi-provincial city that straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border.)
Oil refineries
The majority of the province's refining capacity is in a single complex in the provincial capital of Regina:
The CCRL Refinery Complex operated by Federated Co-operatives in Regina processes into conventional refinery products. It receives much of its feedstock from the NewGrade upgrader.
Moose Jaw Asphalt Inc. operates a asphalt plant in Moose Jaw.
Oil and gas activity is regulated by the Saskatchewan Industry and Resources (SIR).
Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producing province, producing about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This consisted almost exclusively of light crude oil produced by offshore oil facilities on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In 2015 these offshore fields produced an average of of light crude oil.
Oil fields
The Hibernia oil field is located approximately east-southeast of St. John's, Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1979 and has been producing since 1997. The Hibernia Gravity Base Structure is the world's largest oil platform by weight since it has to withstand collisions by icebergs.
The Terra Nova oil field is located off the east coast of Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1984 and has been producing since 2002. It uses a Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) vessel rather than a fixed platform to produce oil.
The White Rose oil field is located off the east coast of Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1984 and has been producing since 2005. It uses a FPSO vessel to produce oil.
Oil refinery
Newfoundland has one oil refinery, the Come By Chance Refinery, which has a capacity of . The refinery was built before the discovery of oil offshore Newfoundland to process cheap imported oil and sell the products mainly in the United States. Unfortunately the startup of the refinery in 1973 coincided with the 1973 oil crisis which quadrupled the price of the refinery's crude oil supply. This and technical problems caused the refinery to go bankrupt in 1976. It was restarted under new owners in 1986 and has gone through a series of owners until now, when it is operated by North Atlantic Refining Limited. However, despite the fact that major oil fields were subsequently discovered offshore of Newfoundland, the refinery was not designed to process the type of oil they produced, and it did not process any Newfoundland oil at all until 2014. Until then all of Newfoundland's production went to refineries in the United States and elsewhere in Canada, while the refinery imported all its oil from other countries.
British Columbia
British Columbia produced an average of oil and equivalent in 2015, or about 1.4% of Canada's petroleum. About 38% of this liquids production was light crude oil, but most of it (62%) was natural-gas condensate.
British Columbia's oil fields lie at the gas-prone northwest end of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, and its oil industry is secondary to the larger natural gas industry. Drilling for gas and oil takes place in Peace Country of north-eastern British Columbia, around Fort Nelson (Greater Sierra oil field), Fort St. John (Pink Mountain, Ring Border) and Dawson Creek
Oil and gas activity in BC is regulated by the Oil and Gas Commission (OGC).
Oil refineries
BC has only two remaining oil refineries.
The Husky Energy Prince George Refinery in Prince George, BC processes of light oil produced locally in northeastern BC.
The Chevron Canada Burnaby Refinery in the Vancouver suburb of Burnaby processes of light oil received from Alberta via the Kinder Morgan Trans Mountain Pipeline System.
There once were four oil refineries in the Vancouver area, but Imperial Oil, Shell Canada, and Petro Canada converted their refineries to product terminals in the 1990s and now supply the BC market from their large refineries near Edmonton, Alberta, which are closer to Canada's oil sands and largest oil fields. Chevron's refinery is at risk of closure due to difficulties in getting oil supply from Alberta via the capacity-limited Trans Mountain Pipeline, its only pipeline link to the rest of Canada.
In June 2016 Chevron put its oil refinery in Burnaby, BC up for sale, along with its fuel distribution network in British Columbia and Alberta. “The company acknowledges these are challenging times and we need to be open to changing market conditions and opportunities as they arise,” a company representative said. The refinery, which started production in 1935, has 430 employees. Chevron's offer to sell follows Imperial Oil's sale of 497 Esso gas stations in B.C. and Alberta. It is unclear what will happen if Chevron fails to sell its BC assets.
Manitoba
Manitoba produced an average of of light crude oil in 2015, or about 1.2% of Canada's petroleum production.
Manitoba's oil production is in southwest Manitoba along the northeast flank of the Williston Basin, a large geological structural basin which also underlies parts of southern Saskatchewan, North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana. Unlike in Saskatchewan, very little of Manitoba's oil is heavy crude oil.
A few rigs drilling for oil in South western Manitoba
There are no oil refineries in Manitoba.
Northern Canada (onshore)
The Northwest Territories produced an average of of light crude oil in 2015, or about 0.2% of Canada's petroleum production. There is an historic large oil field at Norman Wells, which has produced most of its oil since it started producing 1937, and is continuing to produce at low rates. There used to be an oil refinery at Norman Wells, but it was closed in 1996 and all of the oil is now pipelined out to refineries in Alberta.
Drilling for tight oil in the Canol shale play near Norman Wells by Husky Energy and others.
Northern Canada (offshore)
Extensive drilling was done in the Canadian Arctic during the 1970s and 1980s by such companies as Panarctic Oils Ltd., Petro Canada and Dome Petroleum. After 176 wells were drilled at a cost of billions of dollars, a modest of oil were found. None of the finds were big enough to pay for the multibillion-dollar production and transportation schemes required to bring the oil out, so all the wells which had been drilled were plugged and abandoned. In addition, after the Deepwater Horizon explosion in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, new rules were introduced which discouraged companies from drilling in the Canadian Arctic offshore.
There is currently no offshore oil production in northern Canada
There is currently no offshore drilling in northern Canada
Eastern Canada (onshore)
Ontario produced an average of of light crude oil in 2015, or less than 0.03% of Canada's petroleum production. Onshore production in other provinces east of Ontario was even more insignificant.
Oil fields
Ontario was the centre of the Canadian oil industry in the 19th century. It had the oldest commercial oil well in North America (dug by hand in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario, a year before the Drake Well was drilled in Pennsylvania), and having the oldest producing oil field in North America (producing crude oil continuously since 1861). However, it reached its production peak and started to decline more than 100 years ago.
Sporadic drilling in southern Ontario
Sporadic drilling in western Newfoundland
Sporadic drilling in northern Nova Scotia and western Cape Breton Island
Sporadic drilling in northern and eastern Prince Edward Island
Oil pipelines
Canada had one of the world’s first oil pipelines in 1862 when a pipeline was built to deliver oil from Petrolia, Ontario to refineries at Sarnia, Ontario. However, Ontario's oil fields began to decline toward the end of the 19th century, and by World War II Canada was importing 90% of its oil. By 1947, only three Canadian crude oil pipelines existed. One was built to handle only Alberta production. A second moved imported crude from coastal Maine to Montreal, while the third brought American oil into Ontario. However, in 1947 the first big oil discovery was made in Alberta when Leduc No. 1 struck oil southwest of central Edmonton, Alberta. It was followed by many even larger discoveries in Alberta, so pipelines were built to take the newly discovered oil to refineries in the American Midwest and from there to refineries in Ontario.
The Interprovincial Pipeline (now known as Enbridge) was built in 1950 to take Alberta oil to US refineries. In 1953 it was extended through the US to Sarnia, Ontario and in 1956 to Toronto. This made it the longest crude oil pipeline in the world.
The Interprovincial Pipeline was extended to Montreal in 1976 after the 1973 oil crisis interrupted foreign oil supplies to Eastern Canada.
The Portland–Montreal Pipe Line was built during World War II to bring imported oil from the marine terminal at South Portland, Maine through the United States to Montreal. As of 2016, the pipeline is no longer operational since the only remaining Montreal Refinery, is now owned by Suncor Energy, which produces enough oil to meet its needs from the Canadian oil sands.
Oil refineries
Despite having very little oil production, Eastern Canada has a large number of oil refineries. The ones in Ontario were built close to the historic oil fields of southern Ontario; the ones in provinces to the east were built to process oil imported from other countries. After Leduc No. 1 was discovered in 1947, the much larger oil fields in Alberta began to supply Ontario refineries. After the 1973 oil crisis drastically increased the price of imported oil, the economics of refineries became unfavorable, and many of them closed. In particular, Montreal, which had six oil refineries in 1973, now has only one.
Ontario
Nanticoke Refinery - (Imperial Oil),
Sarnia - (Imperial Oil),
Sarnia - (Suncor Energy),
Corunna - (Shell Canada),
Mississauga - (Suncor Energy),
Quebec
Montreal Refinery - (Suncor Energy), .
Lévis - (Valero Energy Corporation)),
New Brunswick
Irving Oil Refinery, Saint John (Irving Oil),
Newfoundland and Labrador
North Atlantic Refinery, Come By Chance - (North Atlantic Refining),
Eastern Canada (offshore)
The province of Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producer with of light crude oil from its Grand Banks offshore oil fields in 2015, about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum. See the Newfoundland and Labrador section above for details. Most of the other offshore production was in the province of Nova Scotia, which produced of natural gas condensate from its Sable Island offshore natural gas fields in 2015, or about 0.07% of Canada's petroleum.
Offshore oil drilling and production at Hibernia, Terra Nova, and White Rose fields off the coast of Newfoundland
Offshore gas drilling and production on Sable Island fields off the coast of Nova Scotia
Sporadic drilling along continental shelf off Nova Scotia (e.g. Shelburne Basin)
Sporadic drilling in Laurentian fan at southern end of Cabot Strait
Sporadic drilling in eastern Northumberland Strait
Long-term outlook
Broadly speaking Canadian conventional oil production (via standard deep drilling) peaked in the mid-1970s, but East Coast offshore basins being exploited in Atlantic Canada did not peak until 2007 and are still producing at relatively high rates.
Production from the Alberta oil sands is still in its early stages and the province's established bitumen resources will last for generations into the future. The Alberta Energy Regulator estimates that the province has of ultimately recoverable bitumen resources. At the 2014 production rate of , they would last for about 375 years. The AER projects that bitumen production will increase to by 2024, but at that rate they would still last for about 213 years. Because of the enormous size of the known oil sands deposits, economic, labor, environmental, and government policy considerations are the constraints on production rather than finding new deposits.
In addition, the Alberta Energy Regulator has recently identified over of unconventional shale oil resources in the province. This volume is larger than the province's oil sands resources, and if developed would give Canada the largest crude oil reserves in the world. However, due to the recent nature of the discoveries there are not yet any plans to develop them.
Oil fields of Canada
These oil fields are or were economically important to the Canadian economy:
Oil Springs, Ontario
Turner Valley oil field, Alberta
Leduc oil field, Alberta
Pembina oil field, Alberta
Athabasca oil sands, Alberta
Peace River oil sands, Alberta
Cold Lake oil sands, Alberta
Duvernay Formation, Alberta (shale oil and gas)
Montney Formation, Alberta, BC (shale oil and gas)
Hibernia oil field, offshore Newfoundland
Terra Nova oil field, offshore Newfoundland
White Rose oil field, offshore Newfoundland
Upstream, midstream and downstream components of Canadian petroleum industry
There are three components of the Canadian petroleum industry: upstream, midstream and downstream.
Upstream
The upstream oil sector is also commonly known as the exploration and production (E&P) sector.
The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater crude oil and natural gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. With the development of methods for extracting methane from coal seams, there has been a significant shift toward including unconventional gas as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in liquified natural gas (LNG) processing and transport. The upstream sector of the petroleum industry includes Extraction of petroleum, Oil production plant, Oil refinery and Oil well.
Midstream
The midstream sector involves the transportation, storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Canada has a large network of pipelines - over 840,000 km - that transport crude oil and natural gas across the country. There are four main pipeline groups: gathering, feeder, transmission, and distribution pipelines. Gathering pipelines transport crude oil and natural gas from wells drilled in the subsurface to oil batteries or natural gas processing facilities. The majority of these pipelines are found in petroleum producing areas in Western Canada. Feeder pipelines move crude oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids (NGLs) from the batteries, processing facilities, and storage tanks to the long-distance portion of the transportation system: transmission pipelines. These are the major carriers of crude oil, natural gas, and NGLs within provinces and across provincial or international borders, where the products are either sent to refineries or exported to other markets. Finally, distribution pipelines are the conduit for delivering natural gas to downstream customers, such as local utilities, and then further distributed to homes and businesses. If pipelines are near capacity or non-existent in certain areas, crude oil is then transported over land by rail or truck, or over water by marine vessels.
The midstream operations are often taken to include some elements of the upstream and downstream sectors. For example, the midstream sector may include natural gas processing plants which purify the raw natural gas as well as removing and producing elemental sulfur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished end-products. Midstream service providers in Canada refer to Barge companies, Railroad companies, Trucking and hauling companies, Pipeline transport companies, Logistics and technology companies, Transloading companies and Terminal developers and operators. Development of the massive oil sand reserves in Alberta would be facilitated by enhancing the North American pipeline network which would transport dilbit to refineries or export facilities.
Downstream
The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas, as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas. The downstream sector touches consumers through products such as gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, natural gas, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as well as hundreds of petrochemicals. Midstream operations are often included in the downstream category and considered to be a part of the downstream sector.
Crude oil
Crude oil, for example, Western Canadian Select (WCS) is a mixture of many varieties of hydrocarbons and most usually has many sulfur-containing compounds. The refining process converts most of that sulfur into gaseous hydrogen sulfide. Raw natural gas also may contain gaseous hydrogen sulfide and sulfur-containing mercaptans, which are removed in natural gas processing plants before the gas is distributed to consumers. The hydrogen sulfide removed in the refining and processing of crude oil and natural gas is subsequently converted into byproduct elemental sulfur. In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and natural gas processing plants.
Export capacity
Total Canadian crude oil production, most of which is coming from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), is forecast to increase from 3.85 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2016 to 5.12 million b/d by 2030. Supply from the Alberta oil sands accounts for most of the growth and is expected to increase from 1.3 million b/d in 2016 to 3.7 million b/d in 2030. Bitumen from the oil sands requires blending with a diluent in order to decrease its viscosity and density so that it can easily flow through pipelines. The addition of diluent will add an estimated 200,000 b/d to the total volumes of crude oil in Canada, for a total of 1.5 million extra barrels per day requiring the creation of additional transport capacity to markets. The current takeaway capacity in Western Canada is tight, as oil producers are beginning to outpace the movement of their products.
Pipeline capacity measurements are complex and subject to variability. They depend on a number of factors, such as the type of product being transported, the products it is mixed with, pressure reductions, maintenance, and pipeline configurations. The major oil pipelines exiting Western Canada have a design transport capacity of 4.0 million b/d. In 2016, however, the pipeline capacity was estimated at 3.9 million b/d, and in 2017 the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) estimated the pipeline capacity to be 3.3 million b/d. The lack of available pipeline capacity for petroleum forces oil producers to look to alternative transport methods, such as rail.
Crude-by-rail shipments are expected to increase as existing pipelines reach capacity and proposed pipelines experience approval delays. The rail loading capacity for crude in Western Canada is close to 1.2 million b/d, although this varies depending on several factors including the length of the unit trains, size and type of railcars used, and the types of crude oil loaded. Other studies, however, estimate the current rail loading capacity in Western Canada to be 754,000 b/d. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that crude-by-rail exports will increase from 150,000 b/d in late 2017 to 390,000 b/d in 2019, which is much greater than the record high of 179,000 b/d in 2014. The IEA also warns that rail shipments could reach as high as 590,000 b/d in 2019 unless producers store their produced crude during peak months. The oil industry in the WCSB may need to continue to rely on rail in the forecastable future, as no major new pipeline capacity is expected to be available before 2019. The capacity - to a certain extent - is there, but producers must be willing to pay a premium to move crude by rail.
Getting to tidewater
Canada has had access to western tide water since 1953, with a capacity of roughly 200,000 - 300,000 bpd via the Kinder Morgan Pipeline. There is a myth perpetuated in Canadian media that Canadian WCS oil producers will have better access to “international prices” with greater access to tidewater, however, this claim does not take into account existing access. Shipments to Asia reached their peak in 2012 when the equivalent of nine fully loaded tankers of oil left Vancouver for China. Since then, oil exports to Asia have completely dropped off to the point at which China imported only 600 barrels of oil in 2017 . With regard to the claim that Canada does not have access to “international prices”, many economists decry the concept that Canada does have access to the globalized economy as ridiculous and attribute the price differential to the costs of shipping heavy, sour crude thousands of kilometres, compounded by over supply in the destinations able to process aforementioned oil. Due to a doubling of a “production and export” model bet on by the biggest players in the tar sands, producers have recently (2018) encountered an over supply problem, and have sought further government subsidies to lessen the blow of their financial miscalculations earlier this decade.
Preferred access ports include the US Gulf ports via the Keystone XL pipeline to the south, the British Columbia Pacific coast in Kitimat via the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines, and the Trans Mountain line to Vancouver, BC. Frustrated by delays in getting approval for Keystone XL, the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines, and the expansion of the existing Trans Mountain line to Vancouver, Alberta has intensified exploration of northern projects, such as building a pipeline to the northern hamlet of Tuktoyatuk near the Beaufort Sea, "to help the province get its oil to tidewater, making it available for export to overseas markets". Under Prime Minister Stephen Harper, the Canadian government spent $9 million by May 2012, and $16.5 million by May 2013, to promote Keystone XL. In the United States, Democrats are concerned that Keystone XL would simply facilitate getting Alberta oil sands products to tidewater for export to China and other countries via the American Gulf Coast of Mexico.
In 2013, Generating for Seven Generations (G7G) and AECOM received $1.8 million in funding from Alberta Energy to study the feasibility of building a railway from northern Alberta to the Port of Valdez, Alaska. The proposed 2,440-km railway would be capable of transporting 1 million to 1.5 million b/d of bitumen and petroleum products, as well as other commodities, to tidewater (avoiding the tanker ban along British Columbia's northern coast). The last leg of the route - Delta Junction through the coastal mountain range to Valdez - was not deemed economically feasible by rail; an alternative, however, may be the transfer of products to the underutilized Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) to Valdez.
Port Metro Vancouver has a number of petroleum terminals, including Suncor Burrard Terminal in Port Moody, Imperial Oil Ioco Terminal in Burrard Inlet East, and Kinder Morgan Westridge, Shell Canada Shellburn, and Chevron Canada Stanovan terminals in Burnaby.
Pipeline versus rail debate
The public debate surrounding the trade-offs between pipeline and rail transportation has been developing over the past decade as the amount of crude oil transported by rail has increased. It was invigorated in 2013 after the deadly Lac-Mégantic disaster in Quebec when a freight train derailed and spilled 5.56 million litres of crude oil, which resulted in explosions and fires that destroyed much of the town's core. That same year, a train carrying propane and crude derailed near Gainford, Alberta, resulting in two explosions but no injuries or fatalities. These rail accidents, among other examples, have raised concerns that the regulation of rail transport is inadequate for large-scale crude oil shipments. Pipeline failures also occur, for instance, in 2015 a Nexen pipeline ruptured and leaked 5 million litres of crude oil over approximately 16,000 m2 at the company's Long Lake oilsands facility south of Fort McMurray. Although both pipeline and rail transportation are generally quite safe, neither mode is without risk. Numerous studies, however, indicate that pipelines are safer, based on the number of occurrences (accidents and incidents) weighed against the quantity of product transported. Between 2004 and 2015, the likelihood of rail accidents in Canada was 2.6 times greater than for pipelines per thousand barrels of oil equivalents (Mboe). Natural gas products were 4.8 times more likely to have a rail occurrence when compared to similar commodities transported by pipelines. Critics question if pipelines carrying diluted bitumen from Alberta's oil sands are more likely to corrode and cause incidents, but evidence shows the risk of corrosion being no different from that of other crude oils.
Costs
A 2017 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that contrary to popular belief, the sum of air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions costs is substantially larger than accidents and spill costs for both pipelines and rail. For crude oil transported from the North Dakota Bakken Formation, air pollution and greenhouse gas emission costs are substantially larger for rail compared to pipeline. For pipelines and rail, the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration's (PHMSA) central estimate of spill and accident costs is US$62 and US$381 per million-barrel miles transported, respectively. Total GHG and air pollution costs are 8 times higher than accident and spills costs for pipelines (US$531 vs US$62) and 3 times higher for rail (US$1015 vs US$381).
Finally, transporting oil and gas by rail is generally more expensive for producers than transporting it by pipeline. On average, it costs between US$10-$15 per barrel to transport oil and gas by rail compared to $5 a barrel for pipeline. In 2012,16 million barrels of oil were exported to USA by rail. By 2014, that number increased to 59 million barrels. Although quantities decreased to 48 million in 2017, the competitive advantages offered by rail, particularly its access to remote regions as well as lack of regulatory and social challenges compared with building new pipelines, will likely make it a viable transportation method for years to come. Both forms of transportation play a role in moving oil efficiently, but each has its unique trade-offs in terms of the benefits it offers.
Regulatory agencies in Canada
The jurisdiction over the petroleum industry in Canada, which includes energy policies regulating the petroleum industry, is shared between the federal and provincial and territorial governments. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and international trade (which included pipelines) and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products on federal lands.
Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)
Oil and Gas Policy and Regulatory Affairs Division (Oil and Gas Division) of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) provides an annual review of and summaries of trending of crude oil, natural gas and petroleum product industry in Canada and the United States (US)
National Energy Board
Until February 2018, the petroleum industry was also regulated by the National Energy Board (NEB), an independent federal regulatory agency. The NEB regulated inter-provincial and international oil and gas pipeline transport and power lines; the export and import of natural gas under long-term licenses and short-term orders, oil exports under long-term licenses and short-term orders (no applications for long-term exports have been filed in recent years), and frontier lands and offshore areas not covered by provincial/federal management agreements.
In 1985, the federal government and the provincial governments in Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan agreed to deregulate the prices of crude oil and natural gas. Offshore oil Atlantic Canada is administered under joint federal and provincial responsibility in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador.
Provincial regulatory agencies
There were few regulations in the early years of the petroleum industry. In Turner Valley, Alberta for example, where the first significant field of petroleum was found in 1914, it was common to extract a small amount of petroleum liquids by flaring off about 90% of the natural gas. According to a 2001 report that amount of gas that would have been worth billions. In 1938 the Alberta provincial government responded to the conspicuous and wasteful burning of natural gas. By the time crude oil was discovered in the Turner Valley field, in 1930, most of the free gas cap had been flared off. The Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board (today known as the Energy Resources Conservation Board) was established in 1931 to initiate conservation measures but by that time the Depression caused a waning of interest in petroleum production in Turner Valley which was revived from 1939 to 1945.
See also
The Petroleum Papers, 2022 book by Geoff Dembicki
Climate change in Canada
Coal in Canada
Petroleum technician
Renewable energy in Canada
References
Further reading
External links
CBC Digital Archives - Striking Oil in Alberta
Canadian Fuels Association
The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)
Canadian Petroleum Hall of Fame
Alberta Government Oil Sands Information Portal Interactive Map and Data Library |
4071138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Holland%20Agriculture | New Holland Agriculture | New Holland is a global full-line agricultural machinery manufacturer. New Holland's products include tractors, combine harvesters, balers, forage harvesters, self-propelled sprayers, haying tools, seeding equipment, hobby tractors, utility vehicles and implements, and grape harvesters. Founded in the United States, New Holland is based in Turin, Italy.
The original New Holland Machine Company was founded in 1895 in New Holland, Pennsylvania; it was acquired by Sperry Corporation in 1947, then by Ford Motor Company in 1986, and then by FiatAgri in 1991, becoming a full-line producer. In 1999, New Holland became a brand of CNH Global (NYSE: CNH), which was majority-owned by Fiat Industrial. On 29 September 2013, CNH Global N.V. and Fiat Industrial S.p.A. were merged into CNH Industrial N.V., a company incorporated in the Netherlands. CNH Industrial N.V. was subsequently listed on both the NYSE and the Milan stock exchange (Mercato Telematico Azionario).
New Holland equipment is manufactured at 18 plants globally (as well as six joint ventures in the Americas, Asia in the Middle East). The current administrative headquarters are in Turin, Italy, with New Holland, Pennsylvania serving as the brand's North American headquarters.
New Holland also owns trademarks for specific innovations on its products such as the ABS Super Steer system, Opti Fan System, Intellifill system, and others.
The brand was the main Juventus F.C. sponsor from 2007 to 2010.
History
New Holland history is the sum and integration of four agricultural brands that merged: Ford, Fiat Trattori, Claeys, and New Holland.
Founding
New Holland Machine Company was founded in a horse barn in 1895 by Abe Zimmerman[2] in New Holland, Pennsylvania and began producing agricultural products, including a feed mill, to help the local farming community. The company was incorporated in 1903.
In 1947, the company changed its name to Sperry New Holland, due to a takeover by the Sperry Rand Corporation. The same year, it made a major breakthrough in hay harvesting technology with the introduction of the haybine mower conditioner (which remained in production until 2023). In 1964, Sperry New Holland bought a major interest in Claeys.
Claeys was founded in 1906 by Leon Claeys, a Belgian mechanic. This firm started to build threshing machines, and in 1909, built a factory in Zedelgem, Belgium, where one of New Holland's plants is still producing harvesting products. By the 1960s, Claeys was one of the biggest combine manufacturers in Europe.[3]
In 1975, Sperry New Holland introduced the world's first twin-rotor combine, a successful technology that is still used today.
Ford
In 1986, Ford bought Sperry New Holland and formed Ford New Holland Inc.
Before this acquisition, Ford had a long history in agricultural machinery production. In 1907, Ford came out with the prototype for the world's first mass-produced, gasoline-powered tractor, named an "automobile plow". Ten years later, this tractor went into actual production.
It was renamed the Fordson Model F, and produced by a new business, Henry Ford & Son Company.
In 1939, Ford introduced the three-point hitch (three-point linkage) on the 'N' tractor series, a very successful tractor family. In the 1980s, Ford was one of the major players, and its tractor division had been responsible for a number of industry innovations, including the use of power hydraulics, rubber pneumatic tires, diesel engines, and the three-point hitch. This hitch was originally developed by Harry Ferguson, but was widely used on Ford tractor.
Fiat
In 1991, Fiat purchased an 80% interest in Ford New Holland. Also, Fiat was present in the agriculture machinery industry since the beginning of the 20th century. In 1918, the Fiat Model 702 tractor was launched and went into full production a year later at the car and truck plant in Turin, and won the International Ploughing Contest in Senlis (France). Model 702 was the first Fiat agricultural tractor, as well as the first Italian tractor to be built on an industrial scale. In the 1930s, Fiat's founder, Senator Giovanni Agnelli, wanted his tractor to become an integral part of Italy's agriculture, so he began an association with the Italian agricultural co-operatives. The company kept on growing, and by the end of the 1970s, Fiat Trattori had built over a million tractors.
In the 1980s, Fiat acquired Braud, a French company founded in 1870, which introduced the stationary threshers to farmers in Western France in 1895. In 1975, Braud launched his first grape harvester, model 1020. This was further improved with Braud 1014, the best-selling grape harvester in the history of the vineyard, with over 2000 units sold in less than four years.
With the purchase of Ford New Holland, New Holland became a global full-line producer and the integration process was completed at the official launch of the brand at the worldwide convention in Orlando, Florida, in 1996.
CNH
Under the ownership of Fiat, New Holland N.V. and Case Corporation merged in 1999, giving birth to CNH. Due to antitrust policies, New Holland had to divest Laverda and the Versatile tractor plant in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
Following the 1993 purchase, the joint venture signed between the Ford Motor Company and the Mexican Quimmco Group in 1990 was transferred to the New Holland company. In 1999, the name of the company was changed to CNH de México.
New Holland Fiat India Pvt. Ltd., previously New Holland Tractors India (Pvt.) Ltd., was established as a 100% subsidiary of CNH Global NV in 1996. The factory is situated in the Greater Noida area, near New Delhi.
Acquisitions and partnerships
In 1998, New Holland acquired Bizon, a combine harvester manufacturer based in Płock, Poland. It designed machines for harvesting cereals, rape seed, maize, sunflower seed, and other crops. Bizon held about 60% of the Polish combined harvester market and had begun sales expansion in Latin America, Pakistan, Belarus, and Ukraine.
In 1998, New Holland signed a joint venture with Türk Traktör, a company belonging to the Koç Group, Turkey's largest industrial conglomerate. The factory based in Ankara had already been producing Fiat tractors since the previous joint venture with the Fiat Group in 1967. In 2011, the factory celebrated the production of its 600 thousandth tractor.
Shanghai New Holland Agricultural Machinery Corporation Ltd. was established on January 1, 2002, as a joint venture bringing together CNH, Shanghai Tractor, and Internal Combustion Engine Corporation, an industry leader in the Chinese market. Today, it is one of the China's largest joint ventures for agricultural machinery.
Milestones
Also in 2002, the New Holland TG tractor series was introduced, featuring the "Cat'sEye" lighting as dubbed by then Fiat chairman Paolo Cantarella. The free-form halogen lighting was a first, not only in tractor design, but also actually preceded the use of this type of lighting in automotive design. The TG was the first styling effort by New Holland's newly named consulting designers and stylists (Montgomery Design International), which had been the long-time firm of record for IH and CaseIH. A single sketch penned by owner and principal designer Gregg Montgomery set New Holland's styling direction, which continues today in the complete range of New Holland tractors.
From 2007 to 2010, New Holland was the sponsor of Juventus F.C. In Paraná State, Brazil, the first machines are delivered to the Programa Trator Solidário (Solidary Tractor). A white T7050 tractor was presented to Pope Benedictus XVI.
In 2009, New Holland Agricultural presented the world's first hydrogen-powered tractor, the NH2 at the SIMA machinery show in Paris, France. Modeled after the company's T6000 tractor, the diesel combustion engine was replaced by two electric motors.
In 2010, following the finalization of the industrial agreement between CNH and OJSC KAMAZ, the newly formed industrial joint venture had started the assembly of the New Holland new tractor models T9060, T9040, and T8050 and the CSX7080 and CSX7060 combine harvesters at its Naberezhnye Chelny plant in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. In 2012, two new products were added, the T8.330 tractor and the CX8080 combine.
New Holland is a Gold Sponsor of the Climate Action Networking Reception, hosted by Climate Action in partnership with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the South African government in Durban.
In 2012, New Holland sponsored the Rio+20 Summit United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development.
In 2022, New Holland released the T7 Methane Power LNG prototype, the world’s first 100% methane-fueled tractor.
Environmental initiatives and innovation projects
NH2 hydrogen-powered tractor and energy-independent farm
New Holland has developed the Energy Independent Farm, a new approach, where farmers are meant to be able to generate their own energy to run their farm and agricultural equipment. The basis of this is the use of hydrogen generated from renewable sources, which farmers have at their disposal: wind, solar, and waste or biomass, according to its availability in each particular farming area. The electricity is then converted into hydrogen using an electrolyser; this technology is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. Basically, it needs water and electricity as inputs; the hydrogen is then stored at the farm in high-pressure tanks and is ready to be used as a free and clean fuel, which can be used directly in farm machinery or in generators to provide electrical power and heat for buildings and numerous applications. Hydrogen was chosen because it is an efficient energy carrier, it works like a battery, accumulating energy, and it is more advantageous and cleaner than a conventional battery.
The hydrogen-powered NH2 tractor is based on the T6.140 production model. The tractor is able to all operate all the implements required for different seasonal operations: soil preparation, seeding, baling, transport, and front loader applications, while operating virtually silently and emitting only heat, vapour and water Its internal combustion engine has been replaced with fuel cells that generate electricity. The compressed hydrogen stored in a special tank, and reacts with the oxygen in the air inside the cell to generate water and electricity. This powers the electric motors that drive the main transmission and the auxiliary systems of the tractor. The fuel cell generates less heat than an internal-combustion engine, offers a consistent output of power, and does not produce polluting nitrogen oxides, soot particles, or carbon dioxide. It is quicker to refuel, 5 minutes to fill a tank compared to hours required by batteries.
NH2 Hydrogen Powered Tractor was awarded a Gold Medal for technical innovation at SIMA in 2009.
The hydrogen powered NH2 tractor will be tested at La Bellotta, Turin, Italy, as a pilot to realize the first Energy Independent farm.
100% Biodiesel equipment
In 2006, New Holland approved the use of Biodiesel in its products with the use of 20% Biodiesel (B20) in all of its equipment containing New Holland engines. In 2007, New Holland offered 100% Biodiesel (B100) compatibility with New Holland Tier 3 engines. All Tier 4A ECOBlue SCR engines are compatible with 20% Biodiesel (B20) blends, as long as the biodiesel blend complies with fuel specification EN14214:2009.
Biomass
New Holland is supporting different projects based on energy production from biomass made from agricultural, industrial and domestic residue and energetic crops:
A willow wood near Lockerbie, United Kingdom, where the forage harvester FR9090 has been tested and is actually in action to harvest crops without the further need of rework before being taken to the power station
In Gurgaon, near Delhi, Punjab region, India, the A2Z Maintenance & Engineering is producing energy from what were previously considered to be waste products, straw from paddy fields and from cotton, maize and oilseed rape. Over 45 megawatts of electricity are delivered to the national grid. This new usage of agricultural residue also reduces the negative environmental impact of large-scale stubble burning. New Holland is currently operating a fleet of 105 tractors, 45 conventional balers, 15 rakes and 2 mowers.
In Brazil, New Holland has started a partnership with the Centro de Tecnologia Canavieira (Sugar Cane Technology Centre – CTC) for the production of energy from sugar cane, in the traditional form of ethanol and by transforming sugar cane straw into energy. Two Brazilian test farms use a range of New Holland large square balers, tractors, wind-rowers and bale accumulators.
In Makeni, Sierra Leone, New Holland has started a partnership with Addax Bioenergy. The first portion of the plan, the Makeni Ethanol and Power Project (MEP), entails the establishment of sugarcane estates, an ethanol refinery, a cogeneration plant and the related infrastructure. 9 New Holland medium HP tractors are operated to prepare the land for planting.
Trademarks
New Holland introduced several patents on its products.
ABS SuperSteer system & Intelligent Trailer Braking System
ABS SuperSteer is an application of ABS technology to tractors, which offers an increased safety, especially when operating on steep hills, and increased tractor manoeuvrability. ABS SuperSteer uses ABS technology to manage each wheel's brake individually. Using a single foot pedal, the ABS SuperSteer allows the tractor to be steered by the brakes. Two orange pedal extensions either side of a single pedal replace the conventional, independent two-pedal arrangement. At low speed, this provides the driver with the same single-wheel steering as a conventional tractor, but automatically disables at higher speeds to prevent accidental application. The ABS SuperSteer function includes tyre slip control and automatic coupling with the steering angle. This allows the tractor to perform tight turning manoeuvres without driver intervention on brakes by pivoting on a braked rear wheel, reducing the turning circle to that of a tractor fitted with a SuperSteer front axle. A driver-selectable amount of slip on the pivoting wheel is allowed to prevent soil damage. The hill holder function improves tractor control on slopes, automatically engaging the brakes to prevent the machine rolling back during hill starts and easing clutch engagement.
The Intelligent Trailer Braking system manages and equalises the braking force exerted on the trailer. When slowing with the transmission or the exhaust brake the trailer brakes are modulated so that the trailer deceleration matches that of the tractor.
The ABS system is assembled at Basildon plant using a dynamic standard operating procedure, this enables any operator to assemble the highly complex assembly made up of around 80 processes and 25 different assembly tools, and this also incorporates a test station to ensure the ABS unit is in perfect working order before fitting to a tractor. This is a ground breaking system using new technologies and 3D Assembly instructions the Project leader is process engineer Howard Turnnidge.
Opti-Fan system
The Opti-Fan system compensates automatically for continuous uphill or downhill gradients in combines. When driving downhill, material moves against gravity and therefore more slowly over the grainpan and top sieve, causing it to remain longer in the cleaning shoe and the layer thickness to increase. More ‘material other than grain' (MOG) remains in the cleaning shoe as the set cleaning fan speed is insufficient to clear the crop. Driving uphill causes the material layer to decrease as it moves more quickly out of the shoe under gravity. The air flow from the fan is too high for the thin layer of material which results in the material travelling too quickly over the top causing increased grain losses. The fan speed control system senses the combine's angle of ascent or descent and automatically adjusts the cleaning fan speed to compensate. The operator sets the level-field fan speed and the system reduces the speed when travelling uphill and increases it downhill to optimise the material layer thickness on the cleaning shoe.
The Opti-Fan system was awarded with a Silver Medal at Agritechnica in 2009.
IntelliFill system
The FR9000's IntelliFill system allows the operator to fill a trailer accurately and with minimal losses, even when visibility is limited. Following a front-to-rear or rear-to-front pattern, the automatic trailer tracking system uses a specialised 3D camera mounted under the spout to guide the crop flow into the trailer. The system ensures a uniform fill whether the trailer is alongside the forage harvester, or following, in the case of starting new fields. The system can accurately control the crop flow trajectory even when operating at night. The spout-mounted sensor creates a distance image of the trailer and its surroundings, based on NIR (near infra red) technology. Unlike conventional mono or stereo camera systems, which have poor depth perception, the New Holland tracking system can accurately position the crop flow to a distance of 20 metres.
IntelliFill system was awarded with a Gold Medal at Agritechnica in 2009.
Super Steer system
The SuperSteer front axle reduces the turn radius of the tractor. The front axle beam turns with the wheels to give an effective turn angle of 65°. The tractor turns tighter and faster so it spends less time turning and more time working. The SuperSteer front axle also increases the wheelbase, with the weight of the front ballast resting directly on the front axle beam. Traction is enhanced in certain conditions without need for extra ballast.
Moistur system
Two star wheels penetrate the bale and provide an accurate measurement of the moisture content; the information about the condition of the crop being baled prevents processing a crop which is not really ready and allows precise application of additives.
Sensitrak 4WD management
The optional Sensitrak traction management allows the tractor to automatically switch in and out of 4-wheel drive.
On the move bale weighting system
The weight data is transmitted instantaneously to the monitor in the tractor cab, enabling the operator to keep a constant and accurate check on the progress of baling operations and optimizes the performance of the baler to suit harvesting conditions. This automatic system bale weighing system has an accuracy of +/- 2% and can easily handle different bale size in any kind of crop condition. It is available as a dealer installed accessory.
Edgewrap system
With the New Holland EdgeWrap system, net is brought to the bale by a duckbill net applicator. The system penetrates in the bale chamber for positive wrapping material delivery. The duckbill net applicator is wider than the bale chamber, providing coverage of the bale edge. The use of wide net provides over the edge coverage.
Grain Cam system
A camera recognises the concentration of chaff and broken grain in the sample as it is transferred through the grain elevator to the grain tank; this information is shown on the IntelliView III monitor in the form of a graph, allowing the operator to fine tune adjustments, further boosting grain purity.
Grain Cam was awarded by the Gold Medal for innovation at Agritechnica in 2007.
Opti-Clean cleaning shoe
The Opti-Clean system optimizes the strike and the throwing angles of each of the main components in CR9000 Elevation models. The grain pan is not coupled with the pre-sieve and top sieve so that each element can operate as its optimum efficiency. The cascade distance between the grain pan and the pre-sieve is increased for greater capacity, while a long sieve stroke and a steep throwing angle keep more material airborne, for even a higher cleaning efficiency. The opposing motion of the grain pan and bottom sieve to the pre-sieve reduces overall machine vibrations and increases operator comfort.
Sidewinder
The SideWinder II armrest is a new command control for T6, T7, T8 and T9 tractor ranges. The most frequently used controls have been placed in this armrest to improve ergonomics and productivity.
Synchroknife
The SynchroKnife drive technology includes a single, centrally mounted gearbox with double knife drive which ensures lateral weight distribution for more uniform stubble height, as well as significantly reducing knife stress and vibration. Located under the header floor, the edge of the uncut crop is protected from potential snagging caused by bulky side-mounted knife drive gearboxes.
Awards and recognition
In 2014, New Holland released its first ever Class 10 combine, the CR10.90. With 653 hp, it is the largest and most powerful combine on the market. On August 15, 2014 a CR10.90 set a new world record for combine harvesting, recognized by Guinness World Records, with 797.7 tonnes of wheat harvested in eight hours.
On April 5, 2017 a CR8.90 set a new world record for soybean combine harvesting, recognized by the Guinness World Records, with 439.73 tonnes of soybeans harvested in eight hours.
New Holland products received many awards and recognitions during the years. The most recent ones are:
See also
New Holland Construction
Notes
References
Stuart Gibbard: The Ford Tractor Story: Basildon to New Holland, 1964 to 1999 (2000)
William Dozza, Massimo Misley: Fiat Trattori. Dal 1918 ad oggi, Giorgio Nada Editore (2008)
William Dozza, Massimo Misley: Fiat Tractors from 1919 to the present (2011)
Micro De Cet: Tractors (Complete Encyclopedia Series) (2009)
C. Otero: Creating the future of the countryside. The European Estate (2009)
Homer K. Luttinger: The Innovators: The New Holland Story, Hoster Bindery Inc.: Lancaster, Penn. (1990)
Robert N. Pripps, Andrew Morland: Ford Tractors (Farm Tractor Color History), MBI Publishing Company (2004)
Chester Peterson, Rod Breemer: Ford N Series Tractor, MBI Publishing Company (1997)
Andrew Morland: Farm Tractors, MBI Publishing Company (1993)
Nick Baldwin: Farm Tractors, Board Book (1983)
Andrew Morland, Robert N. Pripps: Vintage Ford Tractors: The ultimate tribute to Ford, Fordson, Ferguson and New Holland tractors (2004)
External links
CNH Global Corporate Website
New Holland European Press Kit
New Holland North America Press Kit
New Holland NH2 - Hydrogen-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm
Ricambi New Holland
Manufacturing companies established in 1895
1895 establishments in Pennsylvania
CNH Industrial
Lawn and garden tractors
Tractor manufacturers of the United States
Tractor manufacturers of Italy
Turin motor companies
Manufacturing companies based in Turin
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4071231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes%20of%20autism | Causes of autism | The causes of autism are environmental or genetic factors that predispose an individual to develop autism, also known as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Many causes of autism have been proposed, but understanding of the theory of causation of autism is incomplete. Attempts have been made to incorporate the known genetic and environmental causes into a comprehensive causative framework. ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by impairments in communicative ability and social interaction and restricted/repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities not suitable for the individual's developmental stage. The severity of symptoms and functional impairment vary between individuals.
There are many known environmental, genetic, and biological causes of autism. Research indicates that genetic factors are predominate in the appearance of autism; however, the heritability of autism is complex, and many of the genetic interactions involved are unknown. In rare cases, autism has been associated with agents that cause birth defects. Many other causes have been proposed.
Different underlying brain dysfunctions have been hypothesized to result in the common symptoms of autism, just as completely different brain types result in intellectual disability. In recent years, the prevalence and number of people diagnosed with the disorder have increased dramatically. There are many potential reasons for this occurrence, particularly the changes in the diagnostic criteria for autism.
Environmental factors that have been claimed to contribute to autism or exacerbate its symptoms, or that may be important to consider in future research, include certain foods, infectious disease, heavy metals, solvents, diesel exhaust, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, and illicit drugs. Among these factors, vaccines have attracted much attention, as parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination, and parental concern about vaccines has led to a decreasing uptake of childhood immunizations and an increasing likelihood of measles outbreaks. However, there is overwhelming scientific evidence showing that there is no causal association between the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine and autism. Although there is no definitive evidence that the vaccine preservative thimerosal causes autism, studies have indicated a possible link between thimerosal and autism in individuals with a hereditary predisposition for autoimmune disorders.
Genetics
Genetic factors may be the most significant cause of autism. Early studies of twins had estimated heritability to be over 90%, meaning that genetics explains over 90% of whether a child will develop autism.< This may be an overestimation, as later twin studies estimate the heritability at between 60 and 90%. Evidence so far still suggests a strong genetic component, with one of the largest and most recent studies estimating the heritability at 83%. Many of the non-autistic co-twins had learning or social disabilities. For adult siblings the risk for having one or more features of the broader autism phenotype might be as high as 30%.
In spite of the strong heritability, most cases of autism occur sporadically with no recent evidence of family history. It has been hypothesized that spontaneous de novo mutations in the father's sperm or mother's egg contribute to the likelihood of developing autism. There are two lines of evidence that support this hypothesis. First, individuals with autism have significantly reduced fecundity, they are 20 times less likely to have children than average, thus curtailing the persistence of mutations in ASD genes over multiple generations in a family. Second, the likelihood of having a child develop autism increases with advancing parental age, and mutations in sperm gradually accumulate throughout a man's life.
The first genes to be definitively shown to contribute to risk for autism were found in the early 1990s by researchers looking at gender-specific forms of autism caused by mutations on the X chromosome. An expansion of the CGG trinucleotide repeat in the promoter of the gene FMR1 in boys causes fragile X syndrome, and at least 20% of boys with this mutation have behaviors consistent with autism spectrum disorder. Mutations that inactivate the gene MECP2 cause Rett syndrome, which is associated with autistic behaviors in girls, and in boys the mutation is embryonic lethal.
Besides these early examples, the role of de novo mutations in autism first became evident when DNA microarray technologies reached sufficient resolution to allow the detection of copy number variation (CNV) in the human genome. CNVs are the most common type of structural variation in the genome, consisting of deletions and duplications of DNA that range in size from a kilobase to a few megabases. Microarray analysis has shown that de novo CNVs occur at a significantly higher rate in sporadic cases of autism as compared to the rate in their typically developing siblings and unrelated controls. A series of studies have shown that gene disrupting de novo CNVs occur approximately four times more frequently in autism than in controls and contribute to approximately 5–10% of cases. Based on these studies, there are predicted to be 130–234 autism-related CNV loci. The first whole genome sequencing study to comprehensively catalog de novo structural variation at a much higher resolution than DNA microarray studies has shown that the mutation rate is approximately 20% and not elevated in autism compared to sibling controls. However, structural variants in individuals with autism are much larger and four times more likely to disrupt genes, mirroring findings from CNV studies.
CNV studies were closely followed by exome sequencing studies, which sequence the 1–2% of the genome that codes for proteins (the "exome"). These studies found that de novo gene inactivating mutations were observed in approximately 20% of individuals with autism, compared to 10% of unaffected siblings, suggesting the etiology of autism is driven by these mutations in around 10% of cases. There are predicted to be 350-450 genes that significantly increase susceptibility to autism when impacted by inactivating de novo mutations. A further 12% of cases are predicted to be caused by protein altering missense mutations that change an amino acid but do not inactivate a gene. Therefore, approximately 30% of individuals with autism have a spontaneous de novo large CNV that deletes or duplicates genes, or mutation that changes the amino acid code of an individual gene. A further 5–10% of cases have inherited structural variation at loci known to be associated with autism, and these known structural variants may arise de novo in the parents of affected children.
Tens of genes and CNVs have been definitively identified based on the observation of recurrent mutations in different individuals, and suggestive evidence has been found for over 100 others. The Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) details the evidence for each genetic locus associated with autism.
These early gene and CNV findings have shown that the cognitive and behavioral features associated with each of the underlying mutations is variable. Each mutation is itself associated with a variety of clinical diagnoses, and can also be found in a small percentage of individuals with no clinical diagnosis. Thus the genetic disorders that comprise autism are not autism-specific. The mutations themselves are characterized by considerable variability in clinical outcome and typically only a subset of mutation carriers meet criteria for autism. This variable expressivity results in different individuals with the same mutation varying considerably in the severity of their observed particular trait.
The conclusion of these recent studies of de novo mutation is that the spectrum of autism is breaking up into quanta of individual disorders defined by genetics.
One gene that has been linked to autism is SHANK2. Mutations in this gene act in a dominant fashion. Mutations in this gene appear to cause hyperconnectivity between the neurons.
A study conducted on 42,607 autism cases has identified 60 new genes, five of which had a more moderate impact on autistic symptoms. The related gene variants were often inherited from the participant's parents.
Metabolic disorders
Selected metabolic conditions which may (rarely) be associated with an ASD appearance are:
Disorders of amino acid metabolism
Phenylketonuria (untreated)
Homocystinuria
Branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase deficiency
Disorders of γ-aminobutyric acid metabolism
Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency
Disorders of cholesterol metabolism
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome
Disorders associated with cerebral folate deficiency
Folate receptor 1 gene mutations
Dihydrofolate reductase deficiency
Disorders of creatine transport or metabolism
Arginine:glycine amidinotransferase deficiency
Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency
X-linked creatine transporter defect
Disorders of carnitine biosynthesis
6-N-trimethyllysine dioxygenase deficiency
Disorders of purine and pyrimidine metabolism
Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency
Adenosine deaminase deficiency
Cytosolic 5'-nucleotidase superactivity
Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency
Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthetase superactivity
Lysosomal storage disorders
Sanfilippo syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type III)
Mitochondrial disorders
Mitochondrial DNA Mutations
Nuclear DNA mutations
Others
Biotinidase deficiency
Urea cycle defects
Epigenetics
Epigenetic mechanisms may increase the risk of autism. Epigenetic changes occur as a result not of DNA sequence changes but of chromosomal histone modification or modification of the DNA bases. Such modifications are known to be affected by environmental factors, including nutrition, drugs, and mental stress. Interest has been expressed in imprinted regions on chromosomes 15q and 7q.
Most data supports a polygenic, epistatic model, meaning that the disorder is caused by two or more genes and that those genes are interacting in a complex manner. Several genes, between two and fifteen in number, have been identified and could potentially contribute to disease susceptibility. However, an exact determination of the cause of ASD has yet to be discovered and there probably is not one single genetic cause of any particular set of disorders, leading many researchers to believe that epigenetic mechanisms, such as genomic imprinting or epimutations, may play a major role.
Epigenetic mechanisms can contribute to disease phenotypes. Epigenetic modifications include DNA cytosine methylation and post-translational modifications to histones. These mechanisms contribute to regulating gene expression without changing the sequence of the DNA and may be influenced by exposure to environmental factors and may be heritable from parents. Rett syndrome and Fragile X syndrome (FXS) are single gene disorders related to autism with overlapping symptoms that include deficient neurological development, impaired language and communication, difficulties in social interactions, and stereotyped hand gestures. It is not uncommon for a patient to be diagnosed with both autism and Rett syndrome and/or FXS. Epigenetic regulatory mechanisms play the central role in pathogenesis of these two disorders.
Genomic imprinting may also contribute to the development of autism. Genomic imprinting is another example of epigenetic regulation of gene expression. In this instance, the epigenetic modification(s) causes the offspring to express the maternal copy of a gene or the paternal copy of a gene, but not both. The imprinted gene is silenced through epigenetic mechanisms. Candidate genes and susceptibility alleles for autism are identified using a combination of techniques, including genome-wide and targeted analyses of allele sharing in sib-pairs, using association studies and transmission disequilibrium testing (TDT) of functional and/or positional candidate genes and examination of novel and recurrent cytogenetic aberrations. Results from numerous studies have identified several genomic regions known to be subject to imprinting, candidate genes, and gene-environment interactions. Particularly, chromosomes 15q and 7q appear to be epigenetic hotspots in contributing to autism. Also, genes on the X chromosome may play an important role, as in Rett Syndrome.
An important basis for autism causation is also the over- or underproduction of brain permanent cells (neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes) by the neural precursor cells during fetal development.
Prenatal environment
The development of autism is associated with several prenatal risk factors, including advanced age in either parent, diabetes, bleeding, and maternal use of antibiotics and psychiatric drugs during pregnancy. Autism has been linked to birth defect agents acting during the first eight weeks from conception, though these cases are rare. If the mother of the child is dealing with autoimmune conditions or disorders while pregnant, it may have an effect on the child's development of autism. All of these factors can cause inflammation or impair immune signaling in one way or another.
Obstructive sleep apnea in pregnancy
Sleep apnea can result in intermittent hypoxia and has been increasing in prevalence due in part to the obesity epidemic. The known maternal risk factors for autism diagnosis in her offspring are similar to the risk factors for sleep apnea. For example, advanced maternal age, maternal obesity, maternal type 2 diabetes and maternal hypertension all increase the risk of autism in her offspring. Likewise, these are all known risk factors for sleep apnea.
One study found that gestational sleep apnea was associated with low reading test scores in children and that this effect may be mediated by an increased risk of the child having sleep apnea themselves. Another study reported low social development scores in 64% of infants born to mothers with sleep apnea compared to 25% of infants born to controls, suggesting sleep apnea in pregnancy may have an effect on offspring neurodevelopment. There was also an increase in the amount of snoring the mothers with sleep apnea reported in their infants when compared to controls. Children with sleep apnea have "hyperactivity, attention problems, aggressivity, lower social competency, poorer communication, and/or diminished adaptive skills". One study found significant improvements in ADHD-like symptoms, aggression, social problems and thought problems in autistic children who underwent adenotonsillectomy for sleep apnea. Sleep problems in autism have been linked in a study to brain changes, particularly in the hippocampus, though this study does not prove causation. A common presentation of sleep apnea in children with autism is insomnia.
Infectious processes
Prenatal viral infection has been called the principal non-genetic cause of autism. Prenatal exposure to rubella or cytomegalovirus activates the mother's immune response and may greatly increase the risk for autism in mice. Congenital rubella syndrome is the most convincing environmental cause of autism. Infection-associated immunological events in early pregnancy may affect neural development more than infections in late pregnancy, not only for autism, but also for psychiatric disorders of presumed neurodevelopmental origin, notably schizophrenia.
Environmental agents
Teratogens are environmental agents that cause birth defects. Some agents that are theorized to cause birth defects have also been suggested as potential autism risk factors, although there is little to no scientific evidence to back such claims. These include exposure of the embryo to valproic acid, paracetamol, thalidomide or misoprostol. These cases are rare. Questions have also been raised whether ethanol (grain alcohol) increases autism risk, as part of fetal alcohol syndrome or alcohol-related birth defects. All known teratogens appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.
A small but significant link has been shown to exist between prenatal exposure to airborne pollutants and autism risk. However, this finding was not consistent across studies, and exposure to pollutants was measured indirectly.
Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases
Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases can damage embryonic and fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.
Other maternal conditions
Thyroid problems that lead to thyroxine deficiency in the mother in weeks 8–12 of pregnancy have been postulated to produce changes in the fetal brain leading to autism. Thyroxine deficiencies can be caused by inadequate iodine in the diet, and by environmental agents that interfere with iodine uptake or act against thyroid hormones. Possible environmental agents include flavonoids in food, tobacco smoke, and most herbicides. This hypothesis has not been tested.
Diabetes in the mother during pregnancy is a significant risk factor for autism; a 2009 meta-analysis found that gestational diabetes was associated with a twofold increased risk. A 2014 review also found that maternal diabetes was significantly associated with an increased risk of autism. Although diabetes causes metabolic and hormonal abnormalities and oxidative stress, no biological mechanism is known for the association between gestational diabetes and autism risk.
Maternal diagnoses of polycystic ovary syndrome was found to associated with higher risk of autism.
Maternal obesity during pregnancy may also increase the risk of autism, although further study is needed.
Maternal malnutrition during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with autism, in both term and preterm infants.
Other in utero
It has been hypothesized that folic acid taken during pregnancy could play a role in reducing cases of autism by modulating gene expression through an epigenetic mechanism. This hypothesis is supported by multiple studies.
Prenatal stress, consisting of exposure to life events or environmental factors that distress an expectant mother, has been hypothesized to contribute to autism, possibly as part of a gene-environment interaction. Autism has been reported to be associated with prenatal stress both with retrospective studies that examined stressors such as job loss and family discord, and with natural experiments involving prenatal exposure to storms; animal studies have reported that prenatal stress can disrupt brain development and produce behaviors resembling symptoms of autism. However, other studies have cast doubts on this association, notably population based studies in England and Sweden finding no link between stressful life events and autism.
The fetal testosterone theory hypothesizes that higher levels of testosterone in the amniotic fluid of mothers pushes brain development towards improved ability to see patterns and analyze complex systems while diminishing communication and empathy, emphasizing "male" traits over "female", or in E-S theory terminology, emphasizing "systemizing" over "empathizing". One project has published several reports suggesting that high levels of fetal testosterone could produce behaviors relevant to those seen in autism.
Based in part on animal studies, diagnostic ultrasounds administered during pregnancy have been hypothesized to increase the child's risk of autism. This hypothesis is not supported by independently published research, and examination of children whose mothers received an ultrasound has failed to find evidence of harmful effects.
Some research suggests that maternal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of autism, but it remains unclear whether there is a causal link between the two. There is evidence, for example, that this association may be an artifact of confounding by maternal mental illness.
Perinatal environment
Autism is associated with some perinatal and obstetric conditions. Infants that are born pre-term have a often have various neurodevelopmental impairments related to motor skills, cognition, receptive and expressive language, and socio-emotional capabilities. Pre-term infants are also at a higher risk of having various neurodevelopmental disorders such as cerebral palsy and autism, as well as psychiatric disorders related to attention, anxiety, and impaired social communication. It has also been proposed that the functions of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain connectivity in pre-term infants may be affected by NICU-related stress resulting in deficits in emotional regulation and socio-emotional capabilities. A 2019 analysis of perinatal and neonatal risk factors found that autism was associated with abnormal fetal positioning, umbilical cord complications, low 5-minute Apgar score, low birth weight and gestation duration, fetal distress, meconium aspiration syndrome, trauma or injury during birth, maternal hemorrhaging, multiple birth, feeding disorders, neonatal anemia, birth defects/malformation, incompatibility with maternal blood type, and jaundice/hyperbilirubinemia. These associations do not denote a causal relationship for any individual factor. There is growing evidence that perinatal exposure to air pollution may be a risk factor for autism, although this evidence has methodological limitations, including a small number of studies and failure to control for potential confounding factors. A few studies have found an association between autism and frequent use of acetaminophen (e.g. Tylenol, Paracetamol) by the mother during pregnancy. This association does not necessarily demonstrate a causal relationship.
Postnatal environment
A wide variety of postnatal contributors to autism have been proposed, including gastrointestinal or immune system abnormalities, allergies, and exposure of children to drugs, infection, certain foods, or heavy metals. The evidence for these risk factors is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies.
Paracetamol
Paracetamol has been suggested as a possible risk factor for autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. A study has found that male children exposed to Paracetamol before the age of 2 years old are associated with being at risk for being diagnosed with autism.
Amygdala neurons
This theory hypothesizes that an early developmental failure involving the amygdala cascades on the development of cortical areas that mediate social perception in the visual domain. The fusiform face area of the ventral stream is implicated. The idea is that it is involved in social knowledge and social cognition, and that the deficits in this network are instrumental in causing autism.
Autoimmune disease
This theory hypothesizes that autoantibodies that target the brain or elements of brain metabolism may cause or exacerbate autism. It is related to the maternal infection theory, except that it postulates that the effect is caused by the individual's own antibodies, possibly due to an environmental trigger after birth. It is also related to several other hypothesized causes; for example, viral infection has been hypothesized to cause autism via an autoimmune mechanism.
Interactions between the immune system and the nervous system begin early during embryogenesis, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. It is possible that aberrant immune activity during critical periods of neurodevelopment is part of the mechanism of some forms of autism. A small percentage of autism cases are associated with infection, usually before birth. Results from immune studies have been contradictory. Some abnormalities have been found in specific subgroups, and some of these have been replicated. It is not known whether these abnormalities are relevant to the pathology of autism, for example, by infection or autoimmunity, or whether they are secondary to the disease processes. As autoantibodies are found in diseases other than autism, and are not always present in autism, the relationship between immune disturbances and autism remains unclear and controversial. A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis found that children with a family history of autoimmune diseases were at a greater risk of autism compared to children without such a history.
When an underlying maternal autoimmune disease is present, antibodies circulating to the fetus could contribute to the development of autism spectrum disorders.
Gastrointestinal connection
Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly associated medical disorders in people with autism. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes, so the theory that they are an overlap syndrome has been postulated. Studies indicate that gastrointestinal inflammation, food allergies, gluten-related disorders (celiac disease, wheat allergy, non-celiac gluten sensitivity), visceral hypersensitivity, dysautonomia and gastroesophageal reflux are the mechanisms that possibly link both.
A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in several neurological disorders, including autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain. A 2018 review suggests that the frequent association of gastrointestinal disorders and autism is due to abnormalities of the gut–brain axis.
The "leaky gut syndrome" hypothesis developed by Andrew Wakefield, known for his fraudulent study on another cause of autism, is popular among parents of children with autism. It is based on the idea that defects in the intestinal barrier produce an excessive increase in intestinal permeability, allowing substances present in the intestine (including bacteria, environmental toxins, and food antigens) to pass into the blood. The data supporting this theory are limited and contradictory, since both increased intestinal permeability and normal permeability have been documented in people with autism. Studies with mice provide some support to this theory and suggest the importance of intestinal flora, demonstrating that the normalization of the intestinal barrier was associated with an improvement in some of the autism-like behaviors. Studies on subgroups of people with autism showed the presence of high plasma levels of zonulin, a protein that regulates permeability opening the "pores" of the intestinal wall, as well as intestinal dysbiosis (reduced levels of Bifidobacteria and increased abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila, Escherichia coli, Clostridia and Candida fungi that promote the production of proinflammatory cytokines, all of which produces excessive intestinal permeability. This allows passage of bacterial endotoxins from the gut into the bloodstream, stimulating liver cells to secrete tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), which modulates blood–brain barrier permeability. Studies on ASD people showed that TNFα cascades produce proinflammatory cytokines, leading to peripheral inflammation and activation of microglia in the brain, which indicates neuroinflammation. In addition, neuroactive opioid peptides from digested foods have been shown to leak into the bloodstream and permeate the blood–brain barrier, influencing neural cells and causing autistic symptoms. (See Endogenous opiate precursor theory)
After a preliminary 1998 study of three children with autism treated with secretin infusion reported improved GI function and dramatic improvement in behavior, many parents sought secretin treatment and a black market for the hormone developed quickly. Later studies found secretin clearly ineffective in treating autism.
Endogenous opiate precursor theory
In 1979, a possible association between autism and opiate was proposed, it was noted that injecting small amounts of opiates into young laboratory animals resulted in symptoms similar to those seen in autistic children. The possibility of a relationship between autism and the consumption of gluten and casein was first articulated by Kalle Reichelt in 1991.
Opiate theory hypothesizes that autism is the result of a metabolic disorder in which opioid peptides gliadorphin (aka gluteomorphin) and Casomorphin, produced through metabolism of gluten (present in wheat and related cereals) and casein (present in dairy products), pass through an abnormally permeable intestinal wall and then proceed to exert an effect on neurotransmission through binding with opioid receptors. It has been postulated that the resulting excess of opioids affects brain maturation and causes autistic symptoms including: behavioral difficulties, attention problems, and alterations in communicative capacity and social and cognitive functioning.
Although high levels of these opioids are eliminated in the urine, it has been suggested that a small part of them cross into the brain causing interference of signal transmission and disruption of normal activity. Three studies have reported that urine samples of people with autism show an increased 24-hour peptide excretion. A study with a control group found no appreciable differences in opioid levels in urine samples of people with autism compared to controls. Two studies showed an increased opioid levels in cerebrospinal fluid of people with autism.
The theory further states that removing opiate precursors from a child's diet may allow time for these behaviors to cease, and neurological development in very young children to resume normally. As of 2021, reliable studies have not demonstrated the benefit of gluten-free diets in the treatment of autism. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.
Nutrition-related Factors
There have been multiple attempts to uncover a link between various nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin D and folate and autism risk. Although there have been many studies on the role of vitamin D in the development of autism, the majority of them are limited by their inability to assess the deficiency prior to an autism diagnosis. A meta-analysis on the association between vitamin D and autism found that individuals with autism had significantly low levels of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D than those without autism. Another analysis showed significant differences in levels of zinc between individuals with and without autism. Although studies showed significant differences protein intake and calcium in individuals with autism, the results were limited by their imprecision, inconsistency, and indirect nature. Additionally, low levels of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) in the brain can result in cerebral folate deficiency (CFD) which has been shown to be associated with autism.
Toxic Exposure
Multiple studies have made attempts to study the relationship between toxic exposure and autism. However, these studies often met with limitations related to the measurement of toxic exposure the methods for which were often indirect and cross-sectional. Systematic reviews have been conducted for numerous toxins including air pollution, thimerosal, inorganic mercury, and levels of heavy metals in hair, nails, and bodily fluids.
Although no link was found to exist between the vaccine additive thiomersal and autism risk, this association may hold true for individuals with a hereditary predisposition for autoimmune disorders.
Environmental exposure to inorganic mercury may be associated with higher autism risk, with high levels of mercury in the body being a valid disease-causing agent for autism.
Significant evidence has not been found of an association between autism and the concentration of mercury, copper, cadmium, selenium, and chromium in the hair, nails, and bodily fluids. Levels of lead were found to be significantly higher in individuals with autism. The precision and consistency of results were not maintained across studies and were influenced by an outlier study. The atypical eating behaviors of autistic children, along with habitual mouthing and pica, make it hard to determine whether increased lead levels are a cause or a consequence of autism.
Locus coeruleus–noradrenergic system
This theory hypothesizes that autistic behaviors depend at least in part on a developmental dysregulation that results in impaired function of the locus coeruleus–noradrenergic (LC-NA) system. The LC-NA system is heavily involved in arousal and attention; for example, it is related to the brain's acquisition and use of environmental cues.
Oxidative stress
Oxidative stress, oxidative DNA damage and disruptions of DNA repair have been postulated to play a role in the etiopathology of both ASD and schizophrenia. Physiological factors and mechanisms influence by oxidative stress are believed to be highly influential to autism risk. Interactions between environmental and genetic factors may increase oxidative stress in children with autism. This theory hypothesizes that toxicity and oxidative stress may cause autism in some cases. Evidence includes genetic effects on metabolic pathways, reduced antioxidant capacity, enzyme changes, and enhanced biomarkers for oxidative stress. One theory is that stress damages Purkinje cells in the cerebellum after birth, and it is possible that glutathione is involved. Polymorphism of genes involved metabolization of glutathione is evidenced by lower levels of total glutathione, and higher levels of oxidized glutathione in autistic children. Based on this theory, antioxidants may be a useful treatment for autism. Environmental factors can influence oxidative stress pre, peri, and postnatally and include heavy metals, infection, certain drugs, and toxic exposure from various sources including cigarette smoke, air pollutants, and organophosphate pesticides.
Social construct
Beyond the genetic, epigenetic, and biological factors that can contribute to an autism diagnosis are theories related to the "autistic identity." It has been theorized that perceptions towards the characteristics of autistic individuals have been heavily influenced by neurotypical ideologies and social norms.
The social construct theory says that the boundary between normal and abnormal is subjective and arbitrary, so autism does not exist as an objective entity, but only as a social construct. It further argues that autistic individuals themselves have a way of being that is partly socially constructed.
Mild and moderate variations of autism are particular targets of the theory that social factors determine what it means to be autistic. The theory hypothesizes that individuals with these diagnoses inhabit the identities that have been ascribed to them, and promote their sense of well-being by resisting or appropriating autistic ascriptions.
Lynn Waterhouse suggests that autism has been reified, in that social processes have endowed it with more reality than is justified by the scientific evidence.
Although social construction of the autistic identity can have a positive impact on the well-being and treatment of autistic individuals. That is not always the case when the individuals in question belong to historically marginalized populations.
When it comes to social constructs, people are often marginalized on the basis of race, sex, and LGBTQ+ identities. Autism and autistic traits are typically associated with the masculine identity. This association severely limits autistic women's ability to benefit from the freedom men might attain through the appropriation of the social constructed autistic identity. Autism-related neurological and social impairments have also been used to disregard the identities and healthcare needs of non-heterosexual and gender non-conforming individuals with autism on the basis that their impairments had caused their perceptions toward gender and sexual identity to deviate from social norms. Autism diagnoses are typically associated with individuals who identify as 'White.' Because of this, individual from other racial and ethnic backgrounds are often overlooked, misdiagnosed, and underrepresented in relevant studies.
Viral infection
Many studies have presented evidence for and against association of autism with viral infection after birth. Laboratory rats infected with Borna disease virus show some symptoms similar to those of autism but blood studies of autistic children show no evidence of infection by this virus. Members of the herpes virus family may have a role in autism, but the evidence so far is anecdotal. Viruses have long been suspected as triggers for immune-mediated diseases such as multiple sclerosis but showing a direct role for viral causation is difficult in those diseases, and mechanisms, whereby viral infections could lead to autism, are speculative.
Evolutionary explanations
Research exploring the evolutionary benefits of autism and associated genes suggests that people with autistic traits may have made facilitated crucial advancements in technology and knowledge of natural systems in the course of human development. It has been suggested that these trait advantages may have resulted from the exchange of socially beneficial traits with ones that promote technological skills and systematic thought processes. In future studies, autism may the shown to be similar to diseases such as sickle cell anemia that demonstrate balanced polymorphism.
A 2011 study proposed the "Solitary Forager Hypothesis" in which autistic traits, including increased abilities for spatial intelligence, concentration and memory, could have been naturally selected to enable self-sufficient foraging in a more solitary environment. However, the author notes that such individuals likely foraged by themselves while occasionally interacting with intimate people or groups. A study conducted by Spikins et al. (2016) examined the role of Asperger syndrome as "an alternative pro-social adaptive strategy" which may have developed as a result of the emergence of "collaborative morality" in the context of small-scale hunter-gathering. The authors further suggest that "mutual interdependence of different social strategies" may have "contributed to the rise of innovation and large scale social networks".
Discredited theories
Refrigerator mother
Psychologist Bruno Bettelheim believed that autism was linked to early childhood trauma, and his work was highly influential for decades both in the medical and popular spheres. In his discredited theory, he blamed the mothers of individuals with autism for having caused their child's condition through the withholding of affection. Leo Kanner, who first described autism, suggested that parental coldness might contribute to autism. Although Kanner eventually renounced the theory, Bettelheim put an almost exclusive emphasis on it in both his medical and his popular books. Treatments based on these theories failed to help children with autism, and after Bettelheim's death, his reported rates of cure (around 85%) were found to be fraudulent.
Vaccines
The most recent scientific research has determined that changes to brain structures correlated with the development of autism can already be detected while the child is still in the womb, well before any vaccines are administered. Furthermore, scientific studies have consistently refuted a causal relationship between vaccinations and autism.
Despite this, some parents believe that vaccinations cause autism; they therefore delay or avoid immunizing their children (for example, under the "vaccine overload" hypothesis that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm a child's immune system and lead to autism, even though this hypothesis has no scientific evidence and is biologically implausible). Diseases such as measles can cause severe disabilities and even death, so the risk of death or disability for an unvaccinated child is higher than the risk for a child who has been vaccinated. Despite medical evidence, antivaccine activism continues. A developing tactic is the "promotion of irrelevant research to justify the science underlying a questionable claim."
MMR vaccine
The MMR vaccine as a cause of autism is one of the most extensively debated hypotheses regarding the origins of autism. Andrew Wakefield et al. reported a study of 12 children who had autism and bowel symptoms, in some cases reportedly with onset after MMR. Although the paper, which was later retracted by the journal, concluded that there was no association between the MMR vaccine and autism, Wakefield nevertheless suggested a false notion during a 1998 press conference that giving children the vaccines in three separate doses would be safer than a single dose. Administering the vaccines in three separate doses does not reduce the chance of adverse effects, and it increases the opportunity for infection by the two diseases not immunized against first.
In 2004, the interpretation of a causal link between MMR vaccine and autism was formally retracted by ten of Wakefield's twelve co-authors. The retraction followed an investigation by The Sunday Times, which stated that Wakefield "acted dishonestly and irresponsibly". The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, and the U.K. National Health Service have all concluded that there is no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism.
In February 2010, The Lancet, which published Wakefield's study, fully retracted it after an independent auditor found the study to be flawed. In January 2011, an investigation published in the journal BMJ described the Wakefield study as the result of deliberate fraud and manipulation of data.
Thiomersal (thimerosal)
Perhaps the best-known hypothesis involving mercury and autism involves the use of the mercury-based compound thiomersal, a preservative that has been phased out from most childhood vaccinations in developed countries including US and the EU. There is no scientific evidence for a causal connection between thiomersal and autism, but parental concern about a relationship between thiomersal and vaccines has led to decreasing rates of childhood immunizations and increasing likelihood of disease outbreaks. In 1999, due to concern about the dose of mercury infants were being exposed to, the U.S. Public Health Service recommended that thiomersal be removed from childhood vaccines, and by 2002 the flu vaccine was the only childhood vaccine containing more than trace amounts of thimerosal. Despite this, autism rates did not decrease after the removal of thimerosal, in the US or other countries that also removed thimerosal from their childhood vaccines.
A causal link between thimerosal and autism has been rejected by international scientific and medical professional bodies including the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Medical Toxicology, the Canadian Paediatric Society, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the Food and Drug Administration, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, the Public Health Agency of Canada, and the European Medicines Agency.
See also
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Sex differences in autism
References
Social constructionism |
4071233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehden | Ehden | Ehden (, Syriac-Aramaic: ܐܗܕ ܢ ) is a mountainous city in the heart of the northern mountains of Lebanon and on the southwestern slopes of Mount Makmal in the Mount Lebanon Range. Its residents are the people of Zgharta, as it is within the Zgharta District.
Geography
The mountain town is located above sea level, and is from Zgharta, from Beirut (the country’s capital) and from Tripoli, Lebanon.
Ehden is a famous summer resort and touristic center, often called "The Bride of Summer Resorts in the North of Lebanon."
Gastronomy is one of the most prominent tourist attractions in Ehden, especially in summer. Kebbeh Meshwyeh (krass) and the Kebbeh Nayeh, both traditional cuisines, and particularly notable in this town.
Etymology
Ehden is derived from Aramaic, meaning "the mountain’s base and slope". The location of Ehden at the base of Mar Sarkis Mountain supports this explanation. This view is supported by Anis Frayha who writes:The name of Ehden comes from Adon, Adonis meaning "power, stability and tranquillity". It is corroborated by the Arabic root Hdn meaning "steadiness, calm and fertility". Adon means also "the base and the mountaintop" translating into "top of the mountain and its base".
Patriarch Estephan El Douaihy, along with Father Martens the Jesuit, lean toward the conclusion that Ehden’s name is derived from Eden where Adam and Eve lived following their exit from paradise. Douaihy left a booklet in Latin regarding his point of view. It is kept in the Vatican library. Orientalists Hawiet, Rose Goaler and Orkwart supported Douaihy and Martens’ viewpoint. It was contested by Ernest Renan in his book Mission en Phenicie and by Father Henri Lammens.
Location, climate and nature
Ehden is located in the central northern side of Mount Lebanon, with a 1500-metre (at Midan square) elevation from sea level. It is from Beirut, from Tripoli and from Zgharta. Ehden used to be the sole residence for Zghartians prior to the establishment of Zgharta. It is known for its dry climate, water and forest. It is a renowned summer location, famous for its setting on the Mar Sarkis (Saint Sarkis) Mountain overlooking coastal towns and villages as far as Akkar to Shikka. A large number of local and overseas tourists visit Ehden annually.
History
Ehden’s history dates back into the BCE period. Its indigenous people transformed rocky hills into land suitable for crops, irrigated by water from mountain streams. The people of Ehden have contributed to the fields of thought, literature, patriotism, and religion in Lebanon.
Ehden was the original homeland for Zghartians who later established Zgharta on the Lebanese coast in the 16th century. It was/is a warmer winter season home below the mountains' snow. Four centuries later it has become primarily a summer resort.
Despite the changes that have taken place over the centuries, Ehden's people have maintained their strong ties to their cultural heritage and history. The town continues to be a vibrant hub of creativity, thought, and spirituality, making it an important destination for anyone interested in Lebanon's rich cultural heritage.
BCE Ehden
Some early texts mention that the people of Ehden are descendants of the tribe of Shem, the son of Noah.
- 850 BCE: the Aramean king Hadadezer came to Ehden and rebuilt it, hoisting a statue of its god known then as “Baal Loubnan” or “The God of Snow”
- 700 BCE: Sennacherib, the Assyrian king through his leading assistant Rabshakeh, occupied Ehden and destroyed it by setting it alight and overturning its statue.
- 300 BCE: Seleucus I, leader of an army that was a part of Alexander the Great's Macedonian army, rebuilt Ehden. Seleucus I also built a large pagan temple on the eastern side where he erected a statue of the Sun-god Helios.
- 64 BCE: Pompey blockaded Ehden. He conquered and destroyed it. It was not until the rise of Christianity that the Lebanese rebuilt it.
CE Ehden
An Ancient Greek inscription was found on the exterior of Mar Mama church with the equivalent date 282 CE and also Greek numerals near the church.
Also a Syriac inscription was found which has been translated as saying “In the name of God who is capable of resurrecting the dead. In the year one of Alexander … Marcos had lived and died.”
At the end of the 6th century Ehdenians converted to Christianity. Maronite priests of Saint Maroun and St. Simeon Stylites helped convert them into Maronites. They built five churches all at once on top of the ruined idolatrous temple, using its stones for building Mar Mama, Mar Boutros, Mar Youhana, Mar Ghaleb and Mar Istfan. In addition, they raised huge stone crosses on top of the mountain.
A brief account of Ehden's history has been found written by one of its inhabitants who fled from the Mamluk invasion in 1283, tying the manuscript to his chest for safekeeping.
Manuscript
Father George Yammine found the manuscript, which was written on an old piece of leather, at the start of the 19th century in a priest's home in Bsharri. He copied it and, following his death, his son Sheikh Roumanos Yammine kept it. It was then passed onto Monsignor Hanna Dib Saydet. In 1930, Historian Semaan el Khazan discovered a copy of that document with another historian, Father Youhana Maroun Farah el Seb'ali, who had copied it from Monsignor Saade in 1904. It says:
"Ehden is a very old village located in the north of Mount Lebanon. It used to be known as 'Patchilassar' a Persian pronunciation meaning 'the paradise of the area'. It is enriched with fresh water, trees and a breathtaking water stream called Mar Sarkis bursts off its eastern mountain. A tribe related to Sam, son of Noah settled in Ehden, which later became a famous site."
In 1264 the people of Ehden supported the Crusades in their battle for the town of Tripoli.
In 1283 the army of the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun invaded Mount Lebanon and burnt Ehden.
In 1586, Ehden was burnt again according to a found manuscript but it does not mention by whom, all it says that "Ehden was burnt in the year 1897 of the Greek calendar" which means the year 1586 CE.
In 1610 the first printing press in the Middle East was set up St Anthony of Khozaya Abbey near Ehden. Early publishing was mostly of religious works in Syriac (Karchouni) characters. The printing press is still on display there.
Ehden's ancient ruins
Ehden used to be a significant site for idolatrous beliefs where numerous temples and enormous statues were located such as “Baal Loubnan”, “God of Snow” and “God of the Sun”.
Due to major destruction that engulfed Ehden throughout its history, most of those statues and temples were destroyed. Huge rocks that have remained scattered on mountaintops, as well as large stones used in building some of its churches, still leave indication of that era.
Father La Monse the Jesuit stated that there are three scriptures in Mar Mama church, two are written in Greek and another in Syriac.
The Greek writing is sited on its exterior garden wall where most of it has been erased through the passing of time. Two lines are still visible in the lower section. A date is also visible of the Alexander year 584, which is equivalent to 282 AD. The second writing is in the shape of Greek numbers written on a gravesite next to the church, but could hardly be recognized. As for the Syriac writing, “Rinan” translated the remainder of its meaning in his book titled “Phoenician Mission” as follows:
“In the name of God who is capable of resurrecting the dead. In the year one of Alexander …. Marcos had lived and died.”
There is also a historical writing, which was transferred to France and is preserved in its Paris museum in the Orient section, numbered 4524 and dated 272 AD.
Dr. Philip Hitti in his book Lebanon in History affirms that “Ruins dating back to the era of the Roman Empire are widely spread over the mountains. Statues carved on rocks, in addition to Greek and Roman sculptures, graves, temple ruins and buried columns were found in branched and distant villages like Chouslan, Kartaba, Akoura, Tanourin and Ehden.”
Ehden’s most famous Christian site is “Dayr al-Salib” (Convent of the Cross), which is a symbol of an era of transformation for Ehdenians who had turned away from idolatry and converted to Christianity, according to a historical document written by Father Kozma. This convent is situated between Ehden and Bkoufa in the versant of Mar Sarkis’ mountain. It is a large grotto containing an altar and was identified by large stones forming a cross that was placed on top of its entrance, but vanished in 1935. Nevertheless, Al-Semaani wrote in his book The Eastern Library that he witnessed those cross-engraved stones in Hassroun, Bsharri, Ehden and Aytou.
Mar Mama church, which was built in 748, is considered as one of the oldest Maronite churches in Lebanon. Father La Monse described it as “an eighth-century church built over a destroyed Byzantine church (sixth century) which was in turn built over an old Canaanite temple.” Mar Youhana church was built in 779 but was ruined. Some of its huge stones were still around until the start of the 20th century. Two churches belonging to Mar Sarkis convent were built, the first in the 8th century and the other in the 12th.
Names of some areas hold a historical meaning such as “Al-Baoul area” named after (Baal the God), “Bab al-Bowayb” meaning (The Door of Doors) for it leads to the kingdom of “Afka” in Ehden’s forest. Afka is the first holy city in history according to Father Dr. Youssef Yammine al-Ehdeni who is trying to prove this theory by embarking on historical research he has not as yet completed.
Present day
Nowadays the people reside in their Ehden homes during the summer months for cooler days and in their Zgharta homes for warmer winters. A popular saying based on this moving between homes is “We cross ourselves and then move down and we celebrate and then move up.” This annual migration coincides with the Raising of the Cross Day, 15 September, and around Easter time.
Ehden is a beautiful city renowned for its healthy environment, moderate dry climate and natural fresh water. It is one of the main summer locations of Lebanon.
Visitors reach Ehden travelling from Beirut through Tripoli, Zgharta, Arjes then Ehden, or from Beirut through Seika, Al-Koura, Seraal, then Ehden, or from Beirut through Baalbak, Al-Arz-Becharri, Kfersghab, then Ehden. There are many restaurants in Ehden. Most restaurants are located near Mar Sarkis water stream, Al-Dawalib, Horsh Ehden and Al-Middan. Al-Middan is well known for its cafés, sweet shops and entertainment. Annual folkloric festivals are held on Al-Middan. Many tourists and visitors who attend Al-Middan ultimately visit Mar Gerges Cathedral, the coffin of Youssef Bey Karam and his statue on “Al-Ketla”, and the statue of Al-Sahyouni and Sheikh Asaad Boulos Gravesite.
Many cafés can be found in “Al-Moghtaribin” (Immigrants) Street and “Al-Mattal” area, creating an atmosphere of celebration lasting all over Ehden summer attracting tourists and visitors from Lebanon and the world.
Concerts featuring stars of Lebanese and Arab singing are held almost nightly. First-class hotels and resorts are available for tourists. In addition to modern motels, bars and clubs.
Ehden has experienced a building boom in recent times extending beyond its traditional precincts where modern villas and apartments were built. New roads have been developed and old ones were widened to cope with increasing traffic.
Convenience and tourism services for comfortable living are widely available in Ehden. There are various shopping centres, speciality shops, health services provided in a public hospital operating throughout the year, plus medical surgeries, chemists, official centres, post and phone centre, summer schools.
Ehden is a site for art events such as hosting cultural and art galleries, stage theatre, open air plays, lectures and forums held by Zghartians and Lebanese thinkers and intellectuals.
Places of worship
The early churches
The earliest churches in Ehden are those built over the site of a pagan temple.
A large pagan temple was built by Seleucus a commander in Alexander the Great’s army and raised a statue of "The god of Sun" nearby. The temple and statue were destroyed in 60 BC by the Roman Commander Pompey. Following their conversion to Christianity the people of Ehden built from the stones of the destroyed temple five churches over the temple precincts as a symbol of Christianity’s victory over paganism.
The churches from North to South are:
St Peter's.
St John’s. The church no longer exists but was located near the statue of Patriarch Stephane Doueihi.
St Ghaleb's. Originally called St Zakhia's meaning in Syriac "Victor". This church was near the corner above St Mama's. The building no longer exists.
Mar Mama church. The oldest Maronite church in Lebanon.
St Estephan's. Named after the first Christian martyr. This church, which no longer exists, was located a few metres where the present Mar Mama church stands.
The area surrounding St Peter's church was originally the large public square of the pagan temple where the ancient Ehdenians used to meet during feasts and religious ceremonies. They used to sacrifice their eldest sons to their then pagan god for the wellbeing of their families and people. Of course, this was forbidden by God's word: Lev. 18:21 says, "Neither shall you give any of your offspring to offer them to Molech, nor shall you profane the name of your God; I am the Lord." (See also Lev. 18:21; 20:2-5; 2 Kings. 23:10; Jer. 32:35). The blood of those sacrificed used to accumulate in the temple square and then streamed through a stone canal to where the five churches were built. There was a well, which collected the blood near where St Ghaleb’s church stood.
Churches today
There are 23 places of Christian worship in Ehden, including churches, monasteries, convents and shrines, such as:
Cathedrals
Cathedral of Saint George
Churches
Church of Our Lady of Al-Hara
Church of Our Lady of Jou’it
Church of Our Lady of the Fort, built over the remains of a Crusader castle at the highest point of Ehden
Church of Saint Abda
Church of Saint Anthony
Church of Saint Stephen
Church of Saint Ghaleb
Church of Saint George
Church of Saint John
Church of Saint Mary and Saint Ibhay the Syriac
Church of Saint Mamas Church, which was built in 749 A.D. and is one of the oldest Maronite churches in Lebanon;
Church of Saint Michael
Church of Saint Simon
Church of Saint Charbel inaugurated in 2023, it is the newest and biggest church in Ehden, located at the town's entrance.
Convents
Convent of Saint Cyprianus
Convent of Saint Jacob
Convent of Saint Moura hus
Convent of Saint Paul
Monastery of Mar Sarkis, Ras Al Nahr, Ehden
Convent of the Holy Cross
Environment
The town is also home to the Ehden Forest, with a variety of trees, plants, flowers, and rare animals. The forest was declared a protected nature reserve by the Lebanese government in 1992.
Ehden’s forest is on the northeast side of Ehden and is an area of 3000 hectares, with a 1300- to 2000-metre elevation from sea level. The approximate elevation is 1893 metres at Al-Jafieh, 1550 metres at Ayn Naasah and 1440 metres at Ayn al-Baq valley. The forest embraces a vital natural forestry reserve with a variety of 40 different types of native plants such as cedars, fir, pine, elm and many others. In addition, 400 different distinctive plants have been identified, of which 66 grow only in Lebanon, and 11 are endemic to Ehden.
Some of Ehden’s distinctive plants are:
Stripirtps libanotica, discovered by botanist and scientist La Plader in 1758
Dianthus karami, discovered in 1870 by botanist Le Blanche who named it in honour of Youssef Bey Karam.
“Flower of Ehden’s forest” (Zahret Horsh Ehden)
Cotsina libanotica, a thorny plant.
“The tooth of the Lebanese tiger” (Sin al-Asad al-Loubnani)
Distinctive trees include:
Wild apple trees
“Al-Derdar”, an elm tree with only four trees of its type left in Lebanon.
Abies cilicica: Ehden’s forest is the southernmost site for this fir, as noted in the World Natural Plantation demographic maps.
Hotels in Ehden
Ehden Country Club - Ehden
Hotel Ehden
Belmont Hotel
Master's Hotel
Le Serail Hotel
Hotel Zakhia
Hotel Bet El Wared
Hotel Abchi
Mist By Warwick
Kroum Ehden Boutique Resort
La Mairie Hotel
Twinz Hotel
Maison Heritage guesthouse
Beit Mirna Guesthouse
See also
Zgharta
Ehden massacre
Youssef Bey Karam
Youssef Salim Karam
Salim Bey Karam
Karam Family
Youssef Bey Karam Foundation
References
External links
Ehden On Google Maps Street View By Paul Saad
Ehden Zgharta Parish
Youssef Bey Karam Foundation
Ehden Family Tree
Zgharta District
Populated places in the North Governorate
Tourist attractions in Lebanon
Maronite Christian communities in Lebanon |
4071347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosie%20and%20Jim | Rosie and Jim | Rosie and Jim (sometimes written as Rosie & Jim) is a British children's television programme which was produced by Ragdoll Productions and aired on the Children's ITV block on ITV from 3 September 1990 to 16 May 2000. The programme was then repeated periodically on CITV until 23 July 2004.
Story
Rosie and Jim are two rag dolls who live aboard a narrowboat called the Ragdoll, which is from Birmingham. There, they sit with a concertina on their lap and come alive when no one is looking to explore the world that they pass by on rivers and canals across England. They learn to experience things by following the Ragdolls owner on his or her adventures, and secretly joining in with them. Usually, they end up causing trouble, but they are never detected because no one ever sees them.
Characters
Rosie
Rosie (puppeteered and voiced by Rebecca Nagan) is the female rag doll. During their adventures, she carries a bag that has her name written on it. She wears a yellow dress and has long shaggy black hair. She and Jim often refer to the boat driver as "fizzgog" (John Cunliffe), "loopy lobes" (or just "loopy"; Pat Hutchins) and "tootle" (Neil Brewer). She sometimes calls Jim "Noggin". Her skin colour became a bit darker from series 2.
Jim
Jim (puppeteered and voiced by Robin Stevens) is the male rag doll. In their adventures, he can be seen carrying a notebook, in which he sometimes draws things that he has seen. He has short red hair and wears light brown trousers, a shirt with a red scarf, a white-with-red-stripes sock, brown boots and a brown waistcoat. The shade of his skin has changed slightly throughout the series.
Duck
Duck (also voiced by Robin Stevens) is an animatronic wooden model of a duck, who sits on top of the Ragdoll boat. He does not talk but can be heard quacking and flapping his wings when there are no humans around to let both Rosie and Jim know that the coast is clear. In some episodes, either Rosie or Jim give him a kiss. He is the only character to directly interact with all three presenters (as only Cunliffe directly addressed Rosie and Jim).
Narrowboat owners
Rosie and Jim's home is the narrowboat Ragdoll. Throughout its run the boat was acquired by three owners, each one playing a role according to their real-life profession.
John "Fizzgog" Cunliffe: 1990–1992, 50 episodes
An author who writes stories about Rosie and Jim based upon his own everyday outings. Cunliffe is the only presenter to break the fourth wall, delivering pieces to the camera and narration throughout every episode, which ended with a self-penned short cutout animated story done by Alan Rogers and Peter Lang (creators of Pigeon Street). He is the only presenter to directly address Rosie and Jim on-screen.
Pat "Loopy Lobes" Hutchins: 1995–1996, 45 episodes
An illustrator who creates pictures, gathering ideas from her adventures. Each episode would start with Pat finishing a drawing of Rosie and Jim and end with an illustration, again by Pat, based upon the episode. At the end of each episode, Duck would be hidden in the picture, with Rosie and Jim trying to find him. Pat also illustrated the books and artwork for the video releases between 1995 and 1996. Hutchins is the only female presenter of the series.
Neil "Tootle" Brewer: 1997–2000, 80 episodes
A singer and musician who plays the harmonica and the concertina. Neil would begin each episode looking for his harmonica followed by Rosie and Jim talking about and introducing him. Brewer would often end each episode with a song played on his concertina; prompted by Rosie and Jim who would leave the instrument for him to play, next to Duck. At the end of each episode, the rag dolls would often join in with the song, unknown to Neil. Brewer became the longest-serving owner of the boat and was the only one to star in a live theatre tour of the show in 1999 and 2000. Brewer is the only presenter to have starred in more than 2 series. He is also the last surviving presenter, following the death of Pat Hutchins in November 2017, and that of John Cunliffe in September 2018.
Following the boat's redundancy from Ragdoll Productions, it is no longer on display to the public.
Episodes
Series 1 (1990–1991) – John Cunliffe
1. Locks – 3 September 1990 – John plans to take the Ragdoll up the canal to Dudley, but in order to do so he has to navigate a series of locks
2. Painting – 10 September 1990 – Tree branches scrape against the Ragdoll, scratching off its smart paint. So John goes out to the shops to buy some paint to make his boat look nice and shiny again. Rosie and Jim do some painting of their own, and they learn about mixing colours together to make even more colours.
3. Supermarket – 17 September 1990 – John is out of groceries, so he makes a trip to Sainsbury's to purchase what he needs. The two rag dolls have something different on their minds...
4. Tunnel – 24 September 1990 – Whilst John is on his travels, he goes inside a tunnel leaving the two rag dolls to believe that pure darkness can be frightening to travel through.
5. Horse Towing – 1 October 1990 – Whilst attempting to travel to Dudley, the Ragdoll’s tiller comes apart in John’s hand, meaning he has to walk to a nearby stable so a horse can tow the boat to somewhere he can get it fixed
6. Glass – 8 October 1990 – John is very curious as to know how glass is made, so he goes to a factory to see what ingredients are put together to make glass, sand being the main one. Rosie and Jim follow him there, and play in the sandpit making their own boat out of sand with marble glass windows.
7. Boat Building – 15 October 1990
8. Washing – 22 October 1990 – It's a rainy day on the Ragdoll, and John's in need of washing his clothes, so he sets out to a local launderette to get them clean once again. Rosie and Jim have some dirty washing too, but they have something else in mind...
9. Coal – 29 October 1990 - It is quite cold on the Ragdoll, and John is running out of coal for his furnace to keep him and Rosie and Jim warm, so he and Rosie and Jim set out to a coal mine to see where exactly coal comes from.
10. Clipping – 5 November 1990 - As John sails down the canal, he notices lots of different things being cut, so he takes a walk and goes to a farm to see some sheep having their wool sheared off. Later on, John does some trimming of his own by giving his beard a snip. Rosie and Jim join in by taking some sheep wool and begin pretending to shear it off themselves.
11. Falcons – 12 November 1990 - John is looking for an idea for a story, so he sails down the canal to a falcon country park to see all kinds of different birds. Rosie and Jim follow him, and watch the demonstrations of the falcons.
12. Woollen Mill – 19 November 1990 - John's woolly jumper is beginning to wear out, so he sets off to a mill to retrieve some wool to knit a new jumper. Meanwhile, Jim mistakes a sheep for a dragon, and is frightened... but soon learns that sheep are harmless. Then Rosie and Jim finally get some coloured wool of their own to snuggle with.
13. Bread – 26 November 1990 - John sets out to a wheat field to find out how bread is made. He then sees a windmill, and is shown how wheat is turned into bread. Rosie and Jim get up to their old tricks and fool around with John when he isn't looking.
14. Shopping – 3 December 1990 – John sets out to the shops to buy some food and drink for a picnic. Rosie and Jim are hungry and want to have a picnic too, so they add their own items to John's shopping list without him knowing. Bearing in mind that John doesn't even like the items that Rosie and Jim added, they're afraid that John is going to be cross.
15. Weaving – 10 December 1990 – John thinks his bed blanket is starting to wear out on him, so he decides to go and get a new one. Rosie and Jim play with his blanket, but they play too rough, and put large holes in it. So John pays a visit to the weavers workshop to see how blankets are made from scratch.
16. Ferry – 17 December 1990 – John goes off to Hampton to see a ferry, when Rosie and Jim see a boat that's going to the same place as the Ragdoll, they fear that it's going to cause a crash, but of course, it didn't. John hops aboard a ferry to be transported from one path to another that has the river as a collision.
17. Milking (AKA "Milk") – 7 January 1991 – John travels to a farm to see how the milk we drink every day is made
18. Sailing – 14 January 1991 – John travels to Tewkesbury Marina to see some sailing boats and get some ideas for a story about Rosie and Jim
19. Steam – 21 January 1991
20. Abbey – 28 January 1991 – John gives Tewkesbury a visit so he can go into the Abbey and explore the inside of the church.
21. Breakdown – 4 February 1991 – It’s about time for John to take out the rubbish from the boat, so he attempts to catch up with the bin-man and take the rubbish to the tip so some of it can be broken down and recycled
22. Pottery – 11 February 1991 – John travels to Pershore to visit a pottery
23. Fairground – 18 February 1991 – John travels along the River Severn through Worcester to Stourport
24. Letters – 25 February 1991 – John travels to Worcester to visit the Worcester Post and Sorting Office
25. Finding the Way – 4 March 1991 – John travels along the River Severn through Worcester then he goes to Ragley Hall in Alcester to a maze
Series 2 (1991–1992) – John Cunliffe
26. Automata – 30 September 1991 – John visits Ashorne Hall to see some musical instruments
27. Butterflies – 7 October 1991 – John visits Stratford Butterfly Farm in Stratford-upon-Avon
28. Houses – 14 October 1991 – John Visits Charlecote House In Charlecote
29. Hair – 21 October 1991 – John visits Renoir Hair Salon in Birmingham
30. School – 28 October 1991 – John visits Reaside Nursery School in Birmingham
31. Bricks – 4 November 1991 – John visits Northcot Brick Ltd in Blockley
32. Small Animals – 11 November 1991 – John visits Evesham from Stratford-upon-Avon to see some small animals at Twyford Country Centre
33. Hats – 18 November 1991 – John visits The Rag Market in Birmingham
34. Hospital – 25 November 1991 – John visits Birmingham Children's Hospital in Birmingham
35. Boat Painting – 2 December 1991 – John visits The National Waterways Museum in Gloucester
36. Sheepdog – 9 December 1991 – John visits Netherly Farm in Mathon to see a sheepdog
37. Waterworks – 16 December 1991 – John visits Severn Trent Water
38. Blacksmith – 6 January 1992 – John visits The National Waterways Museum in Gloucester
39. Library – 13 January 1992 – John visits The Children's Library in Sutton Coldfield
40. Dredging – 20 January 1992
41. Rope – 27 January 1992 – John visits Bewdley to get a new rope for The Ragdoll Boat
42. Trees – 3 February 1992 – John accidentally breaks his plank of wood and decides to get a new one and finds a timber yard to see how trees get turned into planks of wood.
43. Shoes – 10 February 1992 – John visits Worcester to buy some shoes from Blunts Shoes
44. Brass – 17 February 1992
45. Flying – 24 February 1992 – John visits Bidford-on-Avon to learn to fly in a plane at Avon Soaring Centre
46. Coracle – 2 March 1992
47. Puppet Show – 9 March 1992 – John visits the Swan Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon to see a puppet show performed by Major Mustard
48. Shire Horses – 16 March 1992 – John visits Stratford-upon-Avon to visit the Stratford Shire Horse Centre
49. Eggs – 23 March 1992 – John visits A E Beckett and Sons at Heath Farm in Wythall to see where eggs come from
50. Boat Festival – 30 March 1992 – John visits a boat festival on his last day of owning the Ragdoll before being replaced by Pat Hutchins.
Series 3 (1995) – Pat Hutchins
51. Radio Station – 6 January 1995 – Pat Hutchins visits BBC CWR radio studios in Coventry
52. Babies – 13 January 1995 – Pat visits Hillfields Nursery Centre
53. Steam Train – 20 January 1995 – Pat visits the Battlefield Line Railway
54. Barn Owl – 27 January 1995
55. Gingerbread Man – 3 February 1995 – Pat visits Coggans Bakery in Nuneaton to see how gingerbread men are made
56. Musical Instruments – 10 February 1995 – Pat visits Leicester to meet Unity Brass
57. Flower Baskets – 17 February 1995 – Pat visits Mill Lane Nurseries in Evesham
58. Duck Gets Lost – 24 February 1995
59. Ten Pin Bowling – 3 March 1995 – Pat visits a bowling alley in Coventry
60. Sneezes – 10 March 1995 – Pat visits The Uppingham Road Health Centre in Leicester
61. Digging For Potatoes – 17 March 1995
62. Pony Riding – 24 March 1995
63. Lovely Bananas – 31 March 1995
64. Splish Splash Splosh – 7 April 1995
65. Down on the Farm – 21 April 1995
66. The Hat Factory – 28 April 1995 - Pat visits the Hat Factory and sees how hats are made, Rosie wanted a red hat and with some help from Jim they decorated a beautiful red hat for Rosie.
67. The Disappearing Sausages – 5 May 1995 - Pat's friends are going on a boating holiday, but Rosie and Jim wanted to go on a boating holiday too once they start packing up Jim wants to pack some sausages but Rosie refused and after they finished packing up they accidentally throw their suitcase on another boat and then got mixed up someone else suitcase.
68. Soapy Duck – 12 May 1995
69. Bouncy Castles – 19 May 1995
70. A Special Dance – 26 May 1995
71. Flood on the Boat – 9 June 1995 - Pat had a glass of water then it run out so Rosie gives her another glass of water, but she had forgotten to turn the tap off at the sink while the water keeps going on the whole room was flooded with water. When Pat saw what happened, she asks a man with a tractor to take the Ragdoll boat out of the water and Rosie and Jim sees what was underneath the boat. When Rosie suddenly realised what she has done and with help from Jim, they managed to clean up and get the water off the boat and turn the tap off.
72. The Shoemaker – 16 June 1995
73. Scarecrow – 23 June 1995
74. Roller Skating – 30 June 1995
75. Stars at Night – 7 July 1995
Series 4 (1996) – Pat Hutchins
76. Acrobats – 5 January 1996 – Pat Visits a Circus in Stratford Upon Avon
77. Earrings – 12 January 1996
78. The Best Boat in the World – 19 January 1996 – Pat visits Stratford Upon Avon to have a ride in a Gondola
79. Mouse on the Boat – 26 January 1996
80. Floating Restaurant – 2 February 1996 - Pat visits a mobile restaurant on a boat with a beautiful dress and had dinner there. Pat ordered ice cream for pudding but Jim was so hungry and Rosie was serving the customers by giving them their ice-creams when Jim starts to eat Pat's special ice cream Rosie tries to take it away but Jim wants it and then they throw the ice cream right onto Pat's face.
81. On Safari – 9 February 1996 – Pat visits Woburn Safari Park in Woburn
82. Exercise – 16 February 1996 – Pat visits The Metropolitan Club to do some exercise
83. Little Lost Kitten – 23 February 1996 – Pat finds a lost kitten and takes it back to a Family at Barton Dovecote Leisure
84. Stripes – 1 March 1996 – Pat visits Woburn Safari Park in Woburn to see some Stripes
85. Magical Lights – 8 March 1996 – Pat has been invited by the Lord Mayor of the town to help turn on the Christmas lights in Stratford Upon Avon
86. Making Pizza – 28 June 1996 – Pat visits Gourmet Pizza Company in Oxford
87. Shop Window – 5 July 1996 – Pat visits Oxford to help with a mannequin dummy
88. Visiting the Vet – 12 July 1996
89. Bus Ride – 19 July 1996
90. Dog Training – 26 July 1996
91. Winning the Race – 2 August 1996
92. The Milkman – 9 August 1996 - Pat visits the milkman to buy milk
93. Ballroom Dancing – 16 August 1996
94. The Umbrella Factory – 23 August 1996
95. Sleepy Baby – 30 August 1996 – Pat looks after a baby on her last day of owning the Ragdoll before being replaced by Neil Brewer.
Series 5 (1997) – Neil Brewer
96. Harmonica – 10 January 1997 - When Neil Brewer's harmonica slips out of his hand and fell into the children's water bowl and when he got it back it lost its toot, he went to a shop that sells musical instruments he tried out the violin, the electric guitar and then the drums. At last, he tried out the new harmonica and he thinks it's perfect.
97. Spring Cleaning – 17 January 1997
98. Water Skiing – 24 January 1997
99. Cake – 31 January 1997
100. Sing Song – 7 February 1997
101. Pony And Trap – 14 February 1997
102. Ducks – 21 February 1997
103. Football – 28 February 1997 – Neil visits Bristol City Football Club to watch the 1996 Gloucestershire Cup match versus Bristol Rovers.
104. Chimney Sweep – 7 March 1997
105. Windy Day – 14 March 1997
106. A New Chair – 21 March 1997 - Rosie and Jim accidentally broke one of their chairs, it was in pieces so they followed Neil to the Woodland Workshop to learn how to make a chair.
107. Kites – 4 April 1997
108. A Jacket For Neil – 11 April 1997 - Neil visits a tailor shop to get a new jacket, but with help from Rosie and Jim, the tailor-made a jacket for Neil.
109. Hot Air Balloon – 18 April 1997 - Neil visits the 1996 Bristol International Balloon Festival
110. Bike Ride – 25 April 1997 – Neil visits The Lock Inn Bike Hire Centre to ride on a tricycle
111. Molly The Parrot – 9 May 1997
112. Beach – 16 May 1997
113. Roundabout – 23 May 1997 – Neil visits Brean Leisure Park to ride on a merry-go-round
114. Mattress – 30 May 1997
115. Theatre – 6 June 1997 – Neil visits the Bristol Old Vic Theatre Royal
Series 6 (1998) – Neil Brewer
116. Oodles Of Noodles – 5 January 1998
117. Pigeons – 9 January 1998 – Neil visits Trafalgar Square in London to meet some pigeons
118. Camping – 12 January 1998
119. Big Ben Boing – 16 January 1998 – Neil visits Big Ben in Westminster, London
120. Golf – 19 January 1998 – Neil plays golf with Neil Jordan at Sudbury Golf Course.
121. Tower of London – 23 January 1998 – Neil visits the Tower of London
122. Newspaper – 26 January 1998
123. Waterslide – 30 January 1998
124. Fish Face – 2 February 1998 – Neil visits London Aquarium to meet some fish
125. Stilts – 6 February 1998
126. Do It Yourself – 9 February 1998
127. Tomato Ketchup – 13 February 1998 – Neil visits a tomato ketchup factory to see how ketchup is made
128. Lullaby – 16 February 1998
129. Driftwood – 20 February 1998 - Duck finds himself floating away on some driftwood when Rosie and Jim accidentally push him off the boat.
130. Tower Bridge – 23 February 1998 – Neil visits Tower Bridge to see how it works
131. Music Boat – 27 February 1998
132. Recording Studio – 2 March 1998 - Neil performs a new song with composer Andrew McCrorie-Shand
133. One Man Band – 6 March 1998
134. Chinese Lion Dance – 9 March 1998
135. Music Party – 13 March 1998
(Newspaper and Lullaby have not been readily available in any format since their initial broadcasts in 1998 and have been presumed missing)
Series 7 (1999) – Neil Brewer
136. Sticky Honey – 5 January 1999 – Neil visits a honey farm to see how it is made
137. Chainmaking – 12 January 1999 – Neil has to replace the Ragdoll boat's anchor and chain after it sinks into the water.
138. Shining Armour – 19 January 1999 – Neil sees a knight in shining armour riding along the canal bank, who suddenly drops his plume. He meets up with the knight at Belvoir Castle and hands is plume back, but is blissfully unaware that Rosie and Jim have sneaked in...
139. Naughty Little Frog – 26 January 1999 – A frog suddenly appears inside one of Neil's shoes, and Neil removes it from the boat, only for the frog to find itself inside Neil's hat, and later in his biscuit box.
140 Thatching 2 February 1999
141 Sailing Boat February 9 February 1999
142. Drawing – 23 February 1999 – An artist is drawing the Ragdoll boat, but runs into several mishaps along the way, most notably Rosie and Jim continuously moving Duck around the boat.
143. Disco Boat – 2 March 1999
144. Radio Control – 9 March 1999 - Neil takes part in a remote control boat race in Daventry.
145. Keep Fit – 16 March 1999 – Neil decides to keep fit, but is startled when he sees what appears to be a ghost under a sheet, but turns out to be Rosie and Jim!
146. Dry Stone Walling – 23 March 1999
147. Baby Elephant – 30 March 1999
148. Washing Day – 6 April 1999
149. Lifeboat Rescue – 13 April 1999 – Neil calls the lifeboat rescue crew in Caister-on-Sea after Rosie and Jim untie the mooring ropes at the wrong end, sending the Ragdoll adrift.
150. Knitting Factory – 20 April 1999
151. Road Boat – 27 April 1999
152. Line Dancing – 4 May 1999 – Neil joins in a country western dance party at Lynroy's club in Loughborough.
153. Wallpaper – 11 May 1999
154. High Bar – 18 May 1999 – Neil visits the City of Birmingham Gymnastics Club.
155. Riding Lesson - 25 May 1999 - Neil learns to ride a horse at Bourne Vale Riding Stables in Birmingham, but is in for a surprise when Rosie accidentally jumps onto the back of his horse.
(A separate video made in association with British Waterways was also made in 1999, called Stay Safe Near Water with Rosie and Jim and Duck. In addition, Sailing Boat, Knitting Factory, Road Boat and Wallpaper have not been readily available since series 7 was repeated in 2004, and have been presumed missing.)
Series 8 (2000) – Neil Brewer
156. Disappearing Dog – 4 January 2000
157. Upside Down – 11 January 2000 – Neil is trying to find a bottle of glue to secure a loose floor tile, and vows to find it if he has to turn the Ragdoll boat upside down.
158. Where's My Wedding Ring – 18 January 2000
159. Mother's Day – 25 January 2000
160. Steel Band – 1 February 2000
161. Disappearing Trousers – 8 February 2000
162. Jumble Duck – 15 February 2000
163. Flour Trail – 22 February 2000
164. Birthday Party – 29 February 2000
165. Lots of Knots – 7 March 2000 - Neil has to replace the Ragdoll's front fender after it's caught in the wall of a lock.
166. Flashing Fire Engine – 14 March 2000 - Neil volunteers to be rescued by the Royal Berkshire Fire and Rescue Service as part of a fire safety demonstration.
167. Amazing Teddy – 21 March 2000
168. Rescue The Rubbish – 28 March 2000
169. Water, Water Everywhere – 4 April 2000
170. Hop to the Hospital – 11 April 2000 - Neil checks into the Royal Berkshire Hospital after spraining his ankle while mooring up the Ragdoll.
171. Lazy Day – 18 April 2000 – Neil decides he's had enough cruising for one day and decides to relax, but his day isn't as relaxing as he may have hoped.
172. The Window Cleaner – 25 April 2000
173. Little Ducklings – 2 May 2000
174. Runaway Roller Blades – 9 May 2000
175. The Magic Show – 16 May 2000 (Series finale)
Home media releases
Video Collection International released VHS tapes of the series. From 1991 until 1994, the tapes were released through the Central Video imprint, which then transitioned off to Carlton Home Entertainment's CTE Video imprint for a short time in the mid-'90s, before reverting to Video Collection International.
The Bumper Pack DVD was released by Platform Entertainment.
UK VHS releases
Australian VHS releases
Roadshow Entertainment (1999-2003)
DVD
Rosie and Jim – Sticky Honey and Other Stories (released 4 March 2002)
Rosie and Jim – Flashing Fire Engine and Other Urgent Adventures (released 2004)
Rosie and Jim – Up, Up And Away and Other stories (release 2005)
Rosie and Jim – Bumper Pack 1 (released 28 March 2016)
Rosie and Jim – Bumper Pack 2 (released 3 October 2016)
References
External links
Rosie and Jim website
Ragdoll Productions website
1990 British television series debuts
2000 British television series endings
1990s British children's television series
2000s British children's television series
1990s preschool education television series
2000s preschool education television series
British preschool education television series
ITV children's television shows
Television series by DHX Media
Television series by ITV Studios
Television series by Ragdoll Productions
Sentient toys in fiction
British children's musical television series
British children's comedy television series
Television shows set in the West Midlands (county)
Television shows set in Bristol
Television shows set in London
Television shows set in Berkshire
Television shows set in Somerset
Television shows set in Gloucestershire
Television shows set in Oxfordshire
Television shows set in Warwickshire
Television shows set in Northamptonshire
English-language television shows
British television shows featuring puppetry
British television series with live action and animation
Television shows produced by Central Independent Television
Television duos |
4071534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Fairly%20OddParents%20characters | List of The Fairly OddParents characters | This article features an extensive cast of characters from the Nickelodeon animated series The Fairly OddParents, created by Butch Hartman.
Main
Timmy Turner
Timothy Tiberius Turner is a 10-year-old boy who was given fairy godparents to grant his every wish as a result of his neglectful parents and abuse from Vicky. He wears a pink hat and shirt with blue pants. He also has a comically large malocclusion, which is usually mocked. His wishes often have unpredictable and problematic side effects, and are often reverted upon Timmy's request by the end of the episode. His interests include comic books, video games, cartoons, and sports. During a time travel trip, Timmy accidentally arrives the day his parents moved into their house; unseen, he learns that they were expecting a girl, hence his pink hat.
Originally, Timmy was going to be named Mike after Butch Hartman's older brother, but this led to an argument, so Hartman instead named the character after his youngest brother. Hartman also originally wanted to give him the last name Taylor, but that was close to Tim Allen's character name Tim Taylor in Home Improvement. Hartman has also stated that Timmy is his alter ego: "He's a wise guy. He's sarcastic. He's quick-tempered... He loves comic books. He loves video games. ... He's pretty much my alter ego, except I didn't have fairy godparents."
Timmy is voiced by Mary Kay Bergman in the original Oh Yeah! Cartoons shorts, and by Tara Strong in the main television series and related media. In the live-action films, he is portrayed by Drake Bell, but the animated portion in A Fairly Odd Summer is voiced by Strong. Alec Baldwin guest voiced adult Timmy in the "Channel Chasers" television special. In The Fairly OddParents: Fairly Odder, he is played by Caleb Pierce.
Cosmo and Wanda
Cosmo and Wanda are fairy godparents assigned to grant Timmy's, and later Chloe's, wishes. They were previously the godparents of Denzel Crocker, Billy Gates, Tina Turner, and other historical and modern day figures; such as Benjamin Franklin. To avoid being seen by humans other than Timmy, they often disguise themselves as animals or inanimate objects.
Cosmo
Cosmo Julius Fairywinkle-Cosma is Wanda's husband, Poof's father, and Timmy and Chloe's godfather. He is known for his dim-witted personality and has been responsible for inadvertently causing disasters since he was born. As explained in "Fairly Oddbaby", Cosmo's ability for destruction is such that when he was born, all fairies were henceforth no longer allowed to have children out of the fear that another potential fairy baby would be as bad as or worse than Cosmo. Although he is very laid back and dim, Cosmo is prone to fits of jealousy and becomes defensive when he sees others flirting with Wanda. He was the youngest fairy until Poof was born and, though he was considered an only child in earlier episodes, has a brother named Schnozmo that debuts later. His mother, Mama Cosma, is overprotective of Cosmo and thus despises Wanda. Cosmo has green hair and typically wears a white shirt, black pants, and a black necktie. He has shown to love pudding and a nickel named Philipp.
Cosmo is voiced by Daran Norris in the original Oh Yeah! Cartoons shorts, the main TV series and related media, including the 2022 live-action revival/reboot series Fairly Odder. In the live-action film A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner, the live-action Cosmo is portrayed by Jason Alexander, but the animated portions are still voiced by Norris.
Wanda
Wanda Venus Fairywinkle-Cosma is Cosmo's wife, Poof's mother, and Timmy and Chloe's godmother. She is depicted as being smart and caring. Unlike Cosmo, she tries to prevent Timmy from wishing for things which can be disastrous, though her attempts often fail. However, she is responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs, 65 million years ago. She has a sister, who is a popular actress, named Blonda whom she fights with a lot, as Wanda believes her sister's life as a Soap Star is easier than hers as a housewife. Wanda also has a father named Big Daddy, who also despised Cosmo similar to how Mama Cosma dislikes Wanda but to a much lesser extent. She has pink hair styled with a swirl in front and is usually shown wearing a yellow T-shirt and black pants. Wanda has an obsession with chocolate, and it is one of the only things that can distract her from her top priorities.
Wanda's design, especially the hair swirl, is based on Wilma from The Flintstones. In the original pitch for the show she was named Venus and had blue hair.
Wanda is voiced by Susanne Blakeslee in the original Oh Yeah! Cartoons shorts, the main TV series and related media, including the 2022 live-action revival/reboot series Fairly Odder. In the live-action film A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner, the live-action Wanda is portrayed by Cheryl Hines, but the animated portions are still voiced by Blakeslee.
Vicky
Vicky is Timmy's rude, selfish, greedy, sadistic, conniving, malicious, and tyrannical 16-year-old babysitter, and one of the main antagonists in the series. She has but a few friends and enjoys torturing children, watching television and making the world miserable, especially for Timmy. She lives with her mother, her father, and her younger sister Tootie. She has encountered Cosmo and Wanda on numerous occasions, but does not believe in them.
Also, she has encountered Mark Chang in his natural form, which she dismisses in early seasons as a Halloween costume, but recognizes as his true form during Season 6. A plot point in the episode "Frenemy Mine" involved her belonging to a dark society known as B.R.A.T. (Babysitters Raging Against Twerps). She has been shown to be accepting of her own cruelty, and that the only reason she is, is that she was mistreated as a child by her own babysitter.
Vicky is voiced by Grey (DeLisle) Griffin in the original Oh Yeah! Cartoons shorts, the main television series and related media. In the live-action films, she is portrayed by Devon Weigel. Vicky also appears as a recurring antagonist in The Fairly OddParents: Fairly Odder, where she is now a teacher at Dimmsdale Junior High, being portrayed by Mary Kate Wiles.
Mr. Crocker
Mr. Denzel Quincy Crocker, usually called Mr. Crocker, is a grayish-skinned, hunchbacked man and Timmy's fairy-obsessed teacher, and one of the main antagonists in the series. He correctly suspects that Timmy has fairy godparents of his own, and he is often able to tell what Timmy has wished for by the smallest, most irrelevant clues. His unshakable belief in fairy godparents leads to other adults perceiving him as mentally ill. A running gag has him spasm uncontrollably whenever he shouts, "Fairy godparents!".
Crocker has been shown to go to great extents to prove his theory that Timmy has fairy godparents, sinking vast quantities of money into expensive equipment and conducting elaborate experiments. He is also willing to do highly dangerous and immoral things to confirm the belief. For example, in his debut episode, "Transparents!", he attempts to test whether Cosmo and Wanda are fairies by trying to get them to sit in an electric chair. He states that, "If they survive, they're fairies!" but "If they don't, I have tenure!"
Surprisingly, Crocker is the previous godchild of Cosmo and Wanda. Though he lost them and the memories of their time with him, his belief in fairies remains. Timmy tries to alter this event via time travel in "The Secret Origin of Denzel Crocker!", but he paradoxically fails and becomes the reason Crocker lost Cosmo and Wanda and made him remember his belief in fairies.
Although being a middle-aged man, he still lives with his mother, Dolores Crocker. His father has never been seen or mentioned in the series.
In an ironic twist, Crocker served for many decades as the main power source for fairy magic; his belief is so strong that it was used to power the Big Wand, the source of all the magic in Fairy World. In the episode, "Crocker Shocker", this leads to the Big Wand losing all its power after he is hypnotized into believing fairies do not exist. To remedy this, Timmy, Cosmo, Wanda, Poof, and Jorgen make it so that everyone as equally crazy about fairies as Crocker is used as a source of power for the Big Wand.
Crocker is based on Eugene Levy's character in the 1984 film Splash. He was also designed to be in another cartoon that Hartman was pitching, but was placed in the show as the latter needed more villains.
Crocker is voiced by Carlos Alazraqui in the main television series and related media. In the live-action films, he is portrayed by David Lewis; he does not have an animated version of himself. Crocker returns in The Fairly OddParents: Fairly Odder, reprised by Alazraqui in both animation and live-action.
Poof
Poof Fairywinkle-Cosma is Cosmo and Wanda's son, introduced into the series in the 2008 special Fairly OddBaby. He was the first fairy baby born in over ten thousand years, with his own father being the second to last. His magical abilities are controlled by his emotions and channeled through his magic rattle.
In "Fairy Old Parent", Poof is assigned to his very first person as a fairy godparent as his own, for miserable old people; such as Mrs. Crocker. He grants her wishes but became overworked and exhausted, returning to Cosmo and Wanda.
In the Season 10 episode "Certifiable Super Sitter", Poof returned from Spellementary Boarding School for spring break. His voice has gotten deeper and more comical as part of his formal training to be a great fairy. Chloe goes completely crazy over him, as she loves babies. Due to avoiding difficulty by not having plots with too many main characters in each episode, Poof only appeared in one episode of Season 10.
Poof was originally going to be named Dusty.
Poof's baby vocalizations are done by Tara Strong in the main television series and related media. In the film A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!, Poof's speaking voice is done by Randy Jackson, but the baby vocalizations are still done by Strong.
Sparky
Sparky is Timmy's talking fairy dog, who was a character in Season 9, but was dropped from the show before Season 10 due to negative reception. Sparky has orange fur, a wand for a tail, a blue nose, and fairy wings. He wears a fairy crown and a blue collar. Sparky's magic tail doesn't work when he is wet. He has magic fleas that will turn people into dogs if bitten. He is highly allergic to pasta, and is capable of performing human acts, such as driving. Unlike Timmy's fairy godparents, it is okay for other people to know about Sparky, but they cannot know that he can talk.
Sparky is voiced by Maddie Taylor in the main television series and related media.
Chloe Carmichael
Chloe Carmichael is Timmy's neighbor who debuts in the Season 10 premiere episode, "The Big Fairy Share Scare". Due to there not being enough fairies available for kids, overwhelming demand and fairies taking on better paying jobs in the fancy candle industry, she and Timmy are forced to share Cosmo and Wanda. Although in the beginning they do not get along, they end up becoming best friends. Chloe is seen by Timmy as an annoying, goody goody, and boastful, little girl and she has the tendency to cause chaos with her wishes.
Chloe is voiced by Kari Wahlgren in the main television series and related media.
Supporting
Timmy's parents
Mr. Turner, also known as "Dad", (voiced and portrayed by Daran Norris in the series and the live-action films respectively) and Mrs. Turner, also known as "Mom", (voiced by Susanne Blakeslee, portrayed by Teryl Rothery in the live-action films) are Timmy's parents. Mom is a real estate agent and home dealer; and Dad works as an employee of a pencil factory called Pencil Nexus and troop leader for Timmy's Squirrelly Scouts Troop, though both have had several other jobs, usually only for a single episode. When either of them mentions their first names, they're usually cut off or silenced in a comedic fashion, and were even referred to as "Mom" and "Dad" as children. Mom is shown to be a horrible gardener and cook, as anything she tries to grow dies and her meals usually come alive and try to attack her family. Dad is often shown hating the Dinklebergs, the next door neighbors, which can be compared to Homer Simpson's hatred for Ned Flanders in The Simpsons. Both are completely oblivious to the magic in their home, and despite their love for Timmy, tend to be somewhat neglectful. They leave Timmy with Vicky, his babysitter, and are oblivious to signs that she is evil; even going as far as believing that the song "Icky Vicky" was about pumpkins. Mr. Dinkleberg and Mrs. Turner used to be a couple during their teenage years.
Hartman originally designed Timmy's parents to only appear from the waist down in Oh Yeah! Cartoons.
Kids
Chester McBadbat (voiced by Frankie Muniz 2001–2003; Jason Marsden 2003–2017) is one of Timmy's best friends. He lives in a trailer with his father in an impoverished community with few amenities. He is generous and cares more for others than himself, as every time he has obtained magic, he has used his wishes to try to improve the lives of others, even though it usually leads to disaster. He becomes the only classmate of Timmy to know about his godparents' existence in "Fairy Idol", but it is not mentioned again in later episodes. He often wears worn-in, oversized clothes. He has freckles, green eyes, dental braces, and blonde shaggy hair and eyebrows. As shown in the episode "Emotion Commotion!", he seems to be allergic to girls. Chris Anderson portrays him in A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!.
A.J. (voiced by Ibrahim Haneef Muhammad 2001–2003; Gary LeRoi Gray 2003–2017) is the resident genius in Timmy's class, and one of his best friends. He comes from an upper-middle-class family, and is a straight "A" student in school, a quality both his parents have achieved as well. He has constructed an older brother who defends him from bullies, fulfilling his need for a real one. He plays with video games and reads comic books like his other friends, in spite of his superior intellect. He has a secret laboratory that he conceals with a "cloak" button on his bedroom wall which, when pressed, converts his lab into a typical bedroom. Jesse Reid portrays him in A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!.
(voiced by Grey DeLisle in the TV series, Amber Hood in the Oh Yeah! Cartoons episode "The Fairy Flu", portrayed in the live-action movies by Daniella Monet) is Vicky's younger sister. She is a bespectacled girl who has an obsessive crush on Timmy, often going to the extreme of spying on and stalking him. While Timmy rejects her regularly, he does have a soft spot for her and does nice things for her in several episodes, including sending Cosmo and Wanda out on loan for her birthday after Vicky ruins it. When Vicky isn't torturing the children she babysits, she regularly tortures Tootie at home in substitution. Tootie is one of the main characters in the three live-action films. The name originates from Hartman's nickname for his daughter Carly.
Elmer (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, named for Butch Hartman's real name) is a nerdy kid and one of Timmy's friends. His most notable feature is the abnormally large boil on his face whom he named Bob (after series animator Bob Boyle). Unbeknownst to the rest of the world, Bob is sentient and evil. Elmer is the only one who can hear Bob speak and tries to keep his boil in check.
Sanjay (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a boy of Indian-American descent who is one of Timmy's friends. He speaks with a high pitched voice, which is accompanied by a strong accent. He often has to put up with his stepfather's military ways of life as if he were in boot camp. He also has a dream about Timmy and his white horse saving him.
(voiced by Dionne Quan) is the object of Timmy's affection and the most popular girl at Dimmsdale Elementary. Due to Timmy not being popular, Trixie rarely acknowledges his existence, except in secret. It is revealed that she likes action comic books, but keeps it a secret to maintain her popularity. At the end of "Channel Chasers", Timmy's future children have physical similarities to both Trixie and Tootie.
Veronica (voiced by Grey DeLisle) a popular girl at school, who is Trixie Tang's obsessive best friend who wants to be Trixie. She may also have a secret crush on Timmy.
Tad and Chad (voiced by Tara Strong and Grey DeLisle) are two of Timmy's wealthy, popular classmates. They often make fun of Timmy and other unpopular kids, and also frequently turn Trixie away from Timmy by embarrassing him or impressing her with their money.
Kevin Crocker (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is the nephew of Mr. Crocker, being the son of his half-sister. He is physically identical to his uncle. Kevin debuts in "Chip off the Old Crock!", where his uncle tries to instruct him to follow in his footsteps to hunt fairies, but instead, he ends up befriending Chloe and Timmy. After it, he appears as a recurring character during the season 10.
Fairies
(voiced by Daran Norris, played by Mark Gibbon in the live-action movies) is the anti-hero of the show who appears to be the toughest fairy in the universe who speaks with an Austrian accent (a clear reference to Arnold Schwarzenegger) and is a high-ranking official in Fairy World. Unlike other fairies who "poof" from place to place, Jorgen appears and disappears in the form of an atomic explosion and has a jet pack instead of wings. In "The Zappies", he mentioned he has had only one godchild, Winston; the reason for this, as revealed in "Temporary Fairy", is that his extreme wish-granting and daredevil stunts unnecessarily endanger the lives of godchildren. He is sadistic and enjoys the idea of others cowering in fear of him, which affects his ability to have friends besides Cosmo and Wanda. Although Jorgen is known as the toughest fairy in Fairy World, he is seen multiple times crying in front of Cosmo and Wanda. In 'Teeth for Two', it is revealed that he dated the Tooth Fairy before breaking up over Timmy's teeth. He married her at the end of the episode, but the marriage was not mentioned since. It is revealed in "Cosmo Rules" that Cosmo is his distant cousin.
(voiced by Dee Baker) is a meek yet optimistic fairy whom Jorgen often abuses and berates.
(voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is Remy Buxaplenty's fairy godparent who speaks with an overexaggerated Spanish accent. He is often a villain in the episodes in which he appears alongside his godchild, but is actually a kind fairy whom Timmy considers a friend. He is Wanda's ex-boyfriend and is still infatuated with her, much to Cosmo's chagrin. A running gag has him magically tearing off his white T-shirt to show off his muscles and then making it reappear shortly thereafter.
Cupid (voiced by Tom Kenny) is a fairy who promotes love across the universe, yet his arrogance contrasts his love-themed abilities.
The Tooth Fairy (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is one of the few adult-sized fairies, which is dedicated to changing the teeth that children leave under the pillows for coins, and the wife of Jorgen Von Strangle.
Mama Cosma (voiced by Jane Carr) is Cosmo and Schnozmo's mother. She loathes Wanda and repeatedly attempts to get rid of her because of the over-protective bond she has with her son.
Blonda Fairywinkle (voiced by Julia Louis-Dreyfus in her first appearance and Tara Strong in all subsequent appearances) is the twin sister of Wanda. She is far more self-centered and vain compared to Wanda. She is the star of the soap opera "All My Biceps" which is Jorgen's favorite show. In "Fairy Idol", she is seen to be in love with Juandissimo.
Dr. Rip Studwell (voiced by Jim Ward in the first appearance, Butch Hartman in later appearances) is a fairy doctor who insists on being referred to by his full name and usually plays golf and spends time with ladies rather than performing medical procedures.
Big Daddy Fairywinkle (voiced by Tony Sirico) is the father of Wanda and Blonda and the husband of Mama Cosma. He is the boss of a mafia that has even scared Jorgen before and also has a business that is responsible for cleaning up all of the garbage in Fairy World.
Santa Claus (voiced by Tom Arnold in his normal form and Kevin Michael Richardson in his other form, played by Donavon Stinson in A Fairly Odd Christmas) is the figure of holiday folklore. Outside of Christmas time he is a thin businessman that wears a suit and has neatly trimmed hair. Near Christmas, he is lent magic by all the fairies of the world which transforms him into the most commonly recognized form.
Baby New Year is the figure of holiday folklore. He is a giant baby that only speaks with a giant "goo" and always carries a rattle.
The Easter Bunny (voiced by Robert Costanzo) is the figure of holiday folklore. He talks with a Brooklyn mob accent.
The April Fool (voiced by Daran Norris) is the "embodiment of comedy" who is Fairy World's chief comedian and tells jokes very frequently at Uncle Knuckle's Chuckle Bunker. His voice and mannerisms are similar to Jerry Seinfeld.
Superheroes
(voiced by Jay Leno, Daran Norris in episodes "Super Humor" and "Fairy Fairy Quite Contrary") is a comic book superhero whose comics Timmy and many other children in the series enjoy reading. Though he has many standard superhero abilities such as flight, superior strength, and heat vision, his main weapon is his enormous chin: a reference to that of his voice actor, which he gained when a radioactive actor bit him on the chin. Sometimes, Timmy joins him in his comic book adventures as his sidekick "Cleft the Boy Chin Wonder," and at other times, the Chin comes to the real world via fairy magic. He lives in "Chincinnati", and his alter ego is Charles Hampton "Chuck" Indigo, news writer for the Daily Blabbity.
(voiced by Adam West in Season 4–6, Jeff Bennett in Season 9-10) is actor Adam West's alter ego, and a good friend of Timmy's. He is considered insane by most people since he thinks he is part cat because of a TV show he was part of 30 years ago. The character is a reference to West's role as Batman on the 1960s television show.
(Sprig Speevak) (voiced by Daran Norris, James Arnold Taylor in the "Crash Nebula" special) is a fictional space hero whose television show is watched by Timmy and his friends.
Dimmsdale Elementary School staff
(voiced by Grey DeLisle) is the Irish-accented principal at Dimmsdale Elementary School and was once in love with Denzel Crocker, but broke up with him when she realized about his obsession with fairies. She has a full-figured physique, and loves any kind of food, especially jelly donuts, but is unable to eat cake because, as she states, she's "frosting intolerant".
Mr. Bickles (voiced by Jim Ward) is Timmy's flamboyant drama teacher. A running gag is that he always has a "new dream" that is later "ruined", usually as the result of something Timmy has done.
Mr. Birkenbake (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is another teacher at Timmy's school and the chief editor of the school newspaper. He is a hippie that lives in a trailer and collects items made of "smoof" which he calls "the greatest natural occurring substance in the world". His name is a reference to Birkenstock sandals which are commonly associated with hippies.
Other
(voiced by Rob Paulsen) is an alien prince from the planet of Yugopotamia (located almost 10,760 astronomical units away from Earth) and one of Timmy's friends. Chang resembles a green squid-like creature with a brain contained in glass. He also features a "Fake-i-fier" on his waist, allowing him to shapeshift into objects and human forms. Introduced in "Spaced Out", Chang and the other aliens of Yugopotamia are horrified by things commonly considered cute and are attracted to disgusting objects (like manure) and people. As such, Chang has a crush on Vicky, who is unaware that he is a real alien. His parents, King Gripullon and Queen Jipjorrulac (voiced by Paulsen and Laraine Newman, respectively) eventually marry Chang to the vicious, homicidal Princess Mandie (pronounced "Man-DIE"). To escape her wrath, Chang relocates to the Dimmsdale Dump on Earth. He also celebrates F.L.A.R.G., a holiday celebrating revolting activities before blowing up the host's planet. Hartman said that he was supposed to have an evil alien voice, but when Paulsen used a surfer dude voice instead, they went with that.
The (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui, portrayed by Serge Houde in the first live action film) is the city's unnamed mayor for life who was first introduced in "Dream Goat!", where he is very protective (and somewhat jealous) of the city's famous mascot, Chompy the Goat (also voiced by Alazraqui), who in later episodes seems to become a very good friend of the Mayor, and is sometimes a literal "scapegoat" for when the Mayor needs to blame something on someone.
The are the Turners' next-door neighbors. Mr. Turner believes Sheldon Dinkleberg (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) to be his nemesis and blames him for numerous misfortunes. Nevertheless, Sheldon is a well-meaning and friendly neighbor and puts up with Mr. Turner's hatred of him, and he even humors the theories Mr. Turner makes about himself. He and his wife, Mrs. Dinkleberg, (voiced by Susanne Blakeslee) do not have any children and so can afford many luxuries that the Turners cannot. Sheldon having been in a relationship with Mrs. Turner only increased Mr. Turner's obsessive feelings of hatred towards him.
Bucky McBadbat (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is Chester's father and former baseball player who was kicked out of the MLB for being, per Timmy's words, "the worst baseball player ever". He wears a paper bag on his head because of the shame of being a failure as a baseball player.
Mrs. Dolores Crocker (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is Mr. Crocker's mother, who lives with her son. Mr. Crocker does not support her.
(voiced by Jim Ward) is a vertically challenged newscaster, known for his trademark line "I'm Chet Ubetcha".
(voiced by Chris Kirkpatrick) is a widely popular and attractive teen singing sensation, and friend of Timmy Turner's. Timmy initially wishes that the worst possible non-lethal thing would happen to Chip, which turned out to be being stuck with Vicky. This inspired him to write the hit song "Icky Vicky".
(voiced by Tara Strong) is a widely popular and attractive female teen singing sensation, and the princess of pop in Dimmsdale. She was sent by Cosmo to Fairy World in the episode "Truth or Cosmoquences" after she was hypnotized to believe she was his wife. She is a parody of Britney Spears. Her major role time mainly occurred during the series' original run until her only appearance in "Momnipresent" in the revival before being written out from the show due to Spears' negative reputation since 2006.
Flappy Bob (voiced by S. Scott Bullock) is a clown that was separated from his parents as a baby and raised by the Pixies to be a boring businessman. He was the founder and original owner of Flappy Bob's Camp Learn-A-Torium.
Happy Peppy Gary and Happy Peppy Betty (voiced respectively by Rob Paulsen and Grey DeLisle) are two of the workers at Flappy Bob's Camp Learn-A-Torium who are very overprotective of the children in their care. Gary has a crush on Betty but she doesn't see him that way.
Doug Dimmadome (voiced by Jim Ward) is the owner of the Dimmsdale Dimmadome and several other buildings and companies in Dimmsdale, and the richest and most powerful man in the city. Based on his mannerisms and Western attire, he is most likely a parody of American businessman William Randolph Hearst.
King Gripullon and Queen Jipjorrulac (voiced respectively by Rob Paulsen and Laraine Newman) are Mark Chang's parents, and rulers of Yugopotamia.
Mr. Ed Leadly (voiced by Rob Paulsen, portrayed by Tony Alcantar in A Fairly Odd Summer) is the president and CEO of Pencil Nexus, and boss of Timmy's Dad. His design resembles a small #2 pencil.
Clark and Connie Carmichael (voiced respectively by Mick Wingert and Cheri Oteri) are Chloe's parents. He is a "Professional Hero", and she is an "Extreme Veterinarian".
Villains
Francis
Francis (voiced by Faith Abrahams) is the school bully and another of Timmy's enemies. He has gray skin and a low-pitched voice, and his clothes and underwear are ragged. In "It's a Wishful Life", it is revealed that, if Timmy did not exist, Francis would funnel all of the aggression he expends bullying into football. His final appearance was in season 7. He was not seen in season 8, 9 or 10.
Anti-Fairies
The Anti-Fairies, as their name suggests, are the evil opposite of fairies. The anti-fairies are responsible for all the bad luck on earth and, according to Cosmo, Friday the 13th is their "Christmas". Each fairy has an anti-fairy counterpart, who is their opposite in both personality and morality.
Anti-Cosmo (Daran Norris) is portrayed as a cynical, evil, sadistic, and intelligent anti-fairy with a British accent, and is hinted to be the leader of the Anti-Fairies, while Anti-Wanda (Susanne Blakeslee), is portrayed as a dumb, hillbilly fairy who eats with her feet.
The Anti-Fairies reside in Anti-Fairy World, an enclosed environment within Fairy World, first shown as a chamber with a gate guarded by Jorgen. After Timmy accidentally set them free on Earth, Anti-Fairy World was turned into a prison-styled containment facility, where residents live in cells and wear suits preventing them from using magic. The high levels of security were still deemed penetrable, due in part to a specific group effort to get Anti-Cosmo out of Anti-Fairy World to be used as a donor for an operation. The Anti-Fairies serve as the main villains of The Jimmy Timmy Power Hour 2: When Nerds Collide, Fairly OddBaby, and Fairy Oddlympics. They are fairly important villains early in the series, but have made few appearances after Poof is introduced.
Anti Sparky is the evil version of Sparky who appeared in the episode "Man's Worst Friend". Unlike Sparky who is stupid yet very loyal and friendly, Anti Sparky is smart and takes advice from nobody.
Foop
Foop (voiced by Eric Bauza, portrayed by Scott Baio in A Fairly Odd Summer) is the evil counterpart of Poof and the son of Anti-Cosmo and Anti-Wanda. Because Poof is so nice and attracts so much positive attention, Foop is portrayed as evil and extremely jealous of his counterpart. Foop wants nothing but to destroy Poof, and he cares not for anyone who gets in his way. Unlike Poof, who causes bad things to happen when he cries, Foop's cry causes good things to happen.
Foop resembles Poof, but he is shaped like a cube rather than a ball. He also has a black mustache and goatee (a reference to the Star Trek episode "Mirror, Mirror" in which the evil counterpart of Spock wears the same). Foop has bat wings and a black crown, and his wand is a baby bottle with bat wings on the side. He also speaks with a stereotypical British gentleman accent.
Pixies
Pixies are similar to fairies but have a much more corporate attitude toward magic than fairies do. As such, they have square physical features, utilize mobile phones instead of wands, dress in predominantly greyscale suits with cone-shaped hats, speak in a monotone drone (provided by Ben Stein), require that wishes be submitted for approval by filling out multiple forms, and have a general disregard for anything fun or exciting that does not fit into the pixie mentality. Not only that, but they refer to their home world as a business called Pixies, Inc., and their leader is referred to as the Head Pixie, or H.P. (a caricature of Stein himself), with a pixie called Sanderson being his second-in-command. When they warp from place to place, Pixies use "ping" clouds instead of the fairies' traditional "poof" clouds. On numerous occasions, they have attempted to take over Fairy World and replace all fairies with pixies using elaborate business schemes.
Dr. Bender
Dr. Bender (voiced by Gilbert Gottfried in "The Same Game", "Scary GodParents", and "Shiny Teeth"; Butch Hartman onwards) is an evil dentist. He has an obsession with perfect teeth, wears dentures that keep his mouth in a perpetual smile, and is intolerant toward anyone who does not have quality teeth. His son, Wendell (also voiced by Gilbert Gottfried and later Butch Hartman), is almost identical to his father in appearance and is also tooth-hygienic, but hates it when his father scares off other kids. Dr. Bender enjoys performing pointless procedures on children's teeth and encourages children to eat refined sugar to boost his business.
Dark Laser
Dark Laser (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is a science fiction villain character who is first seen as an image of a catalog toy before Timmy brings him to life in "Hard Copy". In "Escape from Unwish Island," Dark Laser is among the Unwished characters that work for Imaginary Gary. He becomes a recurring villain in season six, appearing in "Mission: Responsible", "The End of Universe-ity", "Dread 'n' Breakfast", "Please Don't Feed The Turners" and "Momnipresent". He is an obvious parody of Darth Vader from the Star Wars film series. He is often seen carrying his mechanical toy dog Flipsy, whom Timmy brings into the real world before him (although not alive) and whose backflipping function always makes him giggle.
Norm the Genie
Norm (voiced by Norm Macdonald in the series and by Robert Cait in "Fairy Idol") is a genie tired of being bound to his lava lamp, into which he must return after being released and granting three wishes to his releaser. While there are no rules as to what wishes he can grant, he is deceptive and can find clever ways to subvert his master's expectations. After Timmy outsmarts him in his first appearance, he colludes with Crocker in his second appearance to get revenge on Timmy. In the special episode "Fairy Idol", he formulates a scheme to become a fairy godparent so he can escape his lamp and sabotages a "Fairy Idol" contest (parodying American Idol) to reach this goal.
Princess Mandie
Princess Mandie a.k.a. Man-DIE (voiced by Tara Strong) is Mark Chang's terrifying though beautiful former fiancée, a barbaric extraterrestrial princess who can be described as psychotically violent. Antagonized by Mark's intimidation about her and his refusal to marry her, Mandie constantly plots revengeful, bloodthirsty murder against him. It was later revealed Mandie never loved Mark and only wanted to marry him as a way of seizing power. Mandie was eventually defeated by Vicky when Timmy and Mark tricked Vicky into attacking her.
Remy Buxaplenty
Remy Buxaplenty (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is an archetypical privileged wealthy child, and one of Timmy's rivals. Despite being very rich, Remy is usually unhappy due to his neglectful, wealth-distracted parents, which is the reason why he has a fairy godparent, Wanda's ex-boyfriend Juandissimo. Both Remy and Timmy are aware of each other's fairy godparents, and Remy continuously tries to remove Timmy's fairies, primarily out of jealousy of not having both fairy and human parents who love him. Other than Timmy, and later, Chloe, he is the only named child in the series with a fairy godparent, though many episodes have featured a cameo of at least one unnamed child with their fairy godparent. His last name is a pun of "Bucks aplenty."
The Crimson Chin Villains
The enemies of the Crimson Chin that threaten Chincinnati.
The Bronze Kneecap (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is the archenemy of the Crimson Chin and the founder of the Body of Evil. His origin story is explained in the episode "The Masked Magician": he was born Ron Hambone, a jai alai player famous for his numerous third-place wins. At one point, he was about to claim a first-place win for the first time, only to trip over the Crimson Chin's eponymous chin and break one of his knees. This led him to melt his trophies into a bronze cast suit of armor, inspiring his villain name. His particular ability involves shooting various weapons out of the kneecap pieces of his suit. He once tried to have his enemy pulverised by strapping him to a giant mechanical leg and have a giant doctor robot test the leg's reflex while simultaneously smashing the Chin, later revealed as part of a plan to destroy the City Hall via the leg's reflex kicking a giant soccer ball towards it.
The Nega Chin (voiced by Jay Leno) is the evil twin of the Crimson Chin, who possesses the same powers. He wears a dark gray costume instead of red, has pointed teeth and red eyes, and has a no symbol over the C logo on his chin.
(voiced by Susanne Blakeslee) is a water-based villain in the Crimson Chin comics, who becomes more powerful when she absorbs more water. She speaks with a Russian accent.
The Gilded Arches (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is a former child film actor who crushes theaters with his gigantic, golden legs and feet, his only body parts that grew during puberty. He is very fond of disco and has a golden tooth. He appears in both the Crimson Chin webcomics, in which he tried to destroy any and all theaters that no longer showed his films (including the Someguy Asian-American Theater due to them never allowing Arches to put his feet in their cement) and the video game Breakin' da Rules, in which he steals the Chin's speed.
The Titanium Toenail is a villain in the Crimson Chin comics. He has the ability to shoot from his helmet sharp projectiles shaped like toenail clippings, which can cut through metal.
The Iron Lung is a metal-based villain in the Crimson Chin comics. He is a robotic enemy that uses the power of wind, which he uses to blow heavy gusts at his enemies as well as vacuum anything in his path.
The Golden Gut is a villain in the Crimson Chin comics. His stomach is made of weighted metal, which extends from his body and rams into his adversaries.
The Copper Cranium is a villain in the Crimson Chin comics, who wears a helmet with a giant, spring-loaded extra skull that can punch through obstacles.
Brass Knuckles (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) a.k.a. Coslo Puncholowski, is a hand-to-hand combat villain who has attempted to defeat the Crimson Chin in battle. As his name indicates, he has thick brass knuckles which enable him to punch through walls.
Spatula Woman (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is a woman who uses a giant red spatula to squish her enemies. She made her first appearance in the segment "Chin Up!", where she first encounters Cleft. She returned in the video game Breakin' Da Rules as the villain who stole the Crimson Chin's charisma.
Short-Fuse is a short-statured, bomb-themed villain in the Crimson Chin comics. As his name suggests, he is distinguished by his short temper, which lights the fuse on the hat he wears; and he literally explodes when others call him "small", "short" and "tiny".
Country Boy is a villain in the Crimson Chin comics. He throws deadly pig grenades.
The Darkness
The Darkness (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is an ancient entity that has existed for millennia and the main antagonist in the first two thirds of the "Wishology" trilogy. It was first encountered by the Ancient Fairy Warriors. Only when the fairies combined their powers to neutralize the Darkness by using its natural enemy, light, did they manage to stop the Darkness completely. In "Wishology", the Darkness returns, seeking out the Chosen One prophesied to stop it: Turbo Thunder (voiced by Brendan Fraser), a superhero who resembles Timmy. In "Wishology 3: The Final Ending", the Darkness' true intentions are revealed: it only wants to alleviate its lonely existence by making friends, but it frightens everyone on almost every planet it visits. Together, Timmy, Turbo Thunder, and their friends transform the Darkness into a light being called "The Kindness".
The Eliminators
The Eliminators are robots that serve as The Darkness's henchmen. They are a parody of the iconic action film character the Terminator. They have the power to absorb any weapons and gain its fire power, and after acquiring Fake-a-fires from Yugopotamia, can change their appearance to match anyone or anything. Throughout the "Wishology" trilogy the main Eliminator, characterized by his leather jacket and sunglasses, becomes obsessed with eliminating Timmy after many failed attempts. In "Wishology 3: The Final Ending", he spits from the Darkness after it orders him to keep Timmy alive, and absorbs first Jorgen's wand, then an arsenal of weapons to become "The Destructinator". The Destructinator then uses his magic to transform the Earth into his own, mechanical, planet with the inhabitants his servants. The Destructinator orders for the planet to be filled with explosives that will be launched at The Darkness by a small detonator in an attempt to destroy it himself. After Timmy frees the Fairies from the Darkness, he engages The Destructinator in combat, only to be beaten, but Timmy then tricks The Destructinator into absorbing all the explosives from the planet, which Timmy then detonates, obliterating The Destructinator for good. At the end of the episode, The Darkness (now reformed as The Kindness) releases a new Eliminator (now a friendly "Hug-inator") to free everyone that was trapped inside it.
References
The Fairly OddParents
Fairly Oddparents The
Fairly OddParents, The
Fairly OddParents
Television characters introduced in 1998
Animated characters introduced in 1998
Television characters introduced in 2001
Animated characters introduced in 2001 |
4071536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia%20Roma | Colonia Roma | Colonia Roma, also called La Roma or simply, Roma, is a district located in the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City just west of the city's historic center, and in fact is no longer a single colonia (neighbourhood) but now two officially defined ones, Roma Norte and Roma Sur, divided by Coahuila street.
The colonia was planned as an upper-class Porfirian neighborhood in the early twentieth century. By the 1940s, it had become a middle-class neighborhood in slow decline, with the downswing being worsened by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. Since the 2000s, the area has seen increasing gentrification.
Currently Roma and neighbouring Condesa are known for being the epicenter of hipster subculture in the city, and rivals Polanco as the center of the city's culinary scene. Besides residential buildings, the neighborhood streets are lined with restaurants, bars, clubs, shops, cultural centers, churches and galleries. Many are housed in former Art Nouveau and Neo-Classical buildings dating from the Porfiriato period at the beginning of the 20th century. Roma was designated as a "Barrio Mágico" ("magical neighborhood") by the city in 2011.
History
The area was a very shallow part of Lake Texcoco, dotted with tiny islands and one small island village of Aztacalco during the pre-Hispanic period. During the colonial period, the area dried up and became rural lands first owned by Hernán Cortés and then by the Counts of Miraville. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this area west of what was Mexico City proper was being turned into “modern” colonias for the wealthy seeking to escape the deterioration of city center. The colonia's height as an “aristocratic” and “European” enclave was from its founding in the 1900s until about the 1940s. However, wealthy residents began to move to newer neighborhoods as early as the 1940s and problems associated with urbanization began to appear in the 1950s. Older mansions began to give way to modern commercial buildings in the 1960s and 1970s as the deterioration became more serious. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake caused widespread destruction in the colonia, especially to newer and more commercial and apartment buildings, even causing one major development to mostly disappear. Since then, there have been efforts to conserve the area's architectural heritage and regain some of its former prestige with some success.
Geography
Boundaries
Roma's borders are:
Avenida Chapultepec to the north, across which is the Zona Rosa, Colonia Juárez area
Avenida de los Insurgentes to the west, across which is the Condesa district
Eje 4 Sur Benjamin Franklin, Antonio M. Anza and Viaducto Miguel Alemán to the south, across which are Colonia del Valle and Colonia Narvarte
Avenidas Cuauhtémoc and Jalapa to the east, across which is Colonia Doctores
In addition, a section (Roma Norte I) lies west of Insurgentes, whose borders are Chapultepec (N), Av. Veracruz (W), Parque España/Avenida Álvaro Obregón (S)
Avenida Coahuila divides Roma into the officially recognized neighborhoods of Roma Norte and Roma Sur.
Sub-districts
Roma consists of several sub-areas:
Roma Norte II and III
Roma Norte II and III, east of Avenida de los Insurgentes and north of Av. Coahuila, bisected by Roma's signature boulevard, Avenida Álvaro Obregón, is where the vast majority of the hippest restaurants, bars, clubs, etc. are found. It is home to about 1,100 mansions and other architecturally and historically important structures, mostly built between 1906 and 1939. Most of these are no longer residences but rather offices, cultural centers and other businesses. Examples of these adaptations include the Casa Lamm Cultural Center, the Casa Universitaria del Libro, the main building of the Universidad de Londres and the various art galleries which are mostly found on Colima street. In the northeast corner of this area is the pre-Hispanic village of La Romita.
Roma Norte I – Cibeles area
Roma Norte I, west of Insurgentes, has fewer landmark buildings and is a mix of offices, restaurants, retail and residential. The Palacio de Hierro department store Durango branch occupies a city block here and the landmark Fuente de Cibeles fountain is at the center of a major cluster of restaurants, cafés and clubs.
La Romita
La Romita is a small section of Roma which used to be an independent village and colonia and whose streets are still significantly different from the rest of Roma. The territory of modern Colonia Roma in pre-Hispanic times consisted of the very shallow waters of Lake Texcoco and a number of very small islands of firm ground, on one of which stood the village of Aztacalco. It was an independent village until the very early 20th century, when it was made its own colonia in 1903 with the name of La Romita. When Colonia Roma was created, Romita was officially incorporated into it, but the local residents fought redevelopment. The area has since developed semi-independently from the rest of Colonia Roma, both in infrastructure and socially. Even today, the area is relatively difficult to access, with narrow streets leading to a very small plaza and church called Santa María de la Natividad de Aztacalco (established in 1550). The local residents were of a significantly lower social class than the rest of Roma, with the wealthy residents avoiding it for fear of thieves. The area still has a reputation for crime and is found at the extreme northeast of the colonia near Metro Cuauhtémoc.
Roma Sur
East of Insurgentes and south of Coahuila street, Roma Sur is much more traditional than hip Roma Norte. There are many Latin American immigrants here, plus restaurants and shops catering to them. The Mercado Medellín is located here and is famous for Latin American goods and food as well. It continues to be a predominantly residential neighborhood and has not experienced the same level of gentrification as Roma Norte. This area of the district gained international attention as a result of Alfonso Cuarón's 2018 film Roma; Cuarón lived on Tepeji Street as a child.
Centro Urbano Benito Juárez
In the far southeast corner of Roma stands the Centro Urbano Benito Juárez, or Multifamiliar Juárez, a very large apartment complex in the 1940s and early 1950s. It was one of several projects of this type by architect Mario Pani, designed to house city government workers and to be semi-autonomous with its own schools, administration, businesses etc. and incorporate as much outdoors space as possible. Carlos Mérida’s mural work here was the most important of his career and the largest mural project in Mexico in the 20th century. Most of the complex and murals were destroyed by, or demolished after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. Most of the land where the demolished buildings stood has become the Jardín Ramón López Velarde park.
Cityscape
The colonia was an exclusive area for the wealthy on the edge of the city when it was built in the very early 20th century. Roma started to decline around the mid 20th century and was heavily affected by the 1985 earthquake. In the 21st century, it has revived somewhat as a Bohemian area with restaurants, art galleries, offices and more. Today, the area attracts younger generations of artists, writers and urban hipsters, with rents rising once again.
Most of the streets are quiet and lined with large, leafy trees, mostly how they were laid out when the colonia was built. The largest street is Avenida Álvaro Obregón, whose traffic islands have large trees, walking paths and metal benches. On weekends, these islands fill with vendors selling art, antiques and collectibles. However, this and other of the larger streets such as Oaxaca, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí, were designated as “ejes” or axis streets in the 1950s for through traffic.
Along with the tree lined streets, green spaces were also created with the addition of small parks called plazas. The old heart of the neighborhood is the Plaza Rio de Janeiro, originally called Plaza Roma. This plaza is surrounded by a number of old mansions as well as a couple a tall modern towers. In the center, there is a fountain and a replica of Michelangelo’s David. One mansion that faces this plaza is popularly called the La Casa de las Brujas (House of the Witches) although its official name is the Edificio Rio de Janeiro. The popular name of this red-brick castle-like structure, built in 1908, comes from the face that seems to be formed by the windows on the top of the corner tower and the Art Deco entrance, which was added in the 1930s. The Plaza Luis Cabrera is on the corner of Guanajuato and Orizaba Streets. It was the setting for part of a short story called “La batallas en el desierto” by José Emilio Pacheco.
While there have been efforts to restore the area's reputation as aristocratic and upscale, the area still has problems associated with deterioration. There are a number of cabarets and men's clubs, which have attracted and sustained prostitution in the area. There are still unmaintained and abandoned buildings in which live squatters and other very poor people. In the 1990s, there was a small, poor community of about 35 Otomi in the colonia, living in abject poverty. Most earned money and depend on community soup kitchens. Most lived as squatters in abandoned buildings.
Architecture
Roma is one of a number of “modern” colonias such as Colonia Juárez, Santa María la Ribera and Colonia San Rafael, which were built on what was the western edge of the city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for wealthy residents looking to escape the city center. The streets and houses were designed and built based on European styles, which can still be seen today, especially on Orizaba, Alvaro Obregon, Colima and Tonalá Streets, where the older facades are best conserved. These were homes of bankers, factory owners, politicians, artists and businessmen who worked in the city center but lived here. Like its sister colonias, Roma has since lost many of its original mansion homes, but it has resisted this loss better. Today, there are an estimated 1,100 structures which date from the 1930s or earlier, compared to the 500 to 600 the remain in Santa María la Ribera and Colonia Juárez. Most of the area's historically and architecturally significant structures were built between 1906 and 1939. These earlier structures include examples of Neo-colonial (which imitate the styles built during Mexico's colonial period) and Art Deco, but most are “Porfirian,” meaning that they are a mix of French, Roman, Gothic and Moorish elements which were all fashionable in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. One of these old mansions was the home of television personality Paco Stanley, who says he bought the structure because of its “small friendly ghosts,” naming it “La Princesita” or The Little Princess. Stanley uses the property both as living space and office. These houses and streets have provided the backdrop for films such as Los Olvidados, filmed in La Romita by Luis Buñuel and literary works such as Batallas en el desierto by José Emilio Pacheco, Agua Quemada by Carlos Fuentes, Manifestacion de Silencios by Arturo Azuela and El Vampiro de la Colonia Roma by Luis Zapata.
However, the colonia now also has a large number of more modern structures, defined as having been built since the 1950s. These structures came to replace many of the original structures as the character of the colonia changed, along with the lack of urban planning, zoning and the destruction caused by the 1985 earthquake. Owners of many of the older structures have had or have wanted to demolish or radically change them for economic reasons, a process which still persists today. In cases where they have succeeded, modern office and apartment buildings have appeared. Not only are these structures taller and markedly different in design, they also weigh more, affecting the ground around them and causing damage to remaining earlier structures.
While the older mansions are no longer economically viable as residences, there has been efforts since the 1990s to save them, by converting them into offices, stores, restaurants and other businesses with restrictions aimed at conserving their facades and the colonia's overall character. Like neighboring Colonia Condesa, Roma has a number of cafes, restaurants and other eateries established in older structures (as well as newer ones), especially along Álvaro Obregón, Colima, and Orizaba streets, and on plazas Río de Janeiro and Luis Cabrera.
Demographics
The 2010 population of Roma Norte was 27,770 and of Roma Sur 17,406. The 2000 population of Roma Norte was 26,610 and of Roma Sur 17,406.
Since the 1990s, there was a small poor community of about 35 Otomi in the colonia, living in abject poverty. Most earned money and depend on community soup kitchens. Most live as squatters in abandoned buildings.
Jewish community in Roma and Condesa
In the 1930s and 40s many Jewish residents moved from downtown Mexico City to Roma and Condesa, where Yiddish was the unofficial language of Parque México, the local park. A few synagogues are still in operation on the Roma borough, like the Yehuda Halevi Synagogue. Today, in the Condesa borough, there are several more small orthodox synagogues hidden inside houses on Amsterdam Avenue, and another synagogue at the corner of Montes de Oca and Parral streets. In the 1950s, 60s, and 70s, Jews moved further west to Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Interlomas, Bosques de las Lomas, and Tecamachalco, where the majority are now based.
Little Italy
Italians who had been living in the streets of La Merced since the late 1800s started to move to the area from the 1950's onward as they became economically stable. Many more started to move into the area from the 1990's to today. Most have origins in northern Italy but southern Italy is also represented. The "Barrio Italiano" or "Via Italia" is along Calle Orizaba from Plaza Luis Cabrera to Plaza Rio de Janeiro up to Calle Puebla. Many Italian restaurants and gelaterias have sprung up with La Bella Italia being the most popular and the statue of The David holding celebrations for the Italian community when the Italian Team wins in football games.
Colombia Chiquita
Little Colombia has been forming along Medellin Avenue, especially in front of the Mercado Medellin since the late 1980s. Strong Colombian immigration has brought about a vibrant Colombian community with many Colombian businesses, especially restaurants, catering to the Colombian community and the rest of the city.
Little Spain
Little Spain comes about from the Spanish community from La Merced and Calle Lopez by Chinatown moving into La Roma in the 1940s. Especially as they became an economic powerhouse. More Spaniards kept immigrating to Mexico and the community kept growing into what today is Villa Madrid and Parque España where a replica of the Cibeles Fountain has been erected by the large community as a gift to the city that welcomed them with open arms. The Spanish community is very active and many regional Spanish institutions like Centro Gallego are also in the area along with many Spanish restaurants and shops in the area.
Economy
Shopping
Roma is home to free-standing Palacio de Hierro and Woolworth department stores. Enclosed malls include the Plaza Insurgentes shopping center, anchored by Sears, located on the site of the first Sears in Mexico, opened in 1947, and prior to that, the American Embassy. On Cuauhtémoc street are the Plaza Centro Cultural and Pabellón Cuauhtémoc. The large Parque Delta shopping center borders Roma on the south.
Restaurant scene
Many top chef-driven restaurants are located in Roma including two in the "Latin America's 50 Best Restaurants" list by San Pellegrino: Máximo Bistrot (chef Eduardo "Lalo" García); and Rosetta by chef Elena Reygadas. Other celebrated restaurants are Fonda Fina by chef Jorge Vallejo of Quintonil); Delirio and Casa Virginia by chef Monica Patino; Huset by Maycoll Calderon; and Cocina Conchita and La Docena for seafood.
The Mercado Roma, not a traditional public market but rather an upscale food hall, unites some of the city's diverse, upscale culinary offerings under one roof and was the first of an ever-expanding number of food halls in the city; while converted mansions such as Casa Quimera, Purveyor, Colima 256, Durango 216, Blanco Colima and Roma Quince offer a variety of restaurants, quality fast food, art, hip artisanal products and services in different rooms of the mansions.
Public markets
Mercado Medellín is located in Roma Sur (southern Roma) and is well known for offering products from other Latin American countries, particularly Cuba, Colombia and Venezuela.
Arts and culture
Art
Colima Street is home to a number of art galleries which have worked since the 1990s to establish themselves as an international art market to compete with New York, Paris, London and Tokyo. These galleries include the Landucci Gallery. Artists such as Mexican photographer Victor Carresquedo and American Barry Wolfryd have set up shop in the area as well as the Centro Libre de Arte, Mexico City's newest fine arts school. The goal is to promote Mexican art from its current status as regionally relevant to one with broader appeal, by not only promoting native artists more effectively at home but also by sponsoring international tours, featuring established artists such as Francisco Toledo, Roberto Márquez and Alfredo Castaneda as well as newer talents such as Cisco Jimenez and Guillermo Kuitca. The area is also attracting South American and Central American artists looking to break into the U.S. and world art markets.
It stands out for being one of the main points in the city where street art is present. You can find different murals made by national and international artists such as D*Face, Interesni Kaski, Saner, Revost among others.
Stage and cinema
The Centro Cultural (formerly Telmex) theater complex is located in the northeast corner of Roma, while Cine Tonalá is a well-known indie/art-house cinema in Roma Sur with a sister venue in Bogotá, Colombia. Cinemex multiplex cinemas are located in three enclosed shopping centers around Roma.
The district is the namesake for the 2018 film Roma, written and directed by Alfonso Cuarón, which takes place in the neighborhood during the 1970s.
Museums and libraries
Casa Lamm
The best known landmark in the district is the Casa Lamm. La Casa Lamm was a project to rehabilitate one of the old mansions which was supported by local authorities. Today, it is a cultural center and restaurant located in a restored mansion that dates to 1911 on Alvaro Obregon street. The institute consists of art exhibition space and management, some graduate level programs in the fine arts and a restaurant and bookstore, which are open to the public. Since it opened, it has hosted numerous art exhibitions. In 1994, Casa Lamm, along with art galleries OMR and Nina Menocal have worked to make Roma a center for the visual arts in Mexico, attracting more galleries, artists and others to set up shop here.
The institute offers studies in poetry, novel writing and theater of the 20th century. It also offers a master's degree in Literary Appreciation and Creation, which combines both classes on criticism as well as workshops for writers mostly focusing on Latin American and European works. On the ground floor of the building, facing the street are the bookstore and restaurant. The restaurant, called "Nueve Nueve" is centered on an open-air patio accented by a black fountain.
Casa Universitaria del Libro
The Casa Universitaria del Libro (University House of Books) is located on Puebla and Orizaba Streets. The building dates from 1920, when it was built by Joaquin Barando for the McGregor family. During the Second World War it was used as the Brazilian embassy. The Centro Asturiano took possession in the 1930s. When this institution moved to Polanco in 1986, it began to lease the building free to the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). Although unproven, it is still rumored that the house was used for prostitution at one point and there is also local legend which states that a ghosts wanders through its halls, rooms and especially in the terrace. The bookstore specializes in the promotion of mostly written works produced by those associated with UNAM in the center of the city away from the Ciudad Universitaria. It sponsors approximately 250 activities per year such as book readings and signings, conferences, seminars and round tables. There is no other bookstore in Mexico dedicated solely to the promotion of a university's academic and literary production.
Museo Objeto del Objeto
Museo Objeto del Objeto (Object of the Object Museum or MODO) was inaugurated in 2010, following Mexico City's tradition of collectors founding or expanding museums with their personal collections. This museum is based on the collection of ordinary objects such as commercial packaging (especially beverage containers), advertisements, household appliances and more for a total of over 30,000 items collected by Bruno Newman over more than forty years. The museum is dedicated to communication and design, using the collection as a starting point for collaboration and research.
Casa del Poeta Museo Ramón López Velarde
Located on Alvaro Obregon and Córdoba streets, the Casa del Poeta is a museum and hosts libraries 'Salvador Novo' and 'Efraín Huerta'.
Churches
The Sagrada Familia Church is located on the corner of Puebla and Orizaba Streets. Its architecture is classified as Romanesque Revival and Gothic Revival, it was designed by Mexican architect Manuel Gorozpe. The first stone was laid in 1906, but most of structure was built between 1910 and 1912, of reinforced concrete. At the time, the church was criticized as “mediocre, ostentatious and of decadent taste”. In the 1920s, painter and Jesuit priest Gonzalez Carrasco decorated the interior with murals, with two smaller paintings realized by Hermano Tapia. The interior also contains the remains of Miguel Agustín Pro, a Jesuit priest executed by Plutarco Elias Calles in 1927 during the Cristero War and considered to be a martyr. The church is fronted by a small atrium bordered by a wrought-iron fence constructed by the Gábelich workshop, which was in neighboring Colonia Doctores. It is one of the few wrought iron works to survive from the early 20th century.
On Avenida Cuauhtémoc between Querétaro and Zacatecas streets is the Nuestra Señora del Rosario Church, which was built by Mexican architects Angel and Manuel Torres Torija. This church is Gothic Revival begun in 1920 and concluded in 1930. While built after the Porfirio Díaz era of the late 19th and early 20th century, the church shares many of the features as churches from that time. Records indicate that the project was probably planned around 1911 but was delayed due to the Mexican Revolution. The facade contains a decorative rose window, common to Gothic styles with ojival doors and windows. The interior is spacious with three naves with notable stained glass windows with orient themselves vertically.
Parks and recreation
The neighborhood contains small public squares at Plaza Luis Cabrera, Plaza Río de Janeiro, Plaza Villa de Madrid (more commonly known as "Cibeles" as it contains the Fuente de Cibeles fountain, a replica of the one in Madrid), and tiny Plaza Juan Rulfo. Two full-size parks are Jardín Pushkin and Jardín Ramón López Velarde, while there are pocket parks at Jardín Edith Sánchez Ramírez and at the corner of Querétaro and Tonalá streets. Avenida Alvaro Obregon has a pedestrian median (camellón) lined with gardens and fountains with characters from Roman and Greek mythology.
Education
In addition to the educational programs at the Casa Lamm and the Casa Universitaria del Libro, Roma has a number of private educational institutions from primary school to university. Some, such as the Instituto Pedagogico Anglo Espanol, the Instituto Renacimiento and the Colegio Mexico have been established since the first half of the 20th century.
There are two universities based in Roma. The Universidad de Londres is a mostly business college. Its main campus is in Colonia Roma, but it also has eight other facilities in other parts of Mexico City and three in other parts of Mexico. The Roma campus is housed in one of the palatial mansions from the Porfirian era on Orizaba street. It offers twenty bachelor's degrees, eight master's and eight certificate programs.
The Universidad de las Américas de la Ciudad de México (UDLA) was founded in 1940 as the Mexico City Junior College (MCC). In the 1960s, its name changed to the University of the Americas and shortly thereafter to the current one. It was founded in Colonia Roma but moved to a facility on the Mexico City-Toluca highway. When the institution split in the 1980s, one campus moved to Puebla and the other moved to the current location back in Colonia Roma in newly built facilities. UDLA offers seven bachelor's degrees, four graduate degrees and various certificate programs. It is located in a modern facility on Puebla Street.
Colegio Amado Nervo is a private school in Colonia Roma Sur.
The Colegio Liceo Mexicano, a private elementary school, is in Colonia Roma. Several other small public and private school and universities exist in the area.
Transportation
The neighborhood has public bus, Metrobus bus rapid transit, pesero (minibus), trolleybus and metro (subway/underground) service, as well as EcoBici bikeshare stands. Metro stations are all at the edges of the neighborhood and include Sevilla, Insurgentes, Cuauhtémoc, Centro Médico, and Chilpancingo.
Roma is bordered or crossed by several ejes viales (main crosstown arteries, mostly one-way): 1 Sur (two-way, Chapultepec), 2 Sur (eastbound, Yucatán/Querétaro/San Luis Potosí), 1 Poniente (two-way, Cuauhtémoc), 2 Poniente (northbound, Monterrey), and 3 Poniente (southbound, Yucatán/Medellín). The southern boundary of the neighborhood is the Viaducto Miguel Alemán freeway.
References
External links
Brief history in Spanish
Images of Colonia Roma
Cuauhtémoc, Mexico City
Roma
Jewish communities in Mexico
Restaurant districts and streets in Mexico |
4071591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciszka%20Urszula%20Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82owa | Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa | Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł (February 13, 1705, Chartorysk – May 23, 1753, Navahrudak), was a Polish writer and playwright, the first female writer on the territory of modern Poland and Belarus. She was a Princess, the last female representative of the Wiśniowiecki noble house and a wife of Michał Kazimierz "Rybeńko" Radziwiłł.
Biography
Franciszka Urszula (Polish: Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł, Belarusian: Францішка Уршуля Радзівіл) was the only child of famous and wealthy parents. Her father Prince Janusz Antoni Wiśniowiecki (1678–1741) was the Castellan of Kraków, governor of Vilna and Kraków, mayor of Pinsk, while his wife Teofila (1680–1757) was a member of Leszczyński family and a daughter of the Royal epicalyx and cupbearer, governor of Podlasie, mayor of Kovel and Kamenetz.
Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł received excellent education at home: spoke several European languages, knew the world literature, and wrote poetry. The Wiśniowiecki house was a creative atmosphere: Franciszka Urszula's father was a talented speaker and writer, he wrote religious tracts, eulogies and religious songs. At his Court in Czartorysk there was an active Chapel, also, the uncle of Princess Michał Serwacy Wiśniowiecki had the Court Theatre, and perhaps he wrote plays for it.
On April 23, 1725 Franciszka Urszula married Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł "Rybeńko", maecenas and head of the most wealthy family in the country. He was the IX ordinate of Nesvizh (later – the great Lithuanian hetman). In marriage they had four children: Karol Stanisław "Panie Kochanku" Radziwiłł (1734–1790), Janusz Tadeusz (1734–1750), Teofilia Konstancja Radziwiłłówna (1738–1818), and Katarzyna Karolina Radziwiłł (1740–1789).
It was impossible to imagine life in Nesvizh without the festivals, banquets, hunts, rallies, parades and games in those days. At the initiative of Franciszka Urszula there was theatre added to that – entertainment of royal level: in Warsaw the theatrical performances were initiated only by kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland.
Prince Michał was often away to participate in the parliament and tribunals as well as make regular detour of their other lands, so the young princess personally made decisions on majority questions in management and leadership in Nesvizh. She led the restoration of the Nesvizh castle after devastating wars with Sweden, protected Nesvizh from raids of Russian army in the 1730s, has streamlined and expanded the Library, restored the printing house.
Very rarely leaving Nesvizh, she unfolded a great cultural propaganda and Christian outreach. Talents in literature and fine arts allowed Franciszka Urszula to make Nesvizh one of the centres of cultural life in the kingdom in a very short period.
Theatrical passion of Michał Kazimierz and Franciszka Urszula began in 1740, when first time in Nesvizh Castle a foreign troupe staged a play called "The Example of Justice”. Then productions were organised by own strength. Among the plays were Molière's comedy, Voltaire’s "Zaire", plays of other European authors. Full life of Radziwill theatre started after 1746, when Franciszka Urszula became its manager. That time her first dramatic works appeared. Almost every year the Princess wrote a few new plays of narrative content: in some Franciszka Urszula made accents to the need for education, in others – condemned unfaithful husbands or admired female goodness, sincerity. However, the dominant theme of her drama was love, as evidenced by the eloquent names of the plays: "Love – a biased judge", "Love – a skilled master," "Ingenious Love" and others.
The work of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł can be divided into two periods. The first (1725–45) was bilingual, and genres – mainly poetic and epistolary. The most fruitful period of dramatic art and theatre activities in Nesvizh was during 1746–52, when the princess led the cultural life in the castle herself.
The last stage play in the Nesvizh Theatre, according to “The Diary" of Michał Kazimierz Radziwill, dates December 27, 1752: it was "operetta of Europe" (i.e. opera "Happy unhappiness"). Earlier in October, the princess was ill so badly that even wrote a farewell letter to her husband. She lived for another six months. The disease, which retreated in the first months of 1753, suddenly escalated on May 18 when the princess, heading to Grodno, was forced to stay in Putsevichy, a village near Navahrudak. On May 19, she was transported to Navahrudak, where she died on 23 May 1753 in the house of the mayor of Bobrujsk.
Writing
Poetry
Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł is the author of 80 poetic (undramatic) works of various volume – from four to one hundred and fifty lines. Genre system and figurative art palette of her poetry was based on the classical literary heritage of antiquity (Cicero, Ovid, Seneca), formed under the influence of Western European (primarily French classical) poetic school of the 17th century (poetry of François de Malherbe, Jean de La Bruyère) but in close connection with the artistic achievements of the national culture of the Renaissance and Baroque.
The first (recorded in the manuscripts) poetic experiences of Princess originated within epistolary. Of the large amount (more than 1300) of Franciszka Urszula’s letters the most interesting are four poetic notes to her husband. The poetic works of this genre reflected conversation concept, which was formed back in the ancient epistolary theory and gained popularity in the French salon poetry of the 18th century. According to Cicero’s regulations, the author writes letters «cotidianis verbis» («in everyday words"). Traditional epistolary formula combined with the "information of the heart."
All four poetic letters to Prince Michał imbued with a sense of sadness of separation, bear the stamp of the hot subjective feelings. Nevertheless, Franciszka Urszula wrote her epistles, clearly hoping for a wider audience, as between the lines she articulates the main points of the Code of ideal love: eternal loyalty, recognition of the highest values of love, boundless sadness and loss of interest in life in separation from loved ones.
S. Wasilewski, characterizing poetic letters of Princess Radziwiłł, seen them as “riotous bloom of feelings without literary powder and hairstyles".
A number of poetic works of Franciszka Urszula imbued with expressive didacticism. Admonition is an ideological dominant in poetic work of Princess titled "Cautions of relieve alles life information", which was written after the birth of daughter Anna Maria in 1732 and was devoted to her, and shortly after the Princess's death, in 1753, was printed by Jesuits of Nesvizh. After the opening prayer, in fifteen paragraphs the author formulates the basic tenets of chaste life. Traditional Christian concepts are interwoven here with humanistic spiritual values that are rooted in the Seneca’s "Moral letters to Lucilius". For example, tips "to glorify the Trinity of the One God", to get rid of pride, to avoid corruption and laziness, respect parents connect with the glorification of wisdom, affirmation of the priority of spiritual values over beauty. If the advice to approach the ideal of holiness (infinite mercy and goodness) are interpreted in line with the Christian-humanist doctrine, the call for restraint corresponds with the views of the Stoics and Epicureans about the serenity of the soul, not burdened by envy and greed. Organizing principle of all that is good and positive is God, so in the last paragraph the advice "to keep the commandments diligently" is connected with the desire of God's blessing for the little daughter.
Only three of the seven children of Michał and Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł survived and reached adulthood. The loss of each child was the cause of severe mental anguish to the mother, and she wrote memorial poems. So, on the occasion of the death of two-year first-born in 1729 "The gravestones inscription... to Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwill" was written, and the death of seventeen-years-old Janusz in 1750 gave "The regret over my son" ("Farewell to the son"). Both funeral works stood out with eloquence and were full of panegyric elements. Thus, the death of a young son Mikołaj is shown through the typical images of baroque elegiac poetry, most of which are concentrated around the motif of the "harvest of death." This choice allows to the author make a special poetic oxymoron: Mikołaj, who was born in May, and died in July, is likened to "a May flower", which is premature, still in the summer, mowed by death; or a young beast hunted in May (when hunting is permitted only in the autumn).
Lamentation of Mikołaj is not only the personal pain of the mother, but also awareness of irreparable loss for the magnate families – Radziwiłł and Wiśniowiecki – and for the kingdom. The death of young prince is shown through heraldic marks of the Radziwiłł’s emblem (an eagle and pipes) and Wiśniowiecki emblem (star, cross and month), through the dominant colours (yellow and blue) of these emblems, through a short digression into the glorious history of two noble families. Only occasionally, the voice of maternal grief breaks through submissive words of prayer to God, through the sublimely rhetorical passages.
The cycle of poetic portraits "Description of ladies of Her Highness Radziwill, Chancelloress of Great Lithuanian Kingdom" was written most likely in 1733, when Princess Franciszka Urszula was visiting her mother-in-law (the one mentioned in the title) Anna Katarzyna Sanguszko. This is a typical example of court poetry, created under the influence of the French salon culture of the 17th century. Poetic portraits are mainly complementary; they had a recreational function, and therefore were full of verbal sophistication, periphrasis.
Active in the social life the Princess used notable facts of her surroundings in the poetry. Thus, a number of poems on a particular occasion were written. These poems are varied in content and mood: greeting poems, farewells, etc. The reason for writing could be a wedding or the feeling of friendly affection, or even the prince's hunting or sending a letter from Leon Michał Radziwiłł to his wife Anna Luiza Mycielska.
A significant part of the poetic heritage of Princess is lyric poems in which the author tries to reflect the "tyranny of the soul." Nesvizh poet expresses her personal understanding of the nature of relationships between women and men ("I often do not understand those people..." "Phony fun of variable affects..."), from the height of her life experience analyses her era ("those who cannot read the personalities"), formulates her own strategy of inner life ("Complaint", "Verse with a murmur of marriage "). Self-presentation mostly covers the sphere of her intimate feelings.
Lyrical poetry sometimes comes in the form of religious poetry. However, the poems addressed to the God become poetic illustrations of various states of a Christian soul, which coincide with the three parts of the rosary (joyful, mourning and praise). This is the confession of faith and humble prayer ("God, you're the paradise defender ...") or mournful memories about the torments of Christ (freestyle interpretation of anthem «Stabat Mater» – «Your wounds bleed, Jesus"), or doxology affection with miracle of God's creation ("The call for creatures to praise their Creator"). Sometimes biblical topic can be an artistic background for the unfolding of moral concept of the author (the poem "Sweet memories on Paradise "). This lyrical poetry of Princess Radziwill is the most consistent in the development of baroque aesthetics and style.
Art techniques help the author to disclose her philosophy of life, first – the inner life. According educated aristocrat, her personal spiritual experience is worth to make it public; like other poets of the Baroque period, she felt to be the happy owner of the truth. This feeling led to the awareness of intellectual elitism.
An important fact is the "sloppy" attitude of to copyright. On one hand, Princess Franciszka Urszula considers it possible to personally rewrite a poem by French poet François de Malherbe and "forget" mark in the manuscript the author's name, on the other hand – she assigns her poems authorship to other persons (such as, "Gratitude of His Highness Prince Leon Radziwill" or "Verse on the memory of Her Highness Anna Luiza Mycielska... ").
Prose
Authorship of Princess remains unproven towards prose treatises in French, placed in the collection "Manuscript full of different poems I have collected and by the order of His Highness husband of mine of my own hand copied [...] in Nesvizh on March 29, 1732". In the works "On the mutual responsibilities of men and women...", "Relationship with others and secrecy of it" a variety of family life issues is analysed, as well as a logical reasoning to ensure happiness in marriage given: a wise prudence, piety of spouses, reciprocal enforcement of marital obligations, propriety and benevolence, politeness and virtuousness.
In her treatise "On Marriage" a spiritual (religious), and the social nature of the union of man and woman is revealed, goals of marriage are formulated, as well as advice is given on how to make the right choice and make the marriage a happy one. It is obvious that the issues reflected in francophone treatises were extremely interesting for the poet, whose work from the beginning thematically and figuratively had been clearly directed to the theme of love, at least in the marriage.
Drama
Since 1746 Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł wrote two or three plays a year and put them on the stage in Nesvizh and Alba. After marriage, the princess rarely travelled outside the Radziwill residences. Frequent childbirth, poor health did not allow her to travel, so her "theater education" was carried out at home, in the library. From the poetic-dramatic specimens she moved to comedy, tragedy and the libretto.
A special feature of the Radziwill’s dramatic art is that she wrote directly for the stage: as soon as any tragedy or comedy has been prepared, any family celebration could be a convenient pretext for staging it. At the same time, there was not any internal connection between the respective views of celebration and genre of a play: a serious thing was performed when something serious was written, funny – when a comedy was in the presence.
There is reason to doubt that Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł began writing drama only in the 1740s: the fragments of individual pieces were probably written before. Perhaps some of the draft could occur before 1732, when Princess actively mused upon the problems of love and marriage. However, because the evidence of the early dramatic experience doesn’t exist, the starting point of her dramaturgical and directorial activity is officially considered June 13, 1746, when in Nesvizh, in the summer residence Alba the comedy "Ingenious Love", dedicated to 44th anniversary of Prince Michał Kazimierz was staged. Due to the lack of facilities adapted for performances, the play was performed in the open air: arch decoration was built, sofas put for the nobles and clergy audience (petty nobles and officers of the Nesvizh garrison watched the play standing).
After the first play, encouraged with husband’s praise, Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł started constant work on the repertoire for Nesvizh theater, and with the intensity of her work, dramatic skills of Francesca grew from year to year. In 1746, after the first comedy, the princess wrote another play called "It’s God's predetermination". This product, labelled by the author as "a tragedy", opens a number of plays, which in fact were a dramatic interpretation of fairy tales. Thus, the basis of the above-mentioned tragedy – well known in European folklore tale about Sleeping Beauty and Snow White. Because princesses Theophila and Karolina Radziwill were actors of this play, we can assume that it were children who prompted their mother to use famous fairy tales.
A comparison of the plot of the play "It's God's predetermination" with different interpretations of the original story in the folklore shows the Belarusian or Ukrainian roots of the story. Meanwhile, the naive tale of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł is filled with moralizing pathos. The play becomes an illustration of one of the central motifs of Francesca’s plays: everything that happens in the world – the matter of God's predetermination. The main role in the play belongs not to the talking mirror, but to the cruel godless mother who loses her beauty when becomes a moral monster.
The comedy "Love is a biased judge" recreates the story of the Trojan prince Paris from his birth to his arrival in Troy with the Helen. Greek myths about the Trojan War, since ancient times were very popular. However, despite the large number of predecessors who wrote about the Trojan myth, Princess Radziwiłł went her own way in creating a comedy. The writer changes events, the story builds, and the names of the characters. In her play, she showed a new, 'aristocratic' understanding of the essence of the Trojan myth, new accents. She entirely exonerates Paris and Priam, while all previous literary-dramatic tradition considered them as negative characters departed from the will of the gods.
Main character receives a fundamentally new interpretation: in the famous scene with the "Three Graces" Paris gives "the apple of discord" to Venus without hesitation (in contrast to the mythical hero). He believes that would have to be afraid of condemnation of the gods, if he gave the apple to acquire power or wisdom, but not for love. Travel of Paris to Greece also gets a new interpretation. According to the myth, the Trojan prince is going for the liberation of Priam’s sister Hesiona but with the hope to get Helena in Sparta. Radziwill’s Paris completely forgets about the gift of Venus: ashamed of his ignorance, he goes on a long journey to civilized countries to get an education. This plot has primarily a didactic purpose of teaching children, and in a broader sense reinterpretation of the myth can be seen as the result of the Enlightenment ideology, with its cult of science and education.
"The hare-brained judge" is the story of three Christian sisters-martyrs Agapa, Hiony and Irene who lived in times of Emperor Dioсletian. The drama is close to the genre of medieval morality play but creatively reworked so main characters were thus in the spotlight.
G. Baryshev pointed out "emphasis on the greatness and power of the spirit, that could not been broken with persuasion to change the religion or the torture and humiliation".
Describing the main characters, the author draws attention to the "internal", the spiritual aspect of their holiness. To this, we can add the talent of Princess Radziwill as the poetic interpreter of the Christian religion.
Comedy "Love is born in the eyes" opens the cycle of plays that Polish researcher Yuri Kzhyzhanovsky calls antic-eastern-pastoral. The comedy takes place in Cyprus in ancient times. The author’s focus is power of love over the person. In one of the episodes, Princess Radziwill acts as an amateur politician, offering a model of the ideal state.
In 1750, Franciszka Urszula writes a tragedy, "Gold in the fire." The plot of the play is known from the Boccaccio’s novels: a story of the Marquis of Saluzzo, who married a poor girl, and then brutally checked a new wife on loyalty and obedience to his will. One more comedy, "The Amusement of Fortune" is happening in Egypt and based on the legend about the king of Egypt Apries, who was overthrown by new proclaimed king Amadis. The legend was taken from Herodotus "History". Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł succeeded in synthesizing ancient history, figurative and narrative features of the Hellenistic and heroic novels, adding magnificent Baroque vocal and decoration. For 1751 play "Trapped libertines”, Francesca processed famous Eastern fairy tale from “Thousand and one nights”. Danish expert A. Stender-Peterson noted liveliness of dialogues and wonderful characteristic differentiation. [3] It was an achievement of Francesca that in the era of pastoral drama she used live colloquial, created vivid real characters and successfully combined all the elements.
The comedy "Unreasonable Judge" was the second Eastern farce, "realistic samples of comic Orientalism" [4] Nesvizh poet united the eastern entourage with elements of farcical action.
The year 1752 was the last and most productive in the work of the Princess: she translated two Molière plays – "Les Précieuses ridicules" and "Doctor in spite of himself". She made her own dramatic adaptations and put them on stage in Nesvizh. In the same year, she made two operas based on classical antic mythology. The ancient myth embodies the dominant idea of Franciszka Urszula’s work: a sincere love – tests, but at the same time a reward for them. Unlike in ancient stories, Franciszka Urszula’s love is a gallant refined feeling; the desire for spiritual unity and not physical thirst. [5]
Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł was the creator of Nesvizh Court Theatre repertoire, translator and processor of Molière's comedy heritage. She was the first Belarusian woman-playwright and created syncretic dramatic culture, developed under the significant influence of the Western European theater. Her style was created under the Baroque influence with its features: blurred genre boundaries, free composition, etc. At the same time, certain episodes confirm the impact of classic poetics, as well as the Enlightenment ideology. [6]
Transferring scene to exotic countries, the author used domestic, social and political realities of her own country.
The writer's credo can be outlined as "a praise of a woman" Her dramatic work absorb the ideas and concepts of modern times – the Enlightenment, reflects spiritual needs of aristocracy; it is an evidence of the high level of the refined poetic word in Polish-Belarusian literature of the 18th century. [7].
Heritage
After her death, one of the Nesvizh actors and stage directors Jakub Fryczyński published all her dramatic works, with engraved illustrations by Michał Żukowski based on drawings of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł ("Komedye y Tragedye", 1754). [8] Volumetric tome titled "Comedy and tragedy, composed by... Her Highness Princess Wiśniowiecki, Korybut, Radziwiłł" includes nine comedies, five tragedies and two operas (according to genre definitions, written in the book). There are several copies of the book printed without a date, on good paper, with differences both in the title page and in the text. A copy from the National Library of Belarus is likely to be a re-publication.
The legacy of Princess Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł is a valuable historical and literary document. It consists of sixteen comedies and tragedies. The writer even tried her skills in opera librettos. Her plays staging carried out at various Radziwiłł estates, but after Michał Kazimierz's death in 1762, his wife’s work became theatrical relic and aroused the interest of only a narrow circle in Radziwiłł family. Then public forgot it. New rise of Nesvizh theater started in 1777, when Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł’s son Karol Stanislaw Radziwill "Pan Kochanku" returned from exile.
For a long time the name of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłł was unknown to the general reader. In Belarus, a book of selected plays was published only in 2003. Natalia Rusetskaya, Natalia Gordienko, Andrey Hadanovich, Zhanna Nekrashevich-Korotkaya, etc. made the translation into Belarusian language.
References
Footnotes
3. ↑ Stender-Petersen A. Die Dramen, insbesondere die Komödien, der Fürszin Radziwiłł // Zeitschrift für slawische Philologie. 1960. T. XXVIII. H 2. S. 381-281.
4. ↑ Kryżanowski J. talia i melpomena w Nieświeżu: Twórczość U. F. Radziwiłłowej // Pamiętnik teatralny. 1961. R. X. Z. 3 (39). S. 397.
5. ↑ Zh. Nekrashevіch-Karotkaya. Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwіll... P. 872.
6. ↑ Zh. Nekrashevіch-Karotkaya. Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwіll... p. 874.
7. ↑ Zh. Nekrashevіch-Karotkaya. Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwіll... p. 875.
8. ↑ Widacka, Hanna. Księżna sawantka (Pol.). Muzeum Pałac w Wilanowie. Retrieved on March 15, 2012.
Bibliography
F.U. Radzіwіll. Selected work: Minsk, "Bel. knіgazbor ", 2003. – 445, [8].
F.U. Radzіwіll. Deliverance Precautions: [Poetry]. Reckless Judge: [Play] / Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwill // Nasha vera. 2003. № 2 pp 52–60.
Further reading
Celia Hawkesworth, A History of Central European Women's Writing, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001,
Jadwiga Sokolowska and Krystyna Zukowska, Franciszka Urszula Radziwillowa, Poeci polskiego baroku. Warsaw 1965, vol.2
Judkowiak Barbara, Słowo inscenizowane. O Franciszce Urszuli Radziwiłłowej – poetce
The Great Lithuanian Kingdom: encyclopaedia. V.2. – Minsk, 2006.
Encyclopaedia of Belarusian literature and art. V.4. – Minsk, 1985.
Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwill // Belarusian encyclopaedia. Minsk, 2001. V.6, book 1, p. 213.
Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwill // Encyclopaedia of history of Belarus. Minsk, 2001. V.6, book 1, p. 62.
Frantsishka Urshulia Radzіwill // Enlighteners of Belarus. 10th – beginning of 20th century: Minsk, 2001, pp 345–346.
Baryshau G. Ursula Frantsishka Radzіwill (1705–1753) / Gury Baryshau // Slavutyia іmiony Batskaushchyny: Minsk, 2000. №1, p. 147–159.
Baryshev G.I. Nesvizh amateur theater and drama of Urszula Frantsishka Radziwill // Baryshev G.I. Theatre culture of Belarus in XVIII century / Minsk, 1992. pp 103–140.
Gorshkovoz-Bazhenova O.D. Thumbnails of Urshula Frantsishka Radziwill, engraved by M. Zhukovsky. Theatre in Nevsizh / Gorshkovoz-Bazhenova O.D .// Zdabytkі: dakumentalnye. pomnіkі na Belarusi. Minsk, 2002, vol. 5, pp. 48–57.
Nekrashevіch-Karotkaya Zh. Frantsishka Urshulya Radzіwіll // History of Belarusian literature in X-XIX centuries. Literature of the past: XI – XVIII centuries, in 2 volumes / V.A. Chamyarytskі. – Minsk, 2007.
Maslyanіtsyna, I. M. Radzіwіll Frantsishka Urshula // Myslіtselі i asvetnіkі Belarusi. Entsyklapedychny davednіk / edited by B. I. Sachanka. – Minsk: Belaruskaya entsyklapediya, 1995. – pp. 276–281. – 672. – .
Franciszka Urszula Radziwillowa
1705 births
1753 deaths
People from Volyn Oblast
Belarusian women writers
18th-century Polish–Lithuanian writers
18th-century Polish–Lithuanian women writers |
4071698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Ligety | Ted Ligety | Theodore Sharp Ligety (born August 31, 1984) is a retired American alpine ski racer, a two-time Olympic gold medalist, and an entrepreneur, having cofounded Shred Optics. Ligety won the combined event at the 2006 Olympics in Turin and the giant slalom race at the 2014 Olympics in Sochi. He is also a five-time World Cup champion in giant slalom (2008, 2010, 2011, 2013 and 2014). Ligety won the gold medal in the giant slalom at the 2011 World Championships. He successfully defended his world title in giant slalom in 2013 in Schladming, Austria, where he also won an unexpected gold medal in the super-G and a third gold medal in the super combined.
Ligety planned to participate in the 2021 World Championships in Cortina d'Ampezzo but withdrew due to an injury, which prompted his retirement from ski racing in early February, 2021. He finished his career with 25 victories (24 in giant slalom and 1 super combined) and 52 podiums in World Cup competition. His Olympic giant slalom gold medal, 24 GS World Cup wins, 3 GS world championship gold medals and 5 World Cup titles put him among the three greatest giant slalom skiers of all time, according to Ski-DB.
Early life and career
Ligety was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, the son of Cyndi Sharp and Bill Ligety, who are real estate agents. He grew up in Park City and began skiing at two and racing at ten. He attended The Winter Sports School and graduated in 2002. Ligety was named to the U.S. Skiing Development Team and won a silver medal in slalom in the Junior World Championships in 2004. He made his first start in a World Cup event during the 2004 World Cup season in the giant slalom at Park City. In the summer of 2004, Ligety and U.S. Ski Team head coach Sasha Rearick studied Fu Style Tai Chi. The next winter in the 2005 season, Ligety was added to the U.S. Ski Team full-time, during which he had four top-15 finishes in slalom, placing 24th overall in the discipline.
2006 season
Ligety recorded his first World Cup podium finish in the first slalom of the season, at Beaver Creek in December, and followed that up with a second and a third during the next three slaloms. Ligety's first major victory of his professional career came at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, held at Sestriere. Ligety won the gold medal in the men's combined event, a major upset after the two racers favored to win the event failed to finish the slalom portion. At age 21, he became the first American man to win an Olympic gold medal in alpine skiing in a dozen years, since Tommy Moe won the downhill at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. Ligety also became just the fourth American male skier to win Olympic gold, along with Moe, Phil Mahre (slalom, 1984) and Bill Johnson (downhill, 1984). At Turin, Ligety also participated in the giant slalom and the slalom, but he failed to complete either event. Following his Olympic victory in the combined, Ligety recorded his first World Cup victory, a win in the giant slalom in Yongpyeong, South Korea. He finished ninth in the overall World Cup standings for the year, marking the first time that three American men had placed in the top 10 (along with Bode Miller in third and Daron Rahlves in fourth), despite the fact that he did not compete in downhill or super-G that year. - It was a little surprise that Ted Ligety's first win was in a giant slalom because he wasn't known as a good giant slalom racer (he had only placed in the top ten in one race before, being 8th at Sölden on October 23, 2005 - and he had bib-number 18, a number which is behind the top fifteen of the world; at that time he was far better in the slalom by finishing 3rd at Beaver Creek on December, 4th, and also at Kranjska Gora in December 2005, and indeed finishing second at Adelboden on January 8). On that March 5, he was only 8th-placed after the first leg (with a deficite of 1.13 sec. behind leading Davide Simoncelli but he was able to overtake all elite racers in the second leg). - It took long until he could achieve a second win (Kranjska Gora on March 8, 2008).
2007 season
In the summer of 2006, Ligety changed his ski supplier from Völkl to Rossignol. With Rahlves' retirement, Ligety began to compete in all five events. However, he managed only two podium finishes during the season, a second in slalom and a third in giant slalom. Disappointingly, he had three fourth-place finishes, one in giant slalom, one in super combined, and one in the World Cup finals downhill, as well as a fourth-place finish in the giant slalom at the 2007 World Championships in Åre, Sweden, missing a medal by 0.07 seconds. He finished eleventh overall in 2007.
2008 season
Ligety won his first World Cup season title in the giant slalom in 2008, and finished fifth in the overall standings. He won the final two giant slaloms of the year at Kranjska Gora and Bormio to edge out two-time defending champion Benjamin Raich of Austria for the season title. He also recorded four other podium finishes: a second and a third in giant slalom and two third places in slalom. In addition to his title, Ligety ranked seventh in combined and ninth in slalom. When the last giant slalom race was started on March 14, Ligety was ahead to Raich with a margin of 27 points, but in that actual race he was only seventh-placed after the first leg while Raich was second-placed. But Ligety did do a phenomenal best time in the second leg, becoming first ahead to Raich.
2009 season
Ligety opened defense of his 2008 giant slalom title with a third-place finish in Sölden, Austria, and then placed second at Beaver Creek, Colorado. At the 2009 World Championships in Val d'Isère, France, Ligety took the bronze medal in the giant slalom, then won his fourth World Cup race at Kranjska Gora. He finished the season with another second at the finals in Åre, Sweden, which left him ranked third in GS and ninth overall for the season.
Taking the bronze medal on February 13 (and starting with bib number 1) he had to strain because he was only ninth-placed (with a deficit of 1.71 sec. to leadinh Carlo Janka) after the first leg. In the second leg he took the lead und remained there until Benjamin Raich overtook him with a margin of 0.28 sec.
2010 season
Ligety notched his fifth World Cup victory in January, his third win at Kranjska Gora in as many seasons. At the finals in Garmisch, Germany, he finished on the podium to secure his second season title in giant slalom, and finished seventh in the overall standings.
At the 2010 Vancouver Olympics at Whistler, he finished ninth in the giant slalom (on February 23, he was eighth-placed after the first leg, 0.60 sec. behind leading Carlo Janka, but he couldn't do better in the second leg) and fifth in the super combined on February 21. He was fifteenth in the downhill portion and first in the one slalom run, to finish a half-second out of the medals. In the "special slalom" race (held on February 27; he had bib number 16), only a brief time elapsed when he came out of the course in the first leg.
2011 season
After racing for four seasons on Rossignol skis, Ligety switched his equipment supplier to Head in the summer of 2010, as fellow American champions Lindsey Vonn and Bode Miller did in previous seasons. Ligety won his sixth World Cup race in December 2010, his first win on home snow in the U.S., taking the giant slalom by a substantial 0.82 seconds at Beaver Creek, Colorado, the site of his first podium five years earlier. It was the first World Cup victory in the U.S. (and North America) by an American male in four years; the last was by Bode Miller in the downhill at Beaver Creek in December 2006. Six days later, Ligety won the next GS race in Val d'Isère, France, by over a full second. He won his third consecutive GS race at Alta Badia, Italy, the following week.
In February he won his first world championship, taking gold in the giant slalom at the 2011 World Championships in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. Fourth after the first run, Ligety won by 0.08 seconds over Cyprien Richard of France. He won his third season title in giant slalom in 2011.
2012 season
Even though Ligety was able to win three giant slalom races during the season, he was dethroned as the discipline champion by an overall champion Marcel Hirscher from Austria. Before the last giant slalom race which was held on March 17 at Schladming, Hirscher was in lead with 605 points ahead to Ted with 513 points. Therefore, Ted was forced to attack as powerful as he was able to do but he did fall in the first leg; he did continue but he finished on the 29th place (it was the last place), he had a deficite of 11.16 seconds to leading (it was not Hirscher, who was second) Hannes Reichelt. But Ted had lost; his only rehabilitation was that he could achieve the quickest time in the second leg, and finishing 25th (with a deficite of 10.03 seconds to Hirscher, who was victorious at last - but not gaining any point because in the final races there are only the best 15 can gain points).
2013 season
Ligety was very skeptical of the new FIS rules for the giant slalom, and cited David Dodge. Dodge stated that it was well known that if one tipped the new ski 7° more it would have the same turning radius than the old 27m ski. The greater knee angulation would then increase the risk of injury. Doubts if the new rules would affect his level of skiing didn't last long as Ligety won the first race of the season in Soelden by a huge margin of 2.75 seconds over Manfred Moelgg who finished second. The season turned out to be the best in Ligety's career as he finished on podium in all eight giant slalom races of the season and winning six of them. That feat helped him to regain the discipline title. In overall standings Ligety finished on the career best 3rd place.
Ligety made his season even more impressive by winning three gold medals at the World Championships in Schladming. The first gold he won surprisingly in super-G race which was his first victory in the discipline in an international level. Ligety then won also the super combined event and successfully defended his title in the giant slalom. It was the first time in 45 years that one male skier won three gold medals in one championships.
2014 season
Ligety won three giant slalom races prior to the 2014 Olympics in Sochi. On January 17, Ligety gained his 20th World Cup victory with a win in the super combined event in Wengen, his first (and only) World Cup win outside the giant slalom discipline.
Entering the Olympics, Ligety was considered a favorite to medal in three disciplines, but he finished 12th in the super combined and 14th in the super-G. While under pressure as a big favorite to win a gold in the giant slalom, Ligety began his first run with an attacking attitude and established a 0.93 second lead. He skied carefully on the second run to secure the first-ever gold medal for an American man in the discipline. Ligety became the first male American ski racer in history to win two Olympic gold medals in his career.
After the Olympics, Ligety won the giant slalom in Kranjska Gora for a record sixth time. At the season finals in Lenzerheide he surprisingly finished second, tied with Christof Innerhofer, in the downhill race. The result was his first ever podium in downhill and made him only the second American skier in history, after Bode Miller, to podium in all five alpine skiing disciplines. Ligety then finished fifth in the final super-G race. Before the last giant slalom race of the season Ligety was trailing Marcel Hirscher by 50 points for the discipline title. However, Ligety won the race on March 15 with a 0,03 second advantage over Alexis Pinturault and with Hirscher finishing fourth, both skiers ended the season tied with 560 points. The Crystal Globe was however awarded to Ligety who won due to having five discipline victories during the season compared to Hirscher's two. This was the fifth giant slalom title in Ligety's career. - Hirscher lost the title in that last giant slalom race with a deficit of 0.01 seconds to the 3rd place (achieved by Felix Neureuther) which is awarded 60 points, therefore 10 points more than fourth place.
2015 season
The 2015 FIS Alpine Skiing World Cup season was less successful for Ligety as he was able to win just one race and finished third in the giant slalom standings and eleventh overall. At the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 2015 held in Beaver Creek, Ligety finished third in the super combined event despite being ranked 29th after the downhill leg. In the giant slalom, placed fifth after the first run and trailing by 0.24 to then leading favorite Marcel Hirscher, Ligety skied impressively in the second run, to finish 0.45 ahead of Hirscher and secure his third consecutive world title in the discipline.
2016 season
Ligety won the season's first race, a giant slalom on October 25, 2015, at Sölden, Austria. While training on January 27 at Oberjoch, Germany, he tore the ACL in his right knee, which required surgery and ended his 2016 season.
2017 season
Ligety returned to World Cup racing in October 2016, competing in the prelude (giant slalom) race at Sölden on October 23 (finishing 5th), and he finished 11th in the giant slalom on December 4 at Val d'Isère. He was not able to finish the following two giant slalom races due to back pain, and subsequently returned to the United States. On January 17, Ligety announced he would have season-ending back surgery.
2018 season
Ligety returned to the World Cup racing late in 2017, competing in the Super G at Lake Louise on November 26 (DNF), and finishing seventh in the giant slalom on December 3, 2017, at Beaver Creek. He went on to compete at the FIS World Cup events in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Wengen, Adelboden, Alta Badia, and Val d`Isere.
Ligety was named to the US Olympic team on January 6, 2018 to compete in the combined, Super G, giant slalom, and slalom races at the PyeongChang Olympics. He came in fifth in the men's combined event, but following a disappointing finish in the giant slalom, he decided to skip the slalom event and leave South Korea early to focus on the World Cup.
Other achievements
Ligety has won six national championships, putting him behind the all-time record of nine, held by Bode Miller and Tiger Shaw.
Following his Olympic gold medal at Turin, he started Shred Optics in 2006; Ligety designs all the products and uses them himself. The company produces ski goggles, sunglasses, and helmets.
Ligety served as the Director of Skiing for the now-bankrupt Mt. Holly Club, a private luxury ski and golf resort in southwestern Utah. It is located in eastern Beaver County, on the site of the former Elk Meadows ski area (1971–84).
World Cup results
Season titles
5 titles – 5 Giant slalom + 1 Combined unofficial
Unofficial, tied with Alexis PinturaultIngemar Stenmark is the only racer with more GS season titles (8).
Season standings
Race victories
Although a GS specialist, Ligety is among the few alpine ski racers to have a World Cup podium finish in all five disciplines. Both in 2013 and 2014, he was the racer with the most victories that season and among the top three with the most podiums.
25 wins – (24 GS, 1 SC)
52 podiums – (1 DH, 2 SG, 41 GS, 6 SL, 2 SC)
World Championships results
Through 2013, Ligety has won five medals in the World Championships, four of them gold. He won three of them in giant slalom, after a bronze medal in 2009 in Val d'Isère behind Carlo Janka and Benjamin Raich he won the GS world title in 2011 besting Cyprien Richard and Philipp Schörghofer. Ligety repeated as world champion in GS in 2013, ahead of Marcel Hirscher and Manfred Mölgg. At Schladming in 2013, he became a triple world champion in giant slalom, super-G, and combined at Planai.
Ligety became the fifth man in history to win three or more gold medals at one world championships and the first in 45 years, when Jean-Claude Killy won four in 1968 at Chamrousse, with the combined as a "paper race." Ligety is the first racer of either gender to win the super-G, giant slalom, and combined at one world championships.
Olympic results
Personal
Through a Citi charitable program, Ligety supports Youth Enrichment Services, an organization located in Boston founded in 1968, that takes urban youth to the mountains and teaches them how to ski and snowboard. He is married and has three children, a son born in 2017 and twin sons born in 2020.
Video
YouTube.com – victory at Kranjska Gora (1.61 sec) – from Universal Sports – March 10, 2012
YouTube.com – victory at Sölden (2.75 sec) – from Universal Sports – October 28, 2012
YouTube.com – victory at Adelboden (1.15 sec) – from Universal Sports – January 12, 2013
Audiovisual presentation of Ligety's style in the super-G.
See also
List of FIS Alpine Ski World Cup men's race winners
References
External links
Ted Ligety at U.S. Ski Team
Ted Ligety at Head.com
Ted Ligety at Shred Optics
1984 births
Living people
21st-century American businesspeople
American male alpine skiers
Alpine skiers at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 2018 Winter Olympics
FIS Alpine Ski World Cup champions
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Olympic Games broadcasters
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in alpine skiing
Skiers from Salt Lake City
Skiing announcers |
4071775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot%20Academy | Abbot Academy | Abbot Academy (also known as Abbot Female Seminary and AA) was an independent boarding preparatory school for women boarding and day care for students in grades 9–12 from 1828 to 1973. Located in Andover, Massachusetts, Abbot Academy was notable as one of the first incorporated secondary schools for educating young women in New England. It merged with Phillips Academy in 1973 and campus buildings along School Street continue to be used for the combined school. Some Abbot traditions continue at the combined private boarding school such as Parent's Weekend. Since the 40th anniversary in 2013 of the merger of the two schools, there has been renewed interest in Abbot's history and traditions.
History
The school was founded during a time when the prevailing view was that women's education "should always be relative to men", with some believing that study of "higher subjects" such as philosophy and mathematics might render women to be infertile. One of the first formal discussions to propose a school for young women happened on February 19, 1828. The school was incorporated in 1829 with 70 or 85 pupils from eighteen to twenty years of age for the "exclusive work of educating women". According to one source, the official opening day was May 6, 1829.
The early years
The school received financial support from Sarah Abbot who pledged substantial money, which allowed for loans to begin construction; Sarah Abbot died in 1850 and left a substantial sum for educational purposes. After mid-century, Abbot faced several challenges: the addition of a public high school in Andover, followed by the challenges of coping with the American Civil War. In 1853, the first principalship was offered to a woman, and additional monies were raised for the construction of dormitories. In 1859, the "strong-willed" but "ideologically moderate" McKeen sisters — headmistress Philena and Phebe—exerted strong leadership by adopting a "school-home" approach. The years were marked by substantial expansion of buildings. The McKeens fostered the study of French and German and introduced a "systematic oral language program" on a par with that of Harvard University and which "far outdistanced Phillips Academy", which did not offer any modern language instruction until the mid 1870s. Under their "no-nonsense" leadership, teachers stayed longer, many for ten or more years.
It was during the late 1800s that the school had a "golden age", according to one view. The campus was visited by Helen Keller and her teacher Anne Sullivan and Amos Bronson Alcott. The leadership of Philena and Phebe McKeen was characterized by substantial fundraising and growth. According to Susan McIntosh Lloyd, Abbot's curriculum "may have surpassed that of Phillips" during these years. After 1910, the only structures built were "gates". The school was like a "family" but commanded by women, in which "women and girls could enjoy one another as persons without self-consciousness or shame."
Art education
The academy emphasized art education. After starting a small art club in 1871 led by Professor E. A. Park, the academy introduced one of the nation's first History of Art courses in 1873. Painting and drawing were taught by professional painter and alumnus Emily A. Means who had studied with well-known painters in Europe for four years. Means guided the art department from 1877 to 1892 and later served as principal from 1898 to 1911.
The 1930s through the 1960s
The school went through challenging times during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the Depression's first five years, the school lost approximately $60,000 annually as well as a sharp drop in its real-estate assets, and the school slipped from having 135 boarders in 1929–30 to 71 boarders in 1933–34. Despite financial concerns, the school continued to dismiss "unruly or lazy students" or those who tucked "dummies into their beds" to spend the night at Phillips Academy. Many other schools folded during the Depression years. During these years, the school taught the "basic college preparatory" program of 3 years of English, 5 years of languages (including 2 or 3 of Latin), 2 or 3 years of mathematics, 1 year of science and 1 year of history, as well as physical education, an "all school choral class" and Bible study of one hour a week, but requirements adjusted over time, largely dictated by preferences of college admissions departments. From World War II and afterwards, the academy experienced increasing enrollment; ten years after the attack on Pearl Harbor, a third of its teachers were either European born or European educated. The school opened its doors more widely to minority groups, such as African American women and Jews.
Academic excellence improved. An alumna, Elizabeth Thomas '49, recalled her Abbot teaching as "the best she has ever had", with college being easier. However, during these years, there was a greater space between teachers and students, such that there were no "out-of-class relationships" between them; teachers seemed "miles away" unless they were enforcing rules about lipstick or patrolling the Phillips campus for errant women or checking mail for return addresses to "certain Phillips boys." Rules forbade smoking and drinking and sexual activity; one 1954 alumna described a "whole system of deception" designed to evade teachers, seen as "the enemy," with deceptions done to get messages to Phillips students, sometimes through day student intermediaries or by messages left in bushes.
However, some students appreciated that the rules cleared "time and space for that peaceful collection of self". Nevertheless, applications to the school increased from the 1950s through the 1960s. During the 1960s, the ratio of applicants to acceptances was three to one. The 1960s featured rules easing somewhat, with more chaperoned dances, more phone calls and dating as well as "cattle-market mixers", but the easing sometimes encouraging girls to find "ways to be still naughtier." Lloyd described the coming changes:
According to Lloyd, Abbot Academy seemed to be a "nineteenth century school" which was stagnant and insular and limited in comparison with the abrupt societal changes made during the 1960s. In 1967, there were greater ties between Phillips Academy and Abbot, including a Phillips-Abbot committee to explore a "wide range of shared activities" between the two schools. Abbot trustee Philip Allen had determined that both schools should merge, but that this was a "hidden agenda"; Allen brought in headmaster Donald Gordon, a graduate of Phillips Academy and Yale, to bring "Abbot up to the point where it could
be part of Phillips Academy." Abbot's "old dress code" was abolished for a "neat and clean" requirement. The 1969-70 year was "tumultuous" nationwide, with student revolts on many college campuses and foreign policy failures abroad. The following is a description of Abbot campus life in 1969:
The 1973 merger
The late 1960s and early 1970s was marked by the merger between the two schools. The merger was brought about by many factors, including the sense of shared history and goals between the two schools, common activities, plus survey research showing that 94% of students in northeastern secondary schools wished for coeducation. The times "favored coeducation"; in 1968, 53 colleges and universities either became coeducational or began coordinate instruction. While Phillips Academy "held the cards" regarding whether the two schools should merge, there was a "crasser impetus" from admissions statistics, as Phillips was increasingly being turned down by applicants preferring newly-coeducational competitors such as St. Paul's, Taft, Northfield-Mount Hermon, and Exeter. Many committee meetings, including discussions between administrators and teachers, happened over a sixteen-month period. The Phillips headmaster, John Kemper, who had kinship ties with women graduates of Abbot, felt a merger was "practical, ethical, and educationally sound", although several times the Phillips Board of Trustees refused to sanction a merger. The school merged with Phillips Academy on June 28, 1973. Many Abbot traditions were included in the combined school, such as having a designated weekend in the fall for parents to visit.
After the merger, $1 million of Abbot's endowment became the basis for the Abbot Academy Association, which funds various educational programs and projects submitted by students, faculty, and staff. Since the first Abbot Grant was awarded in the fall of 1973, nearly 2000 Abbot Grant proposals have been submitted by students and members of the faculty, staff and administration of Phillips Academy. The Abbot Academy Association has funded more than 1400 of these proposals with grants totaling $9,400,000. In 2014, the Abbot Academy Association's endowment had grown to $10 million.
Campus life
Activities included the Fidelio Chorus, school government, and the school newspaper. Athletic programs included basketball, crew, cycling, ballet and modern dance, fencing, soccer, softball, and tennis. In the late 1960s, Abbot's math department set up a paper-tape terminal connected to a computer at Merrimack College in North Andover, Massachusetts. This provided the high school students with early BASIC-language computer programming skills. In 1973, the languages taught included English, French, German, Latin, Russian, and Spanish.
Academic prizes
Abbot was a chapter member of the Cum Laude Honor Society. The school awarded the following student prizes annually:
Anna Dawes Prize for History
Betsy Waskowitz Rider Art Award
Beatrice Farnsworth Powers Art Award
Priscilla Bradley Prize for Art
Pam Weidenman Prize for Art
Ceramics Prize
Photography Prize
Music Department Award
Kate Friskin Award for Music
Mathematics Department Prize
Science Prize
Spanish Department Prize
English Department Prize
Latin Department Prize
Ballet Prize
Abbot Athletic Award
Isabel Hancock Award
The Madame Sarah Abbot award was established through a gift from the Abbot Class of 1973. The award is given to a female Phillips Academy senior who " … best exemplifies 'strong character, effective leadership and outstanding scholarship.'"
School publications
In June 1873, the first issue of the Abbot Courant was published. This student literary magazine appeared two to three times a year. Later editions included art work and photographs. In 1992, with a grant from the Abbot Academy Association, the Courant was revived at Phillips Academy and continues to be published twice a year. In 2002, a 123-page alumni edition was published. The Abbot Academy yearbook was published from 1900 to 1973. Originally known as The Abbot Academy Class Book, the yearbook became The Circle in 1916 (this is the first year that the double-A logo used on senior class rings appeared on the book cover). Digital versions of the Abbot Courant and The Circle are available through the school Archives and Special Collections.
The student newspaper was called Cynosure. In 1974, it moved to Phillips where it became a monthly magazine.
Traditions
Students were divided into two groups called Gargoyles and Griffins for sports teams and for other purposes that required dividing the students into groups; their colors were green and orange, respectively. Dual-color felt beanie hats with an image of a gargoyle or griffin were distributed to students.
The locally based Clan MacPherson Pipes and Drums led graduation processions on the Abbot Circle. This tradition continues today at Phillips Academy. At graduation, after chapel, Seniors and Junior Middlers (eleventh graders) met in the Senior Courtyard for the Ring Ceremony. (This central garden was completely enclosed by the three sides of Draper Hall with the dining room wall as the fourth side.) By tradition, Junior Mids who purchased Abbot Academy class rings the year before wore them with the "AA" insignia upside-down. During the Ring Ceremony, each Junior Mid received a Senior sponsor. The Junior Mid, now recognized as a member of the new Senior class, turned her ring so that the insignia was upright. In 1973, all students who wanted to were allowed to buy Abbot class rings.
Buildings and campus
In 1863, the Abbot campus consisted of one acre surrounded by a fence. By 1878, it was approximately 22 acres. Abbot's three main buildings (Abbot Hall, Draper Hall, and McKeen Hall) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The first academy building, Abbot Hall, is an "exceptional" early example of the Greek Revival style. It was built in 1828–29. Since 1996, it has housed Phillips Academy's Brace Center for Gender Studies. An art gallery was added to the left side of Abbot Hall in 1906–07. It was designed by Andrews, Jaques & Rantoul of Boston. The art gallery housed the collection of Mrs. Esther Byers. The Merrill Memorial Gates and two side gates (the John P. Taylor and George G. Davis gates) were added in 1921 to the front and sides, respectively, of the Abbot Circle. Designed a few years earlier by the firm of McKim, Mead & White, similar gates appear at Harvard University, Princeton University, and Bowdoin College. The Abbot Circle, around which the main buildings are grouped, was re-dedicated on 3 May 1997. The tree-lined Maple Walk, which once connected the dining room at the back of Draper Hall with Phillips Street, remains in use. (The dining room was demolished.)
Efforts for the Preservation of the Abbot Campus
In 1988, Phillips Academy opened a proposal to repurpose buildings on the former Abbot Academy campus to increase rental and commercial use on the property. This plan was designed to prevent the academy from demolishing the land to make way for single-family homes or selling the acreage to private developers. The school argued that saving the buildings will ultimately allow for historical preservation. A town meeting was then set in place on April 4-6 of 1988, with the Phillips Academy historical preservation plan needing a two-thirds yes vote on Article 101 to get support in retaining the campus for the school's own use. However, some town members were hesitant to move forward with this plan. Those who wanted to vote no on Article 101, made the argument that the repurposed use of Abbot campus buildings for commercial use would in turn decrease the property value of existing Andover residential neighborhood homes. In the end, Phillips Academy ended up retaining the Abbot campus for its own use.
Headmasters and headmistresses
School principals:
Charles Goddard 1829–31
Rev. Samuel Lamson 1832–34
Rev. Samuel Gilman Brown 1835–38
Rev. Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth 1838–39
Rev. Timothy Dwight Porter Stone 1839–42
Rev. Asa Farwell 1842–52
Peter Smith Byers 1853 (Elected but did not serve)
Nancy Judson Hasseltine 1854–56
Maria Jane Bancroft Brown 1856–57
Emma L. Taylor 1857–59
Philena McKeen 1859–92
Laura Sophia Watson 1892–98
Emily Adams Means 1898–1911
Bertha Bailey 1912–35
Marguerite Capen Hearsey 1936–55
Mary Hinckley Crane (Mrs. Alexander) 1955–66
Eleanor Tucker (Acting) 1966–68
Donald Gordon 1968–73
For further information, consult The Philippian:
Distinguished alumnae and faculty
Notable alumnae
Julia Alvarez (1967) - Poet, novelist, essayist
Harriette Newell Woods Baker (1833) - Story book author
Alice Stone Blackwell (1867) - Editor Woman's Journal, activist, and translator
Anna Brackett - Philosopher, educator
Charlotte Emerson Brown - Clubwoman
Eileen Christelow (1961) - Author of "Five Little Monkeys" children's book series
Maria Susana Cummins (1845) - Author of international bestseller; domestic fiction writer
Wendy Ewald (1969) - Photographer and educator, MacArthur Fellowship winner
Julia Constance Fletcher - (1867)
Mary H. Graves - Unitarian minister, literary editor, writer
Marsha Kazarosian (PA 1974) - Attorney
Lucy R. Lippard (1954) - Art theorist
Sara Nelson (PA 1974) - Former editor-in-chief of Publishers Weekly
Elizabeth Marshall Thomas (1949) - Anthropologist
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward (1858) - Early feminist author
Kate Douglas Wiggin (1873) - Author of Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm
Francesca Woodman - Photographer
Shirley Young (1951) - Businesswoman
For additional alumnae, consult Notable Alumni: Long List:
Notable faculty
Emily Hale, speech and drama, muse of T.S. Eliot
Maud Morgan
See also
Hartwell and Richardson architects
Phillips Academy
Suggested reading
Susan McIntosh Lloyd. "A Singular School: Abbot Academy 1828-1973", Hanover, NH: Published by Phillips Academy, Andover, 1979.
Susan J. Montgomery and Roger G. Reed. "The Campus Guide. Phillips Academy Andover", New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2000.
Philena McKeen, headmistress. Author of "Annals of Fifty Years: A History of Abbot Academy, Andover, Mass., 1829-1879" and "Sequel to Annals of Fifty Years: A History of Abbot Academy, Andover, Mass., 1879-1892
References
External links
Abbot Academy Archives in Archives and Special Collections: Phillips Academy Andover
Abbot Academy Photograph Collection - Digital Commonwealth
Andover Historical Society
Film on Abbot
Boarding schools in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Andover, Massachusetts
Private preparatory schools in Massachusetts
Private high schools in Massachusetts
Defunct girls' schools in the United States
1829 establishments in Massachusetts
Girls' schools in Massachusetts
Abbot Academy |
4071915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartford%20Symphony%20Orchestra | Hartford Symphony Orchestra | The Hartford Symphony Orchestra (HSO) is an American orchestra based in Hartford, Connecticut.
Overview
The orchestra presents more than 100 concerts annually to audiences numbering more than 110,000.
The Hartford Symphony Orchestra’s extensive array of Education and Community Activities serves more than 22,000 individuals in Hartford and surrounding communities annually.
The Hartford Symphony Orchestra is supported by nearly 4,500 subscribers and over 2,000 donors. The organization has been greatly strengthened by an extensive level of communication and involvement with its musicians that has become a national model for orchestral governance. Now representing 15% of the board of directors and one-third of its executive committee, musicians also serve on all major Board committees.
History
1930s
The Federal government established the Federal Emergency Relief Corporation, which included a program to help struggling musicians through the economic depression. Amateur musician and businessman Francis Goodwin II, considered today to be the “Father of the Hartford Symphony,” seized the opportunity to bring orchestral music to the city of Hartford. His Federal “Orchestra Application” was accepted, resulting in the creation of the Hartford Symphony Orchestra, then known as the “Civic Symphony Orchestra of Hartford.” Created as a public service, the orchestra gave two free concerts per week, and the musicians rehearsed every day for a weekly salary of $21. The Civic Symphony Orchestra of Hartford performed its first concert on November 20, 1934, under music director Angelo Coniglione at West Middle School in Hartford. Although this first concert did not bring in a huge audience, it was generally considered to be a promising start to the orchestra’s future.
The Federal government disbanded the Federal Emergency Relief Corporation in 1935 and instead began a larger program called the Federal Music Project (FMP). This project was a subdivision of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) of the New Deal. Many orchestras in the United States were born out of the funding from this project. To the Hartford Symphony, being a part of the Federal Music Project meant they could pay musicians higher wages and charge a moderate admission of 25¢.
In 1936, Jacques Gordon replaced Angelo Coniglione as conductor and music director and the name of the orchestra officially changed to the “Hartford Symphony Orchestra.” The Symphony’s concerts schedule expanded with performances in The Bushnell, as well as public venues across Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. However, the next year the WPA changed its policies so that orchestras could not charge admission. However, the Hartford Symphony continued to bring in revenue by cleverly charging each patron 10¢ to rent a seat for summer concerts. At the first part of the summer concert that year, Francis Goodwin receives a telegram explaining that the Federal Music Project was changing its policies and that the Hartford Symphony would need to cover half of its own costs or it would lose all Federal funding. Panicked, Mr. Goodwin stood up at intermission and appealed to the audience for its financial support. A box was passed around, and by the end of the concert they had collected $1,200! The next day the contributions continued to roll in, saving the orchestra from financial disaster and initiating the strong connection between the Hartford Symphony and the Hartford community.
In the past the FMP had always had dictated which guest artists and conductors would be allowed to perform. Looking for complete artistic control over the orchestra, the Hartford Symphony pulled out of the FMP in 1938 in order to hire conductor Leon Barzin as the new music director. Despite the Symphony’s poor financial status from a lack of government funding, the orchestra’s four-concert season was the most illustrious the orchestra had ever seen; it featured world-famous soloists and a high ticket revenue from $3 admission prices. In an effort to raise community spirits, the following year the City of Hartford funded five successful summer concerts with guest conductor George Heck at the podium. Bushnell Park’s outdoor bandshell was torn down at the end of this summer series, marking the end of the first decade of the Hartford Symphony’s history.
1940s
Ever since the decision was made to forgo Federal funding in 1938, the Hartford Symphony had been struggling to keep its doors open. Board member Francis Goodwin, considered to be the “Father of the Hartford Symphony,” even put up $11,000 in personal collateral to finance a loan for the Symphony. (The Symphony was later unable to pay back the loan, and Goodwin’s personal collateral was confiscated.) Despite this financial distress, the Hartford Symphony presented five concerts in the Bushnell which featured all-Beethoven programming. These concerts marked the highest attendance the orchestra had experienced in its six-year history.
The Hartford Symphony played the last of its successful Beethoven concerts on May 14, 1941. By this time, World War II had swept through Europe, and by the fall of 1941 nearly all of the Hartford Symphony’s musicians had taken leave to join the armed forces. With crippled finances and no musicians, the orchestra only existed as a corporate entity and it did not seem likely that Connecticut would ever hear the Hartford Symphony again.
In a final effort to save the Hartford Symphony, Francis Goodwin pulled together a new board of directors in 1946 composed of prominent Hartford businessmen, including Willard B. Rogers, the Commissioner of the Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development, as President of the Hartford Symphony Board.
In an unprecedented action, Hartford’s musicians’ union agreed to perform for free for one year in an effort to get the Symphony up and running again. The Hartford Symphony was then free to use what little funds they had to pay for technical costs. In 1947 they hired two alternating co-conductors: George Heck, Dean of what is now the Hartford Conservatory, and Moshe Paranov, Dean of The Hartt School.
The Hartford Symphony’s first concert back was held on January 25, 1948, in Mortensen Hall. For the first time, patrons could buy subscriptions ($6 for seats at four concerts in either the Orchestra or Front Balcony section) or pay $1 per concert for a seat in the rest of the house. The audiences were much larger than the Symphony had seen in the past, with more than 1,000 paid admissions at every concert. After observing this heartfelt struggle to revive the Hartford Symphony, Travelers Insurance Company, in conjunction with radio station WTIC-FM, offered up a generous gift of $30,000 over the course of three years to the Hartford Symphony. After the first $10,000 installment in 1948, the HSO was finally able to open official administrative offices in the first floor of the Old State House, and, more importantly, was able to pay the musicians scale wages.
The Hartford Symphony’s 1949 – 1950 concert season expanded to six concerts in the Bushnell instead of four. In addition, Arthur Fiedler guest conducted the first Hartford Symphony Pops! concerts at The Bushnell and the Trinity Field House, where audience members sat at cabaret-style tables and were served food and drink by white-coated Trinity Students. It was noted this year that the orchestra played better than ever before; it seemed that musicians and audience members alike had a renewed interest in keeping the Hartford Symphony in business.
1950s
After the financial growth of the 1940s, the Hartford Symphony was able to perform six traditional concerts in The Bushnell with several nationally and internationally renowned guest performers, including Walton Deckelman, piano; Bela Urban, violin; Joseph De Pasquale, viola; Seymour Benstock, cello; and Cynthia Otis, harp. Odell Shepard, a former Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut, was even invited to narrate Aaron Copland’s A Lincoln Portrait.
The Symphony decided that Fritz Mahler would soon replace Moshe Paranov and George Heck as the new conductor of the Hartford Symphony, with a salary of $7,500 per year. At first, the public was very upset over the decision to hire Fritz Mahler; local newspapers slammed the Symphony for firing the two former Hartford Symphony conductors. On October 28, 1953 Fritz Mahler conducted his first concert with the Hartford Symphony in a program that featured the Boston Symphony’s principal cellist, Samuel Mayes, premiering Kabalevsky’s Concerto for Cello. Although the concert was well attended, there was still backlash from press about new conductor.
Determined to see the Hartford Symphony expand and flourish, Mahler developed educational and outreach programs. He began his series of “Young People’s Concerts” at The Bushnell, and appointed Mrs. Rena Oppenheimer as Educational Director. She traveled to local grade schools to present instrument demonstrations and promote the “Young People’s Concerts.” Mahler also started the “Hartford Little Symphony”- a reduced orchestra that would play run-out concerts at Avon Old Farms School, Miss Porter’s School, the Duffy School, and the Verplank School.
Mahler infused a sense of variety into the Symphony’s programming with performances of Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, J. Strauss’ Die Fledermaus, an all-Tchaikovsky program, a performance of “Show Boat,” two Pops! concerts, and a program entitled “Theater in the Dance,” featuring the José Limón Dancers with Pauline Koner (Mrs. Fritz Mahler) as a soloist. In 1954, the Hartford Symphony performed the American premiere of Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana. After hearing the piece for the first time, audiences jumped to their feet with standing ovations and the local papers overflowed with excellent reviews.
On March 27, 1957 the Symphony recorded Carmina Burana on the Vanguard record label. Fritz Mahler continued the Hartford Symphony’s recording project with the Vanguard label, recording three new albums: Berlioz’s Requiem, Gustav Mahler’s Das Klagende Lied, and Bloch’s Three Jewish Poems for Orchestra and Copland’s Variations for Orchestra & Fanfare for the Common Man.
1960s
The sixties opened with a general sense of uneasiness amongst the Hartford Symphony administration over the symphony’s lack of growth in the past few years. Newly elected Hartford Symphony President Francis Goodwin, who is considered to be the “Father of the Hartford Symphony,” was determined to make the Hartford Symphony the “really great orchestra” he had always dreamed it could be. Although the Symphony had received local accolades for its recent accomplishments, it had not yet reached the status Goodwin felt it could achieve.
The Hartford Times and Hartford Courant gave mediocre reviews to the Symphony’s opening concerts of the 1961–62 season; more people began to subscribe to the Bushnell’s concert series instead of the Symphony’s because they believed the Hartford Symphony’s performances were mediocre in comparison. Insisting that they would be able to provide better programming if more funds were available, Goodwin initiated a new fundraising campaign, headed by former Symphony president Albert Holland. The campaign was a great success: the Orchestra raised $100,000 in one year.
Although the public was enamored with everything Music Director Fritz Mahler had done for the Symphony, the general consensus within the administration and musicians was that Mahler was no longer a good fit for the HSO. Mahler was constantly traveling overseas to conduct foreign orchestras and seemed no longer committed to the growth of the Symphony. When it became apparent that the board wanted to hire a new conductor, the public was outraged. Despite growing controversy over removing Mahler, Goodwin and the board announced that they wanted to hire a new Music Director- someone who played an instrument, who would hire local players, and, most importantly, who would commit themselves to the nitty-gritty business details of the orchestra. After conducting a wide-sweeping national search, they picked Arthur Winograd, the founding cellist of the Juilliard Quartet, to be the Symphony’s new music director. The Symphony rose to a new level under Winograd. Concerts for the 1965–66 season were packed and the Symphony saw a 15% increase in subscriptions, surpassing the Bushnell’s subscription sales.
As part of the national “Ford Challenge Grant” program for performing arts organizations, the Ford Company awarded the Hartford Symphony a grant of $1,350,000 in 1966. Ford saw the Hartford Symphony as an exemplary local orchestra, with “special potential” and “qualities of vision and realism shown by plans for the coming decades.” Needless to say, this gift launched the Symphony into uncharted financial success.
In 1967, the Hartford Symphony Orchestra was invited to perform in New York City at Lincoln Center and Carnegie Hall. The New Yorker published the following review of the Hartford Symphony after one of their performances in Carnegie Hall: “[The Hartford Symphony is] exceeded in refinement, tone, and everything else that makes a great symphony orchestra only by the big four of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Cleveland…I was amazed by the quality of this ensemble under the baton of Arthur Winograd, who must be a very [gifted] trainer of professional musicians. The orchestra’s intonation is excellent and its tone correspondingly luminous…the high level of performance that evening was a constant delight.”
1970s
Despite the fantastic successes of the 1960s, the Hartford Symphony was listed by the New York Times as one of 12 American orchestras in serious financial “danger.” The HSO had experienced great ticket sales and generous donations during the 1960s, but operating costs were high and financial failure was imminent once again. The Ford Challenge Grant which had been awarded to the HSO ten years prior stipulated that the HSO needed to raise one million dollars on their own in order for Ford to donate the $1,350,000 award. At the end of 1971, the Symphony was $140,000 short of the one million dollar requirement, even though Ford’s award money had been built into future budgets. At the last minute, Symphony supporters Francis Goodwin and Harry Robinson each donated $70,000 to the HSO, allowing the orchestra to meet its goal and continue to provide classical music to the City of Hartford.
Financially steady for the first time, the Hartford Symphony expanded their educational series to include four “Young People’s Concerts” in the Bushnell, a “Junior Symphony Series” for junior high students, and a concert series at Connecticut College. These years also brought in the world’s most celebrated soloists, including Benny Goodman, Mitch Miller, Isaac Stern, Leon Fleisher, a young André Watts, Itzhak Perlman, Van Cliburn, Ella Fitzgerald, and a 19-year-old Yo-Yo Ma.
IN 1976, the Symphony presented a special Bicentennial series, featuring popular and brand-new American music on every program. This year also marked the passing of Francis Goodwin, who truly had devoted his life to creating and sustaining the Hartford Symphony.
In October 1978, the musicians went on strike, protesting the reductions of concerts and rehearsal hours. The strike lasted ten days, and ended in late October.
In 1979, the Symphony hired Richard Hayman to conduct the Pops! Series at the Jai-alai Fronton in Hartford. With Hayman’s appointment came new, innovative Pops! programming, including the incorporation of rock ‘n roll, modern jazz, and international music into the series.
1980s
The Hartford Symphony continued to bring in the finest guest soloists from around the world, including Andre Watts, piano; Richard Stoltzman, clarinet; Jean-Pierre Rampal, flute; Itzhak Perlman, violin; Emmanuel Ax, piano; and Tony Bennett. Throughout the eighties, the Symphony would expand and create original new concert series, starting these first couple of years with a Beethoven Festival, “Symphony on Ice,” and “Spring, con Amore.”
After leading the HSO for 20 years, Music Director Arthur Winograd announced that this would be his final season. After a year of stunning performances of works by De Falla, Bartók, Shostakovich, and Berlioz, and incredible guest artists including cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, Winograd handed off his baton. As a search committee combed the country for the new conductor, the 1985 season continued on with a series of guest conductors, including Michael Lankester, an exciting British conductor who was associate conductor of the Pittsburgh Symphony. Lankester thoroughly impressed the Symphony and the public; the next year he was appointed as the new music director of the HSO.
Lankester brought in a new wave of interesting guest artists and adventurous programming, including pianist Horatio Guttierez and 13-year-old violinist Midori, as well as performances of works by Britten, Ives, Rorem, and Harbison. This season was bigger than ever, with Classical and Pops! programs, a new “Discovery” and “Music to Go” series, and community concerts at local high schools. In order to accommodate all these new concerts, the musicians ratified a new contract allowing for 21 full-time “core” musicians who were paid a salary instead of per service. Lankester set a new programming standard, pairing modern, avant-garde music by composers like Martinu, Walton, and Kolb with more traditional works, including Verdi’s Requiem. Ticket sales were outstanding, and the Symphony continued to grow.
Although the Symphony’s audiences were thrilled with the increase in concerts, the musicians were being pushed to play more than they ever had before. Many of the “core” musicians had experienced performance injuries, and there were ambiguities with pay rates between orchestra members. All performances came to a grinding halt during an 11-week impasse; at the end of the year the HSO finally negotiated new contracts where the work schedule became much more reasonable. The Hartford Symphony opened its doors once again on January 18, 1989. After that, it seemed that Hartford’s thirst for classical music could not be quenched. This year the Symphony started five new series: “Classical Conversations,” “Symphonikids” in-school concerts, Family concerts, a completely sold out series in local churches called “Music in a Gothic Space,” and a brand new set of summer concerts.
1990s
Hartford Symphony Music Director Michael Lankester continued to grow the orchestra's presence in the Hartford community by starting the “Classical Conversations” series, a program designed to help familiarize HSO audiences with the personal lives of their beloved composers. Lankester expanded the Family and Children’s Concerts, even writing much of the music for these programs himself.
Ever since the 1988 contract negotiations there had been tension between the musicians and the administration, and in 1991 the problems finally came to a head. As the result of a contract dispute, the orchestra hit a work impasse and the Symphony was forced to cancel the 1991–92 season. Fourteen months later, a compromise was reached and the HSO went back to work.
After the cancellation of the 1991–92 season, new subscriptions were low and the prospects of a 1992–93 season looked shaky. In the face of this challenge, the HSO got creative, not despondent. With budget and staff restructuring and greater initiative by the musicians, the orchestra pulled through and kept music in Hartford. The Symphony opened its 50th-anniversary season in 1993 with a fanfare written by Maestro Lankester.
Where there had been tension and dispute, now the musicians, board, and staff were working hand in hand to keep the Symphony alive. The symphony initiated new fundraising efforts to expand endowment, increase subscriptions, and balance the budget. This year the HSO began a new Chamber Orchestra series, the “Signature Series.”
In 1996, the HSO held its first trial season of the HSO’s summer series, the Talcott Mountain Music Festival.
In 1997 the HSO finally worked its way back to achieving a balanced budget after the financial and administrative struggles earlier that decade. This recovery was due not only to increasingly effective marketing, but also to steady growth in the orchestra’s artistic quality, balanced programming, increased emphasis on music and cultural education, and fresh, skillful, and professional management.
The HSO opened the 1997–98 season with a Masterworks concert featuring Stravinsky’s oratorio, Oedipus Rex, with a massive choir and a theatrical stage set. This year’s guest artist roster included pianists Leon Fleisher and Garrick Ohlsson, cellist Ralph Kirshbaum, and actor Christopher Plummer.
Michael Lankester announced in 1999 that he would be leaving the HSO. To celebrate the retirement of their music director, the symphony invited some of the greatest artists of the time to perform, including Yo-Yo Ma, Yefim Bronfman, Marvin Hamlisch, Krystof Penderecki, Ute Lemper, and Captain Kangaroo. At the close of this tumultuous decade, the symphony turned an eye to the future and began the search for the new leader of Connecticut’s orchestra.
2000s
The HSO launched a major community initiative in 2000 designed to reach new audiences with “I Have a Dream,” the HSO's first concert celebrating the life and legacy of Martin Luther King Jr., and named for his 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech. In addition, the orchestra was invited for the first time to tour with the popular tenor Andrea Bocelli; together they performed 15 concerts in cities across North America.
After a three-year search, the HSO announced the appointment of its new music director, Edward Cumming, who told Connecticut to “Expect the Unexpected.” This new appointment invigorated the orchestra, and fresh programming brought in huge crowds. With this change also came a change of attitude: Cumming wanted the HSO to be an orchestra for the people of Greater Hartford, and the programming should reflect this. With this in mind, the Symphony embarked on a mission to connect with the immediate community of Hartford, starting with a Martin Luther King Jr. Tribute concert and a new Latino Music Festival.
The League of American Orchestras awarded the Hartford Symphony Orchestra the 2003 ASCAP award for Adventurous Programming of Contemporary Music. The Hispanic Professional Network recognized the HSO's "dedication to promote awareness of Hispanic arts and culture". In addition, the HSO joined a distinguished roster of orchestras to receive two special honors: major funding from MetLife Foundation's "Music for Life" program and an invitation to join the "Sustaining the American Orchestra" initiative organized by The Kennedy Center and funded by SBC.
The HSO was one of three orchestras in North America to be honored with the 2004 MetLife Award for Excellence in Community Engagement. The Symphony went on tour once again with Andrea Bocelli, and was awarded the Governor's Arts Award "in recognition of remarkable artistic achievement and contributions to the arts in the state of Connecticut."
In 2005, the HSO toured with Andrea Bocelli for a third time, continuing to bring the orchestra national acclaim. For its innovative programming at home in CT, the Connecticut Natural Gas presented the orchestra with its Diversity Award.
World-renowned cellist Yo-Yo Ma joined Edward Cumming and the HSO for the opening concert of the 2007–08 season. After a landmark year of diverse programming, the League of American Orchestras awarded the HSO its ASCAP award for Adventurous Programming of Contemporary Music for the second time in four years.
The HSO’s 65th Anniversary Season was marked by performances of all of Beethoven’s Symphonies, performed in The Bushnell’s intimate Belding Theater. This year also marked the HSO’s most successful Talcott Mountain Music Festival of all time.
In 2009, Cumming announced that his final season as music director would be in 2010–11; thus began a two-year music director search to find his replacement.
2010s
From 2009 to 2011 the HSO led a very public music director search which brought six music directors from around the county to Hartford to each guest conduct the orchestra. The final candidate made the biggest impression and was hired immediately following her appearance with the HSO. In January 2011, the HSO announced that Carolyn Kuan, formerly of the Seattle Symphony Orchestra, would be the next music director, starting from the 2012 season. She was the youngest individual and first woman to be awarded this title.
The 2011–12 season opened with a free concert called "Picnic in the Park" which featured performers and repertoire that would be featured on Kuan's inaugural season. From there, the HSO launched a series of new community initiatives, including CityMusic, an El Sistema inspired after school music program in Hartford.
In 2012, the HSO received a Getty grant to launch the Musicians Care Project, which seeks to enhance the quality of life for people of all ages whose healthcare needs prevent them from taking part in traditional music performances by providing live, interactive musical experiences.
Through a combination of accessible and innovative, community-based programming, the HSO's concert attendance reached a ten-year high point, bringing in new and younger audience members.
In 2014, the HSO entered into a management services alliance with The Bushnell Center for the Performing Arts. Under the agreement, the HSO and The Bushnell remain independent, 501(c) (3) non-profit organizations while The Bushnell provides executive and administrative support to the HSO.
Music Directors
2011–present Carolyn Kuan
2001–2011 Edward Cumming
1985–2000 Michael Lankester
1965–1984 Arthur Winograd
1953–1965 Fritz Mahler
1947–1953 George Heck
1947–1953 Moshe Paranov
1938–1941 Léon Barzin
1936–1938 Jacques Gordon
1934–1936 Angelo Coniglione
References
External links
hartfordsymphony.org – Official site
Hartford Symphony Facebook Page
Musical groups established in 1934
American orchestras
Tourist attractions in Hartford, Connecticut
Works Progress Administration in Connecticut
Performing arts in Connecticut
Musical groups from Hartford, Connecticut
1934 establishments in Connecticut |
4072099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting%20Talk | Fighting Talk | Fighting Talk is a topical sports show broadcast on BBC Radio 5 Live during the English football season. The show is broadcast on Saturday mornings for an hour between 1100 and 1200 and is based on a similar format to the ESPN show Around the Horn.
Its first series was broadcast in October 2003, presented by Johnny Vaughan. The second series was presented by Christian O'Connell. The longest-serving presenter was Colin Murray, who took charge between 2006 and 2013 and returned to the show for the 2016–17 season. Murray announced on Twitter that he would step down as host at the end of the 2022–23 season but continue to fill in when his replacement takes holidays. Rick Edwards is the current host.
The show has twice won Gold Sony Radio Academy Awards in the sports programme category; in 2006 and 2011. For the latter, judges described the show as "like a modern version of old-fashioned Music Hall".
Format
The host chairs the show where four guest pundits are invited to expound in turn, preferably with wit and knowledge, their views and opinions on a series of topical sporting events. Most sports are thrown into the fray but there is a strong emphasis on English top-flight football and other sports covered by the British news media.
The penultimate discussion topic on the show is known as 'Any Other Business' (AOB) where the guests are given the opportunity to talk about anything they wish, and encouraged to comment on topics or issues that have irked, annoyed or incensed them in past week, regardless of relevance to sport.
Listener participation
The programme is interspersed with "listeners' homework" – listeners are asked to submit answers to one of the questions posed to the panel (normally question two) by e-mail or text message. During the course of the show, the presenter reads out the "best" responses, with the most entertaining answers being read out the following week. Homework questions often involve likening sports people to objects, animals or concepts: for example, "If footballers were houses, what would they be?"
Prizes were introduced to encourage respondents; in the first series, the prize for the best entry was a "soundbite" recording of a commentator or sportsman — being a brief piece of sporting commentary involving the winning respondent or recollections of the respondent's sporting prowess (both fictional). Contributors included Chris Waddle, Barry Fry and Jonathan Pearce. In keeping with the Park incident (see below), the results of this competition have been rigged on occasion — for example, Giles Boden (writer — see below) is a previous "winner"; his prize was a soundbite recorded for him by the former Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri.
During the second series, a tangible prize was introduced in the form of a Fighting Talk mug – and as an added incentive, listeners were offered the chance to appear as guest pundits. Jim Thane was the first listener to be invited to compete live on the show, appearing in series two with Steve Bunce, Greg Brady and Dominic Holland. Richard Seymour was the second guest listener, appearing in the third series with Steve Bunce, Bob Mills and Kriss Akabusi. During the fourth series, Christopher Briggs joined a panel consisting of Will Buckley, John Rawling and Bob Mills.
Prizes were suspended during series 5 due to the BBC's blanket ban on hosting phone-in competitions, which came as a result of various phone-in and interactive voting scandals. Listeners were still encouraged to text and e-mail in answers by the presenter, immediately followed by a sarcastic remark from Colin Murray about Blue Peter, one of the BBC's programmes accused of misleading viewers. When considered in the context of the arbitrary nature of the show's scoring systems, the suspension seems somewhat ironic, particularly given that presenter corruption is tolerated to the point of being encouraged.
As of 19 September 2009 the listeners have been asked to submit a question, rather than answer the set question. The listener who is selected to pose the question over the phone is also given the power to award two bonus points to any panelist of his or her choice. The listener also receives a unique theme tune that no FT contestant will ever get. The listener-submitted question is always the second question of the show.
Defend the Indefensible
In order to decide the week's ultimate winner the two highest scoring pundits are invited to "Defend the Indefensible". Each pundit is called to vigorously support a topical theme for twenty seconds that is either distasteful, politically incorrect, plainly wrong, self-derisory or entirely contrary to the pundit's known opinions. Previous examples of defending the indefensible include "I’d gladly drink a pint of Maradona's liposuction fat for Comic Relief"; "cricket has been cheapened now common people and ladies have jumped on the bandwagon" and "I believe the annual Oxford-Cambridge boat race should take place in Iranian territorial waters".
For all the responses are often outrageously comedic, due to some being extremely near the knuckle, hosts have still had to reiterate on many occasions that the statements are not meant to be taken seriously in any way. Indeed, more often than not they actually have the intention of mocking those who would hold such an abhorrent view; even so, despite repeated clarification, complaints are still a fairly regular occurrence.
On occasion, the DTI round has been specifically designed for the pundit who has to answer. Examples include propositions posed to former England football manager Graham Taylor and Henning Wehn. After the resignation of Sven-Göran Eriksson from the position of England Manager, Taylor was invited to defend the statement "The next England manager should be Graham Taylor". In a later series, Wehn was asked to defend "The German football team should wear PVC Nazi outfits as a show of support to Max Mosley", in reference to the latter's court battle following revelations about Mosley's personal life.
Finalists who refuse to take part in the round forfeit the round and by extension, the game — for example, John Rawling refused to criticise his wife's cooking on the Christmas 2006 show, with the win being awarded to fellow panellist Des Kelly. Rawling was again asked to defend the proposition exactly a year later, and did so successfully.
Two episodes of Fighting Talk were won by pundits who did not have to participate in the DTI round:
On 17 September 2005, Bob Mills won a show after fellow finalist Steve Bunce refused to defend "John Rawling's debut as ITV boxing commentator was mediocre at best"; Bunce was replaced in the final by John Rawling, who was subsequently unable to respond to the proposition "Boxing's so gay, but that's why I like it".
In November 2006, Trevor Nelson was awarded a win after finalists Ian Stone and Clare Balding's efforts were deemed too terrible to win.
Martin Kelner became the first (and to date, only) person to be ejected from the DTI final on 25 April 2009 because Colin Murray claimed he was "being a wuss" in offering his place in the final to John Oliver.
Scoring
Guests earn arbitrary points for 'good punditry', but lose them if they waffle, use predictable clichés, or attempt to ingratiate themselves with the host.
Disordered and by no means fair, the system is sufficiently flexible to accommodate the presenter's moods, likes and dislikes and personal bias. Pundits can start the game on positive scores, with points having been awarded for complimentary comments about the presenter; by contrast, many start on minus scores, with points having been deducted due to interruptions or negative comments about the presenter.
At the beginning of series four, Colin Murray introduced the "Golden Envelope" round. The presenter places his or her own answer to a particular question into an envelope prior to the show and poses the question to the pundits during the second half of that show: matching the answer in the envelope is worth ten bonus points.
Presenters can also 'fix' the outcome of show results for personal gain. Colin Murray arranged for Richard Park to win a show in 2007 because Park was a judge in the TV show Comic Relief does Fame Academy, in which Murray was a contestant. At one point, Park was in last place, but Murray put him into the final and gave him the win, without listening to the Defend the Indefensible round answer from fellow contestant Jim White.
Murray also decided an FA Cup third round show on 3 January 2009 in favour of former Wimbledon FA Cup Final goalscorer and Northern Ireland national football team manager Lawrie Sanchez, after both Sanchez and fellow finalist Martin Kelner failed to meet the 20 seconds required in Defend the Indefensible. On 9 November 2013, Bob Mills finished the show on zero points after a ridicule of Southampton's season left host Christian O'Connell aghast, and thus took all his points.
History
The first series began in October 2003 and was hosted by Johnny Vaughan. The inaugural show featured a panel consisting of Greg Brady, Will Buckley, Bradley Walsh and the eventual winner, Stan Collymore. After the first series ended in April 2004, Vaughan left to present the Capital FM breakfast show.
Christian O'Connell was the show's second presenter, and completed a successful second series from 2004 to 2005, culminating in a Gold Award for the show at the 24th Sony Radio Academy Awards. He left to focus on his new Virgin Radio breakfast show at the end of 2005. His last show was in December 2005, and featured his four favourite guests — John Rawling, Steve Bunce, Greg Brady and Bob Mills. That show also briefly featured the wives of three of those panellists, who were invited to answer (via telephone) a question on behalf of their husbands. Bob Mills' wife was unavailable for comment.
Colin Murray started presenting the show in February 2006. He was the host for seven years until he left in July 2013 as he moved from the BBC to present on rival network Talksport.
Following Murray's departure, he was replaced by three presenters who would rotate hosting duties. O'Connell returned as one of the presenters, with commentator Jonathan Pearce and TV presenter Matt Johnson the others for the 2013–14 season.
For two seasons, 2014–15 and 2015–16, hosting duties were shared between presenter Georgie Thompson and comedian Josh Widdicombe. Murray returned to the show on 17 September 2016 and remained until his second departure at the end of the 2022–23 season. Rick Edwards replaced Murray as the show's permanent host.
Guest presenters
Vaughan came back for 'one week only' on 10 March 2007 because Murray was appearing in the reality television programme Comic Relief does Fame Academy. However, he has since made two other guest appearances as chairman while Murray has been away. The show has also had a number of other guest presenters to cover for when the host is unavailable, including well-known British broadcasters such as Jordan North, Dickie Davies, Kelly Cates, Jimmy Tarbuck, Gabby Logan, Terry Wogan, Phil Williams, Sam Quek and Nick Hancock.
Producer Mike Holt has also had to present the show for one question when Colin Murray could not bring himself to adjudicate a round questioning his favourite team by asking "What's wrong with Liverpool Football Club?" Murray left the studio for the duration of the question.
The 'Stuart Hall incident'
Fighting Talk made national news with an episode broadcast on 12 March 2005. The panel consisted of Danny Kelly, Will Buckley, John Rawling and Stuart Hall. The presenter, Christian O'Connell, asked the panel "What other former all-conquering nations, clubs or individuals would you like to see have a renaissance?". Stuart Hall responded "Zimbabwe", and criticised what Robert Mugabe had done to the country, saying "...don your flannels, black up, play leather on willow with Mugabe cast as a witch doctor. Imagine him out at Lords casting a curse; tincture of bat's tongues, gorilla's gonads, tiger's testicles...". Shortly afterwards, O'Connell was heard to ask studio staff "Are we still on air?" During the same show, Hall was also asked for his opinion on sporting stars acting as role models for young people. In his response, he defended swearing by footballers suggesting that "your average 10-year-old can instruct you in oral or anal sex". The incidents were widely reported in the national press, although neither attracted significant criticism from listeners.
The Champion of Champions Show
Starting in 2010, the final episode of Fighting Talk for every season was dubbed the Champion of Champions show. The top four panelists who had appeared in (but not necessarily won) the DTI final the most over the course of the season would appear. The format would be the same, but some of the questions in the final episode would look back over the sporting events that occurred during the season, as well as looking forward to the UEFA Champions League Final as it either fell on the same day or a few days later.
Pundits
Pundits are generally British and Irish sports journalists, sportspeople or stand-up comics.
Regulars include:
Dougie Anderson – TV and Radio presenter (nicknamed "Three Answers")
Greg Brady – Sports journalist
Will Buckley – Sports journalist
Steve Bunce – Sports journalist
Simon Day – Comedian
Neil Delamere – Comedian
Gail Emms – Sportsperson
Elis James – Comedian
Eddie Kadi – Comedian
Des Kelly – Sports journalist
Martin Kelner – Sports journalist
Katharine Merry – Sportsperson
Bob Mills – Comedian
Justin Moorhouse – Comedian
Pat Nevin – Sportsperson
Eleanor Oldroyd – Sports journalist (labelled "The First Lady of Fighting Talk")
Richard Osman – TV presenter
Natalie Pike – TV presenter
John Rawling – Sports journalist (nicknamed "Psycho")
Paul Sinha – Comedian
Mark Watson – Comedian
Henning Wehn – Comedian
Jim White – Sports journalist
However, some non-UK pundits have made appearances, including Greg Brady (who participates regularly by ISDN from Toronto, Canada). On 27 October 2007, Brady made an appearance in the studio due to being in London for the first NFL regular season game to be played outside the USA. He has made appearances in the UK every year since then, including the 24 October 2009 broadcast which came live from Hull.
Other non-UK contestants include Australian comedians Charlie Pickering and Jim Jefferies, English-born New Zealand comedian Al Pitcher and German comedian Henning Wehn. American comic Doug Stanhope made an appearance on the 13 September 2008 episode, as he was touring Britain at the time. Adam Richman, host of Man vs. Food, appeared on 17 November 2012, but did so on ISDN rather than in studio. Also, American comedian Alex Edelman has been appearing on the show since 2019.
Music and sound effects
The show's distinctive theme tune comes from the track "Sabotage" by Beastie Boys, which first appeared on their 1994 album Ill Communication. The segment used is from the middle of the track. The song was replaced with a different version due to contractual reasons in 2010, but made a one-off appearance on the 5 May 2012 episode as a tribute to MCA (aka Adam Yauch), who had died the day before aged 47 and to whom that episode was dedicated.
Scoring is accompanied by a variety of appropriate and humorous sound effects.
In the 24 January 2009 show, a new sound effect (being the start up music from Microsoft Windows XP) was introduced, to indicate a 'fact' that had been blatantly pulled by the contestant from Wikipedia or another online source.
The music usually playing while the host gives the scores is the theme from the British TV show Grandstand, and during the final segment, Defend the Indefensible, the theme from the Rocky series, "Gonna Fly Now", is used.
Other sound effects used throughout each show include the various pundit themes; the theme from Allo Allo; Planet Funk's "Chase the Sun"; the German, Italian and American national anthems; the Indiana Jones theme; "The Lonely Man" from The Incredible Hulk, "Burning Heart" from Rocky IV, and the Grange Hill theme tune among others.
Fighting Talk in other media
The show made a brief appearance on television (2004, BBC2, in an early evening slot) presented and written by Johnny Vaughan and was true to the popular radio format. The scoring sound effects were juxtaposed with complementary images shown on large screens. At one stage negotiations were believed to be under way for Colin Murray to host a live style format in the Camden-based MTV studios which would air on Sky One during the close season.
In late 2010 ITV4 broadcast one series of Mark Watson Kicks Off, a looser television adaptation of Fighting Talk less closely related to the radio version than the 2004 BBC series.
The programme has also made outside broadcasts through the years throughout the United Kingdom, a number of which coincided with the BBC Sports Personality of the Year ceremony in December.
Fighting Talk: Any Other Business
A one-off, politics-based show — using the name of Fighting Talk'''s 'Any Other Business' round — was broadcast on Sunday 17 December 2006 at 7pm, presented by Richard Bacon. A run of four further shows billed as Fighting Talk: Any Other Business were broadcast between 15 July and 5 August 2007. The host was the original Fighting Talk presenter Johnny Vaughan and guests included Alan Duncan, Diane Abbott, Stephen Pound, Arabella Weir and Robin Ince.
Internet resources
The most popular and well known fan-site is located on the social networking website Facebook, under the name 'The Fighting Talk Appreciation Society'. It is occasionally mentioned on the show by the presenter.
In 2009 the show introduced a "secret" group on the social networking website Facebook, called 'FT316' for listeners to post their suggestions for question 2. Originally they did not give the name of the group on air, but a link was sent to anyone who requested it by email. This idea was scrapped after a couple of shows and now the presenter just tells listeners to go to the page, giving them the name of it on air. The 316 comes from the number of one of the sound effects in the BBC library, later found to be one number out from what it should be.
PodcastFighting Talk became available as an mp3 download in October 2004, with a podcast version following as part of a BBC trial in February 2005. Each show can be accessed for download on the BBC website in either format for one week after broadcast. Much comment is made by the presenters about the performance of the podcast in the iTunes chart (in either the Sport or Comedy categories, or the overall podcast chart) – with a previous best of number 5 in the overall chart (series three).
Following the Russell Brand Show prank telephone calls row, the BBC introduced a system of editing 'controversial' content of some shows before making them available as podcasts. The three most noticeable edits to date have been made to DTI rounds — the first involved the show recorded at Goodison Park (see above), where Pat Nevin was asked to defend the statement I'd gladly swap every game I played for Everton and Tranmere for just one night with Wayne Rooney's granny. Nevin's original answer in the live broadcast included the statement "sloppy seconds from Wayne Rooney just sounds like pure class to me" but the line was cut for the podcast.
The second involved the show broadcast on 16 May 2009, when Bob Mills was asked to defend a statement involving ex-cricketer Chris Lewis's appearance in court in relation to cocaine smuggling. Both the DTI statement and Mills's response were removed from the podcast. Mills was also edited out of the podcast of the 1 June 2013 broadcast, after he was asked to defend the statement "Give me 20 minutes with her and I’m pretty sure I could turn around Clare Balding." The statement, as well as Mills's response, was removed from the podcast before its official release, although fans made available an unabridged version recorded from DAB radio, via a number of sources, in a protest against the British newspaper the Daily Mail. The number of downloads of the uncut version reached four figures.
Several podcasts in series 6 contain bonus audio clips that can be heard after several minutes of silence at the end of the broadcast recording. The sections generally consist of studio chatter between the host and panellists, often recorded during off-air audio level tests. The most notable can be found on the podcast recording of the show broadcast on 28 March 2009, when panellist Perry Groves can be heard singing along to "Love Really Hurts Without You" by Billy Ocean.
Book
A Fighting Talk tie-in book, Fighting Talk: Flimsy Facts, Sweeping Statements and Inspired Sporting Hunches'', edited by regular pundit Will Buckley, was published by Hodder & Stoughton on 2 October 2008.
References
External links
Podcast RSS feed
BBC Radio 5 Live programmes
BBC Radio comedy programmes
2003 radio programme debuts
British panel games
British radio game shows
2000s British game shows
2010s British game shows
British sports radio programmes |
4072393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware%20Fightin%27%20Blue%20Hens%20football | Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football | The Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football team represents the University of Delaware (UD) in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) college football as a member of CAA Football, the technically separate football arm of UD's full-time home of the Coastal Athletic Association. The team is currently led by head coach Ryan Carty and plays on Tubby Raymond Field at 22,000-seat Delaware Stadium located in Newark, Delaware. The Fightin' Blue Hens have won six national titles in their 117-year history – 1946 (AP College Division), 1963 (UPI College Division), 1971 (AP/UPI College Division), 1972 (AP/UPI College Division), 1979 (Division II), and 2003 (Division I-AA). They returned to the FCS National Championship game in 2007 and 2010.
The program has produced NFL quarterbacks Rich Gannon, Joe Flacco, Jeff Komlo, Pat Devlin and Scott Brunner.
The Blue Hens are recognized as a perennial power in FCS football and Delaware was the only FCS program to average more than 20,000 fans per regular-season home game for each season from 1999 to 2010.
History
The program's long history began in the late 1800s, but the tradition did not truly begin to take shape until the arrival of Bill Murray in 1940. During his 11 seasons at the helm, the Fightin' Blue Hens compiled a record of 49–16–2 with one National Championship in 1946, which culminated in a win over Rollins in the now-defunct Cigar Bowl. That was good for an impressive .747 winning percentage. After Murray departed to take over at Duke University in 1950, David M. Nelson came on board as head coach.
During his time at UD, Nelson developed the Delaware Wing-T offensive system. This system, strongly rooted in running the football and deceptive fake hand-offs, became the identity of Delaware football for nearly 50 years. Nelson also brought with him another icon of Delaware football: the "winged" helmet. The iconic "Michigan" style helmet was developed by Nelson's coach at Michigan, Fritz Crisler, who first used the helmet design when he was head coach at Princeton (albeit in black and orange). Nelson played for Crisler when Crisler was head coach at Michigan, and Nelson brought the helmet design with him to every team he coached (Hillsdale College, Harvard, Maine and Delaware). Nelson stepped down as football coach in 1965, and in his 15 years (1951–1965), the Hens compiled an 84–42–2 (.664) record with one National Championship in 1963 and a bowl win over Kent State in the now-defunct Refrigerator Bowl.
In 1966, an assistant football and baseball coach named Harold "Tubby" Raymond took over, and after a rocky start (the team recorded a 2–7 record in his second season) became the face of Delaware football for 36 seasons. While Nelson developed the Delaware Wing-T, Raymond perfected it. When he retired in 2001, Raymond had racked up 300 wins against 119 losses and three ties, good for a .714 win percentage. His teams earned 14 Lambert Cup Trophies (as the best team in the east in a particular division), four national semi-finals, and three National Championships in 1971, 1972, and 1979. His 300 wins account for nearly half of the football victories in school history. These three men (Murray, Nelson and Raymond) are all enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame in Atlanta. Georgia Tech is the only other school to place three consecutive coaches into the College Football Hall of Fame.
The team has had much success on the field. In addition to the national championships listed above, notable program victories include multiple wins over Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) schools Navy (including a win at Navy's Homecoming game during a year when they went to a bowl game), Maryland, Rutgers, and Temple. Speculation regularly exists regarding whether the Blue Hens will "move up" to the FBS level at some point. The University of Delaware has more than 60 wins against opponents playing at the highest level, whether that was FBS (since 2006), I-A, or the University level (prior to 1978). However, whereas most I-AA schools move up because of the perception of increased money and prestige, UD has an extremely profitable football program, and it is already well-regarded academically and athletically.
"We're the LSU; we're the Georgia, the Florida of Division I-AA", Delaware coach K. C. Keeler said in American Football Monthly in September 2004. "We have every resource. There's some people who have better resources than we do, but in general, the college campus we have is in one of the greatest college towns in America, and the academics ... we led the nation last year in out-of-state applications, more than Michigan or Texas. But that's what this school has become – everybody wants to come to school here."
While most schools at the FCS level can expect 8,000–10,000 fans for a football game on a good day, the Fightin' Blue Hens can expect sellout crowds of over 22,000 at every home contest; Delaware was the only FCS program to average more than 20,000 fans per regular-season home game for each season from 1999 to 2010. Since Delaware Stadium opened in 1952, it has undergone four major expansions to come to its current capacity of 22,000 (in the 1970s it actually seated over 23,000, but subsequent modifications have reduced the capacity to the current number). The home attendance record was set in 1973 on October 27 against Temple University with 23,619 fans, and attendance has exceeded 22,000 fans frequently. When the Fightin' Blue Hens have a home game, the stadium population becomes the fourth largest city in Delaware—behind Wilmington, Dover, and Newark itself. Maine head coach Jack Cosgrove told Keeler that playing Delaware at Delaware Stadium is the highlight of many of his players' collegiate careers because of their large fan support. In 2011, Sporting News ranked Newark 162 on its list of the 271 Best Sports Cities.
On June 19, 2008, Keeler was granted a 10-year contract extension that was intended to keep him on as head coach of the Blue Hens through the 2017 season. The Homecoming Game versus William & Mary on October 18, 2008, marked the first time in 18 years that the Fightin' Blue Hens did not score a touchdown in a home game. The final score of 27–3 also made Delaware's third straight loss scoring ten points or fewer for the first time since the end of the 1983 season. Delaware's eighth loss, to Villanova in the final game of the season, ended a season that saw it lose eight games for the first time in 117 seasons. The Fightin' Blue Hens were one of only four teams in the NCAA to never lose eight games in a season, the others being Michigan (which lost its 8th game a week before the Hens), Tennessee, and Ohio State.
Keeler was fired on January 7, 2013, following the 2012 season in which his team posted a 5−6 record. Delaware hired Rutgers offensive coordinator Dave Brock as the team's head coach on January 18, 2013.
Brock was unable to maintain any of the success or momentum of his predecessors, could not recruit as successfully as his predecessors, and oversaw a precipitous decline in the program's on and off field fortunes. He became the first head coach in the 90+ year history of Delaware football to be fired in-season, on October 17, 2016. He was replaced on an interim basis by assistant coach Dennis Dottin-Carter, who completed the 2016 season. The team never made the FCS playoffs under his tenure. The team hired Richmond head coach Danny Rocco on December 13, 2016. Rocco was fired at the end of the 2021 season.
With a September 7, 2019 victory over the Rhode Island Rams, Delaware became the 39th team in the NCAA with 700 wins.
On December 10, 2021, Delaware named former UD quarterback Ryan Carty as their new head coach. Carty spent 11 years on the New Hampshire coaching staff, and spent 4 years as offensive coordinator at Sam Houston State under Keeler.
Head coaches
Conference affiliations
1889–1945: Independent
1946: Mason–Dixon Conference
1947–1955: Independent
1956–1957: NCAA College Division Independent
1958–1969: Middle Atlantic Conference (NCAA College Division)
1970–1972: NCAA College Division Independent
1973–1979: NCAA Division II Independent
1980–1985: NCAA Division I-AA Independent
1986–1996: Yankee Conference (NCAA Division I-AA)
1997–2006: Atlantic 10 Conference (NCAA Division I-AA/FCS)
2007–present: CAA Football (NCAA Division I FCS)
Postseason results
Championships
National championships
Conference championships
† Co-champions
Bowl games
Delaware has appeared in 11 bowl games and have a 8–3 bowl record.
Division I-AA/FCS playoffs
The Fightin' Blue Hens have appeared in the Division I-AA/FCS Playoffs eighteen times. Their combined record is 25–17. They were I-AA National Champions in 2003.
Division II playoffs results
The Fightin' Blue Hens have appeared in the Division II playoffs five times with an overall record of 7–4. They were Division II National Champions in 1979.
Rivalries
Villanova
Delaware State
Delaware and Delaware State first played against each other on November 23, 2007, in Newark, Delaware, in the first round of the NCAA Division I National Championship Tournament. The Blue Hens defeated the Hornets 44–7 in front of 19,765 people, the largest playoff crowd in Delaware Stadium history.
Prior to the 2009 season, the University of Delaware had not scheduled a regular season game versus Delaware State University, the state's other Football Championship Subdivision team. A 2007 guest editorial at ESPN.com's Page 2 claimed that this has to do with the fact that Delaware State is a Historically Black College. However, Delaware has scheduled and played regular season games against several other Historically Black Colleges and Universities such as Morgan State University and North Carolina A&T.
On February 25, 2009, coach K.C. Keeler joined Delaware State University coach Al Lavan along with school officials and state politicians in Dover, Delaware, to announce that their schools had signed on to play the first regular season game in their history. Additionally, a three-game series was scheduled for September 2012, 2013, and 2014. All games in the series were held at Delaware Stadium in Newark, because its seating capacity of 22,000 is much larger than that of Delaware State's Alumni Stadium. The schools had been engaged in talks to play a game as early as 2009, but Furman University, which had previously signed a contract to play a home-and-away series with UD, backed out of game two which was scheduled to be played at UD in order to play University of Missouri and garner a larger payday. This left the University of Delaware with an open date to fill with only a few months before the season started and the two sides quickly completed the deal.
The first game was played on September 19, 2009, at Delaware Stadium, with the winning Blue Hens receiving the new traveling trophy, the First State Cup, following a 27–17 victory. Delaware has been victorious in each of their nine subsequent match-ups (2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017,2019, 2021, 2022).
James Madison
William & Mary
West Chester University
Blue Hens in the pros
Active
CB Tenny Adewusi – Dallas Renegades (2020), San Antonio Brahmas (2023–present)
LB Johnny Buchanan – St. Louis BattleHawks (2024–present)
RB Wes Hills – Detroit Lions (2019), Hamilton Tiger-Cats (2021–2022), New Orleans Breakers (2023–present)
DT Cam Kitchen – BC Lions (2022–present)
RB Dejoun Lee – Houston Roughnecks (2023–present)
DT Bilal Nichols – Chicago Bears (2018–2021), Las Vegas Raiders (2022–present)
WR Vinny Papale – Tampa Bay Bandits (2022), Memphis Showboats (2023), New Orleans Breakers (2024–present)
LB Troy Reeder – Los Angeles Rams (2019–2021), Los Angeles Chargers (2022), Los Angeles Rams (2023–present); won Super Bowl LVI
WR Joe Walker – Michigan Panthers (2022–2023), New Jersey Generals (2024–present)
Former
DB Mike Adams – San Francisco 49ers (2004–06), Cleveland Browns (2007–11), Denver Broncos (2012–13), Indianapolis Colts (2014–2016), Carolina Panthers (2017–2018), Houston Texans (2019)
S Nasir Adderley – Los Angeles Chargers (2019–2022)
DE Michael Atunrase – Nebraska Danger (2012–2013), Cedar Rapids Titans (2013)
DB Kenny Bailey – New Jersey Red Dogs (2000), New Jersey Gladiators (2001)
TE Josh Baker – New York Jets (2011)
DL Quincy Barr – Tampa Bay Storm (2014)
LB Darrell Booker – Ottawa Rough Riders (1989)
TE Nick Boyle – Baltimore Ravens (2015–2022)
DB Roger Brown – Georgia Force (2012)
QB Scott Brunner – New York Giants (1980–84), St. Louis Cardinals (1985)
CB Marcus Burley – Jacksonville Jaguars (2013), Seattle Seahawks (2014−2015), Cleveland Browns (2016), Houston Texans (2017)
RB Keith Burnell – Hamilton Tiger-Cats (2005)
OL Mike Byrne – Calgary Stampeders (2008–09), Pittsburgh Power (2011)
LB Mondoe Davis – Montreal Alouettes (2007)
QB Pat Devlin – Miami Dolphins (2011–13), Cleveland Browns (2015)
LB Leon Dombrowski – New York Titans (1960)
WR Jamin Elliott – Chicago Bears (2002), Georgia Force (2006), Atlanta Falcons (2006)
QB Joe Flacco – Baltimore Ravens (2008–2018), Denver Broncos (2019), New York Jets (2020), Philadelphia Eagles (2021), New York Jets (2021–2022); Super Bowl XLVII Most Valuable Player
QB Rich Gannon – Minnesota Vikings (1987–92), Washington Redskins (1993), Kansas City Chiefs (1995–1998), Oakland Raiders (1999–2004); won the 2002 NFL Most Valuable Player and played in Super Bowl XXXVII as a member of the Raiders
C Gino Gradkowski – Baltimore Ravens (2012–14), Atlanta Falcons (2015), Carolina Panthers (2016), Denver Broncos (2018), Super Bowl XLVII winner
DB Simba Gwashavanhu – Jacksonville Sharks (2019)
QB Andy Hall – Philadelphia Eagles (2005–06)
DL Matt Hardison – Tampa Bay Storm (2014), New Orleans VooDoo (2015), Las Vegas Outlaws (2015), Cleveland Gladiators (2016)
DB Sidney Haugabrook – Hamilton Tiger-Cats (2005), Las Vegas Gladiators (2007), Columbus Destroyers (2008)
OL Conway Hayman – Houston Oilers (1975–80)
DB Travis Hawkins – Toronto Argonauts (2015), Winnipeg Blue Bombers (2016), Montreal Alouettes (2017)
OL Kheon Hendricks – Milwaukee Iron (2010)
CB Nijuel Hill – Vegas Vipers (2023)
DB Tim Jacobs – Cleveland Browns (1993–95), Miami Dolphins (1996–1997)
DL Dennis Johnson – Washington Redskins (1974–77), Buffalo Bills (1978), Toronto Argonauts (1979–80)
OT Greg Justice – Austin Wranglers (2007)
DT Zach Kerr – Indianapolis Colts (2014–2016), Denver Broncos (2017–2018), Arizona Cardinals (2019), Carolina Panthers (2020), San Francisco 49ers (2021), Arizona Cardinals (2021), Cincinnati Bengals (2021); played in Super Bowl LVI as a member of the Bengals
QB Jeff Komlo – Detroit Lions (1979–81), Atlanta Falcons (1982), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1983)
DB Dale Koscielski – Chicago Rush (2001–02), Los Angeles Avengers (2002), Chicago Rush (2003)
WR Keita Malloy – Texas Terror (1996)
DE Matt Marcorelle – Georgia Force (2012), Jacksonville Sharks (2013)
DT Joe McGrail – Buffalo Bills (1987)
LB Joe McHale – New England Patriots (1987)
LB Larry McSeed – Montreal Alouettes (1997), Saskatchewan Roughriders (1998), Montreal Alouettes (1998)
DL Joe Minucci – Nashville Kats (2005–07), Cleveland Gladiators (2008)
TE Jeff Modesitt – Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1987)
QB Matt Nagy – New York Dragons (2002), Carolina Cobras (2004), Georgia Force (2005–06), Columbus Destroyers (2007–08)
WR Andrew Opoku – FXFL Blacktips (2015)
TE Ben Patrick – Arizona Cardinals (2007–10); scored a touchdown in Super Bowl XLIII
C Bob Patton – Buffalo Bills (1976)
RB Dan Reeder – Pittsburgh Steelers (1986–87)
DL Mike Renna –London Monarchs (1991) Charlotte Rage (1993)
LB Erik Ringoen – Toronto Argonauts (1992)
DB George Schmitt – St. Louis Cardinals (1983)
K Jon Striefsky – Philadelphia Soul (2011), Jacksonville Sharks (2012)
OT Jim Stull – Toronto Argonauts (2000), New York/New Jersey Hitmen (2001)
S Ivory Sully – Los Angeles Rams (1979–84), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1985–86), Detroit Lions (1987); played in Super Bowl XIV as a member of the Rams
DE Ronald Talley – Arizona Cardinals (2011–13)
CB Roman Tatum – Los Angeles Wildcats (2020), Orlando Guardians (2023)
DE Hal Thompson – Brooklyn Dodgers (1947–48)
DE Laith Wallschleger – Jacksonville Sharks (2016)
DB Anthony Walters – Chicago Bears (2011–14)
DL Richard Washington – Jacksonville Sharks (2011), Kansas City Command (2012)
LB Ali Witherspoon – Montreal Concordes (1985)
DL Blaine Woodson – Ottawa Redblacks (2018)
LB Paul Worrilow – Atlanta Falcons (2013–2016), Detroit Lions (2017), Philadelphia Eagles (2018), New York Jets (2019)
Notes
Draft picks
Future non-conference opponents
Announced schedules as of November 26, 2022.
† – 11 Game FCS Regular Season
‡ – 12 Game FCS Regular Season
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
References
External links
American football teams established in 1889
1889 establishments in Delaware |
4072470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olav%20Meisdalshagen | Olav Meisdalshagen | Olav Meisdalshagen (17 March 1903 – 21 November 1959) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party best known for serving as the Norwegian Minister of Finance from December 1947 to November 1951 and as the Norwegian Minister of Agriculture from January 1955 to May 1956. He was also a Member of Parliament for a long time, being elected for the first time in parliamentary election of 1936 and serving until his death, except for the period between 1940 and 1945 when the Parliament of Norway was de facto defunct due to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany. His death in 1959 came halfway through his fifth term in Parliament, and shortly after a parliamentary speech.
A jurist by profession, Meisdalshagen came from a humble family background, growing up at a former crofter's farm in rural Nord-Aurdal, and losing his father in the 1920s. After studying he moved back to Nord-Aurdal, worked as an attorney and built the Labour Party organization in the region. The background formed him in that his main political goal was to improve the economy of dwellers in rural farming districts. He was a proponent of economic regulation, which marked his period as Minister of Finance. However, his period was also marked by the dominance of Erik Brofoss and the Ministry of Trade in deciding the country's overall financial policy. When Trygve Bratteli succeeded Meisdalshagen as Minister of Finance, the ministry regained its dominance, but also set out on a gradual deregulation. This, in addition to Meisdalshagen's discontent with increased spendings on defence, made him an oppositional figure within the Labour Party. He did return briefly to cabinet as Minister of Agriculture, and also cooperated with the government through the position as chairman of Norges Kooperative Landsforening, a national association of consumer co-operatives. However his oppositional tendencies grew stronger in his later life. He was a part of the "Easter Uprising" in 1958, and in 1958 and 1959 there were rumours of Meisdalshagen worked behind the scene to facilitate a change of personnel—and policy—in the Labour Party. His death came in this period.
Early life and career
Early life and education
Meisdalshagen was born on 17 March 1903 in Nord-Aurdal as a son of smallholder and joiner Ole Meisdalshagen and Marit Myren. The family lived at the former crofter's farm Hagen in Skrautvål. Meisdalshagen attended Valdres Folk High School from 1920 to 1921, and took secondary education at Voss between 1921 and 1925 with financial support from his brothers; his father died in 1924. Meisdalshagen took the examen artium in 1925, and enrolled in law studies at the Royal Frederick University (now: University of Oslo). While studying he was involved in the students' branch of Noregs Mållag. He came also under the influence of the revolutionary group Mot Dag, though he was never a member. He graduated from university with a cand.jur. degree in 1932.
Pre-war political career
Meisdalshagen became involved in politics while attending school in Voss, and chaired the Labour Party chapter in Nord-Aurdal from 1927 to 1940. He also chaired the local chapters of Valdres, from 1930 to 1932, and Fagernes, from 1931 to 1934. From 1931 to 1940 he was a board member of the Labour Party county chapter. He was elected as a member of Nord-Aurdal municipal council in 1931, and was re-elected to serve until 1940. From 1934 he served in the council's executive committee. He spent his professional life in Fagernes, where he had opened an attorney's office in 1933. He also headed the municipal board of arbitration in debt matters, from 1935 to 1940. This had a significant influence on his further political career, in that he sought to improve the economy of rural Norwegian districts, especially through a centralized increase of farmers' income. He also favoured ensuring a low interest, preferably at 2,5%.
During the term 1934–1936 he served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway from the constituency Oppland; in the election of 1936, he was elected to a regular seat in the parliament. He was the youngest member of Parliament at the time.
World War II
As the Parliament amended the Constitution in 1938 to introduce four-year terms instead of three-year terms, the representatives elected in 1936 were still active in 1940. On 9 April that year, Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany as a part of World War II. With the German invasion, a radio broadcast coup d'état by Vidkun Quisling followed, and German diplomat Curt Bräuer was sent to Norway to demand the abdication of the Norwegian King Haakon VII and Nygaardsvold's Cabinet. This was initially refused, as the Parliament, meeting at Elverum on 9 April, issued the Elverum Authorization where it empowered the King and government to continue representing Norway. Norway and Germany was at war that time, and fighting continued for some months. However, when mainland Norway capitulated on 10 June 1940, new negotiations with Nazi Germany were opened, resulting in a request being submitted from the Presidium of the Parliament of Norway to the now-exiled King and government to abdicate. The case had been controversial, splitting the parliamentary group of the Labour Party. Olav Meisdalshagen agreed that the King should abdicate, as did the majority of the parliamentary group. When the King broadcast his refusal to abdicate via BBC Radio on 8 July 1940, this became famous as "The King's No".
Germany gradually tightened the grip of Norwegian society, and the Parliament became defunct during the rest of the German occupation of Norway. In 1941 Meisdalshagen became a prominent figure in the Norwegian resistance movement against German rule, in the position of district leader of Milorg in Valdres. In 1944 he left Norway and fled to Sweden, where he was a secretary at Flyktningskontoret in Stockholm until 1945. Briefly in 1945 he served as an advisor in London for the coordination of Milorg cells.
Post-war career
First post-war years
In the first parliamentary election after the war, in 1945, Meisdalshagen was re-elected for a second term in Parliament. It was not clear that he would be nominated for the ballot, as this was not at all usual for those Labour Party members who in the summer of 1940 had agreed to the King's abdication. However, Meisdalshagen's service in Milorg probably tipped the scales in his favour. He was a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs and secretary of the Preparatory Credentials Committee, and also became a member of the Standing Committee on Justice in December 1946. Meisdalshagen was also board chairman of the Norwegian State Housing Bank from 1946 to 1953.
Minister of Finance
Midway through his four-year term, Meisdalshagen was appointed Minister of Finance in Gerhardsen's Second Cabinet. He served from 6 December 1947 to 19 November 1951, when Torp's Cabinet was formed. Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen and former party secretary Martin Tranmæl were the architects behind his appointment. Ultimately, Meisdalshagen's opposition to the Labour Party's foreign and defence policy in general, and extraordinary monetary grants for defence measures specifically, was cited as the reason for his resignation from the cabinet, and even for the entire cabinet shift. During his period as minister, Meisdalshagen's parliamentary seat was occupied by Gunnar Kalrasten until June 1948 and then by Thorvald Ulsnæs. He was succeeded as Minister of Finance by Trygve Bratteli; other candidates were discussed but rejected, including Meisdalshagen's old acquaintance Klaus Sunnanå.
As a politician, Meisdalshagen has been noted as being an opposite figure to his predecessor as Minister of Finance, Erik Brofoss. Still, earlier in 1947 he had argued strongly in favour of "Lex Brofoss", the law proposed by Brofoss which meant that the elected politicians gave temporary authority to the Norwegian Price Directorate to regulate the economy. Meisdalshagen even stated that a majority in Parliament probably agreed that such a law should have permanent effect, not be renewed from time to time. Historian Einar Lie has stated that Brofoss left Meisdalshagen in charge of the price policy with a "very easy heart". On the other hand, the new Ministry of Trade, where Brofoss was appointed as Minister, clearly became more important than the Ministry of Finance in this period. The higher importance of the Ministry of Trade ended after 1951, and Meisdalshagen's period was thus an exception in the history of the Ministry of Finance. Meisdalshagen was ultimately criticized by Brofoss for "lack of economical insight", and he also ran afoul with Central Bank of Norway Governor Gunnar Jahn.
According to Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen, it took long to persuade Meisdalshagen to even take the post as Minister of Finance, and he was more interested in agro-economical questions than traditional planning of the economy. It was even said that Gerhardsen's Cabinet had an interest in luring Meisdalshagen away from the Parliament, where he had driven through significant increases in farmer's income, threatening the overall balance and planning of the state finances. In fact the income from farming, measured in the amount of money earned per decare, was doubled between the war's end in 1945 and 1950, when the Main Agreement for Agriculture, , was introduced. It regulated future price negotiations, and institutionalized the negotiating partners: the state on one side of the table, the Norwegian Agrarian Association and the Norwegian Farmers and Smallholders Union on the other.
During Meisdalshagen's time the lines between various parts of government were somewhat blurred. When the state budget was presented by the cabinet, and subsequently treated by the standing committees of the Parliament, committee members would contact the Ministry of Finance directly to ask whether a proposed budgetary change was feasible (after Meisdalshagen's resignation this practice was altered, in that the contact was initiated by the Labour Party committee fraction, not by the committee as a whole). Meisdalshagen also became known for nontraditional arrangements when it came to the Ministry's bureaucrats: assistant secretary Egil Lothe, who had a "very good relationship" with Meisdalshagen, doubled as assistant secretary and State Secretary from 1948 until Meisdalshagen's resignation in 1951. Such a double role, where a person was both bureaucrat and politician at the same time, was very uncommon, probably unique. Lothe was not formally appointed, either, and thus does not appear on historical lists of state secretaries. According to Einar Lie, there was no clear division of tasks between Meisdalshagen and Lothe when it came to the Ministry's daily work. In addition to Lothe, the consultant Karl Trasti, another friend of Meisdalshagen, had influence in this period, especially in budgetary questions.
Return to Parliament
Since 1913, parliamentarians who are appointed to the cabinet may return to Parliament later, provided that the four-year term has not expired. After leaving as Minister of Finance, Meisdalshagen returned to Parliament as a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs, which he even chaired from January 1952 to January 1953. While being Minister of Finance, Meisdalshagen had been re-elected on the Labour Party parliamentary ticket in 1949, and was elected for a fourth time in 1953. He was still a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs. On 22 January 1955 the Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet was formed, and Meisdalshagen served as Minister of Agriculture until 14 May 1956. During this period his parliamentary seat was occupied by Per Mellesmo. Meisdalshagen then returned to Parliament, this time as a member of the now-defunct Standing Committee on Agriculture. He was elected for a fifth time in 1957. This time, he became a member of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence as well as the Enlarged Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence. From 1957 to 1959 he was also a member of the Labour Party's central committee ().
Meisdalshagen was also chairman of the Norges Kooperative Landsforening (NKL) from 1952 to his death. NKL was the national association of consumer co-operatives. This way, he represented trade interests in meetings with the government, at the same time as being a parliament member.
Internal opposition
Meisdalshagen was regarded as an internal opponent of the Labour Party's foreign affairs and defence policy. His obituarist in Verdens Gang writes that he was "more controversial in his own party than outside of it". This tendency had surfaced already in the 1940s, when he very reluctantly accepted the Norwegian signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. Meisdalshagen remained skeptic to a non-neutral foreign policy in the 1950s, and in February 1951 a conflict with Minister of Defence Jens Chr. Hauge arose. Meisdalshagen formally dissented against a proposal to grant an extra to the Norwegian Armed Forces for the years 1951 and 1952, and he became furious when he entered a budgetary debate without being notified of a certain press release, issued by Jens Chr. Hauge, where another grant of NOK 125 million was declared. According to Haakon Lie, Meisdalshagen influenced persons in the newspaper Oppland Arbeiderblad to write and print an editorial titled ("Let Hauge Go"). Meisdalshagen was a member of the board of Oppland Arbeiderblad from 1945 to 1957, and had spent some time working there before the war.
Meisdalshagen was also discontented with the deregulation policy to which the Labour Party gradually adhered in the 1950s. Trygve Bratteli, on the other hand, was viewed as a proponent of gradual deregulation. In November 1958 there were rumours that Meisdalshagen would return to the cabinet, probably as Minister of Transport of Communications. Some believed that Meisdalshagen worked together with Karl Trasti to have Trygve Bratteli removed from the cabinet; Trasti would succeed Bratteli as Minister of Finance, according to the rumour, with was told to Bratteli by Meisdalshagen's predecessor as Minister of Agriculture, Rasmus Nordbø. At the time Karl Trasti was a member of the ad-hoc Paulson Committee, which worked with questions regarding the Ministry of Finance's policy. It was thought that some of the committee's policy proposals could be undesirable to Bratteli, and thereby compromise his minister position. This information was given to Trygve Bratteli from parliamentary secretary Haakon Bingen in January 1959. Binge had heard it from Egil Lothe, at the time a deputy under-secretary of state in the Ministry of Finance. A friend of Meisdalshagen, Lothe was thereby tied to the alleged intriguers. Jens Haugland noted the scheme of Trasti and Meisdalshagen in his diary, and that this caused Bratteli to keep himself "in the background". This was a part of a broader schism in the party, where Meisdalshagen was the "strongest man in the group" consisting of parliamentarians who deviated in questions of foreign policy: Finn Moe, Trygve Bull, Hans Offerdal, Sverre Løberg and Meisdalshagen. Meisdalshagen had been a supporter of the "Easter Uprising" of 1958, a voicing of dissent within the Labour Party, where the socialist students' association gained the signatures of Labour MPs on a NATO-critical resolution. In Meisdalshagen's obituary, he was likened to Olav Oksvik, another NATO-critical Labour politician.
Halfway through his fifth term in Parliament, on 21 November 1959, Meisdalshagen suffered from a sudden indisposition after a parliamentary speech. He was hospitalized, but died later that same day. The cause of death was intracranial hemorrhage. In Parliament he was replaced by Per Mellesmo, who advanced from deputy to regular representative. He was biographized in 1982 by Nils Oddvar Bergheim.
References
Citations
Bibliography
1903 births
1959 deaths
People from Nord-Aurdal
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Noregs Mållag leaders
20th-century Norwegian lawyers
University of Oslo alumni
Oppland politicians
Members of the Storting
Ministers of Finance of Norway
Ministers of Agriculture and Food of Norway
Norwegian cooperative organizers
Norwegian resistance members
Norwegian expatriates in Sweden
Norwegian expatriates in the United Kingdom
20th-century Norwegian politicians |
4072636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex%20in%20Ireland | Essex in Ireland | Essex in Ireland refers to the military campaign pursued in Ireland in 1599 by Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, during the Nine Years War.
In 1598, Queen Elizabeth I of England had been troubled over the choice of a military commander for Ireland, at a time when two factions dominated her court - one led by Essex, the other by her principal secretary, Sir Robert Cecil. In the following year Essex found himself with no choice but to offer his services, which the Queen accepted. The ensuing campaign failed, and Essex returned in disgrace to England, where he made a treasonable challenge to Crown authority. He was convicted and put to death in 1601.
Appointment of Essex
In the 1590s Essex was especially popular in London, where he was considered a pillar of Protestantism. At the height of the Anglo-Spanish war (1585–1604) he pushed an offensive strategy, supporting the Dutch rebels and French Huguenots against their Catholic enemy. But even as he championed maritime attacks on Spain and outright war against the Irish rebel O'Neill, the broad alliance against Spain was broken by the decision of King Henry IV of France to sue for peace.
The Queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley (father of Cecil and once guardian of Essex), strongly opposed this strategy, preferring peace and a steady hand in Ireland. In April 1598 he confronted Essex in the Council chamber for the last time. According to the chronicler William Camden, Essex denounced peace as dishonourable, but Burghley interrupted, saying, "he breathed forth nothing but war, slaughter and blood", and pointed to the text of his prayerbook: "Bloodthirsty and deceitful men shall not live out half their days."
In the summer, during the Council debate over the appointment of the next military commander for Ireland, Essex turned his back on the Queen, and she lost her temper, striking him across the head. He laid his hand on the hilt of his sword, but was held back by the Lord Admiral. Before leaving the chamber Essex (again, according to Camden) said, "he neither could nor would put up so great an affront and indignity, neither would he have taken it at King Henry the Eighth his hands". Tradition has it that he also called the Queen, "as crooked in her disposition as in her carcass".
His credit greatly reduced, he withdrew from Court - but the Queen's problems soon became more complex: in early August Burghley died; ten days later her army in Ireland suffered a stunning defeat at the Battle of the Yellow Ford; and a few weeks later Phillip II, the king of Spain. died.
The faction fight resumed, and Essex and the younger Cecil each tried to diminish the other's influence by proposing the Irish appointment (and therefore removal from Court) of members of the opposing faction. Once the list of candidates was exhausted the Cecil faction named Essex as the only remaining option, and he felt bound to offer his services. On December 30 the Queen formally opted for him, not merely as her deputy in Ireland but as Lord Lieutenant, and Essex announced his determination to beat O'Neill in the field.
Powers
On Twelfth Night Essex danced with the Queen at a party for the Danish ambassador. She had misgivings over the details of the campaign, but preparations were settled by the first week of March 1599. Letters patent were passed releasing Essex from the debts incurred by his father in the Irish service, and he received his appointment on 12 March, with power to pardon the rebel leader of his life upon submission and to confer knighthoods (but only where deserved by service and sufficient living).
The army was fixed at 16,000 troops, with 1,300 horse. Among the troops were 2,000 veterans from the Netherlands campaign, led by Henry Dowcra, which it was proposed to distribute in garrisons. The plan provided for reinforcements of 2,000 troops from England every three months to make up for expected losses, and a regular postal service was established between Dublin and London via Holyhead. Essex also had command of a squadron of five warships with an assortment of fly-boats, which was intended for a landing at Lough Foyle in the north. An emergency rendez-vous for the squadron was appointed at Berehaven (or Baltimore) in the southern province of Munster, in the event of Spanish aggression. Ultimately the ships were confined to southern waters and played no part in the northern campaign.
The army was the largest ever sent to Ireland, and was fully equipped with munitions, clothing, artillery, victuals, and ships. The expected cost of the campaign was put at £290,000 per annum, twice that of Elizabeth's Netherlands campaign. The Irish enemy was supplied from Spain and Scotland, and its troops estimated at 20-30,000, with up to half operating in the northern province of Ulster, where the crown's authority was confined to a few inland forts supplied by defended towns in the east.
Departure
Essex departed London on 27 March 1599. Prayers were offered in the churches for his success, and he was cheered on in the sunshine for four miles through a double line of citizens, until it began to rain and hail. With him were the noblemen Blount and Southampton, whom Essex appointed against the queen's wishes.
On April 5 Essex waited at Hilbre, an island at the mouth of the river Dee, for favourable winds in foggy conditions. A week later he sailed from Beaumaris after impatiently riding over Penmaen Mawr - "the worst way and in the extremest wet that I have endured" - while bidding his ships to meet him. After a violent passage he reached Dublin on April 15 and was sworn into office the same day, when the Archbishop of Dublin preached a notable sermon.
The campaign had already suffered a blow in January on the death at Dublin of Sir Richard Bingham, a veteran commander of the Irish wars who commanded 5,000 troops from England. After Essex's arrival there was a further blow on the death of the young Earl of Kildare, who was set to join the campaign when his ship foundered in the Irish Sea and he was drowned along with eighteen Irish noblemen.
In his first week in Ireland Essex mounted a lavish pageant of English chivalry during the Garter Feast at Dublin on St George's Day, April 23. It was a pointed display of the values he felt were ignored at Elizabeth's Court. In London the Queen had chosen a muted version of the same ceremony, owing to the hardships of the war, and on hearing the reports from Dublin she granted the valuable mastership of wards to Cecil rather than the Earl. There was more humiliation for Essex when he rode north to Drogheda to inspect the famous 1,200 strong Flanders regiment, now commanded by Arthur Chichester. Essex charged the parading troops with his mounted staff, but they chose not to see the joke and stood firm, forcing him to pull his horse back as he was pricked in the backside with a pike.
Campaign preparations
The grand strategy favoured at Dublin, of attacking by land and sea simultaneously, was probably impossible with English resources, given the rumours of a fresh Armada from Spain and the need to keep warships in southern waters. The amphibious expedition to establish a northern base at Lough Foyle was abandoned, and the Dublin Council switched from an immediate attack on O'Neill and his confederate, Hugh Roe O'Donnell, when it became clear the strategy would fail through want of forage, cattle, and draught-horses. But this advice was declined by the Privy Council at London, which settled on a straight attack north into Ulster.
The Dublin Council may have been right: O'Neill bore out its fears by stripping food and horses from the lands bordering the Pale (an area around Dublin traditionally loyal to crown government). The rebel leader then encouraged a rebellion by the White Knight in the southern province of Munster, while O'Donnell moved into the western province of Connacht, with the expectation O'Neill would push south to join with the White Knight. War was in preparation at every point of the compass.
The Dublin Council advised Essex to attack O'Neill's confederates in the east, around the Pale, where the rebels were reckoned at 3,000 plus 800 mercenaries sent from Ulster. Essex seems to have taken that advice, ordering 5,000 troops into garrisons along the border of the Pale. To counter the White Knight he reinforced Cork on the south coast, and more troops were ordered into Munster for Sir Thomas Norris (acting president of that province) and into Kilkenny for the Earl of Ormond. In the west the army of the President of Connacht, Sir Conyers Clifford, was increased to 3,000. Conditions on the ground had set Essex in opposition to the Council in London: he put the threat from the north on hold and chose, instead, to head south and subdue Ireland in a roundabout tour - through the Pale into Munster, and heading back to Dublin through south Leinster.
Southern campaign
Essex set out from Dublin on May 9 to muster his army in the champion fields of Kildare, the Curragh. He marched south, taking the castle of Athy, and was harried by the O'Mores as he passed beyond the Pale. He relieved the fort of Maryborough, and the first significant engagement came in the second week of May at the pass of Cashel in Queens County. The pass was wooded and boggy, with a plashed trench at either end. At the head of his advance were 40 shot and 20 swordsmen. In the face of rebel resistance the calivermen moved to point blank range and the swordsmen jumped into the trenches on the flanks; the vanguard moved through the calivermen in a frontal assault and pressed through to open country, where they halted until the whole column had joined them. Essex was said to have flown like lightning between the vanguard, battle, and rearguard. The English admitted to the loss of three officers and several men although the Irish claimed 500 were killed. The rebels captured many feathered helmets, and the battle became known as The Pass of the Plumes. According to Geoffrey Keating's History of Ireland, "in the year 1599, (Owney Mac Rory Óg O'More) cut off a great number of the troops of the Earl of Essex, in a defile in their progress through Leinster, at a place called from that circumstance Bearna-Cleitigh, signifying the Pass of Plumes, from the great quantity of plumes left there, which were worn in the helmets of the English knights who were slain."
On May 18 Essex marched south to Kilkenny with two-thirds of his force. The streets of the city were strewn in welcome with green herbs and rushes, and Essex endured some lively orations from the local dignitaries. After meeting with Thomas Norris he departed on May 22 with 2,500 foot and 300 horse and was received with jubilation in the town of Clonmel. Two miles below the town, on the river Suir, the castle of Derrylare was surrendered, and Essex then fixed his sights on Cahir Castle, the strongest fortress in Ireland.
Essex had accused Lord Cahir, whose brother had custody of the castle, of collusion with the White Knight. Upon the failure of a parley for the surrender of the castle the English took forceful action: in a cannonade lasting two days the curtain wall was breached and the garrison fled. Essex entered the castle on May 29 (see Siege of Cahir Castle).
Essex marched west to Limerick city, where he was well received on June 4. At this point the army was joined by a large train of baggage porters, which outnumbered the fighting men two-to-one and remained a drain on resources throughout the campaign. At Askeaton (centre of resistance to the crown in the Desmond rebellion 15 years earlier) the army was revictualled after an encounter at Adare with the Sugán Earl, a pretender to the Earldom of Desmond who had shown himself with 2-3,000 men.
Essex realised the Munster rebels would not allow themselves to be trapped between his army and the western seaboard and decided to march south in an effort to draw them into battle. At Kilmallock he consulted the president, Thomas Norris, but conditions had begun to deteriorate, and it was reported that the soldiers "went so coldly on" that Essex had to reproach their baseness. There was no money, no magazine, no remnant of victual from the crown stores, and scarce enough cows to supply the army for two days, ammunition only for three. The army marched further south while Essex went to Mallow on a mission to procure supplies. He rejoined his men with a MacCarthy ally, but by the time he entered the heart of Desmond country the Sugán Earl and the rest of the rebels had gone into the field and were beyond reach.
Essex forded the river Blackwater at Affane, where he held a council of war in his tent, allowing Norris 1,100 foot and a company of horse to pursue the war in Munster. He marched unhindered eastward through Lord Power's country to Waterford City, where he was received with two Latin orations and a joyful concourse of people on June 21. The army was ferried across the river, from Munster to Leinster, an operation that took a frustrating length of time, and Essex left Waterford on June 22.
Return to Dublin
The way to Dublin was north by Wicklow, where the English commander Henry Harrington had been heavily defeated at the Battle of Deputy's Pass near Wicklow on May 29 by the rebel Phelim MacFeagh O'Byrne. Essex marched over the river Slaney with 1,200 fighting men and a host of churls and horseboys, choosing to approach by the coast rather than risk the foothills. Along the way his men torched villages and houses, until confronted by O'Byrne with 1,000 troops four miles south of Arklow on the Clonnough river. The Earl of Southampton crossed in deep water with the horse, and the Earl of Ormond led the army over a ford near the sea. The rebels skirmished on the left flank but would not close until they saw the baggage train was vulnerable: they swept into a hard fight and routed the English, killing almost the entire force: "Though the English horse twice drove the Irish back - enabling one of the cavalry captains to rescue the infantry's drums and colours - the small army's morale was beyond help, and it broke and fled in all directions once open country was reached. Many were killed, and the fate of many survivors was little better". Essex marched on to Dublin, arriving on July 2.
After eight weeks Essex could barely muster 300 horsemen. Not a single rebel commander had submitted, and no district was left subdued. Many troops had been dispersed in garrisons in Leinster and Munster, and the strength of the army was much reduced by disease and desertion. In London Essex was further discredited at Court for repairing coastal defences at Waterford and elsewhere, when the Armada scare of that summer was at its height in England.
Essex planned a second offensive beyond the Pale, which went ahead despite the Queen's disapproval: Maryborough and Philipstown (where 60 men had just been lost) were resupplied around July 25 - by Blount and Essex respectively - and Essex fought on the border of Westmeath with the rebel Captain Tyrrell. Harrington took part in this offensive, and Clifford came from the west with reinforcements, only to lose many men in the fighting. A surprise attack on the O'Connors in the heart of their country was successful: their children were exposed to the might of the Crown army, their corn was burned, and 500 cows were seized in thick woods. But Essex had failed once more to engage a significant rebel force and he withdrew to Dublin.
Clifford returned to Connacht, where he was killed and his forces routed at the Battle of Curlew Pass. This defeat - so soon after the defeat of Harrington in Wicklow - was rated by Cecil as the heaviest blow ever suffered by the English in Ireland, and at Court the blame was laid on Essex. O'Neill was now free from threat in the west, and an attack on his territory in Ulster was unlikely. Crown authority in Ireland hung in the balance.
Northern campaign
During the campaign Essex had wilfully abused his power by dubbing 38 knights, and the Queen announced that "it is doubted that if he continues this course he will shortly bring in tag and rag, cut and long-tail, and so bring the order into contempt". But she failed to curtail her commander and, according to her godson Sir John Harington, raged impotently at the news from Ireland: "She walks much in her privy chamber and stamps with her feet at ill news, and thrusts her rusty sword at times into the arras in great rage." She could take no more and on 30 July 1599 ordered an immediate attack on O'Neill.
Essex agreed and announced his intention, but he was suffering from a recurrent ailment, possibly a kidney stone, which may have restrained his enthusiasm. Others too had misgivings about the Queen's plan, since the rebels were secure on their western front, making an attack from the south deeply hazardous without a base in Lough Foyle. A council of war declared against the plan, but a month later the Queen delivered a furious censure to Essex, complaining bitterly that only 5,000 fighting men were available, and not twice that number. Concerns over a rumoured Spanish landing on the Isle of Wight in England made reinforcement of the Irish army impracticable, while hopes of peace talks with Archduke Albert, the Spanish governor of Flanders, may have caused Essex to suspect treason amongst the Queen's councillors. But seven days after the controversial council of war Essex set out for the north with the hopeless notion that, "if he [O'Neill] has as much courage as he pretendeth we will on one side or the other end the war."
Essex departed Dublin on August 28, and the army was mustered three days later outside Kells, making up 3,700 foot and 300 horse. O'Neill's readiness to outflank him and attack the Pale restrained Essex from advancing further, and in a letter to the Queen ("weary with life") he explained that Kells should be the frontier garrison for the coming winter. On September 2 he marched to Ardee, where O'Neill was sighted with his army on the far side of the Lagan, "a mile and a half from our quarter, but a river and a wood between him and us". The English claimed variously that the rebel leader had 10,000 foot and 1,000 horse, or 5,000 and 700. Heeding counsel not to engage because of the inferiority of his forces, Essex embattled the army and encamped on the left bank of the Lagan. O'Neill marched on the flank, keeping to the woods, while his horse-scouts stayed within sight.
The opposing commanders communicated with each other, and on September 6 Essex advanced with 2,000 foot and 300 horse. On sighting O'Neill he readied his army in the formation of a St Andrew's cross, with cavalry on either flank and to the rear. The war council hoped for an Irish attack and determined not to take the initiative. The next day O'Neill's envoy told Essex his master sought the Queen's mercy, and proposed a meeting with Essex at the ford of Bellaclinthe on the river Glyde.
On September 7 Essex rejected the meeting place, but the impatient O'Neill found a spot to ride into the river up to his horse's belly. It was a gesture of humility, and Essex rode with a troop of horse to an overlooking hill before going down alone to the ford, where he conversed with the rebel for half an hour. Both men withdrew to their companies on the hills. A formal meeting followed later, with six witnesses on either side: Essex rode down to the ford with his men and remained on the bank, while the Irish rode into the river - again, up to their horses' bellies. O'Neill spoke bare-headed for a good while, saluting the viceregal party with great respect. After half-an-hour a further conference was arranged at Lagan ford for the following morning.
Essex continued his march to Drumcondra, while O'Neill returned to camp. At the planned conference on September 8 O'Neill was present, but not Essex. A cessation of arms was agreed for six weeks to six weeks, until May Day, either side being at liberty to break it on giving fourteen days warning; the English had liberty to attack O'Neill's confederates if they refused to be bound. The terms also provided for restitution of all spoils within 20 days after the warning, and the rebels were to hold all they then possessed, with no garrisons to be placed in new stations, free passages to be assured, all English garrisons to be apprised of the cessation, and commissioners for the borders between the English and Irish zones to be appointed. O'Neill was to ratify this on oath, Essex on his word. The terms were committed to writing and signed by O'Neill. The next day Essex dispersed his army and went to take physic at Drogheda, while O'Neill retired with all his forces into the heart of his country.
Flight of Essex
In mid-September 1599 the queen wrote to Essex with further criticisms and forbade him from leaving Ireland without special warrant. A week later he committed responsibility for his government to two lords justice, placing Ormond in command of the army under his old commission, and gave instruction that the cessation was to be maintained, with garrisons fully victualled for six months. On the same day - September 24 - Essex boldly sailed for England, relying on his general warrant to return granted under the Great Seal. He reached London on the 28th, where he disturbed the Queen in her chamber before she was fully dressed.
Elizabeth described the cessation as the, "quick end made of a slow proceeding", and it was generally concluded that Essex's presence in Ireland had been superfluous. Essex revealed only to the Queen what had passed between him and O'Neill, having promised to deliver the rebel request verbally. At first treason was not suspected, but Elizabeth was outspoken about O'Neill: "to trust this traitor upon oath is to trust a devil upon his religion". She ordered no ratification, nor pardon, without her authority; but in time she did admit the usefulness of the cessation. Meanwhile, Essex was committed to custody, and on 29 November the council condemned him in the Star Chamber.
O'Neill was in two minds about the cessation and came under pressure from his confederate, O'Donnell, who argued that too much had been ceded to the English. O'Neill issued a list of demands on religious freedom, withdrawal of English influence, and confirmation of lands in rebel possession - probably the bones of his private conference with Essex. In a report of November 18 the rebels were said to have, "made two Irish terms of scorn against the Earl of Essex; one that he never drew sword but to make knights; the other, that he came like a hasty messenger, that went away before he had done his errand." Later that month there was a further parley on the Lagan, and a one-month extension was agreed. In December O'Neill complained of breaches of the cessation, and in the spring of 1600 he turned south on a campaign through Munster.
Succession
The detail of the earl's private parley with O'Neill became the subject of speculation in England. Sir Henry Wotton, the earl's personal secretary, complained bitterly of the duplicity of interpreters, saying that they were Essex's worst enemies. Rumours of the earl's disloyalty abounded, and with the waning of his favour at court Essex chose to challenge the queen's authority by breaking house arrest and riding in force through London to gain an audience with her. He was compelled to turn back by a well-organised defence, and at Cecil's insistence was declared a traitor. After a swift trial on charges of treason Essex was convicted and suffered the death penalty in February 1601.
Intelligence received in Spain some years later from James Blake (the supposed assassin of O'Donnell) had it "that the Earl of Essex, the same who raided Cadiz, had dealings with the Prince Onel of Ireland about causing a rising against the Queen of England, for which reason he was beheaded in England, and the said Earl employed the deponent [Blake] as intermediary between himself and the said Prince." It was also put about that O'Neill had almost persuaded Essex to leave the service of Queen Elizabeth and to join that of King Philip III to whom, "they would deliver the whole kingdom". O'Neill was said to have promised Essex great favour on behalf of the Spanish king, and when Essex expressed doubt because of, "certain disservices he had done to the Crown of Spain", the rebel leader went so far as to offer Essex his son as a hostage in proof of his good faith.
As with so many late Elizabethan conspiracy theories Spanish calculations may have been of less importance than those of the queen's councillors. At the outset in 1599 Essex had realised he was taking a risk in departing the court and leaving the field open to Cecil, a risk that would pay off only if he defeated O'Neill. The Irish campaign proved far more difficult than anticipated - Essex was the last English commander of the age to underestimate rebel capability - and the situation at court deteriorated rapidly, with Cecil gaining an overwhelming influence over the queen. The private parley with O'Neill was especially significant at a time when Cecil was preparing the succession of the Scots king, James VI, to Elizabeth's throne. Essex's flight from Ireland was a desperate attempt to interfere with those preparations, and once this had failed his subsequent treason was down to his refusal to accept that it was Cecil, and not he, who would determine the succession.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Bacon, Francis (1604) Sir Francis Bacon His Apologie, In Certaine Imputations Concerning the Late Earle of Essex
Vol. 1•Vol. 2
vol I, 1515-1574 • vol II, 1575-1588 • vol III, 1589–1600 • vol IV, 1601-1603 • vol V, Book of Howth; Miscellaneous • vol VI, 1603–1624
[NB For other volumes, see Annals of the Four Masters.]
Memoirs of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, from the year 1581 till her death, pp. 394 ff., Thomas Birch ed. (1754).
Nine Years' War (Ireland)
1599 in Ireland
1600 in Ireland |
4072895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barber%20coinage | Barber coinage | The Barber coinage consists of a dime, quarter, and half dollar designed by United States Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber. They were minted between 1892 and 1916, though no half dollars were struck in the final year of the series.
By the late 1880s, there were increasing calls for the replacement of the Seated Liberty design, used since the 1830s on most denominations of silver coins. In 1891, Mint Director Edward O. Leech, having been authorized by Congress to approve coin redesigns, ordered a competition, seeking a new look for the silver coins. As only the winner would receive a cash prize, invited artists refused to participate and no entry from the public proved suitable. Leech instructed Barber to prepare new designs for the dime, quarter, and half dollar, and after the chief engraver made changes to secure Leech's endorsement, they were approved by President Benjamin Harrison in November 1891. Striking of the new coins began the following January.
Public and artistic opinion of the new pieces was, and remains, mixed. In 1915, Mint officials began plans to replace them once the design's minimum term expired in 1916. The Mint issued Barber dimes and quarters in 1916 to meet commercial demand, but before the end of the year, the Mercury dime, Standing Liberty quarter, and Walking Liberty half dollar had begun production. Most dates in the Barber coin series are not difficult to obtain, but the 1894 dime struck at the San Francisco Mint (1894-S), with a mintage of 24, is a great rarity.
Background
Charles Barber
Charles E. Barber was born in London in 1840. His grandfather, John Barber, led the family to America in the early 1850s. Both John and his son William were engravers and Charles followed in their footsteps. The Barber family initially lived in Boston upon their arrival to the United States, though they later moved to Providence to allow William to work for the Gorham Manufacturing Company. William Barber's skills came to the attention of Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre, who hired him as an assistant engraver in 1865; when Longacre died in 1869, William Barber became chief engraver and Charles was hired as an assistant engraver.
William Barber died on August 31, 1879, of an illness contracted after swimming at Atlantic City, New Jersey. His son applied for the position of chief engraver, as did George T. Morgan, another British-born engraver hired by the Mint. In early December 1879, Treasury Secretary John Sherman, Mint Director Horatio Burchard, and Philadelphia Mint Superintendent A. Loudon Snowden met to determine the issue. They decided to recommend the appointment of Barber, who was subsequently nominated by President Rutherford B. Hayes and in February 1880, was confirmed by the Senate. Barber would serve nine presidents in the position, remaining until his death in 1917, when Morgan would succeed him.
Coinage redesign was being considered during Barber's early years as chief engraver. Superintendent Snowden believed that the base-metal coins then being struck (the one-, three-, and five-cent pieces) should have uniform designs, as did many of the silver pieces, and also some gold coins. He had Barber create experimental pattern coins. In spite of Snowden's desires, the only design modified was that of the five-cent coin, or nickel; Barber's design, known as the Liberty Head nickel, entered production in 1883. The new coin had its denomination designated by a Roman numeral "V" on the reverse; the three-cent coin had always had a "III" to designate its denomination. Enterprising fraudsters soon realized that the nickel and half eagle (or five-dollar gold piece) were close in size, and plated the base metal coins to pass to the unwary. Amid public ridicule of the Mint, production came to a halt until Barber hastily added the word "cents" to the reverse of his design.
Movement towards redesign
For much of the second half of the 19th century, most U.S. silver coins bore a design of a seated Liberty. This design had been created by Christian Gobrecht, an engraver at the United States Mint in Philadelphia, after a sketch by artist Thomas Sully, and introduced to U.S. coins in the late 1830s. The design reflected an English influence, and as artistic tastes changed over time, was increasingly disliked in the United States. In 1876, The Galaxy magazine said of the then current silver coins:
Public dissatisfaction with the newly-issued Morgan dollar led the Mint's engravers to submit designs for the smaller silver coins in 1879. Among those who called for new coinage was editor Richard Watson Gilder of The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine. Sometime in the early 1880s, he, along with one of his reporters and sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens visited Mint Director Burchard to argue for the creation of new designs. They brought along classic Greek and Roman coins in an attempt to persuade Burchard that the coinage could easily be made more beautiful. The visitors left disappointed, after learning that Burchard considered the much-criticized Morgan dollar as beautiful as any of them.
In 1885, Burchard was succeeded as Mint director by James Kimball. The new director was more receptive to Gilder's ideas and in 1887 announced a competition for new designs for the non-gold coinage. These plans were scuttled when Vermont Senator Justin Morrill questioned the Mint's authority to produce new designs. The Mint had claimed authority under the Coinage Act of 1873 in issuing the Morgan dollar in 1878 and the Liberty Head nickel in 1883. Morrill was a supporter of coin redesign and had in the past introduced bills to accomplish this; he felt, however, that this could not be done without an act of Congress. Kimball submitted the issue to government lawyers; they indicated that the Mint lacked the claimed authority. All three men worked to secure a bill to authorize new designs: Morrill by introducing and pressing legislation, Kimball by lobbying for the authority in his annual report, and Gilder by orchestrating favorable coverage. With legislators busy with other matters, it was not until September 26, 1890, that President Benjamin Harrison signed legislation making all denominations of U.S. coins available for immediate redesign by the Mint upon obtaining the Secretary of the Treasury's approval. Each coin could thereafter be altered from the 25th year after it was first produced; for example, a coin first struck in 1892 would be eligible for redesign in 1916.
Inception
Three days before the signing of the 1890 act, Barber wrote to the superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint, Oliver Bosbyshell, setting forth proposed terms of a competition to select new coin designs. Barber suggested that entrants be required to submit models, as opposed to drawings, and that the designs be in low relief, which was used for coins. He proposed that the entries include the lettering and denomination, as submissions without them would not adequately show the appearance of the finished coin. He received a reply that due to other work, the Mint would not be able to address the question until the spring of 1891.
On October 16, 1890, a new Mint director, Edward O. Leech, took office. Leech, aged 38 at the time, had spent his career at the Bureau of the Mint, and was an enthusiastic supporter of redesign. He took the precaution of obtaining recommendations from Barber as to suitable outside artists who might participate in a competition. Since most of the proposed artists were New York-based, Andrew Mason, superintendent of the New York Assay Office, was given the task of finalizing the list of invitees. Leading Mason's list of ten names was that of Saint-Gaudens. Mason sent Leech the recommendations on April 3, 1891; the following day, the Mint director announced the competition, open to the public, but he specifically invited the ten artists named by Mason to participate. Besides Saint-Gaudens, artists asked to compete included Daniel Chester French, Herbert Adams and Kenyon Cox. Although Barber had warned the director that reputable artists would likely not enter a contest in which only the winner received compensation, Leech offered a $500 prize to the winner, and no payments to anyone else. He sought new designs for both sides of the dollar, and for the obverses of the half dollar, quarter, and dime—Leech was content to let the reverses of the Seated Liberty coins continue. By law, an eagle had to appear on the quarter and half dollar, but could not appear on the dime.
Most of the artists conferred in New York and responded in a joint letter that they would be willing to participate, but not on the terms set. They proposed a competition with set fees for sketches and designs submitted by the invited artists, to be judged by a jury of their peers, and with the Mint committed to replace the Seated Liberty coins with the result. They also insisted that the same artist create both sides of a given coin, and that more time be given to allow the development of designs. Leech was unable to meet these terms, as there was only enough money available for the single prize. In addition to inviting the ten artists, he had sent thousands of solicitations through the country; a number of designs were submitted in response to the circulars. To judge the submissions, he appointed a jury consisting of Saint-Gaudens, Barber, and Henry Mitchell, a Boston seal engraver and member of the 1890 Assay Commission. The committee met in June 1891 and quickly rejected all entries.
Leech was quoted in the press regarding the result of the contest:
Barber wrote years later about the competition, "many [entries] were sent in, but Mr. St. Gaudens, who was appointed one of the committee to pass upon designs, objected to everything submitted". Numismatic historian Roger Burdette explained the artistic differences between the two men:
Preparation
Frustrated at the competition's outcome, Leech instructed Barber on June 11, 1891, to prepare designs for the half dollar, quarter, and dime. As the Morgan dollar was then being heavily struck, the Mint director decided to leave that design unaltered for the time being. For the obverse of the new coins, Leech suggested a depiction of Liberty similar to that on the French coins of the period; he was content that the current reverses be continued. Leech had previously suggested to Barber that he engage outside help if the work was to be done at the Mint; the chief engraver replied that he was aware of no one who could be of help in the preparation of new designs. Leech had spoken with Saint-Gaudens on the same subject; the sculptor stated that only four men in the world were capable of executing high-quality coin designs; three lived in France and he was the fourth.
Leech announced the decision to have Barber do the work in July, stating that he had instructed the engraver to prepare designs for presentation to Secretary of the Treasury Charles Foster. In a letter printed in the New York Tribune, Gilder expressed disappointment that the Mint was planning to generate the new designs in-house, feeling that the Mint, essentially a factory for coins, was ill-equipped to generate artistic coin designs. Due to Gilder's prominence in the coinage redesign movement, Leech felt the need to respond personally, which he did in early August. He told Gilder that "artistic designs for coins, that would meet the ideas of an art critic like yourself, and artists generally, are not always adapted for practical coining". He assured Gilder that the designs which Barber had already prepared had met with the approval of Mitchell, though Leech himself had some improvements to suggest to the chief engraver.
Barber's first attempt, modeled for the half dollar, disregarded Leech's instructions. Instead of a design based on French coinage, it depicted a standing figure of Columbia, bearing a pileus (a crown fashioned from an olive branch) atop a liberty pole; an eagle spreading its wings stands behind her. The reverse utilized the heraldic eagle from the Great Seal of the United States, enclosed inside a thick oak wreath, with the required legends surrounding the rim. Leech rejected the design, and Barber submitted a revised obverse in mid-September with a head of Liberty similar to that on the adopted coin. Leech got feedback from friends and from Secretary Foster; on September 28, he wrote Barber that Liberty's lips were "rather voluptuous" and directed him to prepare a reverse without the wreath. Barber did so, and pattern coins based on the revised design were struck. Barber complained, in a letter on October 2 to Superintendent Bosbyshell, but intended for Leech, that the constant demands for changes were wasting his time. Leech replied, stating that he did not care how much effort was expended in order to improve the design, especially since, once issued, they would have to be used for 25 years. Barber's reply was transmitted to Leech on October 6 with a cover letter from Acting Superintendent Mark Cobb (Bosbyshell was traveling) stating that Barber "disclaims any intention to be captious and certainly did not intend to question your prerogative as one of the officers designed by law to pass upon new designs for coinage". The letter from Barber was a lengthy technical explanation for various design elements, and requested further advice from Leech if he had preferences; the overall tone was argumentative. Leech chose not to write again; he addressed one concern, about whether the olive branches in the design were rendered accurately, by visiting the National Botanical Garden, obtaining one, and sending it to Barber.
The question of how to render the stars (representing the 13 original states) on the coin was posed in the letters; in the end, Leech opted for six-pointed stars on the obverse and five-pointed ones on the reverse. Barber had prepared three versions of the design, each with clouds over the eagle; Leech approved one on October 31 and ordered working dies prepared, but then began to question the presence of the clouds, and had two more versions made. On November 6, President Harrison and his Cabinet considered which of the designs to approve, and chose one without the clouds; the following day, Leech ordered working dies prepared. Barber scaled down his design for the quarter and dime. While the Cabinet approved the designs, members requested that the Mint embolden the words "Liberty" on the obverse and "E Pluribus Unum" on the reverse, believing that these legends would wear away in circulation; despite the resulting changes, this proved to be accurate. For the reverse of the dime, on which, by law, an eagle could not appear, a slight modification of the reverse of the Seated Liberty dime was used, with a wreath of foliage and produce surrounding the words "One Dime".
It is uncertain when pattern dimes and quarters were struck, but this was most likely in mid-November 1891. One variety each of pattern dime and quarter are known, whereas five different half dollars are extant; all known Barber coin patterns are in the National Numismatic Collection and none are in private hands. On December 11, Bosbyshell requested a delay in production to mid-January 1892 to allow the dies to be more thoroughly tested; Leech refused. The first Barber coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on January 2, 1892, at 9:00 a.m. By the end of the day, all three denominations had been coined.
Design
All three denominations of the Barber coinage depict a head of Liberty, facing right. She wears a pileus and a small headband inscribed "Liberty". On the quarter and half dollar, the motto "In God We Trust" appears above her head; she is otherwise surrounded with 13 six-pointed stars and the date. On the dime, her head is surrounded with "United States of America" and the year. The reverse of the quarter and the half dollar depicts a heraldic eagle, based on the Great Seal. The bird holds in its mouth a scroll inscribed "E Pluribus Unum" and in its right claws an olive branch; in its left it holds 13 arrows. Above the eagle are 13 five-pointed stars; it is surrounded by the name of the country and by the coin's denomination. The reverse of the dime depicts a wreath of corn, wheat, maple and oak leaves surrounding the words "One Dime". Barber's monogram "B" is on the cutoff of Liberty's neck; the mint mark, on the dime, is placed beneath the wreath on the reverse and beneath the eagle on the larger denominations.
Barber's head of Liberty is purely classical, and is rendered in the Roman style. The head is modeled after the French "Ceres" silver coinage of the late 19th century, but bears a resemblance to Morgan's design for the silver dollar. This did not escape numismatist Walter Breen in his comprehensive guide to U.S. coins: "Barber must have been feeling unusually lazy. He left the [dime] rev[erse] design as it had been since 1860, with minor simplifications. His obv[erse] was a mirror image of the Morgan dollar head, with much of Miss Anna Willess Williams' back hair cropped off, the rest concealed ... within a disproportionately large cap." In his text introducing the Barber quarter, Breen states, "the whole composition is Germanically stolid, prosy, crowded (especially on rev[erse]), and without discernible merit aside from the technical one of low relief". Burdette terms Barber's designs, "typically mediocre imitations of the current French-style—hardly better than the arcane seated Liberty type they replaced".
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule, in his work on U.S. coins, took a more positive view of Barber's coinage: "the last word as to their aesthetic merits has yet to be written. Little admired or collected for more than three generations after their appearance [writing in 1971], these essentially conservative but most dignified coins have suddenly become extremely popular with collectors". Vermeule argued that "the designs of Barber's coins were more attuned to the times than he perhaps realized. The plumpish, matronly gravitas of Liberty had come to America seven years earlier in the person of Frédéric Bartholdi's giant statue [the Statue of Liberty] ... " He suggested that the features of Daniel Chester French's huge statue Republic, created for the World Columbian Exposition, "were absolutely in harmony with what Charles Barber had created for the coinage in the year of the Fair's opening".
Reception
Leech released the new designs to the press about November 10, 1891. According to numismatist David Lange, the new coinage received mixed reviews: "while the general press and public seemed satisfied with the new dime, quarter dollar, and half dollar, numismatists were either mildly disappointed with the new coins or remained silent on the matter." Moran records a number of unfavorable reviews, without listing any favorable ones. Vermeule stated that "the initial comment on the new coinage concerned the novelty of a contest, its failure, and the inevitable result that the commission would go, as always, to the Chief Engraver [Barber] and his staff."
George Heath, editor of The Numismatist, discussed the new pieces: "the mechanical work is all that could be desired, and it is probable that owing to the conventional rut in which our mint authorities seem obliged to keep, this is the best that could be done". W.T.R. Martin wrote in the American Journal of Numismatics, "The general effect is pleasing, of the three the Dime is to many the most attractive piece. The head of Liberty is dignified, but although the silly story has been started that the profile is that of a 'reigning belle' of New York, she can hardly be called a beauty; there is a suggestion ... of the classic heads on some of the Roman coins, and a much stronger suggestion of the head on the French Francs of 1871 and onward ... these coins are an advance on what has hitherto been accomplished, but there is yet a long distance between them and the ideal National coin."
Other reactions were unfavorable. Artist Kenyon Cox, one of the invited artists to the 1891 competition, stated, "I think it disgraceful that this great country should have such a coin as this." Harper's Weekly proclaimed, "The mountain had labored and brought forth a mouse." Saint-Gaudens was also interviewed, and as author Moran put it, "injudiciously ranted": "This is inept; this looks like it had been designed by a young lady of sixteen, a miss who had taken only a few lessons in modeling. It is beneath criticism ... There are hundreds of artists in this country, any of whom, with the aid of a designer, could have made a very respectable coin, which this is not."
Production and collecting
Soon after issuance of the new quarters, the Mint received complaints that they would not stack properly. Barber made adjustments in his design to remedy this problem. Accordingly, there are two versions of the 1892 quarter, dubbed "Type I" and "Type II", both for the version without mint mark struck at Philadelphia and for those struck at the New Orleans Mint (1892-O) and the San Francisco Mint (1892-S). They may be distinguished by their reverses: Type I quarters have about half of the letter "E" in "UNITED" covered by the eagle's wing; with Type II quarters, the letter is almost entirely obscured. Type I quarters are rarer for each mint.
The 1894-S Barber dime is one of the great numismatic rarities, with a published mintage of 24 proof pieces. Various stories attend the question of how so few came to be coined. According to Nancy Oliver and Richard Kelly in their 2011 article for The Numismatist, the San Francisco Mint in June 1894 needed to coin $2.40 in silver left over from the melting of worn-out coins, just enough to coin 24 dimes. More ten-cent pieces were expected to be struck there later in the year, but this did not occur. Breen, on the other hand, related that San Francisco Mint Superintendent John Daggett had the dimes struck for a group of banker friends, giving three to each. He also gave three to his young daughter Hallie, telling her to retain them until she was as old as he was, and she would be able to sell them for a good price. According to the story, she spent one on a dish of ice cream, but kept the other two until 1954. One of the approximately nine known dimes was retrieved from circulation in 1957, and Breen speculated this may have been the ice cream specimen. One sold for $1,552,500 at auction in 2007.
In 1900, Barber modified the dies. This change resulted in quarters that were thinner, so that 21 of the new coins would stack in the space occupied by 20 of the old. Barber again set to work on the dies. San Francisco Mint officials wanted permission to use the old dies, which was refused, as it was felt that all mints should be producing coins with the same specifications. There are small differences between quarters produced at the different mints.
Except for the 1894-S dime, there are no great rarities in the Barber series, as mintages were generally adequate to high. Key dates for the dime include the 1895-O (with the lowest mintage), 1896-S, 1897-O, 1901-S and 1903-S. For the quarter, key dates are the very low mintage 1896-S, 1901-S, and 1913-S issues, with the 1901-S particularly scarce. The rarest half dollar is the 1892-O "Micro O", in which the mint mark "O" for New Orleans was impressed on the half dollar die with a puncheon intended for the quarter; other key dates are the regular 1892-O, 1892-S, 1893-S, 1897-O, 1897-S, 1913, 1914, and 1915. The last three dates have very low mintages but were preserved in substantial numbers. As half dollars were heavily circulated, prices tend to steeply rise for all coins in higher grades. "Condition rarities", relatively common and inexpensive in circulated condition but costly in high grades, include the 1901-S, 1904-S, and 1907-S half dollars. Thus, although most dates are easily obtainable, many are scarce in higher and uncirculated grades. Also, in 1909, a new half dollar hub was introduced, which made the headband word "Liberty" stronger, thus changing a grading diagnostic. Earlier Barber halves are frequently separately graded for their obverse and reverse characteristics, as the reverse tended to wear faster. Finally, large quantities of lower grade Barber coins were melted for bullion when silver prices rose in 1979 and early 1980.
Replacement
According to Burdette, "agitation to replace Barber's banal 1892 Liberty head began almost before the first coins were cold from the press." In 1894, the American Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, in conjunction with various artistic and educational institutes, began to advocate for better designs for U.S. coins, but no change took place in the remainder of the 19th century.
In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt started to push for improvements to U.S. coins, and arranged for the Mint to engage Saint-Gaudens to redesign coins which could be changed under the 1890 act. Before his death in 1907, the sculptor provided designs for the double eagle and eagle, though the double eagle required adjustment by Barber to lower the relief before it could be released as a circulating coin. Redesign of the smaller gold pieces, Lincoln cent, and Buffalo nickel followed between 1908 and 1913. By then, the dime, quarter, and half dollar were the only coins being struck which had not received a redesign in the 20th century. As the 1916 date approached when the Barber coins could be changed without an act of Congress, calls for a new design increased.
In 1915, a new Mint director, Robert W. Woolley, took office. Woolley advocated the replacement of the silver coins when it was legal to do so, and instructed Barber and Morgan to prepare new designs. He consulted with the Commission of Fine Arts, asking them to examine the designs produced by the Mint's engravers and, if they felt they were not suitable, to recommend artists to design the new coins. The Commission rejected the Barber and Morgan designs and proposed Adolph Weinman, Hermon MacNeil, and Albin Polasek as designers. Although Woolley had hoped that each artist would produce one design, different concepts by Weinman were accepted for the dime and half dollar, and one by MacNeil for the quarter.
Woolley had hoped to begin production of the new coins on July 1, 1916. There was heavy demand for small change, and as delays in actual production stretched into the second half of the year, Woolley was forced to have Barber prepare dies for 1916-dated dimes and quarters bearing the chief engraver's 1892 design. According to numismatist David Lange, "Barber must have secretly smiled to himself as his familiar Roman bust of Liberty once again dropped from the presses by the thousands, and then by the millions." There were sufficient half dollars from 1915 available to meet demand; no Barber halves were struck in 1916. The production difficulties were eventually ironed out, and at least token quantities of each of the new coins were struck in 1916, putting an end to the Barber coinage series.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Other sources
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Excerpt from
External links
CoinCommunity.com - US Barber Coinage Information
Coins of the United States
Currencies introduced in 1892
Eagles on coins
Goddess of Liberty on coins
United States silver coins
Works by Charles E. Barber |
4072981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Battalion%2C%20320th%20Field%20Artillery%20Regiment | 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment | The 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment (1-320th FAR) is the field artillery battalion assigned to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division. The battalion has been assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division, 11th Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division. The battalion has participated in World War I, World War II, Operation Power Pack, Operation Urgent Fury, Operation Desert Storm, Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Inherent Resolve.
History
World War I
The 1-320 FAR's beginnings can be traced back to America's entry into the First World War. As part of the nation's mobilization, 1-320th was constituted, organized and activated in August 1917 as Battery A, 320th Field Artillery (A/320th FA). As part of the original 82nd Division, A/320th FA played a key role at Lorraine, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse Argonne region in France. Following the Armistice, the 320th FA demobilized, only to be reconstituted in June 1921 as part of the United States Organized Reserves.
World War II
In August 1942, when the 82nd Infantry Division was converted to an airborne division, the 320th FA (including A/320th) was reorganized and redesignated as the 320th Glider Field Artillery Battalion (GFAB). As part of the 82nd Airborne Division, the 320th GFAB fought in a number of hot spots. First, the 320th GFAB was part of the campaign in Sicily, acting in reserve. The unit first saw action at the Volturno River on the Italian mainland. The crucial Normandy invasion was the next stop for the 320th GFAB. Under difficult conditions, the unit helped make the invasion a success. As a result of the 320th's actions during Operation Overlord, the unit was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. The 320th GFAB next fought in Operation Market Garden and then the Battle of the Bulge when the Germans attempted their last-ditch offensive. The 320th GFAB then fought and played a role in the final push through the Rhineland to defeat Germany. Upon the war's end the unit completed its duties in Europe as part of the post-war occupation in Berlin.
Post-World War II
After the war, the 320th GFAB went through a number of transitions. It was inactivated on 15 December 1948 and relieved from assignment to the 82nd Airborne Division on 14 December 1950. On 1 August 1951 it was reorganized and redesignated as the 320th Airborne Field Artillery Battalion (AFAB), and activated at Fort Benning, Georgia.
Post-Korean War
During the 1950s, the 320th FA served as the field artillery battalion of the separate 508th Airborne Regimental Combat Team. When the Army eliminated infantry regiments and battalions from division and organized under the Pentomic structure, the 320th Field Artillery was reorganized as a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regiment System. A/320th FA was assigned to the 11th Airborne Division in Germany. A/320th FA was inactivated on 1 July 1958 in Germany when the 11th Airborne was inactivated and replaced by the 24th Infantry Division. A/320th FA were redesignated on 15 November 1962 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 320th Artillery, and assigned to the 82d Airborne Division (organic elements concurrently constituted).
26 April 1965, President Johnson ordered paratroopers from the 82d Airborne Division; XVIII Airborne Corps; Company E, 7th Special Forces Group; and Marines from the Amphibious Squadron 10 to the Dominican Republic as part of Operation Power Pack to protect American lives and to prevent a possible Castro-type takeover by Communist elements. The 1-320 FAR was alerted on 28 April 1965 and ordered to move to the Dominican Republic by 1 May 1965 as part of Task Force Power Pack II, which contained two airborne infantry battalions of the 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment (AIR) and other supporting elements totaling 2,276 men. The remainder of the 325th AIR and 1-320 FAR were sent as part of Power Pack III a few days later. On 26 May 1965, US Forces began withdrawal from the Dominican Republic as Central and South American troops assumed peacekeeping duties.
Post-Vietnam
On the evening of 24 October 1983, (the day after the Bombing of the Marine Barracks in Beirut) the 2nd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, including the 1-320th FAR and other support units were formally alerted as the 82d Airborne Division's "Division Ready Brigade" to begin its 18-hour rapid deployment sequence to execute combat operations in support of Operation Urgent Fury on the Caribbean island of Grenada. The DRF 1 (Division Ready Force 1) package was activated and paratroopers of 2d Brigade were "wheels up" from Pope Air Force Base within 17 hours of notice. Parts of the 1-320 FAR were sent to an intermediate staging base (ISB) in Barbados to await the staging of the rest of the division to concentrate the projection of forces from a shorter distance. Once Rangers from 1st & 2nd Battalions had secured Point Salinas Airport during an airborne assault of the airport, the 82d Airborne elements cancelled their airborne assault and air-landed at Point Salinas. Elements of Batteries B and C arrived on the island during the evening of 25 October 1983 without their guns and provided rear area security in the vicinity of the runway. Early on the morning of 26 October 1983, Battery B's guns began arriving, followed closely by most of C Battery's guns. Battery B began firing direct support missions later that morning from the south side of Point Salinas airfield, bombarding the "Cuban Barracks" early that morning and later firing the prep fire for the Ranger assault on the campus at Grand Anse and the rescue of the students held there. Once Battery C's guns arrived, the guns originally joined B Battery. Once the majority of C battery arrived, it was repositioned to the north side of the runway near the airport terminal. Battery B was moved to join Battery C the next day. From there, Batteries B & C fired the 30-minute prep fires for the assault by the Rangers on Calvigny Barracks. The Batteries were both lived north to the vicinity of the Golflands golf course on the Sunday of the first week of the operation. This allowed them to cover portions of the island being secured by the 325th Infantry Battalions. Batteries B and C redeployed to Fort Bragg early in November 1983. Combat operations continued till 15 December 1983 when last elements of the battalion redeployed to Fort Bragg, NC.
On 2 October 1986, 1-320 FAR was relieved from assignment to the 82d Airborne Division and assigned to the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault). No personnel moved in this transition; instead, 1-320 FAR in the 82nd reflagged as 2-319 (which had been assigned to the 101st) and 1-321 FAR in the 101st reflagged as 1-320 FAR. Simultaneous assignments resulted in all three field artillery battalions in the 82nd carrying the designation of the 319th Airborne Field Artillery Regiment (AFAR) and all in the 101st being flagged as elements of the 320th Field Artillery Regiment. Prior to the reflagging, the 82nd Division Artillery consisted of 1–319, 1–320, and 2–321 FA, while the 101st Division Artillery consisted of 3–319, 2–320, and 1–321 FA.
Gulf War
1-320 FAR next saw action in the Middle East from 1990 until 1991. As a part of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), the battalion was part of the massive US force that drove the Iraqi Army from Kuwait.
Operation Iraqi Freedom I
During the preparations for OIF I, A/1-320 FAR deployed two weeks ahead of the battalion's main body to support port operations of the entire invasion.
Operation Iraqi Freedom III
1-320 FAR under the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) was ordered to deploy to the CENTCOM AOR in late September 2005. Upon completion of a JRTC mission rehearsal exercise in April 2005, it began a 5-month intensive train up to prepare for the next deployment.
LTC Rafael Torres, Jr. took command of the unit on 17 March 2005 and immediately began to prepare for Iraq. The battalion conducted live fire exercises in June and then began transitional training in motorized infantry tactics due to the change of mission for Iraq.
The battalion began deployment in August 2005. The rest of the battalion began deploying in late September to Camp Taji the second week of October 2005. Iraqi National elections were scheduled to be held on 15 October, equipment was delayed in Kuwait until the 20th, after the elections. The unit conducted a RIP/TOA (relief in place/transfer of authority) with 1–118th FA (Georgia Army National Guard) and the 70th Engineer Battalion (3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division) and completed the TOA on the 26th. The 1–320th detached a firing platoon from B Battery to 1–502 Infantry Battalion to conduct counter fire operations in Mahmudiyah. The battalion's radar section deployed with the 4th BDE 101st, to the Mahmudiyah area also. While in Mahmudiyah, the Radar section conducted numerous counter-fire missions which resulted in the firing of over 1400 rounds of artillery. The 1–320th also detached a MiTT (Military Transition Team) team to work with an Iraqi Army Battalion in support of 1–22 IN and 1–10 CAV in and around Southeast Baghdad and at FOB Falcon.
1–320th FA controlled check points, conducted cordon and searches and patrolled villages with populations up to 1000 residents. The battalion detained over 100 insurgents, which resulted in a third of them being prosecuted and imprisoned at Abu Ghraib. The unit was also responsible for finding numerous weapons and ammo caches which included hundreds of mortar, artillery, tank rounds and 200 pound aerial bombs; seized weapons including 8 mortar tubes, 500 rifles and RPG launchers, and thousands of rounds of small arms ammunition.
In Taji, Iraq the battalion suffered 6 KIAs by enemy action:
MSG James F. Hayes, Battery A
SSG James E. Estep, Battery A
SGT Clarence L. Floyd, Battery A
SPC Matthew J. Holley, Headquarters and Headquarters Battery
SPC Alexis Roman-Cruz, Battery A
PFC Travis J. Grigg, Battery A
In late November, the battalion received a change of mission to assume the duties of the Area Defense Operations Cell (ADOC) at Camp Victory located in the Victory Base Complex (VBC) surrounding the Baghdad International Airport.
The 1–320th conducted a RIP/TOA with the 2–299th IN (Hawaii Army National Guard) and completed the TOA on 7 January 2006. Its mission on Camp Victory required the 1-320th to conduct patrols in three villages neighboring the camp in Baghdad, control entry access and patrol the Al Faw Palace, as well as numerous Force Protection missions to ensure the security of the Multi-National Coalition-Iraq (MNC-I) and Multi-National Forces-Iraq (MNF-I) Headquarters on Camp Victory.
While conducting ADOC operations on Camp Victory, 1-320th FAR distinguished themselves by providing exceptional security and CMO operations to the VBC and surrounding villages of Al Furat, Iraqi Family Village, and Airport Village. 1–320th completed over 200 force protection improvement projects on Camp Victory and conducted over 3 million dollars in projects to improve the quality of life for our Iraqi neighbors. Meanwhile, at FOB Falcon, 16 soldiers of the "Top Guns" Battalion Military Transition Team (MiTT) were conducting continuous combat operations in support of 1–22 IN and 1–10 CAV in and around Southeast Baghdad.
The battalion redeployed to Fort Campbell in August 2006.
Operation Iraqi Freedom V
1-320 FA deployed to Iraq for a third time in October 2007, remaining more than a year and redeploying in late 2008.
Operation Enduring Freedom 10–11
1-320 FA deployed to southern Afghanistan in July 2010. Under the command of LTC David Flynn, Task Force Top Guns operated as a maneuver battalion in the Arghandab District of Kandahar Province. The battalion was awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for its actions from 13 July - 12 August 2010. They participated in Operation Dragon Strike.
Eight members of Task Force Top Guns were KIA during this deployment:
PFC Brandon M. King, Battery A, 14 July 2010
SPC Michael L. Stansbery Jr., Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 30 July 2010
SGT Kyle B. Stout, Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 30 July 2010
MSG (R) Robert W. Pittman, Jr., Asymmetric Warfare Group, attached to 1-320th, 30 July 2010.
SGT Patrick K. Durham, Battery B, 28 August 2010
SPC Andrew J. Castro, Company B, 2nd Brigade Special Troops Battalion, attached to 1-320th, 28 August 2010
1LT Todd W. Weaver, Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 9 September 2010
SSG Eric S. Trueblood, 720th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Company, attached to 1-320th, 10 March 2011
Operation Enduring Freedom 12
In early 2012, the 1-320th deployed with 2nd BCT to conduct security force assistance in northeast Afghanistan.
Operation Enduring Freedom 14
From February to November 2014, 1-320th deployed to Afghanistan, its sixth deployment of the Global War on Terror. Under the command of LTC Mark Sherkey, the battalion provided security force assistance to Afghan National Security Forces as well as maintaining the security of Bagram Air Field. The battalion conducted Operations Mountain Guardian, Top Guns, and Strike I, II and III, as well as providing security for numerous VIPs, including the President of the United States, the US Secretary of Defense, the Czech Republic Minister of Defense, numerous US congressmen and ambassadors from various countries. During this deployment, the battalion was the first unit to employ the M119A3 howitzer in combat. In a ceremony on 1 November 2014, the battalion transferred its responsibilities to the 2nd Squadron, 3rd Stryker Cavalry Regiment and the Georgian Army's 51st Light Infantry Battalion.
In May 2015, SFC Daniel King, from Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, was awarded the Gruber award by the Commandant of the Field Artillery, for his contributions advising and assisting the 201st Afghan National Army Corps Fires Center of Excellence at Gamberi.
Lineage and honors
Lineage
Constituted 5 August 1917 in the National Army as Battery A, 320th Field Artillery, an element of the 82d Division
Organized 29 August 1917 at Camp Gordon, Georgia
Demobilized 12 May 1919 at Camp Dix, New Jersey
Reconstituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Battery A, 320th Field Artillery, an element of the 82d Division (later redesignated as the 82d Airborne Division)
Organized in December 1921 at Columbia, South Carolina
Reorganized and redesignated 13 February 1942 as Battery A, 320th Field Artillery Battalion
Ordered into active military service 25 March 1942 and reorganized at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana
Reorganized and redesignated 15 August 1942 as Battery A, 320th Glider Field Artillery Battalion
(Organized Reserves redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps)
Withdrawn 15 November 1948 from the Organized Reserve Corps and allotted to the Regular Army
Inactivated 15 December 1948 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
(320th Glider Field Artillery Battalion relieved 14 December 1950 from assignment to the 82d Airborne Division)
Redesignated 1 August 1951 as Battery A, 320th Airborne Field Artillery Battalion, and activated at Fort Benning, Georgia
Reorganized and redesignated 1 March 1957 as Battery A, 320th Artillery, and assigned to the 11th Airborne Division
Inactivated 1 July 1958 in Germany and relieved from assignment to the 11th Airborne Division
Redesignated 15 November 1962 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 320th Artillery, and assigned to the 82d Airborne Division (organic elements concurrently constituted)
Battalion activated 7 December 1962 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
Redesignated 1 September 1971 as the 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery
Relieved 2 October 1986 from assignment to the 82d Airborne Division and assigned to the 101st Airborne Division
Relieved 16 September 2004 from assignment to the 101st Airborne Division and assigned to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division
Campaign participation credit
World War I: St. Mihiel; Meuse-Argonne; Lorraine 1918
World War II: Sicily; Naples Foggia; Normandy (with arrowhead); Rhineland (with arrowhead); Ardennes-Alsace; Central Europe
Armed Forces Expeditions: Dominican Republic; Grenada
Southwest Asia: Defense of Saudi Arabia; Liberation and Defense of Kuwait
War on Terrorism
Afghanistan: Consolidation III; Transition I
Iraq: Liberation of Iraq; Transition of Iraq; Iraqi Governance; National Resolution; Iraqi Surge
Note: The published Army lineage, dated 18 September 1996, shows no War on Terrorism campaigns. Comparison of the battalion's deployment dates with the War on Terrorism campaigns estimates that the battalion will be credited with participation in the seven campaigns listed.
Decorations
Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for STE. MERE EGLISE
Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for AFGHANISTAN 2010
Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for IRAQ 2003
Meritorious Unit Commendation for IRAQ 2005-2006
Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for IRAQ 2007-2008
French Crois de Guerre with Palm, World War II for STE. MERE EGLISE
French Crois de Guerre with Palm, World War II for COTENTIN
French Crois de Guerre with Palm, World War II Fourrragere
Military Order of William (Degree of the Knight of the Fourth Class) for NIJMEGEN 1944
Netherlands Orange Lanyard
Belgian Fourragere 1940
Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in the ARDENNES
Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in BELGIUM AND GERMANY
Note: Separately cited awards are not listed on the official lineage published by the Center for Military History.
Heraldry
Distinctive unit insignia
320th Field Artillery Regiment Distinctive Unit Insignia
Coat of arms
320th Field Artillery Regiment Coat of Arms
See also
Field Artillery Branch (United States)
Lower Babur
Khosrow Sofla
References
External links
320th FAR Regimental Association
Official Unit Facebook Page
320 1
Military units and formations established in 1917 |
4073013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR%20on%20ESPN | NASCAR on ESPN | NASCAR on ESPN is the now-defunct former package and branding of coverage of NASCAR races on ESPN, ESPN2, and ABC. ABC, and later the ESPN family of networks, carried NASCAR events from the sanctioning body's top three divisions at various points from the early 1960s until 2000, after the Truck Series rights were lost. However, ESPN resumed coverage of NASCAR with the Nationwide Series race at Daytona in February 2007 and the then-Nextel Cup Series at Indianapolis in July 2007. ESPN's final race was the Ford EcoBoost 400 at the Homestead–Miami Speedway on November 16, 2014, with Kevin Harvick winning that year's NASCAR Sprint Cup Series championship.
History
1961–2000: ABC
ABC's involvement with NASCAR began in the days of ABC's Wide World of Sports in the 1960s, in which it presented some of the biggest races in stock car racing. One of its events was the Daytona 500. ABC showed the last half of the race, except in 1976, when it showed the first 30 laps, went to the Olympics and then came back for the wild finish, in which David Pearson edged out Richard Petty with both cars sliding sideways across the track. The race TV rights went to CBS Sports in 1979, who reportedly pioneered live flag-to-flag NASCAR race coverage. For much of the 1970s and 1980s, ABC broadcast NASCAR races on tape delay. The commentary was added later in post production. They would actually sit in the booth and call something live if they needed to for the satellite feed. Otherwise, ABC would do all the editing afterwards for the final telecast.
1981–2000: ESPN
ESPN began showing NASCAR races in 1981, with the first event being at North Carolina Speedway. The last of its 265 Cup telecasts (that number includes some on ABC Sports) was the 2000 NAPA 500 in Atlanta (now the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500). Even though Fox, FX, NBC, and TNT were the exclusive broadcasters of the Winston/Nextel Cup Series and the Busch Series from 2001 to 2006, the ESPN networks still carried the Craftsman Truck Series in 2001 and 2002 because the Truck races were under a separate contract; ESPN had been broadcasting Truck races since the inaugural race in 1995. Speed Channel took over the Truck broadcasts in 2003.
2007–2014
The TV show promo of NASCAR on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC in 2007 can be seen as a sneak peek in the 2006 Disney/Pixar animated film Cars on DVD and VHS in the 2.39:1 widescreen and 1.33:1 fullscreen versions. ESPN (and ABC) regained rights to air NASCAR races in 2007 after NBC Sports dropped NASCAR at the end of 2006. Each race telecast began with the pre-race show NASCAR Countdown. As of the 2011 season Nicole Briscoe was the usual host, with Brad Daugherty and Rusty Wallace providing commentary. It was typically 1 hour for Sprint Cup and major Nationwide races and a half-hour for all other Nationwide races. In addition to the races, ESPN2 aired a daily show called NASCAR Now, which was similar to Baseball Tonight and NFL Primetime. It aired daily on ESPN2 and was hosted by Briscoe, with various others substituting. Unlike other league shows on ESPN such as NFL Live, Baseball Tonight, and College Football Live, NASCAR Now only aired during the NASCAR season.
In 2007, 29 of the 35 Busch races aired on ESPN2, with the other five airing on ABC. ESPN2 started its coverage with the Orbitz 300 at Daytona International Speedway on February 17, 2007. ABC's first race was the Sam's Town 300 at Las Vegas on March 10. The first NEXTEL Cup race telecast was the Brickyard 400 on July 29 on ESPN. The next 5 races aired on ESPN and the Richmond race and the final 10 races (the Chase for the NEXTEL Cup) appeared on ABC.
The initial broadcast team consisted of Jerry Punch as the lead announcer with Wallace and Andy Petree as analysts. Allen Bestwick, Mike Massaro, Jamie Little, and Dave Burns were the pit reporters. Brent Musburger, Suzy Kolber, and Chris Fowler contributed as studio hosts.
In 2008, ESPN moved Wallace and Bestwick from their positions. Bestwick became studio host while Wallace joined the studio team. Dale Jarrett, who had retired during the 2008 season and had worked part-time for the network afterward, joined Punch and Petree as booth analyst. Shannon Spake replaced Bestwick on pit road.
In 2009, the Monday edition of NASCAR Now became a roundtable show, similar to the old Inside NEXTEL Cup show that was on Speed Channel. Bestwick hosts the roundtable; he is also the former host of the Speed Channel program. The panelists rotate and have included Mike Massaro, Johnny Benson, Boris Said, Ray Evernham, and Ricky Craven. Massaro has also filled in as host, including after the 2010 Daytona 500. Beginning with the 2010 season, ESPN carried fourteen of the seventeen races, including the entire Chase for the Sprint Cup except for the Bank of America 500 which continued to be televised on ABC. ABC acquired the Irwin Tools Night Race and kept the Air Guard 400 as part of its race coverage. Previously, ABC aired the entire Chase for the Sprint Cup and the Richmond race (now known as the Federated Auto Parts 400), but NASCAR's decision to standardize early start times conflicted with ABC's expanding Sunday morning political talk show lineup. This led to consternation among ABC's Southern affiliates, who counted on the races as a bulwark against NFL games on competing CBS and Fox stations. This decision was in-line with ESPN taking over the rights to the Rose Bowl and the British Open as part of an ongoing strategy to shift sports programming from ABC to ESPN, to the outrage of many sports fans.
The ESPN family of networks continued to be exclusive home for almost every NASCAR Nationwide Series event. 22 of those races were on ESPN2, with ABC carrying four and ESPN nine. Marty Reid, who for the past several seasons was the lead play-by-play announcer for Indy Racing League events on the ESPN family of networks, became its lead NASCAR voice for the 2010 season replacing Jerry Punch. Andy Petree and Dale Jarrett returned as color commentators, while Punch moved to lead pit reporter. The April 2011 race from Richmond International Raceway was produced and broadcast by SPEED due to conflicts with the NFL Draft and the NBA Playoffs which are also broadcast by ESPN. The April 2013 and April 2014 Richmond races had the same conflicts, but in those years were carried on ESPNews.
The end of NASCAR's 30-year run on ESPN
On November 16, 2014, the Ford EcoBoost 400 at Homestead-Miami Speedway marked the end of NASCAR's 30-year, to-stint run on ESPN, dating back to 1981 and also, ending an eight-year stint with the network since 2007. Allen Bestwick, who served as lap-by-lap announcer for ESPN's Sprint Cup Series races since 2011, worked his final NASCAR broadcast on network television, marking the end of his role with the network in 29 years covering the sport and remained with ESPN and ABC covering IndyCar races from 2015 to 2018.
Production
Each broadcast began with NASCAR Countdown, ESPN's pre-race show. Using a mobile pit studio similar to FOX's Hollywood Hotel, the pre-race was typically led by host Nicole Briscoe with Brad Daugherty and Rusty Wallace. Daugherty and Wallace may be absent for weekends of Nationwide-only races, and Wallace occasionally moved to the broadcast booth for Nationwide races. The studio was not used at Nationwide races where ESPN was responsible for both the Sprint Cup and Nationwide Series races at two different tracks. The studio had not been used at Road America events where ESPN had brought a skeleton crew since the race was ESPN's only broadcast of the weekend due to the Little League World Series. The pre-race show was 30 minutes for Nationwide races and an hour for Sprint Cup races. Cuts to commercials saw a plastic NASCAR Countdown logo in city attractions outside the track.
Practice and qualifying session broadcasts also originated from the studio and drivers would occasionally enter the studio during qualifying to preview their runs. Sprint Cup drivers had also been seen in the booth to commentate on Nationwide races.
All races were presented in high-definition, and all cameras, including those in the race cars, were capable of sending out HD pictures. Starting in 2011, in-car cameras were able to provide two camera angles instead of just one.
At the Bashas' Supermarkets 200 at Phoenix International Raceway on April 20, 2007, NASCAR on ESPN unveiled a new feature, "Full Throttle". In this feature, which took place on one restart a race, the audio was provided by various team communications between drivers, crew chiefs, and spotters, similar to Fox's "Crank it Up". Typically, this lasted for about one lap. This frequency had been reduced from its earlier use, and was not seen at all in 2011.
Also in 2011, NASCAR on ESPN switched to a 16:9 aspect ratio letterbox presentation, matching that of Fox. This letterbox presentation, which was seen on ESPN and ESPN2, was not seen on Nationwide and Sprint Cup Series races aired on ABC, which still showed the race in the 4:3 standard-definition, non-letterbox format.
When NASCAR returned to ESPN in 2007, the starting grid was shown scrolling across the top of the screen, and it was not discussed. The time was instead used for ESPN's "In-Race Reporter" segment, in which fan questions were asked to drivers over the radio. Fox also used this tactic at the time (doing pit reports over the starting grid), an idea used by Fox from 2004–2008. However, while Fox switched back to traditional starting grids in 2009 and discussing them, ESPN continued using the scrolling grid throughout its entire run. On two occasions, ESPN did run a traditional starting grid with drivers' full names and talked about the grid. These occasions were the 2007 Busch Series race at Mexico City, in which many of the drivers were not regular NASCAR drivers and background information was warranted, and the 2014 season finale at Homestead-Miami, which was ESPN's final NASCAR broadcast.
The pit studio
The ESPN pit studio was one of the most technologically advanced mobile studios in all of sports. It was the size of a big-rig trailer and weighed . The interior was wide and held five production crew members, three robotic cameras and the on-air hosts. The entire studio could be elevated and had of glass so the hosts and the fans could see the track. In 2008, the studio was re-decorated and used by ABC News to cover the New Hampshire presidential primary. The studio also used state-of-the-art LED lighting to light up the hosts.
Coverage and other controversies
General
Many visitors to forums and blogs such as The Daly Planet complained that the coverage seen on ESPN and its related networks between 2007 and 2014 were not up to the standards set by the earlier version of network coverage. Their biggest complaints were excessive commercials, bored announcers, abuse of production technology, and language that seemed to talk down to them. Many said that they had found alternate means of racing coverage, including NASCAR Hot Pass, radio broadcasts, the magazine NASCAR Illustrated and the NASCAR website. Some were even looking forward to the return of NASCAR on Fox, despite the gimmicks inherent to that portion of the racing season.
On October 4, 2008, SportsCenter reported that the Roush-Fenway Racing trio of Matt Kenseth, Carl Edwards, and Greg Biffle were leading the championship standings. Johnson has always driven for Hendrick Motorsports during his Cup career, and never for Roush-Fenway Racing.
The many changes made in 2008, specifically the removal of on-air personalities with no previous NASCAR backgrounds and the reassignment of Wallace, may have come in response to these complaints.
NASCAR itself was disappointed at the production job done by ESPN at 2009 AMP Energy 500, the fall Talladega race. The morning of the race, in response to recent accidents at the track where cars went airborne (specifically, Carl Edwards flying into the catch fence after being turned in the tri-oval by Brad Keselowski on the last lap of the spring race), NASCAR instituted a rule banning bump drafting during the race. ESPN commentators frequently commented on how boring the race was because of the rule change, despite statistically (with 57 lead changes and 25 leaders) being comparable to past races at the track. The rule change itself proved ineffective at preventing car flips and accidents, as evidenced by Ryan Newman's blowover with five laps to go on the back straightaway, then Mark Martin's turnover in a crash in the tri-oval during the attempt at a green-white-checkered finish, and was quickly reversed before the 2010 season.
ESPN often did not recognize the title sponsors of events in its coverage unless their respective sponsors also pay a sponsorship fee to ESPN. Events without sponsorship deals with ESPN are presented by the network under generic titles with ESPN-furnished sponsors; for example, the Sunoco Red Cross Pennsylvania 500 was once branded as "NASCAR Sprint Cup Series at Pocono presented by Old Spice" by the network.
In NASCAR on ESPNs advertising campaign, their slogan was "Feel your heart race", a slogan which had already been trademarked by Kyle Petty's Victory Junction Gang. The latter's advertising also appeared on ESPN-carried races. This was changed to "Cause it's Racing" in 2010 and "Nothing Beats First Place" in 2011 and 2012.
During broadcasts since 2010, several improvements were made, including reduction in technology. There were also changes in announcing and pit reporters, most notably the moving Jerry Punch to pit road and IndyCar and occasional Nationwide Series lead announcer Marty Reid to lead broadcaster for the majority of NASCAR broadcasts beginning in 2010, including the Sprint Cup races. Sponsorship by non-NASCAR sponsors was also reduced. Allen Bestwick, formerly the lap-by-lap announcer for NBC's NASCAR coverage from 2001 to 2004, took over as lead broadcaster for Sprint Cup Series races in 2011.
Once the Chase for the Sprint Cup began and even in the races leading up to the Chase, ESPN often shifted its focus to the drivers in the Chase, in particular Jimmie Johnson. Often if a driver not in the Chase was leading and was passed for the lead by a Chase driver, he was not spoken of again for the rest of the broadcast. Case in point: in the November 2009 race in Texas, the vast majority of the broadcast was spent talking about Jimmie Johnson despite the fact he crashed on lap 3 and finished 38th. This was a fear of many once the Chase was introduced.
Finally, in 2010, ESPN with the consent of NASCAR, changed the networks that races were broadcast on. While the final eleven races of the season were broadcast on ABC from 2007–2009, all Sprint Cup races except for the three Saturday Night races in ESPN's portion of the schedule were switched to ESPN (the Bristol night race, previously on ESPN, was moved to ABC). This left only 3 races on over-the-air broadcasters for the last two-thirds of the NASCAR season. This, combined with the moving of the Brickyard 400, arguably NASCAR's second biggest race to ESPN, angered fans and sponsors.
Broadcast interruptions
Due to ESPN's various sports commitments, there were several interferences with NASCAR broadcasts. This was especially true once college football season started, when Nationwide Series races would often follow an early college football game. The broadcast start had also been delayed by the Little League World Series and ATP tennis. Many times (at least 15 as of 2010), NASCAR Countdown and even the start of the race were moved to ESPN Classic or, later, ESPNEWS. Due to contractual agreements with Turner, ESPN could not put broadcasts with ESPN3, another fact that angered fans. However, in 2011 an agreement was reached letting ESPN put all NASCAR programming on WatchESPN.
In 2010, because of the movement of the Chase races to ESPN and the earlier standardized 1:00 PM ET start times instituted by NASCAR, ESPN moved NASCAR Countdown to ESPN2 for all Chase races starting at 1:00 PM ET to avoid shortening or moving its Sunday NFL Countdown program. Viewers had to switch to the race at 1:00 PM ET from ESPN2 to ESPN. The next year, NASCAR moved the Chase races to later times (2:00 ET, then 3:00 ET for the final three races; Martinsville maintained a 1:30 PM ET starting time because, at the time, that track lacked lights and the grandstands cast long shadows over the racing surface in the late afternoon).
Network preemptions and relocations
On September 30, 2007, the end of the LifeLock 400, part of that season's Chase, was moved from ABC to ESPN2 when a rain delay went past 6 p.m. ET, the end of the allotted broadcast window. This was in contrast to Fox and NBC coverage, which typically stayed on those stations even if the races ran long past the expected time.
On March 15, 2008, the Sharpie Mini 300 moved from ABC to ESPN Classic at 6:15 p.m. so that ABC could show World News Saturday in the Eastern and Central time zones. The race was in a rain delay at the time and it was not resumed.
On May 2, 2008, the Lipton Tea 250 was moved from ESPN2 to ESPN Classic due to ESPN2's commitment to cover game 6 of the Cleveland Cavaliers-Washington Wizards first-round NBA playoff series. Because ESPN Classic had a much more limited potential audience than ESPN or ESPN2, NASCAR asked Speed Channel to simulcast the race, and it agreed. ESPN2 then rebroadcast the race in its entirety after the basketball game. A similar arrangement was reached for the Kroger On Track for the Cure 250, scheduled for October 2008 at Memphis Motorsports Park, due to conflicts with college football and the Breeders' Cup.
On November 9, 2008, the conclusion of the Checker O'Reilly Auto Parts 500 moved from ABC to ESPN2 because the race exceeded the allowable broadcast window due to two red-flag delays. ABC affiliates in the Eastern and Central time zones aired America's Funniest Home Videos instead, while those in the Mountain and Pacific time zones stayed with race coverage, with ESPN2 serving as a simulcast.
On August 22, 2009, at the Sharpie 500 at Bristol Motor Speedway, both the invocation and the national anthem were preempted because the Little League World Series game ran long.
On July 31, 2010, the first 23 laps of the Nationwide Series U.S. Cellular 250 at the Iowa Speedway, as well as all pre-race programming, were moved to ESPN Classic because of a semifinal match at the ATP Legg Mason Classic that ran long. This came shortly after the channel was upgraded to more expensive channel tiers on DirecTV and Dish Network, among other providers.
The following day, on August 1, the final round of the Women's British Open ran a few minutes past 1 p.m. ET, meaning that the pre-race ceremonies of the Pennsylvania 500 were preempted. ESPN2, which picked up NASCAR Countdown from ESPN due to the conflict, had to start its coverage of the X Games at that time. However, the race itself was not affected.
On October 2, 2010, NASCAR Countdown and the first several laps of the Kansas Lottery 300 were aired on ESPN Classic due to the Clemson-Miami football game running longer than anticipated.
On October 31, 2010, due to technical difficulties, the last 45 minutes of the Sunday NFL Countdown and the first 57 laps of the 2010 AMP Energy Juice 500 were preempted on some providers.
The 2011 Bubba Burger 250 scheduled for April 29 was moved from ESPN to Speed due to anticipated conflicts on both ESPN (with the second night of the 2011 NFL Draft) and ESPN2 (one or more NBA playoff games). Unlike past conflicts, this broadcast was produced entirely by SPEED combining their Truck & FOX's Sprint Cup broadcasting teams. In 2013 and 2014, when faced with a similar predicament, the Richmond spring Nationwide race was scheduled for ESPNEWS, but the 2014 race, whose start was delayed by rain, was moved to ESPN2 after the Toronto Raptors-Brooklyn Nets game ended.
ESPNEWS was also used for the Nationwide Kentucky fall race due to its scheduling for a Saturday night during college football season.
On September 20, 2014, NASCAR Countdown for the VisitMyrtleBeach.com 300 Nationwide race at Kentucky Speedway was preempted by a college football game between Texas State and Illinois that was delayed by lightning.
On October 11, 2014, the 2014 Bank of America 500 at Charlotte Motor Speedway, the final race to be broadcast on ABC, had its opening preempted by a late running college football game between TCU and Baylor. Coverage was moved to ESPNEWS (where it was also preempted because of a preseason NBA game between the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Miami Heat from Rio de Janeiro going into overtime), and was also stated to be on WatchESPN.com, which it wasn't. Fans voiced their anger on NASCAR's official live chat, and RaceBuddy was not provided on the website due to the race being on a broadcast network (RaceBuddy was later provided for all races starting in 2015, possibly in response to the controversy surrounding this race). The only way fans could get the start was by radio broadcast on PRN, or from the live lap-by-lap feed on the NASCAR App for smartphones. The first 25 laps were missed, and coverage was joined at a planned competition caution. A recap of the first 25 laps was almost immediately shown. NASCAR was also unhappy with the move and issued an apology. NASCAR later posted the full race (a practice that they had begun at Pocono's August race in 2014) on their official YouTube channel but with the world feed; the difference was all ESPN logos on graphics were removed. The race was further preempted on KATV in Little Rock, Arkansas when they went into local news instead, as did a few other ABC affiliates across the country.
Local station preemptions
The Subway 500 from Martinsville Speedway was not shown on KABC in Los Angeles (the second largest media market in the United States) on October 21 due to the California wildfires of October 2007, specifically the Buckweed fire in Santa Clarita and the Canyon fire in Malibu. Instead, the broadcast was shown on their 7.2 digital subchannel, which did not have universal availability.
Several stations chose to preempt NASCAR Countdown for local news or to fulfill their weekly FCC-required educational and information programming requirements, either through the Saturday morning ABC Kids lineup or later, Litton's Weekend Adventure. KABC did so before every Saturday night race in 2007 and 2008, and also did it before the 2007 Ford 400, a Sunday-afternoon event due to E/I requirements. This also occurred with WPLG in Miami, Florida and KSAT-TV in San Antonio, Texas at least once in 2007, and on November 1, 2009, the day of the 2009 AMP Energy 500, when KXLY-TV in Spokane, Washington preempted NASCAR Countdown to carry ABC Kids programming.
Other stations preempted NASCAR Countdown for their own paid programming, as has been done by some ABC affiliates for NBA Countdown.
At the other end of the scale, KTKA in Topeka, Kansas left the 2007 Bank of America 500 on October 13 to launch its nightly late newscast at 10 p.m. Central time and did not return. Topeka is located about 60 miles from Emporia, Clint Bowyer's hometown. KSAT also aired a brief news update, which came during a red flag, but returned in time for the checkered flag.
The 2008 Sharpie Mini 300 was not seen on several ABC stations for various reasons, ranging from weather bulletins (WSB in Atlanta and WSOC in Charlotte) to the Big 12 basketball tournament (KLKN in Lincoln, Nebraska and WOI in Des Moines, Iowa, among other stations in the conference's footprint). In addition, WABC in New York City carried the race, but preempted NASCAR Countdown and the rain delay to cover breaking news involving a construction accident at a high-rise building in Manhattan.
The pre-race for the 2008 Bank of America 500 was not seen on at least seven stations: KABC, KSAT, WPVI in Philadelphia, WXYZ-TV in Detroit (of which Brad Keselowski's hometown of Rochester Hills is a suburb), WEWS in Cleveland, WFTS in the Tampa Bay area, and KXLY. All of them aired newscasts, except for WXYZ, which aired a charity fundraiser.
The final eight laps of the 2008 Pep Boys Auto 500 were not shown on KOAT, the ABC affiliate in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The station cut away at 4 p.m. Mountain time for a live pre-scheduled congressional debate for the state's 1st District seat. The ending was shifted to ESPN2, but only those receiving KOAT on local cable (mostly Comcast) were able to see it; those who received the station via satellite continued to get the national feed of ESPN2.
Multiple stations every August preempted the Irwin Tools Night Race for local coverage of NFL preseason football; in most cases the race then aired live on a station's digital subchannel or sister station, had a local substitution on a local cable channel or ESPN/ESPN2, or was not carried at all. Rarely, they were tape-delayed for overnight viewing. One market, West Michigan, is unique in having two ABC affiliates, and when WZZM-TV preempted the 2012 race due to a Detroit Lions preseason game, WOTV broadcast the race live as to not tie up affiliate distribution complications to the market.
In 2010, the Irwin Tools Night Race was preempted on WXYZ-TV for coverage of the Woodward Dream Cruise.
In 2011, the Irwin Tools Night Race was preempted on most Mid-Atlantic and Northeast ABC affiliates for local news coverage of Hurricane Irene.
During a rain delay in the 2012 Federated Auto Parts 400, WJLA-TV in Washington, DC cut out of the ESPN on ABC broadcast of the race to air the primetime local news and did not return to the race broadcast when the race resumed. After running the newscast, WJLA went to a local commercial break and then rejoined the race broadcast at 11:46 p.m., several minutes after the race resumed.
Missing race endings
On August 24, 2007, the final five laps of the Food City 250 NBS race at Bristol Motor Speedway were not televised by ESPN2 (but were shown on broadcasters outside of the United States, such as Canada's TSN). The reason was that a satellite uplink path was somehow eliminated, preventing the master control at the network headquarters (ironically in Bristol, Connecticut; the track is in Bristol, Tennessee) from re-transmitting the event to cable and satellite providers. Instead, viewers saw a blank screen, then the ESPN2 logo "screensaver", then some commercials. By the time the problem was rectified, the race was over, with Kasey Kahne as the winner. Jerry Punch, the lap-by-lap announcer, apologized for the error immediately and the final two laps were shown on a replay unedited. In addition, the first rebroadcast showed the same laps as they were intended to be broadcast with an on-screen ticker and GEICO sponsorship bug just after 4:30 a.m. ET the next morning. An ESPN spokesman blamed a "human error" of an unspecified nature.
With nine laps remaining in the 2008 Federated Auto Parts 300, one or more feeds of ESPN2 on DirecTV suddenly cut off and was replaced by a static screen of the provider's logo, with audio from XM Satellite Radio's Top Tracks channel. By the time the picture returned, the race was over and Brad Keselowski celebrated his first win in the series, by then renamed Nationwide Series. The exact cause of the failure is unknown. Blogger John M. Daly blamed the problem on an error in the routing system in which the picture is sent to master control, and that neither ESPN2HD nor cable companies were affected. However, on a message board dealing with TV auto racing, moderator Cheryl Lauer reported that the opposite had happened to her, that HD was out while SD was broadcasting normally. She thought the problem was due to a complication in testing signals from a new satellite, D11.
Other problems/issues
Due to college football commitments and an exceedingly long race which had 25 caution flags, coverage of the Busch Series' Sam's Town 250 on October 27, 2007, ended the moment David Reutimann took the checkered flag to win the race. There was no post-race interview with Reutimann, summary of the finishing order, or any other usual post-race programming. No interview aired on ESPNEWS or SportsCenter either, another decision that rankled some long-time fans.
Coverage of the Nationwide Series' Jimmy John's Freaky Fast 300 at Chicagoland Speedway on September 13, 2014, ended the moment Kevin Harvick took the checkered flag due to the race exceeding its broadcast window and ESPN2 having a college football game between Alabama and Southern Mississippi, scheduled right after the race.
Some drivers had testy relationships with ESPN reporters.
Tony Stewart was fined and docked 25 points after his win at the Allstate 400 in 2007 when he used an obscenity in his post-race interview. During it, he implied unfair treatment by the network in the past.
Also in 2007, Dale Earnhardt Jr. looked very uneasy in his interview with Mike Massaro at the Chevy Rock and Roll 400; Massaro ran a lengthy talk after Earnhardt Jr. dropped out with engine failure.
In 2009, Juan Pablo Montoya walked out on an interview with Vince Welch after the Pennsylvania 500 due to a line of questioning he was not happy with.
In 2010, during driver intros, Jamie Little kept giving Kevin Harvick questions while Harvick was visibly annoyed and replied with short answers and even following him onto the truck continuing the conversation.
In 2011, Kurt Busch, while getting ready to do an interview with Jerry Punch, kept telling him in a profanity-laced insult to hurry up. Punch canceled it but it was leaked on camera which led to the resigning of Kurt Busch at Penske Racing.
Most of the races broadcast on ESPN on ABC had minimal or no post-race coverage. Several times, ESPN only interviewed the winner and second-place finisher. The most likely explanation is that the next program was, typically, ABC World News Sunday or a local newscast; the network wanted to start the newscast as soon as possible.
At the 2007 Dickies 500 at Texas Motor Speedway, the majority of the coverage was focused on Jeff Gordon and Jimmie Johnson. There was only one mention when Juan Pablo Montoya led the opening laps of the race and ESPN on ABC did not air several of the lead changes or mention them on air. In addition, during the Busch Series O'Reilly Challenge race at Texas, the final laps were broadcast from an in-car camera of points championship leader Carl Edwards. ESPN did not air the finish of the race where Kevin Harvick won and instead stayed with an in-car shot of Edwards through the finish.
At the 2007 UAW-Ford 500 at Talladega, ESPN on ABC did not air the final lead change as they were covering a battle a little deeper in the field. Jeff Gordon made the race winning move without mention of the lead change on ESPN on ABC until well after it had happened. Gordon won the race.
At the 2010 Sunoco Red Cross Pennsylvania 500, Kurt Busch and Elliott Sadler crashed violently on lap 165. ESPN could get multiple angles of Busch's crash, but due to this being a blind spot on the track, ESPN only had one angle showing Sadler's crash (even then, partially out of frame), leaving many fans angry about not knowing how Sadler crashed and hit the inside wall.
Shortly after the 2011 DRIVE4COPD 300, ESPN lost audio just as race winner Tony Stewart was about to answer a question. Due to those technical problems, ESPN began its special edition of SportsCenter from an infield studio at Daytona early. The interviews with Stewart and Dale Earnhardt Jr. were still recorded and played back 18 minutes later with the audio restored. However, the usual final tape montage and proper sign-off was not shown, at least not in the original live versions.
At the 2011 Tums Fast Relief 500 at Martinsville, ESPN did not show the final lead change, because Brad Keselowski spun around while Tony Stewart made the race winning move around Jimmie Johnson. RaceBuddy viewers, though, were able to see it from Stewart and Johnson's onboards.
At the 2013 NASCAR Nationwide Series event at Kentucky Speedway, Marty Reid made a human error and said that Ryan Blaney had won the race when the white flag was waving, even though Blaney continued on and won the race. The following Tuesday, Reid retired from the network; his future plans have not been discussed. Allen Bestwick called the rest of the 2013 and most of the 2014 NASCAR Nationwide Series events and also called ABC's IndyCar events starting in 2014.
At the 2014 GEICO 500 at Talladega, the ESPN broadcast completely missed Tony Stewart spinning out in the tri-oval with two laps to go. The commentators didn't notice nor mentioned it after the race ended.
Ultimate NASCAR
In addition to race coverage, ESPN aired a series of programs called Ultimate NASCAR. The series began in April 2007, when the network began to air a series of 100 one-minute vignettes highlighting NASCAR's most important moments as selected by a panel of experts. The vignettes aired every day until July 29. These moments are also recounted in a companion book published by the network.
In July 2007, ESPN aired a series of related documentaries. Three of them were countdown shows, ranking the greatest drivers, races, and rivalries in the sport's history. The other shows were "The Explosion" (a general overview), "The Dirt" (the origins of NASCAR), "The Cars" (the evolution of the NASCAR race car), "The Families" (an in-depth look at the Allison, Earnhardt and Petty families), and "Speed and Danger" (in which NASCAR drivers discuss the risks they take).
Lineup variations
In order to reduce the workload of announcers during the first half of the season, ESPN constantly changed the lineup of those who covered the activities on the race track. In the 2007 season, ESPN used three different lap-by-lap announcers (Punch, Marty Reid, and Allen Bestwick), four different color commentators (Wallace, Petree, Jarrett, and Randy LaJoie), ten different pit reporters (Jack Arute, Bestwick, Dave Burns, Gary Gerould, Jamie Little, Mike Massaro, Marty Smith, Spake, Johnson, and Vince Welch), six infield studio hosts (Musburger, Bestwick, Massaro, Chris Fowler, Erik Kuselias, and Suzy Kolber), and at least four infield studio analysts (Daugherty, Brewer, Wallace, and Ray Evernham). Three times during the season, the network did not use an infield studio for NASCAR Countdown, during the split races (where Nextel Cup and Busch Series were in different venues during the same weekend). Also, none of the talent was at every race. In 2007, Daugherty had the longest streak, being at every race until the Meijer 300 at Kentucky Speedway on June 16.
The main booth remained the same for all Sprint Cup races.
In 2008, Jarrett was to be granted two months off from the end of April to the end of June to prepare for being the analyst for all 17 Sprint Cup races.
The exact team to be used at each race is listed in an ESPN press release on this page.
See below for a more detailed list of announcers and their roles.
Announcers
Studio and pre-race shows
– John Kernan was the primary weekday host. On weekends that ESPN and ABC were covering Cup races, a weekend host would fill in on the Friday editions, as well as if there was a race postponed until Monday, through November 2000.
Race Coverage
NOTE: Ned Jarrett only appeared on races broadcast by the ESPN family of networks during his time there. He had a separate contract with CBS Sports and was thus precluded from working races televised on ABC.
See also
NASCAR Countdown
NASCAR Now
NASCAR Drivers: Non-Stop
ESPN2 Garage
Jayski's Silly Season Site
NASCAR in Primetime
References
External links
NASCAR.com (NASCAR's Official website)
Jayski
FanZone Sports (NASCAR News)
The Daly Planet (Website breaks down TV and Media coverage)
NASCAR on ESPN Media Guide
NASCAR Issues Still Confusing ESPN
1981 American television series debuts
2002 American television series endings
2007 American television series debuts
2014 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
ABC Sports
ESPN original programming
ESPN
1990s American television series
English-language television shows |
4073203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Canadian%20political%20families | List of Canadian political families | During its history, a number of Canadian families have produced multiple politicians. As there are no term limits in Canada for any legislative or executive office, these families have sometimes held uninterrupted political power.
Families
Amery
(father, son)
Moe Amery, Alberta PC MLA for Calgary-East
Mickey Amery, UCP MLA for Calgary-Cross
Ashton
(father, daughter)
Steve Ashton, Manitoba NDP cabinet minister for Thompson
Niki Ashton, NDP MP for Churchill—Keewatinook Aski
Bédard
Marc-André Bédard, Vice-Premier of Quebec and Quebec Minister of Justice
Stéphane Bédard, leader of the opposition in the National Assembly of Quebec and interim leader of the Parti Québécois
Éric Bédard, adjunct-director for the cabinet of Quebec Premier Jacques Parizeau and counsellor for the Parti Québécois led by Pauline Marois (not to be confused with Éric Bédard (historian))
Bennett
(3rd cousins once removed, son)
R. B. Bennett, eleventh prime minister of Canada
W. A. C. Bennett, Premier of British Columbia, 1952–1972
William R. Bennett, Premier of British Columbia, 1975–1986
Brad Bennett, Chair of BC Hydro 2015–present
Bernier
(father, son)
Gilles Bernier, Quebec Progressive Conservative then Independent MP
Maxime Bernier, Quebec Conservative MP and cabinet minister then People's Party of Canada founder and leader
Blaikie
(father, daughter, son)
Bill Blaikie, Manitoba NDP MP, MLA, and provincial cabinet minister
Rebecca Blaikie, President of the federal NDP
Daniel Blaikie, Manitoba NDP MP
Braden
(brothers)
George Braden, 2nd Premier of the Northwest Territories
Bill Braden, MLA, Northwest Territories
Bradford
(mother, son)
Valerie Bradford, Liberal MP for Kitchener South—Hespeler
Brad Bradford, Toronto city councillor and mayoral candidate in 2023
Brewin
(father, son, daughter-in-law)
Andrew Brewin, Ontario NDP MP
John Brewin, BC NDP MP
Gretchen Brewin, Mayor of Victoria, BC NDP MLA, and Speaker of the BC legislature
Andrew Brewin's grandfather Andrew George Blair was also Liberal Premier of New Brunswick and a federal MP and cabinet minister
Cadman
(husband, wife)
Chuck Cadman, Reform, Canadian Alliance, and Independent MP for Surrey North (1997–2005)
Dona Cadman, Conservative MP for Surrey North (2008–2011)
Cannon–Power
(GGG-grandfather, G-grandfather, granduncles, grandfathers, uncles, son)
John Cannon, member of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada
William Power, member of the House of Commons
Joseph Ignatius Power, member of the Quebec Legislative Assembly
William Gerard Power, member of the Quebec Legislative Council
Lawrence Arthur Dumoulin Cannon, member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec and Supreme Court Justice
Charles Gavan Power, federal cabinet minister (Minister of Pensions and National Health, Postmaster General), Senator
Lucien Cannon, federal cabinet minister (Solicitor General)
Francis Gavan Power, member of the House of Commons
Charles-Arthur Dumoulin Cannon, member of the House of Commons
Lawrence Cannon, provincial cabinet minister (Parliamentary Secretaries to the Ministers of Foreign Trade and Technological Development, Tourism; Minister for Communications) and federal cabinet minister (Foreign Minister, Minister of Transport)
Philippe Cannon, chief of staff in two ministries of Quebec
Caouette
(father, son)
Réal Caouette, MP for Pontiac (1946–1949), MP for Villeneuve (1962–1968,) Leader of the Ralliement créditiste (1963–1971), MP for Témiscamingue (1968–1976), Leader of the Social Credit Party (1971–1976)
Gilles Caouette, MP for Charlevoix (1972–1974), MP for Témiscamingue (1976–1979), Acting Leader of the Social Credit Party (1976)
Caplan
(mother, son)
Elinor Caplan, Liberal MPP and provincial cabinet (Health, Management Board), Liberal MP and federal cabinet minister (as Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, National Revenue)
David Caplan, Liberal MPP and provincial minister (Health, Infrastructure)
Carr
(two twin brothers and their older brother)
Jack Carr, MLA, New Brunswick
Jody Carr, MLA, New Brunswick
Jeff Carr, MLA, New Brunswick
(father, son)
Jim Carr, Manitoba MLA, Liberal MP for Winnipeg Centre and federal minister
Ben Carr (politician), Liberal MP for Winnipeg Centre
Casgrain-Beaubien
Charles-Eusèbe Casgrain Sr, MLA Lower Canada
Philippe Baby Casgrain MNA, son of Charles-Eusèbe
Charles Eusèbe Casgrain, Senator for Ontario, son of Charles-Eusèbe
Thomas Chase Casgrain MNA, MP, son of Charles Eusèbe
Léon Casgrain (1892–1967), Quebec MLA, great-grandson of Charles-Eusèbe
Pierre Beaubien, MLA Canada East, president of SSJBM, municipal politician in Montreal
Joseph-Octave Beaubien (nephew), MLA Canada East, MP
Louis Beaubien, MNA, president of SSJBM, co-founder of Outremont
Charles-Philippe Beaubien (son of Louis), senator
Louis-Philippe Beaubien (grandson of Louis), senator
(many more, see :fr:Famille Casgrain)
Chiarelli
(cousins)
Bob Chiarelli, mayor of Ottawa, Regional Chair of Ottawa-Carleton, provincial MPP and cabinet minister (Ministers of Energy, Municipal Affairs and Housing, Transportation, Energy and Infrastructure)
Rick Chiarelli, city councillor in Ottawa
John Chiarelli, former Catholic school board trustee in Ottawa
Chartrand
Michel Chartrand, president of CSN union federation, founder of Parti Socialiste du Québec
Simonne Monet-Chartrand (wife of Michel), founder of Fédération des femmes du Québec
Chrétien–Desmarais
(father-nephew-daughter)
Jean Chrétien, prime minister
Raymond Chrétien, Ambassador to the USA
France Chrétien Desmarais, husband advisor to Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (China) international advisors council
Clark
(husband-wife-their daughter)
Joe Clark, 16th Prime Minister of Canada (1979-1980)
Maureen McTeer, 1988 Progressive Conservative candidate in Carleton—Gloucester, and legal scholar and ethicist
Catherine Clark, Cable Public Affairs Channel presenter and marketing consultant
Clement
(stepfather-stepson)
John Clement, Ontario cabinet minister
Tony Clement, Ontario cabinet minister, federal cabinet minister
Copps
(father-daughter)
Victor K. Copps, mayor of Hamilton, Ontario
Sheila Copps, federal cabinet minister
Crosbie
(grandfather, father, son)
Sir John Chalker Crosbie, cabinet minister in pre-Confederation Newfoundland
Chesley Crosbie, politician and anti-Confederation campaigner
John Crosbie, federal cabinet minister
Ches Crosbie, MHA, Leader of the Newfoundland and Labrador Progressive Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition
David
(great-grandfather, grandfather, father, sisters)
Laurent-Olivier David, MNA Montréal-Est, senator Mille-Isles, founder of newspapers, journalist, historian
Athanase David, federal cabinet minister, senator
Paul David, senator
Françoise David, co-speaker of Québec Solidaire, MNA for Gouin
Hélène David, Quebec minister of Culture and communications, Liberal MNA for Outremont
Davie Fulton
(2 brothers, son-in-law, grandson)
Theodore Davie, Premier of British Columbia, 1878–1879
Alexander Edmund Batson Davie, Premier of British Columbia 1892–1895 (brother of Theodore Davie)
Frederick John Fulton, Unionist Member of Parliament for Cariboo, 1917 (father of Davie Fulton)
Davie Fulton, Member of Parliament Progressive Conservative and British Columbia Conservative Leader (grandson of Premier Davie)
De Lorimier
Claude-Nicolas-Guillaume de Lorimier Jr, MLA Lower Canada
François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier (grandson of brother), notary, Parti patriote activist, captain of patriot army, executed at Pied-du-Courant Prison
De Lotbinière
Michel-Eustache-Gaspard-Alain Chartier de Lotbinière, MLA Lower Canada (Speaker in 1794-1797)
Antoine Chartier de Lotbinière Harwood (grandson of Michel), MLA Canada-East, MNA
Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière (grandson of Michel), MLA Canada-East, MNA, Premier of Quebec (1878–1879), MP, federal minister
Dewar
(mother-son)
Marion Dewar, mayor of Ottawa and New Democratic Party (NDP) Member of Parliament
Paul Dewar, NDP Member of Parliament
Dorion
Pierre-Antoine Dorion, MLA Lower Canada
Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, MLA Canada East, co-founder of Institut canadien de Montréal
Antoine-Aimé Dorion, MLA Canada East, Premier Canada East 1858–1858 & 1863–1864
Vincislas-Paul-Wilfrid Dorion, lawyer, journalist, politician, judge
Douglas
(father, daughter)
Tommy Douglas, Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and then founder of the New Democratic Party (NDP), member of Canadian House of Commons (CCF), MLA, leader of the Saskatchewan CCF and Premier of Saskatchewan (CCF), set up North America's first single-payer, universal healthcare program (Saskatchewan), leader of federal NDP, Canadian Member of Parliament (NDP)
Shirley Douglas (daughter of Tommy Douglas), Canadian actress and activist, ex-wife of actor Donald Sutherland, mother of Thomas Emil Sicks, actor Kiefer Sutherland, and film and television producer Rachel Sutherland
Duceppe
(grandfather, father, son)
Jean Duceppe, actor, radio personality, president of Union des artistes
Gilles Duceppe, first MP elected as Bloc Québécois, leader of Bloc Québécois, 24th federal Leader of Opposition
Alexis Brunelle-Duceppe, Bloc Québécois MP for Lac-Saint-Jean
Eyking
(husband, wife)
Mark Eyking, Liberal MP
Pam Eyking, Liberal MLA
Ferron
J.-Émile Ferron, MP (PLC), lawyer
Jacques Ferron (son of J.-Émile), founder of the Rhinoceros Party of Canada (1963–93), physician, writer
Madeleine Ferron (daughter of J.-Émile), wife of politician/judge Robert Cliche
Flaherty-Elliott
(husband, wife)
Jim Flaherty, late provincial and federal cabinet minister
Christine Elliott, PC MPP
Ford
Doug Ford, Sr., former PC MPP (1995–1999)
Rob Ford, 64th Mayor of Toronto, Toronto City Councillor; son of Doug
Doug Ford, Jr., 26th Premier of Ontario, Toronto City Councillor; son of Doug
Michael Ford, Toronto City Councillor; nephew of Rob and Doug Jr
Additionally, Rob Ford's widow Renata Ford was People's Party candidate in the 2019 federal election in Etobicoke North, and Doug Ford, Jr.'s daughter Krista Haynes advocates controversial positions about vaccines and public health measures.
Gérin-Lajoie (see also Lacoste)
Antoine Gérin-Lajoie, writer, lawyer, author of the political song "Un Canadien errant"
Marie Lacoste-Gérin-Lajoie, promoter of women's rights, got Quebec's Code Civil modified
Marie Gérin-Lajoie (daughter of Marie L & Henri/Henry), founder of Notre-Dame-du-Bon-Conseil institute and of FNSJB (feminist organisation)
Paul Gérin-Lajoie, MNA, founder of the Ministry of Education of Quebec; see also Gérin-Lajoie doctrine (international policy)
Gerretsen
(father, son)
John Gerretsen, 90th Mayor of Kingston, Ontario (1980–1988), Ontario Liberal MPP for Kingston and the Islands (1995–2014)
Mark Gerretsen, Mayor of Kingston Ontario (2010–2014), Liberal MP for Kingston and the Islands (2015-)
Ghiz
(father, son)
Joe Ghiz, Premier of Prince Edward Island (1986–1993)
Robert Ghiz, Premier of Prince Edward Island (2007–2015)
Grewal
(husband, wife)
Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, Conservative Members of Parliament, the first married couple to serve as MPs in the same session of Parliament
Hampton–Martel
(husband-wife, wife's father and maternal grandfather)
Norman Fawcett, New Democrat MP
Elie Martel, Ontario New Democrat MPP (married Fawcett's daughter)
Shelley Martel, Ontario New Democrat MPP
Howard Hampton, Ontario New Democrat leader, 1996–2009
Harris
(father, son)
Mike Harris, Progressive Conservative premier of Ontario (1995–2002)
Mike Harris Jr., Ontario Progressive Conservative MPP for Kitchener—Conestoga
Henderson
(father, son)
George Henderson, federal MP (1980–1988)
Robert Henderson, PEI provincial MLA (2007–present)
Hinman
(grandfather, grandson)
Edgar Hinman, Provincial Treasurer, Alberta
Paul Hinman, leader of the Alberta Alliance Party
Horner
Ralph Horner, patriarch for the Horner family, Senator (1933–1964)
Samuel Norval Horner, brother, Saskatchewan MLA (1929–1934)
Jack Horner, son, MP (1958–1959)
Nate Horner, grandson, MLA (2019–present)
Hugh Horner, son, MP (1958–1967)
Norval Horner, son, MP (1972–1974)
Norval Horner, son to Norval Horner, Alberta Liberal Party candidate in the 2012 election
Albert Horner, nephew, MP (1958–1968)
Doug Horner, son of Alberta Horner, Alberta MLA and Cabinet Minister (2001–2015)
Byron Horner, grandson, Conservative candidate for Courtenay-Alberni in the 2019 federal election
Ignatieff
(great-grandfather, grandfather, father, son)
Count Nikolai Pavlovich Ignatiev, Minister of the Interior (Russia)
Count Paul Ignatieff, Minister of Education (Russia)
George Ignatieff, ambassador/president of UN security council (1968–1969)
Michael Ignatieff, federal Member of Parliament and leader of the Liberal Party of Canada (2008–2011)
Jackman
(grandfather, son-in-law, son-in-law's children)
Newton Rowell, Ontario Liberal Party leader
Harry Jackman, Member of Parliament (married Rowell's daughter)
Hal Jackman, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
Nancy Ruth, Senator
Johnson
(father-sons)
Daniel Johnson, Sr., Union Nationale Premier of Quebec 1966–1968
Pierre-Marc Johnson, Parti Québécois Premier of Quebec, 1985; son of Daniel, Sr.
Daniel Johnson, Jr., Liberal Party of Quebec Premier of Quebec, 1994; son of Daniel, Sr.; brother of Pierre-Marc
Kelley
(father-son, wife)
Geoffrey Kelley, Quebec Liberal Party MNA for Jacques-Cartier 1994–2018
Greg Kelley, Quebec Liberal Party MNA for Jacques-Cartier 2018–present; son of Geoffrey
Marwah Rizqy, Quebec Liberal Party MNA for Saint-Laurent 2018–present; wife of Greg, daughter-in-law of Geoffrey
Lacoste
Alexandre Lacoste, president of senate
Marie Lacoste-Gérin-Lajoie (daughter of Alexandre) (see Gérin-Lajoie)
Justine Lacoste-Beaubien (daughter of Alexandre), co-founder & director of Hôpital Sainte-Justine
Lamoureux
(father, daughter)
Kevin Lamoureux, federal Liberal Member of Parliament for Winnipeg North
Cindy Lamoureux, Manitoba Liberal MLA
(Darrin Lamoureux, Kevin's brother, was leader of the Saskatchewan Liberal Party at a time that party was a minor party unrepresented in the legislature.)
Layton
(great-grandfather, grandfather, father, his wife, his son)
Gilbert Layton, Member of the National Assembly of Quebec and cabinet minister
Robert Layton, federal Member of Parliament and cabinet minister
Jack Layton, Toronto City Councillor and leader of the federal New Democratic Party
Olivia Chow, Mayor of Toronto, and Toronto City Councillor and Member of Parliament
Mike Layton, Toronto City Councillor (son of Jack, stepson of Olivia)
(Jack Layton is also a descendant of William Steeves, a Father of Confederation and Senator, on his maternal side.)
LeBlanc
(father, son)
Roméo LeBlanc, federal cabinet minister, Speaker of the Senate, 25th Governor General of Canada
Dominic LeBlanc, federal cabinet minister
Léger
(father, son, daughter)
Marcel Léger, co-founder of Léger Marketing, Member of the National Assembly of Quebec, PQ cabinet minister, founder of Parti nationaliste du Québec
Jean-Marc Léger, co-founder and current leader of Léger Marketing (one of the two main pollsters of Quebec politics)
Nicole Léger, Member of the National Assembly of Quebec, PQ cabinet minister
Lewis
(father and son)
David Lewis, leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada
Stephen Lewis, leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party, Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations
Lougheed
(grandfather and grandson)
Sir James Lougheed, Senator
Peter Lougheed, Premier of Alberta
MacKay
(father-son)
Elmer MacKay, Progressive Conservative MP and cabinet minister
Peter MacKay, Progressive Conservative and then Conservative MP and former Progressive Conservative leader
Manly
(father-son)
James Manly, BC NDP MP
Paul Manly, BC Green Party MP
Manning
(father-son)
Ernest Manning, Premier of Alberta, 1943–1968
Preston Manning, founder of the Reform Party, MP
Martin
(father-son)
Paul Martin Sr., long serving Cabinet minister
Paul Martin, 21st prime minister
Macdonald
(father-son)
John A. Macdonald, first prime minister of Canada
Hugh John Macdonald, federal cabinet minister, premier of Manitoba
Mackenzie King
(grandfather-grandson)
William Lyon Mackenzie, rebel, first mayor of Toronto
William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canada's longest serving prime minister
Marcelino
(sister-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law's daughter)
Flor Marcelino, former Manitoba NDP MLA, cabinet minister, and interim party and opposition leader
Ted Marcelino, former Manitoba NDP MLA
Malaya Marcelino, Manitoba NDP MLA
Mathyssen
(mother, daughter)
Irene Mathyssen, former NDP MP for London—Fanshawe
Lindsay Mathyssen, NDP MP for London—Fanshawe
McGuinty
(father-son)
Dalton McGuinty, Sr., MPP from Ottawa South
Dalton McGuinty, MPP from Ottawa South, and Premier of Ontario
David McGuinty, MP from Ottawa South
McLeod
(brothers)
Bob McLeod, Premier of the Northwest Territories
Michael McLeod, MLA in the Northwest Territories and Liberal MP for Northwest Territories
Meighen
(father, son, daughter, grandson, grandson's stepfather)
Arthur Meighen, ninth prime minister of Canada
Lillian Meighen, philanthropist
Theodore Meighen, lawyer and philanthropist
Michael Meighen, Senator
Hartland Molson, Senator, married Theodore Meighen's widow
Mercier-Gouin
Honoré Mercier, Premier of Quebec (1887–1891)
Honoré Mercier Jr. (son of Honoré & brother-in-law of Lomer Gouin), MNA
Honoré Mercier III, MNA
Lomer Gouin, Premier of Quebec (1905–1920)
Paul Gouin (son of Lomer & Éliza, grandson of Honoré), MNA, founder of Action Libérale Nationale party, co-founder of Bloc populaire party
Léon Mercier Gouin (son of Lomer & Éliza, grandson of Honoré), co-founder of HEC Montréal university, political writer
Ollivier Mercier Gouin (son of Léon-Mercier), writer, reporter, actor
Louis Gouin (?), MLA Lower Canada
Thomas Mulcair, great-great-grandson of Honoré Sr. and great-great-great-grandson of Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau, Federal Leader of Opposition for NPD, cabinet minister in Quebec
Miville-Dechêne
François-Gilbert Miville Dechêne, MLA, cabinet minister in Québec
Alphonse-Arthur Miville Déchêne, MP, senator, brother of François-Gilbert
Aimé-Miville Déchêne, MP, son of Alphonse-Arthur
Louis-Auguste Dupuis, MLA Québec, president of notaries, nephew of François-Gilbert & Alphonse-Arthur
Pamphile-Gaspard Verreault, MLA Québec, other uncle of Louis-Auguste
Jean-Baptiste Couillard Dupuis, MLA Québec, father-in-law of Pamphile-Gaspard
Joseph Miville Dechene, MP, MLA Alberta, city councillor
Mulroney
(father, daughter, son)
Brian Mulroney, 18th prime minister of Canada (1984-1993)
Caroline Mulroney, provincial Progressive Conservative Ontario Minister of Transportation and Minister of Francophone Affairs; daughter of Brian Mulroney
Ben Mulroney, Canadian television host; son of Brian Mulroney
Jessica Mulroney, Canadian fashion stylist and marketing consultant; wife of Ben Mulroney, daughter-in-law of Brian Mulroney
Nickle
(father, son)
William Folger Nickle, MP for Kingston and namesake of the Nickle Resolution
William McAdam Nickle, MPP for Kingston
Nixon (Alberta)
(brother, brother)
Jason Nixon, Alberta United Conservative Party MLA
Jeremy Nixon, Alberta United Conservative Party MLA
Nixon (Ontario)
(grandfather, father, daughter)
Harry Nixon, Ontario premier
Robert Nixon, Ontario Liberal Party leader
Jane Stewart, Liberal MP, cabinet minister, chief of staff
Notley
(father, daughter)
Grant Notley, Alberta MLA, Leader of the Alberta New Democratic Party
Rachel Notley, Premier of Alberta
Nowlan
(father, son)
George Nowlan, federal minister of finance
Pat Nowlan, MP for Annapolis Valley—Hants
O'Toole
(father, son)
John O'Toole, Ontario Progressive Conservative MPP for Durham
Erin O'Toole, leader of the Conservative Party of Canada and leader of the Official Opposition (2020–2022), and MP for Durham
Papineau
(see also Viger)
Joseph Papineau, MLA Lower Canada
Louis-Joseph Papineau (#1, son of Joseph), leader of the Parti patriote
Talbot Mercer Papineau (grandson of Louis-Joseph #1, son of Louis-Joseph #2, cousin of Henri Bourassa)
Denis-Benjamin Papineau (son of Joseph), MLA Canada East, Premier of Canada East (1846–1848)
Denis-Émery Papineau (son of Denis-Benjamin), MLA Canada East
Henri Bourassa (son of Mrs Azélie Papineau), MP, MNA, founder of Ligue nationaliste, founder of Le Devoir newspaper
Louis-Joseph Papineau (#3, son of Narcisse), MP, MNA
François Bourassa (uncle of Henri, brother-in-law of Azélie), captain of patriote army, MLA Canada-East, MP
Parizeau
Damase Dalpé dit Parizeau, MNA
Télesphore Parizeau, dean of medecine at Université de Montréal
Gérard Parizeau, insurer & historian
Jacques Parizeau (great-grandson of Damase), Deputy Minister, MNA, Minister of Finance of Quebec, Premier of Quebec (1994–1996)
Alice Parizeau (Alicja Poznańska) (1st wife of Jacques), writer, journalist, criminologist, Croix de Guerre (WW2 French decoration)
Lisette Lapointe (or Lizette) (2nd wife of Jacques), MNA, mayor of Saint-Adolphe-d'Howard
Peterson
(brother, brother, brother and wife)
Jim Peterson, MP for Willowdale and Cabinet Minister
David Peterson, MPP for London Centre and Premier of Ontario
Tim Peterson, MPP for Mississauga South
Deb Matthews, MPP for London North Centre
Pouliot
Jean-Baptiste Pouliot, MP for Témiscouata, MLA Canada-East for Témiscouata
Joseph-Camille Pouliot, son of Jean-Baptiste, lawyer, judge of Superior Court of Quebec
Georges Bouchard, son-in-law of Joseph-Camille, MP for Kamouraska
Camille Pouliot (Camille-Eugène), son of Joseph-Camille, MNA for Gaspé-Sud, minister, mayor
Rodolphe Lemieux, brother of 3rd wife of Joseph-Camille, senator
Charles-Eugène Pouliot, son of Jean-Baptiste, MP for Témiscouata, MNA for Témiscouata
Jean-François Pouliot, son of Charles-Eugène, MP for Témiscouata
Rae
(father-brother-brother)
Saul Rae, career diplomat
Bob Rae, New Democratic Party of Ontario premier of Ontario, diplomat, candidate in the 2006 Liberal Party of Canada leadership election
John Rae, strategic political advisor to Liberal prime ministers
Regan-Harrison
(maternal grandfather-father-son-son's wife)
John Harrison, Saskatchewan Liberal MP
Gerald A. Regan, Liberal Party of Nova Scotia premier of Nova Scotia, federal cabinet minister
Geoff Regan, federal Liberal cabinet minister
Kelly Regan, provincial MLA
Roblin
(grandfather-grandson)
Rodmond Roblin, premier of Manitoba
Dufferin ("Duff") Roblin, premier of Manitoba, federal senator
Rowe
(father-daughter)
William Earl Rowe, Ontario Conservative Party leader and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
Jean Casselman Wadds, Member of Parliament and diplomat
Rowe
(father-daughter)
William Earl Rowe, Ontario Conservative Party leader and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
Jean Casselman Wadds, Member of Parliament and diplomat
Schulz- Schreyer
(grandfather-son-in-law-grandson)
Jacob Schulz, CCF Member of Parliament for Springfield
Ed Schreyer, NDP Premier of Manitoba and Governor General of Canada
Jason Schreyer, Winnipeg City Councillor for Elmwood-East Kildonan
Shaw–McDonough
(father-daughter)
Lloyd R. Shaw, first research director of the federal CCF, and provincial secretary of the Nova Scotia CCF
Alexa McDonough, Member of the Legislative Assembly and leader of the Nova Scotia New Democratic Party, and Member of Parliament and leader of the federal NDP (the NDP being the CCF's successor)
Singh
(brothers)
Jagmeet Singh, former Ontario NDP MPP for Bramalea—Gore—Malton, Leader of the New Democratic Party
Gurratan Singh, Ontario NDP MPP for Brampton East
Sifton
(father-sons)
John Wright Sifton, MLA, speaker of the house in Manitoba
Arthur Sifton, premier of Alberta, federal cabinet minister
Clifford Sifton, Manitoba cabinet minister, federal cabinet minister
Simpson
(father, son)
Rocky Simpson Sr., Northwest Territories MLA for Hay River South
R. J. Simpson, Northwest Territories MLA for Hay River North
Sinclair–Trudeau
(grandfather, son-in-law, grandson)
James Sinclair, federal cabinet minister (Minister of Fisheries) and father of Margaret Trudeau
Pierre Trudeau, federal Liberal cabinet minister, 15th prime minister of Canada
Justin Trudeau, 23rd prime minister of Canada
Alexandre Trudeau, television journalist
Strahl
(father, son)
Chuck Strahl, Former Conservative MP for Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon
Mark Strahl, Conservative MP for Chilliwack—Hope, previously Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon
Streatch-Keddy
(father, daughter, son)
Ken Streatch, former Conservative MP for Chilliwack—Fraser Canyon
Steve Streatch, former Halifax Regional Municipality Councillor
Judy Streatch, former Progressive Conservative MLA for Chester-St. Margaret's
Gerald Keddy, former Conservative MP for South Shore-St. Margaret's (married to Judy Streatch)
Stronach
(father, daughter)
Frank Stronach, Austrian-Canadian businessman, founder of Magna International and Team Stronach
Belinda Stronach, businesswoman and MP for Newmarket—Aurora from 2004 to 2008, crossing the floor from Conservative to Liberal in 2005
Taschereau
Gabriel-Elzéar Taschereau, MLA Lower Canada
Jean-Thomas Taschereau (1778–1832) Sr, MLA Lower Canada, judge
Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, first catholic cardinal born in Canada
Jean-Thomas Taschereau Jr, Quebec Superior Court
Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, Premier of Quebec 1920–1936
Robert Taschereau, chief justice of Supreme Court, interim Governor General
Thomas-Pierre-Joseph Taschereau, businessman, judge, Legislative Council of Lower Canada
Joseph-André Taschereau, lawyer, MLA Lower Canada, MLA Canada-East, judge of Superior Court of Quebec
Pierre-Elzéar Taschereau, lawyer, MLA Lower Canada, MLA Canada-East
Henri-Elzéar Taschereau, MLA Canada-East, first French-Canadian chief justice of Supreme Court, Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
Taylor
(father-children)
Tom Taylor, mayor of Newmarket, Ontario (1997–2006)
John Taylor, mayor of Newmarket, Ontario (2018–present)
Leah Taylor Roy, Liberal MP for Aurora—Oak Ridges—Richmond Hill (2021–present)
Tupper
(father-sons)
Charles Tupper, 6th prime minister of Canada
Charles Hibbert Tupper, Minister of Justice
William Johnston Tupper, Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba
Vallières
Yvon Vallières, MNA, President of Assemblée Nationale
Monique Gagnon-Tremblay, MNA, Vice-Premier, wife of Yvon Vallières
Karine Vallières, MNA, daughter
Viger
(see also Papineau)
Denis Viger, MLA Lower Canada
Denis-Benjamin Viger, owner of newspapers, MLA Lower Canada, MLA Canada East, Premier of Canada East (1843–1846)
Jacques Viger (sr), MLA Lower Canada
Jacques Viger (1787–1858) (Jr), 1st mayor of Montreal
Bonaventure Viger, patriote in Lower Canada Rebellion, cousin of Denis-Benjamin
Joseph Viger, MLA Lower Canada
Louis-Michel Viger, MLA Lower Canada, MLA Canada East
Wagner
(father-son)
Claude Wagner, judge, Quebec Liberal MNA and cabinet minister and Progressive Conservative MP and Senator
Richard Wagner, judge, Chief Justice of Canada, Administrator of Canada
Whelan
(brother-father-daughter)
Edward Charles Whelan, Member of Legislative Assembly (Saskatchewan) 1960–1979, Minister of Mineral Resources 1975–1976, Minister of Consumer Affairs 1976–1979
Eugene Whelan, Member of Parliament 1962–1984, Minister of Agricultuture 1972–1979 and 1980–1984, Canadian Senate 1996–1999, Officer of the Order of Canada
Susan Whelan, Member of Parliament 1993–2004, Minister for International Cooperation
Whitehead
(grandfather-father-daughter)
Joseph Whitehead, Member of Parliament (Huron North, Ontario) 1867–1871
Joseph Donovan Ross, Member of Legislative Assembly (Alberta) 1952–1971, Minister of Health 1955–1968, Minister of Lands and Forests 1968-1971
Val Meredith, Member of Parliament (South Surrey - White Rock - Langley, British Columbia) 1993–2004
Woodsworth-MacInnis
(father-son in law-daughter)
J.S. Woodsworth, founding leader of the CCF, MP 1921–1942
Angus MacInnis, MP from BC 1930–1957, involved in founding of the CCF, husband of Grace MacInnis
Grace MacInnis, BC CCF MLA 1941–45, NDP MP 1965–1974, daughter of J.S. Woodsworth
Yakabuski
(father-son)
Paul Yakabuski, Reeve of Barry's Bay, Ontario, MPP, Renfrew South, Ontario
John Yakabuski MPP, Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke, Ontario
References
See also
Political families of the world
Families
List
Lists of political families |
4073204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR%20on%20NBC | NASCAR on NBC | NASCAR on NBC (visually branded as NBC NASCAR in logos shown within on-air graphics and network promotions) is the branding used for broadcasts of NASCAR races that are produced by NBC Sports, and televised on several NBCUniversal-owned television networks, including the NBC broadcast network in the United States. The network originally aired races, typically during the second half of the season, from 1999 to 2006.
On July 23, 2013, NBC signed a new agreement with NASCAR to obtain the rights to races from the NASCAR Cup Series, NASCAR Xfinity Series, ARCA Menards Series East, ARCA Menards Series West and NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour seasons starting in 2015. In addition, NBC Universal also gained the rights to the NASCAR Toyota Series starting in 2014, airing on its Spanish-language network channels initially for selected races, with NBC obtaining Spanish-language rights to all NASCAR series starting in 2015.
History
Prior to the original 1999 contract between NASCAR and NBC, the network aired races such as the National 500 at Charlotte Motor Speedway from 1979 to 1981, the 1981 Mountain Dew 500 at Pocono International Raceway, the Winston 500 at Alabama International Motor Speedway from 1983 to 1985, and the Miami 300 and Pennzoil 400 at Homestead-Miami Speedway in both 1999 and 2000.
During the 1970s and 1980s, NBC often pre-recorded coverage of NASCAR races, with the edited broadcasts airing as part of the network's sports anthology series Sportsworld.
Original run (2001–2006)
Background
On November 11, 1999, NASCAR signed a five-year, US$2.48 billion contract which split the American television rights for NASCAR races between Fox, its cable partner FX, NBC and Turner Sports. The contract began in 2001 and went as follows.
Fox and FX would air races in the first half of the season, with their slate of events coming to an end with the Sonoma event most years.
NBC would partner with TBS, Turner's long time home for NASCAR, and cover the remainder of the season beginning with the July races.
As part of the contract, the Daytona 500 would be shared between Fox and NBC. Fox had the rights to the race, as well as the Budweiser Shootout, the Busch Series event, and all qualifying events including the qualifying races, in odd numbered years while NBC would air those events in even numbered years. The network that did not air the Daytona 500 would instead air the Pepsi 400.
As 2001 began, however, Turner Sports decided to make a change to its broadcast arrangement. At the time, Turner Broadcasting was in the midst of a format change for its cable channel TNT that was to make it a drama-centric network. To keep with the branding the network took on, "We Know Drama", Turner Sports decided to make TNT be NBC's cable partner and end the seventeen-year relationship TBS had with NASCAR.
The initial NBC/TNT broadcast team consisted of Allen Bestwick on play-by-play. Bestwick had been tabbed by NBC for its coverage of the first two Cup Series race weekends held at Homestead-Miami Speedway, and had been the lead broadcaster for TBS for the last two years. NBC signed Benny Parsons away from ESPN to serve as lead analyst, and later added former driver Wally Dallenbach Jr. after Dallenbach stepped away from full-time competition following the 2000 season. The lead pit road reporter was Bill Weber, formerly of ESPN. He was joined by fellow ESPN alumni Dave Burns and Matt Yocum, the latter of whom also signed on for Fox’s coverage, and CNNSI motorsports reporter Marty Snider.
In 2006, NBC moved the conclusion of Daytona 500 qualifying to FOX-owned SPEED at 3pm Eastern Time, with NBC graphics and commentary retained. The move was due to conflicts with the 2006 Olympic Winter Games. The postponed Budweiser Shootout was then seen on TNT. It would be the only time that NBC/TNT would carry it's NASCAR coverage on SPEED.
Regular segments
Some of the regular features of NBC's race coverage were:
The Aflac Trivia Question, which Benny Parsons always introduced by saying "cue the duck".
"Wally's World", where Wally Dallenbach would take a lap around the race track. In the earliest form, the segment was an analysis segment where Dallenbach told the viewers what the drivers could expect. Later, he would conduct an interview with a celebrity guest who took the ride with him.
“Dave Discovers”, in which pit reporter Dave Burns would provide some trivia related to the track, or take part in activities, such as bowling on the high banks of Bristol, or fishing out Wally’s driver signature from a pond at Darlington.
“Golden Benny Awards”, where Benny Parsons would hand out the “Golden Benny” to someone in the NASCAR community. The segment was retired after the Golden Benny was possessed by “a demon”, and it was destroyed with a hammer by crew chief Frank Stoddard.
During the broadcasts' opening sequence later in the run of the initial contract, a driver can be heard shouting over his radio, "Good job guys, good job." The audio for this clip was taken from Rusty Wallace after his win during the spring 2004 race at Martinsville Speedway.
Music
The Metallica song "Fuel" was used as the theme song for NBC and TNT's NASCAR broadcasts from mid-2001 to the 2003 season, and was also used for the 2004 Daytona 500 (which aired on NBC), with the song's instrumental backing used as background music and commercial bumpers. However, for part of the 2001 season, the opening scream used in the opening was removed because of its close association with terrorists in the wake of the September 11 attacks. The use of a heavy metal song was intended by producer Sam Flood to create a "rock-and-roll feel, musically, setting the tone for telecasts."
The pre-release version of the song entitled "Fuel For Fire" (with different lyrics) was released as part of the NASCAR Full Throttle CD.
NASCAR leaves NBC
In October 2005, NBC announced that it might not renew its contract end of the NASCAR contract after the 2006 season, largely because of its acquisition of the Sunday Night Football telecast from ESPN.
The restructured broadcast deal awarded Fox the rights to the Daytona 500 from 2007 until 2014. The contract also allowed ESPN and ABC to regain NASCAR rights, taking the second half of the season's races; meanwhile, TNT retained its broadcast rights and signed a contract to air six mid-season races. The ESPN family of networks became the exclusive home of the NASCAR Busch/Nationwide Series as part of the contract, replacing TNT, NBC, Fox and FX as broadcasters.
As the NFL and NASCAR contracts overlapped during the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup, some of NBC's post-race shows were moved to CNBC in order to allow the broadcast network's NFL pre-game show Football Night in America to start on time.
NASCAR returns to NBC
On July 23, 2013, NASCAR announced a nine-year contract with NBC Sports to broadcast the final 20 races of the NASCAR Cup Series season (from the Coke Zero Sugar 400 at Daytona International Speedway through the Ford EcoBoost 400 at Homestead from 2015 to 2017; in 2018 and 2019, NBC's coverage started at Chicagoland and ended at Homestead and since 2020 starts in Chicagoland and ends at Phoenix), the final 19 races of the Xfinity Series season, along with coverage of select regional series events and the NASCAR Mexico Series, succeeding both former partners TNT and ESPN. The deal also awarded NBC Sports the rights to provide coverage on digital platforms, rights to Spanish-language coverage for Telemundo and mun2 (now Universo), broadcast rights to the NASCAR Hall of Fame induction ceremony and post-season awards banquets. The deal runs from 2015 to 2024, although the Mexico Series race at Phoenix International Raceway began in 2014.
The majority of NBC's NASCAR coverage under the new contract will air on NBCSN (which was swapped to the USA Network after the former network's closure), however seven (ten in 2023 and beyond) races will be broadcast by the NBC broadcast network; in 2015 and 2016, they were the Coke Zero Sugar 400, the Bojangles' Southern 500 at Darlington, the Chase races at Charlotte and Kansas, and the last three races (Texas, Phoenix and Homestead-Miami) consecutively.
NBC Sports took over the portion of the contract previously held by ESPN and Turner Sports. While financial details were not disclosed, NBC reportedly paid 50% more than the $2.7 billion paid by ESPN and Turner combined under the previous contract.
Former Turner Sports executive Jeff Behnke serves as vice president of NASCAR programming for NBC Sports.
NBC began to lead into its new contract in February 2014 with the premiere of a nightly news and analysis program, NASCAR America, on NBCSN, and a broadcast of the Toyota 120 from Phoenix International Raceway – the opening event of the 2014 season of the NASCAR Toyota Series, on mun2.
On February 3, 2015, NBC Sports announced an agreement to air 39 regional series races from the ARCA Menards Series East and West, Whelen Modified Tour and Whelen Southern Modified Tour on NBCSN.
The first U.S.-series race under the contract was The Hart to Heart Breast Cancer Foundation 150—the first race of the 2015 NASCAR K&N Pro Series East season—at New Smyrna Speedway, and was aired on February 19 on NBCSN.
During Summer Olympic years (three during the contract, in 2016, 2021, and 2024), NBC will assign different NBCUniversal channels to air races as a result of scheduling conflicts. For 2016, CNBC (used for English Premier League, IndyCar, and Formula One for NBCSN conflicts) carried Sprint Cup and Xfinity qualifying along with one Xfinity race, and USA Network (which will also be used for Premier League conflicts) carried two Xfinity and one Sprint Cup race. In 2021, the Cup Series schedule took two weeks off from competition to minimize any conflict with the Olympics; the Watkins Glen race ran on the day of the Games' closing ceremony. The one Xfinity Series race that occurred during the Games (at Watkins Glen) aired on CNBC, in 2024 the cup series will once again take two weeks off to minimize conflict with the games and air a race on the closing ceremony of the games, however the Xfinity series will also do the same for three weeks, with no races of any NASCAR series airing during the Olympics, If a NASCAR race is postponed to Monday and it conflicts with an English Premier League match, the race will move to USA (CNBC is also unavailable on weekdays due to its stock market coverage), though this has not happened yet as of the end of the 2020 season.
COVID-19 pandemic impact and NBCSN's closure
In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the NBC team initially broadcast all races from the broadcast booth at Charlotte Motor Speedway with only 2-3 pit reporters onsite. Although NBC has a small studio in Charlotte for NASCAR America segments, the studio was deemed too small to be able to do race broadcasts and maintain social distancing. For the Indianapolis race weekend, Mike Tirico hosted from the track; Tirico lives close enough to Indianapolis he was able to drive to the track to host. For the final 5 races of the season (starting with the Charlotte Roval Race) the NBC on-air team resumed travel to race sites.
NASCAR America stopped airing when the pandemic began and has not yet returned to air. NBC has cited other conflicting live events as the reason the program has not returned to air; NBCSN aired the 2020 Stanley Cup playoffs throughout the show's timeslot in July and August. The show now airs only as a pre-race & post-race show with some airings on Peacock.
On January 22, 2021, an internal memo sent by NBC Sports president Pete Bevacqua announced that NBCSN would cease operations by the end of the year, and that USA Network would begin "carrying and/or simulcasting certain NBC Sports programming," including the Stanley Cup playoffs and NASCAR races, before NBCSN's shutdown. Peacock, NBCUniversal's new streaming service, will also carry some of the network's former programming starting in 2022. The move was cited by industry analysts as a response to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the sports and television industries, the acceleration of cord-cutting, as well as formidable competition from rival sports networks such as ESPN and Fox Sports 1.
Commentators
On December 3, 2013, Jeff Burton was confirmed as the first member of the broadcast team and is one of the color commentators.
On December 4, 2013, Rick Allen, who previously worked at Fox Sports as an announcer for its NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series coverage as well as for several Xfinity Series races, signed a multi-year contract to serve as the lead announcer for NBC's race broadcasts, a position he continues to hold.
On January 9, 2014, it was confirmed that Steve Letarte would leave his role as Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s crew chief at Hendrick Motorsports and join NBC Sports as a color analyst. Behnke explained that the on-air makeup of NBC Sports' broadcasts would have "a relevancy that hasn't been seen in a long, long time", citing the recent involvements of both Burton and Letarte in NASCAR prior to their move to broadcasting.
On June 1, 2015, Brian Vickers announced via Twitter that he would be joining the telecasts of the New Hampshire and Michigan races.
Leigh Diffey, lead announcer for NBC's IndyCar coverage, announced via Twitter he would be commentating at some Xfinity races for NBC. Additionally, Diffey would be lead announcer for the Cup races at Watkins Glen & Michigan in 2017.
The pit reporters for 2018 consisted of Dave Burns, Marty Snider, Kelli Stavast, Parker Kligerman (who replaced Mike Massaro following the 2016 season), and Ralph Sheheen, Burns and Snider were with NBC's original NASCAR pit crew, while Massaro joins from ESPN's NASCAR team and Stavast from the network's sports car coverage. The pre-race show was hosted by former Fox reporter Krista Voda along with former ESPN analyst Dale Jarrett, former TNT analyst Kyle Petty, and Top Gear host Rutledge Wood.
On April 15, 2015, it was announced that Ralph Sheheen and Ray Evernham would be part of the booth of the NBCSN telecasts of the Whelen Modified Tour and Whelen Southern Modified Tour.
On September 1, 2015, it was announced that Ken Squier and Ned Jarrett would commentate a portion of the 2015 Bojangles' Southern 500 along with current NASCAR on NBC commentator Dale Jarrett. Squier was also in the broadcast booth for Sprint Cup Series final practice. This has become a standard tradition at the Southern 500, due to NASCAR designating the race as a throwback weekend where teams bring retro paint schemes to the track.
On September 11, 2015, it was announced that Carl Edwards would be in the NBCSN broadcast booth as a guest analyst for the Xfinity race at Richmond alongside Dale Jarrett and Diffey. Jamie McMurray was a guest analyst for the NXS race at Chicagoland.
On July 24, 2017, it was announced that Dale Earnhardt Jr. would join the NASCAR on NBC broadcasting team for the 2018 season, incidentally reuniting with his former crew chief Letarte.
In November 2017, it was announced that Bob Costas would co-anchor NBC's pre-race coverage leading into the NASCAR Cup Series finale from Homestead. alongside Krista Voda, Similarly, in the 2018 Cup race at Daytona, NBC's Mike Tirico appeared on the pre-race show.
In July 2019, it was announced that Danielle Trotta will join NBC Sports’ NASCAR coverage as host of the “Victory Lap” post-race show for select Cup Series races this year.
On July 28, 2020, it was announced that Brad Daugherty would be an analyst for NASCAR on NBC from the first Michigan International Speedway race onwards. At the conclusion of the 2020 season, Krista Voda revealed on social media she would not be returning to NBC. Voda stated NBC had elected to eliminate her position from race broadcasts.
Music and graphics
While Fox Sports innovated the practice of using the team's number fonts (such as the Petty #43 or Jeff Gordon's #24) in their on-screen graphics, NBC took the next step by using these fonts in the running order graphic at the top of the screen, starting with the 2001 Pepsi 400. This was only used for Winston Cup broadcasts on NBC, while TNT races and all Busch Series races (regardless of network) used a generic font with a blue background. This practice was dropped after the inaugural race at Kansas, and starting at Charlotte all Winston Cup broadcasts used a generic font in the running order with a limited number of background colors to roughly correspond with the car. The accurate colors and fonts returned when NBC's coverage resumed in 2015, and by then this had become common practice for most TV networks for major auto racing series.
In 2018, a new secondary leaderboard graphic was introduced and is displayed vertically on the left side of the screen, essentially the same thing as the graphic introduced in Fox’s coverage earlier that year. However, unlike with Fox, NBC only used this leaderboard during portions of the race depending on the camera angles and picture or if they wanted to show more of the field on the leaderboard (up to 20 cars) at a time (with the leaderboard on the top of the screen, NBC only shows four cars at a time), whereas Fox used it for the entire race regardless of camera angles and picture.
From 2015–17, the intro for the revived run of NASCAR on NBC was "Bringing Back the Sunshine" performed by country music artist Blake Shelton, who is also one of the coaches on NBC's own prime time hit show, The Voice. NBC introduced a new opening for their coverage starting in 2018, using a cover version of the Tom Petty song "Runnin' Down a Dream", done by ZZ Ward. No theme was used in 2020; the theme was accompanied by a video featuring fans, NBC executives cited that airing the theme when there were no fans in attendance at races would be inappropriate. In 2021, singer Marcus King used his song "The Well" for the new opening theme song. In 2023, "Woohoo" By Jordan Baum Is the intro
NBC's peacock logo bug turns green, yellow, red, or white when the respective racing flag is deployed, but only if a race airs on NBC or CNBC. This feature is unavailable during USA Network races (due to the way USA network's logo is made).
On-air staff
Broadcast booth
Lap-by-lap announcers
Rick Allen – 2015–present (NASCAR Cup Series/Xfinity Series)
Dave Burns (fill in) – 2016–present (select NASCAR Cup Series/Xfinity Series)
Leigh Diffey (fill in) – 2015–2017 (select NASCAR Cup Series/Xfinity Series)
Charlie Krall – 2020–present (ARCA Menards Series East/ARCA Menards Series West)
Mike Bagley – 2017–2019, 2021–present (only for radio-style broadcasts at the road course races)
Color commentators
Jeff Burton – 2015–present
Steve Letarte – 2015–present
Dale Earnhardt Jr. – 2018–present
Dale Jarrett (Fill in) – 2015–present (select Xfinity Series races)
Kyle Petty – 2015–present (select Xfinity Series races, practice/qualifying sessions)
Parker Kligerman – 2015–present (select ARCA Menards Series East and ARCA Menards Series West races)
James Hinchcliffe – (2015, 2022–present) (select Xfinity Series races)
Pre-race and post-race shows
Kyle Petty – rotating analyst (2015–present)
Dale Jarrett – rotating analyst (2015–present)
Brad Daugherty – rotating analyst (2020–present)
Rutledge Wood – roving/specialty reporter (2015–2022)
Rick Allen – pre and post-race show host for ARCA Menards Series East/West only (2020–present)
Marty Snider – pre and post-race show host (2021–present)
Pit reporters
Marty Snider (1999–2006, 2015–present)
Dave Burns (2000–2006, 2015–present; also fill-in lap-by-lap announcer)
Parker Kligerman (2015–present)
Dillon Welch (fill-in, select Cup/Xfinity Series races) (2018–present)
Kim Coon (fill-in, select Cup/Xfinity Series races) (2022–present)
Kevin Lee – fill-in pit reporter for standalone Xfinity Series races (2018–present)
Matt Yocum – fill-in pit reporter for standalone Xfinity Series races (2023-present)
Former
Allen Bestwick – lap-by-lap announcer/pit reporter (1999–2006)
Ato Boldon – roving reporter (2017)
Ricky Carmichael – guest color commentator at Darlington only (2021)
Landon Cassill – fill-in pit reporter, Xfinity Series standalone races (2018)
Jac Collinsworth – pre-race show host/roving reporter (2021)
Bob Costas – guest host for pre-race show at Cup race at Homestead only (2017)
Lindsay Czarniak – pit reporter (2005–2006)
Wally Dallenbach Jr. – color analyst (2001–2006)
Carl Edwards – guest color commentator at Richmond only (2015)
Brendan Gaughan – fill-in pit reporter, Xfinity Series standalone races (2018)
Joe Gibbs – color commentator (1999)
Alex Hayden – fill-in pit reporter, Xfinity Series standalone races (2015–2016)
Jesse Iwuji – pit reporter for Cup and Xfinity Series at Daytona in July only (2019) and select Xfinity Series races (2020)
Ned Jarrett – guest color commentator at Darlington only (2015–2017)
Carolyn Manno – NASCAR Victory Lap host (2015–2018)
Mike Massaro – pit reporter (1999-2000; 2015–2016)
Jamie McMurray – guest color commentator at Chicagoland only (2015)
Jim Noble – fill-in pit reporter, Xfinity Series standalone races (2015–2016)
Benny Parsons – color commentator (2000–2006)
Dorsey Schroeder – pit reporter (1999)
Ken Squier – guest lap-by-lap announcer at Darlington only (2015–2017)
Kelli Stavast – pit reporter (2015–2021)
Mike Tirico – guest host for pre-race show at Cup race at Daytona in July only (2018), Indianapolis in July only (2020)
Danielle Trotta - NASCAR Victory Lap host (2019)
Krista Voda – pre and post-race show host (2015–2020)
Mike Wallace – color commentator (1999)
Bill Weber – host/pit reporter/lap-by-lap announcer (2001–2006)
Brian Williams – host (1999)
References
External links
NBC Sports
NBC
NBCSN shows
CNBC original programming
USA Network original programming
1979 American television series debuts
1981 American television series endings
1983 American television series debuts
1985 American television series endings
1999 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
2015 American television series debuts
1970s American television series
1990s American television series
2010s American television series
2020s American television series
Sportsworld (American TV series)
American television series revived after cancellation |
4073335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugrin%20Cs%C3%A1k | Ugrin Csák | Ugrin (III) from the kindred Csák (, , ; died in 1311) was a prominent Hungarian baron and oligarch in the early 14th century. He was born into an ancient Hungarian clan. He actively participated in the various internal conflicts during the era of feudal anarchy since the reign of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. He held various dignities in the royal court in the 1270s. Simultaneously, he established a province surrounding his centre Syrmia in the southern parts of the kingdom.
Initially, he supported the efforts of Andrew III of Hungary, but later turned against him, and became the guardian and the most ardent domestic partisan of the young pretender Charles. After the extinction of the Árpád dynasty in 1301, he was among the so-called oligarchs or provincial lords, who ruled de facto independently their dominions. Charles I fought for the Hungarian throne during the civil war relying on his hinterland in Ugrin Csák's province. The elderly lord died in 1311, his dominion was soon integrated into the royal administration.
Family
Ugrin III was born into the Újlak (or Ilok) branch of the powerful and prestigious gens (clan) Csák, as the son of Pós (or Pous), who served as Ban of Severin and Master of the treasury in 1235. Genealogist Pál Engel incorrectly distinguished two noblemen named Pós, assuming father-son relationship between them. In fact, Pós, who was considered Duke Béla's confidant in the 1220s, and the influential baron in the next decade, was identical. Accordingly, Ugrin's uncle was the renowned military leader, Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Kalocsa. Pós died by 1240, when his minor sons and their cousin Csák were involved in a lawsuit against the St. Michael church in Vas County. During the case, the children were represented by Demetrius Csák from the clan's Ugod branch and their uncle, Archbishop Ugrin. The document, issued by Judge royal Andrew, son of Serafin on 20 December 1240, confirms that Ugrin was born sometime in the 1230s and had at least one unidentified brother, whose name and fate is unknown.
Despite Ugrin has lived at least seventy years, he had only one known son from his much younger unidentified wife, Nicholas, whose career rose to its peak during the early reign of Louis I of Hungary and died in 1359 or 1360. The Újlak branch became extinct with Ugrin's grandson Ladislaus, who died in 1364 without heirs.
Early career
After the indirect reference to his person in the above-mentioned document from 1240, Ugrin first appeared in contemporary records in 1268, when he already served as Ban of Severin. In that year, he donated the villages of Felsőpetény and Alsópetény in Nógrád County to his faithful familiaris Denis Zsadány. It is uncertain whether Ugrin has supported Béla IV or his son Duke Stephen in their emerging conflict and civil war in the early 1260s. Following Stephen' victory and the division of the kingdom, the Banate of Severin belonged to Stephen's realm. However, Ugrin narrates in his charter that he was granted the dignity due to "King Béla's goodness". Ugrin's lands laid in both realms during that time. As historian Péter Galambosi considers, Ugrin was made ban by Duke Stephen, but later joined the allegiance of Béla, who confirmed him in that position. In the same year, 1268, but also without exact date, Alexander Karászi was referred to as the "current" Ban of Severin by Duke Stephen.
Ugrin did not hold any positions during the short reign of Stephen V. Initially, he possibly belonged to the Kőszegi–Gutkeled baronial group, which had kidnapped Stephen's eldest son and heir Ladislaus in the summer of 1272. Stephen V died shortly thereafter. The minor Ladislaus was crowned king, and fell under the influence of Henry I Kőszegi's party. Ugrin was made Master of the horse and ispán of Syrmia County () in the autumn of 1272. Despite the rapid "changes of government" between the Kőszegis and their rival, the Trencsén branch of the Csáks, in the subsequent months, Ugrin retained his positions for a year, until the autumn of 1273, which reflected the relative insignificance of his political influence and court dignity in that time. His relationship with the Kőszegi group had deteriorated by then, as a result he lost his positions, when they again took the supreme power in the royal council. Ugrin joined the rival group, which was dominated by his distant relatives, Matthew II and Peter I Csák. Following the Battle of Föveny, where Henry Kőszegi was killed, Ugrin was made Ban of Severin in September 1274. He held the office until June 1275, when the Kőszegis retook the power. A new civil war broke out between Joachim Gutkeled and Peter Csák in the following months; Ugrin took the first step in the emerging conflict, when attacked Joachim's troops near Föveny, where the aforementioned battle took place one year earlier. However, Ugrin failed and the following royal charter issued by the Kőszegi-dominated royal council in the name of Ladislaus IV called him "treasonous".
Before December 1275, another shift in the government occurred; Ugrin Csák elevated into the dignity of Voivode of Transylvania. He was appointed Judge royal on 10 December. He held the dignity until January 1276, when he became voivode again and served in that capacity in the first half of that year. These high-ranking positions show that Ugrin's influence gradually increased within the baronial group, becoming its third most important leader after his relatives, brothers Matthew II and Peter I Csák. Ugrin was again Ban of Severin in 1276.
Provincial lord
Establishment of his province
Joachim Gutkeled died while battling against the Babonići in April 1277. A month later, the general assembly declared Ladislaus IV to be of age, who was also authorized to restore internal peace with all possible means. These events ended the five-year chaotic conditions in the realm. Ugrin was appointed Master of the treasury around November 1277, and held the dignity until December 1279. Beside that he was also ispán of Bánya (Árkibánya) ispánate, which laid in the territory of Nyitra County. He was made Ban of Macsó and Bosnia in 1279. He was styled as "ban and lord" of the two territories by a royal document in the summer of 1279. He was again referred to as "lord of Bosnia" in December in that year. According to historian Péter Galambosi, his title reflects an extended power over his court dignities. Accordingly, when Ladislaus IV concluded an agreement with the Gutkeleds, and gave royal pardon to Joachim's brothers in June 1278, Ugrin Csák was entrusted to govern the southern part of the Hungarian kingdom, which meant a significant victory for the Csák clan.
When Ladislaus IV imprisoned papal legate Philip of Fermo in late 1279, Ugrin lost his dignity during a major change in the composition of the royal council. However, thereafter Ladislaus himself was also captured by some lords. In less than two months, both the legate and the king were set free and Ladislaus took a new oath to enforce the Cuman laws. In accordance with the agreement, Ugrin was appointed Master of the treasury again in the spring of 1280. However he lost the position within months. Based on some indirect data in the contemporary documents, it is plausible that Ugrin became disgraced in the royal court for the remaining part of the reign of Ladislaus. This includes that the king's mother, Queen Dowager Elizabeth the Cuman was created Duchess of Macsó and Bosnia in 1279, which seriously violated and threatened the local interests of Ugrin. With this appointment, Ladislaus IV intended to restore royal power over the southern border area against Ugrin, who increasingly dominated the region with his informal power.
Ugrin retired to his province across the river Sava for the upcoming decades. He extended his influence over the whole territory of Syrmia County. He built his residence, Újlak Castle () in Valkó County in the 1280s, after obtained the lordship from his distant relative Dominic Csák under unknown circumstances. Ugrin also acquired some lands in Požega County. He was referred to as the ispán of the county in 1293. Initially, he was a loyal confidant of King Andrew III, who ruled Hungary since 1290, after Ladislaus' assassination. According to a royal charter issued by Andrew III in July 1298, Ugrin and his familiares crossed the river Sava and defeated an invading Tatar army, who had plundered the region of Macsó. The two generals of the Tatars were executed and their heads were sent to Buda. It is possible the army was hired by Bulgarian warlords Darman and Kudelin against Stephen Dragutin's realm, who ruled the neighboring Hungarian banates and northern Serbia, altogether known as Lower Syrmia. These events presumably occurred at the turn of 1291 and 1292. In the latter year, Andrew sent Ugrin to Primorje in order to escort his mother Tomasina Morosini to Hungary, but he was captured and imprisoned by certain "disloyal barons". He was freed from captivity by Radoslav Babonić, Ban of Slavonia upon the king's order. The Kőszegis rose up in open rebellion against Andrew in spring 1292, acknowledging Charles Martel, as King of Hungary. Under this situation, Ugrin's territory functioned as a buffer zone between the royal lands and Slavonia, where the majority of lords accepted Charles' suzerainty. However Andrew III appointed his mother Duchess of Slavonia to administer Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. Due to her activities, the Babonići, Šubići, and the Dalmatian towns acknowledged Andrew's rule. As previously Queen Elizabeth, Tomasina also became Ugrin's rival in the region. Ugrin held Syrmia and Valkó counties firmly under his control, but Tomasina's duchy prevented his western expansion into Požega County.
Charles' guardian
Andrew III made his maternal uncle, Albertino Morosini, Duke of Slavonia, in July 1299, stirring up the Slavonian and Croatian noblemen to revolt. A powerful Croatian baron, Paul Šubić, sent his brother, George, to Italy in early 1300 to convince Charles II of Naples to send his grandson to Hungary to claim the throne in person. The king accepted the proposal and the twelve-year-old Charles arrived to Hungary with his escort. They landed at Split in Dalmatia in August 1300. From Split, Paul Šubić escorted him to Zagreb, where Ugrin Csák swore loyalty to Charles, who also handed over Požega Castle to him. Ugrin placed the young pretender under his guardianship. He was also called Charles' protector (). Other sources confirm that he already took an oath of allegiance to the pretender prior to that. According to the Illuminated Chronicle, Ugrin was one of those lords, who requested Pope Boniface VIII to provide a new king for Hungary. In February 1300, Charles II listed Ugrin's name among those Hungarian barons, who urged him to send his grandson to Hungary. His familiaris and skilled diplomat, Benedict also visited the Neapolitan court several times in that period. It is possible that Ugrin turned against Andrew already in 1298, as he did not countersign the decrees of the national diet in that year, which aimed to destroy forts built without permission and ordered the punishment of those who had seized landed property with force. Ugrin did present neither before the king's judicial court in 1300, during a lawsuit regarding his former palace in Esztergom.
Andrew III died on 14 January 1301. With his death, the House of Árpád became extinct. A civil war between various claimants to the throne – Charles of Anjou, Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and Otto of Bavaria – followed Andrew's death and lasted for seven years. Hungary and Croatia had disintegrated into about a dozen independent provinces, each ruled by a powerful lord, or oligarch. Among them, Ugrin's distant relative, Matthew III Csák dominated the northwestern parts of Hungary (which now form the western territories of present-day Slovakia), Amadeus Aba controlled the northeastern lands, the Kőszegis ruled Transdanubia, James Borsa dominated Tiszántúl, and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania, while Paul Šubić ruled over Littoral Croatia and Bosnia as a de facto king. Ugrin Csák was the de facto ruler of Upper Syrmia. He was styled as ispán of Syrmia, Valkó, Bács and Požega counties in August 1303, thus he was considered the omnipotent lord in the region. Historian Pál Engel argued he held these dignities since the beginning of the 14th century until his death.
Ugrin was the most ardent domestic supporter of Charles' claim to the Hungarian throne for a decade until his death. The so-called Chronicon Posoniense ("Chronicle of Pressburg"; present-day Bratislava, Slovakia) also emphasized his importance several times, which fact suggests that the chronicle was written in the court of the Csáks' Újlak branch. In the lists of barons, which were part of the royal charters issued by Charles in the first decade of the 14th century, Ugrin's name was constantly placed to the first place, ahead of the king's another mainstay Amadeus Aba. Following Andrew's death, Ugrin had an important role in the subsequent events; under his guidance, Charles hurried Székesfehérvár, then Esztergom, where he was crowned king irregularly in the spring of 1301. Being Pope Boniface's candidate for the Hungarian throne, Charles had always been unpopular, because the Hungarian lords feared that they would "lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church", as the Illuminated Chronicle narrates. The majority of the lords supported Wenceslaus instead of him. After Wenceslaus's coronation, Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csák's domains in the southern regions of the kingdom.
Despite his advanced age, Ugrin participated in the unsuccessful siege of Buda in September 1302. Through his diplomat Benedict, he also played a decisive role in the concluding alliance between Charles and his cousin Rudolph III of Austria, in Pressburg on 24 August 1304. According to the Chronicon Posoniense, Ladislaus Kán handed over his prisoner, the self-declared claimant Otto of Bavaria sometimes in the second half of 1307 in Szeged to Ugrin, who "expelled" Charles' last rival pretender from Hungary. In the same year, Vincent, Archbishop of Kalocsa withdrew the punishment of excommunication against Peter Monoszló, Bishop of Transylvania at the request of Charles and Ugrin Csák. The elderly bishop, formerly, refused to fulfill the pope's order to excommunicate Ladislaus Kán and confiscate his unlawfully acquired lands. Ugrin was made Master of the treasury around September 1307 and held the office until late 1309 or early 1310. His dignity became temporarily the most prestigious position in the royal court, as half dozen of lords arbitrarily took the title Palatine, which caused the "devaluation" of that dignity. Gyula Kristó considered the dignity of Master of the treasury elevated into its highest status because of Ugrin's privileged position in the inner circle of Charles. Ugrin was present at the Diet of Rákos on 10 October 1307, which confirmed Charles's claim to the throne. Due to his advanced age and possible declining health, he gradually retired from public life. He did not attend the synod of Buda in November 1308 nor the second coronation of Charles I on 15 June 1309 personally; he was represented by his envoys at both events. Historian Iván Bertényi argued Ugrin Csák functioned as Judge royal from 1304 to 1311, however majority of the historians do not accept his theory, and considered that the position of Judge royal was in a state of vacancy for a decade, until Charles's third coronation was performed in full accordance with customary law in August 1310. Ugrin Csák performed his judicial role exclusively in his province in Syrmia, thus he did not hold the dignity of Judge royal necessarily. The first known office-holder in the Angevin era was Ugrin's second nephew John Csák.
His dominion
Ugrin Csák dominated the southern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, acquiring suzerainty over Upper Syrmia and other territories along the river Sava. Historian Gyula Pauler simply called him the "powerful lord of Syrmia" in the late 19th century. Bálint Hóman considered his influence extended to Trans-Drava, Syrmia and the Banate of Macsó. According to Pál Engel and Attila Zsoldos, his dominion extended in the territory from Požega to Temesvár (present-day Timișoara, Romania), and ruled over the counties of Požega, Valkó, Bács, Syrmia, Torontál, Keve and possibly Temes and Krassó. It is plausible that Ugrin dominated Syrmia County since the end of the 1270s as there were no records of any office-holders (ispáns) in the county since then. Around the same time, Ugrin also extended his influence in the neighboring Valkó County, where he built his centre Újlak (Ilok). Following his local rival Queen Tomasina's death, he acquired the whole county for himself. In 1303, the curialis comes of Valkó County styled himself as the "official" of Ugrin Csák, which demonstrates his lordship in the region. When Albertino Morosini left Hungary shortly after Andrew III's death, Ugrin marched into Požega County and captured his duchy. Ugrin also extended his influence over Bács County during the era of Interregnum. With this expansion, his dominion spread to the other bank of the Danube. His biographer, Péter Galambosi doubted Engel's theory that the counties to the east of Syrmia (Keve, Krassó and Temes) belonged to Ugrin's province.
Because of his persistent loyalty to Charles, several historians did not list him among the oligarchs. The young pretender was put under the protection of Ugrin Csák. He resided in Bélakút Abbey (near present-day Petrovaradin, Serbia), which laid in the neighbor of Újlak, Ugrin's seat. In his dominion, Charles performed judicial powers, donated lands and customs, granted privileges of tax exemption and judicial freedom, while the possessions of those who died without an heir returned to the Crown. Charles donated lands and granted privileges in Ugrin's territory even after he left the province for Buda in 1307, when his troops seized the town. Therefore, Attila Zsoldos draws a distinction between the "oligarchs" and "provincial lords" regarding the role of the royal power in the provincial administration. While, accordingly, Ugrin was considered "only" provincial lord, Charles' other faithful partisans, Amadeus Aba or Stephen Ákos, who exercised sovereign rights in their domains but remained loyal to the king, were regarded as "loyal oligarchs". While the Aba, Ákos and Kán sons rebelled against Charles after their fathers' deaths, Charles managed to restore full royal power without any resistance in Ugrin's domain after his death, despite the fact that he had a son, as royally appointed ispáns appear at the head of the counties which had formerly belonged to his province.
Ugrin's familiares entered the service of Charles, while retained the allegiance and loyalty to their lord, which reflects a power-sharing between the monarch and Ugrin Csák in his province. Among them, Denis Zsadány was a long-time servant of Ugrin. He was present, when the king restored the privileges and rights of the church of Buda in September 1308. He attended the second coronation of Charles as the envoy of Ugrin in June 1309. His skilled diplomat Benedict also represented him in the event; on his way to home, he was captured by the partisans of Henry II Kőszegi. His remaining fate is unknown. The renowned military leader, Paul Garai initially also belonged to Ugrin's household; he served as castellan of Požega Castle, when it was granted to the arriving Charles. He participated in the war against Bohemia in the autumn of 1304. The neighboring oligarch, Stephen Dragutin's troops pillaged Ugrin Csák's domains in 1307, but Garai made a counter-attack and defeated Dragutin's army, according to the narration of a royal charter issued on 13 October 1307. Records of the destructions that Dragutin and his troops made in Valkó and Syrmia counties most probably refer to Dragutin's frequent raids against Ugrin Csák's territories in 1309 and 1310. Dragutin's army was led by John Smaragd, but he was defeated and captured by Paul Garai. Formerly, Ugrin's province also faced a series of attacks by the Kőszegis at the turn of 1304 and 1305; firstly they ravaged Požega County, then Valkó County (Henry Kőszegi issued his charter there in January 1305). Their troops marched to the town of Eng, which then was liberated by Paul Garai. Thereafter his army gradually ousted the invaders from Ugrin's territory.
Ugrin Csák died by the end of 1311; his son Nicholas confirmed one of his former land donations in Požega County on 27 December 1317 and noted the act occurred in the sixth year after his father's death. Following Ugrin's death, his province had disintegrated without resistance and merged into the royal administration. Albeit Nicholas did not inherit his father's oligarchic power, he was able to retain his family's private equity, as he issued his charter in Újlak. Consequently, Ugrin Csák's dominion became the basis of the wealth of the emerging Újlaki family, which was granted the lands once owned by Ugrin after his branch died out in 1364.
References
Sources
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1230s births
1311 deaths
Ugrin
13th-century Hungarian people
14th-century Hungarian people
14th century in Croatia
History of Syrmia
Medieval history of Vojvodina
History of Slavonia
14th century in Serbia
Judges royal
Voivodes of Transylvania
Bans of Macsó
Masters of the treasury (Kingdom of Hungary)
Oligarchs of the Kingdom of Hungary
Bans of Severin
Masters of the horse (Kingdom of Hungary) |
4073535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat%20Langham | Nat Langham | Nat Langham (20 May 1820 – 1 September 1871) was an English middleweight bare-knuckle prize fighter. He had the distinction of being the only person ever to beat Thomas Sayers while defending the English middleweight championship. Langham first took the championship by defeating George Gutteridge on 23 November 1846. Langham was considered a scientific boxer, and known for using sharp, well-timed blows, particularly with his left, though he was right handed. He was a 1992 inductee into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and a mentor to the British boxers Tom King and Jem Mace.
Early life
Stephen Nathaniel Langham was born to Nathaniel and Mary Langham, frame knitters of stockings, amidst the slum-like conditions of Cross Keys Yard on Upper Castle Street in Hinckley, Leicestershire in May of 1820. He always spoke with a speech impediment, the result of a childhood incident when at eight he stole a hot potato from a market stall—caught in the act, the vendor thrust the steaming potato into his mouth, causing severe permanent tissue scarring. He said later in his life that he laboured in the fields as a child but this may have been a story he invented as a result of the shame and resentment he felt from the impoverished urban environs of his early life. Sources concur that he later made his way to Leicester where he was hired to help deliver goods by horse and cart. He started to box in the early 1840s, fighting with "rural roughs".
Langham grew to around tall, and in weight. The poverty he experienced in his childhood caused him to suffer ill health all his life, and he was said to have weak lungs.
Career
After a neighborhood brawl, he was discovered by Leicester pugilist Dick Cain , and learned to box at Cain's sparring rooms at the Castle Tavern, at Leicester's 43 Gallowtree Gate. After studying his craft, Langham became known as a scientific boxer with quick, well-timed hands and great skill in his left. His closing style was to jab his opponent's eyes until they closed; His finishing blow, the "pick-axe" was a left hook that started low. During his career, boxing was an illegal clandestine profession, carried out in comparative secrecy, so his fights and the ones he later arranged, occurred in remote spots, and rarely near London city limits.
Middleweight champion, 1842
Langham first took the English Middleweight title for the modest sum of £5, on 9 February 1842, according to the records of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, in an eighth round knockout against the older, larger, and more experienced William Ellis of Sabcote, near Langham's birthplace of Hinkley, Leicestershire, England. Ellis gave up the fight in the eighth after having his eyes blackened and other clear marks of heavy and frequent blows.
Langham fought a non-title bout on 7 May 1844 against Tom Lowe, winning the bout when Lowe unexpectedly conceded the match in the 43rd round. Ben Caunt had some influence in arranging and approving the match. The bout was described as a "curious, scrambling affair" by the sporting publication Bell's Life.
Langham defeated Doc Campbell, known as the "Brighton Bomber" on 12 June 1845, in a twelve round match that went 27 minutes.
On 23 September 1846, Langham defended what most boxing historians now believe was the English middleweight title against George Gutteridge at South Farm Pastures, three miles from Bourne, England in an 93rd round knockout, taking only twenty-three minutes to complete. The championship bout was fought for £25 a-side. Gutteridge took a defining lead in the first half of the bout, striking several blows that floored Langham. But Gutteridge had received punches to both eyes in the early fighting and eventually tired by mid-fight. After he recovered from a hard fought early bout, in the 53rd round Langham gained a second wind, and landed a series of lefts and rights at arm's length, followed by a near knockout blow that sent Gutteridge into a heap near his corner. In most of the subsequent short rounds, Langham dealt blows to Gutteridge, who often went to the ground after being hit to avoid further attack. This continued until Gutteridge became too fatigued to throw Langham or strongly counterpunch, until the 93rd and final round when Gutteridge's second, Hodgkiss called the fight.
Langham met William Sparks on 4 May 1847 in a 67 round win at Woking Common before a very select crowd of 100 and an impressive purse of £50 a side. Langham dominated with a more scientific style until the 62nd round when in a fall, he fell on his back with Sparks on top of him, unintentionally breaking Sparks's hand as it was squeezed between his back and the ground, putting his opponent at a decided disadvantage. In the remaining five rounds, Sparks could fight only with his remaining hand, and Langham easily found his mark using both hands against the limited ability of his opponent. Finally in the 67th round, Sparks' second Johnny Broome threw up the sponge to end the match.
Only career loss vs. Harry Orme
Langham, fighting at 158 pounds, lost his only career bout on the evening of 6 May 1851 for £50 pounds a side against Harry Orme in an 117 round knockout that took two hours and forty-seven minutes to complete. The fight took place at Lower Hope Point, within twenty-five miles of London off the River Thames, near what is now London Gateway Park and was attended by Lords, Lawyers, celebrities, and well known boxers. Though Langham had a slight height advantage, Orme, who was younger and weighed more, threw him in the sixth round, and Langham may never have fully recovered from the fall. Orme threw Langham again in the eleventh. Though Langham continued to apply his left near the end, after 117 rounds had been fought, his seconds threw up the sponge to end the match, after being thrown again in the closing rounds.
Defeating Thomas Sayers, 1853
In spite of the small prizes available, his prowess in the ring earned him a considerable fortune. After having worked as a bar keep and boxing tutor at public house in Cambridge, Langham came out of his temporary boxing retirement and fought for the English middleweight championship for the last time on 18 October 1853. In the victory for which he became best known, Langham defeated Thomas Sayers, in a 61 round knockout in two hours at Lakenheath, Suffolk, England, twenty miles Northeast of Cambridge, before two thousand who paid admission and as many as a thousand more who waited outside to see the match. Some sources note that Sayers had not been in his best health prior to the match, suffering from a bout of influenza. By the 30th round, Langham appeared weak, but he fought with skill and continued to land such well placed blows to the face of Sayers that it appeared his opponent would soon lose all vision. It was clear by the 56th round that Sayers's vision in both eyes would not last much longer from the frequent blows of Langham. Puglistica wrote that in the final rounds, "it was beyond a doubt now that Sayers could not see what he was doing" and his backers called for him to be taken away. By the 60th round Langham landed three or four telling blows, and in the following round, Sayer's seconds gave up the match. The Era of London considered the match, "game, scientific, and manly", and emphasized that despite the short rounds and hard fighting, it was apparent that the contestants fought a scientific, somewhat finessed battle.
After retiring from the ring, Nat married Elizabeth Watson on 10 December 1853 at St Martins in the Fields, near his home in Westminster. His mentor and promoter Ben Caunt stood as one of the witnesses. The couple had two sons who both died in childhood, and two daughters, Alice and Elizabeth. In his boxing retirement, he became the matchmaking manager of the first official English heavyweight champion, Jem Mace, and occasionally mentored Mace's student Tom King. Mace also performed as one of the boxers at Langham's Rum Pum-Pas boxing club.
Fight with Ben Caunt, 1857
Langham met his mentor and promoter Ben Caunt, a former claimant of the English heavyweight title, on Stanley Island, off England's River Medway in a sixty round draw, fought in one hour and twenty-nine minutes, on 22 September 1857. Langham was attended by his recent boxing adversary and friend Tom Sayers and fought for a substantial purse of £200. Caunt was the Uncle of Langham's wife, and it is odd he would seek to fight his own mentor and business manager. What prompted Langham to come out of boxing retirement may have been a family dispute between each boxer's wife, for which he wished to settle the score. Caunt was nearly three inches taller and forty pounds heavier, and confident he would win the match, though the reporter for Puglistica noted that Caunt looked fitter and healthier than Langham prior to the commencement of the match. As the battle progressed, Caunt became somewhat perplexed he could not land his best blows against Langham's speed and defenses. Langham fought scientifically and landed precise blows, while still evading Caunt, who injured his hand against the stakes of the ring in the 51st round. For the next eight rounds, Langham had the advantage, though he occasionally went down hard as Caunt landed a few blows with his single remaining hand. In the sixtieth round, the combatants were persuaded to end the bout, and they shook hands. Langham, who ended the fight with a clear advantage, later protested the referee's decision to call the bout a draw and hoped for a rematch, but none ever occurred, as neither men's backers planned for one. The owner of the land that hosted the event brought a complaint to recover £10 from Caunt for damage to his property, including some fencing, by the unruly crowd, and a similar action was brought against Langham.
Careers outside boxing
In his early boxing retirement, Langham opened a boxing booth, a place where boxers could spar or fight exhibitions for the entertainment of crowds, often conducted at county fairs in the London area. In the first half of 1853, after the Orme fight, Langham set himself up at the Ram Inn on Bridge Street in Cambridge where he kept the Inn and found a number of boxing students from Cambridge University, Trinity College, and the surrounding area. He became one of the first boxing champions to introduce boxing as a sport to College students.
Cambrian Stores tavern, 1853
Moving back to London, Langham opened the Cambrian Stores, a London area tavern or public house on what is now Charing Cross Road, where he lived out most of his remaining life as an inn keeper or publican in a prosperous side of the city in Westminster near Covent Gardens. Capitalizing on his fame as a boxer, Langham had placed a well lit sign outside his pub that read "King of the Middleweights". From his tavern, he sometimes clandestinely sold tickets to several matches including the Tom King, Jem Mace bout in 1862, as he knew Mace well.
In an 1860 letter to the London Times, a concerned observer wrote that the preliminaries of prize-fights were staged at the Cambrian Stores club, and that the boxers were weighed there before the bout, and appeared after the bout. There was sparring, singing and dancing at the club nearly every night. The dancing was with heavy clogs and pipes and was noisy. Before, during, and after every great fight, between 2,000 and 3,000 of the lowest and most lawless London underclass assembled with swearing, struggling, sparring and shouting. They crowded Langham's Cambrian Stores and surrounding streets worrying the police and compelling the frightened neighbors to close their shops.
Nat’s wife Elizabeth died from peritonitis on 3 October 1860 at their home at Cambrian Stores. In the 1861 census of London Langham appears as a victualler or inn keeper and as a widower living on Castle Street, the address of Cambrian Stores.
The Rum Pum-Pas Club
As a more lucrative venture, he also opened the Rum Pum-Pas Club, in the early 1850s, on an upper floor of his Cambrian Stores in Westminster, which offered dining, boxing instruction, and boxing matches for wealthy and aristocratic patrons of the boxing arts. His patrons included high ranking naval officers, powerful businessmen, and members of Parliament. Several upper crust boxing students and alumni from Cambridge University were boxing students of Langham when he lived in Cambridge and may have remained supporters of his club. Tom Sayers found a worthy adversary to box and spar with at the club when his career was flagging. Morning boxing matches for purses were staged in the club and sometimes in remote spots closer to Epsom, and were often preceded by lengthy late night meals followed by the Club's prized plum pudding. Bouts inside the club sometimes featured boxers fighting in the nude, for the unique tastes of some of the aristocratic patrons. Meals were famously consumed inside a regulation 24 square foot boxing ring, despite the tight fit as Langham acted as Master of Ceremonies. Aristocratic patrons included James Grimston, known as Lord Verulam, a former member of both the House of Lords and Commons, Lord Caledon, and Admiral Lord Edward Russell. Other wealthy patrons included Lord Robert Grimston, brother of James, Sir Robert Peel, amateur boxer and son of the Prime Minister, and Robert's brother Royal Navy Captain William Peel, also an accomplished amateur boxer. Other distinguished patrons included Royal Navy Commander William Hope-Johnstone and Brown and Harris of the London Stock Exchange. Jem Mace claimed to have once boxed Archibald William Douglas (1818-1856), the 8th Marquess of Queensbury, known as (Viscount Drumlanrig) at the Club. Douglas had served as a former member of the House of Commons and was the father of John Douglas, credited with helping to establish boxing's modern Marquess of Queensberry Rules. The top rated boxers, Cambridge students, and aristocracy who frequented the Club cemented Langham's legacy, and place in society. When Langham died, the fights and sparring matches staged there moved to retired boxer, club patron, and good friend Alex Keene's "Two Tuns" Tavern.
Loss of Cambrian Stores Tavern
In April of 1860, the Westminster licensing board turned down an appeal to have Mace's publican license renewed for his Cambrian Stores Tavern, likely due to the low standing of boxers, constant noise from the crowds both inside and outside the club, and a recent assault and robbery that had occurred at his public house. Langham had sold his share of the Cambrian Stores public house by October 1861 though he continued to act as a boxing promoter, and second. In his later years, Langham was host of the "Mitre" Tavern on London's Upper St. Martin's Lane, another location familiar to the boxing crowd that staged the occasional bout. The Mitre was only a few miles from his former pub at the Cambrian Stores on Castle Street, and he remained at the Mitre at least through 1868 acting as both barkeep and landlord.
Langham died of consumption on 1 September 1871 at his house at Cambrian Stores, Castle Street, Leicester Square, Westminster, at the age of 52 in London. Although prosperous during his life, it is believed he left a personal estate of less than £100. He is buried in London's historic Brompton Cemetery in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, and though his memory survives, his simple grave and casket have fallen into disrepair.
A blue plaque now commemorates Langham's place of birth on Church Street, Hinckley, and a road "Langham Close" now bears his name.
Selected fights
|-
| align="center" colspan=8|8 wins, 1 loss, 1 draw, English Champion 1843-53
|-
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Result
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Opponent(s)
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Duration
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-
| Win
| Bill Crozier
| 1842
| England
| 8 rounds
|
|-
| Win
| Ned Ellis
| 1842
| England
| 8 rounds
|
|-
| Win
| William Ellis
| 9 February 1843
| Near Hinkley, Leicestershire, England
| 8 rounds
| First took English Middleweight championship
|-
| Win
| Tom Lowe
| 7 May 1844
| Woking Common, England
| 43 rounds
|
|-
| Win
| Doc Campbell
| 12 June 1845
|
| 27 rounds
|
|-
| Win
| George Gutteridge
| 23 September 1846
| South Farm Pastures, Bourne, England
| 93rd Round knockout, fought in (1:25:00)
| Retained English Middleweight championship
|-
| Win
| William Sparks
| 4 May 1847
| Woking Common
| 67 Rounds
| Sparsely publicized bout
|-
| Loss
| Harry Orme
| 6 May 1851
| Lower Hope Point, on the Thames River
| 117 Round knockout, fought in (2:59:00)
| Only known career loss, Orme threw Langham repeatedly
|-
| Win
| Tom Sayers
| 18 October 1853
| Lakenheath, Suffolk, England
| 61st Round Knockout, fought in (2:02:00)
| Retained Middleweight championship but retired
|-
| style="background: #dae2f1"|Draw
| Ben Caunt
| 22 September 1857
| Stanley Island, off River Medway, 10 miles from Chatham
| 60 Round draw, in (1:40:00)
| Retired permanently after fight
References
1820 births
1871 deaths
Bare-knuckle boxers
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
English male boxers
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
Tuberculosis deaths in England
People from Hinckley
Sportspeople from Leicestershire
Middleweight boxers |
4073829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtown%2C%20Connecticut | Newtown, Connecticut | Newtown is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. It is part of the Greater Danbury metropolitan area as well as the New York metropolitan area. Newtown was founded in 1705, and later incorporated in 1711. As of the 2020 census, its population was 27,173. The town is part of the Western Connecticut Planning Region.
History
In 1705, English colonists purchased the Townsite from the Pohtatuck Indians, a branch of the Pasgussett. It was originally known as Quanneapague. Settled by migrants from Stratford and incorporated in 1711, Newtown residents had many business and trading ties with the English. It was a stronghold of Tory sentiment during the early Revolutionary War. Late in the war, French General Rochambeau and his troops encamped there in 1781 during their celebrated march on their way to the siege of Yorktown, Virginia, which ended the Revolution.
An important crossroads throughout its early history, the village of Hawleyville briefly emerged as a railroad center. The town's population grew to over 4,000 . In the following decades, the population dwindled to a low of 2,635 in 1930 before again growing.
Local industry has included the manufacture of furniture, tea bags, combs, fire hoses, folding boxes, buttons, and hats, as well as farming, and mica and feldspar mining. The game of "Scrabble" was developed here by James Brunot.
From the period of highway development and suburbanization following World War II, the town has developed as a suburb of Danbury, with many people also commuting to Norwalk, Stamford, and Bridgeport.
The Newtown Bee
The local newspaper, The Newtown Bee has been the hometown media outlet since June 1877, under Publisher John Pearce of Bethel. The Smith family purchased the newspaper in 1881 and has continuously operated it since that time.
Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting
, Adam Lanza shot and killed his mother in her home and then drove to Sandy Hook Elementary School where he killed 20 children and six adult staff. He committed suicide when police arrived at the school.
Lanza suffered from severe mental illness which was left untreated. The event reignited a debate regarding access to firearms by people with mental illness and gun laws in the United States.
Geography
The northeastern border of the town is a natural border that follows the Housatonic River.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 2.22%, is water. Newtown is located in northern Fairfield County, about southwest of Hartford and about northeast of New York City. The state's fifth largest town in area, it is bordered by Bethel, Bridgewater, Brookfield, Easton, Monroe, Oxford, Redding and Southbury.
Principal communities
Botsford (ZIP code 06470)
Dodgingtown
Hattertown
Hawleyville (ZIP code 06470)
Newtown Borough (ZIP code 06470)
Rocky Glen
Sandy Hook (ZIP code 06482) (including Berkshire, Riverside, Walnut Tree Hill, and Zoar communities)
Smaller communities include Camelot, Head of Meadow (not necessarily related to Head O'Meadow Elementary School), Hopewell, Huntingtown, Lands End, Middle Gate, Palestine, and Taunton.
Demographics
As of the 2020 census, the total population was 27,179 in 9,934 households. As of the census of 2000, there were 25,031 people, 8,325 households, and 6,776 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 8,601 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 95.14% White, 1.75% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 1.40% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.64% from other races, and 0.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.36% of the population.
There were 8,325 households, out of which 44.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.3% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.6% were non-families. 14.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.90 and the average family size was 3.24.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.3% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.5 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $90,193, and the median income for a family was $99,192 (these figures had risen to $101,937 and $119,175 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $68,965 versus $42,217 for females. The per capita income for the town was $37,786. About 2.2% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.
Parks and recreation
The town of Newtown offers many programs for area residents. Numerous parks and fields offer playgrounds, swimming, tennis, softball, baseball, volleyball, lacrosse, soccer, as well as a nature center and trails. Prominent Newtown parks include Treadwell Park, Dickinson Park, and Collis P. Huntington State Park. Treadwell Park, named after former selectman Timothy Treadwell, contains recreation facilities and the town pool. Dickinson park used to contain a swimming pool, which was a large asphalt-lined bowl-shaped depression surrounded by a grass "beach". It was a uniquely safe design for children because there was no "deep end"; however, it lacked a formal filtration system and required attendants to periodically row out and manually add chlorine to the water. The asphalt was removed and the pond pool filled with earth in 2006.
Government
In Connecticut politics, the town of Newtown is required to have both a Democratic and a Republican Town Committee. The Town Committee members vote on which candidates to endorse for public elections. Elected to a two-year term, the Board of Selectmen supervise the administration of the affairs of the town, except those matters which by the General Statute or Town Charter are exclusively committed to the Board of Education or other departments. They are led by a First Selectman, who is the Chief Executive and Administrative Officer of the town. The Board of Selectmen, with the assistance of the departments and boards and commission, prepares the annual budget for the town in February. The Board of Education prepares and passes an education budget for the town schools at the same time. Both budgets then proceed to the Board of Finance, who reviews the town budget and education budget before being sent to the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council of 12 members (elected to the same two-year terms) acts as the legislative body of the town and has the power to pass ordinances and approve budgets for referendums. Final budget approval is subject to a town-wide referendum. These procedures are set forth in the Town Charter adopted and reviewed by the citizens.
The Borough of Newtown occupies about (or roughly two square miles) in the central part of town. Incorporated in 1824 by an act of the Connecticut General Assembly, it is one of only nine boroughs in the state. The borough adopted zoning for the town center long before the rest of the community. The lot sizes are smaller than the minimum lots of the rest of the community. The borough also has running public water provided by the Water & Sewer Authority. Much of the borough is sewered, whereas most of the rest of the town have wells and septic systems.
Law enforcement
The Newtown Police Department was founded in 1971.
Landmarks
Newtown has a number of local landmarks. The flagpole, first erected in 1876, now stands in the center of Main Street. Across from the flagpole is Newtown Meeting House, which served as the town's Congregational church for many years. The rooster weather vane (a town symbol), located atop the meeting house, is said to have been used as a target by French soldiers encamped here in 1781 during the Revolutionary War.
Hawley School is a landmark constructed in the 1920s. It has been used as a whole-town school, a high school, and an elementary school, its current function. Though it has served many different school functions, its original section has remained much the same. Two additions have been added.
Newtown is the site of Fairfield Hills Hospital, a state psychiatric hospital constructed in the 1930s and closed in 1995. The hospital was used as the set of the juvenile facility in the film Sleepers in 1995. In 2004, Newtown purchased the property and, as of 2007, was considering a controversial plan for redevelopment. In 2008, the Newtown Youth Academy began to operate there; extracurricular amenities include a fitness section, basketball courts, and a turf field.
Edmond Town Hall
Constructed in 1930 by a private benefactress for the community, the Town Hall is used for public-private purposes. Offices for the town are located there. The facility also has available for private rental the Alexandria Room for weddings, parties and recitals; and smaller meeting rooms that can be reserved by community groups. A gymnasium is used for community sports events, as well as private parties, and art or craft shows.
The Edmond Town hall is notable for its cinema. The theater shows popular films shortly after they leave mainstream theaters. It is the only $3 film theater in Connecticut. It is a popular spot for middle school and high school students.
The theater has been the primary venue for the Newtown Friends of Music chamber music concerts, the Flagpole Radio Café productions, and several others. The "Live at the Edmond Town Hall" concert series was created by Newtown resident Hayden Bates in 2009. All proceeds are put towards aiding the Edmond's theater upgrades. Headliners have included The Low Anthem, The Bill Frisell and Sam Amidon Duo, Brown Bird and Phosphorescent. In 2014, the theater began showing classic films through the Sunday Cinema Series, later changed to the Someday Cinema Series. A dozen films from 1939 were selected to celebrate The Greatest Year in Film, most sponsored by community members and local businesses, and presented by the Newtown Cultural Arts Commission.
The Board of Managers of the Hall is composed of six members serving six-year terms. At each regular Town Election, two members are elected, who must represent different political parties. According to Town Charter, the Board "shall have the exclusive care and maintenance of Edmond Town Hall and all grounds and buildings appurtenant thereto, together with all powers and duties prescribed for said Board by Special Act No. 98 of the 1931 session by which it was created, as amended by Special Act No. 517 of the 1953 session".
The architect was Philip Sutherland, who also designed Cyrenius H. Booth Library. The Town Hall was constructed for the community by a local benefactress Mary Elizabeth Hawley and dedicated in 1930. The building was named for Miss Hawley's maternal great-grandfather Judge William Edmond.
Cyrenius H. Booth Library
Newtown's public library was opened December 17, 1932, with a capacity for 25,000 volumes. The library is a posthumous gift of Mary Elizabeth Hawley. She named it for her maternal grandfather, a doctor in town from 1820 until his death in 1871. Hawley's gift paid for construction of the building, and an endowment, a trust fund of about $250,000. As a result, the town did not have to provide any financial support to the library until the 1980s.
Designed by Philip Sutherland, the building was considered one of the most modern libraries of its time, with several innovative features. The building was fireproof, had cork floors and acoustic ceiling tiles to deaden sound, and had a built-in humidifying unit and a centralized vacuum cleaner.
In January 1998 an addition to the rear of the building was completed and officially opened. The expansion doubled the available floor space. It provides areas for meetings and displays of art and local historical artifacts from the library's large collection.
National Register of Historic Places
Caleb Baldwin Tavern – 32 Main Street (added September 23, 2002)
Camps Nos. 10 and 41 of Rochambeau's Army, archeological site on grounds of Hawley School (added June 6, 2002)
Glover House – 50 Main Street (added March 11, 1982)
Hattertown Historic District – Roughly, junction of Aunt Park Lane, Castle Meadow, Hattertown, and Hi Barlow roads (added 1996)
John Glover House – 53 Echo Valley Road (added September 17, 2001)
March Route of Rochambeau's Army: Reservoir Road – Junction of Reservoir Road and Mount Pleasant Road South (added February 8, 2003)
Nathan B. Lattin Farm – 22 Walker Hill Road (added June 24, 1990)
New York Belting and Packing Co. – 45–71 and 79–89 Glen Road (added July 2, 1982)
Newtown Borough Historic District – Roughly, Main Street from Hawley Road to Academy Lane (added 1996)
Nichols Satinet Mill Site (added March 23, 1996)
Sanford–Curtis–Thurber House (added 2007)
Economy
Of the residents of Newtown, especially prior to the rise of remote work that became more prevalent after the COVID-19 pandemic, many commuted for work to Manhattan, Hartford, and Stamford.
Major employers
According to the Newtown Connecticut Economic Development Commission, the top employers in the Newtown and Sandy Hook area are:
Education
The Newtown Public Schools district operates four elementary schools (Hawley Elementary School, Head O'Meadow Elementary School, Middle Gate Elementary School, and Sandy Hook Elementary School) that serve grades K–4, Reed Intermediate School serving grades 5–6, Newtown Middle School serving grades 7–8, and Newtown High School serving grades 9–12.
Newtown also has several private and parochial schools, including St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic School, the Fraser-Woods Montessori School, and the Housatonic Valley Waldorf School.
In 2010, six educators made the top salary list in Newtown, Connecticut.
Notable people
Renata Adler (born 1938), author
John Ball (born 1972), soccer player
Mary Augustine Barber (1789–1860), educator and Visitandine nun
William Bayer (born 1939), novelist
Cyrus Beers (1786–1850), U.S. Representative from New York
Charles Chapman (1799–1869), U.S. Representative from Connecticut
Suzanne Collins (born 1962), author of the best-selling The Hunger Games book series
Joanna Cole (1944–2020), author of The Magic School Bus series
Robert Cottingham (born 1935), photorealist painter
Bruce Degen (born 1945), illustrator of The Magic School Bus series
Henry Dutton (1796–1869), former Connecticut governor
Edward Eliscu (1902–1998), songwriter
Joseph F. Engelberger (1925–2015), roboticist
Scott Fellows (born 1965), producer and writer of Ned's Declassified and Big Time Rush
Sawyer Fredericks (born 1999) folk singer notable for winning NBC's The Voice (American season 8), born in Newtown and lived there until age 8, when he moved to Fultonville, New York (near Albany)
Robert Edison Fulton Jr. (1909–2004), inventor and adventurer
Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), inventor of the vulcanization process
Willis Nichols Hawley (1875–1898), American soldier; born and raised in Newtown
Rea Irvin (1881–1972), cartoonist, illustrator, and art editor
Caitlyn Jenner (born 1949), Olympic athlete
Elia Kazan (1909–2003), film and stage director
Steven Kellogg (born 1940), children's author and illustrator, used to live in Sandy Hook, "is believed to have sold house to Anthony Edwards".
Deen Kemsley, accounting professor and Christian author
Doug Kenney, humorist (National Lampoon co-creator, Animal House co-writer)
Chris Licht, CNN President
Burke Marshall (1922–2003), head of the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Department of Justice during the Civil Rights Era, retired in Newtown
Leah McSweeney (born 1982), founder and CEO of the female "Married to the MOB" (MTTM) clothing line
Daniel Nash Morgan (1844–1931), Treasurer of the United States
Luzon Buritt Morris (1827–1895), 55th Governor of Connecticut
Ryan T. Murphy (born 1971), associate director of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, was a resident and graduate from Newtown High School
Max Nacewicz (born 1993), professional football player
Elizur H. Prindle (1829–1890), U.S. Representative from New York
Francis Cornwall Sherman (1805–1870), Mayor of Chicago, for three terms for the Democratic Party
Francis Trowbridge Sherman (1825–1905), Union general during the American Civil War
Jesse Lee Soffer (born 1984), actor, TV series As the World Turns and Chicago P.D.
Art Spector (1920–1987), Boston Celtics basketball player
Rick Spencer (singer) (born 1952), American folk singer-songwriter and musical historian
Joey Styles (born 1971), announcer for Extreme Championship Wrestling and World Wrestling Entertainment
James Thurber (1894–1961), cartoonist and playwright
Isaac Toucey (1792–1869), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy, Attorney General of the United States, and Governor of Connecticut, was born in the town
Marcus Tracy (born 1986), professional soccer player
Mead Treadwell (born 1956), 13th Lieutenant Governor of Alaska and former Chair of the U.S. Arctic Research Commission
Walter S. Trumbull (died 1961), sportswriter and columnist
Cecily Tynan (born 1969), broadcast meteorologist, WPVI TV Action News in Philadelphia, PA
Louis Untermeyer (1885–1977), American poet, anthologist and critic who lived and later died here
Jenna Von Oy (born 1977), actress, TV series Blossom and The Parkers
Nina Barr Wheeler (1909–1978), artist, muralist
Notes
References
External links
Town of Newtown official website
Towns in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Populated places established in 1705
1705 establishments in Connecticut
Towns in the New York metropolitan area
Towns in Connecticut
Towns in Western Connecticut Planning Region, Connecticut |
4073836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheteshwar%20Pujara | Cheteshwar Pujara | Cheteshwar Arvind Pujara (born 25 January 1988) is an Indian cricketer and is the captain of Sussex County Cricket Club in County Championship. He plays for Saurashtra in Indian domestic cricket. Pujara is known for his disciplined batting style which made him an integral part of the Indian Test team for over a decade. His excellent batting was one of the main reasons of India winning their first-ever test series win in Australia.
Pujara made his first-class debut for Saurashtra in December 2005 and made his Test debut at Bangalore in October 2010. As of 9 May 2021, he is ranked as the world No.14 Test batsman, according to the ICC Player Rankings with a tally of 697 points. He also played 5 ODI matches for India.
He was a part of the India A team which toured England in the 2010 summers and was the highest scorer of the tour. In October 2011, the BCCI awarded him a D grade national contract. Known to have a sound technique and the temperament required to play long innings, he was one of the contenders for a spot in the Indian middle order after the retirement of Rahul Dravid and VVS Laxman. and was a part of the IPL 2021 winning team Chennai Super Kings.
His Test comeback came against New Zealand in August 2012, scoring a century. He made his first double hundred against England at Ahmedabad in November 2012 and followed up with another double hundred against Australia in March 2013, both the times steering India to victory and becoming man of the match.
In the 2012 NKP Salve Challenger Trophy, he was the highest scorer with two centuries and one half-century. He became one of the fastest batsmen to reach 1000 runs in Test cricket in just 11 matches and his 18th Test Innings. He won the Emerging Cricketer of the Year 2013.
In February 2017, during the one-off Test match against Bangladesh, he set a new record for the most runs by a batsman in an Indian first-class season, with 1,605 runs. The previous record was 1,604 runs set by Chandu Borde in 1964–65. In November 2017, he scored his twelfth double-century in first-class cricket, the most by an Indian batsman, breaking the previous record set by Vijay Merchant.
He was awarded a Grade B contract by the BCCI in March 2022.
Early and personal life
Cheteshwar Pujara was born in Rajkot, Gujarat on 25 January 1988 In a Hindu Lohana Family. His father Arvind and his uncle Bipin were Ranji Trophy players for Saurashtra. His father and his mother, Reema Pujara, recognized his talents early and Cheteshwar practised with his father. His mother died in 2005 when he was 17 due to cancer. Cheteshwar Pujara completed his BBA from J.J Kundalia College.
He married Puja Pabari in Rajkot on 13 February 2013. On 23 February 2018, the couple became parents of a baby girl.
Youth career
Pujara made his Under-19 Test debut for India against England in 2005. Opening the innings, he scored 211 runs to help India win by an innings and 137 runs. He was also picked in the Indian squad for the 2006 Under-19 Cricket World Cup after scoring three fifties in four innings of the Afro-Asia Under-19 Cup. He was the leading run-scorer of the Under-19 World Cup where he scored 349 runs from 6 innings, including three fifties and a century, at an average of 117. He was the Man of the Tournament in the 2006 Under-19 Cricket World Cup.
He scored 97 runs against the West Indies in the quarterfinals before scoring 129 runs not out against England in the semifinals, helping India win by a huge margin of 234 runs. However, he was dismissed for a duck in the final, against Pakistan, which India eventually lost.
Domestic career
He scored 10 and 203 not out from just 221 balls against Madhya Pradesh at the Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium at Rajkot to ensure a 203-run victory which qualified Saurashtra for the 2012–13 Ranji Trophy quarter-finals. In his next match, the quarter-final at Saurashtra University in Rajkot against Karnataka, he scored 37 and 352 (dismissed by off spinner K. Gowtham in both innings) to ensure that Saurashtra progressed to the semifinal. Though he was called to the India ODI squad after this success, he was not selected in the first XI.
In 2013, at the age of only 25, Pujara became only the ninth batsman to score three career first-class triple-centuries. His scores were: 302* for Saurashtra against Orissa in 2008/09, 352 for Saurashtra against Karnataka in 2012/13, and 306* for India A against West Indies A in 2013/14. He also holds a record of scoring three triple centuries within a span of one month, although only the last of these was in a first-class match.
Pujara played for the Kolkata Knight Riders in the first three seasons of the IPL. In the 2011 players' auction, he was bought by the Royal Challengers Bangalore (RCB). He started for RCB for the fourth season of the IPL before injuring his knee in a match against Kochi Tuskers Kerala. The injury kept him out of action for nearly a year before he returned to domestic cricket at the end of 2011.
In the 2013–14 Ranji Trophy, he played a lone hand against Bengal at Eden Gardens in November as he scored 102, though his side was bowled out for a meagre 225 in response to Bengal's 303. In the next match against Tamil Nadu at Chennai, he scored a mammoth 269, and struck a 353-run partnership with Jaydev Shah (195) to post a score of 581/6 in response to Tamil Nadu's 565.
In 2014 IPL, Pujara began the season as Virender Sehwag's opening partner and was left out after the first six matches in which he made 125 runs at an average of just 25 at a strike rate of 100.80. After having not been picked by any franchise for the 2015 IPL season, he signed for Yorkshire.
Pujara was the leading run-scorer for Saurashtra in the 2017–18 edition of the Ranji Trophy, making 437 runs in four matches. Joining the side for the quarter-final in the next edition, he helped his team chase down a target of 372 runs against Uttar Pradesh, the highest ever in Ranji Trophy history, making 67 not out in the fourth innings. In the semi-final, marked by a couple of umpiring errors that went his way, Pujara made an unbeaten 131 in the fourth innings, helping his team proceed to their third final in six years. In the opening round of the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy that season, he scored his maiden T20 century and became the first batsman for Saurashtra to score a century in a T20 match.
In January 2020, in the 2019–20 Ranji Trophy, Pujara scored his 50th century in first-class cricket.
In February 2021, Pujara was bought by the Chennai Super Kings for 50 lakhs in the IPL auction ahead of the 2021 Indian Premier League. He however did not get a chance to play in any match.
In April 2022, in the 2022 County Championship in England, Pujara and Tom Haines became the first batters to score double centuries in the same innings of a first-class match while following-on.
In July 2022, Pujara scored a century in his first game as Sussex captain against Middlesex in the ongoing 2022 County Championship in England. This was his fifth century in this county season.
International career
Test debut
Pujara was selected for the Indian squad for the 2 match home Test series against Australia in 2010, replacing Yuvraj Singh. He made his debut in the second Test of the series on 9 October 2010 at Bangalore after both Gautam Gambhir and VVS Laxman were down with injuries sustained in the First Test.
While Laxman was off the field injured in the First Test, Pujara took two catches at silly point as a substitute. In his first Test innings, Pujara scored four runs before getting out LBW to Mitchell Johnson on the third ball he faced.
In the second innings, Pujara was sent in at number three in place of Rahul Dravid in a tactical change by captain MS Dhoni. With India needing 207 runs to win, he made 72 before being bowled by an arm ball from Nathan Hauritz.
Breakthrough
In August 2012, he made a comeback into the team and made his first International Test century, 159 against New Zealand at Hyderabad.
He was selected in India's squad to play four test matches against England. In the first match at Sardar Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad he made an unbeaten 206 runs and helped his team to win the match and go 1–0 up in the series. He was also named man of the match for his inning. He continued his good form when he made another hundred in the second match at Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai. He not only made big scores in next two matches but end the series as second highest run scorer behind England captain Alastair Cook with 438 runs.
He became the 2nd fastest Indian to get to 1,000 Test runs, during the course of his double hundred against Australia in March 2013, at Hyderabad, where he put on a 370-run record 2nd wicket partnership with Murali Vijay. Only Vinod Kambli was faster.
Pujara is also the 12th fastest of all time. In terms of the number of tests (11 matches), he joined the legendary Sunil Gavaskar for the quickest Indian to reach the mark. Pujara had a brilliant test series against Australia scoring 419 runs, only second to Murali Vijay's 430 in which he slammed a double ton's 204 and two half-centuries (52 and 82).
As Indian opener Virender Sehwag was struggling out of form, it provided the opportunity for Pujara who hit double and triple tons in successive Ranji trophy matches to prove his ability in shorter versions of the game, as he was selected in the 15 member squad for the ODI series against England, but was injured in practice. Following injury, he made his debut against Zimbabwe, scoring 9 runs.
Cementing his place
On India's tour to South Africa in 2013, he emerged as the highest run-scorer in the Test series, scoring 280 runs at an average of 70.00.
Pujara was picked for the Indian squad for the 2014 Asia Cup that was held in Bangladesh. Pujara played in the three-match ODI series against Bangladesh in June 2014 and made 0, 11 & 27 respectively.
Struggle with form
Pujara was named in the 16-man squad for the 2014 tour of England. With a best of 55 and a total of 222 runs in five Tests, he had a disappointing series. Despite getting good starts, he failed to convert them into big scores, struggling with his back foot movement and playing with a straighter bat, while also facing difficulty against the seaming ball. He was not a part of the squad for the ODI series that followed and upon receiving permission from the BCCI, signed for Derbyshire to play in their last three games of the season. After a poor first game, he finished the stint scoring 212 runs, that included an unbeaten 90 in the win over Surrey and an unbeaten century against Leicestershire.
He returned to form during the three-match test series against Sri Lanka in August 2015. He scored 145 not out in the third test against them. He also played in 2014 Border Gavaskar Trophy. In the first match at Adelaide Oval he made 73 runs in the first inning before being bowled by a Nathan Lyon delivery.
Return to form
Pujara continued to work on his game however he remained in the reckoning for a national comeback. He made the most of an injury setback to Murali Vijay in the 2015 series in Sri Lanka, reminding the selectors of his mettle by carrying his bat through his epic unbeaten 145 on an uncharacteristically seaming wicket at the SSC, Colombo, paving the way for an Indian win in the decider. Pujara has raised the bar even further since then, hammering routine hundreds during India's long home season and the odd series in Sri Lanka and the West Indies.
In the first Test of Australia's 2016–17 tour of India in Pune, Pujara was dismissed for 6 and 31 in the two innings, with India losing the match cheaply. He played a key role in India's second inning of second Test scoring a crucial 92 in Bangalore, and helped the team win the game. In the third Test, played in Ranchi, Pujara scored 202, his third double-hundred, off 525 balls, in the first innings. In terms of balls faced, it was the longest inning by an Indian batsman. The 11-hour knock included a 199-run partnership with Wriddhiman Saha for the seventh wicket. Following a fightback by Australia in the second innings, the match ended in a draw and Pujara was named man of the match. With the knock, Pujara became the first Indian to score 2,000 runs in an Indian single first-class cricket season. In the ICC Batsman Rankings announced following the game, Pujara was ranked a career-best second. He finished the season with 1,316 runs in Tests, the second most in a single season after Australia's Ricky Ponting (1,483). He also broke the record for the most runs scored in a first-class season by an Indian. At the end of the season, he was placed fourth in the Batsman Rankings for Tests.
In May, ahead of the first Test of the 2017 season, he signed for Nottinghamshire on a four-match contract as a replacement to James Pattinson, to play in Division Two of the County season. He scored a hundred in his first game, against Gloucestershire, scoring 112 and adding 185 runs for the fourth wicket. The stint ended with 233 runs in a total of five innings. Carrying the good form, he scored his 12th Test century in the first Test of the tour of Sri Lanka at Galle in July. Striking a partnership with Shikhar Dhawan who made 190, Pujara scored 153 off 265 balls, helping India record its biggest away Test win. He scored another hundred in the second match, his 50th Test, a first innings knock of 133. On course of the innings, he went past 4,000 runs, becoming the second fastest Indian to get there in terms of number of innings batted.
Pujara was dropped from the team for the First Test of the 2018 England tour. Recalled to the side, he found form and made 72 in the second innings of the Third Test at Trent Bridge. The innings, and guided by Virat Kohli's 97 and 103, helped his team secure a 203-run victory, after successive defeats at Lord's and Birmingham. In the Fourth Test at Southampton, Pujara scored his 15th Test century, and only his second outside Asia since 2013. He made an unbeaten 132 off 257 deliveries, while adding 78 runs for the final two wickets, helping his team gain a 27-run lead over England's first innings total. However, India went on to lose the game and the next, finishing 1–4 in the series. He finished the series scoring 278 runs at 39.71. When the West Indies toured India later that year, he made a total of 96 runs at 48.00 in two innings.
Pujara carried his good form to Australia later that season and scored his maiden century in the country on the opening day of the First Test at Adelaide, becoming only the seventh Indian to do so on the first day of a Test series outside Asia. Rescuing his team from 41/4, he made 123 in a six-hour long innings, before being run out for the fourth time in 2018, equaling Bill Lawry of Australia's 54-year-old record for most times dismissed in that manner in a year. En route to his century, Pujara reached 5,000 runs in Tests, becoming the fifth fastest Indian to reach the milestone in terms of innings batted (108). He followed it up with a 71 in the second innings and helped India win the Test, their first in the country in ten years. Pujara was named man of the match. In the Third Test in Melbourne, he scored a 319-ball 106 while adding 170 runs for the third wicket with Kohli in the first innings. India went to win the game and secured an unassailable 2–1 lead in the series. He followed it up with a third century of the series in the final Test at Sydney, making 193 in the first innings off 373 balls, in another man-of-the-match winning performance. The match ended in a draw and the series at 2–1 in his team's favour meant it was their first Test series win on Australian soil. Pujara finished the series making 521 runs, the highest for either sides, from a total of 1,258 deliveries faced, a record for an India player there, and at an average of 74.42. He was named player of the series.
His next big series was the tour against Australia in December 2020 in which he scored 271 runs in 4 matches at an average of 33.87. As he played at a strike-rate of 29.20, his intent was under heavy scrutiny. On 19 January 2021, during the fourth Test match against Australia on The Gabba, Pujara scored his slowest Test half century ever. He reached his half century on the 196th ball that he faced, and passed his old record of a 174 ball half century against Australia in 2020.
On 16 December 2022, Pujara scored a century in Test cricket after 1443 days in the second innings of the first Test against Bangladesh, and scored unbeaten on 102 runs.
Records
Pujara passed 2,000 runs in a calendar year during 2013. He scored 2,163 runs at 94.04 in first-class matches, only Chris Rogers with 2,568 runs at 50.35 made more.
His 222-run partnership with Virat Kohli is India's joint-highest in South Africa and their highest in the second innings of a Test in South Africa.
Second fastest Indian player to reach 1,000 Test runs.
Highest second innings score of 153 by any Indian batsmen in South Africa.
Most balls faced by an Indian in a Test innings: 525.
Pujara climbed to a career-best number 2 spot in the rankings for Test batsmen after his double century against Australia in March 2017.
He is the third batsman for India, and ninth overall, to bat on all five days of a Test.
He is the sixth Indian cricketer to score a century in a Tour outside Asia on the first day.
He is the eleventh Indian cricketer to reach 6,000 Test Runs.
International Centuries
Pujara has made 19 centuries in international cricket all in Test cricket . He scored his first test century against New Zealand at Hyderabad in the first match of New Zealand's tour of India in 2012, scoring 159.
References
External links
Short Biography of Cheteshwar Pujara for Students at Tradeism
1988 births
Living people
People from Rajkot
Indian cricketers
India Test cricketers
India One Day International cricketers
West Zone cricketers
Saurashtra cricketers
Derbyshire cricketers
Royal Challengers Bangalore cricketers
India Blue cricketers
India Green cricketers
Punjab Kings cricketers
Kolkata Knight Riders cricketers
Gujarati people
Gujarati sportspeople
Yorkshire cricketers
Recipients of the Arjuna Award |
4073912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aang | Aang | Avatar Aang () is the title character and protagonist of Nickelodeon's animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender (created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko), voiced by Zach Tyler Eisen. Aang is the last surviving Airbender, a monk of the Air Nomads' Southern Air Temple.
He is an incarnation of the "Avatar", the spirit of light and peace manifested in human form. As the Avatar, Aang controls all four elements (water, earth, fire, and air) and is tasked with bringing balance and keeping the Four Nations at peace. At biologically 112 years old (physically 12), Aang is the series' reluctant hero, spending a century in suspended animation in an iceberg before being discovered and joining new friends Katara and Sokka on a quest to master the elements and save their world from the imperialist Fire Nation.
Aang's character has appeared in other media, such as trading cards, video games, T-shirts, and web comics. Aang has also been portrayed by Noah Ringer in the live-action film The Last Airbender (2010) and voiced by D.B. Sweeney in the sequel series The Legend of Korra. Gordon Cormier will portray Aang in the upcoming Netflix live-action adaptation of the same name.
Appearances
Avatar: The Last Airbender
Upon death, Avatar Roku was reincarnated and Aang was born, and later raised by Monk Gyatso, a senior monk at the Southern Air Temple and friend of the late Avatar Roku. Even prior to learning he was the Avatar, Aang distinguished himself by becoming one of the youngest Airbending Masters in history by inventing a new technique. As a result of Fire Lord Sozin's increasingly hostile attitude towards the other nations, the senior monks decided to reveal Aang's nature as the Avatar four years before the traditional age (Avatars are usually told of their status once they turn 16) and relocate him to one of the other Air Temples. Learning that he was to be taken from Gyatso caused Aang to flee the monastery on his flying bison, Appa, before being caught by a storm; the life-or-death conditions triggered the Avatar State, encasing the young Avatar and his bison in an air-pocket among icebergs, where he remained suspended for a century. Although Monk Gyatso had snuck into Aang's bedroom late at night to tell Aang that he won't be relocated to the Eastern Air Temple, it had already been too late.
Book One: Water
After one hundred years of suspended animation in an iceberg, twelve-year-old Aang was freed when found by Katara and Sokka, yet unaware of the events that occurred during his rest. His reawakening catches the attention of Prince Zuko, the banished son of current Fire Lord Ozai, and Aang is forced to leave, with Katara and Sokka accompanying him after they learn that he is the Avatar. Aang and his new friends visit the Southern Air Temple, where they meet a winged lemur whom Aang later names Momo. It is there that Aang learns that the Fire Nation wiped out his people, including Gyatso which causes Aang to summon his avatar spirit and the other 3 nations find out the avatar is back. After a series of misadventures, Aang meets his previous incarnation, Roku, who informs him that he must master all four bending arts and end the war before the coming of Sozin's Comet at the end of summer. Upon arriving to the Northern Water Tribe, after a few conflicts, Aang became an apprentice of Waterbending Master Pakku alongside Katara. After helping the Water Tribe drive off a Fire Nation invasion headed by Admiral Zhao, with Katara as his teacher, Aang and his group journey to the Earth Kingdom to find an Earthbending teacher. Ozai, angered that Iroh betrayed the Fire Nation, sends his daughter, Princess Azula, to hunt down Zuko and Iroh.
Book Two: Earth
In the second season, Aang learns Earthbending from Toph Beifong after he has a vision of the blind Earthbender in a swamp telling him to find her. On their journey, they are chased by Fire Princess Azula and her friends Mai and Ty Lee. The group learns about the Day of Black Sun in a secret underground library, and they attempt to reveal the information to the Earth King at Ba Sing Se. However, their flying bison, Appa, is captured by Sandbenders. Aang grows upset and angry and confronts the Sandbenders, learning that Appa has been sold. After stopping a Fire Nation drill threatening the safety of Ba Sing Se, they look for Appa only to find themselves dealing with the Dai Li before exposing their leader's deception. The group reunites with Jet helping them find Appa at Dai Li headquarters. They expose the Hundred Year War to the Earth King, who promises to help them invade the Fire Nation. Soon after, Aang meets a guru who attempts to teach Aang to open his seven chakras in order to control the defensive 'Avatar State'; but when Aang perceives Katara in danger, he leaves before the seventh chakra is opened, and thus loses his progress until the seventh is opened. Though Aang manages to unlock the Seventh Chakra, he is fatally electrocuted by Azula. He is later brought back to life by Katara, using the spirit water given to her by the Northern Water Tribe at the start of the second season.
Book Three: Fire
In the beginning of third and final season, after he woke after being knocked out by Azula, Aang grew some hair. After that, Aang is unable to use the Avatar State for quite a while. Although reluctant with the plan at first, Aang accepts to have everyone think he had died and his remaining allies attack the Fire Nation's capital, but are thwarted by Azula. However, Zuko has a change of heart, rebels against his father, and offers to teach Aang Firebending. Aang and Zuko also improve their Firebending powers with the help of their world's last two dragons. (In this part of the show, he is 13) During the finale, finding himself on a strange island, Aang is reluctant to actually kill Fire Lord Ozai, despite his four previous past lives (Roku, Kyoshi, Kuruk, and Yangchen) convincing him it is the only way. But upon learning that he was actually on the back of a Lion Turtle, one of four that made the first benders by manipulating humans' chi, Aang receives the Lion Turtle's Energybending. During the final battle, Aang's scar is pressed against a jutting rock, opening his chakras and allowing him to enter the Avatar State. Aang wins the battle, but before he delivers the final blow, he stops himself. Instead, Aang removes Ozai's firebending ability, rendering him harmless and ending the Hundred Year War. Later, in the Fire Nation capital, Aang is seen beside Zuko, the new Fire Lord. The series ends with Aang and his friends relaxing at Iroh's tea shop at Ba Sing Se, where Aang and Katara share a kiss.
Graphic Novel Trilogies
After beginning the Harmony Restoration Movement, an event that was meant to remove Fire Nation remnants from the Earth Kingdom, Aang agrees to end Zuko's life should he go down a path similar to his father, after the latter requests it, being stopped by Katara from entering the Avatar State as he began a later encounter with Zuko and then tries to mediate protestors and the Yu Dao resistance, afterward assembling members of a fan club and forming the "Air Acolytes", a group that he intends to teach the ways of the Air Nomads. Aang then participated in a search for Zuko's mother Ursa, successfully finding her and entering the Spirit World to assist in locating the Mother of Faces, convincing her to grant Rafa a new face. After a period of entertainment, Aang is contacted by his former life Yangchen, who tried contacting him about Old Iron's return. Aang also has a fight with the Rough Rhinos when they try to oust him from the Eastern Fire Refinery. Aang then aids in preventing Azula, disguised as the Kemurikage, from stealing any more children.
He later returns to the South Pole and reunites with Katara and Sokka during the festival of the rebuilt and newly expanded Southern Water Tribe, with assistance from dozens of waterbenders and healers from the Northern Water Tribe.
The Legend of Korra
While frozen in an iceberg for 100 years, the Avatar State drained much of Aang's life energy. While he did not feel the effects for many years, after he entered middle age in his 50s, the strain of this exertion increasingly weighed upon his body. Ultimately, it resulted in Aang dying at the relatively young biological age of 66 (since he was in the ice for 100 years, in 153 AG). Aang was outlived by his wife, Katara, and his three children, but he did not live to see his grandchildren, all of whom would become powerful airbenders. As his death drew near, Aang tasked the Order of the White Lotus with finding and guiding the new Avatar after him. When Aang died, the Avatar spirit reincarnated into Korra of the Southern Water Tribe. Aang intended for the Order to simply guide and guard Korra, but several mishaps in the aftermath of Aang's death (including a kidnapping attempt by the anarchist Zaheer) and the still-fragile state of relations between the now-Five Nations resulted in Katara and Tenzin sequestering Korra in a compound at the South Pole, bringing teachers to her instead of allowing her to seek out her own.
Book One: Air
In the sequel series' first season, Avatar Aang's spirit occasionally serves as the spiritual advisor to seventeen-year-old Korra (much like the previous Avatar incarnation, Roku, did for Aang). Korra struggles with the spiritual aspects of bending and being the avatar, so initially Aang is only able to give Korra glimpses of his memory concerning Yakone in relation to her confrontations with his two sons, Amon and Tarrlok, the products of Yakone's Bloodbending vendetta on the Avatar. It is only after she loses her ability to bend that Korra allows herself to listen to her past lives, at which point Aang is able to manifest more directly to her and helps to restore her powers by triggering the Avatar State and teaching her to Energybend.
Book Two: Spirits
The sequel series' second season reveals that Avatar Aang apparently treated Tenzin as his favorite child, due to his son's Airbender status; Kya and Bumi mentioned to Tenzin that Aang always took Tenzin on vacations with him, but never them. Aang's Air Acolytes also were unaware that Aang had two other children besides Tenzin. Tenzin himself insists that Aang loved all his children equally, but that Aang took more precedence in raising him since Tenzin would have to take care of future generations of airbenders. Aang himself later appears, along with Roku, Kyoshi and Kuruk, before Korra in a vision and encourages her to learn the origins of Wan (the first Avatar) and Raava. Aang, or possibly a vision of him, later appears in the Spirit World, encouraging Tenzin to move past the enormous legacy of being Aang's son and find his own path. Korra's connection to Aang and the other preceding Avatars is severed when Vaatu extracts and subsequently kills Raava, the divine Avatar Spirit entity within her. Even though Raava is reborn and fused again with Korra, she discovers, to her dismay, that her spiritual connection to Aang and all past Avatars is presumably gone forever.
Book Three: Change
When Zaheer gave an ultimatum: Surrender to him or lose the new airbenders, Korra meditated into the spirit realm, she expressed her wish to call upon Aang's spirit and ask his advice in saving the new Air Nomads. Iroh's spirit assured her that, even though Aang was no longer able to guide her, she could ask one of Aang's closest friends: Lord Zuko.
Appearances in other media
Games
Aang's character appeared in the Avatar: The Last Airbender Trading Card Game on a multitude of cards. He appeared in the Avatar: The Last Airbender video game as one of the four playable characters. Two sequels were made: Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Burning Earth, followed by Avatar: The Last Airbender – Into the Inferno. Aang appears as a playable racer in Nickelodeon Kart Racers 2: Grand Prix.
Aang also appeared in Escape from the Spirit World, an online video game found on Nickelodeon's official website. The game includes certain plot changes that are not shown in the show. The show's directors, Michael DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, claim the events are canon. Aang is also a playable character in the Nickelodeon game Super Brawl Universe. There is also a location in the game set in the Air Temple.
He also appeared as a playable character in Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl.
Aang appears as a crossover skin in Brawlhalla for the character Wu Shang.
Films
Tokyopop has published a films comic (sometimes referred to as cine-manga), in which Aang, being the main character of the show, appears repeatedly.
In 2010, director M. Night Shyamalan cast 12-year-old Tae Kwon Do practitioner Noah Ringer as Aang in the film adaptation of the series, The Last Airbender. His name in the film is pronounced [ɑŋ] instead of [eəŋ]. The casting of a presumed white actor in the role of Aang (as well as a primarily Caucasian cast) in the Asian-influenced Avatar universe triggered negative reactions from some fans, marked by accusations of racism, a letter-writing campaign, and a protest outside of a Philadelphia casting call for movie extras. The casting decisions were also negatively received by several critics, who stated that the original casting call expressed a preference for Caucasian actors over others. Noah Ringer later identified himself to Entertainment Weekly as an American Indian.
Creation and conception
Aang's character was developed from a drawing by Bryan Konietzko, depicting a bald man with an arrowlike design on his head, which the artist developed into a picture of a child with a flying bison. Meanwhile, Michael Dante DiMartino was interested in a documentary about explorers trapped in the South Pole, which he later combined with Konietzko's drawing.
The plot they described corresponds with the first and second episodes of Avatar: The Last Airbender, where the "water people" (Katara and Sokka) rescue the "air guy" (Aang) while "trapped in a snowy wasteland" (the Southern Water Tribe) with "some fire people [that] are pressing down on them" (Fire Nation Troops and Zuko). The creators of the show intended Aang to be trapped in an iceberg for one hundred years, later to wake inside a futuristic world, wherein he would have a robot named Momo and a dozen bisons. The creators lost interest in this theme, and changed it to one hundred years of suspended animation. The robotic Momo became a flying lemur, and the herd of bison was reduced to one.
In the episode "Tales of Ba Sing Se", Aang's name was written as 安昂 (ān áng) in Chinese.
Personality and characteristics
Michael Dante DiMartino, the show's co-creator, said:
According to the show's creators, "Buddhism and Taoism have been huge inspirations behind the idea for Avatar." As shown in "The King of Omashu" and "The Headband", a notable aspect of Aang's character is his vegetarian diet, which is consistent with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism. In the Brahmajala Sutra, a Buddhist code of ethics, vegetarianism is encouraged. Furthermore, the writers gave Aang a consistent reluctance to fight and an aversion to killing. In "The Spirit World (Winter Solstice, Part 1)", Aang encounters an angry spirit destroying a village and kidnapping villagers; but instead of fighting the spirit, Aang negotiates. He is also depicted showing ethical reluctance in killing the Phoenix King, and eventually strips Ozai of his bending instead of murdering him.
Bending the elements
As the Avatar, Aang is capable of bending all four elements (air, water, earth and fire). The series' creators consulted a professional martial artist in the design of the show's fighting style; each of these styles' philosophies and set movements corresponds to a specific "bending arts".
The creators made bending a natural extension of consistent limitations and rules of the world. Everything in Avatar's world, whether it be clothing, culture or infrastructure, is influenced by bending. The City of Omashu uses a complex system of gravity and earthbending to transport supplies. The Water Tribes were a naval superpower: their buildings are made of ice and used waterbending as mechanisms for their walls and gates. Airbenders built temples atop high mountains and cliffs that could only be easily reached by Airbending and they have a hermetic ideology to reflect this isolation. The Fire Nation were the first to industrialize due to their ability to generate power and master metallurgy with their bending of fire and lightning.
At the start of the series, Aang is initially only proficient in air, having been able to bend it with ease since he was a young child. Through the teaching of Katara and Zuko, he gradually learns waterbending and firebending; but struggles with Toph's teachings of earthbending due to its rigid nature conflicting with his desire for freedom. Aang utilizes all elements equally, but heavily favors airbending for crowd control and non-lethal purposes, in accordance with his pacifism principles.
Airbending: The bending art Aang primarily uses in the entire franchise, is a Southern Temple Style based on an "internal" Chinese martial art called Baguazhang. Aang is the only person in living memory to have mastered this form of airbending, and would later pass down this knowledge to his son, Tenzin, who with the aid of Korra, would prove instrumental in the reconstruction and preservation of Air Nomad oral and intangible cultural heritage. Due to the genocide of his people, all other "styles of airbending arts" have been forever lost to history. This fighting style focuses on circular movements, and does not have many finishing moves; traits meant to represent the unpredictability of air and the peaceful character of Airbenders. Airbending represents the element of freedom, and is categorized as the most elusive of the "four bending arts". Airbending utilizes negative jing, which involves retreating and dodging attacks. Airbending involves "smooth coiling and uncoiling actions"; dynamic footwork, throws, and open-handed techniques; and swift, evasive maneuvers designed to evoke the "intangibility and explosive power of wind". These techniques are intended to increase the difficulty for opponents to attack directly or land a lethal blow—allowing airbenders to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury—a pacifist-philosophy that is prevalent among the Air Nomad people. Airbending lacks "finishing moves" or effective methods for permanently disabling foes, a weakness frequently exploited by opponents.
Waterbending: Waterbending is the bending art Katara, later Pakku, teaches Aang in the series, which is based on Chinese martial arts techniques of "internal style" T'ai chi ch'uan and Jeet Kune Do. When Aang traveled north, he learned Northern Tribe Yin-style. During The Legend of Korra, Katara is the only Master of "Southern Tribe Yang-style", forced to reconstruct the style from surviving manuscripts; all other masters were killed, their collective knowledge confiscated or destroyed by the Fire Nation. Waterbending represents the element of change—a shapeshifter constantly changing forms—and is categorized as the most adaptive or pliable of the "four bending arts". Waterbending emphasizes "softness and breathing" over "hard aggression"; fluid and graceful, acting in concert with the environment; creating opportunities where none exist; this "flow of energy" allows their defensive maneuvers to translate into focus on control and counter-offenses, turning their opponents' momentum against them. Despite these advantages, Waterbending is almost entirely dependent on inertia; it is essential for practitioners to not be rigid, but to be fluid and able to adapt to any situation.
Earthbending: Earthbending is the martial art Toph teaches Aang in the series, which is based on Chinese martial arts techniques of Hóng Quán and Chu Gar Nán Pài Tángláng. Earthbending represents the element of substance. Toph's earthbending style is Chu Gar Praying Mantis, as opposed to the more common Hung Gar, taught to her by the original earthbenders, badgermoles. Earthbending is categorized as the most diverse and enduring of the "four bending arts". Earthbending is the geokinetic ability to manipulate earth, rock, sand, lava, and metals in all their various forms. Earthbending utilizes neutral jing, which involves waiting and listening for the right moment to act decisively. Earthbending involves enduring attacks until the right opportunity to counterattack reveals itself, emphasizes "heavily rooted stances and strong blows that evoke the mass and power of earth", and demands precise stepping footwork to maintain constant contact with the ground. Earthbending parallels Five Animals movements (such as the tiger's hard blows and the crane's affinity to landing gracefully). Earthbending is at its strongest when the feet or hand are in direct contact with the ground, enabling earthbenders to transfer their kinetic energies into their bending for fast and powerful moves. This reliance on direct contact with the earth is a literal Achilles' heel; separating earthbenders from any contact with the earth renders them ineffective.
Firebending: Firebending is the martial art Zuko teaches Aang in the series, which is based on Chinese martial arts techniques of Changquan, Shaolinquan, Lóng Xíng Mó Qiáo and Xing Yi Quan. Firebending represents the element of power—desire and will paired with energy to achieve it, a philosophy reflected in firebending's unique capability for its users to generate their central element, rather than manipulating already present sources. Firebenders use breath control to manipulate chi in their own bodies and convert the energy from breathing into fire once it exits the body. A century of warfare have corrupted the Fire Nation's rich culture, and with it, their firebending-styles "regressed" into militarized format based on hatred and raw aggression; Zuko and Aang sought to learn firebending in its purest and most harmonious form, and rediscovered Dancing Dragon Style from the last surviving dragons. Dragon Style is the bending art first practiced by the Sun Warriors, the earliest incarnation of the modern Fire Nation; for the Sun Warriors, fire is life, energy, and creativity, rather than destruction and hate. Firebending is categorized as the most determined and powerful of the "four bending arts". All Firebending styles emphasize initiative and speed, overwhelming their opponents with powerful jabs and kicks that hurl fire before building to an explosive finishing move, mirroring the vitality and explosive power of fire. This is often seen in the "Agni Kai" or fire-duels that Zuko competes in. A master firebender will confidently control fire, rather than allowing their energy to become unfocused rage. A select few high-level firebenders can access highly destructive and lethal skills, such as lightning-bending and combustion-bending. Firebending's offensive power comes with a trade-off: a lack of blocks or evasive maneuvers, particularly when facing other elements.
Energybending: Aang learned about energybending from the last living lion turtle, as he did not wish to kill Ozai, and was given the ability to do so. He is able to use energybending to connect with his inner spirit and gain cosmic energy from the universe. In The Legend of Korra, Aang gave Avatar Korra, the current Avatar, the ability to energybend, which was used to restore people's bending abilities after Amon removed them using bloodbending.
The Avatar State
As the Avatar, Aang serves as a bridge between "Material World" and the "Spirit World", the plane of existence where the universe's disembodied spirits dwell. His spirituality training progressed swiftly, granting visions and access to the various memories from his past lives.
As his predecessors, his most powerful ability is the Avatar State, in which he receives a massive boost in raw power from the cosmic energy, enabling him to easily overcome any opponent that tries to fight him head on. In addition, this state allows him to access bending techniques he would not have learned during his own lifetime but throughout those of his past lives. If he is killed in the Avatar State, then this would cause the Avatar to cease being reincarnated and end the Avatar Cycle.
Critical reception
Aang was received exceptionally by critics and fans. Kendall Lyons stated, "Aang seems to be the lighthearted kid that you can easily familiarize yourself with", and that he "seems to bring comfort in the most dangerous or hostile situations." There are many similar descriptions about Aang as a childlike character who is "reckless and excitable". Reviews point out that "as the Avatar, Aang seems unstoppable, but as Aang, he is just another Airbender"; the review states later that the show continues to focus on a more realistic character instead of a perfect one by revealing many character flaws.
In 2016, Screen Rant ranked Aang #15 on its "30 Best Animated TV Characters Of All Time" list.
At the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics, Dutch windsurfer Kiran Badloe won the gold medal in Men's RS: X while having a blue arrow haircut inspired by Aang's design.
Family tree
References
External links
Official TV Show Website at Nick.com
Aang at Nick.com
Animated human characters
Avatar: The Last Airbender characters
Television characters introduced in 2005
Animated characters introduced in 2005
Avatar: The Last Airbender
Fictional male martial artists
The Legend of Korra
Child characters in animated television series
Child superheroes
Fictional aikidoka
Fictional avatars
Fictional Baguazhang practitioners
Fictional characters displaced in time
Fictional characters with anti-magic or power negation abilities
Fictional characters with air or wind abilities
Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional characters with ice or cold abilities
Fictional characters with water abilities
Fictional child soldiers
Fictional cryonically preserved characters
Fictional Hung Ga practitioners
Fictional Lóng Xíng Mó Qiáo practitioners
Fictional monks
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Fictional genocide survivors
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Fictional tai chi practitioners
Fictional vegan and vegetarian characters
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Male characters in animated series
Male superheroes
Orphan characters in television
Television superheroes
Fictional nomads |
4073978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Joe%20Tolliver | Billy Joe Tolliver | Billy Joe Tolliver (born February 7, 1966) is an American former professional football player who was a quarterback in the National Football League (NFL) and Canadian Football League (CFL) for twelve seasons with the San Diego Chargers, Atlanta Falcons, Houston Oilers, Shreveport Pirates, Kansas City Chiefs, and New Orleans Saints. Over the course of his NFL career, he played in 79 games, completed 891 of 1,707 passes for 10,760 yards, threw 59 touchdowns and 64 interceptions, and retired with a passer rating of 67.7.
A graduate of Boyd High School and Texas Tech University, Tolliver was selected 51st in the 1989 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers. He started 19 games in two seasons at San Diego before being traded to Atlanta, where he saw playing time as a backup for three seasons. In 1994, he became one of three starting quarterbacks for Houston and then served as quarterback of the Shreveport Pirates in the CFL during their final season of activity in 1995. After not competing in 1996, Tolliver played for both Atlanta and Kansas City in 1997. He then started 11 games for New Orleans in two seasons but did not take the field in 2000. A stint with the Green Bay Packers in the 2001 offseason concluded his professional career.
Early life
Tolliver grew up in Boyd, Texas, where he attended local schools. He played high school football at Boyd High School. During his senior season, he led the Boyd Yellowjackets to a 15–0–1 record and the 2–A state championship. He amassed more than 1,000 rushing and passing yards and was named Player of the Year by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Tolliver was a three–sport athlete in high school, averaging 15 points and 17 rebounds in basketball and throwing 14 no-hitters in baseball.
College career
After graduating from high school, Tolliver played college football at Texas Tech University and was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity. His hard throwing style led Texas Tech head coach David McWilliams to say, "He throws the ball harder, and with more velocity, than anyone I've ever seen." He redshirted his freshman season in 1984 and became the starting quarterback in 1985. On November 9, 1985, Tolliver had his first breakout performance for the Red Raiders as he threw for a record-setting 422 yards and five touchdowns in a 63–7 win over Texas Christian University (TCU), a feat that helped him become a household name in Texas. As he began his sophomore season, he was considered the lone bright spot on Texas Tech's offense. Tolliver struggled at the start of the year; by the end of September he had only completed 54 of 123 passes. After throwing five interceptions in a game against Baylor, he shrugged off the bad game, saying, "even Betty Crocker burns a cake every now and then." His fortunes continued to sink when in a game in late October against the Rice Owls, he was benched, and backup quarterback Monte McGuire rallied the team to a victory. However, Tolliver regained his starting job and brought his team to the 1986 Independence Bowl as Texas Tech won six games for the first time since 1978. He finished the season with 1,802 passing yards and seven touchdowns.
Tolliver began his junior year facing Florida State, a game in which he suffered a hairline fracture in his foot, leaving him doubtful for the match. He missed the first three games of the season but returned in Texas Tech's fourth game against Baylor, completing 14 of 25 passes for 189 yards, a touchdown and an interception in a 36–22 loss. Tolliver's next big performance came against TCU, the same team he defeated 63–7 as a freshman. He threw a touchdown pass to Wayne Walker in the last minute to beat TCU 36–35. He finished the season having passed for 1,422 yards and seven touchdowns in eight games. The next season, his senior year, Tolliver and Texas Tech sought to win the Southwest Conference. He started the season strong, throwing an 85-yard pass against Arizona—it was the third-longest pass in school history—but the Red Raiders started with two losses. By the end of the season, Tolliver had set 16 school records and was awarded the Southwest Conference Sportsmanship Award by the league's officials. After four seasons with Texas Tech, he set the school record for career passing yards (6,756), career pass attempts (1,008), career pass completions (493), career touchdown passes (38), season passing yards in 1988 (2,869), and single game passing yards (446) against Oklahoma State University in 1988. Tolliver was inducted into Texas Tech's Hall of Honor in 2002.
Professional career
San Diego Chargers
Tolliver was selected by the San Diego Chargers in the second round of the 1989 NFL Draft. The Chargers traded third, fourth, and seventh-round picks in exchange for the New York Giants' second-round pick in order to draft him. Tolliver was signed on July 31, 1989, after a short holdout. He was to compete with Mark Malone and David Archer for the starting job, a spot which eventually went to Jim McMahon after the Chargers traded for him. As the 1989 season began with McMahon as the helm, Tolliver was slated to play the second half of the final preseason game against the Phoenix Cardinals. After 13 completions in 23 attempts, Tolliver ran the ball late in the game and broke his collarbone, sidelining him for at least six weeks. After spending the first seven games on the injured reserve list, Tolliver was taken off the list and named the starter for the game against the Seattle Seahawks on October 29, replacing McMahon who had disappointed at quarterback. In Tolliver's first start, he played three quarters, throwing six completed passes in 17 attempts for 41 yards and throwing an interception in a 10–7 loss. Tolliver subsequently lost the starting job back to McMahon. However, in late November, Tolliver was given the starting job back, remaining the starting quarterback the rest of the season. Tolliver finished the season having played five games with 89 completions in 185 attempts, 1097 yards, five touchdowns, eight interceptions, and a 57.9 quarterback rating.
As the 1990 season began, McMahon was released by the team, leaving Tolliver as the starting quarterback at training camp. After training camp and a preseason in which Tolliver started and was relieved by quarterbacks Mark Vlasic and rookie John Friesz, Chargers head coach Dan Henning named Vlasic as the starting quarterback against the Dallas Cowboys in the season opener, saying that he was "steadier" than Tolliver. After a loss against Dallas, Tolliver regained his starting job during the game two against the Cincinnati Bengals. Despite some shaky performances in the following weeks, the Chargers' coaching staff stuck by their quarterback, saying that "the last thing we need around here is more change." Tolliver played nearly the rest of the season as the starting quarterback but was replaced by Friesz for the final game of the season against the Los Angeles Raiders. The Chargers made this move because, according to Henning, "Tolliver has to work on his shortcomings." Tolliver finished the season having completed 216 of 410 passes, thrown for 2,574 yards, 16 touchdowns, and 16 interceptions, and posting a QB rating of 68.9.
Although Tolliver had the confidence of Dan Henning, Chargers general manager Bobby Beathard and owner Alex Spanos were unsatisfied with his production during the 1990 season, and were looking towards Friesz as the future quarterback. Tolliver was the leading man for the starting quarterback position as training camp for the 1991 season began, with Friesz battling Bob Gagliano for the backup spot. However, after training camp ended, Friesz was named the starting quarterback for the 1991 season opener against the Pittsburgh Steelers.
Atlanta Falcons
Just a few days after losing the starting job, Tolliver was traded to the Atlanta Falcons for a fifth-round draft pick. In Atlanta, Tolliver was the backup quarterback behind Chris Miller and alongside rookie Brett Favre, and played part of seven games throughout the season. Tolliver's breakthrough as a Falcon came against the San Francisco 49ers on November 3. Miller was injured in the second quarter, and Tolliver was brought in for the rest of the game. With one second left, he threw a 44-yard Hail Mary pass to Michael Haynes, which was caught for a touchdown and sealing a 17–14 upset victory. Due to his performance and Miller's injury, Tolliver was given his first start the following week against the Washington Redskins. Tolliver's first start with the Falcons was a 56–17 blowout loss. Afterwards, Tolliver got his second and last start of the season against the Green Bay Packers as a result of Miller suddenly running a fever. Tolliver finished the regular season having completing 40 of 82 passes with four touchdowns, two interceptions, and a QB rating of 75.8.
After the Falcons traded Favre to the Packers, Miller and Tolliver were the only quarterbacks on the roster. Before the season started, Wade Wilson signed with the team, and the two shared the role of backup to Miller. Tolliver played two of the first eight games, then was named the starting quarterback when the Falcons lost Miller for the season as a result of reconstructive surgery on his left knee. Tolliver's first start of the season came against the 49ers. He completed 16 of 25 passes, but threw three interceptions in a 41–3 loss. The next week against the Cardinals, Tolliver was benched for the final series as Wilson led the team to victory and Tolliver argued with coach Jerry Glanville. Despite the conflict and a shoulder injury, Glanville gave Tolliver the start the following week against the Buffalo Bills. He played a few more games before being replaced by Wilson for the rest of the season, partially as a result of Wilson throwing five touchdown passes in his first start en route to a 35–7 Falcons victory. Tolliver finished the season with five touchdowns, five interceptions, a 55.7% completion percentage, and a 70.4 QB rating.
After the 1992 season, Tolliver was a restricted free agent. Wilson signed a contract with the Saints, and to replace him the Falcons signed Bobby Hebert. Tolliver signed a one-year contract in August, after holding out for a time. Tolliver started the 1993 season as the third-string quarterback behind Hebert and Miller. However, Miller re-injured his left knee in late September, making Tolliver the main backup to Hebert. Tolliver made his first start against the Los Angeles Rams, but was injured in his second start against the Saints; the Falcons signed Chris Hakel as a result of the injury. Tolliver finished the season in occasional relief for Hebert, who remained bothered by injuries. Over the course of the year, Tolliver played in seven games and threw for just under 500 yards, and became a free agent after the season ended.
Houston Oilers
In early September 1994, Tolliver was signed to a contract by the Houston Oilers. He was originally the third-string quarterback, but ineffectiveness by Bucky Richardson led Tolliver to relieve him in a game against the Cleveland Browns. Tolliver played well enough to be considered for the starting job the following week due to Cody Carlson dealing with injuries. Tolliver made his first start in a game against the Raiders, but played inconsistently over seven starts and was replaced by Richardson in the season finale against the New York Jets. After finishing the season, Tolliver became a free agent and left the NFL.
Shreveport Pirates
Tolliver signed a three-year contract worth about $1 million with the Shreveport Pirates of the Canadian Football League before the 1995 season began. Early in the season, Tolliver got to compete against former teammate David Archer in the San Antonio Texans' CFL debut. He finished the season having thrown for 3,767 yards, 16 touchdowns, and 15 interceptions. After the team folded following a 5–13 season, Tolliver was again without a team.
Atlanta Falcons (second stint)
In October 1996, Tolliver rejoined the Falcons as the third-string quarterback, this time sitting behind Bobby Hebert and Browning Nagle. He spent the 1996 season on the bench, and did not take a snap in a game. He was re-signed by Atlanta in April and given a one-year contract worth $325,000.
Tolliver was slated to compete with Tommy Maddox for the backup quarterback spot at Atlanta as training camp rolled around. Halfway through August, Maddox was released, and Tolliver was made the primary backup behind Chris Chandler. Tolliver played his first NFL game since 1994 on September 7, 1997 against the Carolina Panthers. He completed 7 of 17 passes for 79 yards. After relieving Chandler again the following week, Tolliver was slated to start the next game against the 49ers, in what became his only starting appearance of the season. He was slated to start again against the Denver Broncos, but instead came in late in the game. He was almost able to lead the Falcons to a comeback victory over the Broncos, completing six of nine passes for 85 yards and a touchdown, but he instead lost to the then-undefeated Broncos as the team remained winless. When Chandler went down with an injury in late October, coach Dan Reeves chose to start Tony Graziani. Shortly afterwards, Tolliver was released by the Falcons.
Kansas City Chiefs
In early November, Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Elvis Grbac was lost for the season due to a broken collarbone. As a result, the Chiefs signed Tolliver to a two-year contract as the third-string quarterback to replace him. Tolliver finished the season having completed 64 passes in 116 attempts for 677 yards, five touchdowns, and one interception. Only one of the 116 attempts came as a Kansas City quarterback. The 1998 preseason began with Tolliver competing with Pat Barnes for the third-string quarterback job, but this ended when Tolliver was released by the Chiefs in August.
New Orleans Saints
After Saints quarterback Billy Joe Hobert was lost for the season with a ruptured Achilles tendon, the Saints signed Tolliver to a two-year deal. After four starts by Danny Wuerffel, Saints coach Mike Ditka gave Tolliver the start against the Atlanta Falcons. After starting for four weeks and having a few impressive performances, Tolliver was benched in favor of Kerry Collins, who finished the season as starting quarterback. Tolliver finished the year with one of his most statistically impressive seasons, completing 110 of 199 passes for 1,427 yards, eight touchdowns, four interceptions, and finishing with a QB rating of 83.1.
Tolliver started the 1999 season as Hobert's backup. Hobert started the first four games but was injured, leaving Tolliver to start against the Tennessee Titans on October 17 and the Giants the week after. Hobert started the next game, but suffered a pinched nerve in his neck, resulting in Tolliver's third start of the season against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Against the 49ers, he scored the third and fourth rushing touchdowns of his career en route to a 24–6 win. However, the next week against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Tolliver suffered a torn MCL, and he was considered likely to miss the rest of the season. A couple of weeks later, Tolliver had bounced back from his injury by "treating himself with some WD-40" and was named the starter in the December 12 game against the St. Louis Rams. Tolliver was again injured the following week against the Baltimore Ravens, putting an end to his season, which he finished with a 51.9 completion percentage, 1,916 yards, seven touchdowns, 16 interceptions, and a QB rating of 58.9.
Throughout the 1999 season, Tolliver remained a vocal supporter of coach Ditka despite the Saints' 3–13 record, saying "I think he's a heck of a football coach, a great motivator. We just got to start buying what he's selling." Ditka was fired by the Saints, but as training camp for the 2000 season began, Tolliver was the Saints' backup quarterback behind Jeff Blake. On August 1, the Saints traded for quarterback Aaron Brooks, which left Tolliver to compete for the third-string spot alongside Jake Delhomme. The Saints' roster was reduced to 53 players, and Tolliver was among those cut. When the Saints lost Jeff Blake for the season in mid-November due to a dislocated foot, Tolliver was re-signed by the Saints, though he did not play a game that season.
Green Bay Packers
In July 2001, Tolliver was signed by the Green Bay Packers. This briefly reunited him with Brett Favre, with whom he was teammates in Atlanta. However, he was cut on August 21, 2001, when Doug Pederson won the backup job, and this stint marked the end of Tolliver's professional career.
Personal life
Tolliver was named after his uncle Joe and aunt Billie. He and his wife, Sheila, have five children.
Tolliver is an avid golfer and has played many celebrity tournaments. He is a regular competitor at the American Century Championship in Lake Tahoe, the annual competition to determine the best golfers among American sports and entertainment celebrities. He won in 1996, when it was the Isuzu Celebrity Golf Challenge, in 2005, in 2010 (with a new point record of 84 points), and in 2013, and had a total of fourteen top-ten finishes as of the 2019 tournament.
References
External links
1966 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Atlanta Falcons players
Houston Oilers players
Kansas City Chiefs players
New Orleans Saints players
San Diego Chargers players
Canadian football quarterbacks
Shreveport Pirates players
American players of Canadian football
Players of American football from Dallas
Players of Canadian football from Dallas
Texas Tech Red Raiders football players
People from Boyd, Texas |
4074175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian | Ian | Ian or Iain is a name of Scottish Gaelic origin, which is derived from the Hebrew given name (Yohanan, ) and corresponds to the English name John. The spelling Ian is an Anglicization of the Scottish Gaelic forename Iain. This name is a popular name in Scotland, where it originated, as well as in other English-speaking countries.
The name has fallen out of the top 100 male baby names in the United Kingdom, having peaked in popularity as one of the top 10 names throughout the 1960s. In 1900, Ian ranked as the 180th most popular male baby name in England and Wales. , the name has been in the top 100 in the United States every year since 1982, peaking at 65 in 2003.
Other Gaelic forms of the name "John" include "Seonaidh" ("Johnny" from Lowland Scots), "Seon" (from English), "Seathan", and "Seán" and "Eoin" (from Irish). The Welsh equivalent is Ioan, the Cornish counterpart is Yowan and the Breton equivalent is Yann.
Notable people named Ian
As a first name (alphabetical by family name)
Ian Agol (born 1970), American mathematician
Ian Anderson (musician) (born 1947), lead of rock band Jethro Tull
Ian Astbury (born 1962), singer of rock band The Cult
Ian Bairnson (1953–2023), Scottish guitarist of The Alan Parsons Project and Pilot
Ian Baker-Finch (born 1960), Australian golfer and 1991 British Open winner
Ian Bannen (1928–1999), British actor
Ian Bazalgette (1918–1944), Canadian-British recipient of the Victoria Cross
Ian Bell (born 1982), English cricketer
Ian Berry (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Black (disambiguation), multiple people
Sir Ian Blair (born 1953), British former Head of the Metropolitan Police Service
Ian Bohen (born 1976), American actor
Ian Bolton (born 1953), English footballer
Ian Book (born 1998), American football player
Sir Ian Botham (born 1955), English cricketer
Ian Brady (Ian Duncan Stewart, 1938–2017), convicted for the Moors murders in England in the 1960s
Ian Bremmer (born 1969), political scientist, author, entrepreneur
Ian Broudie (born 1958), English singer in The Lightning Seeds, and music producer
Ian Brown (born 1963), singer and lyricist in The Stone Roses
Ian Bunting (born 1996), American football player
Ian Callaghan (born 1942), Liverpool footballer with the most appearances
Ian Callum (born 1954), British design director for Jaguar
Ian Cameron (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Carmichael (1920–2010), OBE, English actor
Ian "iDubbbz" Carter (born 1990), American YouTube personality
Ian Chan (born 1993), Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor
Ian Chappell (born 1943), former Australian cricketer
Ian Charleson (1949–1990), Scottish/British actor
Ian Clark (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Clyde (born 1956), Canadian boxer
Ian Cole (born 1989), American hockey player
Ian Collier (1943–2008), singer and actor
Ian Cooper (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian James Corlett (born 1962), cartoon writer and voice actor, creator of Being Ian
Ian Crocker (born 1982), swimmer
Ian Curtis (1956–1980), singer and lyricist in Joy Division
Ian Davidson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Davis (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Desmond (born 1985), American Major League Baseball shortstop
Ian Stuart Donaldson (1957–1993), English vocalist and frontman of British neo-Nazi band Skrewdriver
Ian Dunn (activist) (1943-1998), Scottish gay and paedophile rights activist
Ian Dunn (rugby union) (born 1960), New Zealand rugby union player
Ian Dury (1942–2000), British singer and songwriter
Ian Eagle (born 1969), American sports announcer
Ian Edmond (born 1978), British swimmer
Ian Falconer (1959–2023), American author and illustrator
Ian Ferguson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Flanagan (born 1982), Welsh tennis player
Ian Fleming (1908–1964), British novelist, creator of James Bond
Ian Flynn (born 1982), American comic book writer
Ian Frazier (born 1951), American writer and humorist
Ian Froman (born 1937), South African-born Israeli tennis player and tennis patron
Ian Gibbons (musician) (1952–2019), English keyboardist, member of The Kinks
Ian Gibson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Gillan (born 1945), English lead singer of hard rock band Deep Purple
Ian Gleed DSO DFC (1916–1943), English Royal Air Force flying ace and one of the Few
Ian Gold (born 1978), former American football player
Ian Gomm (born 1947), British guitarist and singer
Ian Goodfellow (born 1985), Director of Machine Learning in the Special Projects Group at Apple computer
Ian Gow, British Member of Parliament assassinated by IRA terrorists in 1990
Ian Greig (born 1955), former English cricketer and brother of Tony Greig
Ian Grist (1938–2002), British politician
Ian Gunther (born 1999), American gymnastics creator
Ian Hall (musician) (1940–2022), Guyanese-born British musician and composer
Ian Hallard (born 1974), British actor
Ian Hamilton (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Hanlin, Canadian voice actor
Ian Hanomansing, Canadian journalist and news anchor
Ian Harding (born 1986), American actor
Ian Hart (born 1964), English actor
Ian Haugland (born 1964 as Jan-Håkan Haugland), Norwegian-born Swedish drummer for the band Europe
Ian Healy (born 1964), former Australian Wicket-Keeper
Ian Hecox, comedian with Smosh
Ian Henderson (footballer) (born 1985), current Norwich City F.C. player in the FA Premier League
Ian Henderson (news presenter) (born 1953), Australian news presenter
Ian Henderson (police officer), former head of secret police in Bahrain, accused of torture
Ian Henderson (rugby league), Scottish rugby hooker who plays in Australia
Ian Hennessy (born 1967), Irish soccer player
Ian Hicks (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Hill, bassist for metal band Judas Priest
Ian Hislop (born 1960), British satirist and editor of Private Eye
Ian Holm (1931–2020), British actor
Ian Ho (swimmer) (born 1997), Hong Kong freestyle swimmer
Ian Hornak (1944–2002), painter
Ian Hunter (actor) (1900–1975), English actor
Ian Hunter (singer) (born 1939), English singer of Mott the Hoople
Ian McLellan Hunter (1915–1991), English screenwriter best known as the front for the blacklisted Dalton Trumbo and who later found himself blacklisted
Ian Huntley, double murderer
Ian Jacobs (academic) (born 1957), English academic, gynaecological oncologist, gynaecologist/obstetrician
Ian Jacobs, Australian kickboxer and 3-time World Kickboxing Champion
Ian James (athlete) (born 1963), Olympic athlete
Ian Jones-Quartey (born 1984), animator
Ian Joyce (born 1985), American soccer player
Ian Kahn (born 1972), American actor
Ian Karmel (born 1984), American stand-up comedian and writer
Ian Kennedy (born 1984), Major League Baseball pitcher
Ian Kershaw (born 1943), English historian
Ian "Lemmy" Kilmister, singer/bass player in Motörhead
Ian Kinsler (born 1982), Israeli-American Major League Baseball All Star second baseman
Ian "Vaush" Kochinski (born 1994), American YouTuber and livestreamer
Ian Koziara, American operatic tenor
Ian Krankie (born 1947), Scottish entertainer
Ian Laperrière (born 1974), Canadian-American hockey player
Ian Lavender (born 1946), English actor
Ian Law (born 1938), Australian footballer
Ian Levy, British Conservative MP for Blyth Valley since 2019
Ian Hideo Levy (born 1950), American author
Ian Livingstone (born 1949), author
Ian Lorimer, television director
Ian Lucas (born 1960), politician
Ian MacArthur (1925–2007), politician
Ian MacDonald (1948–2003), author
Ian Macdonald (barrister) (1939–2019)
Ian MacKaye (born 1962), musician
Ian Mahinmi (born 1986), basketball player
Ian Malcolm (politician) (1868–1944), Member of Parliament (1910-1919)
Ian Martin (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Matos (1989–2021), Brazilian diver
Ian Matthews (drummer) (born 1971), drummer for Kasabian
Ian Maxtone-Graham (born 1959), television writer and producer
Ian McAteer (born 1961), former gangster from Glasgow
Ian McCaskill (1938–2016), weather forecaster
Ian McCulloch (actor) (born 1939), actor
Ian McCulloch (singer), singer in the band Echo & the Bunnymen
Ian McCulloch (snooker player) (born 1971), snooker player
Ian McDiarmid (born 1944), actor
Ian McDonald (musician), British musician, best known for being a member of both King Crimson and Foreigner
Ian McEwan (born 1948), English novelist and screenwriter
Ian McKay, recipient of the Victoria Cross
Sir Ian McKellen (born 1939), actor
Ian McLagan, English musician, best known for being a member of both Small Faces and Faces
Ian McMillan (footballer) (born 1931), Scottish footballer
Ian McMillan (poet) (born 1956), poet
Ian McShane (born 1942), actor
Ian Messiter (1920–1999), Engglish creator of Just a Minute
Ian Moran (cricketer) (born 1979), Australian cricketer
Ian Moran (born 1972), American hockey player
Ian Morris (footballer), Irish professional footballer
Ian Morrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Morton (born 1970), English cricketer
Ian Mosley, drummer for Marillion
Ian Moss, Australian musician, Cold Chisel
Ian Murdock, computer professional, creator of the Debian project
Ian Nepomniachtchi (born 1990), Russian chess grandmaster
Ian O'Brien (born 1947), swimmer
Ian Oswald Liddell, recipient of the Victoria Cross
Ian Paice, drummer of Deep Purple
Ian Paisley (1926–2014), Protestant politician
Ian Patterson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Pearson (badminton) (born 1974), English badminton player
Ian Peck (born 1957), English cricketer
Ian Pooley (born 1973), German DJ
Ian Poulter (born 1976), English professional golfer
Ian Punnett (born 1960), American radio broadcaster and priest
Ian Rankin (born 1960), Scottish novelist
Ian Reed, Australian discus thrower
Ian Reid (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Richards (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Richardson (1934–2007), Scottish actor
Ian Robinson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Ross (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Rush (born 1961), Welsh international footballer
Ian Sanders (born 1961), cricketer for Edinburgh, Scotland
Ian Sangalang (born 1991), Filipino professional basketball player
Ian Scheckter (born 1947), former South African F1 driver. Brother of Jody Scheckter and uncle of Tomas Scheckter.
Ian Scott (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Smith (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Smith (1919–2007), former Rhodesian Prime Minister
Ian Snell (born 1981), American Major League Baseball pitcher
Ian Somerhalder (born 1978), actor
Ian Stanley (born 1957), British musician
Ian Stannard (born 1987), English cyclist
Ian Stevenson Webster (1925–2002), British judge
Ian Stewart (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Stone, comedian
Ian Svenonius, American musician
Ian Thomas (American football) (born 1995), American football player
Ian Thomson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Thornley (born 1972), Canadian musician
Ian Thorpe (born 1982), Australian swimmer
Ian "Sam" Totman (born 1979), British guitarist
Ian Tyson (1933–2022), Canadian singer-songwriter
Ian Van Dahl, Belgian artist
Ian Veneracion (born 1975), Filipino actor, athlete, pilot, and singer
Ian Walker (sailor) (born 1970), British sailor
Ian Waltz (born 1977), American discus thrower
Ian Watkins (Lostprophets singer) (born 1977), former lead singer of the alternative metal band Lostprophets, and convicted pedophile
Ian "H" Watkins (born 1976), British pop singer and actor, former member of Steps
Ian Weatherhead (born 1932), English watercolor artist
Ian Webster (born 1986), English footballer
Ian West (born 1951), Australian politician
Ian Wilmut (1944–2023), English embryologist, best known for cloning Dolly the sheep
Ian Wilson (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Wolfe (1896–1992), American actor
Ian Wood (disambiguation), multiple people
Ian Woosnam (born 1958), Welsh golfer
Ian Wright (born 1963), English footballer
Ian Donald Calvin Euclid Zappa (born 1969), birth name of American musician Dweezil Zappa
Ian Ziering (born 1964), American actor
As a middle name
Michael Ian Black (often credited by his full name, born 1971), American comedian
Richard Ian Cox (born 1973), Welsh-Canadian actor, voice actor (including as Ian Kelley on Being Ian), and radio host
Thomas Ian Nicholas (born 1980), American actor and singer
Henry Ian Cusick (born 1967), Scottish-Peruvian actor and television director
As a surname
Janis Ian (born 1951), singer and songwriter
Scott Ian, stage name of Scott Ian Rosenfeld (born 1963), guitarist with the metal band Anthrax
Notable people named Iain
Iain Anders (1933–1997), English actor
Iain Andrews (born 1975), contemporary English painter
Iain Archer, Northern Irish Singer-songwriter musician
Iain Armitage (born 2008), American child actor
Iain Baird (born 1971), Canadian former soccer defender
Iain Ballamy (born 1964), British composer, soprano, alto and tenor saxophone player
Iain Balshaw (born 1979), MBE, English rugby player
Iain Bell (born 1980), English composer
Iain Banks (1954–2013), Scottish writer
Iain Benson (born 1955), legal philosopher, writer, professor and practising legal consultant
Iain Black (born 1967), British Columbia politician
Iain Boal, Irish social historian of technics and the commons
Iain Borden (born 1962), English architectural historian and urban commentator
Iain Brambell (born 1973), Canadian rower
Iain Brines (born 1967), former Scottish football referee in the Scottish Premier League
Iain Brunnschweiler (born 1979), English former cricketer
Iain Canning (born 1979), English film producer
Iain Chambers, English composer, producer and performer
Iain Michael Chambers, British scholar
Iain Cheeseman, Australian scientist
Iain Chisholm (born 1985), Scottish footballer
Iain Clough (born 1965), British slalom canoer
Iain Collings, Australian scientist
Iain Connell (born 1977), Scottish comedian and actor
Iain Coucher (born 1961), British businessman and consultant in the railway industry
Iain Couzin, British scientist
Iain Dale (born 1962), British broadcaster, author and political commentator
Iain Davidson (born 1984), Scottish professional footballer
Iain De Caestecker (born 1987), Scottish actor
Iain Dilthey (born 1971), British film director
Iain Donald Campbell (1941–2014), FRS (1941 – 2014) Scottish biophysicist and academic
Iain Dowie (born 1965), Northern Irish football manager
Iain Duncan (born 1963), Canadian former ice hockey forward
Iain Dunn (born 1970), English former professional footballer
Iain Durrant (born 1966), Scottish footballer
Iain Eairdsidh MacAsgaill (1898—1934), Scottish poet and piper
Iain Evans (field hockey) (born 1981), South African field hockey player
Iain Fairley (born 1973), Scottish rugby union player
Iain Fearn (born 1949), Scottish footballer
Iain Finlay (born 1935), Australian author
Iain Finlayson (alpine skier) (1951–1990), British alpine skier
Iain Glen (born 1961), Scottish actor, noted for his role in TV's Game of Thrones
Iain Gray (born 1957), Leader of Labour in the Scottish Parliament
Iain Harnden (born 1976), Zimbabwean hurdler
Iain Kay (born 1949), Zimbabwean farmer and politician
Iain Lee (born 1973), British comedian, TV presenter and radio presenter
Iain Lindsay (born 1959), British diplomat
Iain Macleod (1913–1970), British politician
Iain Macmillan (1938–2006), Scottish photographer, noted for his image of the Beatles walking across Abbey Road
Iain Matthews (born 1946), formerly known as Ian Matthews, English musician, singer-songwriter, member of Fairport Convention
Iain David McGeachy (1948–2009), birth name of John Martyn, British singer-songwriter and guitarist
Iain McGilchrist (born 1953), psychiatrist, writer, and former Oxford literary scholar
Iain McKenzie (born 1959), Scottish politician
Iain O'Brien (born 1976), New Zealand cricketer
Iain Paxton (born 1957), Scottish rugby player
Iain Robertson (born 1981), Scottish actor
Iain Smith (Scottish politician) (born 1960), Scottish politician
Iain Duncan Smith (born 1954), Leader of the Conservative Party, 2001–2003
Iain Softley (born 1958), film director
Iain Stirling (born 1988), Scottish TV presenter and comedian
Iain Stewart (disambiguation), multiple people
Iain Sutherland (1948–2019), Scottish musician, member of The Sutherland Brothers
Iain Sydie (born 1969), Canadian badminton player
Iain Torrance (born 1949), President of Princeton Theological Seminary and former Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Fictional people named Ian
Ian – the supporting character from Shinbi's Haunted House anime
Ian – from Shane Jiraiya Cummings' short story "Ian"; every male character the protagonist meets is called Ian
Ian – from Sarah Kane's play Blasted
Ian – from Leprechaun 2
Ian – the protagonist in the manga Not Simple by Natsume Ono
Ian Beale – from the TV soap opera EastEnders
Ian Chesterton – from the TV series Doctor Who
Ian Craig – from the radio soap opera The Archers
Ian the Deer – Elliot's arch-rival in the Open Season movies
Ian Doyle – an Irish terrorist featured on Criminal Minds
Ian Edgerton – FBI agent and sniper from the show Numb3rs
Ian Foot – from the British TV series Come Fly with Me
Ian Gallagher – one of the main characters in the television drama Shameless and its American remake
Ian Grimm - creative director of fictional video game in the television series Mythic Quest
Ian Hainsworth – Susan Delfino's boyfriend in 3rd season of Desperate Housewives
Ian Hawke – the main antagonist in the Alvin and the Chipmunks movies
Ian Howe – an antagonist in National Treasure
Ian Kabra – antagonist of the book series The 39 Clues
Ian Kelley – title character from the Canadian animated series Being Ian, created by Ian James Corlett, voiced by Richard Ian Cox
Ian Lewis and Ian Ketterman (together with dozens of other Ians) – characters created by Lee and Herring; the duo used 'Ian' as their de facto comedy name, in such sketches as the Ian News
Ian Lightfoot – Tom Holland’s character from the film Onward
Ian Malcolm (Jurassic Park) – from Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park
Ian (MÄR) – a recurring character in the manga and anime series MÄR
Ian Maxtone-Graham – from the TV series Suddenly Susan
Professor Ian McClaine – adoptive father of Joe 90
Ian McKenzie – the liberal attorney from the novel and the film A Dry White Season
Ian McKinley – from the movie Final Destination 3
Ian Miller – from the movie My Big Fat Greek Wedding
Ian Murray – the nephew of Jamie Fraser in Diana Gabaldon's Outlander series
Ian Nottingham – a character from Witchblade comic and TV series
Ian O'Shea – from Stephenie Meyer's novel The Host
Ian Papov – character and member of the Demolition Boys (also known as the Blitzkrieg Boys) from the anime series Beyblade (2000)
Ian Randall – from the Smallville (TV series), episodes "Dichotic" and "Asylum", a character who had the ability to duplicate himself
Ian Raymond – Laura's boyfriend in the novel and film High Fidelity
Ian Rider – from the Alex Rider books
Ian Schulenburg – unseen husband of Harriet Schulenburg in Green Wing
Ian Scuffling – Tyrone Slothrup's adopted name after he goes into hiding in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow
Ian Slater – from the ABC soap opera All My Children
Ian Thomas – Ryan Merriman's character in the TV series Pretty Little Liars
Janis Ian – from the film Mean Girls
Fictional people named Iain
Iain Sterling, a fictional character in the Android: Netrunner universe
Iain Dean, a fictional character in the Casualty Central universe
See also
John (given name), a common masculine given name in the English language of originally Semitic origin
Eoin
Ioan
Ian (disambiguation)
IANS (disambiguation)
References
English-language masculine given names
Scottish masculine given names
English masculine given names
Masculine given names
Irish masculine given names
Welsh masculine given names
Welsh given names |
4074285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Crimp | Operation Crimp | Operation Crimp (8–14 January 1966), also known as the Battle of the Ho Bo Woods, was a joint US-Australian military operation during the Vietnam War, which took place north of Cu Chi in Binh Duong Province, South Vietnam. The operation targeted a key Viet Cong headquarters that was believed to be concealed underground, and involved two brigades under the command of the US 1st Infantry Division, including the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) which was attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade. Heavy fighting resulted in significant casualties on both sides, but the combined American and Australian force was able to uncover an extensive tunnel network covering more than 200 kilometres (120 miles), at the cost of 8 Australians and 14 Americans killed and 29 Australians and 76 Americans wounded.
The operation was the largest allied military action mounted during the war in South Vietnam to that point, and the first fought at division level. Despite some success, the allied force was only able to partially clear the area and it remained a key communist transit and supply base throughout the war. The tunnels were later used as a staging area for the attack on Saigon during the 1968 Tet offensive before they were largely destroyed by heavy bombing from American B-52 bombers in 1970, ending their utility.
Background
Military situation
Although the initial American commitment to the war in Vietnam had been limited to advice and materiel support, by 1964 there were 21,000 US advisors in South Vietnam. However, with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) weakened by successive defeats at the hands of the communists, the South Vietnamese government faltering, and Saigon threatened with a major offensive, the worsening situation led to a significant escalation of the war in 1965, with a large-scale commitment of US ground troops under the command of General William Westmoreland. At first the Americans had adopted a cautious strategy, applied to the strictly limited role of base defence by US Marine units. This was abandoned in April 1965, and replaced by a new "enclave strategy" of defending key coastal population centres and installations. This strategy required the introduction of nine additional US battalions, or 14,000 troops, to bring the total in Vietnam to 13. Allied nations of the Free World Military Forces were expected to contribute another four battalions.
Westmoreland planned to develop a series of defensive positions around Saigon before expanding operations to pacify the South Vietnamese country-side and as a result a number of sites close to Viet Cong dominated areas were subsequently chosen to be developed into semi-permanent divisional-level bases. Such areas included Di An which was intended to become the headquarters of the US 1st Infantry Division, while the US 25th Infantry Division would be based in the vicinity of Cu Chi. However, large-scale military operations to clear the intended base areas had to wait until the dry season. Yet the allied enclave strategy proved only transitory and further setbacks led to additional troop increases to halt the losing trend. With the situation reaching crisis point during the Viet Cong wet season offensive in June 1965, Westmoreland requested further reinforcement and US and allied forces increased to 44 battalions which would be used to directly bolster the ARVN.
Australia's growing involvement in Vietnam reflected the American build up. In 1963, the Australian government had committed a small advisory team, known as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), to help train the South Vietnamese forces. However, in June 1965 the decision to commit ground troops was made, and the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment—originally commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Ivan 'Lou' Brumfield—was dispatched. Supporting 1 RAR was 1 Troop, A Squadron, 4th/19th Prince of Wales's Light Horse equipped with M-113 Armoured Personnel Carriers, artillery from 105th Field Battery, Royal Australian Artillery and 161st Field Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery, and 161st Reconnaissance Flight operating Cessna 180s and Bell H-13 Sioux light observation helicopters; in total 1,400 personnel. The Australian and New Zealand units were attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Ellis W. Williamson in Bien Hoa and operated throughout the III Corps Tactical Zone to help establish the Bien Hoa-Vung Tau enclave. Although logistics and resupply were primarily provided by the Americans, a small logistic unit—1st Australian Logistics Company—was situated at Bien Hoa airbase. Unlike later Australian units that served in Vietnam, which included conscripts, 1 RAR was manned by regular personnel only.
Attached to US forces, 1 RAR would primarily be employed in search and destroy operations using the newly developed doctrine of airmobile operations, utilising helicopters to insert light infantry and artillery into an area of operations, and to support them with aerial mobility, fire support, casualty evacuation, and resupply. The battalion commenced operations in late June 1965 and initially focussed on defeating the Viet Cong's wet season offensive. During this time US 173rd Brigade, including 1 RAR, conducted a number of operations into War Zone D—a major communist base area at the junction of Phuoc Long, Long Khanh, Bien Hoa and Binh Duong provinces—as well as in the Iron Triangle, formed by the confluence of the Saigon and Thi Tinh rivers and Route 7, where they fought a number of significant actions including the Battle of Gang Toi on 8 November. Meanwhile, Brumfield was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Alex Preece, after an old football injury forced his evacuation to Australia in mid-November. During the period 21 November to 16 December 1 RAR was involved in Operation New Life in the La Nga Valley, north-east of Bien Hoa in an attempt to deny the Viet Cong access to the rice harvest. On 24 November D Company, 1 RAR carried out a deliberate attack on the fortified village of Duc Hanh which had been occupied by the Viet Cong, killing 10 and wounding four without loss. Operation Marauder on the Plain of Reeds in the Mekong Delta was subsequently launched on New Years Day 1966.
Prelude
Opposing forces
Located west of the Iron Triangle, the Ho Bo Woods were believed to contain the political-military headquarters of the communist 4th Military Region, which controlled all Viet Cong activity around the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon. Although its precise position was unknown, it was believed to be concealed in an extensive underground bunker system. Agents' reports, the interrogation of prisoners, and aerial surveillance all pointed to the presence of this vital communist facility. The headquarters itself was believed to be located in a area of jungle and marshland, and to have four entrances guarded by a Viet Cong Regional Force company, while two Main Force battalions were also thought to be in the vicinity to afford additional security. Communist units detected in the Ho Bo Woods by allied intelligence included the C306 Local Force Company, 3rd Quyet Thang Battalion and 7th Cu Chi Battalion. The commander of the Cu Chi Battalion was later identified after the war as Captain Nguyen Thanh Linh. In total, local communist defensive strength was believed to include 1,000 men.
In response, a large American 'search-and-destroy' operation was launched in January 1966, involving more than 8,000 troops commanded by the US 1st Infantry Division under Major General Jonathan O. Seaman, including the US 3rd Infantry Brigade, 1st Infantry Division and the US 173rd Airborne Brigade, which was attached to the division for the operation; in total six battalions plus supporting arms. Still attached to the US 173rd Airborne Brigade was the Australian battalion, 1 RAR—now commanded by Preece—with 105 Field Battery in direct support, as well as engineers from 3 Field Troop, Royal Australian Engineers and the M113s from the Prince of Wales Light Horse. At the time it was the largest military operation mounted in South Vietnam, being the first divisional offensive to date. Preceded by a heavy aerial bombardment, the scheme of manoeuvre envisioned an airmobile assault by the US 173rd Brigade in the north and west, while the US 3rd Infantry Brigade would seal off the area to the south, in preparation for a sweep designed to push trapped communist forces eastwards against the Saigon River. 1 RAR's role was to establish a blocking position in a village beside the river on the northern flank of the brigade's area of operations.
In order to achieve tactical surprise, the operation was launched immediately following Operation Marauder, with the Australians and Americans redeployed by air. Prior to the assault, the 1 RAR Operations Officer, Major John Essex-Clarke, conducted an aerial reconnaissance of the proposed Landing Zone—known as LZ June—on 7 January. Observing a lack of ground foliage, he was concerned about the possibility of extensive Viet Cong defensive works close to the LZ, and with the support of Williamson the landing zone was subsequently switched to a less-exposed location. The original plan would have seen 1 RAR inserted directly on top of a heavily defended bunker system, and would have likely resulted in heavy casualties. Captain Alexander "Sandy" MacGregor, the commander of the 3 Field Troop, was of the opinion that the "decision almost certainly saved hundreds of Australian lives."
Battle
Insertion, 8 January 1966
The battle began at 09:30 on 8 January with heavy American preparatory fire from artillery, as well as napalm and airstrikes from B-52 bombers which resulted in significant defoliation. Soon after the airmobile operation commenced with the first American units being inserted by helicopter to the north, west and south. The US 3rd Infantry Brigade—under the command of Colonel William Brodbeck—was subsequently inserted by helicopter and by road. The brigade headquarters and command element departed Di An in convoy and reached Trung Lap on the western boundary of the brigade's area of operations by midday. Concurrently, two battalions were inserted by helicopter to the south-west, one blocking the south side of the Ho Bo Woods while the other conducted a sweep. The Americans were in contact almost immediately, although the engagements were generally small scale, or involving snipers. Meanwhile, the brigade's third battalion moved by road to Trung Lap and then moved on foot to its assigned search area.
In the north, 1 RAR was inserted into its new landing zone—LZ March— to the south-west. With B Company securing the site, the battalion moved on foot to the line of departure but not before they were mistakenly engaged by US helicopter gunships and artillery fire. However, after the Australians established communications, the shelling was halted and they began their advance. No sooner had the lead elements—D Company under the command of Major Ian Fisher—emerged into the cleared area that was originally to have been used as the battalion's LZ, when the forward platoon came under fire from Viet Cong positions in the tree-line on the north-east corner. In the action which followed, six Australians from 12 Platoon were wounded, including platoon commander Lieutenant Jim Bourke, who was shot through the jaw but remained in command until he passed out from loss of blood. Meanwhile, two medics who attempted to move forward to treat the casualties were themselves shot and killed.
Preece moved to push his other companies around each flank of D Company, and towards the battalion's original blocking position. Soon they were also in contact with small groups of Viet Cong from positions behind trees and in bunkers, while others popped up from spider holes and tunnel entrances; it became apparent to the Australians that they had stumbled across a significant Viet Cong force in extensive fortifications, sufficient to hold a battalion. B Company, under the command of Major Ian McFarlane, also uncovered a small dug-in hospital with simple transfusion equipment, documents and bandages. Meanwhile, the remaining battalions of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade had also been inserted. The 1st Battalion, US 503rd Infantry Regiment flew into LZ April at 12:00, while US 2/503rd Battalion arrived at LZ May at 14:30. With the insertion going largely according to plan, the brigades began their advance eastwards. Converging on the suspected location of the communist headquarters, a thorough search of the area yielded little, and it was believed that the Viet Cong had withdrawn earlier in response to the initial Australian advance.
Amid strong resistance, the Australians were made to fight their way through the maze of bunkers, punji stakes and booby traps but they were eventually able to force a Viet Cong regional force company to withdraw as they continued their advance. The area was heavily seeded with trip wires connected to shells and grenades dangling from branches, one of which blew McFarlane and several of his men off their feet. The defenders subsequently withdrew, with 7th Cu Chi Battalion forced north and 3rd Quyet Thang Battalion to the east. Suspecting they were being drawn into a trap—as one of the American battalions of the brigade had been previously during Operation Hump—the Australians moved into a tightly defended perimeter before dark and waited for the communists to counter-attack. As night fell, movement was detected along a trench on the C Company perimeter when a squad of Viet Cong attempted to infiltrate the Australian position. Initially believing the movement to be another Australian patrol that had just departed on a clearing patrol, the machine-gunner on sentry duty finally opened fire at the last safe moment, killing one of the infiltrators at point-blank range and wounding a number of others before they withdrew.
Minor actions continued into the night, with small groups of Viet Cong able to pop up undetected and then disappear at will from within the Australian defensive position. The searching units were unable to locate Viet Cong in large numbers but experienced a significant number of sudden engagements and ambushes throughout the day, and it became clear that the communists were using tunnels for movement and concealment. Preece suspected that the area was honeycombed with tunnels and that the communist headquarters that he had been tasked to destroy was in fact located beneath the feet of the battalion. The Australians were the only battalion in the US 173rd Brigade to strike significant resistance, and by the end of the first day 1 RAR had suffered a total of three killed and 15 wounded, while the artillery Forward Observer from 105 Field Battery had also been killed. The battalion spent a sleepless night and in the early hours of the morning there were a number of short exchanges of fire as small groups of Viet Cong returned to the area. Not wanting to fire the machine-guns for fear of giving their positions away or hitting friendly troops, the Australians resorted to using grenades forward of the perimeter. Meanwhile, in the US 3rd Infantry Brigade area of operations contact had been light, with only six Viet Cong killed.
Tunnels of Cu Chi, 9 January 1966
The process of breaking into and exploring the communist tunnels began on 9 January, with the objective now switching to the location, clearance and destruction of the tunnel complexes. Whereas standard US Army practice was to seal, blow up or otherwise attempt to render tunnel systems unusable with smoke, tear gas and explosives before quickly moving on, the Australians spent the next few days laboriously searching and mapping the complexes they found using military engineers. Led by MacGregor, the Australian sappers from 3 Field Troop systematically tackled the tunnels, using telephone line and compasses to plot the subterranean passages. Small-scale contacts between the communists and the Australians continued and MacGregor was later awarded the Military Cross for his leadership.
Originally constructed in 1945 by the Viet Minh during the fighting with the French in the First Indochina War, the tunnels at Cu Chi had taken decades to build but later had lain dormant after the war until 1960, when they were reactivated. Since then they had endured constant bombing, all the while being expanded. By 1965 they formed an underground maze of passages, fighting tunnels, meeting rooms and food caches, stretching from Saigon to the Cambodian border. Given their headquarters function, the tunnels were equipped with an array of communications and medical facilities and were defended by interlocking arcs of fire and connecting fire tunnels. Dug into hard clay which had largely protected them from American bombing, some trenches were reported as being more deep, and some tunnels as long as , while numerous side tunnels led from the main tunnels. In places the system was between one, two and even three levels deep. The network was so extensive that they were rumoured to be able to hold 5,000 men, many of whom lived underground for up to six months at a time. On seeing the tunnels one American soldier described them at the time as "the New York subway".
In the southern area of operations, the US 3rd Infantry Brigade was making slow progress, with the Viet Cong using hit-and-run and ambush tactics to inflict casualties on the Americans, before withdrawing into the sanctuary of their tunnels. On 9 January, the Americans located and destroyed a cache of medical supplies, a small hospital and a large amount of rice, as well as capturing 30 Viet Cong during a series of skirmishes. To the north, while 1 RAR searched the tunnel complex the American battalions of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade continued to sweep their area of operations, with a number of friendly fire incidents complicating their task. Both the US 1/503rd and US 2/503rd Battalions searched eastward toward the Saigon River and, although they continued to find supply caches and abandoned positions, they were involved in only minor skirmishes with the Viet Cong. Concealed in well-camouflaged ambush positions however, the communists inflicted a number of casualties on the Americans. Only one Viet Cong was killed during the fighting, bringing the total for the operation to just 22. Despite the large number of US troops involved they had experienced only limited contact to that point, and criticism of the operation consequently began to mount in the American media.
Fighting intensifies, 10–11 January 1966
The Australians continued to explore the tunnels, finding a large quantity of documents and equipment, and by 10 January they had recovered 59 weapons, 20,000 rounds of ammunition, 100 fragmentation grenades, one 57 mm recoilless rifle, explosives, clothing and medical supplies. At least 11 Viet Cong had also been killed in the fighting. Contact also continued, and overnight the Australians killed another five Viet Cong outside their perimeter, while numerous actions occurred during the day as the US 173rd Brigade maintained its sweep. On 10 January at 09:00 the American cavalry from Troop E, US 17th Cavalry Regiment and the Australians from the Prince of Wales Light Horse commenced a combined search operation and fought communist snipers and small groups throughout most of the day. At 14:00 a number of Viet Cong dug-in in trenches were encountered, and following a series of air-strikes and artillery barrages, the cavalry and the Australian M113s swept the area during which several Australians were slightly injured by a misdirected US Navy air-strike. Sixteen Viet Cong bodies were subsequently recovered, and another 60 were believed to have been killed but had been removed from the battlefield.
Williamson subsequently ordered the US 1/503rd Battalion—under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Tyler—to change the direction of its advance. During the morning the battalion had conducted platoon-sized patrols south, south-west and west, locating a well-constructed defensive position, including bunkers and trenches connected by tunnels. With no contact as yet made with the Viet Cong, the battalion prepared to move to a new AO in the north by 13:30. During this move the battalion, and armour from Troop D, US 16th Cavalry Regiment, engaged a dug-in Viet Cong Main Force company less than west of the Australians. Following air-strikes and heavy artillery bombardment the communists withdrew, leaving 29 dead during a sharp engagement. The US 2/503rd Battalion had also sent out a number of squad-sized patrols during the day, but no recent signs of Viet Cong activity were found, and only minor sniper fire encountered. However, like the Australians, the American paratroopers also uncovered a large number of tunnels and other fortifications.
Meanwhile, the US 3rd Brigade continued to make slow progress and, despite reaching the banks of the Saigon River by 10 January, only a few brief glimpses of the Viet Cong had been made. A small base camp was discovered and destroyed however, while another battalion captured more than 10 tons of rice and 15 bales of cotton. The following day the Americans found and destroyed more bunkers and a number of houses and sampans, as well as quantities of supplies and food. They also uncovered a tunnel complex and a quantity of maps, charts and documents, although still little resistance was met. During these actions the Americans lost more men to booby traps than enemy fire. Advancing on a front, troops from the 1st Battalion, US 28th Infantry Regiment—commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Haldane—took a number of casualties from snipers, although the source of the fire was not immediately obvious. The Viet Cong attempted to avoid a set piece battle, opting instead to disperse into small groups to fight from their spider-holes and tunnels and only choosing to engage the Americans at close range with small arms, which included old Russian K-44 rifles. Despite suffering a number of casualties the Americans continued to advance, calling in artillery fire. Such tactics proved largely ineffective though and the Commanding Officer of US 2/28th Battalion, Lieutenant Colonel George Eyster, was himself shot and killed by a sniper during the fighting. Regardless, after receiving word of the discovery of the tunnels by US 173rd Airborne Brigade to their north, the brigade began another sweep.
The US 3rd Brigade subsequently also uncovered a significant tunnel complex, after Sergeant Stewart Green from US 1/28th Battalion accidentally sat down on a nail and uncovered a trap door on 11 January. Volunteering to enter the tunnel, Green then located an underground dispensary occupied by more than 30 Viet Cong who subsequently escaped. Later a smoke machine was used to pump smoke into the tunnel system, and this was successful in locating numerous tunnel entrances and bunkers as the smoke rose above the jungle canopy. They were the first American troops to enter the tunnels, and they proceeded to attack them with CS gas, and later explosives. However, such tactics met with limited success with the tear gas flushing out large numbers of women and children, but few Viet Cong. Led by Green, a squad of Americans equipped with flashlights, pistols and a field telephone penetrated over of the tunnel system before becoming involved in a fire-fight with the Viet Cong. Wearing gas-masks the Americans threw gas grenades and fought their way back to the tunnel entrance, but one soldier became lost in the darkness and Green re-entered the tunnel to find him. The Viet Cong subsequently withdrew.
Yet even as the Americans were attempting to clear the tunnels, heavy hand-to-hand fighting broke out above ground and Haldane was later awarded the Silver Star for his actions when he rushed a bunker while under fire armed only with a pistol, in order to give first aid to a number of wounded soldiers. His courage inspired his men to complete the assault, and ultimately helped ensure the successful evacuation of the casualties and the capture of their objective. That evening the battalions of US 3rd Infantry Brigade had completed searching their assigned area of operation, and the following morning they were withdrawn from the operation. The brigade's involvement in Crimp had been limited, losing six killed and 45 wounded, while 22 Viet Cong had been killed. It was subsequently redeployed on Operation Buckskin.
Crimp continues, 12–13 January 1966
As they had done previously, the communists continued to attempt to infiltrate the 1 RAR perimeter during the night, and a minor clash with an Australian standing patrol occurred at dawn. Over the next two days, operations to exploit the tunnels continued, with the US 173rd Brigade and the Australians involved in a number of contacts, as well as suffering from sporadic sniper and mortar fire. Significant quantities of documents, equipment and rice were captured however, and large numbers of civilians detained for questioning. On 12 January, 1 RAR continued its patrolling program and one patrol subsequently located 15 tons of rice and destroyed it after killing six Viet Cong during a 20-minute battle. The task was complicated by the presence of a large number of civilians, and many were found hiding in shelters and tunnels. They had to be coaxed out of hiding by the Australians and transported to a refugee camp which had been established nearby. Another patrol from 11 Platoon later uncovered a tunnel system just from their position, and found it to be occupied by a large Viet Cong force after a dog and its handler were sent into the tunnel to investigate. Eight Viet Cong were subsequently killed after the tunnel was destroyed by Australian engineers.
The same day, however, the Australian efforts to clear the tunnels had suffered a setback after an engineer, Corporal Robert "Bob" Bowtell, became stuck in a trap door between one underground gallery and another, more than below the surface. Despite the efforts of his comrades, he could not be recovered and died from asphyxiation after being overcome by a combination of tear gas, carbon monoxide, and lack of oxygen when he dislodged his respirator during the struggle to free himself. After days of living in close proximity to the enemy, the constant strain of sniper fire and the pressure of searching the tunnels was also beginning to take its toll, and a number of Australians were killed and wounded in otherwise avoidable friendly fire incidents on the evenings of 10 and 12 January. During the early afternoon of 12 January the Australians encountered a large group of armed Viet Cong during a tunnel clearance and called on them to surrender. However, they failed to emerge and the tunnel was subsequently demolished, probably killing eight Viet Cong who were believed to have been entombed as it collapsed.
Meanwhile, the same day Haldane ordered US 1/28th Battalion to closely explore the tunnels in their area of operations, uncovering a number of chambers and trapdoors defended by grenades and booby traps. A Company subsequently located another tunnel system after an American was killed by a Viet Cong soldier who suddenly appeared out of a large anthill. Later, as the 1/503rd continued to search its area with platoon-size patrols during the afternoon of 13 January, a clash between Company C and a Viet Cong platoon developed into a heavy contact. An air-strike was successfully called in by the Americans however, and a search of the area recovered 10 dead Viet Cong, while blood trails and human remains indicated that perhaps another 20 were also killed.
Action concludes, 14 January 1966
Ultimately, more than of tunnels had been uncovered and searched by the Australians. A large quantity of documents had been recovered, including more than 100,000 pages detailing operational structure as well as the names of agents operating in Saigon. Ninety weapons were also captured, as well as thousands of rounds of ammunition and enough equipment, food and other supplies to fill eight 2½-tonne trucks. Although the US battalions had played a large part in the operation and had also uncovered numerous tunnel systems and been involved in heavy contact, by the fortunes of war 1 RAR had been allocated the area of operations that was ultimately found to contain the Viet Cong headquarters. The Australians had even partially searched the tunnel leading to the headquarters that was their objective, but did not learn how close they had come to succeeding until decades after the war had ended. During the course of these activities the searchers had suffered a number of additional fatalities from Viet Cong snipers.
Fully exploring and destroying the tunnels was well beyond the allied resources available, and the decision was eventually made to call a halt to operations. Six days after it began, Operation Crimp ended, with 1 RAR returning to Bien Hoa on 14 January. By the time the operation was concluded only a fraction of the known tunnel network had been destroyed and it was not until after the war that it was learnt that the system at Cu Chi actually included more than of tunnels. Although further American ground operations as well a number of heavy B-52 bombing raids resulted in further damage to the tunnel complexes, the Ho Bo Woods were never occupied on a permanent basis and the Viet Cong were successful in restoring their transit and supply functions. As such, despite significant disruption, the military and political apparatus in Cu Chi remained largely intact, allowing the communists freedom of action for later operations against Saigon.
Aftermath
Casualties
During the fighting the Australians had faced stiff resistance and had suffered eight killed and 29 wounded, while claiming 27 Viet Cong killed and a further 30 probably killed. The Americans had also been involved in heavy fighting and their casualties included 14 killed and 76 wounded. Total communist casualties included 128 confirmed killed, and another 190 probably killed, as well as 92 captured and another 509 suspects detained. In addition many more Viet Cong were thought likely to have perished in the tunnels as they were collapsed by charges laid by the Australian engineers. The Americans later claimed that the headquarters of the communist 4th Military Region had also been destroyed. Due to the quantity of information recovered from the thousands of captured documents alone, the battle was later described as the first allied strategic intelligence victory of the war. So significant was the find that both Westmoreland and General Joseph McChristian, the head of Intelligence at MACV, visited 1 RAR during Operation Crimp. Allied operations against the communist tunnels had been largely ad hoc, and the Australians began to develop the earliest techniques for exploring and destroying them. Later, at least partially as a result of the success of the Australians in clearing some of the shorter tunnels, American units adopted similar tactics and created a number of tunnel-clearance teams, known popularly as Tunnel Rats.
Assessment
Despite the losses suffered by the communists, the combined American and Australian force had only succeeded in partially clearing the area and the tunnel network it concealed, and consequently the Ho Bo Woods would remain a key communist transit and supply base throughout the war. The bulk of the communist force had successfully withdrawn intact, leaving only rear guard elements in defence, prompting the communists to also declare the operation a victory, claiming almost 2,000 American troops killed or wounded, 100 vehicles destroyed, and 50 aircraft shot down. Yet, such claims were based on estimates of casualties caused by command-detonated mines, punji sticks and other booby traps, and proved to be wildly inaccurate. In fact Operation Crimp had rattled the communists, and they subsequently ordered their units in the south to prevent the Americans from concentrating their forces in the future. Regardless, it also highlighted the inherent weakness of the search-and-clear operations that would later become standard operating procedure for the US Army in Vietnam. The Ho Bo Woods were again targeted by the Americans in January 1967, during a much larger operation known as Operation Cedar Falls. However, despite heavy casualties again being inflicted on the Viet Cong, the tunnels continued to remain a problem for the Americans and they were later used as a communist staging area for the attack on Saigon during the 1968 Tet offensive. Finally in 1970, American B-52 bombers carried out a number of heavy air-strikes on the area, dropping thousands of delayed-fuse bombs that buried deep into the ground before exploding, ending the tunnels' utility. Operation Crimp was 1 RAR's third and last foray into the communist heartland and following the fighting they had more than two weeks rest in Bien Hoa—their longest break from operations during the battalion's tour. Further operations followed in the months afterwards, including the Battle of Suoi Bong Trang on the night of 23–24 February 1966.
Subsequent operations
At the strategic level the ARVN and the South Vietnamese government had both rallied after appearing on the verge of collapse and the communist threat against Saigon had subsided, yet additional troop increases were required if Westmoreland was to adopt a more offensive strategy, with US troop levels planned to rise from 210,000 in January 1966 to 327,000 by December 1966. The Australian government increased its own commitment to the ground war in March 1966, announcing the deployment of a two battalion brigade—the 1st Australian Task Force—with armour, aviation, engineer and artillery support; in total 4,500 men. Additional Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) force elements would also be deployed and with all three services total Australian strength in Vietnam was planned to increase to 6,300 personnel. 1 RAR was subsequently replaced by 1 ATF which was allocated its own area of operations in Phuoc Tuy Province, thereby allowing the Australians to pursue operations more independently using their own counter-insurgency tactics and techniques. The task force arrived between April and June 1966, constructing a base at Nui Dat, while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistics Support Group which was subsequently established at the port of Vung Tau.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Conflicts in 1966
1966 in Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1966
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War
Battles of the Vietnam War involving Australia
Battles involving the United States
January 1966 events in Asia
History of Bình Dương province |
4074444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use%20of%20social%20network%20websites%20in%20investigations | Use of social network websites in investigations | Social network services are increasingly being used in legal and criminal investigations. Information posted on sites such as Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook has been used by police and university officials to prosecute users of said sites. In some situations, content posted on Myspace has been used in court to determine an appropriate sentence based on a defendant's attitude.
The U.S. DOT National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has made federal grants available to states to train law enforcement officers to use social media sites to identify events that may result in impaired driving or consumption by minors. As of 2012, Michigan spent over $4.5 million through this program, and has trained over 100 local police officers to use social media sites to identify and target events. In more recent years, a majority of police departments have some sort of social media-based strategy in place.
Social media can be used as an investigative tool to obtain probable cause for a search warrant. Agencies can surveil social media sites via software programs, such as X1 Social Discovery, MediaSonar, and Geofeedia.
How police use social media
In 2015 the international Association of Chiefs of Police reported that about 94% of police agencies have some form of Facebook related strategy in place. Among other things, this includes using Facebook to encourage a more positive perception of the police and monitor public gatherings. Social media is considered public space, therefore anything posted is considered public, unless you set your privacy settings to private, and don't accidentally accept friend requests from undercover police. This means that if you post something on Facebook or twitter, police have access to it and have the right to use and monitor it. Police may use tactics such as "Ghosting" where they create undercover profiles and friend requesting suspects in order to keep a closer eye on the daily lives of those suspects. This helps them know when large gatherings are going to occur and possibly increase police presence in that area to ensure public safety. these tactics provide police with otherwise unavailable information on key suspects and people of interest while taking up less time, money and resources. In 2020, when asked police mentioned Facebook (And Facebook live), Instagram, Myspace, Periscope, Xbox Live with Friends, and YouTube. They would be on the lookout for planned gatherings or post flashing guns or weaponry as well as sudden escalation of violence.
In addition to monitoring criminals, police can use social media to seek assistance from their communities. one such example is with missing persons or wanted suspects. In 2019, Police in Toronto, Ontario (Canada) posted on twitter seeking help locating four missing children. their post was shared over 300 times and the children were located and returned home. Between the year 2017 and 2019, 373 posts were made by 15 police agencies in Canada. They used a technique called crowdsourcing to gather more information for their investigations and create interactive communities of citizens who are ready to participate and engage when communicated with. They have a tendency to prefer Facebook and Twitter due to the ease of liking and sharing their posts. Police also use social media to inform citizens of possible safety issues and take control of the media coverage of investigations. They share press releases, recorded interviews, mug shots and status updates on ongoing investigations. Their tendency to post before stories go public leads to a better control of the flow of information as well as journalist relying on police pages as quick and reliable resources.
Facebook
Facebook, a social network service, is increasingly being used by school administrations and law enforcement agencies as a source of evidence against student users. Allows users to create profile pages with personal details. In the early years of the site, these pages could be viewed by other registered users from the same college, including resident assistants, campus police, or others who signed up for the service. The user privileges and terms of service of the site have since been changed to allow users to control who has the ability to view their content.
Disciplinary actions against students based on information made available on Facebook has spurred debate over the legality and ethics of school administrators' harvesting such information. Facebook spokespeople have made clear that Facebook is a public forum and all information published on the site should be presumed available to the general public, school administrators included. Legal experts agree that public information sources such as Facebook can be legally used in criminal or other investigations.
In the aftermath of the 2011 Vancouver Stanley Cup riot, community participation in assisting police to identify the rioters has been described as unprecedented. Police admitted to being overwhelmed by the amount of evidence provided by social media.
Cyber-bullying
Facebook and other social networking sites are being used to bring bullying outside of school. Students are being targeted on the internet and even mobile devices. A strategy to catch cyber-bullies is being implemented in Reading, Berkshire:
From February 28, 2011 until May 2011, Thames Valley Police Officers will be using Facebook to catch cyber-bullies. With the help of a teenage volunteer, the police will go through Facebook pages to investigate reported instances of cyber-bullying. If there is anything inappropriate found, a Facebook message will be sent to the offender which will warn them of the consequences of bullying. Along with the message, the student's parents will also receive a letter highlighting the incident and the potential consequences.
In May 2012, Lake Havasu Unified School District #1 used evidence found on Facebook to catch multiple cyber-bullies after a discussion on a post that the one who felt bullied was not involved in. The school district acquired the list of comments through another student, who printed them out and handed them in to the school administration.
In Bangalore, India, school students of certain schools were all asked to delete their Facebook profiles in the wake of cyber bullying. Indian law addresses some of the components of cyber-bullying. However, the perpetrators are children and therefore alternatives to criminalization and other policies should be adopted.
Alcohol policy violations
It has become increasingly common for colleges and universities to use Facebook to investigate underage drinking and violations of dry campus policies. Students who violate these policies may be discovered through photographs of illicit drinking behavior, membership in drinking-related groups, or party information posted on the Facebook website. Some examples of such investigations are listed below:
In October 2005, pictures from Facebook were used to cite violators of university alcohol policy at North Carolina State University. Charges included underage drinking and violations of the dormitory alcohol policy, specifically holding open bottles of alcoholic beverages in the dorm hallway. A dorm resident advisor originally wrote up citations for 14 different students, some of which were dropped. Details were not released by the university, but the incident received news coverage including articles in the official school newspaper and segments on local TV stations.
In November 2005, four students at Northern Kentucky University were fined for posting pictures of a drinking party on Facebook. The pictures, taken in one of NKU's dormitories, proved that the students were in violation of the university's dry campus policy.
In November 2005, Emory University officials cited members of the Facebook group "Dobbs 2nd Alcoholics," referring to the second floor of a campus residence hall, for conduct code violations. A similar drinking group, "Wooddruff=Wasted," was also investigated. The group's club members only discussed "having fun in Wooddruff" and said no photos of students were ever posted on Facebook.
In response to the monitoring, some students have begun to submit "red herring" party listings. In one case at George Washington University, students advertised their party and were raided by campus police. The police found only cake, no alcohol, and later claimed the dorm raid had been triggered by a noise complaint.
Investigation examples
In December 2004, The Student Life (the student newspaper at Pomona College in Claremont, California) reported that an assistant football coach at the college had been living in the team's equipment room and hosting parties there. The paper cited postings by football players on a Facebook group page titled "We Miss Coach Baker" as evidence of the alleged parties.
In October 2005, sophomore Cameron Walker was expelled from Fisher College in Boston for comments about a campus police officer made on Facebook. These comments, including the statement that the officer "loves to antagonize students...and needs to be eliminated," were judged to be in violation of the college's code of conduct.
In October 2005, University of Pennsylvania freshmen student government election results were delayed due to early campaigning violations on Facebook. Though candidates were forbidden from campaigning before a certain date, many Facebook advocacy groups appeared before that date. The University of California, Berkeley, High Point University, and The George Washington University have also experienced similar problems.
In November 2005, Kansas State University authorities announced that they were using Facebook to investigate a possible violation of the school's honor code potentially involving over 100 students. Students used the message board of a Facebook group to share class information without authorization from the professor.
In October 2005, Pennsylvania State University police used Facebook to track down students who rushed the field after the October 8 Ohio State game. Two students were later charged with criminal trespass for their involvement.
In January 2006, Syracuse University's student newspaper, The Daily Orange, featured an article about a student who claimed Syracuse City Police personally warned him in advance about having a party he had listed on Facebook. The university denied the allegations and stated that their own peace officers would have handled the case in any event.
In February 2006, a 16-year-old Colorado boy was arrested for juvenile possession of a firearm after police saw pictures that he had posted on MySpace of himself posing with rifles and handguns. He was convicted in April 2006.
In February 2006, The Daily Orange reported about another Syracuse University incident, in which four students were placed on disciplinary probation after creating a group entitled "Clearly [instructor's first name] doesn't know what she's doing ever." The group featured derogatory and personal attacks aimed at the instructor. After meeting with judicial affairs, the students admitted that their comments on the site were inappropriate and accepted an agreement that they would not contact the instructor again.
In February 2006, police in Oxford, Ohio were directed to the Facebook profile of a Miami University student because it showed the police sketch of a suspect in the rape of another Miami University student as the account owner's personal picture. The police arrested the student and charged him with inducing panic.
Students that had created a Facebook group to complain about a professor's teaching shortcomings at the University of Louisville were responsible in part for dismissal of that instructor in February 2006. The students were not punished.
Pictures posted of unrelated parties thrown by students at the University of Connecticut School of Law and Baylor University drew attention to the presence of uninstitutionalized racism on both campuses. In March 2006, Baylor's student newspaper reported a call to action made by outraged students after pictures were posted on Facebook depicting partygoers wearing bandanas and carrying 40-ounce beer bottles wrapped in brown paper, with one young woman sporting layers of bronzer to darken her skin. An advisor for a campus fraternity denied the party was sponsored by the organization and said the party theme was not to dress "ghetto", as critics alleged, but as E-Dawg, a Seattle rapper. Facebook removed the photos from the site as black student groups called for a university-sponsored open forum to discuss the racially insensitive undercurrent on campus. Similar action was taken with the UConn pictures, which depicted a "Bullets and Bubbly" themed party held days after Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 2007. Half the partygoers brought champagne and dressed in formalwear for the "bubbly" portion of the theme, while the other half brought 40 ounces and dressed in do-rags, baggy hip-hop inspired clothing, gold teeth, and in some cases carried fake machine guns. The university responded by holding an open forum discussing the insensitive nature of the party and resulting photos. Controversy over similar parties has also occurred at Clemson University (South Carolina), Tarleton State University (Texas), Texas A&M University, and the University of Chicago.
In April 2006, University of Dayton student Christopher Herbert was fined approximately $10,000 for damages caused by an annual event known as "LowesFest." Herbert had posted a public invitation to the event on Facebook, though he did not attend the event himself. The University informed him 24 hours before "LowesFest" that he would have to pay for any and all extra costs (police, cleaning, etc.) stemming from that evening. However, Christopher Herbert chose to not pay the fine and he transferred out of the University of Dayton.
In April 2006, officials at the State University of New York at Cobleskill took a student from Sri Lanka, Tharindu Meepegama into custody after Meepegama posted pictures of him with a shotgun and wrote comments that the school officials found "troubling". Meepegama, who was later allowed to return to the school, said it was all a misunderstanding.
In August 2006, police officers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign arrested two students who were spotted urinating in public. One of the students ran, and the other was apprehended by police. When queried about the identity of the student who ran, the student in custody lied saying he did not know him. The arresting officer, upon talking with witnesses, obtained the name of the student who ran. He later found that the two were Facebook friends, and therefore that the questioned student had lied. This student was charged with obstruction of justice.
In October 2006, a male Southern Illinois University student faced possible expulsion for creating a Facebook page detailing his sexual relationship with a young female he'd been involved with in the past. Other male students added to the page with their own experiences with the woman, until she brought it to the attention of Facebook administrators, who permanently removed the page. The 19-year-old female cited slander while the young man claimed it was an inside joke and assumed she would understand the humor. In an interview he stated, "I never thought something on Facebook would get me into trouble out in the real world." During the debacle, his fellow students created yet another Facebook page with updates on the controversy.
In December 2006, campus police at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington were investigating the theft of two PlayStation consoles, which had been stolen by the two perpetrators of a beating and robbery on campus. They planned to raid the rented house of Peyton Strickland, an 18-year-old student at nearby Cape Fear Community College. They discovered that the other alleged robber, Ryan Mills, had posted photographs of himself on Facebook in which he posed with guns. Expecting "heavily armed resistance" at Strickland's house, the officers called in a SWAT team for backup to raid Strickland's house. When they arrived at the residence, which three students rented, they were not immediately let in. As one officer began to break down the door with a battering ram, another officer mistook the sound of the battering ram for gunshots and shot through the glass door multiple times, killing the unarmed Strickland and his dog. The officer, Christopher Long, was not charged with second-degree murder by two different grand juries. He was however initially indicted by one grand jury, which was later attributed to a clerical error and overturned. Soon after the incident, Christopher Long went on to receive $1,000 paid out by the sheriff he worked under as well as receiving a "Local Hero" award for $4000.
In January 2007, several Ottawa employees of Farm Boy were terminated due to their postings on a Facebook group titled "I Got Farm Boy'd."
In January 2007, a long-standing debate over the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's dancing Chief Illiniwek mascot intensified after racist remarks about Native Americans were discovered on a pro-mascot Facebook group. The group, entitled "If They Get Rid of the Chief, I'm Becoming a Racist," contained wall posts by students that said things like, "What they don't realize is that there never was a racist problem before ... but now I hate redskins and hope all those drunk casino owning bums die." Another student directed a post towards a particularly vocal Native American grad student, saying, "I say we throw a tomahawk into her face." The page was removed, but not before inciting a university investigation into the threats and spawning a counter group entitled "The Chief Dance is Racist, Plain and Simple".
In February 2007, 11 students at Robert F. Hall Catholic Secondary School in Caledon, Ontario were suspended after posting comments about their principal on Facebook.
In February 2007, following the fatal hit-and-run death of freshman Carlee Wines, University of Connecticut campus police said they used Facebook to link the suspected driver, Anthony P. Alvino of Lindenhurst, N.Y., to the university. By following leads via Facebook, police learned of the connection between Alvino and his girlfriend, Michele A. Hall, a UConn student. The Long Island, N.Y. newspaper Newsday reported: "Police traced Alvino's connection to UConn through his entry in Facebook, which listed Hall as his girlfriend." Alvino was charged for the hit-and-run, while Hall was charged with helping cover it up and hindering prosecution.
In April 2007, just days after the Virginia Tech shooting, a student at the SUNY College at Cobleskill was remanded into psychiatric care and suspended from college after posting a photo of himself on his profile with a vaguely threatening message underneath.
In October 2008, in Edmonton, Alberta, it was revealed that filmmaker Mark Twitchell, who was facing first degree murder charges, had posted as his Facebook status in August that "he had a lot in common with Dexter Morgan". This proved to be a key piece of evidence in the missing person case of John Altinger, as Twitchell was a fan of the television series "Dexter" and it is believed that he murdered Altinger in the style of Dexter's clandestine murders. Shortly after Altinger's disappearance, Twitchell gained access to Altinger's e-mail and Facebook accounts, changing Altinger's Facebook status and e-mailing Altinger's contacts stating that he met a girl online and was planning a move to Costa Rica.
In 2008, in the city of Cincinnati, police disassembled a local street gang and arrested 71 people following a nine-month investigation with social media to identify the gang's members. Working together with the University of Cincinnati's Institute of Crime Science, the police produced databases of evidence from social networks, current police records and phone documentation, then used software to investigate the information and determine connections between suspects. Cincinnati's social-media attempts started small, with a small number of officers examining online profiles on their own time. Then police joined with the university and obtained training from social-media experts. It was soon determined that felons were using social networks to brag about the offenses they were planning or had already committed, posting incriminating videos, and setting up drug deals. Felons that can't resist boasting online are an advantage to prosecutors and police across the country.
In one 2008 case, Ronnie Tienda Jr. was convicted of a gang-related homicide in Texas built mainly on incriminating photos and words that he had posted openly on his MySpace page. Today, a person may have their social media information completely private, but their acquaintances or relatives might not be knowledgeable of the law. Police often circumvent proper procedure by finding relatives who unknowingly grant investigators access through their accounts. Drug dealers commonly post inoffensive public updates that incorporate location information so that consumers-and unknowingly, law enforcement-know the location to find them, claimed police. A more debatable tactic to getting evidence from social networks is going undercover online-creating false accounts to make friends with suspects.
In July 2009, an emergency medical technician in New York City was terminated and arrested for taking a picture of a crime scene and uploading it to Facebook. The technician, 46-year-old Frank Musarella, was charged with "official misconduct".
Nathalie Blanchard, a Quebec woman on long-term sick leave for depression, sued Manulife after the insurer cut her benefits, claiming that her photos posted on Facebook demonstrated that she had recovered. Blanchard said that she was following her doctor's advice to try to have fun, including nights out at her local bar with friends and short getaways to sun destinations, as a way to forget her problems. She also stated that she had notified Manulife that she was taking a trip. Some experts noted that the privacy controls on Facebook and other social networking sites was "laughable".
On October 27, 2010 in Kanata Centrum, Ottawa, a collector's edition hazelle jersey and a cap were stolen from an apparel store by four young males. In 15 minutes, the staff were able to use the store's friends list of 324 people who "like" the store and recognized the face of the perpetrators. Police were contacted, found the suspects, and the jersey valued at $1000.00 was recovered.
On March 17, 2012, San Marinan singer Valentina Monetta was selected to sing Facebook Uh, Oh, Oh for Eurovision Song Contest 2012. People who were on the social network pointed out that the lyrics contained a commercial message for Facebook. The lyrics of the song that contained references to Facebook were banned from the contest on March 18. The banned lyrics must be replaced no later than March 22. If the banned lyrics are not replaced, Valentina's other song will be selected on that day.
In July 2017, the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation is monitoring any activity of Pastor Hokage groups, after complaints from victims that their photos have been shared without permission.
On October 16, 2023, singer and internet personality Dalal Abu Amneh was arrested by the Israeli Police over a social media post for allegedly promoting hate speech and inciting violence on social media following a massacre perpetrated by Hamas on October 7, 2023.
See also
List of social networking services
References
Student culture
Social networking websites
Criminal investigation |
4074658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Rhode%20Island | History of Rhode Island | The history of Rhode Island is an overview of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations and the state of Rhode Island from pre-colonial times to the present.
Pre-colonization
Native Americans occupied most of the area comprising Rhode Island, including the Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Niantic tribes. Many were killed by diseases, possibly contracted through contact with European explorers, and through warfare with other tribes. The Narragansett language eventually died out, although it was partially preserved in Roger Williams's A Key into the Languages of America (1643).
Rhode Island Colony period: 1636–1776
In 1636, Roger Williams settled on land granted to him by the Narragansett tribe at the tip of Narragansett Bay after being banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his religious views. He called the site "Providence Plantations" and declared it a place of religious freedom.
In 1638, Anne Hutchinson, William Coddington, John Clarke, Philip Sherman, and other religious dissidents settled on Rhode Island after conferring with Williams, forming the settlement of Portsmouth which was governed by the Portsmouth Compact. The southern part of the island became the separate settlement of Newport after disagreements among the founders.
Dissident Samuel Gorton purchased Indian lands at Shawomet in 1642, precipitating a dispute with the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1644, Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport united for their common independence as the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, governed by an elected council and president. The King of England granted Gorton a separate charter for his settlement in 1648, and Gorton named the settlement Warwick in honor of the Earl of Warwick who had helped him obtain it. These four settlements were finally united into one colony by the Royal Charter of 1663. Critics at the time sometimes referred to it as "Rogue's Island", and Cotton Mather called it "the sewer of New England" because of the Colony's willingness to accept people who had been banished from Massachusetts Bay.
In 1686, King James II ordered Rhode Island to submit to the Dominion of New England and its appointed governor Edmund Andros. This suspended the Colony's charter, but Rhode Island managed to retain possession of it throughout the brief duration of the Dominion—until Andros was deposed and the Dominion was dissolved. William of Orange became King after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and Rhode Island's independent government resumed under the 1663 charter—and that charter was used as the state constitution until 1842.
In 1693, William III and Mary II issued a patent extending Rhode Island's territory to three miles "east and northeast" of Narragansett Bay, conflicting with the claims of Plymouth Colony. This resulted in several later transfers of territory between Rhode Island and Massachusetts.
Richard Ward was made a freeman of Newport in 1710, then entered public service as Attorney General, later became Deputy and Clerk of the Assembly, and then served as the General Recorder for the colony from 1714 to 1730.[1] In 1723, he was paid six pounds for attending the trial of a group of pirates who were taken prisoner by Captain Solgar, commander of the British ship Greyhound. Of the 36 pirates taken into captivity, 26 were sentenced to hang, and the execution took place at Newport on July 19, 1723, at a place called Gravelly Point.[1]
In 1726, Ward was one of the four Rhode Island commissioners appointed to meet a group of Connecticut commissioners to settle the boundary line between the two colonies.[1] Ward was the Secretary of State from 1730 to 1733, and in 1740 became the Deputy Governor of the colony. In this capacity he and Samuel Perry were appointed trustees to the Indian sachem Ninigret. In 1741 he was selected as Governor for a single term.[1]
Colonial relations with Natives
Early relations were mostly peaceful between New Englanders and the Indian tribes. The largest tribes that lived near Rhode Island were the Wampanoags, Pequots, Narragansetts, and Nipmucks. Squanto was a member of the Wampanoag tribe who stayed with the Pilgrims in Plymouth Colony and taught them many valuable skills needed to survive in the area.
Roger Williams won the respect of his Colonial neighbors for his skill in keeping the powerful Narragansetts on friendly terms with the Colonists. In 1637, the Narragansetts formed an alliance with Rhode Island during the Pequot War. However, this peace did not last long, as the most traumatic event in 17th century Rhode Island was King Philip's War (1675–76). Metacomet became the chief of the Wampanoags; he was known as King Philip by the settlers of Portsmouth who had purchased their land from his father Massasoit. He led attacks around Narragansett Bay, despite Rhode Island's continued neutrality, and later these spread throughout New England. A force of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth militia under General Josiah Winslow invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett Indian village in the Great Swamp in southern Rhode Island on December 19, 1675. The Narragansetts also invaded and burned down several of the Rhode Island settlements, including Providence, although they allowed the population to leave first. In one of the final actions of the war, troops from Connecticut led by Captain Benjamin Church hunted down and killed King Philip at Mount Hope (Rhode Island).
Revolutionary era, 1775–1790
Rhode Island was the first colony in America to declare independence on May 4, 1776, a full two months before the United States Declaration of Independence. Rhode Islanders had attacked the British warship HMS Gaspee in 1772 as one of the first acts of war leading to the American Revolution. British naval forces under Captain James Wallace controlled Narragansett Bay for much of the Revolutionary War, periodically raiding the islands and the mainland. The British raided Prudence Island for livestock and engaged in a skirmish with American forces, losing approximately a dozen soldiers. Newport remained a hotbed for Loyalist sympathizers who assisted the British forces, so the state appointed General William West of Scituate to root them out in the winter of 1775–76. British forces occupied Newport from 1777 to 1778, pushing the Colonial forces to Bristol.
Battle of Rhode Island
The Battle of Rhode Island was fought during the summer of 1778 and was an unsuccessful attempt to expel the British from Narragansett Bay, although few Colonial casualties occurred. The Marquis de Lafayette called the action the "best fought" of the war. The British were forced to concentrate their forces in New York and consequently left Newport. The French under Rochambeau landed in Newport in 1780, and it became the base of the French forces in the United States for the remainder of the war. The French soldiers behaved themselves so well that, in gratitude, the Rhode Island General Assembly repealed an old law banning Catholics from living in Rhode Island. The first Catholic mass in Rhode Island was said in Newport during this time.
Rural resistance to the Constitution was strong in Rhode Island, and the anti-federalist Country Party controlled the General Assembly from 1786 to 1790. In 1788, anti-federalist politician and Revolutionary War General William West led an armed force of 1,000 troops to Providence to oppose a July 4 celebration of nine states having ratified the Constitution. Civil war was narrowly averted by a compromise limiting the Fourth of July celebration. The State of Rhode Island was the last of the 13 states to ratify the United States Constitution (May 29, 1790), only doing so after being threatened with having its exports taxed as a foreign nation.
Slavery in Rhode Island
In 1652, the first statute in the Thirteen Colonies banning slavery was passed, but the law was not enforced by the end of the 17th century. In 1703, a law passed by the Rhode Island General Assembly effectively overturned this municipal statute. By 1774, the slave population of Rhode Island was 6.3 percent, nearly twice as high as any other New England colony. In the late 18th century, several Rhode Island merchant families began actively engaging in the triangle trade. James and John DeWolf of Bristol were the largest slave traders in Rhode Island. In the years after the Revolution, Rhode Island merchants controlled between 60 and 90 percent of the American trade of enslaved African people. In the 18th century, Rhode Island's economy depended largely upon the triangle trade; Rhode Islanders distilled rum from molasses, sent the rum to Africa to trade for slaves, and then traded the slaves in the West Indies for more molasses.
Stephen Hopkins, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and slave owner, introduced a bill while serving in the Rhode Island Assembly in 1774 that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony, and this became one of the first anti-slavery laws in the United States. In February 1784, the Rhode Island Legislature passed a compromise measure for gradual emancipation of slaves within the state. All children of slaves born after March 1 were to become apprentices, the girls to become free at 18, the boys at 21. By 1840, the census reported only five former Africans enslaved in Rhode Island. However, the international slave trade continued despite the antislavery laws of 1774, 1784, and 1787. In 1789, an Abolition Society was organized to secure enforcement of existing laws against the trade. Leading merchants continued to engage in the trade even after it became illegal, especially John Brown, for whom Brown University is named, and George DeWolf, but slaving was no more than a minor aspect of Rhode Island's overall maritime trade after 1770. By the mid-19th century, many Rhode Islanders were active in the abolitionist movement, particularly Quakers in Newport and Providence such as Moses Brown. The Free African Union Society was America's first African benevolent society, founded in Newport in 1780. Rhode Island's Constitution finally emancipated all slaves in 1843 in Section 4, "Slavery shall not be permitted in this state."
Industrial Revolution
In 1790, English immigrant Samuel Slater founded the first textile mill in the United States in Pawtucket, Rhode Island (Slater Mill) and became known as the father of the American Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century, Rhode Island became one of the most industrialized states in America with large numbers of textile factories. The state also had significant machine tool, silverware, and costume jewelry industries.
The Industrial Revolution moved large numbers of workers into cities and attracted large numbers of immigrants from Ireland, and a landless class developed which was ineligible to vote by Rhode Island law. By 1829, 60-percent of the state's men were ineligible to vote. All efforts at reform failed in the face of rural control of the political system. In 1842, Thomas Dorr drafted a liberal constitution which he tried to ratify by popular referendum. However, conservative Governor Samuel Ward King opposed the constitution, leading to the Dorr Rebellion. The rebellion gained little support and failed, and Dorr went to prison. The conservative elements relented, however, and allowed most American-born men to vote, but the conservative rural towns remained in control of the legislature. The new Constitution of Rhode Island took effect in May 1843.
Civil War
During the American Civil War, Rhode Island furnished 25,236 soldiers to the Union armies, of which 1,685 died. These comprised 12 infantry regiments, three cavalry regiments, and an assortment of artillery and miscellaneous outfits. Rhode Island used its industrial capacity to supply the Union Army with the materials needed to win the war, along with the other northern states. Rhode Island's continued growth and modernization led to the creation of an urban mass transit system and improved health and sanitation programs. In 1866, Rhode Island abolished racial segregation throughout the state. Governor William Sprague IV fought at the First Battle of Bull Run while a sitting governor, and Rhode Island general Ambrose Burnside emerged as one of the major heroes of the war.
The Gilded Age
The fifty or so years following the Civil War were a time of prosperity and affluence that author William G. McLoughlin called "Rhode Island's halcyon era". Rhode Island was a center of the Gilded Age and provided a home (or summer home) to many of the country's most prominent robber barons. This was a time of incredible growth in textile mills and manufacturing, and saw a huge influx of immigrants to fill those jobs. The state saw increased population growth and urbanization, even as the state denied the growing urban masses access to political power. In politics, the state was dominated by Republicans allied with their mouthpiece newspaper, The Providence Journal. The Journal's editor Henry B. Anthony and his later protege Nelson Aldrich, along with war hero Ambrose Burnside, all Republicans, dominated politics during this time. Aldrich, as US Senator, became known as the "General Manager of the United States", for his ability to set high tariffs to protect Rhode Island and American goods from foreign competition.
In Newport, New York's wealthiest industrialists created a summer haven to socialize and build ostentatious grand mansions. In Providence, Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Woonsocket, thousands of French-Canadian, Italian, Irish, and Portuguese immigrants arrived to fill jobs in the textile and manufacturing mills. In response, the Know Nothing party, allied with the Republicans and the Providence Journal, sought to exclude these newcomers from the political process. The constitution of 1843 denied the vote to the landless poor, and ensured that urban centers were disproportionately underrepresented in the state legislature.
Around the start of the 20th century, Rhode Island had a booming economy, which fed the demand for immigration. During World War I, Rhode Island furnished 28,817 troops, of whom 612 died. After the war, the state was hit hard by the Spanish Influenza.
Racial hostility
In the 1920s and 30s, rural Rhode Island saw a surge in Ku Klux Klan membership, largely among the native-born white population, in reaction to the large waves of immigrants moving to the state. The Klan is believed to be responsible for burning the Watchman Industrial School in Scituate, Rhode Island, which was a school for African American children.
Since 1929
In 1935, Governor Theodore Francis Green and Democratic majorities in the state House and Senate replaced a Republican dominance that had existed since the middle of the 19th century in what is termed the "Bloodless Revolution." The Rhode Island Democratic Party has dominated state politics ever since. Since then, the Speaker of the House has always been a Democrat and one of the most powerful figures in government.
The Democratic Party presents itself as a coalition of labor unions, working class immigrants, intellectuals, college students, and the rising ethnic middle class. The Republican Party has been dominant in rural and suburban parts of the state, and has nominated occasional reform candidates who criticize the state's high taxes and excesses of Democratic domination. Cranston Mayors Edward D. DiPrete and Stephen Laffey, Governor Donald Carcieri of East Greenwich, and former Mayor Vincent A. "Buddy" Cianci of Providence ran as Republican reform candidates.
The state income tax was first enacted in 1971 as a temporary measure. Prior to 1971, there was no income tax in the state, but the temporary income tax soon became permanent. The tax burden in Rhode Island remains among the five highest in the United States, including sales, gasoline, property, cigarette, corporate, and capital gains taxes.
A new Constitution of Rhode Island was ratified in 1986 and came into effect on 20 January 1987.
Rhode Islanders have overwhelmingly supported and re-elected Democrats to positions of authority. , Rhode Island has heavily Democratic legislatures; both U.S. Senators and Congressmen, and all statewide offices are held by Democrats. The state has been carried by Democratic presidential candidates in every election since 1988.
Population
See also
Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island
History of New England
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Women's suffrage in Rhode Island
Thirteen Colonies
List of newspapers in Rhode Island in the 18th century
Timeline of Newport, Rhode Island
Timeline of Providence, Rhode Island
Regarding border disputes
Washington County, Rhode Island
Bristol County, Rhode Island
History of Massachusetts
History of Connecticut
References
Bibliography
Aubin, Albert K. The French in Rhode Island (Rhode Island Heritage Commission, 1988).
Coleman, Peter J. The Transformation of Rhode Island, 1790–1860 (1963). online edition
Conley, Patrick T. The Irish in Rhode Island (Rhode Island Heritage Commission, 1988).
Coughtry, Jay A. The Notorious Triangle: Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 1700–1807 (1981).
Crane, Elaine Forman. A Dependent People: Newport, Rhode Island in the Revolutionary Era (Fordham University Press, (1992) online edition
Dennison, George M. The Dorr War: Republicanism on Trial, 1831–1861 (1976) online edition
Field, Edward. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (3 vols. 1902).
Hall, Donald, foreword, Feintuch, Burt and Watters, David H., editors, Encyclopedia of New England (2005), comprehensive coverage by scholars
James, Sidney V. Colonial Rhode Island: A History (1975).
Levine, Erwin L. Theodore Francis Green, The Rhode Island Years (Brown University Press, 1963)
Lockard, Duane. New England State Politics (1959) pp 172–227; covers 1932–1958
Lovejoy, David. Rhode Island Politics and the American Revolution, 1760–1776 (1958). online edition
McLoughlin, William G. Rhode Island: A History (States and the Nation) (1976) excerpt and text search
Mayer, Kurt B. Economic Development and Population Growth in Rhode Island (1953).
Moakley, Maureen, and Elmer Cornwell. Rhode Island Politics and Government (2001) online edition
Peirce, Neal R. The New England States: People, Politics, and Power in the Six New England States (1976) pp 141–81; updated in Neal R. Peirce and Jerry Hagstrom, The Book of America: Inside the Fifty States Today (1983) pp 187–92
Polishook, Irwin. Rhode Island and the Union (1969).
Preston, Howard W. Rhode Island and the Sea (1932).
Santoro, Carmela E. The Italians in Rhode Island: The Age of Exploration to the Present, 1524–1989 (Rhode Island Heritage Commission, 1990),
Weeden, William B. Early Rhode Island: A Social History of the People (1910).
Withey, Lynne E. Urban Growth in Colonial Rhode Island: Newport and Providence in the Eighteenth Century (1984).
WPA (Works Progress Administration). Rhode Island: A Guide to the Smallest State (1937), famous guide to state & every town & city
External links
O'Brien, Francis J. (2004) Bibliography for Studies of American Indians in and Around Rhode Island, 16th – 21st Centuries
The Providence Journal
Rhode Island History
Rhode Island Naval History
History of Rhode Island (1853; full text online)
State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations at the end of the century by Edward Field (ed.). History of the state, published in 1902. (Full text available online.)
1663 charter
Indian Place Names
African-American Collection from Rhode Island State Archives
"The Unrightious Traffick: Rhode Island's Slave History", a seven-part 2006 Providence Journal series
Rhode Island |
4074713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Portuguese%20Communist%20Party | History of the Portuguese Communist Party | The history of the Portuguese Communist Party (, , or PCP), spans a period of years, since its foundation in 1921 as the Portuguese section of the Communist International (Comintern) to the present. The Party is still an active force within Portuguese society.
After its foundation, the party experienced little time as a legal party before it was forced underground after a military coup in 1926. After some years of internal re-organization, that adapted the PCP to its new clandestine condition and enlarged its base of support, the party became a force in the opposition to the dictatorial regime led by António de Oliveira Salazar, despite being brutally suppressed several times during the 48 years of resistance and having spent several years with little connection with the Comintern and the World Communist Movement.
After the end of the dictatorship, with the Carnation Revolution in 1974, the party became a major political force within the new democratic regime. Despite being less influential since the fall of the Socialist bloc in eastern Europe, it still enjoys popularity in vast sectors of Portuguese society, particularly in the rural areas of the Alentejo and Ribatejo, and also in the heavily industrialized areas around Lisbon and Setúbal, where it holds the leadership of some municipalities.
Origins and foundation
At the end of World War I, in 1918, Portugal fell into a serious economic crisis, in part due to the Portuguese military intervention in the war. The military involvement led to an abrupt rise in inflation and unemployment. The Portuguese working classes responded to the deterioration in their living standards with a vast wave of strikes. Supported by an emerging labour movement, the workers achieved some of their objectives, such as the historic victory of an eight-hour working day.
In September 1919, the working class movement founded the first Portuguese Labour Union Confederation, the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) that saw a steady increase to 100,000 members in few months. But the feeling of political powerlessness, due to the lack of a coherent political strategy among the Portuguese working class, plus the growing popularity of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917, led to the foundation of the Portuguese Maximalist Federation (FMP) in 1919. The goal of FMP was to promote socialist and revolutionary ideas and to organize and develop the worker movement. The FMP started publishing the weekly Bandeira Vermelha (Red Flag) which became a popular newspaper among the Portuguese working classes.
After some time, members of the FMP started to feel the need for a "revolutionary vanguard" among Portuguese workers. After several meetings at various Labor Union offices, and with the aid of the Comintern, this desire culminated in the foundation of the Portuguese Communist Party as the Portuguese Section of the Communist International (Comintern), on 6 March 1921. Soon after, the party's first youth organization, the Communist Youths (Portuguese: Juventudes Comunistas) was created.
Unlike virtually all other European Communist Parties, the PCP was not formed after a split of a Social Democratic or Socialist Party, but from the ranks of Anarcho-Syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism. Both of these groups, at the time, were the most active factions of the Portuguese labor movement. The Party opened its first headquarters in the Arco do Marquês do Alegrete Street in Lisbon. In the same year, 1921, it also opened the Communist Centers of Porto, Évora, and Beja. Seven months after its creation, the first issue of O Comunista (The Communist), the first newspaper of the party, was published.
The first congress of the party took place in Lisbon in November 1923, with Carlos Rates leading the party. The theses of the congress had previously been published in O Comunista and discussed by all the local organizations. The congress was attended by about a hundred members of the party and asserted its solidarity with Socialism in the Soviet Union and the need for a strong struggle for similar policies in Portugal.
Outlawing and the clandestine struggle
From the 1926 military coup to the Reorganization of 40
After the military coup of May 28, 1926, the party was outlawed, and had to operate in secrecy. By coincidence, the coup was carried out on the eve of the second congress, forcing the suspension of the tasks. In 1927 the party's Main Office was closed. The party was first re-organized in 1929 under Bento Gonçalves. Adapting the party to its new illegal status, the re-organization created a net of clandestine cells to avoid a wave of detentions.
The re-organization of 1929 made the party more effective and influential, especially among the labour movement. However, with the rise of Salazar's dictatorial Estado Novo regime, in 1933, suppression of the party grew. The strikes and the creation of new labour unions were made illegal in September 1933 with the existing unions being forced to adopt the new corporativist rules. This would greatly limit the party's pull among the working classes. This, along with ideological struggles between Marxist and anarcho-syndicalist factions and the conflicts with the Comintern, would lead to a new decline in the party's action in the late 1930s. Meanwhile, in 1931, the first number of Avante! was published. Despite its illegal status, the newspaper would become the most important publication of the party, being distributed among clandestine members. However, due to the constant assaults of the clandestine printing offices, the newspaper would not become widely available until the 1940s.
Despite the growing repression against the communists, that included the obligation of all civil servant to sign an anticommunist statement, the party still managed to influence riots and demonstrations. In 1934, following the closure of the free labour unions, several riots and strikes started, the most notable of them in Marinha Grande. There, on January 18, the workers, led by José Gregório, António Guerra and other Party members, controlled the entire town and only a massive intervention by the military would end the riot. In 1936, the party's influence inside the navy led to a mutiny in several ships, 10 of them were killed and another 60 were sent to Tarrafal.
Also in 1936, the Spanish Civil War began. Despite some appeals from the Communist Party of Spain and the Comintern for the members of the party to enlist, the fragilized structure of the late 1930s never allowed it to send a reasonable force. Nonetheless, an estimated 1,000 Portuguese fought against the Francoist forces, integrated the Republican ranks.
In the late 1930s, many members were arrested, tortured, and executed. Many were sent to the Tarrafal concentration camp in the Cape Verde Islands. This included Bento Gonçalves, who died there. The vast wave of arrests in the previous years led to the announcement of the definitive end of the PCP by the government, which, along with a growing confidence in the German victory in World War II, led to the liberation of several communist prisoners from Tarrafal and other prisons in November 1940, among them, Álvaro Cunhal, Militão Ribeiro and Júlio Fogaça. The release of important cadres, combined with the internal dissatisfaction about the decline of the party influenced a major re-organization in 1940–41, named the Reorganization of 40.
Meanwhile, in 1938, the Portuguese Communist Party had been expelled from the Communist International. The reason for the expulsion was a sense of distrust inside the Comintern, caused by a sudden breakdown in the party's activity, accusations of alleged embezzlement of money carried out by some important members of the party and, mainly, the weak internal structure of the Party, dominated by internal wars. The action against the PCP, signed by Georgi Dimitrov, was in part taken due to some persecution against Comintern member parties or persons (like the Communist Party of Poland or Béla Kun) led by Joseph Stalin. These series of events would, in part, lead to the end of the Comintern in 1943. The PCP would only re-establish its relations with the Communist movement and the Soviet Union in 1947, after some sporadic contacts made, at first, through the Communist parties of Spain and France and later through Mikhail Suslov.
The 3rd congress (the first one after the re-organization) was held in 1943, and stated that the party should unite with all those who also wanted the end of the dictatorship. Another important conclusion was the need to increase the party's influence inside the Portuguese army. For the first time ever, the party was able to build a strong clandestine organization, with a net of clandestine cadres, which would make the party the foundation of the Portuguese resistance against the regime. These improvements in the party's structure led to the creation of the first national platform of democratic organizations, the Movement of National Antifascist Unity (MUNAF), in December 1943. In 1944, the Portuguese support of the German war effort created severe shortages of food and goods, greatly decreasing Portugal's living standards. The situation led to waves of strikes, greatly influenced by the party, in the regions of Lisbon, Ribatejo and Alentejo. By this time, with the re-organized structure successfully avoiding the persecutions, the Avante! was being published at least once per month, stating the party's support to the popular turmoil.
Post-war and the Movement of Democratic Unity
In 1945, with a whole new international community created by the defeat of the major fascist regimes in World War II, Salazar was forced to make some superficial democratic changes in order to raise Portugal's image in the eyes of its western allies. In October of that year, the democratic resistance was authorized to form a platform, which was named Movement of Democratic Unity (Portuguese: Movimento de Unidade Democrática, or MUD). Initially, the MUD was controlled by the moderate opposition, but soon became strongly influenced by the PCP that controlled its youth wing. Among the leadership of the youth wing were several communists, including Octávio Pato, Salgado Zenha, Mário Soares, Júlio Pomar and Mário Sacramento. This influence led to the MUD being made illegal by the government in 1948, after several waves of suppression.
The fourth congress, held in July 1946, pointed to massive popular struggle as the only way to overthrow the regime, and stated the policies that would help the party lead that popular movement. This, along with the improvement of the party's clandestine action, was the main focus of the congress. A brief report of the conclusions of this congress was published by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). For the first time since the party had been expelled from the Comintern, the CPSU published info about the PCP, a slight change in the Soviet stance on the party. At this time, Álvaro Cunhal travelled to Yugoslavia with the aid of Bento de Jesus Caraça in order to improve the relations with the Socialist Bloc. Later, in 1948, he travelled to Soviet Union in order to speak with Mikhail Suslov, after the ties between the PCP and the International Communist Movement were re-established. Soon after returning from Soviet Union, Cunhal was arrested by the political police.
In 1951, after the death of the president António Carmona, the government, continuing the policy of staging democratic changes, called for an election. The Party, along with other sectors of the opposition, supported the mathematician Ruy Luís Gomes, who would be declared ineligible five days before the election. During the campaign, some supporters of his candidacy had been imprisoned and Gomes himself had been beaten in the Rio Tinto. Following these events, the other oppositionist candidate, Quintão Meireles, abandoned the elections and the official candidate, Craveiro Lopes, was elected unchallenged.
Portuguese Colonial War and last years of the regime
In 1954, a harvest-worker named Catarina Eufémia was murdered by a lieutenant of the Guarda Nacional Republicana after attempting to ask her supervisor for a pay raise. Catarina became a martyr of the party's struggle for better living conditions for the peasants in Alentejo. After the Carnation Revolution, the Party erected a monument to Catarina in her hometown, Baleizão.
The fifth congress, held in September 1957, was the first and the only to be held outside Portugal. In Kyiv, Soviet Union, the Party approved its first program and statutes, revealing an increase of the Party's organic stability. The congress took, for the first time, an official position on colonialism, stating that all people had the right to self-determination, and made clear its support of the liberation movements in the Portuguese colonies, such as MPLA in Angola, FRELIMO in Mozambique and PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau. This was the first congress in the party's history to receive salutations from foreign communist parties.
In 1958, the government announced that a presidential election would be held; however, as in the previous elections, the opposition groups had little trust in the fairness of the electoral act. The candidate supported by the party, Arlindo Vicente, left the race and supported Humberto Delgado, who was gathering support from several democratic groups. Despite a massive campaign with a major rally in Porto, attended by 200,000 people, the government's candidate, Américo Tomás, won the election through massive election fraud. Delgado would later be assassinated by the PIDE.
In January 1960, a remarkable event in the party's history occurred: A group of ten PCP members managed to escape from the high-security prison in Peniche. The escape returned to freedom many top figures of the party, among them, Álvaro Cunhal, who would be elected in the following year the first Secretary-general in nineteen years. Among the escapees was also Jaime Serra, who would help to organize a secret commando group, the Armed Revolutionary Action (Portuguese: Acção Revolucionária Armada or ARA.) The ARA was the armed branch of the PCP that would be responsible in the early 1970s for some military action against the dictatorial regime.
In 1961, the Colonial War in Africa began, first in Angola, and in the next year in Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau. The war lasted 13 years and devastated Portuguese society, forcing many thousands of Portuguese citizens, mainly young people, to leave the country seeking a better future in countries like France, Germany or Switzerland, and also to escape conscription. The Party, which had been involved in the formation of the nationalist guerrilla movements along with the Soviet Union, immediately stated its opposition to the war, and political support of the anti-colonial movements. The war initiated a process of decline of the regime as it caused a growing unrest inside Portuguese society.
In 1962, the "Academic Crisis" occurred. The Portuguese regime, fearing the growing popularity of democratic ideas among the students, carried out the boycott and censure of several student associations and organizations, including the important National Secretariat of Portuguese Students. Most members of this organization were intellectual communist militants that were persecuted and forbidden to continue their university studies. The students, with strong aid from the PCP, responded with demonstrations that culminated on 24 March with a huge student demonstration in Lisbon. The demonstration was brutally suppressed by the shock police, leading to hundreds of student injuries. Immediately thereafter, the students began a strike that became an important point in the resistance against the regime. In 1987, the 24th of March was declared the National Day of the Students by the Portuguese parliament, which is celebrated every year, mainly by university students.
The sixth congress in 1965 became one of the most important congresses in the party's history. Álvaro Cunhal, elected General-secretary in 1961, released the report The Path to Victory—The tasks of the Party in the National and Democratic Revolution which became a document of major influence within the democratic movement. Widely distributed among the clandestine members, it contained eight political goals, such as "the end of the monopolies in the economy," "the need for agrarian reform and redistribution of the land," and "the democratization of access to culture and education" — policies that the party considered essential to make Portugal a fully democratic country. By this time, the Sino-Soviet split and the criticisms of Maoism made during the congress caused the Maoist members to leave the party.
In 1970, the Armed Revolutionary Action made its first attack, sabotaging the Cunene, a ship used to transport supplies for the troops in Africa. The ARA would keep attacking political and military targets of the regime until August 1972. Some of its major attacks included an attack to the school of the political police, the PIDE, the bombing of the Niassa ship, the destruction of several war helicopters in the Tancos air base, the bombing of the cultural center of the United States embassy and an attack to the regional NATO command in Oeiras.
In 1972, the Communist Students League, the first organized youth wing in several years, was founded. It would later become the Portuguese Communist Youth.
Following several years of turmoil, due to the prolonged war and by the growing unrest caused by the lack of liberties, the regime fell. On 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution occurred, putting an end to 48 years of resistance and marking the beginning of a new cycle in the party's life.
Carnation Revolution of 1974 and the first years of democracy
Revolutionary period
Immediately after the revolution, basic democratic rights were re-established in Portugal. On 27 April, the political prisoners were freed, including a large number of imprisoned Party cadres. On April 30, Álvaro Cunhal returned to Lisbon, where he was received by thousands of people. May 1 was commemorated for the first time in 48 years, and an estimated half million people gathered in the FNAT Stadium (now May 1 Stadium) in Lisbon to hear the speeches of the party's leader Álvaro Cunhal and the socialist Mário Soares. On May 17, the party's newspaper, Avante!, produced the first legal issue of its history.
The following months were marked by radical changes in the country, always closely followed and supported by the PCP. Several parties were created. The major political and military leaders for the former regime were exiled or dismissed. A process to give independence to the colonies started with the full support of the party and, within one year, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe would become independent countries. By that time, the party was holding several rallies per week. A good part of the party's political proposals were being met. A major struggle of the party was assuring the unity of all labour unions inside the General Confederation of the Portuguese Workers, which was opposed by the Socialists and the Social Democrats. The Party also criticized the growing interference by NATO in the revolutionary process, which was supported by the Socialists and by the right-wing.
Six months after the Revolution, in October 1974, the party's seventh congress took place. More than a thousand delegates and hundreds of Portuguese and foreign guests attended. The congress set forth important statements that discussed the ongoing revolution in the country. The 36 members of the elected Central Committee had spent more than 300 years in jail.
On 12 January 1975, the Portuguese Communist Party became the first legally recognized party, after the opening of the legalizing process by the Supreme Court of Justice. Meanwhile, the revolutionary process continued. On 11 March 1975, the left-wing military forces defeated a coup attempt perpetrated by the right wing military connected to the former regime. This resulted in a turn of the revolutionary process to the political left, with the main sectors of the economy, such as the banks, transportation, steel mills, mines and communications companies, being nationalized. This was done under the lead of Vasco Gonçalves, a member of the military wing who supported the party and who had become prime minister of Portugal after the first provisional government resigned. The Party then asserted its complete support for these changes and for the Agrarian Reform process that implemented collectivization of the agricultural sector and the land in a region called the Zone of Intervention of the Agrarian Reform (ZIRA), which included the land south of the Tagus River. The Party took the lead of that process and drove it according to the party's program, organizing many thousands of peasants into cooperatives. That, combined with the party's strong clandestine organization and support of the peasants' movement during the preceding years in that region, made the southern regions of Portugal the major stronghold of the PCP.
One year after the revolution, the first democratic elections took place to elect the parliament that would write a new Constitution to replace the Constitution of 1933. The Party achieved 12.52% of the voting and elected 30 MPs. In the summer of 1975 the revolutionary process reached its climax, and the government of Vasco Gonçalves, influenced by the left, was under attack from the Socialist Party and the right-wing. Several rallies and demonstrations both in support of and against the government were being held. During the summer, several party offices were attacked, pillaged or set on fire. On July 19 a major rally organized by the Socialists against the party was held in Lisbon. In August, nine influential military officers (the Group of 9) issued a document against Vasco Gonçalves and the Movement of the Armed Forces. In the following months the tension continued between the PCP and the moderated parties. In September, Gonçalves was replaced by Pinheiro de Azevedo. The divisions inside the military were growing, and, on November 25, a coup attempt by the radical left was thwarted by the right wing military. In the aftermath, the party was attacked by the remaining forces, but a notable speech by Melo Antunes, a member of the Group of 9, asserted the importance of the PCP inside the Portuguese democratic regime.
In the following months, the attacks against party offices continued with a lower intensity, however. In 1976, the building of the current democratic regime was starting and, on April 2, the new democratic constitution, which included several references to "Socialism" and a "Classless Society", was approved with the party's support. On April 25, the second democratic election was carried out and the party raised its share of the vote to 14.56% and 40 MPs. In June, the first democratic presidential election was held and the party's candidate, Octávio Pato, garnered 7.5% of the votes. The winner of the election was Ramalho Eanes, an officer of the moderate military wing.
In that same year, the first Avante! Festival took place. The festival would become a major political and cultural event in Portugal and is still held yearly, as of 2006. The eighth congress was held in Lisbon from November 11–14. The congress mainly stated the need to continue the quest for Socialism in Portugal and the need to defend the achievements of the Revolution against what the party considered to be a political step backward, led by a coalition of the Socialist Party and the right-wing Centro Democrático Social, who were opposed to the Agrarian Reform process. In December, in the first local election, the party, in coalition with the Portuguese Democratic Movement and the People's Socialist Front, attained 18% of the vote, electing 37 mayors.
Late 1970s and early 1980s
In 1979, the party carried out its ninth congress, which analyzed the state of the post-revolutionary Portugal, right-wing politics and the party's struggles to keep the nationalized economy. In December 1979, an extra legislative election took place after a wave of political turmoil caused the fall of the government. The party formed the United People Alliance, in coalition with the Portuguese Democratic Movement and increased its vote to 18.96% and 47 MPs. The election was won by a right-wing coalition, led by Francisco Sá Carneiro, which immediately started a policy that the party considered to be contrary to working-class interests. In the same year, local elections were held and the party gathered 20.5% of the vote and elected 50 mayors, also as part of the United People Alliance. In November 1979, the Communist Students League merged with the Young Communist League to form the Portuguese Communist Youth, which is still the party's youth organization.
In 1980, a new election was called and the party dropped to 41 seats. Also in 1980, in the presidential election, the party's candidate left the race and supported Ramalho Eanes. In the local elections of 1982 the UPA secured the leadership of 55 municipalities, achieving its best result ever, with 20.7% of the vote.
After the sudden death of Sá Carneiro in an airplane crash in 1980, the political instability returned and the right-wing coalition government disintegrated in 1983. In the subsequent legislative election, the party achieved 44 MPs and 18.20% of the vote as part of the APU in the 1983 elections. The election was won by the Socialists that formed a grand coalition with the Social Democrats. Also in 1983 the party held the tenth congress that again criticized what it saw as the dangers of right-wing politics. In 1985, a new election was called, prompted by the unstable balance of forces inside the grand coalition and Aníbal Cavaco Silva led the Social Democrats to a narrow victory, the party initiated its electoral decline, gathering only 15.5% of the voting.
In 1986, the surprising rise of the socialist Mário Soares, who reached the second round in the presidential election defeating the party's candidate, Salgado Zenha, made the party call an extra Congress. The eleventh congress was called with only two weeks' notice, in order to decide whether or not to support Soares against Freitas do Amaral. Soares was supported, and he won by a slight margin. Had he not been supported by the PCP he would have lost. The Congress was considered a success, despite being prepared with such short notice. In 1987, after the fall of Cavaco Silva's government, another election took place. The Party, now in coalition with the Ecologist Party "The Greens" (PEV) and with the Democratic Intervention (ID), a political association, in the Unitary Democratic Coalition (CDU) saw an electoral decline to 12.18% and 31 MPs. In the election, Cavaco Silva consolidated his power with an absolute majority.
From the end of the Socialist Bloc to the present
From the late 1980s until 1991
In 1988, another congress took place, the twelfth, held in Porto, in which more than 2,000 delegates participated. The congress analyzed the evolution of the political situation in Eastern Europe and also the right wing policies carried out by the government of Aníbal Cavaco Silva. A new set of statutes and a program were put forth, with the new program being titled, "Portugal, an Advanced Democracy for the 21st Century". The program, which is still the party's program (as of 2006), traced five major objectives to the party's struggle: a free democratic regime, based on the citizens' participation, an economic development based on a mixed economy at the service of the people, a social policy capable of assuring the rise of the country's living standards, culture available to everyone, and an independent and sovereign Portugal, pursuing peaceful relations with all countries and peoples.
At the end of the 1980s, the Socialist Bloc of Eastern Europe started to disintegrate and the Party faced new challenges. With many members leaving, the Party called an extra congress for May 1990, in Loures. There, the majority of the more than 2,000 delegates decided to continue the Party's "revolutionary way to Socialism", clashing with what many other communist parties around the world were doing, by keeping its Marxist-Leninist guidelines. The congress asserted that socialism in the Soviet Union had failed, but a unique historical experience, several social changes and several achievements by the labour movement had been influenced by the Socialist Bloc. Álvaro Cunhal was re-elected General Secretary and Carlos Carvalhas was elected Assistant General Secretary.
From the 13th Congress to the present
In the legislative election of 1991, the Party won 8.84% of the national vote and 17 MPs, continuing its electoral decline. The Party's candidate to the presidential election of the same year, Carlos Carvalhas, finished 3rd, after gathering 12.5% of the votes.
The fourteenth congress took place in 1992 and Carlos Carvalhas was elected the new General Secretary, replacing Álvaro Cunhal. The Congress analyzed the whole new international situation created by the disappearance of the Soviet Union and the defeat of Socialism in Eastern Europe. The Party also outlined measures intended to put Aníbal Cavaco Silva and the right-wing government on its way out, which occurred shortly thereafter. In 1995 the right-wing Social Democratic Party was replaced in the government by the Socialist Party after the October legislative election, in which the Party received 8.61% of the votes. Meanwhile, in the European election of 1994, the Party elected 3 MEPs, gathering 11.2% of the voting.
In December 1996, the fifteenth congress was held, this time in Porto, with more than 1,600 delegates participating. The congress criticized the right-wing policies of the Socialist government of António Guterres and also debated the future of the Party following the debacle of the Socialist Bloc. During the first government of Guterres, the first referendum to the abortion law was held in Portugal. Despite a massive campaign from the Party and the remaining leftwing forces, the liberalization of abortion was rejected by the voters.
In the subsequent local elections, the Party continued to decline, but in the legislative election of 1999 the Party increased its voting percentage for the first time in many years. The sixteenth congress was held in December 2000 and Carlos Carvalhas was re-elected General Secretary. In the legislative election of 2002, held after the resignation of the socialist Prime-Minister António Guterres, the Party achieved its lowest voting result ever, with only 7.0% of the votes. The right-wing returned to power with a coalition between the Social Democratic Party and the People's Party. The new government introduced several changes in the labour laws that triggered the first general strike in many years, in November 2002. With the strong support of the Party and of the CGTP, hundreds of thousands of workers participated in the strike.
In the following European election of 2004, the CDU managed to keep its two MEPs, after claiming 9.1% of the vote. The two members of the European Parliament, Ilda Figueiredo and Pedro Guerreiro sit in the European United Left - Nordic Green Left group.
The most recent Congress, the seventeenth, in November 2004, elected Jerónimo de Sousa, a former metallurgical worker, as the new General Secretary and analyzed the political situation since the last congress in 2000. It also reaffirmed the program adopted in the 12th Congress. Minor changes in the statutes, such as considering the official website as the Party's official press or adapting the voting methods to the new laws that made voting by showing hands illegal, were also introduced. In January 2005, the right-wing majority in the parliament was dissolved and a new legislative election was held. The Party raised its share of the vote and is now represented in the parliament by 12 MPs of 230, after receiving about 430,000 votes.
Álvaro Cunhal died on 13 June 2005 after being away from the public eye for several years. Two days later, 250,000 people gathered in Lisbon to attend to his funeral, one of the largest funerals in Portuguese history.
After the last local election, in 2021, in which the Party lost the presidency of 5 municipalities, the Portuguese Communist Party holds the leadership of 18 (of 308) municipalities, most of them in Alentejo and Setúbal, and has leadership of hundreds of civil parishes, and local assembly members. The local administration of the PCP often concerns itself with issues such as preventing privatization of the water supply, funding culture and education, providing access to sports and promoting health, facilitating participatory democracy and preventing corruption. The presence of the Greens in the coalition also keeps an eye on environmental issues such as recycling and water treatment.
The Party's work still follows the program set forth by "Advanced Democracy for the 21st Century". Issues like the decriminalization of abortion, workers rights, the increasing fees for the Health Service and Education, the erosion of the social safety net, low salaries and pensions, imperialism and war, and solidarity with other countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine, Cuba, and the Basque Country are constant concerns in the Party's agenda.
From the election of 2015 until the failure to pass the government budget in 2021, the Party supported the government of António Costa together with the Left Bloc. In the elections of 2022 the Socialist Party won an absolute majority and the PCP and Left Bloc returned to opposition.
See also
Communist Party of Portugal (in Construction)
Portuguese Communist Party
Electoral results of the Portuguese Communist Party
History of Portugal
Carnation Revolution
Catarina Eufémia
References
Bibliography
External links
In Portuguese:
Portuguese Communist Party official web site
History section of the Party's official website
Avante Festival! official website
Avante! newspaper online edition
PCP's short biography by the Carnation Revolution archive center
In English:
Portuguese Communist Party web site
Portuguese Communist Party program
Political history of Portugal
Portuguese Communist Party
History of socialism
Portuguese Communist Party
History of organisations based in Portugal |
4074909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salabat%20Jung | Salabat Jung | Salabat Jung, born as Mir Sa'id Muhammad Khan Siddiqi Bayafandi on 24 November 1718, was the 3rd son of Nizam-ul-Mulk. He was appointed as Naib Subahdar (Deputy Viceroy) to his elder brother, Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, the Prime Minister of Mughal Empire, with the title Salabat Jung. He was invested by Imperial firman, at Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 12 September 1749. He was granted the titles of Khan Bahadur and Salabat Jung during his father's lifetime.
During the Second Carnatic War he was a prisoner, first in Nasir Jung's camp and later in Muzaffar Jung's camp. After Muzaffar Jung (his nephew) was killed by the Afghans on 13 February 1751, Mir Sa'id Muhammad Khan was proclaimed as the new Nizam near Lakkireddipalli Pass, by the French under De Bussy with the title Asaf-ad-Daulah, Nawab Said Muhammad Khan Bahadur, Salabat Jung, Zafar Jung, Nawab Subahdar of the Deccan. He was promoted to the title of Amir-ul-Mamalik by the Emperor Alamgir II. He was the ruler of the Hyderabad State in India from 1751 until 1762.
The Khilwath Palace of Hyderabad was built under his direction.
Alliance with the French
Salabat Jung agreed to retain the French in the Deccan restoring previous rights and privileges. He gave the title of Saif-ud-daula Umdat-ul-Mulk to De Bussy and wrote to the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II for ratification, the Mughal Emperor agreed to their decision and granted De Bussy a title "Mansabdar of 7000" and appointed Hyder Jung as the "Vakil" (attorney) representing the French within the Mughal Empire.
This new alliance with the French had greatly contributed to the advancement of Salabat Jung's forces, in the year 1756 Salabat Jung utilised heavy muskets known as Catyocks, which were attached to the ground, it was known to have fired more rapidly than a cannon. These new weapons would completely reverse fortunes of the Maratha rebels.
Conflict with Marathas
In March 1751, Salabat Jung gave the French the villages of Nizampatnam and Alamanava in the Krishna district, Kondavid, Narsapur in the Godavary district, together with Yanaon and Mahfuzbandar. The extirpation of the conspirators against Muzaffar Jung was only the prelude to a more serious contest that threatened his successor to the Nizamat of Hyderabad Deccan, Salabat Jung. He had scarcely crossed the River Krishna when he was met by 25,000 Marathas under the personal command of their Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao. This prince had entered into a league with Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II the elder brother of Salabat Jung; had levied a contribution of Rs. 150,000 from Aurangabad, the chief authority of which place was secretly disposed to Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II and now appeared as the ally of the "lawful" Nizam and as the precursor of his appearance in the territories of his father. The Maratha army however disappeared as suddenly as it had presented itself. The invasion of the Deccan by Damaji Rao Gaekwad from Gujarat had forced the Peshwa to retreat.
Salabat Jung made his entry in great pomp and took formal possession of Hyderabad. His first attention was directed to rewarding his allies. Gratuities were bestowed on the officers according to their rank from 100,000 to the commander in chief to 5,000 to each ensign. The future pay of the troops was settled with equal liberality. A communication was opened with Machilipatnam (Masulipatam) and from that port only 220 miles distant the French were supplied with recruits of men, stores and ammunition. De Bussy was thus enabled afterwards to increase his Europeans to 500 and to arm new Sipahis (Native Soldiers) whom he recruited in the country making a total of 5,000 Sipahis. Salabat Jung did not remain long at his capital. The threatened appearance of Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, the disaffection of Aurangabad and the prospect of renewed invasion by the Marathas required his presence on his northern frontier and he set off for Aurangabad within a month (May 1751) after his arrival.
Salabat Jung reached Aurangabad on 18 June and in the month of August, Balaji Baji Rao having settled his internal disorders again invaded and ravaged the Mughal territory at the head of 40,000 men. The character of the French auxiliaries acquired fresh lustre on this occasion. While at Aurangabad their discipline and orderly conduct had commanded the respect of the Indians and they now established the superiority of the Salabat Jung over the Marathas. The Peshwa, meanwhile, had ordered Holkar and Scindia to join Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II and to affect a junction with himself near Aurangabad, occupied by Salabat Jung and his French allies. The news of this fresh campaign dismayed the Nizam and his advisers.
De Bussy said, "Care nothing for the invading army; you will best preserve the Deccan by marching on Poona."
With audacity the French general unfolded his plan and overcame the fears of Salabat Jung. Leaving Aurangabad to its fate, the Mughal prince moved on to Golkonda, and, after some days spent there in preparation, he marched through Pabal, Khedal and Ahmednagar to Bedar on the road to Poona. As he marched, he contrived to send messages to Tara Bai at Satara and received from the old queen favourable and encouraging replies.
Near Parner, De Bussy learnt of the approach of a Maratha army. Balaji, angered at the boldness of the Nizam's plan, had been sufficiently affected by it to detach 40,000 horsemen from the main army and lead them in pursuit. The Mughal forces consisted of large irregular levies, quite unfit to meet Balaji's cavalry. But with them were 500 French infantry and 5000 highly disciplined Sipahis led by French officers. On the news of the enemy's vicinity the Muslims formed up to await the Maratha attack.
De Bussy seized some heights on one of the flanks and put his field-pieces on them, so as to command the ground across which the Peshwa must charge. In support of the guns he drew up his disciplined infantry. Balaji attacked the Mughals in the usual Maratha fashion, testing the whole line before charging home. But these proved bad tactics in face of the rapid shooting of the French cannon and the continuous fire of their drilled riflemen. The Maratha army after suffering some loss disappeared.
De Bussy led the Mughals on Poona, destroying all the villages through which they passed. The Peshwa retaliated by getting his agents to spread among the Mughals rumours of intended French treachery. De Bussy's answer was a brilliant coup de main. On 22 November, the Marathas were engaged at Kukadi in devotions inspired by an eclipse of the moon. Balaji, like most members of his family, was strict in his religious beliefs and encouraged his soldiers to pray to their gods, to secure an early release of the moon from the clutches of the demon Ketu. While so engaged, they were surprised by De Bussy's attack. The Maratha army did not suffer heavily, but they abandoned their camp, from which the plundering Mughals secured a considerable booty. Among their trophies were the golden utensils used by Balaji Baji Rao for himself and for his gods.
On 27 November 1751, the French general took and sacked Ranjangaon and utterly destroyed Talegaon Damdhere. De Bussy's plan of campaign had succeeded. So far from invading the Nizam's dominions, Balaji Baji Rao was perplexed how to save Poona. He reinforced his army by summoning to it the Scindia contingent, led by Datta and Madhav Rao Scindia, two sons of Ranu Scindia ; and on 27 November 1751, he attacked the Mughal army on the banks of the Ghodnadi river with the utmost determination. The Maratha attack was led by Mahadji Purandare, Datta and Madhav Rao Scindia and Kanher Rao Trimbak Ekbote better known as Kanher Rao Phakde, a native of Purandar. So vigorous was the Maratha charge that Salabat Jung's levies were completely overwhelmed. The day was saved by De Bussy again. Changing his front, he brought his guns to bear on the flank of the charging cavalry with such effect that he enabled the Mughals to rally; and, although the Maratha losses were far less than those of their enemies, they eventually withdrew from the field, taking with them Salabat Jung's howdah, four elephants and seven hundred horses. The next day De Bussy pressed on to Koregaon on the river Bhima, a little town only 16 miles from Poona.
Balaji Baji Rao now decided to follow his foe's example and save his capital by carrying the war into Nizam's country. He directed Sadashiv Rao Bhau to enter into negotiations with the Nizam's Hindu diwan, Ram Das, to whom Dupleix had given the title of Raja Raghunath Das. The plenipotentiaries met, but the negotiations, no doubt at Balaji' s orders, were deliberately drawn out. Before any settlement was arrived at, the Nizam was dismayed to hear that the fort of Trimbak had been escaladed by a Maratha officer.
While the Nizam vainly protested against the outrage and demanded the return of his property, news reached him that Raghuji Bhonsle was over-running, on his eastern frontier, the whole country between the Penganga and the Godavari.
At the same time the Peshwa's agents fomented the discontent of the Mughal soldiery, by charging De Bussy with embezzling their pay, which they had not received for several months. Salabat Jung's confidence in his French general was shaken and he ordered a retreat to Ahmednagar. Having reached that town in safety, the Nizam's courage returned. He replenished his ammunition and collected siege guns for the recapture of Trimbak. He set out northwards, but he was so harassed on his march that he abandoned his enterprise and once again sought De Bussy's counsel. That sagacious soldier saw that it was useless to continue the march on Trimbak. It was useless also to march on Poona, for the Mughals had turned their backs on it and were now 60 miles away. He advised Salabat Jung to ask for an armistice and thus secure his retreat to his own dominions. The Nizam took his advice. On 7 January 1752, Balaji at Shingwa accepted an armistice in return for a promised cession of land. Salabat Jung sent some cakes, and his diwan, Raja Raghunath Das, sent some tulsi leaves as a proof of their good faith; and the lately victorious Nizam and French army retreated across their own frontier.
During this period the Salabat Jung's government was entirely in the hands of the French. Bussy personally commanded the army and controlled the civil administration through his agent Raja Raghunath Das. Salabat Jung did not hesitate to address Dupleix as his protector and to acknowledge that himself and his states were entirely at his disposal. Salabat Jung ceded a territory round Machilipatnam to the French in September 1751 and conferred the government of the Carnatic on Dupleix and his successors in February 1752. It was probably not intended by Dupleix to displace Chanda Sahib who was yet alive.
Feroze Jung II's Deccan Expedition and Unrest in Aurangabad
Despite his initial victories against the Marathas, Salabat Jung had to retreat to protect his dominions from the North. His army was mutinous for want of pay, and during the homeward march Raja Raghunath Das was assassinated by some Afghan soldiers in April 1752, with whose commander he had quarrelled. The French received a serious shock from the death of Raghunath Das. Salabat Jung was provided with another councillor in whom De Bussy had even more confidence than in the deceased. This was Haider Jung of Machilipatnam who had early entered into the service of the French and learned their language. His abilities attracted the notice of Dupleix and his judgment and fidelity while with Bussy had raised him to great power and high honours. But to fill the part of minister it was necessary to find a man of rank who should be able to regulate the mutinous army and embarrassed finances and willing at the same time to be entirely subservient to the French.
The predominance of a body of foreigners and the elevation of their upstart dependents had unavoidably proved disgusting to the nobility of Salabat Jung's court and was felt most by those who but for them would have been at the head of the state. The two most distinguished men of this class were Shah Nawaz Khan Dakhani and Rukan ud-Daulah Syed Lashkar Khan. Shah Nawaz had been minister of Nasir Jung while governing the Deccan as his father's deputy. He joined the prince in his rebellion in 1741 and although his life was spared after the victory of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, he remained for some years in disgrace. He employed that period in writing a biography of the principal nobles of the preceding age which has contributed more than his political transactions to preserve his reputation in India. On the accession of Nasir Jung he became prime minister and on his death he fled to a hill fort in the Carnatic. He was pardoned and reconciled to Muzaffar Jung through the intervention of Dupleix and probably expected to be restored to his former power. Finding the whole administration committed to Raghunath Das he became discontented and obtained permission to retire to Aurangabad where he became the head of a party opposed to the French and was the principal mover of the intrigues in that city in favour of Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II. De Bussy was too well aware of his hostility to trust him with the office of prime minister but thought it expedient to disarm his opposition by appointing him governor of the province of Hyderabad. Rukan ud-Daulah had also held a high office under Nasir Jung and was no less inimical than Shah Nawaz to the French ascendancy but he had concealed his sentiments with more care; had always been employed under Salabat Jung's government and now appeared to Bussy to be a suitable person to place at the head of the administration. He was accordingly made minister and the French influence seemed as great as ever.
But events in Delhi were going in a different direction. Safdar Jung was the new Vizier of the Mughal Empire and the Amir ul-Umara Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II felt slighted on being left out as the heir to Nizamat of Hyderabad. The motives which led to his acquiescence in the accession of Nasir Jung ceased with that prince's life. The weakness of Salabat Jung's title invited him to assert his own. He therefore solicited the Emperor's nomination to the governorship of the Deccan and at the same time entered on negotiations with Balaji Baji Rao for the purpose of obtaining his support. He left his son, Shihab ud-Din Muhammad Khan, as his deputy in the office of Mir Bakhshi, and proceeded towards the Deccan, taking with him Malhar Rao Holkar, on the promise of paying him money upon his arrival at home. He was acknowledged at Burhanpur by the troops on that frontier. He was joined by the Maratha Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao in person and when he arrived at Aurangabad on 29 September 1752 his force computed to amount to 150,000 men.
When intelligence of his arrival reached Hyderabad, Salabat Jung, marched out with a great force to oppose his elder brother. Malhar Rao Holkar, being informed of these designs, and seeing that war between the two brothers was imminent, took the opportunity of asking for Khandesh and Khanpur, which were old dependencies of Aurangabad. He foresaw that the struggle with Salabat Jung would be severe, and he deemed it prudent to refrain from taking any part in it.
Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II had appeared with one of the largest armies ever assembled in the Deccan and it was thought that his succession was inevitable. But no fighting had taken place between the rivals, when Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II died on 16 October 1752. Muhammad Ibrahim Khan, carried his coffin to Delhi. They also carried with them his money and valuables, exceeding a Rs. 10,000,000 in amount, and delivered them over to his son Shihab ud-Din Muhammad Khan. This young man, whenever his late father was absent, had deemed it best for his interests to be constant in his attentions to Safdar Jung, and by this conduct he had gained the favour of that minister, who showed him great kindness. When the intelligence of his father's death arrived, he communicated the fact to Safdar Jung before it was generally known, and from that day the minister called him his "son". By the minister's influence, he was appointed Mir Bakhshi, and received the title of Amir-ul-Umara Imad-ul-Mulk Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung III.
But the Maratha leaders insisted on his carrying out Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II's engagements. In this they were supported by the Mughals of Burhanpur, who, after the help given by them to Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, were afraid to remain Salabat Jung's subjects. The Nizam left the decision to De Bussy. The French general preferred a solid peace to a doubtful war and advised the surrender of a considerable tract of land, provided Raghuji Bhonsle first withdrew from the eastern provinces. Balaji ordered Raghu Bhonsle to do so. He complied.
Thus, in spite of de Bussy's genius and of French valor, the Peshwa acquired in this war the sacred town and fort of Trimbak and the whole country west of Berar from the Tapti to the Godavari. This treaty is known in history as the Treaty of Bhalki (November 1752).
With the death of Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung II, Salabat Jung remained the uncontested Nizam of Hyderabad Deccan. De Bussy advised Salabat Jung to move back to Hyderabad with him, to which he agreed.
Conquest of Northern Circars by the French
The acquisition of the Northern Circars is an important landmark in the history of the French in India. It placed at their disposal a contiguous territory of 470 miles of sea coast stretching from Orissa to the Coromandel Coast. These territories were also noted for their economic wealth; Machilipatnam was noted at this period for its dyeing and printing industry, while Rajahmundry abounded in rich teak forests. Srikakulam (Chicacole) was a rice-producing area. The presence of the Eastern Ghats made this region unvulnerable to outside attack. The Eastern Ghats abounded in thick bamboo forests, and in those days of infantry and cavalry warfare, it was difficult for the enemy to penetrate through them.
The acquisition was made possible by the uprising of Syed Lashkar Khan who was bitterly opposed to the French predominance and other noblemen in the region. The treasury of the Nizam, was almost empty and the Nizam's troops had not been paid for six months. Salabat Jung found it still more difficult to pay the French detachment, and their pay was in arrears for two months. The French Sipahis, threatened to rebel, if their arrears were not paid, and Salabat Jung was forced to pay their salaries by raising a loan of 150,000 Rupees from the local Circars and from the revenue of Hyderabad. But the troops of the Nizam had to go without their pay. So, these soldiers started clamouring for the payment of their arrears and refused to go on the proposed Carnatic expedition unless their arrears were cleared. The general discontent was so great in the Nizam's army that even the nagar-beaters and camel drivers took a solemn oath not to proceed to the Carnatic until their salaries were paid. The Mughal soldiers openly went about saying, that the French were robbing the Nizam of his riches, which the family had accumulated for the past 60 years, while the subjects of the Nizam, were starving. Their discontent was so great, that they went to the extent of threatening the life of Rumi Khan Fransisi, the agent of the French. De Bussy was ordered to ask Salabat Jung for the grant of the four Northern Circars, namely Ellore, Mustafanagar, Rajahmundry, and Srikakulam (Chicaole), towards the maintenance of the French detachment. De Bussy moved the matter with Salabat Jung, but Syed Lashkar Khan, saw, that the consideration of the matter was postponed for the time being and before Bussy could further move in the matter, he had to go to Machilipatnam on account of his illness.
Taking advantage of the financial distress of the Nizam and the general indiscipline that had crept into the French forces, Syed Lashkar Khan used all his ingenuity to make the French unpopular and their stay, untenable in the Deccan. He started exploring his moorings in a very cautious manner. Early in April 1753 he appealed to the British, to leave no stone unturned and to assist him to expel the French. The letter of Syed Lashkar Khan was intercepted by the spies of Dupleix but Syed Lashkar Khan, even after knowing it, did not desist from intriguing against the French. Though the plans of Syed Lashkar Khan against the French were welcome to the English, they could not send him any material help owing to their preoccupations in the Carnatic affairs. Syed Laskhar Khan tried to harass the French by with-holding their salaries. To the original detachment of 300 Europeans and 2000 Sipahis, Bussy added further a battalion of 5000 Sipahis, and all these were entirely under the personal command of Bussy. All together, their salaries amounted to, Rs. 250,000, per month.
Bussy, accordingly started from Machilipatnam on 25 June 1753, and reached Hyderabad on 15 July 1753. He arrived in Hyderabad with the firm resolve not to leave the Deccan unless the financial condition of the Nizam warranted such a step. On his arrival he found that the French commandant Goupil was busy elsewhere, collecting the revenues, and that great confusion and disorder prevailed in the French ranks. He soon restored order and discipline among the 500 Europeans and 4000 Sipahis who were in Hyderabad and opened negotiations with the Qiladar, Mahmud Hussain. The latter, realising that Bussy was not the man to mince matters, arranged the necessary money for the payment of the French troops. Bussy, cleared the arrears of pay of the troops partly by raising money from the Bankers and partly by advancing from his own private funds.
De Bussy then called upon Goupil and Mainville to submit accounts of the money, so for, collected by the French troops. He found on a careful scrutiny of the accounts submitted that the French had over-reached themselves in collecting taxes, and that they extorted gratuities from the Nawabs and Palaiyakkarars (polygars) and oppressed the people in general. When Dupleix was informed of this he sent the following letter of admonition to the French officers;
De Bussy realised that the irresponsible and arrogant manner of the French soldiers had alienated the people from them and that intrigues were afoot in the court against the French. Syed Lashkar Khan, the Marathas, especially Janu Nimbalkar and Raja Ram Chander, and the English at Fort St. George were interested in ousting, the French power from the Deccan. Syed Lashkar Khan, even after the arrival of Bussy, did not desist from plotting against the French. He induced Salabat Jung to write to Dupleix that the arrears, due to the French troops must be deducted From the Rs. that Dupleix owed to the Nizam, as his deputy in the Carnatic. He also proposed that during the rainy season the French troops should be stationed at Machilipatnam so that they could collect the revenues with greater ease. Syed Lashkar Khan, though he advised the French in the above manner, at the same time sent secret instructions to the zamindars on the East Coast not to pay taxes to the French and to attack the French jagirs in the various districts. Encouraged by such messages, Raja Ram Chander of Ongole seized Bandurti with the help of the English.
Syed Lashkar Khan also put two younger brothers of Salabat Jung, Nizam Ali Khan and Basalat Jung into prison in the Fort of Daulatabad on the plea that the latter were intriguing with de Mainville and ordered the French Commandant to return forthwith to Hyderabad.
He also made Salabat Jung to write to Bussy, suggesting that the French should stay, during the monsoons in Machilipatnam and that the Nizam would call them whenever he required their assistance. Apart from this, no sooner did he hear that Mahmud Hussain, the Qiladar of Hyderabad, had assisted Bussy in arranging the loans for the payment of the French troops, than he got him replaced by a new Governor. Seeing these manoeuvres, De Bussy decided to deal with Syed Lashkar Khan, in a very drastic manner. He decided to adopt one of the following three courses; namely; to demand from the Nizam fresh territories lo maintain, the French forces and if the Subah refused to grant them, to seize certain territories and attach them to Machilipatnam which was under Moracin and inform Salabat Jung that those territories would be safe guarded by the French for the Nizam. But if either of these plans failed, Bussy, even decided to get the help of the Peshwa, against the Nizam in exchange for Surat being ceded to the Marathas. On being informed of these plans, Dupleix fully concurred with them and he sent to Bussy an additional force of 350 men. Of these, Bussy, dispatched 150 men to Machilipatnam, under the command of the Marquis of Conflans.
Feeling himself sufficiently strong, Bussy now decided to march against Aurangabad. Prior to this, he sent a letter to Salabat Jung, in which he reminded him that if he became the Deccan Subahdar it was mainly due to the efforts of the French. Saunders, the English Governor, remarked;
De Bussy in Aurangabad in November 1753. His journey to Aurangabad was full of obstacles and he had to meet the silent opposition of the people, inspired by the manoeuvres of Syed Lashkar Khan. Seeing this, Bussy decided to enter Aurangabad in full battle array; Syed Lashkar Khan seeing the preparations made by Bussy decided to yield and opened negotiations with the latter. On Bussy's arrival, Syed Lashkar Khan at the head of 21 nobles mounted on elephants went to receive him. Bussy, when he met them, contrived to arrange their order of arrival in such a manner that they had to dismount first as though doing obeisance to the French General.
On approaching Bussy, the Diwan, Syed Lashkar Khan dismounted from his elephant and bowed to the French General, seeing which, the other Deccan nobles followed suit. Bussy, getting down from his elephant embraced the Diwan. The latter then offered to surrender his official seals as a token of his resignation. De Bussy perceived that Syed Lashkar Khan was popular with the people, and whatever intrigues he had carried on against the French he had done for the noble purpose of ridding his country and his ruler of foreign domination. De Bussy realised that however much he desired to get rid of the minister, making him resign openly was not the proper method. Hence he refused to accept the seals, and mildly hinted to the Diwan, that he would be satisfied with the cession of the Northern Circars to the French.
The Northern Circars, constituted the most fertile coastal strip of the Nizam's Dominions. They were watered by the three important rivers of the Deccan, the Krishna River, the Godavari and the Gundlakamma. Syed Lashkar Khan was loath to part with those fertile regions and he asked De Bussy, whether he would not be satisfied with territorial grants in the interior; but on finding that Bussy had set his heart on the acquisition of the Northern Circars alone, he gave way. On 23 November, a grand court was held at Aurangabad, and the treaty of Aurangabad, was signed between Salabat Jung and the French. By this treaty the four Northern Circars, Ellore, Mustafanagar (Kondapalli) Rajahmundry and Srikakulam (Chicacole) were granted to the French. The Sarkars were personally conferred on Bussy towards the maintenance of the French troops. It was also decided that the revenues of the Circars should be spent exclusively for disbursing the pay of the French troops.
At this period a Mughal Governor Jafar Ali, was in charge of the revenue administration of the Circars. So it was settled that if Jafar Ali, failed to remit the revenues to Bussy within the stipulated time, the sum should be made good from the treasury of the Nizam. Secondly, the safety of the person of Salabat Jung was entrusted to the care of the French, and further, it was agreed that the Nizam should not interfere in the administration of the Subah of Carnatic. It was also mutually agreed, that in matters of general administration also, the Nizam should govern the country in accordance with the wishes of De Bussy. De Bussy in his turn agreed to support and befriend Syed Lashkar Khan. Soon after receiving the patent for the Sarkars, Bussy, instructed the French agent at Machilipatnam to take charge of those territories, and he dispatched 150 Europeans and 2500 Sipahis to French commander Moracin at Machilipatnam, to bring those territories under the French control.
Death
Salabat Jung was deposed by his brother, Asaf Jah II Mir Nizam Ali Khan Siddiqi, on 8 July 1762. He was ordered held in Bidar Fort prison, where he was killed on 16 September 1763. He was buried at Bidar outside the dargah of Multani pasha (bustan e Asifia by manik rao vital rao).
References
External links
18th-century executions
18th-century Indian Muslims
Mughal nobility
1718 births
1763 deaths
Nizams of Hyderabad
French India
Yanam
18th-century Indian monarchs |
4075189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink%20Floyd%20live%20performances | Pink Floyd live performances | Pink Floyd was considered a pioneer in the live music experience for combining intense visual experiences with music to create a show in which the performers themselves were almost secondary. As well as visuals, Pink Floyd set standards in sound quality with innovative use of sound effects and panning quadrophonic speaker systems.
Special effects
Besides the music, an elaborate part to any Pink Floyd live show is the special effects.
Dynamic lighting
Pink Floyd were among the first bands to use a dedicated travelling light show in conjunction with their performances. During the Barrett era, dynamic liquid light shows were projected onto enormous screens behind the band while they played, and the band also incorporated large numbers of strobe lights, which were controlled manually by an engineer. This had the effect of totally obscuring the band itself, except for their shadows, which Barrett took advantage of: he would hold his arms up during parts where he was not required to play, making his shadow grow, shrink and undulate, adding to the visual spectacle. They developed many of these lighting techniques through their early association with light artist Mike Leonard.
When psychedelia fell out of fashion from around 1970 onwards, elevated platforms of the type conventionally used for roof maintenance in high buildings were brought on tour and filled with lighting equipment to be raised and lowered during performances. Following Roger Waters' departure in 1985, the Pink Floyd light show reached a pinnacle. Marc Brickman, the group's lighting designer, utilized hundreds of automated intelligent lighting fixtures and lasers, which were state-of-the-art at the time. By the 1994 Division Bell tour, the band was using extremely powerful, isotope-splitting copper-vapour lasers. These gold-coloured lasers were worth over $120,000 a piece and previously had only been used in nuclear research and high speed photography.
A large circular projection panel dubbed "Mr Screen" first made an appearance during performances of Dark Side of the Moon in 1974 and became a staple thereafter. The high quality, extreme wide angle projection required special high-speed, 35mm, 10,000 watt xenon film projectors, with custom lenses, all designed, built and toured by Associates & Ferren. Specially recorded films and animations were projected onto it, and for the 1977 "In the Flesh" and 1980–1981 "The Wall Live" tours, coloured spotlights were fixed around the rim, an effect which reached its zenith with the dancing patterns of multi-coloured lights in the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours. In the latter, the screen could be retracted behind the stage when not required, and was tilted horizontally with its peripheral lights focused onto the stage into a single spotlight during the final guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb".
Several generations of giant glitter balls began with the Dark Side of the Moon tour. By the Division Bell tour, the ball had evolved into a globe 4.9 metres in diameter, which rose from the mixing station to a height of 21.3 metres before opening into an array of petals 7.3 metres wide during the final guitar solo of "Comfortably Numb", revealing a 12 kilowatt Phobeus HMI lamp inside.
Props and pyrotechnics
Pyrotechnics (such as exploding flashpots, an exploding gong and fireworks) and dry ice were used extensively throughout Pink Floyd's career. In 1973's tour to promote The Dark Side of the Moon, a large scale model plane flew over the audience and crashed onto the stage with a spectacular explosion, an effect repeated at the start of The Wall and the Division Bell shows. During shows to promote A Momentary Lapse of Reason, a similar effect was achieved with a flying bed.
Oversized helium balloons were first introduced during the Dark Side of the Moon tours, but in 1975, this element began to play a central part in the live show. For the U.S. leg of the 1975 tour, a pyramid shaped dirigible was floated above the stage. It proved unstable in windy conditions and blew into the crowd, which tore it into pieces for souvenirs. The trademark giant pig was brought in for Animals in 1977, floating over the audience, as well as a grotesque 'Nuclear Family', a refrigerator filled with worms, a television and a Cadillac. In some shows, an envelope of propane gas was put inside the pig, causing it to explode. The inflatables reached their peak in 1980–1981 during The Wall shows, in which several of the characters from the album were brought to life in the form of fully mobile, giant string puppets with menacing spotlights for eyes, taking the traditional balloons to a new level. The characters were designed by the notable satirical artist, Gerald Scarfe.
Special effects reached a new and outrageous level during these Wall shows. For example, a long, high wall made from 340 white bricks was built between the audience and the band during the first half of the show. The final brick was placed as Roger Waters sang "goodbye" at the end of the song "Goodbye Cruel World." For the second half of the show, the band was largely invisible, except for a hole in the wall that simulated a hotel room where Roger Waters "acted out" the story of Pink, and an appearance by David Gilmour on top of the wall to perform the climactic guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb." Other parts of the story were told by Gerald Scarfe's animations projected onto the wall itself (these animations were later integrated into the film Pink Floyd: The Wall). At the finale of the concert, the wall was demolished amidst sound effects and a spectacular light show.
Major tours and concerts
30 September 1966 – The All Saints Church Hall Concert - London Free School/International Times Benefit Show
29–30 April 1967 – The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream concerts
12 May 1967 – Games for May concert
4–12 November 1967 – First US Tour
29 June 1968 – Midsummer High Weekend concert
February – December 1968 – Pink Floyd World Tour 1968
May – September 1969 – The Man and The Journey Tour
25 October 1969 - Actuel Festival Amougies, Belgium
27 June 1970 – The Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music concert
28 June 1970 - The Holland Pop Festival in Kralingen Rotterdam
September 1970 – October 1971 – Atom Heart Mother World Tour
October – November 1971 – Meddle Tour
January 1972 – November 1973 – Dark Side of the Moon Tour
June 1974 – French Summer Tour
November – December 1974 – British Winter Tour
April – July 1975 – Wish You Were Here Tour
January – July 1977 – In the Flesh Tour
February 1980 – June 1981 – The Wall Tour (Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81)
September 1987 – August 1988 – A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (as documented by Delicate Sound of Thunder)
May 1989 – July 1989 – Another Lapse Tour
30 June 1990 – Knebworth Festival concert
18 September 1993 – Cowdray Ruins concert
March – October 1994 – The Division Bell Tour (as documented by Pulse)
17 January 1996 – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance
2 July 2005 – Live 8 concert
10 May 2007 – Syd Barrett Tribute concert
Notable performance history
Barrett era
The earliest shows for what is considered to be "Pink Floyd" occurred in 1965 and included Bob Klose as a member of the band, which at the time played mainly R&B covers. Klose left the band after 1965. The remaining four members played very small (generally no more than 50 people), mostly unadvertised shows at the Marquee Club in London through June 1966. The set list continued to include R&B, but some original psychedelia was also being introduced.
On 30 September 1966, Pink Floyd were invited to play All Saint's Church Hall to raise money for the nascent International Times newspaper, and quickly became the "house band". At these shows, the band began its use of visual effects and gradually stopped covering R&B. Word of these shows quickly spread in the London underground culture and soon the band became very well-attended and developed a cult following. On 23 December 1966, the first of the "International Times" associated gigs to be held at the UFO Club was performed. Mainstream interest about the counter-culture was increasing and a very small portion of their 20 January 1967 show at the UFO Club was broadcast as part of Granada TV's documentary entitled It's So Far Out, It's Straight Down, which constitutes the first audial or visual record of the band live.
Pink Floyd were among the 30 bands that played The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream benefit gig organised for the "International Times" legal defence fund and held at the Alexandra Palace in London on the eve of 30 April 1967. Some of the other bands who played were The Who, The Move, The Pretty Things, Soft Machine, Tomorrow and The Creation. Notables in attendance included musician John Lennon, artist John Dunbar, actor Michael Caine, artist and musician Yoko Ono, actress Julie Christie, musician Mick Jagger and artist David Hockney. Although both the BBC and filmmaker Peter Whitehead filmed portions of the event, there is no known footage of Pink Floyd.
On 12 May 1967, Pink Floyd performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall in London a concert entitled Games for May. At this show, they debuted a multi-speaker pan pot system controlled by a joystick from the stage that allowed them to move the sound to anywhere a speaker had been set up. This precursor to their later "Azimuth Coordinator" unfortunately was stolen after the show.
After their debut single, "Arnold Layne", charted well in the UK, the band was invited to perform on the BBC2 music show The Look of the Week on 14 May 1967. The setlist for the broadcast consisted of "Pow R. Toc H." and "Astronomy Domine". This was their first British television appearance.
Pink Floyd were invited to appear on the BBC2 music show Top of the Pops in July 1967 for three weeks after their second single "See Emily Play" reached No. 6 on the UK charts. By this time Syd Barrett's behavior had become somewhat unpredictable. On one occasion, the increasingly difficult Barrett remarked that if John Lennon did not have to appear on Top of the Pops neither did he. Consequently, their management company, Blackhill Enterprises, convinced the band to cancel all of their August shows and go to Spain to recuperate.
Increasingly, throughout the summer and into the fall of 1967, copious drug use (especially LSD) and pressure by the record company to constantly write new hit songs continued to take a toll on Barrett's mental state. He became unable to make a meaningful contribution to the group on stage, playing his guitar incoherently and sometimes not playing at all. By the time of the band's first tour of the US in early November 1967, his condition was plainly showing. He stared blankly into space on their 4 November American Bandstand performance, listlessly strummed and barely managed to mime the vocals to "Apples and Oranges". On 5 November, things got worse: they appeared on The Pat Boone Show and Barrett sat in stubborn silence, refusing to answer any question put to him. He also refused to mime "See Emily Play": Waters was forced to mime the track instead (Waters confirmed this on the VH1's Legends: Pink Floyd episode). After 22 December show, the rest of the band quietly put out the word that they were in need of a guitarist.
Although both Jeff Beck and Davy O'List were considered, it was David Gilmour, then unobligated, who was brought on to augment Barrett as need arose during live shows. For the first four shows of 1968, Pink Floyd was a five-man live act again. When they were on the way to their show at Southampton University on 26 January 1968, they decided not to pick up Barrett.
Transition and experimentation
A typical 1968 set list would include some of the following:
"Astronomy Domine"
"Interstellar Overdrive"
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"
"Pow R. Toc H."
"Let There Be More Light"
"The Massed Gadgets of Hercules" (first performed on 23 May 1968, renamed "A Saucerful of Secrets" )
"Flaming"
"Keep Smiling People" (a prototype version of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene")
Although their management company Blackhill Enterprises parted ways with them over their decision about Syd Barrett on 29 June 1968, Pink Floyd headlined the first free Hyde Park concert organized by Blackhill. Others performing were Tyrannosaurus Rex, Roy Harper and Jethro Tull.
A second tour of the US during July and August 1968 (see A Saucerful of Secrets US Tour) was launched to tie into the release of their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets. Increasingly throughout 1968 and 1969, shows consisted of post-Barrett compositions, with notable exceptions being "Astronomy Domine" and "Interstellar Overdrive", both of which were performed into the 1970s. Their audiences changed during this time as well: while Barrett-era crowds consisted mainly of hippies who would dance in time with the music, they now drew more "intellectual" crowd, who would sit and remain quiet until the last note of a song was played. By early 1969, most of their excess earnings were funneled into upgrading their sound equipment rather than maintaining a permanent light show. If visuals were to be used at all, they had to be provided by the venue or the local promoter.
A typical 1969 set list would include some of the following:
See: The Man And The Journey Tour
"The Man/The Journey"
"Astronomy Domine"
"Interstellar Overdrive"
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"
"Pow R. Toc H."
"Let There Be More Light"
"A Saucerful of Secrets"
"Cymbaline"
"Green is the Colour"
"Main Theme" (rarely played)
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
The shows at Mothers, Birmingham on 27 April 1969 and the College of Commerce, Manchester on 2 May 1969 were recorded for the live part of the Ummagumma album. One source also claims that the show at Bromley Technical College on 26 April 1969 was also recorded for the album.
On 14 April 1969, at Royal Festival Hall, they debuted their new pan pot 360 degree sound system dubbed the "Azimuth Coordinator". This show, named "More Furious Madness from the Massed Gadgets of Auximenes", consisted of two experimental "suites", "The Man" and "The Journey". Most of the songs were either renamed earlier material or under a different name than they would eventually be released.
A UK tour occurred during May and June 1969 culminating in the show dubbed "The Final Lunacy" at Royal Albert Hall on 26 June 1969. Considered one of the most experimental concerts by Pink Floyd, it featured a crew member dressed as a gorilla, a cannon that fired, and band members sawing wood on the stage. At the finale of "The Journey" suite the band was joined on stage by the brass section of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the ladies of the Ealing Central Amateur Choir, and at the very end a huge pink smoke bomb was let off.
An additional complete performance of "The Man/The Journey" occurred at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam on 17 September and was taped and later broadcast by Dutch radio station Hilversum 3. Portions of the suites were being performed as late as early 1970.
The "Atom Heart Mother" era
A typical 1970 set list would include some of the following:
"Astronomy Domine"
"Interstellar Overdrive"
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"
"A Saucerful of Secrets"
"Cymbaline"
"Green is the Colour"
"Main Theme" (rarely played, and only in early 1970)
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
"Sysyphus" pts. 1-4 (rarely played, and only in early 1970)
"Grantchester Meadows"
"Embryo"
"The Violent Sequence" (rarely played, and only in early 1970)
"Heart Beat, Pig Meat" performed at Manchester Opera House on 8 February 1970
"Atom Heart Mother"
"Fat Old Sun" (beginning in September)
"Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" (only played a few times in December)
Early in 1970, Pink Floyd performed at gigs a piece from their film soundtrack for Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point referred to as "The Violent Sequence". This was the musical basis for "Us and Them", from their The Dark Side of the Moon album. Lacking only the lyrics, it is identical to the final song and is the earliest part of the seminal album to have been performed live. The song "Embryo" was also a part of the live repertoire around this time, but was never to appear on a studio album, until the compilation album Works.
On 18 January 1970 (possibly 17 January 1970), the band began performing a then untitled instrumental piece, which would eventually become the title track to their next album Atom Heart Mother. At this point, it had no orchestra or choir accompaniment. The song officially debuted at the Bath Festival, Somerset England on 27 June 1970 under the title "The Amazing Pudding" (later the name of a Pink Floyd fanzine) and for the first time with orchestra and choir accompaniment.
Announced as "The Atom Heart Mother" by the British broadcaster John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show "Peel's Sunday Concert" on 16 July 1970, a name suggested by him to the band, it was also announced as "The Atomic Heart Mother" two days later at the Hyde Park free concert. Partly because of the difficulties of finding and hiring local orchestras and choirs, the band often played what is referred to as the "small band" version of the song when they performed it live.
On 28 June 1970 Fink Floyd was the end-performance of the Kralingen Music Festival or "Stamping Ground" in a park near Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
On 18 July Pink Floyd headlined a free concert in Hyde Park organised by Blackhill Enterprises. They closed the show with Atom Heart Mother, which had been given the name after Roger Waters read an article in a newspaper about a woman who had been given a prototype heart pacemaker
Pink Floyd also appeared at a Free festival In Canterbury on 31 August which was filmed. This was the end leg of the Medicine Ball Caravan tour organised by Warner Brothers, which was later made into a film of the same name. It appears that the Pink Floyd footage was not included in the movie but spectators report that Atom Heart Mother was part of the set that was recorded. The audience must have been one of the smallest to see Pink Floyd at this era, only 1500 were present as the festival was not widely promoted.
In contrast, over 500,000 people witnessed their show at Fête de L'Humanité, Paris on 12 September 1970, their largest crowd ever. Filmed by French TV, the show was never broadcast.
Experimental on the album Atom Heart Mother, the song "Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" was performed at a few gigs in December 1970. "Breakfast" being made was part of the song. The first part of this lasted around four minutes. The second part of "breakfast" preparation was around a minute followed by a 3-minute tape of British DJ Jimmy Young, whom the band disliked.
For a great recording of some of their material from this period check out the Fillmore West show in San Francisco, California on 29 April 1970 on Wolfgang's Vault. This show includes material from Ummagumma and Atom Heart Mother.
Early performances of "Echoes"
A typical 1971 set list would include some of the following:
"Astronomy Domine" (dropped from the setlist in June)
"Interstellar Overdrive" (dropped from the setlist in November 1970)
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"
"A Saucerful of Secrets"
"Cymbaline"
"Green Is the Colour" (dropped from the setlist in August)
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
"Embryo"
"Atom Heart Mother"
"Fat Old Sun"
"Echoes"
"One of These Days" (beginning in late September / early October)
January 1971 saw the band working on a track in the studio of then unconnected parts whose working title was either "Nothing — Parts 1 to 24" or "Nothing Parts 1–36". This song made its live debut under the working title "Return of the Son of Nothing" on 22 April 1971 in Norwich, England and like "Atom Heart Mother" before it, it was a work in progress. This was later to be released as "Echoes" on the album Meddle.
Although announced as "Echoes" on 6 August 1971 at Hakone, Japan, the song was still performed with the additional lyrics at later August gigs. The show on 18 September 1971 at Montreux, Switzerland and subsequent shows do not have the additional lyrics. In 1972, during a German tour, Waters sardonically introduced Echoes as "Looking Through the Knotholes in Granny's Wooden Leg" (a Goon Show reference) on one occasion and "The March of the Dam Busters" on another. On another occasion, during a live radio broadcast, Waters had instructed compére John Peel to announce "One of These Days" to the home audience as "A poignant appraisal of the contemporary social situation."
After the band's Crystal Palace Garden Party performance (London, 15 May 1971), it was discovered that the use of fireworks caused some fishes to die, in a pond directly in front of the stage. The band was subsequently pressured to compensate for the damage.
Eclipse - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics
A typical 1972 set list included:
First Set:
"Breathe in the Air"
"The Travel Sequence"
"Time"
"Home Again"
"The Mortality Sequence" (aka "Religion")
"Money"
"The Violent Sequence"
"Scat"
"Lunatic"
"Eclipse"
Second Set:
"One of These Days"
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" (or as an encore)
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (or as an encore)
"Echoes" (or as an encore)
"Atom Heart Mother" (rarely, last performance on 22 May 1972)
"A Saucerful of Secrets" (rarely in second set, usually as an encore)
"Childhood's End" (rarely, introduced in November 1972)
Encore:
Rotated one of these three songs:
"A Saucerful of Secrets" (last performance on 23 September 1972)
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" (or in second set)
"Echoes" (or in second set)
Occasionally, multiple song encores were performed, adding:
"Blues"
Playing 98 shows (the most until 1994), 1972 was the last time Pink Floyd varied their set lists each night on a tour until their final one. Songs played in the second set and encore were swapped constantly, and the band even varied the number of songs played in the encore from the usual one, to two or three.
1972 saw Pink Floyd debut the performance of a not just a song (like on previous tours), but an entire album prior to its release. The original title was Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics), then The Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, the name under which it made its press debut in February 1972 at London's Rainbow Theatre. The title changed for the first part of the US tour to Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics) during April and May before reverting to Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics in September for the second part of the US tour and finally released in 1973 under the title of Dark Side of the Moon.
One of the two shows at The Dome, Brighton, England on 28 June and 29 June was filmed by Peter Clifton for inclusion on his film Sounds of the City. Clips of these appear occasionally on television and the performance of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" is on the various artists video Superstars in Concert.
In November 1972, during the middle of the European leg of their 1972 world tour and again in January 1973, Pink Floyd performed with the Roland Petit Ballet. The portion of the setlist for which the ballet was choreographed was "One of These Days", "Careful with That Axe, Eugene", "Obscured by Clouds", "When You're In" and "Echoes".
Dark Side of the Moon
An early 1973 set list (until mid-March) included:
First Set:
"Echoes"
"Obscured by Clouds"/"When You're In" (The two songs incorporated into a longer piece with a jamming guitar & keyboard section in the middle)
"Childhood's End" (rarely)
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
Second Set:
The Dark Side of the Moon entire album
Encore:
"One of These Days"
For the remainder of 1973 (except 4 November), the set list included:
First Set:
"Obscured by Clouds"
"When You're In"
"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
"Echoes"
Second Set:
The Dark Side of the Moon entire album
Encore:
"One of These Days"
In 1973, the band moved Dark Side of the Moon to the second set (where it would reside through 1975), and played the album version of the piece, notably the revamped versions of "On the Run" and "The Great Gig in the Sky." 1973 saw Pink Floyd go on two relatively short tours of the US, one in March to coincide with the release of The Dark Side of the Moon and a later one in June. Sandwiched between them were two nights at London's Earl's Court on 18 May and 19 May where they debuted the special effect of a plane crashing into the stage at the end of the song "On the Run". This was also the first year that the band took additional musicians on tour with them, unlike the earlier performances of "Atom Heart Mother" where the band would often hire local musicians.
Because of the overwhelming chart success of both The Dark Side of the Moon, which reached No. 1 in the US in late April, No. 2 in the UK, and the US-released single "Money", the nature of Pink Floyd's audiences changed in June 1973. David Gilmour said of the change "It was 'Money' that made the difference rather than 'The Dark Side of the Moon'. It gave us a much larger following, for which we should be thankful. ... People at the front shouting, 'Play Money! Gimme something I can shake my ass to!' We had to get used to it, but previously we'd been playing to 10,000 seaters where, in the quiet passages, you could hear a pin drop." They could now sell out stadiums.
On 4 November 1973, Pink Floyd played two shows at London's Rainbow Theatre to benefit musician Robert Wyatt formerly the drummer of Soft Machine, a band they'd played with in their UFO Club days. Wyatt fell from a fourth floor window in June 1973, breaking his back and making him a paraplegic. The set list for these two shows were:
Main Set:
The Dark Side of the Moon entire album
Encore:
"Obscured by Clouds"
"When You're In"
1974 Tours
A French Summer Tour set list would include all of the following:
"Raving and Drooling"
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond"
"Echoes"
The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album)
Encore (one of the following):
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene"
"One of These Days"
A British Winter Tour set list included all of the following:
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond"
"Raving and Drooling"
"You've Got to be Crazy"
The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album)
Encore:
"Echoes"
These early versions of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "Raving and Drooling" & "You've Got to be Crazy" were released as part of the Wish You Were Here Experience and Immersion sets.
1975 North America Tour & Knebworth '75
A typical 1975 set would include all of the following:
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts I-V)"
"Have a Cigar"
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts VI-IX)"
"Raving and Drooling"
"You've Got to be Crazy"
The Dark Side of the Moon (entire album)
Encore:
"Echoes"
In 1975, the band launched a short tour that ended two months prior to the release of Wish You Were Here, which eventually sold out stadiums and arenas across America.
The last gig of the tour was as the headliner of the 1975 Knebworth Festival, which also featured The Steve Miller Band, Captain Beefheart and Roy Harper (who joined Pink Floyd on the stage to sing "Have a Cigar"). It was the second Knebworth Festival, which featured artists such as The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Genesis and Frank Zappa between 1974 and 1979.
Despite some technical problems, the band managed to perform a remarkable concert, which as well as the usual special effects featured a fly-past by a pair of Spitfires. This was supposed to synchronise with the start of 'Breathe' but the band had tuning difficulties and the planes flew over before the start of the set. Knebworth was the last time the band would perform "Echoes" and the entire Dark Side of the Moon with Roger Waters.
In the Flesh
A typical 1977 set list would include the following:
Animals (entire album)
Wish You Were Here (entire album)
Encore:
"Money"
"Us and Them"
"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (performed once in Oakland, California)
"More Blues" (performed once in Montreal, Quebec, Canada)
In 1977, Pink Floyd embarked on a world tour in support of the "Animals" album. Although the album had not sold as well as their two previous releases, "Dark Side Of The Moon" and "Wish You Were Here", the band's popularity was at an all-time high. The band managed to sell out arenas and stadiums in both Europe and America, setting attendance records all along the way. In Chicago, the band played to an estimated audience of 95,000; in Cleveland and Montreal, they set attendance records for those venues by playing to over 80,000 people. The "In The Flesh" tour would later become widely known as their most memorable series of concert performances, and the last in which Roger Waters would accompany the band. The elaborate stage presentations, particularly those constructed for the outdoor venues, were their most complex and elaborate to date. Designed by Mark Fisher and Andrew Sanders, they featured a pyrotechnic "waterfall", umbrella-like canopies that could be deployed to protect the band from the elements, and a variety of characters associated with the "Animals" album; including "Algie", a 40-foot long inflatable pig that drifted out over the audience, the "Average American family" (which, at the time, included Mom, Dad and 2.5 children), and paper sheep that parachuted down on the crowds after being shot from cannons mounted to the sides of the stage. The musicians that accompanied the band on the tour included veteran saxophone player Dick Parry (occasionally playing keyboards as well) and guitarist Snowy White, who also filled in on bass guitar for some songs.
In the first half of each show, the band played all of the songs from Animals, but in a slightly different sequence than the album (typically starting with "Sheep", then "Pigs On the Wing (Part 1)", "Dogs", "Pigs On the Wing (Part 2)" and "Pigs (Three Different Ones)"). The second half of the shows consisted of Wish You Were Here being played in its exact running order ("Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 1-5)", "Welcome to the Machine", "Have a Cigar", "Wish You Were Here" and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 6-9)"). The encores would usually consist of either "Money" or "Us and Them" from Dark Side of the Moon or both. At the Oakland, California show on May 9, they played "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" as a third encore, the last time the song was ever performed live.
The tour started in Dortmund, West Germany on 23 January and proceeded through Europe, ending in Stafford, England on 31 March. Three weeks later, the North American leg of the tour opened in Miami, Florida on 22 April, concluding in Montreal, Quebec on 6 July. The show in Oakland, California on 9 May is widely regarded as one of the band's finest performances ever. During "Have a Cigar," Waters and Gilmour can be heard laughing as they sing part of the opening line. In the run-up to the band's four-night run at Madison Square Garden in New York City (1–4 July), tour promoters used an aggressive marketing strategy, filling pages of The New York Times and Billboard magazine with ads. In May, there was a Pink Floyd parade on 6th Avenue featuring both inflatable and live animals.
Another memorable performance occurred in Cleveland, Ohio on 25 June. The show was held at Cleveland Municipal Stadium, just a short distance from Burke Lakefront Airport. Most of the shows opened with a recording of jet airplane taking off, but promoters secretly arranged for the band's Boeing 737 jet to do a low flyover directly over the stadium as the show opened. The FAA later fined the promoters $1,500 over the incident. The show was also delayed briefly by a fan that grabbed the tether line for the inflatable pig and wouldn't release it. At their performance in Boston two nights later, Waters jokingly said "We're going to take a PIG break, back in 20 minutes". He closed the show by gratefully commenting that this had been "the perfect end to the perfect day, good night and God bless".
As the tour began, everyone was in good spirits, but the later shows were marred by Roger Waters' increasing annoyance with the raucous fans in attendance. During the last show in Montreal, a noisy fan near the stage irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat on him. The act so disgusted David Gilmour that he left the stage prior to the final encore, "More Blues", leaving Snowy White to fill in as the roadies began dismantling the stage equipment. The insatiable audience clamored for the band to keep playing, and a small riot broke out in front of the stage following the band's eventual exit. Later that night, Waters recounted the incident to his friend, music producer Bob Ezrin, and expressed his growing feelings of alienation toward their fans. Those feeling of detachment became the starting and focal point for Pink Floyd's next album, The Wall.
The Wall live
The 1980/1981 set lists comprised the entire album, The Wall.
Pink Floyd mounted its most elaborate stage show in conjunction with the tour of The Wall. A band of session musicians played the first song, wearing rubber face masks taken from the real band members, then backed up the band for the remainder of the show. Most notable was the giant wall constructed between the band and the audience.
The costs of the tour were estimated to have reached US$1.5 million even before the first performance. The New York Times stated in its 2 March 1980 edition that:
The 'Wall' show remains a milestone in rock history though and there's no point in denying it. Never again will one be able to accept the technical clumsiness, distorted sound and meagre visuals of most arena rock concerts as inevitable" and concluded that "the 'Wall' show will be the touchstone against which all future rock spectacles must be measured. The show was designed by Mark Fisher with Art Direction by Gerald Scarfe.
The Wall concert was only performed a handful of times each in four cities: Los Angeles, Uniondale (Long Island), Dortmund, and London (at Earl's Court). The primary 'tour' occurred in 1980, but the band performed eight shows at Dortmund (14–20 February 1981) and five more shows at Earl's Court (13–17 June) for filming, with the intention of integrating the shows into the upcoming movie. The resulting footage was deemed substandard and scrapped; years later, Roger Waters has given conflicted answers on the status of the concert films stating from "trying to locate this footage for historical purposes but was unsuccessful and considers it to be lost forever" to "I have all of the film but am reluctant to release". There are several unofficial videos of the entire live show in circulation and some footage is shown on the Behind the Wall documentary.
Gilmour and Mason attempted to convince Waters to expand the show for a more lucrative, large-scale stadium tour, but because of the nature of the material (one of the primary themes is the distance between an artist and his audience) Waters balked at this. In fact, Waters had reportedly been offered a guaranteed US$1 million for each additional stadium concert, but declined the offer, insisting that such a tour would be hypocritical.
These shows are documented on the album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980-81.
Waters recreated the Wall show in Berlin in 1990, alongside the ruins of the Berlin Wall, and was joined by a number of guest artists (including Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Van Morrison, The Band, Tim Curry, Cyndi Lauper, Sinéad O'Connor, Marianne Faithfull, Joni Mitchell, Ute Lemper and Thomas Dolby). This concert was even bigger than the previous ones, as Waters built a long and high wall. The size of the theatrical features of The Wall were increased to cater for a sold-out audience of 200,000 people and of another estimated 500 million, in 35 countries, watching on television. After the concert began, the gates were opened and an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people were able to watch the concert. This show is available on The Wall Live in Berlin album and DVD.
Roger staged another tour of The Wall in 2010 saying of the story "It has occurred to me that maybe the story of my fear and loss with its concomitant inevitable residue of ridicule, shame and punishment, provides an allegory for broader concerns: Nationalism, racism, sexism, religion, Whatever! All these issues and ‘isms are driven by the same fears that drove my young life."
A Momentary Lapse of Reason
After the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987, Pink Floyd embarked on an 11-week tour to promote the album. The two remaining members of the band, David Gilmour and Nick Mason, along with Richard Wright, had just won a legal battle against Roger Waters and the future of the group was uncertain. Having the success of The Wall shows to live up to, the concerts' special effects were more impressive than ever. The initial "promotional tour" was extended, and finally lasted almost two years, ending in 1989 after playing around 200 concerts to about 5.5 million people in total, including 3 dates at Madison Square Garden (5–7 October 1987) and 2 nights on Wembley Stadium (5–6 August 1988). The tour took Pink Floyd to various exotic locations they had never played before such as shows in the forecourt of the Palace of Versailles, Moscow's Olympic Stadium, and Venice, despite fears and protests that the sound would damage the latter city's foundations.
These shows are documented by the Delicate Sound of Thunder album and video.
Pink Floyd was the second highest grossing act of 1987 and the highest grossing of 1988 in the U.S. Financially, Pink Floyd was the biggest act of these two years combined, grossing almost US$60 million from touring, about the same as U2 and Michael Jackson, their closest rivals, combined. Worldwide, the band grossed around US$135 million.
The tour marked the first time that the band played in Russia, Norway, Spain, New Zealand and was the first time they had played in Australia since 1973.
A further concert was held at the Knebworth Festival in 1990, a charity event that also featured other Silver Clef Award winners. Pink Floyd was the last act to play, to an audience of 125,000. During this gig Clare Torry sang backing vocals making it the second and last time she did so. Vicki and Sam Brown also attended as backing vocalists, as well as Candy Dulfer with a saxophone solo. The £60,000 firework display that ended the concert was entirely financed by the band.
The Division Bell
The Division Bell Tour in 1994 was promoted by Canadian concert impresario Michael Cohl and became the highest-grossing tour in rock music history to that date, with the band playing the entirety of The Dark Side of the Moon in some shows, for the first time since 1975.
The concerts featured more elaborate special effects than the previous tour, including two custom designed airships. The arch-shaped stage was designed by Marc Brickman and Mark Fisher with lighting by Marc Brickman. Three stages leapfrogged around North America and Europe, each long and featuring a arch modelled on the Hollywood Bowl. All in all, the tour required 700 tons of steel carried by 53 articulated trucks, a crew of 161 people and an initial investment of US$4 million plus US$25 million of running costs just to stage. This tour played to 5.5 million people in 68 cities; each concert gathered an average 45,000 audience. At the end of the year, the Division Bell Tour was announced as the biggest tour ever, with worldwide gross of over £150 million (about US$250 million). In the U.S. alone, it grossed US$103.5 million from 59 concerts. However, this record was short-lived; less than a year later, The Rolling Stones' Voodoo Lounge Tour (like the Division Bell Tour, also sponsored in part by Volkswagen) finished with a worldwide gross of over US$300 million. The Stones and U2 (with their Vertigo Tour) remain the only acts ever to achieve a higher worldwide gross from a tour, even when adjusting for inflation.
These shows are documented by the Pulse album and Pulse (1995 film).
Post-Pulse era
1996: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance
In 1996, Gilmour and Wright performed "Wish You Were Here" with Billy Corgan (of The Smashing Pumpkins fame) at their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction.
2001: David Gilmour & Nick Mason statements about Pink Floyd touring again in the future
In an interview with BBC Radio 2 in October, 2001, Gilmour implied that the Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd compilation (released in November 2001) "probably" signaled the end of the band. "You never know exactly what the future (holds)", Gilmour said. "I'm not going to slam any doors too firmly, but I don't see myself doing any more of that, and I certainly don't see myself going out on a big Floyd tour again." A few days later in an interview with Launch.com, Nick Mason contradicted the statement, saying "I don't feel I've retired yet. You know, if everyone wanted to, we could certainly still do something. I've spent 30 years waiting for the planets to align. I'm quite used to it."
2002: David Gilmour in Concert DVD release
David Gilmour released a solo concert DVD called David Gilmour in Concert in November 2002 which was compiled from shows on 22 June 2001 and 17 January 2002 at The Royal Festival Hall in London. Richard Wright, Robert Wyatt, and Bob Geldof (Pink in The Wall film) make guest appearances.
2003: Steve O'Rourke's funeral performance
Longtime manager Steve O'Rourke died on 30 October 2003. Gilmour, Mason and Wright performed "Fat Old Sun" and "The Great Gig in the Sky" at his funeral at Chichester Cathedral, contrary to reports in the media claiming they played "Wish You Were Here".
2005: Live 8 performance
On 2 July 2005 Pink Floyd performed at the London Live 8 concert with Roger Waters rejoining David Gilmour, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. It was the quartet's first performance together in over 24 years — the band's last show with Waters was at Earls Court in London on 17 June 1981.
Gilmour announced the Live 8 reunion on 12 June 2005:
The band's set consisted of "Speak to Me/Breathe/Breathe (Reprise)", "Money", "Wish You Were Here", and "Comfortably Numb". This is the only known occurrence when Pink Floyd played "Breathe" and "Breathe (Reprise)" together as a single piece. As on the original recordings, Gilmour sang the lead vocals on "Breathe" and "Money", and shared them with Waters on "Comfortably Numb". For "Wish You Were Here", Waters sang half of the verse's lyrics, unlike the original recording. When Waters was not singing, he was often enthusiastically mouthing the lyrics off-microphone. During the guitar introduction of "Wish You Were Here", Waters said:
They were augmented by guitarist/bassist Tim Renwick (guitarist on Roger Waters' 1984 solo tour, who has since become Pink Floyd's backing guitarist on stage); keyboardist/lap steel guitarist/backup vocalist Jon Carin (Pink Floyd's backing keyboardist from 1987 onward who performed on the 1999–2000 North American leg of Waters' "In the Flesh" tour, his 2006–2008 "Dark Side of the Moon Live" tour, his 2010–2011 "The Wall" tour and David Gilmour's 2006 On an Island tour); saxophonist Dick Parry during "Money" (who played on the original recordings of "Money", "Us and Them", and "Shine on You Crazy Diamond"); and backing singer Carol Kenyon during "Comfortably Numb". During "Breathe", on the screen behind them, film of the iconic pig from the Animals album was shown flying over Battersea Power Station (itself visible on the horizon in television broadcasts of the performance), and during "Money", a shot of The Dark Side of the Moon record being played was shown. During "Comfortably Numb", the three giant screens showed the Pink Floyd Wall (from the cover of The Wall), and during the final guitar solo, the words "Make Poverty History" were written on the wall.
At the end, after the last song had been played, Gilmour said "thank you very much, good night" and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, however, and the band shared a group hug that became one of the most famous pictures of Live 8. As they proceeded to walk off, Nick Mason threw his drumsticks into the audience. With Wright's subsequent death, in September 2008, this was to be the final concert to feature all four bandmates playing together.
2007: Syd Barrett tribute concert
On 10 May 2007 Pink Floyd (Wright, Gilmour and Mason), joined by Andy Bell of Oasis on bass and Jon Carin on keys, performed at London's Barbican Centre as part of "The Madcap's Last Laugh", a tribute concert for Syd Barrett who had died the previous year. They played "Arnold Layne", and later joined other artists to perform "Bike". This would be the last time Wright appeared as part of Pink Floyd, before his own death the following year.
Roger Waters appeared in the concert performing his own song "Flickering Flame", also with Jon Carin on keys, but did not take part in either song with the members of Pink Floyd.
In 2020, the live recording of "Arnold Layne" from this concert was released as a single for Record Store Day.
Backing musicians
See: Pink Floyd live backing musicians
Because of the increasingly complex nature of Pink Floyd's music, more and more musicians besides the band were required on stage to recreate sounds achieved in the studio. Some performances of Atom Heart Mother featured an entire orchestra and choir, reputedly a nightmare to bring on tour. Less 'weighty' contributions from other musicians followed. In 1973 Dick Parry provided saxophone for Dark Side of the Moon and reprised this for live performances in every subsequent tour except those promoting The Wall and A Momentary Lapse of Reason, the latter in which Scott Page provided sax. For 1977's Animals promotion, Snowy White was brought in as an additional guitarist. He returned for The Wall shows along with a complete "surrogate band" consisting of Peter Wood (keyboards), Willie Wilson (drums) and Andy Bown (bass). Andy Roberts replaced White for the 1981 shows. For the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours, Jon Carin (whom David Gilmour had met at Live Aid playing in Bryan Ferry's backing band) provided additional synthesizers and keyboards, Guy Pratt replaced Roger Waters on bass, Tim Renwick provided additional guitar and Gary Wallis additional percussion. Several backing vocalists, (the most notable of whom are Rachel Fury, Clare Torry, Sam Brown, Margaret Taylor, Durga McBroom and Carol Kenyon) have accompanied the band on and off from Dark Side of the Moon onwards. During their performance at Live 8, Pink Floyd used Tim Renwick, Jon Carin, Dick Parry and Carol Kenyon.
Notes
References
Fitch, Vernon. The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia, 2005,
Mason, Nick. Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd, 2004.
Schaffner, Nicholas. Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, 1991.
Povey, Glenn and Russell, Ian. Pink Floyd: In The Flesh: the complete performance history, 1997.
Scarfe, Gerald. "The Making of Pink Floyd: The Wall", 2010.
External links
Mark Fisher's Pink Floyd gallery
Pink Floyd concert tours
Concerts |
4075736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Union%E2%80%93United%20States%20relations | European Union–United States relations | Relations between the European Union and the United States began in 1953, when US diplomats visited the European Coal and Steel Community (the EU precursor, created in 1951) in addition to the national governments of its six founding countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany). The two parties share a good relationship which is strengthened by NATO (a military alliance), cooperation on trade, and shared values.
History
Establishing Diplomatic Relations
Diplomatic relations between the U.S. and the European Community were initiated in 1953 when the first U.S. observers were sent to the European Coal and Steel Community. The U.S. Mission to the ECSC formally opened in Luxembourg in 1956. The Delegation of the European Commission to the United States in Washington, D.C. was established in 1954, and the United States Mission to the European Communities, now the United States Mission to the European Union, was established in 1961 in Brussels. In Brussels on November 25, 2003, and on May 6, 2004, in Washington, D.C., the U.S. and the EU celebrated 50 years of diplomatic ties.
Formalized Cooperation
In 1990, the relations of the U.S. with the European Community were formalized by the adoption of the Transatlantic Declaration. A regular political dialogue between the U.S. and the EC was thereby initiated at various levels, including regular summit meetings. The cooperation focused on the areas of economy, education, science and culture.
The New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA), which was launched at the Madrid summit in 1995, carried the cooperation forward. The NTA contains four broad objectives for U.S.-EU collaboration: promoting peace and stability, democracy and development around the world; responding to global challenges; contributing to the expansion of world trade and closer economic relations; and building bridges Across the Atlantic.
In connection with the adoption of the New Transatlantic Agenda a Joint EU-U.S. Action Plan was drawn up committing the EU and the U.S. to a large number of measures within the overall areas of cooperation. As an extension of the NTA efforts, agreement was reached at the 1998 London summit to intensify cooperation in the area of trade, which resulted in the Transatlantic Economic Partnership (TEP). The TEP covers both bilateral and multilateral trade. Bilaterally, TEP addresses various types of obstacles to trade and strives to establish agreements on mutual recognition in the areas of goods and services. Furthermore, there is cooperation in the areas of public procurement and intellectual property law. Multilaterally, focus is on further liberalization of trade within the World Trade Organization in order to strengthen world trade. The interests of the business sector, the environment and the consumers are to be integrated into this work.
In building bridges across the Atlantic, a number of people-to-people dialogues have been set up. The goal is to enable individual actors to give their opinion. In connection with each summit meeting time is set aside for meetings with representatives of one or more of these dialogues, which include the Transatlantic Business Dialogue (TABD); the Transatlantic Consumer Dialogue (TACD); the Transatlantic Policy Network (TPN), a non-governmental grouping of members of the U.S. Congress and the European Parliament, business leaders and think tanks; the Transatlantic Environmental Dialogue (TAED); and the Transatlantic Legislators Dialogue (TLD).
Together the US and EU dominate global trade, they play the leading roles in international diplomacy and military strength. What each one says matters a great deal to much of the rest of the world. Both the US and the majority of EU member states are members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). And yet they have regularly disagreed with each other on a wide range of specific issues, as well as having often quite different political, economic, and social agendas. Since the EU does not have a fully integrated foreign policy, relations can be more complicated when the member states do not have a common agreed position, as EU foreign policy was divided during the Iraq War. Understanding the relationship today means reviewing developments that predate the creation of the European Economic Community (precursor to today's European Union).
The European experience with the Trump administration (2017–21) left uncertainty vis-à-vis a realistic prospect on long-term predictability of US foreign policy. The period saw a deepening of contradictions between both parties, including trade, climate action and adherence to international treaties.
On December 2, 2020, following the 2020 US presidential election, a joint communication published by the European Commission lined up a proposal for a new agenda of improvement of the EU–US relations with the incoming Biden administration, seeking for partnership in four major policy areas: health response, climate change, trade and tech, and security.
On March 5, 2021, following a call between EU Commission president Ursula von der Leyen and US president Joe Biden, the EU and the US agreed to suspend all the retaliatory tariffs linked to the Airbus and Boeing disputes for a 4-month period.
On September 20, 2021, EU Commission President Ursula Von der Leyen called "not acceptable" the treatment of one of EU's member states (France) over the AUKUS submarine deal, when Australia, the United States and the UK negotiated a defence pact ditching a long-standing Australian agreement with France. Similarly, European Council president Charles Michel denounced a "lack of loyalty" on the part of the US.
The EU–US Trade and Technology Council (TTC) met for the first time on September 29, 2021, in Pittsburgh.
Comparison
Trade
Euro-American relations are primarily concerned with trade policy. The EU is a near-fully unified trade bloc and this, together with competition policy, are the primary matters of substance currently between the EU and the US. The two together represent 60% of global GDP, 33% of world trade in goods and 42% of world trade in services. The growth of the EU's economic power has led to a number of trade conflicts between the two powers; although both are dependent upon the other's economic market and disputes affect only 2% of trade. See below for details of trade flows.
In 2007, a Transatlantic Economic Council was established to direct economic cooperation between the two. It is headed by the US. Deputy National Security Advisor for International Economic Affairs and the EU's Commissioner for Trade. However, it is yet to produce solid results. A Transatlantic Free Trade Area had been proposed in the 1990s and later in 2006 by German Chancellor Angela Merkel in reaction to the collapse of the Doha round of trade talks. However, protectionism on both sides may be a barrier to any future agreement. Recent developments have seen the proposal of a new agreement called the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) between the US and the EU. This agreement has the aim of fostering economic growth through bilateral trade and investments. In August 2019, Trump announced an accord to increase beef exports to the European Union. The US Trade Representative Robert Lighthizer signed agreement with Jani Raappana, representing EU Presidency, and Ambassador Stavros Lambrinidis of the EU delegation.
EU is one of the main trade partners of the US:
In 2016, European-Union (28) is 18.7% of US merchandise exports, and 18.9% of US merchandise imports.
In 2016, European-Union (28) is 30.9% of US commercial services exports, and 35.3% of US commercial services imports
The US is one of the main trade partner of the EU:
In 2016, the US is 20.1% of European-Union (28) merchandise exports, and 14.2% of European-Union (28) merchandise imports.
In 2016, the US is 27.2% of European-Union (28) commercial services exports, and 30.5% of European-Union (28) commercial services imports
In August 2020, the EU and US agreed, for the first time in two decades, to reduce certain tariffs (on a most favoured nation basis, meaning the tariffs are dropped for all trading partners).
Cooperation
Energy and sustainability
The US and EU cooperate on the topic of energy and sustainability. The general aim of both parties is to liberalize and enhance sustainability in the global energy markets. This cooperation officially started in 2009 when the EU-US Energy Council was founded. This institution regularly meets and addresses topics such as: energy security challenges, climate change, renewable energy, nuclear safety and research.
In February 2021, President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen stated that the European Union and United States should join forces in combatting climate change and agreeing on a new framework for the digital market to limit the power of large tech companies. Both the EU and US have set goals by 2050 to cut its net greenhouse gas emissions and to become a 'net zero economy' respectively.
Defense contracts
In March 2010 EADS and its US partner pulled out of a contract to build air refueling planes worth $35 billion. They had previously won the bid but it was rerun and EADS claimed the new process was biased towards Boeing. The European Commission said it would be "highly regrettable" if the tendering process did prove to be biased. There was substantial opposition to EADS in Washington due to the ongoing Boeing-Airbus (owned by EADS) dispute.
Issues
EU–US summits
Summits are held between United States and European Union policy makers. When these take place in Europe, they have historically taken place in the country that holds the rotating Presidency of the European Union.
The United Kingdom was a member of the EU at the time the summit took place.
Boeing and Airbus subsidies
The two companies are the major competing aircraft manufacturers, and both Boeing and Airbus are accused of receiving forms of subsidy from the United States and from some of the European Union member states respectively. Both sides have criticized each other for doing so.
In December 2020, the United States announced plans to impose additional tariffs on certain products from France and Germany, particularly aircraft parts and wines, in retaliation to tariffs imposed by the European Union.
Genetically modified food
Genetically modified food is another significant area of disagreement between the two. The EU has been under domestic pressure to restrict the growth and import of genetically modified foods until their safety is proven to the satisfaction of the populace.
Rendition
The Washington Post claimed on November 2, 2005, that the United States was maintaining several secret jails (or "black sites") in Eastern Europe. Poland and Romania, however, have denied these allegations. Also, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) planes carrying terror suspects would have made secret stopovers in several West European countries since 2001. Belgium, Iceland, Spain, and Sweden have launched investigations. The Guardian calculated on November 30 that CIA planes landed about 300 times on European air ports. Most planes would have landed in Germany and the United Kingdom as a transit point to East Europe, North Africa (possibly Morocco and Egypt), or the Middle East (possibly Syria and Jordan). In the meanwhile, the European Commission, on behalf of the European Union, asked the United States for a clarification. The US has refused to confirm or deny the reports.
Extraordinary rendition flights through Europe were investigated over a number of years by the European Parliament and it held a temporary committee on the matter. The EU has also opposed the use of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp and offered to host some former inmates when its closure was announced by the administration of US President Barack Obama.
Capital punishment
In the United States, capital punishment is a legal form of punishment, whereas all European Union member states have fully abolished it and consider its use to be a violation of fundamental human rights. This occasionally causes problems with EU-US relations, because it is illegal in the European Union to allow the extradition of a citizen to a country where the death penalty is a legal punishment, unless a guarantee is given that such punishment will not be used.
International Criminal Court
Positions in the United States concerning the International Criminal Court vary widely. The Clinton Administration signed the Rome Statute in 2000, but did not submit it for Senate ratification. The Bush Administration, the US administration at the time of the ICC's founding, stated that it would not join the ICC. The Obama Administration has subsequently re-established a working relationship with the court.
Iraq War
The Iraq War divided opinions within European nations and within the United States, with some states supporting of military action, and some against. The European public opinion was staunchly opposed to the war. This caused a major transatlantic rift, especially between the states led by France and Germany on the one hand, who were against military action, and the United States with United Kingdom, Italy, Spain and Poland.
Kyoto Protocol
The European Union is one of the main backers of the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to combat global warming. The United States which initially signed the protocol at its creation during the Clinton Administration, never had the measure ratified by the United States Senate, an essential requirement to give the protocol the force of law in the United States. Later, in March 2001, under President George W. Bush, the United States removed its signature from the protocol, leading to much acrimony between the United States and European nations. In 2008, President Barack Obama said that he planned on setting annual targets to reduce emissions, although this doesn't include the Kyoto Protocol—likely because developing nations are exempt.
Visa waiver reciprocity
The EU is requesting from the US reciprocity regarding the visa waiver program for all its members. The European Union has threatened with the possibility of imposing visas for American citizens that would extend to the entire EU, excluding France in respect of its Outermost Regions, and Ireland, which operate visa policies distinct from the Schengen acquis. In 2008, many of the EU's new Central European members were granted visa-free access to the US, and currently, three out of 27 EU members (Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Romania) lack such access.
Privacy
In the autumn of 2015, in the wake of the Snowden revelations in Europe (see details), the dissimilar interpretations of privacy prevailing in the United States and Europe came to the surface in an upset of the International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles by a court ruling of the European Court of Justice.
Nord Stream
In mid-June 2017, Germany and Austria issued a joint statement that said the proposed anti-Russian Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act bill heralded a "new and very negative quality in European-American relations" and that certain provisions affecting gas pipeline projects with Russia were an illegal threat to EU energy security.
On July 26, 2017, France's foreign ministry described the new U.S. sanctions as illegal under international law due to their extraterritorial reach.
At the end of July 2017, the proposed law's Russia sanctions caused harsh criticism and threats of retaliatory measures on the part of the European Union President Jean-Claude Juncker. Germany's minister for Economics and Energy Brigitte Zypries described the sanctions as illegal under international law and urged the European Union to take appropriate counter-measures.
Spying
Secret documents obtained by German news magazine Der Spiegel in 2013 state that European Union offices in the United States and United Nations headquarters have been targeted for spying by the National Security Agency (NSA), an intelligence office operated by the United States government. The reports revealed that the United States bugged offices, accessed internal computer networks, obtained documents and emails, and listened to phone calls. Subsequent reports from the media further state that domestic European Union offices in Brussels have also been targeted; along with EU offices, embassies of India, Japan, Mexico, South Korea and Turkey are also listed as targets in the documents. On June 30, 2013, the President of the European Parliament, Martin Schulz demanded for a full clarification from Washington and stated that if the allegations were true, EU and US relations would be severely impacted.
Fall of Afghanistan
The fall of Afghanistan in August 2021 had a negative impact on European Union–United States relations.
Dispute with China
While most Americans see China as a rival (52%) or an enemy (38%), Europeans have more mixed attitudes toward China, according to a recent Pew Research Center study. On average, 43% of Europeans see China as "a necessary partner" compared to 24% who see the country as a rival or 11% as an enemy.
Resolved
Banana wars
The EU and the US have had a long-running dispute over the EU's banana imports. As part of their international aid, the EU offered tenders, on a first-come-first-served basis, for bananas from countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific. The United States argued that it favored local producers in former colonies of EU member-states over US-owned corporations in Latin America. The Clinton administration responded by imposing heavy tariffs on luxury goods created in the EU. Such goods included cashmere from Scotland and French Cognac brandy, made in the original constituency of then Prime Minister of France Jean-Pierre Raffarin. The Clinton administration then took the banana wars to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1999, after Chiquita made a $500,000 donation to the Democratic Party. The two sides reached an agreement in 2001.
Delegations
Diplomatic relations are maintained between the US and the EU, as an independent body, as well as all EU member states.
The EU is represented in the US by the Delegation of the European Union to the United States in Washington, D.C. Opened in 1954, it was the first overseas delegation of the EU's forerunner, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The current EU ambassador to the United States, since 2014, is David O'Sullivan. Additionally, all 27 EU member states have an embassy in Washington, D.C.
The United States' diplomatic mission to the EU is the United States Mission to the European Union in Brussels. The current US ambassador to the EU, since 2014, is Anthony Gardner. The United States established a diplomatic mission to the ECSC in 1956 in the city of Luxembourg and, in 1961, the United States Mission to the European Communities in Brussels. The US has embassies in all 27 EU member states.
The Transatlantic Economic Council is a bilateral forum for economic cooperation between the EU and US established during the 2007 US-EU Summit. It meets at least once per year and is jointly headed by the US Deputy National Security Advisor for International Economic Affairs and the EU's Commissioner for Trade.
Diplomacy
The US and the EU share two different approaches to diplomacy. The scholar Michael Smith defined the US as a "warrior state". This refers to its diplomatic approach based on sovereignty, state action and the use of military capabilities. On the other hand, the EU displays a diplomacy which is one of a "trading state". This means that EU diplomacy focuses on soft power, negotiation and trade. The EU diplomatic style reflects the fact that there is not a strong and cohesive foreign policy among its member states. The US and EU diplomatic features are also reflected in their relations with the United Nations. The EU relies more on the permission of the UN in order to use force abroad while the US adopts a position of opposition towards UN authorization for interference.
See also
Transatlantic relations
European Union–NATO relations
Transatlantic Free Trade Area
Élysée Treaty
Strategic autonomy
NATO
Cold War
War on Terror
References
Further reading
Birchfield, Vicki L., and Alasdair R. Young, eds. Triangular Diplomacy among the United States, the European Union, and the Russian Federation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
Gardner, Anthony Luzzatto. Stars with stripes: The essential partnership between the European Union and the United States (Springer Nature, 2020).
Gasparini, Amedeo. "Challenges under the Biden administration in the US-EU transatlantic relations." Global Affairs 7.3 (2021): 411-417. online
GÖRGEN, Ahmet. "US-EU Relations in the Trump Era: Quest for Autonomy in Europe." Journal of Graduate School of Social Sciences 25.4 (2021). online
Jakštaitė-Confortola, Gerda. "US Foreign Policy during the Biden Presidency: A Reset in the US Approach towards the EU Strategic Autonomy?." European Strategic Autonomy and Small States' Security (Routledge, 2022) pp. 81-92. online
Larres, Klaus. Uncertain Allies: Nixon, Kissinger, and the Threat of a United Europe (Yale University Press, 2022).
Lundestad, Geir. The United States and Western Europe since 1945: from 'empire' by invitation to transatlantic drift (Oxford University Press, 2005).
Lundestad, Geir, ed. Just Another Major Crisis?: The United States and Europe Since 2000 (2008) online
McCormick, John. The European superpower (Macmillan Education UK, 2017). online
Smith, Michael. "The European Union and the United States: Competition, convergence and crisis in a strategic relationship." in The European Union's Strategic Partnerships: Global Diplomacy in a Contested World (2021) pp: 97-120. online
Topliceanu, Stefan Catalin. "The Economic Competition between United States, European Union and China." in Challenges of the Knowledge Society (2019): 1296–1302. online
Winand, Pascaline. Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe (St Martin's Press, 1993).
External links
Book – The Obama Moment: European and American Perspectives European Union Institute for Security Studies
Trade information between EU and US, Animated infographic, European Parliamentary Research Service
European Union Institute for Security Studies: Research on EU-US Relations
Delegation of the European Commission to the United States
European Commission: relations with the United States
FAES A case for an open Athlantic Prosperity Area
United States Mission to the European Union
Transatlantic Business Dialogue
The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership – Defensive Move or Constructive Engagement A Research Based Documentary placing the TTIP negotiations in a global context – Produced by the Institut d'Etudes Européennes of the Université Libre de Bruxelles
Third-country relations of the European Union |
4075970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20University%2C%20Sri%20Lanka | Eastern University, Sri Lanka | The Eastern University Sri Lanka (abbreviated as EUSL) is a public university in Vantharumoolai, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka. It was established on 1 October 1986. The university was preceded by the Batticaloa University College established on 1 August 1981 which was started in the buildings of the Vantharumoolai Madya Maha Vidyalayam.
At present, the Eastern University, Sri Lanka has a main campus at Vantharumoolai, Trincomalee Campus at Trincomalee, and the Swami Vipulananda Institute of Aesthetic Studies (SVIAS) at Kalladi, with the facilities of Library Network, Centre for Information and Communication Technology and Sports.
Like all public universities in Sri Lanka, it receives the bulk of its funding from the University Grants Commission (UGC), which is a part of the Ministry of Higher Education in Colombo.
History
The idea of having a Tamil university on the lines of Hebrew University of Israel in the Eastern Province was mooted in 1960 by a group of professors who were teaching at the University of Ceylon. The project was started by purchasing land near Nilaveli, Trincomalee and was abandoned later due to lack of funds. The project was started again by K. W. Devanayakam, the former home minister of the UNP government with the collaboration of Kalpage, Minister of Higher Education during 1981.
The Eastern University, Sri Lanka, was established on 1 October 1986 by a University Order dated 26 September 1986 which was issued under Section 2 of the Universities Act No: 16 of 1978 by the Central Government. The university was preceded by the Batticaloa University College established on 1 August 1981. The Batticaloa University College was established to fill a long-felt need for the development of a higher education institution in the Eastern Province. Its establishment was recommended by a Committee appointed by the University Grants Commission headed by Professor V. Appapillai, retired professor of Physics and dean of Science, University of Peradeniya and included Professor R.S. Ramakrishna, Professor Y.D.A. Senanayake, Professor S.T. Fernando, S.H.M.Jameel and Dixon Nilaweera.
K. W. Devanayagam, who at the time was Member of Parliament for Kalkudah electorate and Minister of Justice, took a personal interest in the establishment of the Batticaloa University College. It was established in the premises of the Vantharumoolai Madhya Maha Vidyalayam, a school built by the V. Nalliah, Minister for Posts and Telecommunication, Member of Parliament for Kalkudah electorate and Member of the Senate Council for Batticaloa North. The buildings had been badly damaged by a cyclone of 1978 and were repaired and progressively restructured to suit the purposes of a new University College. In addition, over 100 acres of land were added to the original campus. Student hostels and staff quarters have been constructed on this land and many new buildings are planned.
The Batticaloa University College began with two faculties: the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Agriculture. These faculties were affiliated to the University of Peradeniya. S. Rajaratnam was appointed as the director of the college and he functioned in this capacity until February 1985. K. Rajendra functioned as the first secretary of the college. He was succeeded by P. Sangaravel in June 1983. K. D. Arulpragasam was appointed S. Rajaratnam as director in April 1985. He successfully negotiated upgrading of the university college to an independent university and was appointed the first vice-chancellor, when the university came into being in October 1986. S. H. M. Jameel was appointed as the first registrar.
Two new faculties – the Faculty of Commerce & Management with the Departments of Economics, Commerce & Management, and the Faculty of Cultural Studies with the Departments of Arabic, Islamic Studies, and Fine Arts – were established in 1988. The Faculty of Cultural Studies was expanded to include the departments of Languages, Geography and Social Science and renamed as Faculty of Arts & Culture in 1991.
The Trincomalee Campus was originally established as Trincomalee Affiliated University College (AUC) in April 1993 under ordinance No. 01 of 1993 by the Universities Act No.16 of 1978, section 24A. Then the Trincomalee Campus of the Eastern University was established from 15 June 2001 by a Gazette notification which was dated 6 June 2001.
The Swami Vipulananda College of Music and Dance (SVCMD) was established in 1981 by the Ministry of Regional Affairs and Hindu Culture. Subsequently, the SVCMD was ceremonially handed over to the Ministry of Higher Education by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs on 20 April 2001. It was affiliated with the Eastern University, Sri Lanka on 1 January 2002, and the University Grants Commission permitted EUSL to enroll diploma holders of the Swami Vipulananda College of Music and Dance for a degree programme in the Department of Fine Arts. Then the SVCMD was renamed as Swami Vipulananda Institute of Aesthetic Studies and established by the Gazette Notification of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (No. 1392/22 of 3 June 2005) under the order made by the section 24 B of the University Act. No 16 of 1978.
The government of Sri Lanka has by Gazette notification dated 23 November 2005 established the Faculty of Health-Care Sciences of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka. The initial programme conducted by the university in Human Health Sciences before the establishment of this faculty was the post basic diploma in Nursing. After the establishment of the faculty at Batticaloa in the silver jubilee year (2006) of the university, the first batch of students for Medicine were enrolled. The course commenced in June 2006. The first batch of students for BSc. Nursing was enrolled and the course was commenced in 2008.
In January 2011, the Minister of Higher Education came to the conclusion that the affairs of the Eastern University had been seriously squandered due to mismanagement and appointed a Competent Authority replacing the Council of EUSL. The Competent Authority so appointed was Ranjith Arthenayake, who had been the vice-chancellor of the Open University of Sri Lanka from 1994 to 2000.
The applications for the post of vice-chancellor was called in late 2011, and the selection was made in February 2012. It was expected Somasuntharam Sutharsan, who is an Eastern University product, would have succeeded to the chair of the vice-chancellor. Sutharsan was considered to be the favorite candidate of the local politicians. However, in February 2012, Kiddnan Kobindarajah, who is an alumnus of the Eastern University, was appointed as vice-chancellor on 5th of March 2012. Kobindarajah obtained his Ph.D. in South Africa and then, due to political pressure arising from his personal beliefs/activities, he immigrated to Canada and eventually became a naturalized Canadian citizen. Kobindarajah completed his term in office as the vice-chancellor on 4th March 2015. Since the government of Sri Lanka had allocated a considerable amount of funding to develop the universities that were affected by the ethnic conflict in the North and Eastern provinces, there was a huge development of infrastructure facilities of the university during his period. T. Jeyasingam took over as the new Vice-Chancellor, after Kobindarajah and he operated somewhat ineffectively as the Vice Chancellor. His leadership has been criticized for actions of favoritism, nepotism and factionalism. It is noted that Jeyasingham's ardent use of official facilities and funds for personal purposes has been cited by many concerned well-wishers of the university.
In January 2019, F. C. Ragel (a physicist attached to the Faculty of Science) – officially took over as the new vice chancellor replacing the former incumbent Dr. Jeyasingham.
Former vice-chancellors of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka are:
Prof K D Arudpragasam (1986–1989)
Prof S Sandanam (1989–1995)
Prof G F Rajendram (1995–1998)
Dr. C Y Thangarajah, acting (1998–2000)
Prof M S Mookiah (2000–2004)
Prof (Dr.) S Raveendranath (2004–2006)
Dr. N Pathmanathan (2006–2010)
Dr K Premakumar, acting (2010 – March 2012 )
Dr. K Kobindarajah (March 2012 – March 2015 )
Prof (Dr.) T. Jayasingham (March 2015 – January 2019 )
Prof. (Dr.) F.C. Ragel (February – Up to date)
Location
The eastern region of Sri Lanka comprises the districts of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara, and covers an area of approximately 980,000 ha, about 15% of the total land area of the island. The population of one million is largely rural, with around 75% being engaged in agriculture and 15% in fishing.
The main administrative block of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka (senate building) is in Vantharumoolai, Chenkalady, which is on the Batticaloa-Pollanaruwa main road, about 18 km north of Batticaloa town and four faculties: Faculty of Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Commerce & Management and Faculty of Arts & Culture are housed here. Faculty of Health-Care Sciences situated 15 km from Vantharumooali in Batticaloa which is offering MBBS and BSc Nursing degrees. Swami Vipulananda Institute of Aesthetic Studies is 3 km from the Faculty of Health Care Sciences in Kallady Uppodai which is offering BFA in Music, Dance, Drama & Theatre Arts and Visual & Technological Arts. Trincomalee Campus is 180 km from the Vantharumoolai at Konesapuri in Trincomalee district having two faculties and one unit: Faculty of Communication and Business studies, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Siddha Medicine Unit.
Faculties and degree programmes
The following faculties are functioning and offering the relevant degrees:
Main campus
Faculty of Science – BSc (Special) & BSc (General)
Faculty of Agriculture – BSc in Agriculture
Faculty of Commerce and Management – B.BA, B.Com & B.Econ
Faculty of Arts and Culture – B.A (General) & B.A (Special)
Faculty of Health Care Sciences – M.B.B.S & BSc in Nursing
Trincomalee Campus
Faculty of Communication and Business Studies
B.A. (Communication)
B.A. (Languages)
BSc (Marketing Management)
BSc (Human Resource Management)
B.M.
Faculty of Applied Science
BSc (Applied Physics and Electronics)
BCS (Bachelor of Computer Science)
Siddha Medicine Unit
B.S.M.S.
Swami Vipulanantha Institute of Aesthetic Studies (SWIAS)
B.FA (Music)
B.FA (Dance)
B.FA (Visual & Technological Arts)
Administration and staff
The administration of the university is mainly managed by the University Council and the senate. The council members are of two types: Ex-Officio Members and Appointed Members by the UGC. Other than these main two bodies, there are Faculty Boards for each and every faculties under the control of faculty deans and the heads of the departments. Other important committees of the university are: Senior Management Committee, Leave and Awards Committee, Finance Committee and Audit Committee.
In the administration, the vice-chancellor is the chief executive officer and the academic and administrative head of all activities of the university, whereas the Registrar is the manager of all non-academic administration. The Administration Branch, Examination Branch, Establishment (Academic), Establishment (Non-Academic), Welfare Branch, Bursar the custodian of funds and overall in charge of financial activities of the university managing Supply Branch, Accounts Branch, Payments Branch. The current registrar of the EUSL is A. Pahirathan and Bursar is M.M Mureez Fareez
The number of teaching staff of the eastern university was 165 with 2 professors, 87 senior lectures and 76 lectors in 2011; the total number of non-teaching staff was 308.
University admission and budget allocation
The university had 3,416 undergraduate students in 2011 with 1040 new admissions and 490 graduate output. Swami Vipulanantha Institute of Aesthetic Studies (SWIAS) had 923 undergraduate students with 227 new admissions and 45 graduate output. The postgraduate student enrolment in 2011 was 219, with 18 PG diploma, 187 masters/mPhil, and 14 PhD The postgraduate student's output were 8 in 2011. The total number of students who were enrolled in the external degree programs in the Eastern University was 1207, with 11 graduated in 2011.
The university has a recurrent allocation of Rs. 475 million and a capital allocation of Rs. 477 million in the 2013 budget.
Faculties and departments
The Eastern University has seven faculties, a Campus and an institute.
Main campus
Faculty of Science
The Faculty of Science has run since the establishment of the Batticaloa University College on 1 August 1981. It consists of five departments: the Department of Botany, Department of Chemistry, Department of Mathematics, Department of Physics and Department of Zoology. The Departments of Botany and Zoology have a good collection of locally available and imported species in the herbarium and museum, to make the teaching more meaningful and fruitful. The Faculty offers the subjects Botany, Chemistry, Applied Mathematics, Pure Mathematics, Computer Science, Physics and Zoology.
The Faculty of Science was allocated a portion of the restructured Vantharumoolai Madya Maha Vidyalaya buildings. The building space is hardly enough to satisfy the needs of the growing faculty.
The proposed Science complex with five blocks for each department lies on the opposite site of the administration block. This complex would consist of all modern facilities of the departments. The Department of Chemistry is functioning in the Chemistry block. The Department of Mathematics is also functioning on the second floor of the Chemistry block.
The Zoology block of the Science complex is completed, and consists of modern lecture halls and laboratories to accommodate additional intake of students. The blocks for the Department of Physics, Botany, Mathematics and administration for the Faculty (Dean Office) will be constructed in the near future.
Faculty of Agriculture
The establishment of the Faculty of Agriculture in 1981 was a response to the long felt need for the sustained development of the region with respect to higher education. The Faculty was also expected to serve as a catalyst for the agricultural and socio-economic development of the region. The agriculture education offered and the agricultural research pursued by the Faculty cater to the special needs of the region as dictated by the specific agro-climatic zone of the country. Therefore, the Faculty of Agriculture has a vital role to play in the uplifting of the social and economic standards of a predominantly rural population, who depend largely on agriculture.
The Faculty of Agriculture consists of six departments: Agricultural Biology, Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural Engineering, Animal Sciences and Crop Science. The faculty has established a Centre for Sustainable Agriculture and Resource Management (CENSARM). The faculty has well-established crop and livestock farms, about 15 acres in extent for teaching purposes and for the issue of seed and planting materials and breeding stock of farm animals to the public. Arrangements are being made to expand these activities in another 10-acre farm taken over from the Research Training and Farm Complex of the Department of Agriculture at Karadianaru. Equipment and laboratory facilities for teaching and research are available in each Department of study.
The present dean of the faculty is Prof. (Mrs.) P. Premanandarajah.
Faculty of Commerce and Management
The Faculty of Commerce and Management was established in 1988 and offers programs designed to provide students with a sound understanding of the functions of Business and their inter-relationships. The faculty strives to develop in its students an understanding of nature of modern business, including an awareness of emerging business opportunities and the constraints within those opportunities may be explored. It requires students to apply the analytical skills developed in the study of general education to the real business situation.
The Faculty comprises the Departments of Management, Commerce, and Economics and cross-discipline courses between faculties are also available subject to demand and availability of resources. The faculty offers programs leading to a four years undergraduate degree in Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Commerce (B. Com), and Bachelor of Economics (B. Econ). The faculty also offers four years External Degrees Programmes leading to a bachelor's degree in Business Administration (BBA) and Commerce (B. Com) and a two years Diploma program in Business Administration. It offers Postgraduate Diploma in Management leading to Master of Business Administration, which is designed specially to cater the people in service at CEO level and Master in Development Economics.
The present dean of the faculty is Prof. N. Rajeshwaran
Faculty of Arts and Culture
The Faculty of Arts and Culture with the Departments of Arabic, Islamic Studies, and Fine Arts was established in 1988. The Faculty of Cultural Studies was then expanded to include the Departments of Languages, Geography and Social Science in 1991 and renamed as Faculty of Arts & Culture.
At present, the Faculty of Arts & Culture consists of nine departments, namely, Department of Arabic, Fine Arts, Geography, Islamic Studies, Languages, Social Sciences, History, Comparative Religion & Social Harmony and Education & Childcare with additional three disciplines, namely, Economics, Christianity & Hindu Civilization. And also the faculty comprises Centre for Early Childhood Care & Development (CECCD) and Centre for Social Research & Development (CSRD).
The faculty offers programs of the undergraduate degree in Bachelor of Arts (BA) – general and special. The faculty also offers Bachelor of Education (BEd) special degree, Master of Arts (MA), Master of Education (MEd), Master of Philosophy (M.Phil), Doctor of Philosophy, diploma in Preschool Education and Certificate Course in Psychosocial Work.
The present dean is Dr.V. Gunapalasingam
Faculty of Health Care Sciences
The concept of establishing a Faculty of Health Sciences arose in the nineties. In its move, the late President R. Premadasa has taken steps to elevate the General Hospital Batticaloa as a Teaching Hospital in 1993. A committee comprising prominent intellectuals formed the Medical Faculty Committee which included Prof. T. Varagunam (former Chancellor, EUSL), Dr. J.T. Xavier, Prof. R. Maheswaran, Prof. G.F. Rajendram (then Vice-Chancellor) and Dr. K. Kunanandem to devise the curriculum for the MBBS course.
The government of Sri Lanka has by Gazette notification dated 23 November 2005 established the Faculty of Health Care Sciences of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka with six departments: Human Biology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Sciences, Primary Health Care, Medical Education & Research and Supplementary Health Sciences. Dr. K. Kunanandem, a London qualified neurosurgeon, was appointed as the first dean to pioneer the faculty. He was made a member of the University Grants Commission and was entrusted the duty of designing and developing the said faculty. Kunanandham died unexpectedly in London when he was with his family. Therefore, the first dean of the faculty was Dr.K. E. Karunakaran, an obstetrician, and gynecologist attached to the Teaching Hospital, Batticaloa.
The faculty offers mainly of two courses of studies: Medicine (MBBS) and Nursing (BSc). The first batch of students for MBBS programme was enrolled in 2006 in the Faculty of Health Care Sciences and the same has graduated with flying colours in 2013.
The present dean of the faculty is Dr. T. Sathananthan, consultant physician of Teaching Hospital Batticaloa.
Faculty of Graduate Studies
Trincomalee Campus
In its formative years the Trincomalee Campus functioned as an Affiliated University College (AUC) operating under the umbrella of affiliated colleges funded by the University Grants Commission in the early nineties to help those to whom the conventional universities closed their doors. The Trincomalee Affiliated University College, in its turn, conducted two diploma programmes viz. Diploma in English and Diploma in Accountancy and Finance, the former under the supervision of the University of Sri Jayawardenepura and the latter under the supervision of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka.
When the affiliated university college system was abolished, Trincomalee AUC found itself vested with the Eastern University and the two-degree programmes initially conducted here then under two different faculties of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka had as their fortunate forerunners the diploma holders of the AUC. Subsequently, this college was got its identity as Trincomalee Campus of the Eastern University, Sri Lanka through a gazette notification from mid 2001 with provision for two faculties, Faculty of Communication & Business Studies and Faculty of Applied Science. From the year 2008 onwards the discipline of siddha medicine is also introduced as a discipline under the direct purview of the Rector of the Campus.
The present rector of the campus is Prof (Mrs).Chandravathany G Devadason
Faculty of Applied Sciences
The Faculty of Applied Sciences of Trincomalee Campus consists of two departments, namely, Department of Computer Science and Department of Physical Science and offers degree of Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Bachelor of Science in Applied Physics and Electronics. The heads of these departments are Mr. S. Thadchanamoorthy and Mr. K. Balashangar respectively. The present dean of the faulty is Mr. S. Loheeswaran..
Faculty of Communication & Business Studies
Faculty of Communication and Business studies consists of two departments, Department of Languages and Communication Studies and Department of Business and Management Studies. At present the Faculty of Communication and Business Studies offers General and Special Degrees in Communication Studies (B.A. in Communication Studies), and three-year (General) degree in Languages (B.A. in Languages – English) and General and Special Degrees in Management (BSc Majoring / Special in Accountancy Management/ Marketing Management/ Human Resource Management / Information Management).
The present dean of the faculty is Mr. T. Basker.
Faculty of Siddha Medicine
The new discipline Bachelor of Siddha Medicine & Surgery (B.S.M.S.) Degree Course was introduced from 2008/2009 Academic year. The students are being selected by UGC. The allocation of students for 1st year is 20. Presently there are four batches of students are following this study this course comprises theory practical & clinical training. Duration of the course is five years. One year internship is compulsory after completion of degree course. It is a residential course. The lecture daily commence with the spiritual atmosphere of meditation.
The Unit of Siddha medicine was upgraded as a Faculty of Siddha Medicine with three departments in 2023.
Swami Vipulanantha Institute of Aesthetic Studies (SVIAS)
The Swami Vipulananda College of Music and Dance (SVCMD) was established in 1981 by the Ministry of Regional Affairs and Hindu Culture. Subsequently, the SVCMD was ceremonially handed over to the Ministry of Higher Education on 20 April 2001. It was affiliated to the Eastern University, Sri Lanka on 1 January 2002, and the University Grants Commission permitted the Eastern University, Sri Lanka to enroll Diploma Holders of the Swami Vipulananda College of Music and Dance for a degree programme in the Department of Fine Arts. Then the SVCMD was renamed as Swami Vipulanantha Institute of Aesthetic Studies (SVIAS) and established by the Gazette Notification of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (No. 1392/22 of 3 June 2005) under the order made by the section 24 B of the University Act. No 16 of 1978.
At present, the institute consist of three departments: Carnatic Music; Dance & Drama & Theatre Arts; and Visual & Technological Arts. It offers Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) in Music, Dance and Visual & Technological Arts.
The present director of this Institute is Dr.Mrs. F.B. Kennedy
References
External links
Eastern University, Sri Lanka, Official site
Universities and colleges established in 1981
Statutory boards of Sri Lanka
Universities in Sri Lanka
1981 establishments in Sri Lanka |
4075984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Schaefer | Vincent Schaefer | Vincent Joseph Schaefer (July 4, 1906 – July 25, 1993) was an American chemist and meteorologist who developed cloud seeding. On November 13, 1946, while a researcher at the General Electric Research Laboratory, Schaefer modified clouds in the Berkshire Mountains by seeding them with dry ice. While he was self-taught and never completed high school, he was issued 14 patents.
Personal life
The Schaefer family lived in Schenectady, New York, and due to his mother's health, starting in 1921 the family made summer trips to the Adirondack Mountains. Vincent Schaefer had a lifelong association with the Adirondacks, as well as interests in hiking, natural history, and archeology. In his youth he was the founder of a local tribe of the Lone Scouts and with some of his tribe mates wrote and printed a tribe paper called "Archaeological Research." Schaefer credited this publication with his introduction to many prominent individuals in the Schenectady area, including Dr. Willis Rodney Whitney of the General Electric Research Laboratory.
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Schaefer built up his personal library on natural history, science, and his other areas of interest and read a great deal. He also organized groups with those who shared his many interests — the Mohawk Valley Hiking Club in 1929, the Van Epps-Hartley Chapter of the New York Archaeological Association in 1931, and the Schenectady Wintersport Club (which established snow trains to ski slopes in the Adirondacks) in 1933–34. In 1931 Schaefer began work on creating the Long Path of New York (a hiking trail beginning near New York City and ending at Whiteface Mountain in the Adirondacks). During this period Schaefer also created adult education programs on natural history topics which gave him opportunities to speak in the community. Through these many activities Schaefer continued to expand his acquaintances, including John S. Apperson, an engineer at General Electric and a devout conservationist of the Adirondacks. Apperson introduced Schaefer to Irving Langmuir, a scientist at the GE Research Laboratory who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1932 for his work in surface chemistry. Among other things, Langmuir shared Schaefer's love of skiing and the outdoors.
During his retirement, Schaefer worked with photographer John Day on A Field Guide to the Atmosphere (1981), a publication in the Peterson Field Guide series. In addition to continuing his consulting work, Schaefer was in a position to devote much more of his time to some of his lifelong interests such as environmental issues, natural and local history. This included the writing of numerous articles and the delivering of many presentations concerning the natural environment of upstate New York and the human impact on it. He also devoted much of his time to the fight for the preservation of many wilderness areas and parks, such as the Mohonk Preserve, Vroman's Nose, and the Great Flats Aquifer. Schaefer's long-term interest in Dutch barns made it possible for him to assume the editorship of Dutch Barn Miscellany for a time and to build a scale model of a Dutch barn. He also did a lot of research on the original settler families of the Schenectady and Mohawk Valley areas. During his retirement, Schaefer reflected on his extraordinary life preparing timelines, an unpublished autobiography, and indexes to some of his research notebooks and film collections. Schaefer also attended to the disposition of his papers and library. He also worked on a project he entitled "Ancient Windows of the Earth." This involved the slicing of rocks thinly so as to create a translucent effect. When he mounted such pieces on lampshades or other objects, it created a stained-glass window effect from natural rock highlighting the rock's geologic history. As part of this project, Schaefer designed and built a 6' diameter window in memory of his parents for the Saint James Church in North Creek in the Adirondacks.
Schaefer married Lois Perret on July 27, 1935. Until their deaths they lived on Schermerhorn Road in Schenectady, in a house Schaefer built with his brothers, which they called Woestyne South. Woestyne North was the name the Schaefers gave to their camp in the Adirondacks. The Schaefers had three children, Susan, Katherine, and James.
Professional career
General Electric
In 1922, Schaefer's parents asked him to leave high school and go to work to supplement the family income. On the advice of his maternal uncles, Schaefer joined a four-year apprentice machinist course at General Electric. During the second year of his apprenticeship, Schaefer was granted a one-month leave to accompany Dr. Arthur C. Parker, New York State Archaeologist, on an expedition to central New York. As Schaefer was concluding the apprentice course in 1926 he was assigned to work at the machine shop at the General Electric Research Laboratory, where he worked for a year as a journeyman toolmaker.
Somewhat discouraged by the work of a toolmaker, Schaefer sought to satisfy a desire to work outdoors and to travel by joining, initially through a correspondence course, the Davey Institute of Tree Surgery in Kent, Ohio, in 1927. After a brief period working in Michigan, Schaefer asked to be transferred back to the Schenectady area and for a while worked as an independent landscape gardener. Upon the advice of Robert Palmer, Superintendent of the GE Research Laboratory, in 1929 Schaefer declined an opportunity to enter into a partnership for a plant nursery and instead rejoined the machine shop at the Research Laboratory, this time as a model maker.
At the Research Laboratory machine shop, Schaefer built equipment for Langmuir and his research associate, Katharine B. Blodgett. In 1932 Langmuir asked Schaefer to become his research assistant. Schaefer accepted and in 1933 began his research work with Langmuir, Blodgett, Whitney, and others at the Research Lab and throughout the General Electric organization. With Langmuir, Blodgett and others as well as by himself, Schaefer published many reports on the areas he studied, which included surface chemistry techniques, electron microscope techniques, polarization, the affinity of ice for various surfaces, protein and other monolayers, studies of protein films, television tube brightness, and submicroscopic particulates. An example of Scaefer's lasting contribution to surface science is the description in 1938 of a technique developed by him and Langmuir (later known as the Langmuir–Schaefer method) for the controlled transfer of a monolayer to a substrate, a modification of the Langmuir–Blodgett method.
After his promotion to research associate in 1938, Schaefer continued to work closely with Langmuir on the many projects Langmuir obtained through his involvement on national advisory committees, particularly related to military matters in the years immediately before and during the Second World War. This work included research on gas mask filtration of smokes, submarine detection with binaural sound, and the formation of artificial fogs using smoke generators—a project which reached fruition at Vrooman's Nose in the Schoharie Valley with a demonstration for military observers.
During his years as Langmuir's assistant, Langmuir allowed and encouraged Schaefer to carry on his own research projects. As an example of this, in 1940 Schaefer became known in his own right for the development of a method to make replicas of individual snowflakes using a thin plastic coating. This discovery brought him national publicity in popular magazines and an abundance of correspondence from individuals, including many students, seeking to replicate his procedure.
In 1943, the focus of Schaefer's and Langmuir's research shifted to precipitation static, aircraft icing, ice nuclei, and cloud physics, and many of their experiments were carried out at Mount Washington Observatory in New Hampshire. In the summer of 1946 Schaefer found his experimental "cold box" too warm for some laboratory tests he wanted to perform. Determined to get on with his work, he located some "dry ice" (solid CO2) and placed it into the bottom of the "cold box." Creating a cloud with his breath he observed a sudden and heretofore unseen bluish haze that suddenly turned into millions of microscopic ice crystals that dazzled him in the strobe lit chamber. He had stumbled onto the very principle that was hidden in all previous experiments—the stimulating effect of a sudden change in heat/cold, humidity, in supercooled water spontaneously producing billions of ice nuclei. Through scores of repeated experiments he quickly developed a method to "seed" supercooled clouds with dry ice.
In November 1946 Schaefer conducted a successful field test seeding a natural cloud by airplane—with dramatic ice and snow effect. The resulting publicity brought an abundance of new correspondence, this time from people and businesses making requests for snow and water as well as scientists around the world also working on weather modification to change local weather conditions for the better. Schaefer's discovery also led to debates over the appropriateness of tampering with nature through cloud seeding. In addition, the successful field test enabled Langmuir to obtain federal funding to support additional research in cloud seeding and weather modification by the GE Research Laboratory. Schaefer was coordinator of the laboratory portion of Project Cirrus while the Air Force and Navy supplied the aircraft and pilots to carry out field tests and to collect the data used at the Research Laboratory. Field tests were conducted in the Schenectady area as well as in Puerto Rico and New Mexico.
When the military pilots working on Project Cirrus were assigned to duties in connection with the Korean War, GE recommended that Project Cirrus be discontinued after comprehensive reports were prepared of the project and the discoveries made. The final Project Cirrus report was issued in March 1953.
Munitalp Foundation
While Project Cirrus was winding down, Schaefer was approached by Vernon Crudge on behalf of the trustees of the Munitalp Foundation to work on Munitalp's meteorological research program. For a time, Schaefer worked for both the Research Laboratory and Munitalp, and in 1954 he left the Research Laboratory to become the Director of Research of Munitalp. At Munitalp, Schaefer worked with the U.S. Forest Service at the Priest River Experimental Forest in northern Idaho with Harry T. Gisborne, noted fire researcher, on Project Skyfire, a program to determine the uses of cloud seeding to affect the patterns of lightning in thunderstorms (and the resulting forest fires started by lightning). Project Skyfire had its roots in an association between the Forest Service and Schaefer begun in the early days of Project Cirrus. While at Munitalp Schaefer also worked on developing a mobile atmospheric research laboratory and time-lapse films of clouds. Schaefer left Munitalp in 1958, turning down an offer to move with the Foundation to Kenya, but he remained an adviser to Munitalp for several years after that.
Scientific education
After leaving Munitalp, Schaefer's career turned towards scientific education, and let him put his belief in the power of experimentation and observation over book-learning into practice. He worked with the American Meteorological Society and Natural Science Foundation on an educational film program and to develop the Natural Sciences Institute summer programs which gave high school students the opportunity to work with scientists and on their own to do field research and experimentation. From 1959 to 1961 Schaefer was director of the Atmospheric Science Center at the Loomis School in Connecticut.
During the 1970s he organized and led annual winter expeditions for 8-10 research scientists to Yellowstone National Park where massive amounts of supercooled clouds were produced by the many geysers, including Old Faithful. There at negative 20-50 Fahrenheit conditions enabled the assembled researchers to perform numerous experiments using dry ice, silver iodide to convert the supercooled water to ice crystals at ground level. Temperature and ice crystal formations allowed first-hand observation of the full range of halo and corona optical effects.
Atmospheric Sciences Research Center (ASRC), University at Albany, State University of New York
From 1962 to 1968 the NSI program was continued with Schaefer's directorship under the auspices of the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center (ASRC) at the State University of New York at Albany (as the University at Albany, State University of New York was then known). During this period Schaefer also continued his consulting work for many companies, government agencies, and universities. These consulting activities spanned most of Schaefer's career, and extended beyond his retirement from ASRC in 1976.
Schaefer helped found ASRC in 1960 and served as its Director of Research until 1966 when he became Director. Schaefer brought highly qualified atmospheric science researchers to ASRC, many of whom he had met through his work at GE and Munitalp. Bernard Vonnegut, Raymond Falconer and Duncan Blanchard were all veterans of Project Cirrus who joined Schaefer at ASRC. During his years at ASRC, in addition to the NSI summer programs, Schaefer led annual research expeditions to Yellowstone National Park for atmospheric scientists to work in the outdoor laboratory it provided each January. In the 1970s Schaefer's own research interests focused on solar energy, aerosols, gases, air quality, and pollution particles in the atmosphere. His work in some of these areas culminated in a three-part report on Air Quality on the Global Scale in 1978. In addition, during the 1970s Schaefer was an instructor in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Chautauqua short courses for science teachers.
Publications (selected)
The presence of ozone, nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide and ammonia in the atmosphere, Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, State University of New York, 1978.
The air quality patterns of aerosols on the global scale, Atmospheric Sciences Research Center, State University of New York, 1976.
Hailstorms and hailstones of the western Great Plains, Smithsonian Institution, 1961.
The possibilities of modifying lightning storms in the northern Rockies, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Experiment Station, 1949.
Heat requirements for instruments and airfoils during icing storms on Mt. Washington, General Electric Research Laboratory, 1946.
The Use of high speed model propellers for studying de-icing coatings at the Mt. Washington Observatory, General Electric Research Laboratory, 1946.
The Liquid water content of summer clouds on the summit of Mt. Washington, General Electric Research Laboratory, 1946.
The Preparation and use of water sensitive coatings for sampling cloud particles, General Electric Research Laboratory, 1946.
A Heated, vaned pitot tube and a recorder for measuring air speed under severe icing conditions, General Electric Research Laboratory, 1946.
Fossilizing snowflakes, 1941.
Serendipity in Science: Twenty Years at Langmuir University, An Autobiography by Vincent J Schaefer, ScD, Compiled and Edited by Don Rittner, Square Circle Press, Voorheesville, NY 2013
(405 pages, 15 Chapters, illustrations and B/W photographs)
Patents
Filed Apr 12, 1935-"Treatment of Materials"
Filed Dec 6, 1954-"Coating for Electric Devices"
Filed Apr 12, 1941-"Light-Dividing Element"
Filed Jun 27, 1941-"Method of Producing Solids of Desired Configuration"
Filed Jun 21, 1944-"Cathode Ray Tube"
Filed Mar 24, 1943-"Method and Apparatus for Producing Aerosols"(with Irving Langmuir)
Filed Sep 18, 1947-"Cloud Moisture Meter"
Filed Nov 5, 1947-"Method of Making Electrical Indicators of Mechanical Expansion"(with Katharine Blodgett)
Filed Jan 21, 1948-"Method of Crystal Formation and Precipitation"(with Bernard Vonnegut)
Filed Nov 18, 1947-"Electrical Moisture Meter"
Filed Jan 29, 1948-"Method of Crystal Formation and Precipitation"
Filed Nov 5, 1947-"Electrical Indicator of Mechanical Expansion"(with Katharine Blodgett)
Filed Mar 6, 1952-"Method and Apparatus for Detecting Minute Crystal Forming Particles"
Filed Dec 6, 1954-"Method of Depositing a Silver Film"
References
Biographical Sketch, Finding Aid for the Papers of Vincent J. Schaefer, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany Libraries.
Our History, GE Global Research. Accessed February 14, 2006
Weather Services in the US: 1644-1970, National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office.
<Serendipity in Science: Twenty Years at Langmuir University, and autobiography (1993), Compiled and Edited by Don Rittner, Square Circle Press, Voorheesville, NY>
External links
Finding Aid for the Papers of Vincent J. Schaefer, M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collections and Archives, University at Albany Libraries.
Weather Modification: The Physical basis for Cloud Seeding
Manipulating the weather, CBC.
1906 births
1993 deaths
American people of German descent
20th-century American chemists
American meteorologists
General Electric people
Scientists from Schenectady, New York
University at Albany, SUNY faculty
Weather modification
Weather modification in North America |
4076107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20football%20on%20television | College football on television | College football on television includes the broad- and cablecasting of college football games, as well as pre- and post-game reports, analysis, and human-interest stories. Within the United States, the college version of American football annually garners high television ratings.
College football games have been broadcast since 1939, beginning with the 1939 Waynesburg vs. Fordham football game on September 30 in New York City. College football telecasts were historically very restricted due to there being only three major television networks and also because the NCAA controlled all television rights and limited the number of games that aired to protect attendance. A 1984 ruling declaring the NCAA's television restrictions illegal, along with the introduction of sports-specific television networks has increased the amount of air-time available for coverage. Today, dozens of games are available for viewing each week of the football season. Other coverage includes local broadcasts of weekly coach's programs. These programs have become an important sources of revenue for the universities and their athletics programs. Here is a list of the College Football Television and game results from this past season in 2020.
Coverage is dependent on negotiations between the broadcaster and the college football conference or team. The televised games may change from year-to-year depending on which teams are having a strong season, although some traditional rivalry games are broadcast each year. Some games are traditionally associated with a specific event or holiday, and viewing the game itself can become a holiday tradition for fans. Post-season bowl games, including the College Football Playoff, are presently all televised, most of them by the ESPN networks.
Universities found to have seriously violated NCAA rules have occasionally been penalized with a "television ban"; the effect can equal that of the "death penalty". The sanction is rarely applied except for the most egregious of circumstances, such as the Southern Methodist University football scandal.
History
Prior to television
College football games have been broadcast on radio since 1921, beginning with the 1921 West Virginia vs. Pittsburgh football game on October 8 in Pittsburgh.
Prior to that, various other means of communication were used. For example, in 1911, more than 1,000 people gathered in downtown Lawrence, Kansas, to watch a mechanical reproduction of the 1911 Kansas vs. Missouri football game while it was being played. A Western Union telegraph wire was set up direct from Columbia, Missouri, to relay the action.
Early televised broadcasts
The first televised college football game occurred during the "experimental" era of television's broadcasting history, when a game between Fordham University and Waynesburg College was broadcast on September 30, 1939. One month later, Kansas State's homecoming contest against the University of Nebraska was the second broadcast and first homecoming game to be broadcast on October 23, 1939. The following season, on October 5, 1940, what is described as the "first commercially televised game" between the University of Maryland and the University of Pennsylvania was broadcast by Philco. Fairly sporadic broadcasts continued throughout World War II.
By 1950, a small number of football schools, including Penn (ABC) and the University of Notre Dame (DuMont Television Network), had entered into individual contracts with networks to broadcast their games regionally. In fact, all of Penn's home games were broadcast on ABC during the 1950 season under a contract that paid Penn $150,000. However, prior to the 1951 season, the NCAA – alarmed by reports that indicated television decreased attendance at games – asserted control and prohibited live broadcasts of games. Although the NCAA successfully forced Penn and Notre Dame to break their contracts, the NCAA suffered withering attacks for its 1951 policy, faced threats of antitrust hearings, and eventually caved in and lifted blackouts of certain sold-out games. Nonetheless, the first national broadcast of a live college football game, which was also the first coast-to-coast live broadcast of any sports contest, was Duke at the University of Pittsburgh on September 29, 1951, on NBC. Bowl games were always outside the control of the NCAA, and the 1952 Rose Bowl at the end of that season was the first national telecast of a college bowl game, on NBC.
For the 1952 season, the NCAA relented somewhat, but limited telecasts to one nationally broadcast game each week. The NCAA sold the exclusive rights to broadcast the weekly game to NBC for $1,144,000. The first game shown under this contract was Texas Christian University against the University of Kansas, on September 20, 1952. In 1953, the NCAA allowed NBC to add what it called "panorama" coverage of multiple regional broadcasts for certain weeks – shifting national viewers to the most interesting game during its telecast. NBC lost the college football contract beginning in 1954, prompting it to carry Canadian football instead. There were some attempts at workarounds during this time frame; ABC Sports ran some Notre Dame Fighting Irish football games, condensed to remove time between plays and featuring Harry Wismer at the microphone, in fall 1953. The Notre Dame games were filmed and broadcast the night after they were played; the service would not continue beyond that year.
The NCAA believed that broadcasting one game a week would prevent further controversy while limiting any decrease in attendance. However, the Big Ten Conference was unhappy with the arrangement, and it pressured the NCAA to allow regional telecasts as well. Finally, in 1955 the NCAA revised its plan, keeping eight national games while permitting true regional telecasts during five specified weeks of the season. This was essentially the television plan that stayed in place until the University of Oklahoma and the University of Georgia filed suit against the NCAA in 1981, alleging antitrust violations.
Bowl games were always exempt from the NCAA's television regulations, and the games' organizers were free to sign rights deals with any network. Mizlou Television Network, for instance, carried many of the bowl games (mostly lower-end bowls) despite not holding any regular season rights.
Decentralization
On June 27, 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma that the NCAA's television plan violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. As a result, individual schools and athletic conferences were freed to negotiate contracts on their own behalf. The year after the Supreme Court decision, nearly 200 games were televised, compared to the previous year's 89. College football's television ratings slumped due to market saturation, and the price of a 30-second advertisement plunged from $57,000 in 1983 to $15,000 in 1984, while the combined take from network television fell more than 60 percent. Despite the monetary suffering of the universities, the additional coverage had a positive impact for fans of college football. "Everyone talks about money, but no one seems to care about the football fan. He is the one who benefited from deregulation. And he isn't complaining", said Chuck Neinas, the former commissioner of the Big Eight Conference. Together with the growth of cable television, this ruling resulted in the explosion of broadcast options currently available.
However, in the immediate wake of the ruling, most schools still decided to jointly negotiate their television contracts through the now-defunct College Football Association. The Big Ten Conference and Pacific-10 Conference were not members of the CFA, opting to negotiate their own TV deals.
Effects of television exposure
Television exposure has been used as a selling point in recruiting high school athletes. "We’re recruiting all over the country, and it's nice to be able to go in someone's home and say, ‘You can turn on the TV and watch the Buckeyes six to eight times a year", said former Ohio State head coach John Cooper.
Television money and generous donors have allowed universities to provide modern facilities and luxurious amenities to college football teams. The Darrell K Royal–Texas Memorial Stadium at the University of Texas offers fans the opportunity to lease suites for $88,000 a year. The suites include theater-style seats, televisions, kitchenettes, and bars. The athletes ride to practice in chartered buses and dress beneath a three-dimensional 20-foot lighted longhorn in a locker room that includes a nutrition center, players’ lounge, and "state-of-the-art" ventilation system.
Nationally televised games also brought new notoriety, revenue, and growth for leagues that had rarely appeared on television. As the cable networks grew and expanded, they sought more games to fill time. Former Mid-American Conference (MAC) Commissioner Rick Chryst attributes his league's expansion to a deal that put several MAC games per year on ESPN.
In the 1950s, conventional wisdom suggested that television allowed football fans to watch their favorite teams for free from the comfort of their own homes, and this was to blame for falling attendance. A 1948 study conducted by the Crossley Corporation at the NCAA's request found that fans thought watching televised games was equal or superior to watching from the stands. In 1950, a study by the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago said that attendance at college football games would have been 40 percent higher if no games had been televised. In the long term, the publicity provided by college football telecasts helped to give the sport exposure to potential ticket buyers, increasing ticket sales. The popularity of televised college football has been accompanied by a growth in game attendance. In 1949, when the U.S. population was around 150 million, 17.5 million spectators attended a college football game. By 2012, after the population had doubled, attendance had grown proportionally higher, at nearly 50 million people.
The modern era
When Notre Dame left the CFA to sign an exclusive deal with NBC in 1991, it shocked the college football world and marked the true beginning of the modern era. Then, in 1996, CBS, which had been shut out of the CFA broadcasts in the mid-1990s when ABC held the contract (and coincidentally was in desperate need of live sports after losing its major professional sports rights in 1994), successfully convinced the Southeastern Conference to break from the CFA, signing its own conference deal. The CFA disbanded in 1997.
One of the most significant side-effects of the changes in television policy since 1991 has been the sharp decrease in independent schools and realignment of athletic conferences, as schools sought to pool and increase their bargaining power; few schools had the clout or national following that could garner an exclusive contract the way Notre Dame did. Prominent independents Pitt and Penn State joined the old Big East in 1991 and the Big Ten in 1993, respectively. Television has also driven the trend of universities (generally mid-majors) playing football on weekdays rather than the traditional Saturdays, in order to have their games broadcast.
The pursuit of television money has provided financial independence to many big-time university athletic programs, since they can independently auction their "product" to the highest bidder. Some universities have limited authority over the athletic directors and coaches. In 2009, Florida President J. Bernard Machen said that due to the presence of ESPN money, the university no longer had control of its athletics department. Studies have also shown that success of big-time sports programs alters students’ academic behavior, reducing the amount of activity at the library and lowering men's grade point averages with each victory.
Television and cable networks control the schedule of football games. ESPN broadcasts nationally televised college football games on Thursday nights each week, making it the college equivalent of the NFL's Monday Night Football. The energy and excitement of such an atmosphere generally benefits the home teams, which have a winning record on Thursday nights. The midweek games are scheduled with no consideration of academics, rest, and recovery for athletes and university logistical issues such as competition for parking between faculty, students, and fans. For example, the logistical issues are such a problem for the University of Georgia that midweek home games are forbidden. However, most coaches are happy to tackle the logistical issues for the sake of TV scheduling and money.
In the 2010s, networks began experimenting with new technologies to expand beyond the standard two-dimensional television system. ESPN 3D carried a number of games in 3D television during its lifetime, beginning in 2011 and ending with the channel's shutdown in 2013; a lack of 3D television adoption was blamed for the program's failure. Fox began a series of virtual reality broadcasts in 2016, which were made available to dedicated VR headsets and smartphones with stereoscopes; these were discontinued by 2018.
Broadcast rights
U.S. Networks
ABC
ABC has been airing college football since 1950. Chris Schenkel and Bud Wilkinson were the number one broadcast team through 1973. Keith Jackson, its best-known college football play-by-play man, announced games from 1966 through 2005 on ABC (and for 14 years before that for various outlets), and was considered by many to be "the voice of college football." Jackson was ABC's lead play-by play man for 25 years, from 1974 through 1998. He originally was to retire after the 1999 Fiesta Bowl, but agreed to remain on a more restricted schedule (primarily broadcasting West Coast games) and remained with ABC through the 2006 Rose Bowl.
In 1954, 1960 and 1961, and then from 1966 through 1981, ABC was the exclusive network home for regular season NCAA football telecasts. In 1982 and 1983, ABC and CBS split the package. In 1984, after the NCAA television contract was invalidated by the U.S. Supreme Court, ABC began a three-year deal televising CFA games, featuring most major college teams except members of the Big Ten and Pacific-10, the Atlantic Coast Conference and the University of Miami, the games of which were televised by CBS. From 1987 to 1990, ABC televised Big Ten and Pacific-10 games. Since 1991, ABC has had contracts with most of the major BCS conferences, which leads it to broadcast many of its games regionally. ABC began airing a weekly Saturday night primetime football game in the fall of 2006, when the network's sports division converted to ESPN on ABC. Nearly all regional ABC games that air on a given Saturday (and a very large number of other, exclusive games) are also available as part of a pay-per-view package called ESPN GamePlan, and online via ESPN3.
NBC
NBC broadcast the Rose Bowl beginning in 1952 until the 1988 Rose Bowl when ABC took over. It had the Orange Bowl from 1965 through 1995. (The 1971 contest was the very last sporting event on US television to carry cigarette ads.) NBC also aired the Fiesta Bowl from 1978 through 1995, and the Cotton Bowl from 1993 to 1995. NBC also contracted with the NCAA to broadcast regular season games in 1952–1953, 1955–1959 and 1964–1965.
NBC has an exclusive contract with Notre Dame, which began in 1991. Since that time, NBC has carried nationally all of Notre Dame's home games, paying at least $9 million per season for broadcast rights. Recently, Notre Dame's ratings have been down significantly due to relatively poor play and because NBC does not telecast a game every week as CBS and ABC do (when Notre Dame plays away, NBC has no college football, and thus the network has no set regular schedule); Notre Dame games on NBC drew less than half the ratings that CBS and ABC averaged for their college football games in 2008. NBC was long the home of the annual "Bayou Classic" between Grambling State University and Southern University at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome, but NBC has since moved the game to its NBCSN cable network. The game is well known for its Battle of the Bands between the schools at halftime.
CBS
CBS contracted with the NCAA to broadcast regular season games in 1962 and 1963. CBS shared the NCAA package with ABC in 1982 and 1983 and was also required to locally broadcast four Division III contests each year as part of that contract. (For the 1982 season, these four contests were instead aired nationwide and produced using the staff of the NFL on CBS, which had been idled due to a players' strike that year.) From 1984 to 1986, CBS televised games involving the Big Ten, Pacific-10, and Atlantic Coast Conferences, plus the University of Miami. From 1987 to 1990, CBS televised CFA, ACC and Miami games. CBS broadcast several important games in the 1980s, such as the classic Boston College–Miami game that ended with Doug Flutie's Hail Mary on November 23, 1984, and the "Catholics vs. Convicts" showdowns between Notre Dame and Miami from 1987 to 1990. CBS did not televise any regular season college football games from 1991 to 1995. The network aired Big East games from 1996 to 2000, and since 1996 has broadcast SEC games. CBS currently holds the right for the first pick for any game where an SEC team is at home, along with the rights to televise the SEC Championship game. The network also broadcasts the annual Army–Navy Game, the Air Force Academy's games vs. Army and Navy, and the Sun Bowl on New Year's Eve. CBS has broadcast the Sun Bowl (currently one of the few bowls not on an ESPN network) every year since 1968. From 1958 to 1992 and again from 1996 to 1998, CBS broadcast the Cotton Bowl annually. CBS aired the Fiesta Bowl from 1975 to 1977 and again after the 1995, 1996 and 1997 seasons, and also broadcast the Orange Bowl from 1996 to 1998.
Fox
Although its regional networks also aired games, until 2012, Fox did not air any regular season college football games. It did, however, air the Bowl Championship Series from 2006 to 2009 (excluding any event held at the Rose Bowl, whose rights were held by ABC) and aired the Cotton Bowl Classic from 1999 to 2015. In 2011, it began airing the Big Ten Football Championship Game (in conjunction with its operations of Big Ten Network), and the Pac-12 Championship Game (alternating with ESPN). In 2012, Fox began airing regular season college football games from the Pac-12 and Big 12 conferences. In 2016 and 2017, Fox acquired the Foster Farms Bowl and Holiday Bowl respectively.
On July 24, 2017, the Big Ten Conference announced that Fox had acquired the conference's Tier 1 football rights under a six-year deal beginning in the 2017 season, giving Fox first choice of Big Ten games over co-rightsholder ESPN.
The CW
In July 2023, Raycom Sports announced that it had sold a package of Atlantic Coast Conference broadcasts to The CW, consisting of 13 football games, 28 men's basketball games, and 9 women's basketball games per-season. The CW aired its first ACC broadcast on September 9, 2023, featuring Cincinnati at Pittsburgh.
PBS
PBS briefly carried the Ivy League in the 1980s, produced by WGBH-TV Boston, while many other state networks carried the games of their partner universities. Eventually, the airing of sports on public television became unworkable: most public television outlets operated under non-commercial educational licenses, which prohibited them from selling advertising or collecting retransmission consent fees. As the cost of rights began to skyrocket, these stations lacked the necessary revenue streams to keep up with the commercial networks; independent public stations could not afford rights, and state-owned networks got shut out when the state universities opted to make more money by selling the rights (usually in conjunction with their athletic conferences) to commercial networks.
Cable stations
TBS became the first cable station to nationally broadcast college football live when it began airing games during the 1982 season. The games were aired under a special "supplemental" television contract with the NCAA. ESPN followed later the same year, starting with a simulcast of the Independence Bowl match-up between Kansas State and the University of Wisconsin on December 11, 1982, which was the first college football game shown live on ESPN. (TBS subsequently left the field for several years, but again broadcast college football games from 2002 to 2006, showing Big 12 and Pac-10 matchups sublicensed from Fox Sports Net.)
In the wake of the 1984 Supreme Court ruling that broke the NCAA monopoly, ESPN immediately began airing regular season games live, starting with a contest between Pittsburgh and BYU on September 1, 1984. The network aired a 48-game package that year. ESPN2 began broadcasting live games in 1994, ESPNU began in 2005.
ABC gets first choice of games over the ESPN networks, especially from the American Athletic Conference, Big Ten, and ACC, because ABC and ESPN are owned by the same company. Many marquee games will still air on ESPN so they can air in prime-time, without being limited to regional viewers or GamePlan subscribers, but not giving non-cable owners a chance to see the games (unlike the NFL, games on ESPN are not required to be simulcast on over-the-air stations in local markets). This also occurs because CBS, not ABC, owns broadcast TV rights to the SEC, and thus only the ESPN networks can air the second and third-choice games (normally on Saturday nights); CBS having made the first pick. Likewise, FSN is the cable partner for Big 12 and Pac-12 games, and so only ABC can air games from those conference packages (it normally has the first pick), aside from a handful of games from each conference that ESPN purchases each year.
FSN sublicensed games to TBS from 2002 to 2006 from the Big 12 and Pac-10 Conferences and to Versus from 2007 to 2010. In 2011, FSN moved those games to FX. Joining the Big 12 and Pac-12 Conferences on FX will be Conference USA. Those games moved to Fox Sports 1 upon the channel's launch in 2013.
BET carried college football games from historically black colleges and universities under the Black College Football banner from 1981 through 2005 (in later years, the coverage was co-produced by CBS). This ended after the breakup of CBS and Viacom. Black college football games are now seen on the ESPN networks and on Aspire (Aspire also reruns select classic HBCU games from years past); Bounce TV had previously aired HBCU games in 2012 and 2013 before dropping them.
In the early 2000s, entire networks devoted to college sports, including college football, began to appear. Fox College Sports began in 2002. College Sports Television (now CBS Sports Network) debuted in 2002, becoming a CBS subsidiary in 2005. ESPNU began in March 2005. In the late 2000s, networks devoted to a single conference (e.g. Big Ten Network, MountainWest Sports Network) or team (Longhorn Network) began to appear.
Regional cable networks have long devoted coverage to one or two conferences. The Pac-12 and Big 12 have had deals with FSN since 1996, which airs games on its regional family of networks. As noted above, Fox Sports 1 and ESPN have also acquired the rights to certain games. The Mountain West Conference entered into an arrangement with CBS Sports Network and Comcast that developed the "MountainWest Sports Network" or "the mtn" that was devoted to broadcasting the league's games. The contract also placed eight MWC football games and five men's basketball games along with the MWC men's and women's basketball tournament championships on Versus (now NBC Sports Network). MountainWest Sports Network ceased operations on May 31, 2012. The Big Ten also has a similar regional network, with the Big Ten Network having made its debut in August 2007. The Texas Longhorns debuted the Longhorn Network in the fall of 2011, and the Pac-12 debuted the Pac-12 Network and Pac-12 Digital Network in fall of 2012. While it is not a national network, the Western Athletic Conference and Learfield Sports started the WAC Sports Network in 2010 to broadcast games to local affiliates.
Some Division III college football games are locally shown live or on tape on public-access television channels in the community in which the home team's campus is located.
Syndication
In addition, Raycom Sports, ESPN Plus and SPORTSfever syndicate games to broadcast stations and regional sports networks on a market-by-market basis. Many conferences also run their own syndicated network. Included in these are the Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference who run the Sun Belt Network and the WAC Sports Network.
Sinclair Broadcast Group, in 2014, launched the American Sports Network, which includes broadcasts of Division I FBS and FCS games across its properties. Conference USA, the Colonial Athletic Association, the Big South Conference, the Southern Conference, Southland Conference and Patriot League are part of ASN's package; the league also carries Mid-American Conference games through a sub-licensing deal with ESPN that allows Sinclair's local stations to carry their hometown college teams (for example, Buffalo Bulls college football is on Sinclair's WNYO). ASN was integrated into the multiplatform network Stadium in the 2017 offseason.
Canada
Canadian university football has had some national coverage of regular season games by terrestrial networks over the last 30 years, but the vast majority of broadcasts are on community channels, community TV networks or sports specialty channels. This is in part due to the sport's structure in Canada, where it is divided strictly into regional conferences and inter-conference play is much rarer than in the United States, reducing the sport's national appeal.
Coverage of U.S. college football is available to an extent in Canada; individual U.S. stations are available over-the-air and on television providers, Big Ten Network and CBS Sports Network can be carried by Canadian television providers, while the networks of TSN often simulcast games aired by ESPN networks (ESPN owns a minority stake in TSN).
Two of the country's four conferences (OUA and Canada West) distribute telecasts via Internet television, although the quality of these broadcasts is often significantly below that of a professional telecast (typically involving airing the team's radio broadcast over a single-camera feed of the game).
Ontario
In the early years of TSN during the late 1980s and early 1990s, the network broadcast some regular season games along with the OUAA or OQIFC finals.
Hamilton-based CHCH carried Ontario (OUA) university football games (typically involving the hometown McMaster Marauders) through the 1990s until 2001. From 2003 to 2013, The Score had offered a Saturday game of the week and the Yates Cup under the brand OUA University Rush. After The Score was acquired by Sportsnet and became Sportsnet 360, the company canceled its OUA coverage due to low ratings, and no other broadcaster picked up the rights. In 2015, OUA reached an agreement with CHCH to carry the OUA playoffs in a multi-year deal, one that survived the station's bankruptcy later that year. CITY-TV, which like Sportsnet is owned by Rogers Communications, ran a four-game trial run of OUA regular season games (three of which involved the OUA) in 2016.
A series of community TV stations carry games throughout Ontario. Rogers outlets in Ottawa, Guelph, Kitchener-Waterloo and London broadcast games. TV Cogeco outlets in Windsor, Hamilton and Kingston also broadcast games. Kingston broadcasts of Queen's Gaels football are tape delayed for same day broadcast, while all other games are distributed live.
Quebec (and national Francophone)
RSEQ games are broadcast nationally in French on Radio Canada on a weekly basis, including the playoffs and the Dunsmore Cup in the 2011 and 2012 seasons. The contract is up for renewal in 2013.
Previously, RDS broadcast a game of the week package during the regular season. The rights for the Uteck Bowl, Mitchell Bowl and Vanier Cup belonged to RDS in 2011 and 2012. For 2013 onward, Radio Canada carried the national playoffs nationwide.
Atlantic Canada
In the AUS, Eastlink had a long-standing agreement to carry a game of the week up to and including the Loney Bowl which expired in 2014. The games have since been carried on Bell Alliant TV1.
Western Canada
In 2017, Canada West will broadcast a game of the week on SaskTel throughout Saskatchewan. Games produced by SaskTel will be shared by Telus in BC and Alberta and Bell-MTS in Manitoba to 1.5 million customers.
In the early years of TSN during the late 1980s and early 1990s, the network broadcast some regular season games along with the Canada West final.
Games in Canada West games were carried throughout the Shaw TV system to 2.7 million subscribers through most regions of Western Canada and parts of Northern Ontario. In southern and central Saskatchewan the broadcasts are shared with Access Communications customers. Krown Produce Canada West Football on Shaw was available from 2006 to 2016.
Since 2010, the games have been available to 790,000 Shaw Direct subscribers nationally on channels 299 and 499.
In 2012, Shaw simulcast the games in anamorphic HD for free access on HD 303 on their systems.
Shaw lost the rights to the Canada West Championship when the conference reached an agreement with MRX and Associates to broadcast the final on TSN in 2011 and 2012. Shaw regained the Hardy Trophy no later than the 2014 season, after TSN abandoned Canadian university football broadcasts.
Canada West renewed a three-year agreement with Shaw TV before the 2012 season. In 2015, Canada West expanded its coverage nationwide with an agreement with Global Television Network, a sister company to Shaw.
There were also local broadcasts produced for Manitoba Bisons home games by Shaw TV Winnipeg, and Regina Rams games by Access.
Shaw also produced a weekly, 30-minute CIS highlight and features show called the Krown Canadian University Countdown.
National (anglophone)
The Vanier Cup has had a wide and varied history on Canadian TV.
In the early 1970s, CBC Television broadcast the game, eventually returning decades later to carry the 55th Vanier Cup in 2019. CBC Sports also simulcast American college football broadcasts on a sporadic basis from 1966 to 2005. From the mid-1970s through to the mid-1980s the CTV Network broadcast the national final. TSN gained broadcast rights to the final in the late 1980s. On occasion, the network would broadcast a conference game nationally, but would mainly stick with conference finals, national semifinals (a.k.a. bowl games) and the national final.
TSN lost the rights to The Score in 2006 and 2007 for national bowl games and the Vanier Cup, but regained them between the 2008 and 2012 seasons. In the latter five seasons, TSN used its exclusive rights deal with the Canadian Football League to cross-promote the Vanier Cup as part of a broader championship weekend with the Grey Cup, the CFL championship; the cross-promotion was a success, with over 500,000 viewers watching the 2011 and 2012 Vanier Cups.
In May 2013, CIS, since renamed U Sports, signed a six-year agreement with Rogers Sportsnet to carry the Uteck Bowl, Mitchell Bowl and Vanier Cup. As a standalone event and the only substantial football on Sportsnet (rival TSN owns exclusive NFL and CFL rights in addition to its extensive U.S. college football slate), the Vanier Cup has fared far more poorly; the 2017 Vanier Cup only drew 168,000, down almost three-fourths from 2011, when 665,000 viewers saw the game. Non-Vanier Cup games fared even more poorly; the 2014 playoff games drew 80,000 and 120,000 viewers (compared to 200,000 for the Vanier Cup that year), while that year's regular season slate drew only 28,000 per game, a number so low that Sportsnet could not justify the cost (about $84,000 per game at the time) to produce the regular season contests. By 2018, the playoff numbers had fallen to 39,000 viewers for the Uteck Bowl and 66,000 for the Mitchell Bowl; the Uteck Bowl has been harmed by non-competitiveness, as Quebec has defeated Atlantic in 11 consecutive Uteck Bowls.
Conference affiliations by home team
All conferences, games and teams are Bowl Subdivision teams unless otherwise noted.
Broadcast network
ABC: ACC, American, Big 12, Pac-12, championship games (ACC, American, Big 12 and Pac-12 in odd-numbered years), Citrus Bowl, LA Bowl and Las Vegas Bowl
CBS: SEC, Big Ten, Mountain West, SEC Championship Game, Commander-in-Chief's Trophy games (include Army-Navy) and Sun Bowl
Fox: Big 12, Big Ten, Mountain West, Pac-12, championship games (Big Ten, Mountain West, and Pac-12 in even-numbered years) and Holiday Bowl
NBC: Big Ten, Notre Dame
The CW: ACC
Cable/regional/online
ACC Network: ACC
Big Ten Network: Big Ten
CBS Sports Network: Army, C-USA, MAC, Mountain West, Navy, UConn, C-USA Championship Game and Hula Bowl
ESPN networks (ESPN, ESPN2, ESPNU, ESPNews, ESPN3 and ESPN+): ACC, American, Big 12, Big Ten, C-USA, MAC, Pac-12, SEC, Sun Belt, UMass, championship games (MAC and Sun Belt) and most bowl games including the entirety of the College Football Playoff
Fox Sports 1: Big 12, Big Ten, Mountain West and Pac-12
Fox Sports 2: Mountain West
Longhorn Network: Texas
NFL Network: American, MAC, Sun Belt, East–West Shrine Bowl, NFLPA Collegiate Bowl and Senior Bowl
Pac-12 Network: Pac-12
Peacock: Big Ten, Notre Dame
SEC Network: SEC
Spectrum OC16: Hawaii
FCS and others
ABC: Celebration Bowl (FCS) and FCS Championship Game
Aspire: Select games from the SWAC (FCS) and CIAA (D-II, including league championship)
CBS Sports Network: NEC (FCS)
Cox Sports Television: Southland (FCS)
ESPN networks (ESPN, ESPN2, ESPNU, ESPNews, ESPN3 and ESPN+): Big Sky (FCS), Big South–OVC (FCS), Ivy League (FCS, ESPN+ exclusive), MEAC (FCS), MVFC (FCS), NEC (FCS), SWAC (FCS), SoCon (FCS), Southland (FCS), UAC (FCS), Turkey Day Classic (FCS/D-II), SWAC Championship Game, FCS tournament, Gulf South (D-II), D-II Championship Game, Secretaries Cup (D-III), D-III Championship Game, KCAC (NAIA), NAIA Championship.
FloSports: CAA (FCS) and SIAC (D-II)
HBCU Go: SWAC (FCS)
Image Video: Mount Union (D-III)
NBC: Bayou Classic (FCS)
NEC Front Row: NEC (FCS)
NFL Network: HBCU Legacy Bowl (FCS)
SPORTSfever Television Network: Morgan State (FCS), PSAC (D-II), Penn–Mansfield sprint game (sui generis)
In contrast to the National Football League, which uses the visiting team's conference affiliation to determine who broadcasts afternoon games, college football telecasts are assigned based on the home team's conference affiliation.
Canada
There are four conferences in Canada, plus a national playoff.
Regional and national coverage in 2019:
SaskTel and Telus TV/Bell-MTS: Canada West (both regular season and Hardy Trophy)
TVA Sports: French: RSEQ, French-language coverage of the Vanier Cup
Bell Alliant TV1: AUS
CHCH TV: OUA (select regular season games and Yates Cup)
TSN: American college football broadcast simulcasts from the ESPN networks
CBS Sports Network is also available in Canada (the only cable sports service from the U.S. to be carried in the country), as are most U.S. broadcast networks.
National semifinals and final managed by U Sports
CBC: Vanier Cup
Televised games
Annual televised games
Some games are traditionally played on a specific date (often a holiday), and are nationally televised every single year. These include:
Auburn and Alabama – Known as "The Iron Bowl", has generally been the last game of the regular season. Since 2007, the game has been scheduled for either the Friday or Saturday after Thanksgiving.
Notre Dame and Michigan – Played in September in all but six seasons since 1978. Every one of these games has been on national network television, except the 1980 game (won by Notre Dame, 29-27, on a game-ending 51-yard field goal by Harry Oliver). The 1982 showdown was the first night game in the history of Notre Dame Stadium, with the use of portable lights from Musco Lighting, and was televised in prime time on ABC. The 1988 and 1990 games at Notre Dame were prime time telecasts on CBS, with both won by Notre Dame. The 2011 game, the first night game ever at Michigan Stadium and won by Michigan, was televised nationally by ESPN. The 2014 game was the last of the annual series due to Notre Dame's current commitment to schedule five ACC schools each season, plus the Big Ten's move to a nine-game conference schedule starting in 2016. The teams played a one-off renewal, again in September, in 2018. As this game was at Notre Dame, it was televised nationally by NBC, which has had the contract to televise Notre Dame home games since 1991.
Ohio State and Michigan – Also referred to as "The Game" is traditionally played the third Saturday of every November and broadcast on ABC through the 2016 season. With the Big Ten adding a bye week, the game was moved to the Saturday after Thanksgiving in 2010. Beginning with the 2017 season, Fox will broadcast the game on an (expected) annual basis.
West Virginia and Pittsburgh (Backyard Brawl) – Usually played towards the end of the football season and always on national television. In the past, the Backyard Brawl games were on ABC, CBS, ESPN and ESPN2. The rivalry ended for the time being with West Virginia's move to the Big 12 before the 2012 college football season.
Tennessee vs. Alabama –Known as the "Third Saturday in October". This game has been played between the two schools on or around the same day of every year since 1901. Recently it has been either the third or fourth Saturday of October, depending on the calendar.
Texas and Oklahoma (Red River Shootout) – Played during the State Fair of Texas in Dallas on the second Saturday of October and broadcast on ABC. The 2009 game was moved back a week to the third Saturday in October, and the 2010 game was moved up to the first Saturday in October.
USC and Notre Dame – USC–ND has had a national television audience every year since 1986, with the exception of 2002 when the game was a split-national telecast with Florida–Florida State. Notre Dame hosts the game in odd years in mid-October, and USC hosts the game in even years on the Saturday after Thanksgiving. In the former case, NBC airs the game, while in the latter case, it is carried on the ESPN family of networks (ABC was the longtime carrier of games from Los Angeles, but in 2008 it aired on ESPN while ABC aired Oklahoma-Oklahoma State).
Florida and Florida State – Usually played on the Saturday of Thanksgiving weekend except 2020, during odd years the game is played in Gainesville, and aired on CBS. In even years, the game is played in Tallahassee on and aired or ABC, ESPN, or ESPN2. In 2022, the game will air on Black Friday for the first time, in primetime.
Texas A&M–Texas – Played on the day after Thanksgiving and televised annually on ABC through 2007. In 2008, Texas A&M vs. Texas was played on Thanksgiving night in Austin, and in 2009 was played on Thanksgiving night in College Station, with ESPN telecasting both games. The 2010 game in Austin was again played on Thanksgiving night. This annual game is no longer played following A&M's 2012 move to the Southeastern Conference.
LSU and Arkansas – Known as "The Battle for the Golden Boot." Played on the day after Thanksgiving and broadcast on CBS from 1996 to 2008. The game was moved back a day to Saturday due to the Iron Bowl moving to the Friday slot for 2009 and 2010, but was broadcast by ESPN and CBS, respectively. CBS once again aired the game on the day after Thanksgiving in 2011, 2012 and 2013. LSU and Arkansas began playing earlier in November in 2014.
LSU-Texas A&M - Now played on Thanksgiving weekend and televised by ESPN or ESPN2. The games in College Station in 2014 and 2016 were played on Thanksgiving night, owing to the Aggies' former tradition of playing Texas on Thanksgiving. LSU has refused to move the games in Baton Rouge to Thanksgiving (no game at Tiger Stadium has been played on a Thursday since 1973), keeping them on Saturday.
Arkansas-Missouri - Known as the "Battle Line Rivalry", it has been played on the Friday after Thanksgiving since 2014 and televised by CBS.
Army–Navy Game – generally played on the last weekend of the regular season and broadcast on CBS since 1996. Since 2009, the game has been played on the second Saturday in December, and is the only scheduled FBS game that weekend except 2020.
Kentucky–Louisville - Known as the "Governor's Cup", this game is played at the end of the season. The in-state-rivals formerly opened the season against each other, but since Louisville joined the ACC in 2014, the game has been held on the last week before the ACC and SEC championship games. This specific weekend features three other ACC–SEC in-state rivalries in Clemson–South Carolina, Florida–Florida State, and Georgia–Georgia Tech.
USC and UCLA – played during the last week of the regular season (2004–2008), when the game was broadcast on ABC between the ACC Championship Game and the Big 12 Championship Game. (NOTE: For the 2009 season USC played their final game against Arizona, but USC-UCLA was again each team's final game in 2010.) The ESPN family of networks still airs the game on odd-numbered years, while the Fox family of networks airs the game when played in Pasadena during even-numbered years.
BYU and Utah – Known as "The Holy War" and as the "Deseret First Duel." The game was typically played the week before Thanksgiving until the 2011 season, when Utah moved to the Pac-12 and BYU became a football independent. The game was broadcast by ABC, ESPN, ESPN2, or ESPN Plus before 2007 and was simulcast on Mtn. and CBS Sports Network from 2007 to 2010. The game returned to the ESPN family of networks beginning in 2011, and could be seen on one of the Fox family of networks in even-numbered years. For the 2011 and 2012 seasons the game took place during the third week of the season. From 2013 forward, the game takes place between September 29 and October 5, depending on what day the first Sunday in October falls on.
Grambling and Southern – Known as the Bayou Classic, the Grambling-Southern rivalry airs annually on NBCSN on the last Saturday afternoon in November (i.e., the Saturday following Thanksgiving). It is the only black college football classic, and until the game moved from NBC in 2015, was the only non-FBS college football game to air regularly on a nationwide broadcast television network.
Bowl games
Rose Bowl – Annually broadcast since the 1952 Rose Bowl. Traditionally held on New Year's Day along with the Rose Parade; however, after joining the Bowl Championship Series, the 2002 game was played January 3 and the 2006 game was played January 4 due to the Rose Bowl being the national championship game. NBC was the longtime home of the Rose Bowl until the late 1980s, when ABC took over. ABC's final Rose Bowl was the 2010 game, and the network aired the BCS Championship Game from the Rose Bowl on January 7, 2010. ESPN began televising the game in 2011.
Orange Bowl – Traditionally held on New Year's Day. It was a New Year's night staple for many years on NBC, with NBC's last telecast being the 1995 game. CBS aired the game for three years, followed by ABC for eight years, and Fox for four years, with 2010 being the last Orange Bowl to air on Fox. ESPN began televising the game in 2011.
Sugar Bowl – Traditionally held on New Year's Day. Its traditional time slot was early afternoon and was first telecast by the DuMont Network in 1953 and then by ABC from 1954 to 1958. From 1959 until 1969 NBC broadcast the game as a part of its New Year's Day trio of the Sugar, Rose and then Orange. ABC returned in 1970 and for 1972 convinced the Sugar Bowl committee to move the game to primetime on New Year's Eve where it remained through 1975. ABC aired the game up until 2006 when Fox purchased the rights for the BCS Bowl games through 2010. ESPN began televising the game in 2011.
Cotton Bowl Classic – Traditionally held on New Year's Day. CBS was the long-time home of the Cotton Bowl Classic, airing it up through 1992, and again from 1996 to 1998. NBC aired the game from 1993 to 1995, and Fox aired the game from 1999 to 2014. The game has been played on January 2 multiple times in recent years, as was the case in both 2009 and 2010. The 2011 game aired in primetime for the first time ever, on Friday, January 7. ESPN has aired the game since January 15 as part of the College Football Playoff package (the Cotton Bowl is a CFP semifinal once every three years and is an "access" bowl in the other two).
BCS games
The Bowl Championship Series, which operated from 1998 through the 2013 season, was driven from the start by television revenue. In 2007, the Fox Broadcasting Company started broadcasting all the BCS games with the exception of the Rose Bowl. ABC previously aired two full cycles of the BCS between 1998 and 2006. Before this, CBS aired the Bowl Coalition and the Bowl Alliance, with the exception of the Sugar Bowl from 1995 to 1997. The Rose Bowl aired on ABC from 1989 to 2010. All BCS games shifted to cable in 2010–11 as ESPN began a four-year deal.
College Football Playoff
The College Football Playoff replaced the BCS starting with the 2014 season. ESPN acquired rights to the entire CFP package, consisting of six bowl games and the College Football Playoff National Championship, through the 2025 season.
Announcers
By bowl
Rose Bowl
List of Rose Bowl Game broadcasters
Sugar Bowl
List of Sugar Bowl broadcasters
Orange Bowl
List of Orange Bowl broadcasters
Fiesta Bowl
List of Fiesta Bowl broadcasters
Cotton Bowl Classic
List of Cotton Bowl Classic broadcasters
Holiday Bowl
List of Holiday Bowl broadcasters
By broadcaster
Note: All ABC crews may appear on ESPN.
ESPN College Football on ABC & ESPN College Football (For 2023)
Chris Fowler or Rece Davis/Kirk Herbstreit/Holly Rowe (Saturday Night Football)
Sean McDonough or Bob Wischusen/Greg McElroy/Molly McGrath (ESPN College Football Saturday Primetime)
Joe Tessitore or Mike Monaco/Jesse Palmer or Jordan Rodgers/Katie George (ESPN College Football on ABC/ESPN)
Mark Jones/Louis Riddick or Rod Gilmore/Quint Kessenich (ESPN College Football on ABC/ESPN)
Dave Pasch/Dusty Dvoracek/Tom Luginbill (ESPN College Football on ABC/ESPN)
Bob Wischusen or Mike Monaco/Robert Griffin III/Kris Budden (ESPN College Football on ABC/ESPN)
Dave Flemming or Drew Carter /Brock Osweiler/Kayla Burton (ESPN College Football on ABC/ESPN)
Roy Philpott/Roddy Jones/Taylor McGregor (ESPN/ESPN2)
Beth Mowins or Lowell Galindo/Kirk Morrison/Stormy Buonantony (ESPN/ESPN2)
Brian Custer/Rod Gilmore/Lauren Sisler (ESPN/ESPN2)
Matt Barrie/Dan Mullen/Harry Lyles Jr. (ESPN College Football Thursday Primetime)
Anish Shroff/Andre Ware/Paul Carcaterra (ESPN College Football Friday Primetime)
John Schriffen/Rocky Boiman/Dawn Davenport (ESPN2/ESPNU)
Courtney Lyle/Hutson Mason (ESPN2/ESPNU)
Jay Alter or MIke Corey/Rene Ingoglia (ESPN2/ESPNU)
Clay Matvick/Aaron Murray (ESPN2/ESPNU)
Drew Carter/Dustin Fox (ESPN2/ESPNU)
Connor Onion/Craig Haubert (ESPN2/ESPNU)
NOTE: Former college referees Bill LeMonnier and Matt Austin provide rules analysis for many ESPN games.
Fox College Football (For 2023)
Gus Johnson/Joel Klatt/Jenny Taft (Fox Big Noon Saturday)Jason Benetti/Brock Huard/Allison Williams (Fox)Tim Brando/Spencer Tillman/Josh Sims (Fox)Jeff Levering/Mark Helfrich (FS1)Alex Faust/Petros Papadakis (FS1)Eric Collins/Devin Gardner (FS1)Mike Pereira or Dean Blandino provides Rules Analysis for Fox/FS1 games from Fox Sports Studio in Los Angeles, California.
CBS (For 2023)
Brad Nessler/Gary Danielson/Jenny Dell
Tom McCarthy/Jason McCourty and/or Ross Tucker/Tiffany Blackmon
Rich Waltz/Aaron Taylor/Amanda Guerra
Chris Lewis/Ross Tucker or Jason McCourty/Justin Walters
Note: Gene Steratore provides rules analysis for all SEC Football Games plus the Army-Navy Game from the CBS Broadcast Center in New York. Steratore joins Nessler and Danielson in the booth for the Sun Bowl.
NBC (For 2023)
Noah Eagle/Todd Blackledge/Kathryn Tappen/Terry McAulay (Big Ten Saturday Night on NBC)
Jac Collinsworth or Noah Eagle or Paul Burmeister/Jason Garrett/Zora Stephenson/Terry McAulay (Notre Dame Football on NBC and Select Big Ten Games on NBC)
Mike Tirico/Chris Simms/Lewis Johnson (Big Ten on NBC)
Additional Play-by-Play Announcers
- Brendan Burke, Paul Burmeister and Andrew Siciliano
Additional Analyst and Sideline Report
- Joshua Perry, Michael Robinson, Kyle Rudolph and Anthony Herron
Additional Sideline Reporter
- Caroline Pineda
Additional Rules Analyst
- Reggie Smith
CBS Sports Network (For 2023)
Rich Waltz/Aaron Taylor
John Sadak or Jordan Kent/Randy Cross/Sheehan Stanwick-Burch - Navy games
Chris Lewis or Dave Ryan/Ross Tucker or Adam Breneman/Tina Cervasio - Army games
Note: Gene Steratore provides rules analysis for all College Football Games on CBS Sports Network from the CBS Broadcast Center in New York.
Additional Play-by-Play Announcers
- Carter Blackburn, Ed Cohen, Chick Hernandez, Alex Del Barrio, Jason Knapp, and Michael Grady
Additional Analyst and Sideline Report
- Robert Turbin, Malik Zaire, Donte Whitner, Christian Fauria, Brock Vereen, and Taylor McHargue
Additional Sideline Reporters
- Tiffany Blackmon, Amanda Guerra, Justin Walters, Brandon Baylor, Emily Proud and Keiana Martin
BTN (For 2023)
play-by-play - Cory Provus, Mark Followill, Lisa Byington, Connor Onion, Jason Ross Jr., Joe Beninati
analysts - Jake Butt, Matt Millen, Anthony Herron, Brock Vereen
sidelines - Brooke Fletcher, Elise Menaker, Meghan McKeown, Justine Ward
Pac-12 Network (For 2023)
play-by-play - Ted Robinson, Roxy Bernstein, JB Long, Guy Haberman, Elise Woodward
analysts - Yogi Roth, Lincoln Kennedy, Max Browne, Shane Vereen, Nigel Burton, Ryan Leaf, Greg Camarillo, Gus Farwell, Michael Bumpus
SEC Network (For 2023)
Tom Hart/Jordan Rodgers or Cole Cubelic/Cole Cubelic or Alyssa Lang
Dave Neal/Derek Mason/Taylor Davis
Taylor Zarzour/Matt Stinchcomb/Alyssa Lang
Former SEC referee Matt Austin provides rules analysis from the SEC Network studio in Charlotte, North Carolina.
ACC Network (For 2023)
Wes Durham/Tim Hasselbeck/Taylor Tannenbaum
Chris Cotter/Mark Herzlich/Sherree Burruss
Jorge Sedano/Orlando Franklin/Marilyn Payne
The CW (For 2023)
Tom Werme/James Bates/Treavor Scales or Tabitha Turner
Root Sports Northwest
Tom Glasgow/Taylor Barton or Jason Stiles/Ty Gregorak or Jen Mueller (Big Sky)Next Level Sports
(Big Sky)
(Ivy League)
Eric Frede/Andy Gresh (UMass)
TV2 Sports (Lehigh Mountain Hawks)
Matt Kerr, Lance Haynes, Tom Fallon, and Matt Markus
NBC North Dakota
Brian Shawn/Lee Timmerman/Beth Hoole
WEIU
Mike Bradd/Jack Ashmore
ASPiRE
Stan Lewter
Midco
Alex Heinert/Ryan Kasowski/Kelly Howe (North Dakota)Jay Elsen/Andre Fields (South Dakota)Tom Niemann/Hank McCall (South Dakota State)Legacy Sports Network (Sam Houston State on ESPN3 & Houston Baptist on ROOT SW)
Tom Franklin/Jeff Power/Rotating sideline reporters
Announcers, Canada
Krown Produce Canada West Football on Shaw
Jim Mullin/Laurence Nixon or Jesse Lumsden or Daved Benefield
OUA University Rush on The Score
Simon Bennett/Donnovan Bennett
RSEQ football sur SRC
Jean St-Onge/Jacques Dussault
Subway AUS Football on Eastlink TV
Dan Robertson
CIS on TSN
Rod Black/Duane Forde
Rod Smith/Mike Morreale
SIC sur RDS
Pierre Vercheval
See also
Men's college basketball on television
References
Specific citations:
General references:
Bernstein, Mark F. (2001). Football: The Ivy League Origins of an American Obsession ()
Watterson, John Sayle (2000). College Football: History, Spectacle, Controversy'' ()
In The Arena' from ncaa.org
Current major conference television contracts from kansascity.com
Selection of legendary games from usatoday.com
Television |
4076258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Blessman | USS Blessman | USS Blessman (DE-69/APD-48), a of the United States Navy, was named in honor of Lieutenant Edward Martin Blessman (1907–1942), who was killed in action in the Pacific on 4 February 1942.
Namesake
Edward Martin Blessman was born on 29 December 1907 in Nott, North Dakota. He was appointed midshipman from the 9th District of Wisconsin on 21 June 1927 and graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy on 4 June 1931. Service at sea on the battleship and the destroyer preceded flight training at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, after which he served in VS-2B on the aircraft carrier and VP-17F, based on the seaplane tender . Following a two-year tour at the Naval Air Station Anacostia, Blessman – promoted to lieutenant in January 1939 – joined , then with the U.S. Asiatic Fleet, on 10 December 1939.
On 4 February 1942, Marblehead stood out of Surabaya, Java, as part of a mixed American-Dutch cruiser-destroyer force under Rear Admiral Karel W. F. M. Doorman, Royal Netherlands Navy. Japanese flying boats from the Toko Kōkūtai (Toko Air Group), however, spotted the force as it attempted to transit the Madoera Strait to attack the Japanese invasion fleet bound for Borneo. Thus forewarned, Japanese naval land attack planes bombed the allied force. At 10:27, a stick of seven bombs from a Mitsubishi G4M1 "Betty" bomber of Toko Kōkūtai straddled Marblehead. The first of the two bombs to hit the ship penetrated the main deck and exploded near “wardroom country", the blast ripping through the light sheet metal bulkheads that comprised the boundaries of the compartment. Blessman, who, as the ship's senior aviator had no air defense station and was in the wardroom at the time, was killed instantly by the concussion.
Construction and commissioning
The ship was built by the Bethlehem-Hingham Shipyard at Hingham, Massachusetts in 1943. After commissioning, Blessman escorted convoys in the North Atlantic before taking part in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Northern France in June 1944. She was then converted to a High-speed transport, being fitted with accommodation and landing craft for carrying troops, while being capable of escorting amphibious groups and providing gunfire support to landing operations. After conversion, Blessman took part in the Allied invasion of the Philippines and the Battle of Iwo Jima, where she was damaged by a Japanese bomber.
After the war, Blessman went into reserve, before being transferred to Taiwan in 1967, serving in the Republic of China Navy as Chung Shan until 1995.
Construction and design
The was one of six classes of destroyer escorts built for the US Navy to meet the massive demand for escort vessels following America's entry into World War Two. While basically similar, the different classes were fitted with different propulsion gear and armament. The Buckleys had a turbo-electric drive, and a main gun armament of 3-inch guns.
The Buckley- (or TE) class ships were long overall and between perpendiculars, with a beam of and a mean draft of . Displacement was standard and full load. Two boilers fed steam to steam turbines which drove electrical generators, with in turn powered electric motors that propelled the ship. The machinery was rated at , giving a speed of . of oil was carried, giving a range of at .
The ship's main gun armament consisted of three 3-inch (76 mm) 50 caliber dual-purpose (i.e. anti-surface and anti-aircraft) guns, two forward and one aft, in open mounts. Close in armament consisted of a quadruple 1.1-inch/75-caliber gun, backed up by eight single Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. A triple mount of 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes provided a capability against larger ships, while anti-submarine armament consisted of a Hedgehog forward-firing anti-submarine mortar and eight depth charge projectors and two depth charge rails. Crew was 186 officers and other ranks.
Blessman was laid down on 22 March 1943 at Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation's Hingham Shipyard, in Hingham, Massachusetts. The ship was launched on 19 June 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Helen Malloy Blessman, widow of Lieutenant Blessman, and commissioned on 19 September 1943.
Service history
Convoy escort, 1943–1944
After fitting out at the Boston Navy Yard and running her acceptance trials in Massachusetts Bay, Blessman departed Boston on 9 October 1943 for shakedown training. Operating out of Bermuda, the new destroyer escort completed her initial gunnery, anti-submarine, and engineering training early in November. She left Bermuda on the 5th, arrived in Boston on the 8th and began post-shakedown availability.
Leaving Boston again a week later, Blessman reached the New York Navy Yard on the 16th. Assigned to Escort Division (CortDiv) 19, the destroyer escort sailed with a fast troop convoy on 20 November, screening it safely across the Atlantic and into Derry, Northern Ireland, ten days later. Clearing the Irish Sea on 8 December, Blessman escorted a westward-bound convoy on the return leg of her maiden voyage and arrived at New York five days before Christmas of 1943. Over the next six months, Blessman made three more round-trip Atlantic crossings escorting convoys, returning from the last of these on 1 May.
Normandy invasion, 1944
Her fifth Atlantic passage proved the most eventful. Clearing New York on 12 May, she arrived at the other end of the "Milk Run" on the 23rd, at Derry. Instead of returning in the screen of a westbound convoy, however, she shifted to Belfast on the 27th in company with her sister ships and division mates , , and , and became part of the armada forming for the assault on Normandy. Blessman departed Belfast on 3 June and headed for Baie de la Seine, France, escorting the bombardment group of the assault force. Heavy weather compelled the postponement of the invasion of France, but it abated enough to permit the landings to commence on 6 June. Initially, Blessman drew duty screening the amphibious command ship . Then, as "Operation Overlord" actually unfolded, Blessman switched to screening to seaward of the invasion force to deal with possible E-boat attacks.
Mines, however, proved a much greater threat than any posed by enemy aircraft and ships. Attack transport struck one early on 7 June, while proceeding in what had been regarded as a swept channel. By 0805 the stricken auxiliary was taking water badly. Having lost all power, with her rudder stuck "hard left", Susan B. Anthony assumed an eight-degree list to starboard. Blessman gingerly came alongside the doomed, drifting, ship and removed six officers and 38 enlisted men before being ordered away because of the imminent danger of the transport's foundering. Less than an hour later, Blessman sped to the assistance of the mined . After embarking 26 seriously wounded men, the destroyer escort transported them to an LST designated to handle casualties.
Detached from "Overlord" on 12 June, after rounding out her duty screening the invasion force from air attacks and E-boat raids, Blessman reached New York on the 21st. She then escorted a troop convoy to Derry in early July and returned home as an escort for a convoy of transports bearing men wounded in the fighting at Normandy, and brought her sixth round-trip to a conclusion at the end of July.
Conversion to high speed transport, 1944
While en route home, Blessman had received word that she was to be converted to a Charles Lawrence-class high speed transport. Accordingly, she entered the Sullivan Drydock and Repair Corporation yard, Brooklyn, New York, on 28 July 1944. She emerged from this major overhaul and alteration period on 25 October 1944, reconfigured to handle four landing boats (LCPL) and troops. Redesignated APD-48, Blessman departed New York and headed for a brief shakedown in Chesapeake Bay before continuing on to the Pacific. The warship proceeded to her new theater of war, sailing via the Panama Canal, and, after touching at San Diego and San Francisco en route, reached Hawaii on 27 November. At Pearl Harbor, Blessman embarked Underwater Demolition Team (UDT) 15 and resumed her voyage westward on 11 December.
Pacific theater, 1945
She touched at Eniwetok, Saipan, Ulithi, and the Palaus, leaving Kossol Roads on New Year's Day 1945, bound for Luzon. Enemy air attacks began to materialize on 3 January, as the invasion forces neared their objective. American sailors again encountered kamikazes, suicide aircraft that they had first met only weeks before in the invasion of Leyte. The attacks continued over the following days, "off and on, day and night".
Invasion of Luzon
Blessmans primary mission off Luzon lay in sending UDT 15 to assault beaches Green No. 1 and Yellow No. 2, covering the swimmers with her guns while they reconnoitered surf conditions, located underwater obstacles, and determined beach gradients. At 1430 on 7 January 1945, Blessman stood in toward the Lingayen beaches and, by 1436, had all four of her LCPLs in the water. The boats shoved off 20 minutes later. Reaching her assigned position off the objective at 1510, Blessman soon commenced firing with her forward 5-inch gun. She maintained covering fire for her UDT until shortly before she recovered her four boats. All LCPLs were on board by 1650, and Blessman then headed to a rendezvous with to transfer UDT-15's commanding officer to that ship with the results of the day's covering the night retirement of TG 77.2.reconnaissance. The transfer went off by 1815, and Blessman took position in the screen.
As that task group returned to the gulf to carry out its assigned shore bombardment mission, Blessman returned with it, bringing the commander of UDT-15 back on board that morning at 0800 before the ship received orders to close and to lower a boat. She complied and soon embarked Capt. B. Hall Hanlon, Commander, UDT Pacific Fleet, and two members of his staff. Over the next two days, Blessman served as courier and delivered mail among the ships of TG 77.2, each night taking a station to seaward in the screen of the task force. On 10 January, Blessmans unit had a close encounter with a kamikaze when she and other vessels in the screen took an enemy aircraft under fire at 0711. "It finally dove", wrote Blessmans commanding officer, "after circling high above as though trying to make up its mind who to hit", and crashed close aboard a destroyer on the picket line to the east.
Later that afternoon, Blessman, in response to the orders from the task unit commander embarked in Humphreys, sent UDT-15 on a beach reconnaissance mission "from the east flank of Crimson Beach to a point east of that point." Still later, she received orders to report to the commander of Destroyer Division (DesDiv) 120 for escort duty. Accordingly, she moved out, recalling her boats as she did so. A heavy surf prevented the recovery of four of UDT-15's men who finally found temporary shelter on board LST-627 and LSM-11 and who Humphreys later returned to their own ship.
After Capt. Hanlon had returned from , and Blessman had recovered all of her LCPLs, the fast transport departed the area at flank speed and joined the designated task unit for the passage to Leyte, reporting "on station" at 2015. On 13 January, Blessman arrived at Leyte and reported for duty to the Commander, Philippine Sea Frontier. After escorting transports back to Ulithi, the warship rested, reprovisioned, and trained for her next operation that would take her one step nearer to Japan.
Invasion of Iwo Jima
Blessman reported for duty at Ulithi, and in company with other high-speed transports of TG 52.4, on 3 and 6 February 1945, conducted rehearsals for her forthcoming operation - the invasion of Iwo Jima. All units of the task force to which Blessman was attached, TF-52, sailed from Ulithi for Saipan on 10 February for further training and rehearsals that were carried out on 12 and 13 February. During these practice evolutions Blessman operated as a screening vessel. Her sonar gear failed on the 11th, but was left inoperative owing to the lack of time to repair the damage.
On 14 February, TF-52, with Blessman among its warships, sailed from Saipan at 0900. Her captain at this point was Lieutenant Philip LeBoutillier. On the 16th, after the Fire Support Units 1 and 4 had commenced the pre-landing bombardment of Iwo Jima, Blessman was detached from the screen and conducted a close reconnaissance of the beaches while circling the island counter-clockwise.
After screening the heavy ships that evening, Blessman rendezvoused with south of "Hot Rocks," the code name for Iwo Jima, shortly after 0941 on the 17th. She then lowered three of her four boats and sent in UDT-15 to reconnoiter beaches and observed small caliber shell splashes around her as she retired to seaward. Upon reaching a point some from the shore, Blessman stood off Beaches Blue 1 and Blue 2 for a little over an hour before standing in and recovering her boats. Despite the heavy opposition reported by UDT-15, only one man (Frank Sumpter) was hit by a bullet – he died of his head wound a few hours later; the covering LCI(G)'s, though, reported sustaining much damage and many casualties. That afternoon, Blessman carried out another beach reconnaissance, recovered all of her boats safely by 1751, and stood out to the command ship . The following day, 18 February, she headed for a screening station.
Damaged by bombs
While she was en route, however, an enemy bomber, identified as a "Betty", came in at 2121, very low over the port quarter, strafing, and scored a direct bomb hit in the high-speed transport's starboard mess hall, above her number one engine room. A second bomb hit her stack, glanced off, and splashed close aboard without exploding. Fire broke out immediately in the mess hall, galley, and troop quarters on the main deck; and the ship lost all power. Heavy smoke forced the abandonment of the number two fire and engine rooms, while a 500-gallon-per-minute portable pump was demolished and all other such pumps were rendered inoperable by the shock. This damage reduced Blessmans crew to bucket brigades and the use of helmets to try to keep the blaze from spreading. Her sailors jettisoned topside ammunition aft, and attempted to clear ammunition from clipping rooms and bedding from troop quarters to halt the fire's spread. At 2250, anti-aircraft and small arms ammunition began exploding, forcing the evacuation of wounded to stern.
In all, 40 men were killed, including 15 of the UDT.
The ship's radios were out of commission, but a radio was found in one of the boats and was used to send a message to . Gilmer came to help but at first kept a distance of 300 yards. It was unclear how much danger there was of TNT on the Blessman exploding. Draper Kauffman, head of the UDT teams, took a boat from the Gilmer to the Blessman to assess the situation. Gilmer came alongside around 2310, commenced pouring water on the blaze, and also sent across hoses. Gilmer evacuated the wounded in her boats and on a rubber raft. By 0300 on the 19th, the combined efforts of both ships' crewmen brought the fire under control, although some small arms ammunition continued to explode. After transferring all passengers and wounded to Gilmer, Blessman was taken in tow by and headed back to Iwo Jima. Towed around the northern end of Iwo Jima, Blessman buried her dead at sea and then - towed in turn by , LSM-70, and - reached Saipan at 1800 on 24 February and moored alongside . Her historian recorded that, on the voyage to Saipan Blessman'''s men "...lived more like soldiers than sailors," cooking their meals in a makeshift fireplace on the fantail.
As her chronicler also recorded it, "The repair officers at Saipan" he continued, "thought little of the practicability of restoring the ruined ship." But, as they made their estimates, "Blessmans crew was busy." The rapid strides her sailors made in carrying out repairs caused these experts to revise their estimates accordingly. Made seaworthy enough for the trans-Pacific voyage, Blessman arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 23 April 1945 for permanent repairs. While this work proceeded, the ship was designated as flagship for Underwater Demolition Squadron (UDRon) 1. Clearing Mare Island for Oceanside, California, on 11 August, to embark Capt. Roy D. Williams, Commander, UDRon 1, the ship reached that port on the 14th and embarked UDT-17. The next day, Capt. Williams hoisted his command pennant on board Blessman.
Post-war activity and decommissioning, 1945–1946
On 16 August, two days after V-J Day, Blessman sailed for the western Pacific to take part in the occupation of Japan. After stops at Pearl Harbor, Eniwetok, Ulithi, Manila, Subic Bay, and Okinawa, the fast transport entered Wakanoura Wan, where UDT 17 charted the landing beaches soon to be used by the Army's I Corps to occupy the Kobe-Osaka area. Five days later, Blessman stood out of Wakanoura Wan and headed for the west coast of the United States. Following a pre-inactivation overhaul, Blessman was placed in reserve on 28 August 1946 in the San Diego group of the Reserve Fleet. She was decommissioned on 15 January 1947.
Transfer to Taiwan, 1967Blessman was transferred to Taiwan on 19 May 1967, and was struck from the Navy List on 1 June 1967. Renamed ROCS Chung Shan with the pennant number PF 43, the ship was rated as a frigate rather than an amphibious transport by the Republic of China Navy. Chung Shan was given the new pennant number 845 in 1976. By 1979 she had been fitted with a second 5-inch gun aft and by 1985 her Hedgehog anti-submarine mortar had been replaced by two triple Mark 32 torpedo tubes for 12.75-inch (324 mm) anti-submarine torpedoes. In the early 1990s, Chung Shan, along with other surviving ex-destroyer escorts in Taiwanese service, was transferred to fisheries protection duties, and was disarmed, with only two 40 mm Bofors guns remaining. Chang Shan was stricken from Taiwanese service in May 1995.
One of her propeller is on display at the New Taipei City Weapon Park (新北市武器公園).
AwardsBlessman'' received three battle stars for her World War II service.
References
External links
https://www.amazon.com/USS-Blessman-Memoir-Shipboard-During/dp/1425786111
Buckley-class destroyer escorts
Ships built in Hingham, Massachusetts
1943 ships
World War II frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States
Charles Lawrence-class high speed transports
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Charles Lawrence-class high speed transports of the Republic of China Navy |
4076289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Sandford | Frank Sandford | Frank Weston Sandford (October 2, 1862 – March 4, 1948) was a charismatic Christian religious leader in the United States who attained notoriety as the founder and leader of an apocalyptic sect known as "The Kingdom".
Born in Bowdoinham, Maine, to a farming family, Sandford was exposed to concepts such as premillennialism, the Higher Life movement, the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit, and divine healing in his thirties. In August 1891, after performing an exorcism and claiming to hear the voice of God warn him of "Armageddon", he established a commune called the "Shiloh" in Durham, Maine. Commune members were forced to fast, pray for hours-on-end and obey Sandford's orders absolutely. After commune members disagreed about his biblical interpretations, he instituted a chain-of-command in which his orders were limited by only by those of God and Jesus Christ. Eventually he declared himself the incarnation of the prophet Elijah and King David, and established The Kingdom.
Considered by former members and many of his neighbors to be an autocrat who insisted on unquestioning loyalty, Sandford regularly starved his followers, which resulted in deadly outbreaks of smallpox, diphtheria, and other infectious diseases. The death of 14-year-old Leander Bartlett lead to his conviction for manslaughter and cruelty to children in 1904, though a 1905 ruling by the Maine Supreme Court reversed the convictions. Sandford then sailed to Jerusalem on multiple missionary voyages. In 1910, he traveled aboard the barquentine Kingdom to Africa with more than seventy men, women, and children. In March 1911, Kingdom went aground and was destroyed off the coast of French West Africa, an event that inspired Sandford to sail to Greenland in an attempt create a mission station there. Because he knowingly sailed with insufficient food and supplies, six crew members were stricken with scurvy and died on his return to Portland.
Sandford was detained by authorities and sentenced to seven years in the federal penitentiary in Atlanta. While there, he sent letters to his followers that were distributed among members of his commune. In 1918, Sandford was released on good behavior and returned to the "Shiloh", resuming his responsibilities after previously attempting to install his son, John, as leader. Nevertheless, two years later, the death of another commune member led his sect to be forcibly dispersed in "the Scattering". After the commune was evacuated by law, Sandford moved to New York's Catskill Mountains to be closer to God. On March 4, 1948, Sandford died and his body was secretly buried by his followers. All of his belongings burned in various house fires. Although his absence retarded the growth of the small sect, it survived, in attenuated form, into the 21st century with the creation of the Kingdom Christian Ministries in 1998.
Early life and education
Frank Sandford was born in Bowdoinham, Maine, the tenth child of a farming family. An early companion recalled young Sandford as a natural leader, stating that he was always the one who "drove the horse and steered the boat"; if they played ball, "he was always a captain." Sandford's father died when he was age 14, and by age 16 he was teaching school during an era in which physical prowess was often necessary to establish classroom discipline.
During his second year of teaching, Sandford reluctantly attended a revival meeting at his mother's Free Will Baptist church and was converted on February 29, 1880. He threw away his tobacco and announced his conversion publicly, not only at church but also at Nichols Latin School, where worldly cosmopolitanism was the preferred pose.
Entering Bates College on a general scholarship, Sandford was elected class president and served as both coach and catcher of the baseball team. He graduated in 1886 with honors and was chosen to give a commencement address. For one summer Sandford captained a semi-pro baseball team and was approached by professional scouts. After a teammate ridiculed him for attending church during Maine's Fast Day, he returned to Bates to attend Cobb Divinity School.
Frustrated by the seminary's mixture of formalism and religious modernism, Sandford later said that God had addressed him directly with words from the gospel of Matthew: "Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled." For the rest of his life he distrusted academic religion. Soon thereafter, at age 24, Sandford dropped out of seminary after he was called as pastor by the Free Will Baptist church in Topsham, Maine. He was frenetically energetic, and within three years his revivals resulted in three hundred conversions and more than a hundred baptisms. Besides serving as pastor, he became principal of the Topsham schools and organized sports programs for both local children and workers at a paper mill.
Early travels
Beginning in 1887, Sandford's religious views changed dramatically. In July, he attended Dwight L. Moody’s "College of Colleges" at Northfield Mount Hermon School in Northfield, Massachusetts, the second annual meeting of the Student Volunteer Movement. The college men who attended represented a revival of interest in foreign missions among more privileged Americans. Moody himself provided Sandford with three key religious concepts: personal holiness, living by faith, and informal preaching. Shortly thereafter, Sandford read Hannah Whitall Smith's The Christian's Secret of a Happy Life (1875). Smith was an exponent of "higher life" Christianity; but what most attracted Sandford was her "emphasis on action, on a life that acts on faith, that obeys by doing."
Later that fall, Sandford was present for a religious conference that featured the Rev. A. B. Simpson, who had come to Maine specifically to organize the Christian and Missionary Alliance. Simpson's ministry emphasized not only missions and deeper life holiness but also faith healing. It was at this conference that Sandford met Helen Kinney, the daughter of a wealthy cotton broker, who had surrendered a career in art to become a foreign missionary. The following year, in the summer of 1888, Sandford attended the Niagara Bible Conference, which emphasized the imminent, premillennial return of Jesus Christ.
These diverse, yet related, strands of late 19th-century evangelicalism came together for Sandford after he accepted the pastorate of a more affluent Free Will Baptist church in Somersworth, New Hampshire. Following a period of emotional depression—perhaps a nervous breakdown—he was temporarily released by his church after the denomination invited him and another young minister to travel around the world. Sandford visited Japan, China, India, and the Ottoman Empire. In China he toured the China Inland Mission of Hudson Taylor, where he noted with admiration that "all depend upon God for support and divide their supplies equally"—a model for his own Shiloh. Visiting the Holy Land, he developed a lifelong passion for more knowledge about it, but he nearly died when his steamer sank off Jaffa.
Pre-Shiloh activities
After Sandford's return to the United States, the pastorate seemed tame, his congregation narrow-minded. In August 1891, Sandford had two strange experiences: he tentatively, but (at least according to his own testimony) successfully, cast demons out of a friend; and the following morning, he heard whispered in the trees the single word: "Armageddon." Shortly thereafter, Sandford convinced Kinney, whom he had met again as a missionary in Japan, to marry him. When he suggested leaving the pastorate and preaching the gospel without visible support, she replied, "I think it would be lovely."
On New Year's Day, 1893, Sandford told his church that God had told him, "Go." He resigned his pulpit and gave away his savings in the teeth of an economic panic and depression. Sandford and his wife then began holding meetings in rural Maine—at the beginning with virtually no congregations and no financial support. Eventually he achieved some success among people in Maine's coastal hill regions and contributions came in plentifully, although Sandford did not solicit money or even pass a collection plate.
By the fall of 1894, Sandford believed that he no longer bore responsibility for his actions, that he need only respond to the movings of the Holy Spirit. Thus abandoning the Free Will Baptists, he began to issue a monthly magazine, Tongues of Fire from the World's Evangelization Crusade on Apostolic Principles, in which he advertised for other workers to join him in his ministry. A year later, with a small but committed following of young people, Sandford announced the opening of a school, soon given the name "Holy Ghost and Us Bible School." The school charged no tuition, offered no courses, and had no teachers except Sandford himself and no textbooks except the Bible.
Shiloh
In 1896, Sandford became convinced that God had told him to build a home for the Bible school on a sandy hill near Durham, Maine. Despite having on three cents in his pocket, he kept faith that God would provide the means of putting up a building without his explicitly asking for money. Although Sandford eventually decided that publishing a list of needs in his Tongues of Fire would be acceptable, the manner in which the money and volunteer labor was provided by supporters was nearly miraculous in any case. Sandford had intended to name only the school's main building "Shiloh" (after a place in the Bible), but the name "Shiloh" was obviously more mellifluous than "The Holy Ghost and Us" and it became the informal name of his movement.
At its height, the Shiloh had more than six hundred residents who attempted to "live in the supernatural." None worked for pay, and all depended on God to supply their material needs. To live at Shiloh meant to "be in a constant state of readiness for the 'Holy Spirit's latest,' as Sandford put it. This meant no settling into ruts of any kind. It meant being ready to do any job, especially those you were least adept at....It meant being open to last-minute changes in schedule." What little schedule there was consisted of one or two hours of private devotions in the morning, breakfast and kitchen chores, prayer at 9:00am, classes until noon, and lunch before personal household or office duties. The schedule might be interrupted at any moment by some special request for prayer; "God's work could not be crammed into a human schedule, and fussy ideas about order were not appropriate."
Theological development
Except for celebrating Jewish Feasts and keeping the Sabbath on Saturday, Sandford's theology was, at this point, not far from mainstream evangelicalism. Nevertheless, because he believed that Thursday was the day on which Jesus was crucified, he and his followers prayed for six hours (from 9:00am to 3:00pm) on that day. In the summer of 1896, Sandford publicly discussed the two witnesses mentioned in the Book of Revelation who would appear before Christ's Second Coming, and he declared that his school would "stand by and if need be die" with them. When Sandford's son John was born shortly after the dedication of Shiloh, he said that (like John the Baptist), the boy had been "filled with the Holy Ghost even from his mother's womb."
British Israelism
By 1898, Sandford had found additional spiritual and material support among Higher Life Christians in Boston and London, and he concluded that God now wanted him to establish an outpost in Ottoman-controlled Palestine. Visiting Jerusalem for the first time, he dashed off a paper announcing that the Ten Lost Tribes were England and the U.S., blood descendants of the ancient Hebrews who had been carried into captivity by the Assyrians in 721 BC. British Israelism was a religious version of ideas about Anglo-Saxon supremacy that were common to the contemporary English-speaking world, and the doctrine made the Bible all the more relevant because its prophecies seemed to apply to the people of Shiloh and the nation of which it was a part.
Divine healing
By the early 20th century, the doctrine of divine healing had become an important part of Sandford's teaching. Initially skeptical, he resolved to “preach that part of the Bible” after attending an 1887 meeting where A. B. Simpson had spoken on the subject. In 1897, Sandford had witnessed and praised the miracles of contemporary faith healer John Alexander Dowie. Soon Tongues of Fire reported healings of pneumonia, cancer, diphtheria, catarrh, "sick headache," sprained wrist, dropsy, typhoid, mental derangement, broken bones, and "utter exhaustion." A local three-year-old girl who had been pronounced permanently blind by medical authorities suddenly regained her sight after prayer was offered for her at Shiloh. But the most spectacular case was the "resurrection" of Olive Mills, who had been seriously ill, perhaps with spinal meningitis. Told Mills was dead, Sandford found her without breath or pulse. In desperation he shouted, "Olive Mills! Come back! In the name of Jesus of Nazareth, come back!" Almost immediately, Mills opened her eyes, and within a few hours she was out of bed and dressed.
Sandford believed the Epistle of James compelled Christians who were sick to call church elders for prayer and the laying on of hands, and he criticised Christians who sought treatment from physicians. He believed that illness might be the result of either discipline from God or an attack of Satan; but casting out demons required “prevailing prayer,” an exercise that included such protracted fervency and shouting that one skeptic became apprehensive as what sounded “like a hundred people talking at once” concluded with a woman’s screams piercing the din. In 1899, Sandford received a divine message to complete a hospital in a hasty building drive—a technique frequently employed at Shiloh—but it was a hospital in which doctors were permitted only for diagnoses and consultations. No medicines of any kind were provided.
Among those influenced by these early developments at Shiloh were A. J. Tomlinson, founder of the Church of God; and Charles Fox Parham, one of the founders of the Pentecostal movement.
Acting for God
By end of the century, Sandford became convinced "that as the passive agent of God's will, he could require exact and total obedience." Furthermore, as Hiss has written, to skeptics "Sandford's language vibrated with blasphemy, for in describing his own prayers as God's actions, he seemed to regard himself as having divine powers."
Inevitably, Sandford encountered opposition. A brief follower published an exposé, Sanfordism Exposed, and relatives of converts who wished to deed their property to Shiloh tried to have them declared insane. Although the town of Durham benefited from levying taxes on the residential portions of Shiloh, they also feared that block voting by Shiloh residents might dominate the town meeting, the school board, or the board of selectmen or that, in the event of bankruptcy, its members might become dependent on town charity.
More serious threats arose from among Sandford's own followers. The movement claimed to follow the leading of the Holy Spirit, but conflict developed when members disagreed about where the Holy Spirit was leading. In September 1900, Sandford announced that there would henceforth be an official chain of authority: God the Father, God the Son, the prophet whom God had chosen, ordained ministers subordinate to the prophet, everyone else subordinate to the ministers, with women and children also subordinate to their husbands and fathers. He then instituted an organized purge of members that "incorporated not just confession, but long day and night sessions of open and unrelenting criticism of each other. One's capacity to accept that scouring in a contrite and cooperative spirit, without resentment or defensiveness, was the first step in passing the grade." One by one, individuals were then brought before Sandford himself for final scrutiny by "the seven eyes of God."
Sandford also developed a three-tiered membership in his religious system: those willing to be "100-fold warriors" would be supported by 60- and 30-fold members who would live in their own homes and continue to work. In 1901, to make a clean break with the past, he instituted closed communion and rebaptized all local members of Shiloh in the nearby Androscoggin River.
Identification with Elijah and David
Shortly thereafter, Sandford announced that God had spoken three words to him "like a thunderbolt": "Elijah is Here!" And it was as Elijah that Sandford now called down God's judgment on "every lying pen," editors who had written critically "about this man of God." As usual, Sandford was also making an eschatological reference: he believed that, as Elijah, he would be one of the two witnesses of Revelation 11, who would be martyred and rise from the dead in Jerusalem before the coming of Christ's kingdom. The "Elijah" announcement was met with increased ridicule from the press and led to the breaking of all ties with followers of Moody and Simpson.
In 1902, after once again visiting Jerusalem, Sandford received a divine message that indicated that in some way, he was also the biblical David. He had a portrait of himself printed encircled by the words "David careth for the Sheep," and he immediately renamed his movement "The Kingdom."
Manslaughter trial
Sandford returned to Maine to find his community at what he considered a low spiritual ebb, with many members ill from diseases including smallpox. Peers were encouraged to closely examine each other's lives for sin, and parents regularly whipped children, a practice Sandford apparently condoned as the "schoolmaster to bring them to Christ." In January 1903, Sandford instituted a "Ninevah Fast", forbidding all food or liquid for thirty-six hours even for infants, animals, and the sick. During that period, fourteen-year-old Leander Bartlett, who had confessed to the most serious sin of planning to run away from Shiloh, died of diphtheria. When Sandford's own six-year-old son, John, disobeyed him, Sandford ordered him to fast without food or water until he declared himself glad to be whipped. A prominent defector from the sect, Nathan Harriman, publicized John’s treatment and declared Sandford’s hold over the people of Shiloh a kind of hypnotism, in which God's requirements were "identical with those of Sandford.”
Many local residents took a dim view of Sandford, and newspapers engaged in "long-running campaigns against Shiloh." One editor denounced the commune as "a damnable institution, a hell upon earth and the worst blot that ever disgraced the fair pages of Maine's history." In January 1904, Sandford was indicted by Androscoggin County on charges of cruelty to children and manslaughter—cruelty in the case of his son and manslaughter for his role in Bartlett's death. A jury convicted Sandford on the cruelty charge but was hung on the charge of manslaughter. On appeal, the verdict in the cruelty case was upheld; and at retrial, Sandford was convicted of manslaughter.
In 1905, the Maine Supreme Court reversed the manslaughter conviction because the trial judge had required jurors to make a decision based on their own belief about the "efficacy of prayer as a means to cure the sick." Another jury trial resulted in another hung jury. Meanwhile, Sandford had his followers sign a ten-foot scroll called the "Pledge of Loyalty," which included among its articles of faith a statement that "F. W. Sandford of Shiloh, Maine, U.S.A." was Elijah and David, and that "I believe in and accept him as such."
Circumnavigation on the Coronet
While his manslaughter case was still in the courts, Sandford purchased the racing yacht Coronet, an extravagantly appointed schooner, for $10,000—raised in the usual Shiloh manner by prayer, "in this case, forty days and nights of it, with shifts for eating and sleeping." Sandford made two quick trips to Jerusalem in 1905-06, but when his legal difficulties had ended, he and his thirty selected crewmen and passengers (including his wife and five children) circumnavigated the globe on what he described as a missionary journey. It was an unconventional missionary enterprise. No one went ashore to preach the Gospel or even distribute religious literature. Sandford intended to "subdue the world for Christ" by intercessory prayer, claiming nations and isles for Christ by sounding brass instruments as they passed by. Oddly, Sandford added a taxidermist to a crew of reasonably experienced seamen, and he included on a ship already filled to capacity both "eyes for stuffed animals and birds" and a large harp on which he took lessons. There were moments of real peril, as when Coronet fought its way through the thundering seas around Cape Horn and then again after a powerful gale broke the main sheet and (indirectly) part of the mast almost immediately after Sandford had shot an albatross. During calmer periods, Sandford had leisure enough to hunt and receive an occasional vision.
Later sea voyages
Even before returning to Maine, Sandford heard that Florence Whittaker, a member of his outpost in Jerusalem, wanted to abandon the sect whether or not her minister husband (who had just accompanied Sandford on the multi-year circumnavigation) would leave with her. At this point, Sandford decided to bring back all his followers from Palestine, and Whittaker reluctantly agreed to accept passage to the U.S. on another Shiloh ship, the three-masted barquentine Kingdom. She was treated with utmost courtesy until they reached the Maine coast, at which point Sandford refused to let her land until she was "adjusted" to her husband. Eventually Whittaker was freed by court order and was then given custody of her children.
The story made sensational newspaper fare, especially when Whittaker sued Sandford for forcible detention. At the time Sandford was aboard Coronet, and authorities began watching ports to serve him the legal papers. He determined that they would not find him, and that a mission station should be opened immediately in Africa and perhaps another in Greenland. In December 1910, more than seventy men, women, and children headed off to Africa, divided between Kingdom and Coronet. In March 1911, Kingdom went aground and was destroyed off the coast of French West Africa. Sandford took everyone aboard Coronet, which now became fearfully overloaded with people and undersupplied with food and water.
Nevertheless, Sandford heard the supernatural direction, "Continue," which he interpreted to mean to sail on to Greenland. After recrossing the Atlantic to catch the northerly currents, Coronet passed up numerous opportunities to take on water and supplies, Sandford announcing that God had ordered him not to put into port in the U.S. or Canada. Finally, on September 6, 1911, there was a "quiet mutiny" of some sort off the Grand Banks, and Coronet was turned south. Unfortunately, the ship now made little headway, and the passengers and crew were saved from possible starvation only by the fortuitous appearance of the ocean liner S.S. Lapland, which provided some food—but ominously, no fruit or vegetables.
Almost before they knew what was happening, men began to fall victim to scurvy; and within a few days after Coronet reached Portland on October 21, 1911, scurvy had claimed the lives of six crew members. Sandford was first arrested on Whittaker's warrant and then, a few days later, for being responsible for the deaths—"unlawfully, knowingly, and willingly" allowing a ship to "proceed on a voyage at sea without sufficient provisions."
Trial, conviction, and imprisonment
Sandford refused to employ legal counsel at the trial, although he did receive legal advice—which he rejected. In court, he declared that the sickness and starvation aboard Coronet was punishment from God for refusing to obey his command to continue to Greenland. The jury brought in a guilty verdict within an hour. On December 17, 1911, Sanford was sentenced to serve not more than ten years at the federal penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia.
Although Sandford accepted imprisonment as the will of God, he initially had difficulty bending to prison regulations. But with sleep, proper nourishment, and enforced exercise, his health gradually improved. He even insisted that Shiloh residents drop whatever they were doing at 11:30 and 4:00 and exercise with him. Sandford was made a gatekeeper and given a pass that allowed him to spend some time out of doors. He also volunteered to teach a group of prisoners how to read and write, and especially enjoyed conducting a weekly Bible class that began with one student and grew to more than a hundred. Eventually Shiloh was allowed to send Sandford a harp, and he was not only able to practice but gave at least two concerts at the prison.
Sandford had appointed seven ministers to share responsibility for leading the group, but his letters were treated like "a purse of gold." Many of them, even private letters to his family, were printed and distributed. Because prisoners were only allowed to send two letters a month, a sect member moved to Atlanta and took dictation during weekly visits.
Religious downfall
During his imprisonment, Sandford tried to promote his teenaged son John as the new leader of The Kingdom, and he seems to have had some success at editing a new periodical, The Golden Trumpet. But when, in 1915, John was put in charge of an inquisitorial board called the "Eye-of-the-Needle," intended to probe the souls of Shiloh residents, Sandford himself brought the experiment to a halt when his son incurred resentment and, in any case, proved temperamentally unsuited to the task. Shortly thereafter, Marguerite, one of Sandford's daughters, ran away from the community, a serious blow to his authority because of his insistence that leaders be able to "handle their children."
Given three years off for good behavior, Sandford was released from prison in September 1918. When he reappeared at Shiloh, he was served a sumptuous meal, although many residents had recently suffered serious illness and almost all, hunger. Sandford's return sparked new contributions and new healings, even food enough for two meals a day. Nevertheless, three days after his arrival, another of Sandford's daughters ran away, and a few months later he left Maine for the sect's Boston headquarters. Furthermore, the sect had conducted virtually no evangelistic outreach since the beginning of Sandford's imprisonment in 1911.
The end of the Shiloh community came suddenly in 1920, after the death of Shiloh resident Elma Hastings and a suit brought by relatives for guardianship of her children on the grounds of non-support by their father. The Children's Protective Society of Maine, having investigated living conditions at Shiloh, urged that all minors be removed from the community.
In March 1920, Sandford sent the message, "Work." No one anticipated that this directive would effectively end the Shiloh community within days. Two months later the prayer vigils had stopped, the Bible school was closed, and Shiloh's population had dropped from 370 to a handful. As Nelson has written, once the men went off to the mills, everything changed. With "the assurance that they would never be hungry again," that their needs would be met in the same way everyone else's were met, "there was no reason to stay. They could be ordinary Christians anywhere."
Retirement
Before Shiloh was finally deserted in May, Sandford heard the heavenly direction to, "Retire." For the remainder of his life, he lived in seclusion near the village of Hobart, New York, in the Catskill Mountains. He prayed, farmed, raised sheep, studied astronomy, taught small groups, and gradually regathered his scattered followers into centers in different parts of the country. Messages were delivered to the faithful by a smaller inner circle.
Sandford continued to be supported by the tithes of his followers, and his retirement was "satisfying and serene," although his papers and books were twice destroyed in house fires. To some degree Sandford relaxed his earlier rhetoric. On New Year's Eve, 1941, he received a message from God to "remit the sins of each and every person that has been baptized since October 1, 1901." But he never renounced his claim to be Elijah; nor did he ever express remorse for those who had died on Coronet thirty years earlier.
Sandford's death on March 4, 1948, was quiet and peaceful. His funeral and interment, however, were hasty and secretive. The news of his death was not released to the press for six weeks. Sandford had, of course, not died as Elijah in Jerusalem, but as an unheralded inhabitant of a Catskill village.
Legacy
The Kingdom continued after Sandford's death under the informal leadership of Victor Abram, his personal secretary, although Sandford never had a true successor. At Abram’s death in 1977, his son-in-law, Joseph Wakeman, became leader but thought of himself "as more of a caretaker." The membership then gradually learned that Abram had had a series of extramarital affairs while leading an organization that emphasized moral purity.
A successor organization, Kingdom Christian Ministries—reorganized in 1998 after a split occasioned by continued debate over Sandford's theology—has several hundred members at a few centers in the eastern United States. An independent evangelical Christian church, Shiloh Chapel, meets in a remaining portion of the original Shiloh building in Durham, Maine; it is no longer affiliated with Kingdom Christian Ministries. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its distinctive architecture and history.
See also
The Higher Life movement
List of theologians
List of Atlanta U.S. Penitentiary inmates
List of Bates College alumni
References
Bibliography
William C. Hiss, "Shiloh: Frank Sandford and the Kingdom, 1893-1948," PhD dissertation, Tufts University, 1978.
Shirley Nelson, Fair, Clear, and Terrible: The Story of Shiloh, Maine (Latham, New York: British American Publishing, 1989). Nelson was the daughter of former members.
Frank S. Murray, The Sublimity of Faith (Amherst, NH: The Kingdom Press, 1981).
Timothy F. Murray, The Coronet Story: Conquering and to Conquer (Highland Press, 1998).
Shawn Francis Peters, When Prayer Fails: Faith Healing, Children, and the Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
External links
Website of Kingdom Christian Ministries, a successor organization.
fwselijah.com, a website dedicated to a critical examination of Sandford and his religious movement.
Guide to the Nelson collection of Shiloh materials, Bates College.
Guide to the William Hiss collection of Shiloh material, mostly newspaper clippings, Bates College.
Premillennialism
American faith healers
People from Bowdoinham, Maine
Bates College alumni
1862 births
1948 deaths
People from Durham, Maine
People from Hobart, New York
Founders of new religious movements
Baptists from New York (state) |
4076302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric%20scholarship | Homeric scholarship | Homeric scholarship is the study of any Homeric topic, especially the two large surviving epics, the Iliad and Odyssey. It is currently part of the academic discipline of classical studies. The subject is one of the oldest in education.
Ancient scholarship
Scholia
Scholia are ancient commentaries, initially written in the margins of manuscripts, not necessarily at the bottom, as are their modern equivalents, the notes. The term marginalia includes them. Some are interlinear, written in very small characters. Over time the scholia were copied along with the work. When the copyist ran out of free text space, he listed them on separate pages or in separate works. Today's equivalents are the chapter notes or the notes section at the end of the book. Notes are merely a continuation of the practice of creating or copying scholia in printed works, although the incunabula, the first printed works, duplicated some scholia. The works of Homer have been heavily annotated from their written beginnings.
The number of manuscripts of the Iliad is currently (2014) approximately 1800. The papyri of the Odyssey are less in number but are still in the order of dozens. The inventory is incomplete, and new finds continue to be made, but not all these texts contain scholia. No compendium has collated all of the Homeric scholia.
Following the Principle of Economy: the allocation of scarce publication space to overwhelming numbers of scholia, the compilers have had to make decisions about what is important enough to compile. Certain types, or lines, have been distinguished; scholia have lines of descent of their own. Eleanor Dickey summarizes the most important three, identified by letter as A, bT, and D.
A, "the Venetian scholia", are most of the scholia of Venetus A, a major manuscript of the Iliad, dated to the 10th century, and located in the Biblioteca Marciana (Library of St. Mark's) of Venice. The sources of the scholia are noted at the end of each book. There are basically four. The hypothetical original text of the scholia, a manuscript of the 4th century CE, is therefore called, in German, the Viermännerkommentar (VMK), "four-man commentary", where the men are Aristonicus, Didymus, Herodian, and Nicanor. Their comments, and these scholia, are termed "critical". A-scholia are found in other manuscripts as well. Venetus A contains some bT scholia.
bT scholia came from two sources: the 11th century T, the "Townleian" scholia, so designated because the manuscript, Townleyanus, was once in the collection of Lord Townley, and a lost manuscript, b, of the 6th century, which has descendants, including Venetus B. The bT manuscripts descend from an earlier c. bT scholia are termed exegetical, as opposed to critical. They are from Porphyry and Heraclitus, with some from Didymus.
The D scholia, or scholia Didymi, named erroneously for Didymus, are the earliest and largest group. They occur primarily in the 9th century Z (Rome, Biblioteca Nazionale), and the 11th century Q, but also in some others, such as A and T. The D scholia were once thought to be the work of the 1st century BCE scholar Didymus; they are now known to go back to 5th and 4th century BC school manuscripts, pre-dating the Alexandrine tradition, and representing “the oldest surviving stratum of Homeric scholarship.” Some are also called the scholia minora and the scholia vulgata, the former name referring to the short length of many. These are glossaries. Among the non-minor scholia are mythological (allegorical) aetia, plots, and paraphrases, explaining the meanings of obscure words.
The order of precedence and chronological order of these Iliad scholia is D, A, bT, and other. Material in them probably ranges from the 5th century BCE (the D scholia) to as late as the 7th or 8th century CE (the latest bT scholia). The same scheme applies to the Odyssey, except that A scholia, mainly of the Iliad, are in deficit. There are no printed works publishing all the scholia on the Iliad and Odyssey. Only partial publications according to various principles have been possible.
The first was that of Janus Lascaris in 1517, containing the D-scholia. Some subsequent works concentrate on manuscripts or parts of them, others on type of scholia, and still others on books of the Iliad, or source. Larger compendia are relatively recent. One that has already become a standard is the 7-volume compendium of A- and bT-scholia by Hartmut Erbse. Volumes 15 are reserved for a number of books of the Iliad each, amounting to some 3000 pages, approximately. The last two volumes are indices. And yet, Dickey says of it. “The seven volumes of Erbse’s edition thus represent only a small fraction of all the preserved scholia …,” from which it can be seen that the opinions, elucidations and emendations to the Iliad and Odyssey in manuscript texts far outweigh those texts in numbers of pages.
Classical scholarship
By the Classical Period the Homeric Question had advanced to the point of trying to determine what works were attributable to Homer. The Iliad and the Odyssey were beyond question. They were considered to have been written by Homer. The D-scholia suggest that they were taught in the schools; however, the language was no longer self-evident. The extensive glossaries of the D-scholia were intended to bridge the gap between the spoken language and Homeric Greek.
The poems themselves contradicted the general belief in the existence and authorship of Homer. There were many variants, which there should not have been according to the single-author conviction. The simplest answer was to decide which of the variants was most likely to represent a presumed authentic original composition and to discount the others as spurious, devised by someone else.
Peisistratean edition
Strabo reports an account by Hereas accusing Peisistratos, tyrant of Athens, r. 561-527 BCE, or Solon (638-558 BCE), sometime eponymous archon and lawgiver, starting 594 BCE, of altering the Iliads Catalogue of Ships to place the 12 ships from Salamis in the Athenian camp, proving that Athens owned Salamis in the Trojan War. Others denied the theory, Strabo said. The story implies that Peisistratos or Solon had some authority over a presumed master text of the Iliad, and yet Athens at the time had little political power over the Aegean region. Strabo was not the only accuser. Plutarch also accuses him of moving a line from Hesiod to λ630 (Odyssey Book 11).
Diogenes Laërtius relates that in the time of Solon the Iliad was being “rhapsodized” (rhapsodeisthai) in public recitations. One of Solon's laws mandates that, in such performances, one rhapsode was to pick up where the previous left off. The involvement of a state official in these rhapsodizations can be explained by their being performances at state-sponsored sacred festivals.
Cicero says that previously the books of Homer were “confused” (confusos), but that Peisistratos “disposed” (disposuisse) them as they were then. A scholion on Iliad, Book K, in manuscript T, says that they were “arranged” (tetachthai) by Peisistratos into one poem. Apparently the impromptu composition of shorter poems on a known theme was forced into a continuous presentation by Solon, and edited by Peisistratos.
A number of other fragments testify to a written edition by Peisistratos, some credible, some not. A few mention the establishment of a Peisistratean school. In others, Hipparchus (son of Peisistratos) published the edition and passed a law that it must be read at the Panathenaic Games, which began in 566 BCE, before the tyranny of his father, from 561 BCE. Peisistratos was succeeded by his sons in 527 BCE.
Ionicization of the text
The linguist, August Fick, hypothesized a “metamorphosis of the originally Achaean Iliad into its present Ionic form.” By Achaean he meant Aeolic Greek, and by Ionic form, Ionic Greek. He based his theory on the partial substitution of Ionic words for Aeolic ones; i.e., where the Ionic forms fit the meter, which was Dactylic hexameter, they replaced the Aeolic, but where they did not, the Aeolic was left intact. For example, Atreidēs, “sons of Atreus,” the nominative case, is Ionic, but the genitive plural is Atreidaōn, an Aeolic form, instead of the Ionic Atreideōn, which does not fit the meter.
Fick uses the device to date the transformation. Old Ionic lēos, “people,” is used in post-Homeric lyric poetry, but the Iliad uses lāos, an Aeolic form. Lēos was displaced by Ionic leōs after Hipponax, c. 540 BCE. Lēos and lāos have the same meter, long and short (or two longs before a word beginning with a consonant), but leōs is short, long. In Fick's view, lāos was left to prevent change to leōs. The opposition, therefore, dates to after 540 BCE, corresponding to the period of the Peisistratean edition. This coincidence suggests that the modern Iliad, which descends from a text the Alexandrian scholars called “the Vulgate,” is linked to the Peisistratean edition. Proving it, however, is another issue.
Search for the classical vulgate
Between the hypothetical Peisistratean edition and the Vulgate recension of the Alexandrines is a historical gap. Fick's work indicates a connection, which also is suggested by the peripatetic associations of the Library of Alexandria (below). Moreover, some of the D-scholia redated to the 5th century BCE indicate that some sort of standard Iliad existed then, to be taught in the schools. These broad events are circumstantial evidence only. Nagy says, “As of this writing, Homeric scholarship has not yet succeeded in achieving a definitive edition of either the Iliad or the Odyssey.”
He quotes the view given by Villoison, first publisher (1788) of the scholia on Venetus A, that Peisistratus, in the absence of a written copy, had given a reward for verses of Homer, inviting spurious verses. There had been, in other words, a master copy, but it had been lost. Not having a theory of oral transmission, Villoison regarded the poems as “extinct.” The problem then became to distinguish which of the purchased verses were spurious.
The opposite view, expressed by Friedrich August Wolf in ‘’Prolegomena ad Homerum’’, 1795, is that Homer never wrote the Iliad. The variant manuscripts seen by the Alexandrines were not corruptions, but rhapsodic variants, as is attested by Flavius Josephus in Against Apion. He said that the poetry of Homer was “preserved by memory … and assembled … later from the songs.”
The link missing from the evidence, apart from the circumstantial, is the connection between the texts produced by Peisistratus and the Alexandrine Vulgate. What is lacking is either an “Athenian prototype,”, or a conjectural “Wolfian vulgate,” or multi-text assembled from oral variants wrongly marked as spurious by the Alexandrines.
The Homeric classicists of the 19th century believed they had inferred a Voralexandrinsche Vulgata, “Pre-Alexandrine Vulgate,” to use the expression of Arthur Ludwich. This was a hypothetical 4th- and 5th-century BCE version of the Alexandrine Vulgate. The latter had to have had precedents. The problem was to prove it.
Ludwich assembled a list of all the lines put forward as quotations from Homer in pre-Alexandrine authors: some 29 authors plus some unknown fragments, amounting to about 480 verse, or “lines.” D.B. Monro used this database to compare the percentage of non-Vulgate lines in the quotes with a control group, the non-Vulgate lines in the fragments of the papyri known to him then. Judging from the fragments, 60 of the 480 lines ought to be missing from the Vulgate. The number is only 12, from which Monro concludes: “The quotations, in short, prove that there was a pre-Alexandrian vulgate agreeing much more closely with the modern vulgate than with any text of which the papyrus fragments can be specimens.”
Academic connection
According to Monro, based on Ludwich, Plato is the most prolific quoter of Homer, with 209 lines. Next most is Aristotle, with 93 lines. Of the 209, only two differ from the Vulgate, in Iliad Book IV, which Ludwich termed Kontaminiert, “corrupted.” Several were marked as spurious (Ludwich's aufser) by the Alexandrians. There was only one instance of four lines not in the Vulgate (Ludwich's Zusatzversen), From Iliad IV. Monro asserts “… whatever interpolated texts of Homer were then current, the copy from which Plato quoted was not one of them.” Aristotle's quotations do not have the same purity, which is surprising. For about 20 years they were at the same school, the Platonic Academy.
The Platonic view of Homer is exceptional for the times. Homer and Hesiod were considered to have written myths as allegory. According to J.A. Stewart, "… Homer is an Inspired Teacher, and must not be banished from the curriculum. If we get beneath the literal meaning, we find him teaching the highest truth." In the Republic, however, Plato denies that children can distinguish literal and allegorical truth and advocates censoring the myth-makers, including Homer. The Republic expresses a concept of a society established according to the Platonic ideal, in which every aspect is monitored and controlled under the guidance of a philosopher-king drafted from ascetic poverty for the purpose. It was not a popular view.
Peripatetic connection
The archetype of Hellenistic libraries was that of the Lyceum in classical Athens. Its founder, Aristotle, had been a student, and then an associate, at Plato’s Academy. He was Plato’s star student, but as a metic, or resident foreigner (he was still Greek), he could not own property or sponsor the other metics. Consequently, after the death of Plato, not having been appointed director, he departed Athens for an educational opportunity in Mysia, which fell through when Mysia was captured by the Persians. He was subsequently hired by his boyhood companion, now Philip II of Macedon, to tutor the latter’s teen-age son, the future Alexander the Great, on whose behalf he built a school, the Nymphaeum, at Mieza.
Alexander became an enthusiastic member of Aristotle’s inner circle. Immediate association was terminated within a few years when Alexander assumed the duties of monarch after the assassination of his father in 336/335. His main duty was to lead a planned invasion of the east to settle the rivalry with Persia. During it he kept by his bedside a manuscript of Homer personally emended by Aristotle, a gift of the latter. He later placed it in an expensive casket captured from the Persian king, Darius, from which it was called "the Casket Homer". The anecdote, if true, reveals a belief by Aristotle's circle in an authentic text, as well as editorial activity to recapture it. Alexander was a Homer enthusiast.
Aristotle's approach to Homer and statesmanship was different from Plato's. Politics and Poetry were two of his research topics. His theoretical treatise, Politics is not a presentation, like Plato's, of an ideal state according to some philosophy, but is a presentation and classification of real states as they were then, discovered by research. Similarly, Homer does not play a role in any censorial evaluation of Aristotle as a critic, but appears in a professional study of poetry, the Poetics, with regard to the difficulty with some of his language. Aristotle's main study of Homer did not survive. It is listed in Diogenes Laërtius' Life of Aristotle as "Six books of Homeric problems".
Of the 93 quotations, Mitchell Carroll says: “Aristotle’s hearty veneration for Homer is shown by the numerous citations of the Iliad and the Odyssey in his works, and by the frequent expressions of admiration occurring in the Poetics; ….” , Despite this enthusiasm, Monro notes that the “poetical quotations are especially incorrect,” with regard to the errors and additional lines. This is not the expected result if Aristotle had received the pure edition from which Plato had quoted. Monro's solution is to adopt the view of Adolph Römer, that the errors can be attributed to Aristotle personally, and not to variant manuscripts. This was obviously not history's final verdict.
Hellenistic scholars and their aims
Many ancient Greek writers discussed topics and problems in the Homeric epics, but the development of scholarship per se revolved around three goals:
Analyzing internal inconsistencies within the epics;
Producing editions of the epics' authentic text, free of interpolations and errors;
Interpretation: both explaining archaic words, and exegetical interpretation of the epics as literature.
The first philosopher to focus intensively on the intellectual problems surrounding the Homeric epics was Zoilus of Amphipolis in the early 4th century BCE. His work Homeric Questions does not survive, but it seems that Zoilus enumerated and discussed inconsistencies of plot in Homer. Examples of this are numerous: for example, in Iliad 5.576-9 Menelaus kills a minor character, Pylaemenes, in combat; but later, at 13.758-9, he is still alive to witness the death of his son Harpalion. These have been humorously described as points where Homer "nodded off," from which comes the proverbial phrase "Homeric Nod." Aristotle's Homeric Problems, which does not survive, was probably a response to Zoilus.
Critical editions of Homer discuss three special steps in this process. First is the hypothetical "Peisistratean recension". There is a long-standing, but somewhat old-fashioned, tradition in modern scholarship which holds that in the mid-6th century BCE the Athenian tyrant Peisistratus had the Homeric epics compiled in a definitive edition. It is known that under Peisistratus, and later, rhapsodes competed in performing Homer at the Panathenaic festival; and a scholion on Iliad 10.1 accuses Peisistratus of inserting book 10 into the Iliad. But there is little evidence for a Peisistratean recension, and most present-day scholars doubt its existence; at the very least it is disputed what is to be understood by the term "recension". The second and third key moments are the critical editions made by the 3rd and 2nd century BCE Alexandrian scholars Zenodotus of Ephesus and Aristarchus respectively; both of these scholars also published numerous other works on Homer and other poets, none of which survive. Zenodotus' edition may well have been the first to divide the Iliad and Odyssey into 24 books.
Aristarchus' edition is probably the single most important moment in the whole history of Homeric scholarship. His text was more conservative than Zenodotus', but it became the standard edition of Homer for the ancient world, and almost everything in modern editions of Homer passed through Aristarchus' hands. Like Zenodotus, Aristarchus did not delete passages that he rejected, but (fortunately for us) preserved them with an annotation indicating his rejection. He developed Zenodotus' already sophisticated system of critical symbols to indicate specific kinds of issues with particular lines, and a significant proportion of the terminology is still in use today (obelus, athetising, etc.). From the scholia a great deal is known about his guiding principles, and those of other editors and commentators such as Zenodotus and Aristophanes of Byzantium. The chief preoccupations of the Alexandrian scholars may be summarised as follows:
Consistency of content: the reasoning is that internal inconsistencies imply that the text has been ineptly changed. This principle apparently pursues the work of Zoilus.
Consistency of style: anything that appears only once in Homer — an unusual poetic image, an unusual word (a hapax legomenon), or an unusual epithet (e.g. the epithet "Kyllenian Hermes" in Odyssey 24.1) — tends to be rejected.
No repetitions: if a line or passage is repeated word-for-word, one of the exemplars is often rejected. Zenodotus is known to have applied this principle rigidly, Aristarchus less so; it is in tension with the principle of "consistency of style" above.
Quality: Homer was regarded as the greatest of poets, so anything perceived to be poor poetry was rejected.
Logic: something that makes no sense (such as Achilleus nodding at his comrades as he goes running after Hektor) was not regarded as the product of the original artist.
Morality: Plato's insistence that a poet should be moral was taken to heart by Alexandrian scholars, and scholia accuse many passages and phrases of being "unsuitable" ( ou prepon); the real Homer, goes the reasoning, being a paragon of perfection, would never have written anything immoral himself.
Explaining Homer from Homer (): this motto is Aristarchus', and means simply that it is better to solve a problem in Homer using evidence from within Homer, rather than external evidence.
To a modern eye it is evident that these principles should be applied at most on an ad hoc basis. When they are applied across the board the results are frequently bizarre, especially as no account whatsoever is taken of poetic licence. However, it should be remembered that the reasoning seems persuasive when built up gradually, and then it is a very difficult mindset to escape: 19th century Analyst scholars (see below) adopted most of these criteria, and applied them even more stringently than the Alexandrians did.
It is also sometimes difficult to know what exactly the Alexandrians meant when they rejected a passage. The scholia on Odyssey 23.296 tell us that Aristarchus and Aristophanes regarded that line as the end of the epic (even though that is grammatically impossible); but we are also told that Aristarchus separately rejected several passages after that point.
Allegorical readings
Exegesis is also represented in the scholia. When the scholiasts turn to interpretation they tend to be most interested in explaining background material, e.g., reporting an obscure myth to which Homer alludes; but there was also a fashion for allegory, especially among the Stoics. The most notable passage is a scholion on Iliad 20.67, which gives an extended allegorical interpretation of the battle of the gods, explaining each god as symbolic of various elements and principles in conflict with one another, e.g., Apollo is opposed to Poseidon because fire is opposed to water.
Allegory is also represented in some surviving ancient monographs: the Homeric Allegories by an otherwise unknown 1st century BCE writer Heraclitus, the 2nd century CE Plutarch's On the Life and Poetry of Homer, and the works of the 3rd century CE Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry, particularly his On the Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey and Homeric Questions. Many extracts from Porphyry are preserved in the scholia, especially the D scholia (although the current standard edition, that of Erbse, omits them).
Allegorical interpretation continued to be influential on Byzantine scholars such as Tzetzes and Eustathius. But allegorising non-allegorical literature has not been a fashionable activity since the Middle Ages; it is common to see modern scholars refer to such allegorising in the scholia as "inferior" or even "contemptible". As a result, these texts are now rarely read.
18th and 19th centuries
The 18th century saw major developments in Homeric scholarship, and also saw the opening phase of the discussion which was to dominate the 19th century (and, for some scholars, the 20th): the so-called "Homeric question". Homer was first seen as the product of his primitive time by the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell, in An Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer (1735).
Another major development was the enormous growth of linguistic study on Homer and the Homeric dialect. In 1732, Bentley published his discovery of the traces left in the text of Homer by the digamma, an archaic Greek consonant that was omitted in later, classical, Greek orthography. Bentley showed conclusively that the vast majority of metrical anomalies in Homeric verse could be attributed to the presence of digamma (though the idea was not well received at the time: Alexander Pope, for one, satirised Bentley). Important linguistic studies continued throughout the next two centuries alongside the endless arguments over the Homeric question, and the work by figures such as Buttmann and Monro is still worth reading today; and it was the linguistic work of Parry that set in motion a major paradigm shift in the mid-20th century. Another major 18th century development was Villoison's 1788 publication of the A and B scholia on the Iliad.
The Homeric question is essentially the question of the identity of the poet(s) of the Homeric epics, and the nature of the relationship between "Homer" and the epics. In the 19th century it came to be the fulcrum between two opposed schools of thought, the Analysts and the Unitarians. The issue came about in the context of 18th-century interest in popular lays and folktale, and the growing recognition that the Homeric epics must have been transmitted orally before being written down, possibly much later than "Homer" himself. The Italian philosopher Vico argued that the epics were the products not of an individual genius poet but rather the cultural products of an entire people; and Wood’s 1769 Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer argued emphatically that Homer had been illiterate and the epics had been transmitted orally. (Less fortunately, Wood drew parallels between Homer and the poetry of the supposed Scottish oral poet Ossian, published by James Macpherson in 1765; Ossian turned out later to have been wholly invented by Macpherson.)
The scholar Friedrich August Wolf brought matters to a head. His review of Villoison's edition of the scholia acknowledged that they proved conclusively the oral transmission of the poems. In 1795, he published his Prolegomena ad Homerum, in which he argued that the poems were composed in the mid-10th century BCE; that they were transmitted orally; that they changed considerably after that time in the hands of bards performing them orally and editors adapting written versions to contemporary tastes; and that the poems' apparent artistic unity came about after their transcription. Wolf posed the perplexing question of what it would mean to restore the poems to their original, pristine, form.
In the wake of Wolf, two schools of thought coalesced to oppose one another: Analysts and Unitarians.
Analysts
19th-century Analysts argued that the epics were composed by many hands, a hodge-podge of interpolations and incompetent editing that concealed the original genius of Homer, or at the very least that the Iliad and Odyssey were composed by different poets. In this they followed in the steps of ancient scholars like Zoilus and the so-called "separatists" (χωρίζοντες chōrizontes, the best known of whom, Xenon and Hellanicus, are nonetheless very obscure figures).
Among Analysts, Hermann's 1832 De interpolationibus Homeri ("On interpolations in Homer") and 1840 De iteratis apud Homerum ("On repetitions in Homer") argued that the epics, as they now stood, were encrustations of second-rate later material around a pristine kernel: a hypothetical "Ur-Iliad". Conversely, Lachmann's 1847 Betrachtungen über Homers Ilias ("Studies on Homer's Iliad") argued that the Iliad was a compilation of 18 independent folk-lays, rather as the Finnish Kalevala actually was, compiled in the 1820s and 1830s by Lönnrot: so, he argued, Iliad book 1 consists of a lay on Achilleus' anger (lines 1-347), and two continuations, the return of Chryseis (430–492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429, 493-611); book 2 is a separate lay, but containing several interpolations such as Odysseus' speech (278–332); and so on. (Lachmann also tried to apply Analyst principles to the mediaeval German Nibelungenlied.) Kirchhoff's 1859 edition of the Odyssey argued that the Ur-Odyssey had comprised just books 1, 5-9, and parts of 10-12, that a later phase had added most of books 13-23, and a third phase had added the bits about Telemachos, and book 24.
The climax of Analysis came with Wilamowitz, who published Homerische Untersuchungen ("Homeric studies") in 1884 and Die Heimkehr des Odysseus ("The homecoming of Odysseus") in 1927. The Odyssey, he argued, was compiled about 650 BCE or later from three separate poems by a Bearbeiter (editor). Subsequent Analysts often referred to the hypothesised Bearbeiter as the "B-poet" (and the original genius, Homer himself, was sometimes the "A-poet"). Wilamowitz' examination of the relationship between these three layers of the Odyssey, further complicated by later, minor, interpolations, is enormously detailed and complex. One of the three poems, the "old Odyssey" (most of books 5-14 and 17-19) had in turn been compiled by a Redaktor from three even earlier poems, two of which had originally been parts of longer poems. Like most other scholars caught up in the opposition between Analysis and Unitarianism, Wilamowitz equated poetry that he thought poor with late interpolations. But Wilamowitz set such a high standard in the sophistication of his analysis that 20th century Analysts seem to have found difficulty in moving forward from where Wilamowitz left off; and over the course of the following decades attention drifted away, particularly in the English-speaking world.
Unitarians
Nitzsch was the earliest scholar to oppose Wolf and argue that the two Homeric epics showed an artistic unity and intention that was the work of a single mind. Nitzsch's writings cover the years 1828 to 1862. In his Meletemata (1830) he took up the question of written versus unwritten literature, on which Wolf's whole argument had turned; and in his 1852 Die Sagenpoesie der Griechen ("The oral poetry of the Greeks") he investigated the structure of the Homeric poems and their relation to other, non-extant, epics which narrated the story of the Trojan War, the so-called Epic Cycle.
However, most Unitarian scholarship tended to be driven by literary interpretation and was therefore often more ephemeral. Even so, many scholars who examined the archaeology and social history of Homeric Greece did so from a Unitarian perspective, perhaps out of a wish to avoid the complexities of Analysis and Analysts' tendency to re-write each other's work indefinitely. Niese's 1873 Der homerische Schiffskatalog als historische Quelle betrachtet ("The Homeric catalogue of ships studied as a historical source") stands out. Schliemann, who began excavating Hisarlik in the 1870s, treated Homer as a historical source from an essentially Unitarian viewpoint.
Common ground between Analysts and Unitarians
Broadly speaking, Analysts tended to study the epics philologically, bringing to bear criteria, linguistic and otherwise, that were little different from those of the ancient Alexandrians. Unitarians tended to be literary critics who were more interested in appreciating the artistry of the poems than in analysing them.
But artistic merit was the unspoken motivation behind both schools of thought. Homer must at all costs be hallowed as the great, original, genius; everything good in the epics is to be attributed to him. So Analysts hunted for errors (as Zoilus had done), and blamed them on incompetent editors; Unitarians tried to explain errors away, sometimes even claiming they were really the best bits.
In both cases, therefore, there came to be a very strong tendency to equate good with authentic, and shoddy with interpolated. This, too, was a mindset inherited from the Alexandrians.
20th century
20th century Homeric scholarship had the shadow of Analysis and Unitarianism hanging over it, and much important work was done by old-style Analysts and Unitarians even up to the end of the century. Perhaps the most important Unitarian in the first half of the century was Samuel E. Bassett; and, as in the 19th century, some interpretive work argued for Unitarianism (e.g. George E. Dimock's 1989 The Unity of the Odyssey), while other literary criticism merely took a Unitarian perspective for granted. Some of the most important work on textual criticism and papyrology was done by Analyst scholars such as Reinhold Merkelbach and Denys L. Page (whose 1955 The Homeric Odyssey is a merciless but sometimes hilariously witty polemic against Unitarians). The biggest commentary on the Odyssey, published in the 1980s under the general editorship of Alfred Heubeck, is largely Analyst in tone, especially the commentary on books 21-22 by Manuel Fernández-Galiano. Some monographs from a strongly Analyst perspective continue to come out, primarily from the German-speaking world.
However, the most important new work on Homer done in the 20th century was dominated by two new schools of thought, most frequently referred to as "Oral Theory" (the term is resisted by some Oralists, especially Gregory Nagy); and "Neoanalysis". Unlike in the 19th century, however, these schools of thought are not opposed to one another; and in the last few decades they have been drawing on each other more and more in very constructive ways.
Oral Theory
Oral Theory, or Oralism, is a loosely used term for the study of the mechanisms of how the Homeric epics were orally transmitted, in terms of linguistics, cultural conditions, and literary genre. It therefore embraces philological analysis and literary criticism simultaneously. It has its origins in linguistics, but it was foreshadowed in some respects by Vico in the 18th century, and more immediately by Gilbert Murray. Murray was an Analyst, but his 1907 book The Rise of the Greek Epic contained some of the core ideas of Oralism: particularly the idea that the epics were the end result of a protracted process of evolution, and the idea that an individual poet named Homer had relatively little importance in their history.
The two figures at the head of Oralism are Milman Parry and his student Albert Lord, who continued his work after Parry's premature death. Parry was a structuralist linguist (he studied under Antoine Meillet, who in turn studied under Saussure) who set out to compare Homeric epic with a living oral tradition of epic poetry. In the 1930s and 1950s he and Lord recorded thousands of hours of oral performance of epic poetry in the former Yugoslavia, primarily in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Lord's later work (his 1960 book The Singer of Tales is the most pertinent to Homer) kick-started oral poetics as an entire new sub-discipline in anthropology. For Homeric scholarship the most important results of their work, and that of later Oralists, have been to demonstrate that:
Homeric epic shares many stylistic characteristics with known oral traditions;
thanks to the sophistication and mnemonic power of the formulaic system in Homeric poetry, it is entirely possible for epics as large as the Iliad and Odyssey to have been created in an oral tradition;
many curious features that offended the ancient Alexandrians and the Analysts are most probably symptomatic of the poems' evolution through oral transmission and, within limits, poets re-inventing them in performance (some have compared this to improvisation, rather as jazz musicians improvise upon a theme).
The biggest complete commentary on the Iliad, 1993's six volume The Iliad: A Commentary as edited by G.S. Kirk, is Oralist in its approach and emphasizes issues related to live performance such as rhythm; and the pedagogical commentaries by Peter Jones are heavily Oralist.
Some Oralists do not go so far as to claim that the Homeric epics actually are products of an oral epic tradition: many limit themselves to claiming that the Homeric epics merely draw on earlier oral epic. For much of the mid-20th century much of the resistance to Oral Theory came from scholars who could not see how to preserve Homer as the great original poet: they could not see how there was any room for artistry and creativity in a formulaic system where set-piece episodes (Walter Arend's "type scenes") were as formulaic as Parry's metrical epithet-noun combinations. Some scholars divided Oralists into "hard Parryists", who believed that all aspects of Homeric epic were predetermined by formulaic systems, and "soft Parryists", who believed that Homer had the system at his command rather than the other way round. More recently, books such as Nagy's influential 1979 book about epic heroes, The Best of the Achaeans, and Egbert Bakker's 1997 linguistic study Poetry as Speech, work on the principle that the radical cross-fertilisation and resonances between different traditions, genres, plot lines, episodes, and type scenes, are actually the driving force behind much of the artistic innovation in Homeric epic.
Where the joke about 19th century Analysts had it that the epics "were not composed by Homer but by someone else of the same name", now the joke is that Oral Theorists claim the epics are poems without an author. Many Oralists would happily agree with this.
Neoanalysis
Neoanalysis is quite separate from 19th century Analysis. It is the study of the relationship between the two Homeric epics and the Epic Cycle: the extent to which Homer made use of earlier poetic material about the Trojan War, and the extent to which other epic poets made use of Homer. The main obstacle to this line of research – and, simultaneously, the main impetus for it – is the fact that the Cyclic epics do not survive except in summaries and isolated fragments. Ioannis Kakridis is usually regarded as the founding figure of this school of thought, with his 1949 book Homeric Researches, but Wolfgang Kullmann's 1960 Die Quellen der Ilias ("The sources of the Iliad") is even more influential. Neoanalytic topics have become much more prominent in English-language scholarship since 1990, notably in a series of articles by M. L. West in Classical Quarterly and in Jonathan Burgess' 2001 book The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle. The recent upsurge is due in no small part to the publication of three new editions of the fragmentary Greek epics, including a translation by West for the Loeb Classical Library series.
Probably the most frequently cited and characteristic topic raised in Neoanalysis is the so-called "Memnon theory" outlined by Wolfgang Schadewaldt in a 1951 paper. This is the hypothesis that one major plot-line in the Iliad is based on a similar one in one of the Cyclic epics, the Aithiopis of Arctinus. The parallels run as follows:
What is debated in the Memnon theory is the implications of these similarities. The most immediate implication is that the poet of the Iliad borrowed material from the Aethiopis. The debatable points are the poet's reasons for doing so; the status and condition of the Aethiopis story when this borrowing took place, that is to say whether it was Arctinus' epic that Homer borrowed from, or something less concrete, like a traditional legend; and the extent to which the Aethiopis and Iliad played off one another in their subsequent development.
A looser definition of Neoanlysis would include the reconstruction of earlier forms of the epics based exclusively on residue in the surviving versions of the Iliad and Odyssey, quite apart from any relationship to the material of the Epic Cycle. Steve Reece, for example, has proposed that anomalies of structure and detail in our surviving version of the Odyssey point to earlier versions of the tale in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors. Similarly, Reece proposes, earlier versions of the Iliad can be detected in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was actually mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans. In this broader sense Neoanalysis can be defined as a form of Analysis informed by the principles of Oral Theory, recognizing as it does the existence and influence of previously existing tales and yet appreciating the technique of a single poet in adapting them to his Iliad and Odyssey.
Recent developments
The dating of the Homeric epics continues to be a controversial topic. The most influential work in this area in the last few decades is that of Richard Janko, whose 1982 study Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns uses statistics based on a range of dialectal pointers to argue that the text of both epics became fixed in the latter half of the 8th century BCE, though he has since argued for an even earlier date. There is no shortage of alternative datings, however, based on other kinds of evidence (literary, philological, archaeological, and artistic), ranging from the 9th century to as late as 550 BCE (Nagy suggests in a 1992 paper that the text's "formative" period lasted until 550). At present most Homeric scholars opt for the late 8th or early 7th century, and a date of 730 BCE is often quoted for the Iliad.
Since the 1970s, Homeric interpretation has been increasingly influenced by literary theory, especially in literary readings of the Odyssey. Post-structuralist semiotic approaches have been represented in the work of Pietro Pucci (Odysseus Polytropos, 1987) and Marylin Katz (Penelope's Renown, 1991), for example.
Perhaps the most significant developments have been in narratology, the study of how storytelling works, since this combines empirical linguistic study with literary criticism. Irene de Jong's 1987 Narrators and Focalizers: The Presentation of the Story in the Iliad draws on the work of the theorist Mieke Bal, and de Jong followed this up in 2001 with her Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey; Bakker has published several linguistic-narratological studies, especially his 1997 Poetry as Speech; and Elizabeth Minchin's 2001 Homer and the Resources of Memory draws on several forms of narratology and cognitive science, such as the script theory developed in the 1970s by Roger Schank and Robert Abelson.
See also
Epic Cycle
Homer
Homeric Question
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
References
Bibliography
General
This includes a discussion of the types of writing on papyrus Homeric documents.
Publications of scholia
"Classical" analysis
Neoanalysis
Homer and oral tradition
External links
Literary criticism
Language histories
Textual scholarship |
4076583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943%20in%20baseball | 1943 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: New York Yankees over St. Louis Cardinals (4-1)
All-Star Game, July 13 at Shibe Park: American League, 5-3
Other champions
Amateur World Series: Cuba
Negro League World Series: Homestead Grays over Birmingham Black Barons (4-3)
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: West, 2-1
All-American Girls Professional Baseball League: Racine Belles over Kenosha Comets
Awards and honors
Most Valuable Player
Spud Chandler (AL) – P, New York Yankees
Stan Musial (NL) – 1B, St. Louis Cardinals
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Spud Chandler – P, New York Yankees
The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award
Spud Chandler (AL) – P, New York Yankees
Stan Musial (NL) – 1B, St. Louis Cardinals
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Joe McCarthy (AL) – New York Yankees
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
This was the seventh season of the Negro American League. Birmingham and Chicago each won a half of the season, which therefore matched them up in a matchup to determine the champion for the NAL pennant to determine who would make the 1943 Negro World Series. Birmingham prevailed in five games to win their first ever pennant.
Negro National League final standings
This was the eleventh season of the second Negro National League (1933–1948). For the sixth time in seven seasons, the Homestead Grays won the pennant, this time under manager Candy Jim Taylor.
Negro league playoffs
Negro American League Championship Series: Birmingham Black Barons over Chicago American Giants 3–2.
1943 Negro World Series: Homestead Grays over Birmingham Black Barons 4–3 (one tie).
Events
May 30 – The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League begins its first 108-game season with teams in Rockford, Kenosha, Racine, and South Bend. In the Opening Game, South Bend win Rockford in 14 innings by a 4–3 score. The league's total attendance for the year will be 176,612.
July 1 – The first AAGPBL All-Star Game is played, which coincidentally became the first night game ever played at Wrigley Field. The contest was realized under temporary lights between two teams composed of Kenosha Comets and Racine Belles players against Rockford Peaches and South Bend Blue Sox players.
July 13 – At Shibe Park, home of the Philadelphia Athletics, the American League defeats the National League, 5-3, in the All-Star Game. This is the first All-Star Game held at night.
October 11 – The New York Yankees defeat the St. Louis Cardinals, 2-0, in Game 5 of the World Series to win their tenth World Championship, four games to one. This would be Yankees' manager Joe McCarthy's final Series win.
November 23 – Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis rules that Philadelphia Phillies owner William D. Cox is permanently ineligible to hold office or be employed for having bet on his own team. The Carpenter family of Delaware will buy the Philadelphia club and Bob Carpenter, at age 28, will become president. The Phillies, in an effort to change their image, will conduct a contest for a new name. The winning entry, the Philadelphia Blue Jays, submitted by a Mrs. John Crooks, will be the unofficial team name for 1944-45 until abandoned in 1946.
December 2 – With only nine leagues operating during the season, the minor league convention in New York has an incipient revolt to oust longtime head William G. Bramham in favor of Frank Shaughnessy, president of the International League, who had five pledges. But Bramham rules that 15 non operating circuits which had paid dues are eligible to vote. Five of the leagues had given proxies. A later appeal to Commissioner Landis fails.
December 4 – After one disappointing season for the Washington Senators, veteran slugger Indian Bob Johnson is sold to the Boston Red Sox. Senators owner Clark Griffith will later call it the worst trade he ever made. Johnson will have two solid years in Fenway Park before retiring.
Births
January
January 1 – Bud Hollowell, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014)
January 3 – Adrian Garrett
January 3 – Bob Gebhard
January 4 – Larry Yellen
January 7 – Dave Gray
January 10 – Jim Campbell
January 14 – Ron Clark
January 14 – Dave Marshall
January 15 – Mike Marshall
January 25 – Brian McCall
January 26 – César Gutiérrez
January 27 – Doug Adams
January 30 – Davey Johnson
February
February 1 – Ron Woods
February 8 – Bob Oliver
February 12 – Paul Edmondson
February 14 – Darrell Osteen
February 15 – Don Arlich
February 15 – Joe Moeller
February 16 – Bobby Darwin
February 19 – Jim Cosman
February 19 – Gail Hopkins
February 21 – Jack Billingham
February 21 – Joe Foy
March
March 3 – Jack DiLauro
March 3 – Paul Schaal
March 3 – Ed Sukla
March 16 – Rick Reichardt
March 20 – Steve Dillon
March 23 – Bruce Howard
March 23 – Lee May
April
April 1 – Mike DeGerick
April 3 – Barry Moore
April 4 – Mike Epstein
April 6 – Marty Pattin
April 8 – John Hiller
April 9 – Roy Gleason
April 12 – Vicente Romo
April 12 – Ken Suarez
April 16 – Frank Fernández
April 24 – Ivan Murrell
April 24 – Joe Verbanic
April 25 – Bob Johnson
April 25 – Lew Krausse Jr.
May
May 4 – Dick Nold
May 5 – John Donaldson
May 7 – Steve Whitaker
May 20 – Dave McDonald
May 22 – Walt Hriniak
May 22 – Tommy John
May 31 – Jackie Brown
June
June 3 – Ron Keller
June 6 – Merv Rettenmund
June 9 – Bruce Look
June 12 – Sam Parrilla
June 13 – Masaaki Kitaru
June 15 – Al Closter
June 20 – Andy Etchebarren
June 25 – John Gelnar
June 26 – Bill Robinson
June 27 – Rico Petrocelli
July
July 5 – Curt Blefary
July 8 – George Culver
July 9 – Mike Andrews
July 12 – Ron Willis
July 15 – Dave Adlesh
July 21 – Jim Manning
July 28 – Dick Simpson
July 28 – Ron Theobald
July 29 – Bill Whitby
July 31 – Billy Wynne
August
August 1 – Jackie Warner
August 2 – Tom Burgmeier
August 5 – Nelson Briles
August 6 – Jim Hardin
August 8 – Jim Miles
August 11 – Leroy Reams
August 17 – Ken Turner
August 20 – Hal Kurtz
August 21 – Félix Millán
August 22 – José Arcia
August 23 – Ed Barnowski
August 23 – Al Montreuil
August 28 – Lou Piniella
August 29 – Randy Brown
September
September 1 – Fred Rath Sr.
September 2 – Luke Walker
September 4 – Bobby Guindon
September 6 – Jim Quick
September 7 – Tommy Matchick
September 12 – Floyd Wicker
September 19 – Mike Derrick
September 19 – Joe Morgan
September 20 – Rich Morales
September 23 – Winston Llenas
September 23 – Marcelino López
October
October 2 – Paul Dicken
October 4 – Jimy Williams
October 6 – Jim McGlothlin
October 6 – Jerry Stephenson
October 7 – José Cardenal
October 8 – Don Pepper
October 13 – Jerry Robertson
October 19 – Sandy Alomar Sr.
October 19 – Brock Davis
October 20 – Bobby Floyd
October 22 – Bobby Mitchell
October 31 – John Hoffman
October 31 – Fred Klages
October 31 – Bill Voss
November
November 4 – Dick Selma
November 9 – Jerry Weinstein
November 12 – Al Schmelz
November 13 – Bobby Pfeil
November 14 – Danny Lazar
November 16 – Greg Bollo
November 17 – Bruce Von Hoff
November 18 – Dick Joyce
November 18 – Jim Shellenback
November 19 – Aurelio Monteagudo
November 21 – Daryl Patterson
November 22 – Wade Blasingame
November 24 – Billy Harris
November 29 – Dan McGinn
December
December 3 – Jerry Johnson
December 9 – Jim Merritt
December 10 – Dalton Jones
December 12 – Derrell Griffith
December 13 – Tony Torchia
December 14 – Jerry May
December 19 – Walt Williams
December 20 – John Noriega
December 23 – Ron Allen
December 23 – Dave May
December 24 – Al Stanek
December 25 – Dennis Musgraves
December 27 – Roy White
Deaths
January
January 3 – Bid McPhee, 83, Hall of Fame second baseman who played his entire 18-year career with the Cincinnati Reds, beginning in 1882 when the organization was a part of the American Association and called the Red Stockings. Widely regarded as one of the best defensive second basemen in the 19th century, even though he took the field without benefit of a glove, McPhee retired in 1899 with a career .272 batting average, 2,258 hits, 1,684 runs, 189 triples, 568 stolen bases and a .944 fielding average, while also managing the Reds in 1901 and 1902.
January 3 – Jack Rafter, 67, catcher who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates in its 1904 season.
January 7 – Ted Welch, 50, who appeared in three games as a relief pitcher for the St. Louis Terriers of the Federal League in 1914.
January 8 – John Titus, 66, outfielder who played from 1903 through 1912 with the Philadelphia Phillies and the Boston Braves.
January 12 – Bill Webb, 47, whose professional career lasted for 14 seasons, beginning as a second baseman for the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1916 and ending in 1930, becoming a manager in the minor leagues after that, and later serving the Chicago White Sox as a coach and farm system director from 1935 until his death.
January 23 – Farmer Weaver, 77, outfielder who played from 1888 to 1894 for the Louisville Colonels and Pittsburgh Pirates.
January 24 – Pat O'Connell, 81, center fielder who played for the Baltimore Orioles of the American Association during the 1886 season.
February
February 3 – Jake Virtue, 77, first baseman who played from 1890 through 1894 for the Cleveland Spiders.
February 4 – Frank Dwyer, 74, pitcher for five teams in a span of twelve years from 1888 to 1899, who posted a 176–152 record and a 3.85 ERA in 365 pitching appearances, including two 20-win season, 12 shutouts and 270 complete games.
February 7 – Floyd Ritter, 72, backup catcher for the 1890 Toledo Maumees of the American Association.
February 8 – Dan Casey, 80, pitcher who posted a 96-90 record with a 2.18 earned run average for four teams in seven seasons from 1884 to 1890, twice winning more than 20 games for the Philadelphia Quakers, while leading the National League in 1887 in both ERA (2.86) and shutouts (4), and ending third in W–L% (6.83) and fourth in wins (28).
February 11 – Ralph McLaurin, 57, fourth outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1908 season.
February 12 – Bart Cantz, 83, catcher who played from 1888 through 1890 with the Baltimore Orioles and the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association.
February 15 – John Deering, pitcher who played in 1903 with the Detroit Tigers and the New York Highlanders of the American League.
February 17 – Hippo Galloway, 60, turn-of-the-century player for the Cuban X-Giants, considered the first black Canadian to play organized baseball.
March
March 2 – Earle Gardner, 59, backup infielder who played from 1908 through 1912 for the New York Highlanders of the American League.
March 3 – Bill Whaley, 44, outfielder for the 1923 St. Louis Browns of the American League.
March 6 – Jimmy Collins, 73, Hall of Fame third baseman and manager who spent the majority of his fourteen-year Major League career in Boston with either the Beaneaters and the Americans; a fine hitter but best remembered for his defensive play at third base, whether it setting up defensively away from the bag or mastering the art of defense against the bunt; a .300 hitter five times, with a high of .346 in 1897, he won the National League home run crown with 15 in 1898, driving in well over 100 runs in both seasons and scoring more than 100 runs four times; specifically credited with having developed the barehanded pickup and off-balance throw to first base in defending bunts, his 601 total chances accepted at third base in 1899 remain a National League record, additionally leading his league's third basemen in putouts five times, assists four times, double plays twice, he still stands second all-time in career putouts at third base, and also managed the Americans to two American League pennants and a triumph over the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903.
March 13 – Earl Smith, 52, corner outfielder and third baseman for the Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Browns and Washington Senators in seven seasons from 1916 through 1923.
March 20 – Heinie Wagner, 62, shortstop who played for the New York Giants and the Boston Red Sox in a span of 14 seasons from 1902 to 1918, and later managed the Red Sox in 1930.
March 21 – Joe Daly, 74, outfielder and catcher for the Philadelphia Athletics, Cleveland Spiders and Boston Beaneaters during three seasons from 1890 to 1892.
March 30 – Tex McDonald, 52, right fielder who played from 1912 to 1913 with the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Braves of the National League, and for the Pittsburgh Rebels and Buffalo Buffeds/Blues of the Federal League from 1914 to 1915.
April
April 1 – Pat Deasley, 85, Irish bare-handed catcher who played from 1881 through 1888 for the Boston Red Caps, St. Louis Browns, New York Giants and Washington Nationals.
April 11 – Tom Knowlson, 47, pitcher for the 1915 Philadelphia Athletics.
April 22 – Kirby White, 59, pitcher for the Boston Doves and the Pittsburgh Pirates in three seasons from 1909 to 1911.
April 23 – Cliff Curtis, 61, pitcher who played for the Boston Doves/Rustlers, Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies and Brooklyn Dodgers during five seasons from 1909 to 1913.
April 26 – Bob Emslie, 84, Canadian umpire who set records with 35 seasons (34 of them, 1891 to 1924, in the National League) of officiating and over 1,000 games worked single-handedly; previously, as a pitcher, won 32 games for the 1884 Baltimore Orioles of the American Association.
April 26 – Gene McCann, 66, pitcher for the Brooklyn Superbas in the 1901 and 1902 seasons.
April 28 – Dennis Berran, 55, outfielder for the 1912 Chicago White Sox.
April 29 – Elijah Jones, 61, pitcher who played for the Detroit Tigers in 1907 and 1909.
May
May 6 – William J. Slocum, 59, sportswriter and editor for several New York newspapers since 1910.
May 7 – Bill Coughlin, 64, infielder who played for the Washington Senators and Detroit Tigers in a span of nine seasons from 1899 to 1908, as well as the only player to play for the Senators' National League club in its final season of 1899, and join the newly formed Senators for their 1901 inaugural season in the American League.
May 10 – Ginger Clark, 64, pitcher who played for the 1902 Cleveland Bronchos of the American League.
May 10 – Joe Werrick, 81, third baseman who played with the St. Paul Saints of the Union Association in 1884, and for the Louisville Colonels of the American Association from 1886 to 1888.
May 13 – Jack Hendricks, 68, outfielder who played from 1902 to 1903 for the New York Giants, Chicago Orphans and Washington Senators, and later managed the St. Louis Cardinals in 1918 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1924 to 1929.
May 13 – Pat Malone, 40, pitcher who posted a 115–79 record for the 1928–1934 Chicago Cubs, then a 19–13 mark for the 1935–1937 New York Yankees; led National League in wins with 22 in 1929 and 20 in 1930; NL strikeout leader (with 166) in 1930; member of 1936 and 1937 World Series champions.
May 14 – Bob Allen, 75, shortstop for the Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Beaneaters and Cincinnati Reds in five seasons spanning 1890–1897, as well as a manager for two brief stints with the Phillies in 1890 and Cincinnati in 1900.
May 22 – Red Bowser, 61, backup outfielder for the 1910 Chicago White Sox.
May 22 – Bob Wood, 77, backup catcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Blues, Cleveland Bronchos and Detroit Tigers, in a span of seven seasons from 1898 to 1905.
May 28 – Henri Rondeau, 56, outfielder and catcher in a 17-year career from 1909 to 1925, including parts of three seasons in Major League Baseball for the Detroit Tigers in 1913 and the Washington Senators from 1915 to 1916, while playing in all or parts of 12 seasons with the Minneapolis Millers of the American Association.
May 29 – Pat Wright, 74, second baseman who played in one game He played in one game for the Chicago Colts of the National League in 1890.
June
June 14 – Fred Kommers, 57, outfielder who spent the 1913 season with the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League, before moving to the outlaw Federal League to play for the St. Louis Terriers and Baltimore Terrapins in 1914.
June 19 – Art Goodwin, 67, pitcher who made one appearance with the New York Highlanders in 1905.
June 21 – Chet Chadbourne, 58, outfielder for the Boston Red Sox, Kansas City Packers and Boston Braves, who became a Minor League institution after collecting 3,216 hits over 21 seasons, as well as managing and umpiring at the same level.
June 30 – Mike McDermott, 80, pitcher who played from 1895 through 1897 for the Louisville Colonels, Cleveland Spiders and St. Louis Browns of the National League.
July
July 14 – George Pechiney, 81, pitcher who played from 1885 to 1897 for the Cleveland Blues and Cincinnati Red Stockings of the American Association.
July 26 – Tom Gettinger, 74, outfielder who played from 1889 to 1890 with the St. Louis Brown Stockings, and then for the Louisville Colonels in 1895.
July 30 – Charlie Fritz, 61, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1907 season.
August
August 11 – Fred Woodcock, 75, pitcher for the 1892 Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League.
August 16 – Beals Becker, 57, outfielder for five teams during eight seasons spanning 1908–1915, who made a name for himself in the Major Leagues as a dangerous slugger, ranking four times among the top-ten in home runs in the National League, while becoming the first player to hit two pinch-hit home runs in a single season, and the first to hit two inside-the-park homers in the same game.
August 14 – Joe Kelley, 71, Hall of Fame outfielder who along with John McGraw, Willie Keeler and Hughie Jennings made up the Big Four of the great Baltimore Orioles teams of the middle 1890s, playing on six pennant-winning teams during his 17-year stint in the Major Leagues and finishing with a .317 career batting average, 443 stolen bases, .402 on-base percentage and 194 triples, also driving in 100 or more runs in five straight seasons and scoring over 100 runs six times, while posting a lifetime .955 fielding percentage in the outfield to go along with 212 assists.
August 15 – Art Whitney, 85, third baseman and shortstop who played for eight teams during eleven seasons from 1880 to 1891, also a member of the New York Giants clubs that won the World Series in 1888 and 1889.
August 27 – Frank Truesdale, 59, second baseman who played from 1910 to 1918 for the St. Louis Browns, New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox.
September
September 1 – Joe Connolly, 59, left fielder for the Boston Braves from 1913 through 1916, who was the offensive star of the 1914 Miracle Braves World Champions.
September 1 – Eddie Matteson, 58, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1914 and the Washington Senators in 1918.
September 4 – Harry Hardy, 67, pitcher for the Washington Senators in the 1905 and 1906 seasons.
September 5 – Cecil Ferguson, 60, pitcher for the New York Giants and the Boston Doves/Rustlers in six seasons from 1906 to 1911, who led the National League in saves in 1906.
September 11 – Blaine Durbin, 57, pitcher who played from 1907 to 1909 with the Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds and Pittsburgh Pirates.
September 14 – Bill Murray, 50, second baseman for the 1917 Washington Senators.
September 22 – Larry Hesterfer, 65, pitcher for the New York Giants during the 1901 season, who is best known as the only player to have hit into a triple play in his first at bat in Major League history.
October
October 15 – Joe Rickert, 66, outfielder who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1898 season and the Boston Beaneaters in 1901.
October 23 – Heinie Peitz, 72, catcher for four teams in a span of 16 seasons from 1892 to 1913, who formed part of the famed Pretzel Battery along with pitcher Ted Breitenstein while playing for the St. Louis Browns and the Cincinnati Reds in the 1890s.
October 30 – Frank Whitney, 87, outfielder who played for the Boston Red Caps in the 1876 season.
November
November 7 – Bill Wolff, 67, pitcher for the 1902 Philadelphia Phillies.
November 10 – Charlie Bastian, 71, shortstop who played for seven teams in four different Major Leagues during eight seasons spanning 1884–1891.
November 16 – Frank McPartlin, 71, pitcher for the New York Giants in the 1899 season.
December
December 3 – Mike Grady, 73, catcher who played for the Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Browns, New York Giants, Washington Senators and St. Louis Cardinals, during eleven seasons between 1894 and 1906.
December 6 – Charley Hall, 59, who pitched for the Cincinnati Reds, Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Cardinals and Detroit Tigers in nine seasons between 1906 and 1918, and also was a member of the 1912 World Champion Red Sox.
December 6 – George Magoon, 68, middle infielder who played in the National League with the Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago Orphans and Cincinnati Reds, and for the American League's Chicago White Sox in a span of six seasons from 1898 to 1903.
December 18 – Bill Conway, 82, catcher who entered the National League in 1884 with the Philadelphia Quakers, appearing in one game for them before playing seven games with the Baltimore Orioles in 1886.
December 19 – Bill Bergen, 65, fine defensive catcher who played from 1901 through 1911 with the Cincinnati Reds, and for the Brooklyn's Superbas and Dodgers clubs from 1904 to 1911.
December 21 – Jim Cudworth, 85, outfielder and first baseman who played for the Kansas City Cowboys of the Union Association in 1884.
December 21 – Jack Warner, 71, catcher who played for the Boston Beaneaters, Louisville Colonels, New York Giants, Boston Americans, St. Louis Cardinals, Detroit Tigers and Washington Senators in 14 seasons from 1895 through 1908, and was also a member of the 1904 World Champion Giants.
December 28 – Steve Evans, 58, outfielder who played in the National League with the New York Giants in 1908 and the St. Louis Cardinals from 1910 through 1913, and for the Brooklyn Tip-Tops and Baltimore Terrapins of the Federal League from 1914 to 1915.
Sources
External links
Baseball Reference – 1943 MLB Season Summary
Baseball Reference – MLB Players born in 1943
Baseball Reference – MLB Players died in 1943 |
4076707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime-influenced%20animation | Anime-influenced animation | Anime-influenced animation refers to non-Japanese works of animation that are similar to or inspired by anime. Generally, the term anime refers to a style of animation originating from Japan. As Japanese anime became increasingly popular, Western animation studios began implementing some visual stylizations typical in anime—such as exaggerated facial expressions and "super deformed" versions of characters.
Although outside Japan, anime is specifically used to mean animation from Japan or as a Japanese-disseminated animation style often characterized by colorful graphics, vibrant characters and fantastical themes, there is a debate over whether the culturally abstract approach to the word's meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan.
Americas
United States
Television
One of the first noted attempts from American companies on making a series visually inspired by anime was The King Kong Show in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It was the result of a collaboration between Toei Animation from Japan and Videocraft from America. The result was an animation with an Anime-like visual style and a Japanese Kaiju theme, that incorporated the cartoonish style of the Hanna-Barbera era in American TV animation. Likewise, Hanna-Barbera's earlier series Frankenstein Jr. was heavily inspired by the Gigantor anime series, although its art style was more similar to that of other American cartoons of the time. Another early example of this might be Johnny Cypher in Dimension Zero.
Toei Animation continued this type of collaboration in the Transformers TV series, which aired in the 1980s. While this animation was animated by Toei Animation, the series was produced by and for Americans. Transformers showed many influences and elements of anime including story, themes, and a style that resembled Mecha anime.
This trend continued throughout the 1980s with series like Dungeons & Dragons, again co-produced by Toei Animation. Throughout the 1980s and the 1990s, many American shows started to be outsourced to Japanese animators, most notably TMS Entertainment, which animated popular television productions such as X-Men, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, ThunderCats, Inspector Gadget, The Real Ghostbusters, Rainbow Brite, Tiny Toon Adventures, DuckTales, Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers, TaleSpin, Darkwing Duck, Animaniacs and Spider-Man, most of which visually or thematically were not reminiscent of Japanese anime. TaleSpin did, however, take inspiration from Hayao Miyazaki's 1989 manga Hikōtei Jidai.
Throughout the 1990s, some American cartoons began showing a strong influence from anime without having any Japanese artists directly involved in the project. Examples of this can be seen in Cartoon Network shows like The Powerpuff Girls and Dexter's Laboratory or the Disney Channel show Kim Possible.
Other notable examples of series with an anime influence are Batman: The Animated Series which was actually partially outsourced to Japanese artists, Gargoyles, and Teen Titans, The Boondocks, Megas XLR, and The Batman. Batman Beyond displayed some characteristics of anime; in particular, some of its production processes were outsourced to Japan. The advent of Japanese anime stylizations appearing in Western animation questioned the established meaning of "anime".
Glen Murakami was also a strong influence in inspiring American cartoons with Japanese elements. He animated alongside Bruce Timm on Batman: The Animated Series and its sequel, Batman: Beyond. Keeping the sharp-edged angular style of Timm and mixing in his own personal influences, the show was given cyberpunk and sci-fi elements with a Japanese twist. American television producer Sam Register - who created anime inspired works such as Ben 10: Alien Force and Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi - also worked alongside Murakami to create the Teen Titans television show in 2003, giving rise to a unique style referred to as "murakanime". In 2004, Murakami also produced The Batman, which showed much stronger anime influence than even its predecessor Batman Beyond.
Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! is the first Jetix original show to be produced by Japanese artists and use an anime concept for the characters, including a transformation sequence for the series' main protagonist, Chiro. Series creator Ciro Nieli, who had also previously served as a director on Teen Titans, would later become showrunner of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012), which also featured anime-inspired moments, some of the most notable examples being seen in the characters' reaction shots. In addition, a parody of the anime series Voltron: Defender of the Universe was featured within the series throughout the second season, titled Super Robo Mecha Force Five!
Avatar: The Last Airbender and its sequel series The Legend of Korra are other examples of Western series influenced by anime so heavily that they started discussions among fans and viewers about what anime is and whether a non-Japanese animation should be called anime. Avatar creators Bryan Konietzko and Michael Dante DiMartino confirmed an anime influence in a magazine interview; that of "Hayao Miyazaki, especially Spirited Away and Princess Mononoke" as well as My Neighbor Totoro. Other studios from which inspiration was drawn include Studio 4°C, Production I.G, Polygon Pictures and Studio Ghibli.
The same strong resemblance can be seen in Voltron: Legendary Defender, a reboot of the Voltron franchise, this time produced completely by American artists. Lauren Montgomery and Joaquim Dos Santos, both known for their work on the Avatar: The Last Airbender and its sequel The Legend of Korra, served as showrunners while fellow crew member Tim Hedrick served as head writer. Other heavily anime-inspired American-made shows are the Netflix series Castlevania, created by Warren Ellis, and Blood of Zeus, created by Charley and Vlas Parlapanides. These anime-influenced series have become defined as "anime" by some sources, in an attempt to classify all Japanese-anime styled works of non-Japanese origin.
The American sitcom The Boondocks has many anime-style features, and uses Japanese style fighting. It is shown in many scenes, as Japanese sword styles have been used.
The web series RWBY, produced by Texas-based company Rooster Teeth, is produced using an anime-influenced art style and has been referred to as an American anime by multiple sources. For example, when the series was licensed for release in Japan, AdWeek reported on the situation using the headline "American-made anime from Rooster Teeth gets licensed in Japan". The CEO of Rooster Teeth, Matt Hullum, commented on the licensing agreement, saying "This is the first time any American-made anime has been marketed to Japan. It definitely usually works the other way around, and we're really pleased about that." In 2013, Monty Oum, the creator of RWBY, said "Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland, an American company can't make anime. I think that's a narrow way of seeing it. Anime is an art form, and to say only one country can make this art is wrong."
In 2015, Netflix announced that it intended to produce anime. In doing so, the company is offering a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets.
Defining anime as style has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, "The insistence on referring to original American art as "anime" or "manga" robs the work of its cultural identity."
On the other hand, series like Avatar: The Last Airbender, its sequel and Voltron: Legendary Defender have opened up more debates on whether these works should be called "anime", and whether the culturally abstract approach to the word's meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. While some Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product, some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of orientalism with some fans and critics arguing that the term should be defined as a "style" rather than as a national product, which leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries.
Stitch! is the anime spin-off of Disney's Lilo & Stitch franchise and the successor to Lilo & Stitch: The Series. It debuted in Japan in October 2008. The show features a Japanese girl named Yuna in place of Lilo, and is set on a fictional island in the Ryukyus off the shore of Okinawa instead of Hawaii.
ND Stevenson and the crew of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power were strongly influenced by anime, especially those with magical girls.
Film
The production on The Animatrix began when the Wachowskis visited some of the creators of the anime films that had been strong influences on their work, and decided to collaborate with them.
Japanese anime has influenced Disney, Pixar and DreamWorks productions. Glen Keane, the animator for successful Disney films such as The Black Cauldron (1985), The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992), and Tangled, has credited Hayao Miyazaki as a "huge influence" on Disney's animated films ever since The Rescuers Down Under (1990). Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise, the directors of Disney films such as Beauty and the Beast, Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), and Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001), are fans of anime and have cited Miyazaki's works as a major influence on their own work. Miyazaki's influence on Disney dates back to The Great Mouse Detective (1986), which was influenced by Miyazaki's Lupin III film Castle of Cagliostro (1979) and which in turn paved the way for the Disney Renaissance.
Controversially, Disney's The Lion King (1994) was accused of plagiarizing Osamu Tezuka's 1960s anime series Kimba the White Lion, due to both works sharing numerous similarities, leading to a protest upon release in Japan. However, Disney denied the accusation of plagiarism. The controversy surrounding Kimba and The Lion King was parodied in a 1995 episode of The Simpsons. A similar controversy surrounded another Disney film, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, which was alleged to have plagiarized the Studio Gainax anime series Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water (1990). Atlantis directors Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise denied the allegation, but nevertheless acknowledged Miyazaki's films as a major influence on their work.
Miyazaki's work deeply influenced Pixar co-founder John Lasseter, who described how Miyazaki's influence upon his life and work began when he first saw Castle of Cagliostro. Pete Docter, director of the popular Pixar films Monsters, Inc. (2001) and Up (2009) as well as a co-creator of other Pixar works, has also described anime, specifically Miyazaki, as an influence on his work. Jennifer Lee and Chris Buck cited the influence of Miyazaki's anime productions on Frozen (2013), stating that they were inspired by their sense of "epic adventure and that big scope and scale and then the intimacy of funny quirky characters." Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois described Miyazaki's flight and pacifist themes as an influence for creating How to Train Your Dragon (2010). Joel Crawford, the director of Puss in Boots: The Last Wish (2022), cited Akira (1988) as an influence on the design of the characters and action within the film. Additionally, the film utilized 2D animation to "highlight the personal touch of hand-drawn animation that is found in traditional anime", as noted by Variety'''s Jazz Tangsay.
Brazil
Since the 2000s there have already been countless independent projects for animated series inspired by anime. One of the first attempts was an animated adaptation of the popular manga-styled comic Holy Avenger after its completion in 2003, however due to financial and production problems the series was never developed. Over the years several other attempts for independent projects for animation inspired by Brazil were created, the most notable being Dogmons!, XDragoon and Magma.
In 2021 an independent platform for anime-inspired animations titled Anistage was created.
Among the anime-inspired Brazilian animated series that premiered on TV are Os Under-Undergrounds that debuted in May 2016, Nickelodeon and Turma da Mônica Jovem, based on the manga-styled comic created by Mauricio de Sousa, that debuted on November 7, 2019.
Despite being a series entirely made in Japan, No Game No Life is often credited by many Brazilians as an authentic Brazilian anime, due to the Brazilian origin of its creator Yuu Kamiya.
Chile
Animated series such as Golpea Duro Hara, a show which was an inspiration of the Japanese series such as Dragon Ball and One-Punch Man, was released in 2018. It gived the second season in 2020 on Cartoon Network.
In 2020, the Chilean-Brazilian animated film, Nahuel and the Magic Book, was created and inspired by the works of Hayao Miyazaki's projects such as Future Boy Conan and the entire Studio Ghibli with the mixtures of other Western animated series such as Steven Universe and Gravity Falls based on its characters. It became the first Latin American feature to win the Tokyo Anime Award for Award of Excellence a year later.
Other countries in the Americas
In 2007, the Canadian anime-style animated short Flutter became the first work from a non-Asian nation to win the Open Entries Grand Prize at the Tokyo Anime Awards.
Europe
France
The French-American international co-production W.I.T.C.H., a magical girl series, has been noted as having an anime-influenced visual style. First season director Marc Gordon-Bates cited anime such as Neon Genesis Evangelion as design inspiration. The animated series is based on Italian comics of the same name themselves drawn in line with manga conventions, as opposed to the more rounded style traditionally used by publisher and co-producer Disney. Co-executive producer Olivier Dumont noted that the high-quality animation was intended to be true to the detailed artwork of the comics series.
The producers of the French anime Code Lyoko, one of the most successful works of European anime, explicitly stated in their introductory document that they were: "Influenced by the poetry and the visual impact of Japanese animation, the series proposes a graphic universe that's particularly original and strong."
The animation and style in Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir is practically influenced by various Magical girl anime. Toei Animation does some of the modeling for the series, and was originally going to be in an anime-esque art-style. Thomas Astruc, the creator of the show, stated that the production team switched to CGI instead because Ladybug's spots were hard to animate around that time.
Another example of anime-influenced animation can be seen in Wakfu: The Animated Series, a flash animation series based on a video game of the same title.
Spain
In 2018, Movistar+ released Virtual Hero, a Spanish animated series created by YouTube personality El Rubius. It was dubbed as the "first anime in Spanish history". The Netflix original "The Idhun Chronicles", based on The Idhún's Memories book saga written by Laura Gallego, premiered in 2021, also featuring an anime-style animation.
Other European countries
Some French, Italian and Canadian co-produced series have also been influenced by anime, such as Totally Spies!, Martin Mystery, and Team Galaxy.
The visual style of the Italian animated series Winx Club is a mixture of European and Japanese elements, and also very similar to magical girl subgenre.
Asia
Middle East
The Emirati-Filipino produced TV series called Torkaizer is dubbed as the "Middle East's First Anime Show", inspired from Japanese mecha media franchise Gundam, and is currently in production, which is currently looking for funding.
Southeast Asia
In June 2021, the Singaporean anime-influenced TV series, Trese was released on Netflix. It is an adaptation of the Filipino komik series of the same name produced by South East Asian BASE Entertainment.
South Asia
Pakistan
A Pakistani hand drawn romantic anime film called The Glassworker is currently in production. It is directed by Usman Riaz. The trailer of the film was released in October 2016. The film will release in 2023 as described by the animation studio's website. It is also Pakistan's and South Asia's first crowd funded movie as it had raised $116,000 on Kickstarter. The reason for this high raise was due to Usman Riaz being a famous musician, speaker. The movie is hand drawn so the scenes of the movie gives it a Studio Ghibli vibe.
India
In India, Karmachakra was produced as one of the first Indian anime influenced animations under Studio Durga. It is a low budget 2D film, despite being anime influenced the pilot of the movie says otherwise, due to its low budget the developers made use of classic 2D style animation which makes it different from anime.
Co-productions with Japan
Occasionally, animated series are developed as outright international co-productions between Japan and one or more other countries, as opposed to having stylistic influence. In the 1980s, there were Japanese-European productions such as Ulysses 31, The Mysterious Cities of Gold, Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds, Sherlock Hound and The Jungle Book. More recent examples of Canadian and French co-productions include Cybersix (1999) as well as Oban Star-Racers and Spider Riders, both from 2006.Ōban Star-Racers is known as one of the European animations that strongly resemble anime. While the majority of the creative directors and writers were French, the production team moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team.
Animation such as Oban Star-Racers and Code Lyoko, like Avatar: The Last Airbender, are examples over which some critics and fans debate about the term anime and whether it is defined as a "style" rather than as a national product, which leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries.
A Japanese-Filipino produced anime television series Barangay 143 is currently airing on GMA Network.
In April 2020, a studio named Manga Production from Saudi Arabia announced the release of The Journey and Future's Folktales, co-produced with Toei.
Japanese-American Pacific Rim: The Black, an anime adaptation of the film of the same name made by Legendary Television co-produced with Polygon Pictures released in March 2021.
Japanese-American Yasuke, an anime adaptation of the historical figure of the same name made by LeSean Thomas co-produced with MAPPA released in April 2021.
Japanese-American Cannon_Busters, an anime adaptation of the comic book of the same name made by LeSean Thomas co-produced with Satelight and Yumeta Company released in August 15, 2019.
Polish-Japanese Cyberpunk: Edgerunners, an anime adaptation of the video game of the same name made by CD Projekt co-produced with Studio Trigger released in September 2022.
In advertising
The American fast-food Taco Bell advertisement Fry Force has many anime-style features, particularly from Japanese mecha anime Gundam. It is shown in many scenes, as Gundam fighting styles have been used.
The Odyssey Interactive Omega Strikers action sport video game has anime influence on its launching advertisement video because made by Japanese Studio Trigger in celebration of the premiere launch of its video game.
The Bulgarian juice company Florina had anime-style mascots of the juice flavours named Flo Force'', advertised in many youth activities.
See also
Dubbing
Original English-language manga
La nouvelle manga
Limited animation
Orientalism
References
Sources
Anime and manga terminology
Japan in non-Japanese culture |
4077344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20butterflies%20of%20Texas | List of butterflies of Texas | This is a list of Texas butterflies, all species of butterfly found in the state of Texas.
Family Papilionidae (swallowtails)
Subfamily Papilioninae (swallowtails)
Battus philenor (pipevine swallowtail)
Battus polydamas (Polydamas swallowtail)
Eurytides marcellus (zebra swallowtail)
Eurytides philolaus (dark kite-swallowtail)
Papilio polyxenes (black swallowtail)
Papilio thoas (Thoas swallowtail)
Papilio cresphontes (giant swallowtail)
Papilio ornythion (ornythion swallowtail)
Papilio astyalus (broad-banded swallowtail)
Papilio glaucus (eastern tiger swallowtail)
Papilio rutulus (western tiger swallowtail)
Papilio multicaudata (two-tailed swallowtail)
Papilio pilumnus (three-tailed swallowtail)
Papilio troilus (spicebush swallowtail)
Papilio garamus (magnificent swallowtail)
Papilio palamedes (Palamedes swallowtail)
Papilio victorinus (Victorine swallowtail)
Papilio pharnaces (pink-spotted swallowtail)
Papilio anchisiades (ruby-spotted swallowtail)
Parides eurimedes (mylotes cattle heart)
Family Pieridae (whites and sulphurs)
Subfamily Pierinae (whites)
Anthocharis cethura (desert orangetip)
Anthocharis midea (falcate orangetip)
Anthocharis thoosa (southwestern orangetip)
Appias drusilla (Florida white)
Ascia monuste (great southern white)
Catasticta nimbice (Mexican dartwhite)
Euchloe lotta (desert marble)
Euchloe olympia (Olympia marble)
Ganyra josephina (giant white)
Leptophobia aripa (mountain white)
Pieris rapae (cabbage white)
Pontia protodice (checkered white)
Pontia sisymbrii (spring white)
Subfamily Coliadinae (sulphurs)
Anteos clorinde (white angled-sulphur)
Anteos maerula (yellow angled-sulphur)
Aphrissa statira (Statira sulphur)
Colias eurytheme (orange sulphur)
Colias philodice (clouded sulphur)
Eurema albula (ghost yellow)
Eurema boisduvaliana (Boisduval's yellow)
Eurema daira (barred yellow)
Eurema dina (dina yellow)
Eurema lisa (little yellow)
Eurema mexicana (Mexican yellow)
Eurema nicippe (sleepy orange)
Eurema nise (mimosa yellow)
Eurema proterpia (tailed orange)
Eurema salome (Salome yellow)
Kricogonia lyside (lyside sulphur)
Nathalis iole (dainty sulphur)
Phoebis agarithe (large orange sulphur)
Phoebis argante (apricot sulphur)
Phoebis neocypris (tailed sulphur)
Phoebis philea (orange-barred sulphur)
Phoebis sennae (cloudless sulphur)
Zerene cesonia (southern dogface)
Subfamily Dismorphiinae (mimic-whites)
Enantia albania (costa-spotted mimic-white)
Family Lycaenidae (gossamer-wing butterflies)
Subfamily Miletinae (harvesters)
Feniseca tarquinius (harvester)
Subfamily Lycaeninae (coppers)
Lycaena dione (gray copper)
Subfamily Theclinae (hairstreaks)
Allosmaitia strophius (Strophius hairstreak)
Atlides halesus (great purple hairstreak)
Callophrys gryneus (juniper hairstreak)
Callophrys henrici (Henry's elfin)
Callophrys irus (frosted elfin)
Callophrys mcfarlandi (sandia hairstreak)
Callophrys niphon (eastern pine elfin)
Callophrys spinetorum (thicket hairstreak)
Callophrys xami (xami hairstreak)
Calycopis cecrops (red-banded hairstreak)
Calycopis isobeon (dusky-blue groundstreak)
Chlorostrymon simaethis (silver-banded hairstreak)
Chlorostrymon telea (Telea hairstreak)
Cyanophrys goodsoni (Goodson's greenstreak)
Cyanophrys herodotus (tropical greenstreak)
Cyanophrys miserabilis (Clench's greenstreak)
Electrostrymon canus (muted hairstreak)
Electrostrymon sangala (ruddy hairstreak)
Erora quaderna (Arizona hairstreak)
Eumaeus toxea (Mexican cycadian)
Fixsenia favonius (southern hairstreak)
Fixsenia polingi (Poling's hairstreak)
Hypaurotis crysalus (Colorado hairstreak)
Ministrymon azia (gray ministreak)
Ministrymon clytie (Clytie ministreak)
Ministrymon echion (red-spotted hairstreak)
Ministrymon janevicroy (Vicroy’s ministreak)
Ministrymon leda (Leda ministreak)
Ocaria ocrisia (black hairstreak)
Oenomaus ortygnus (aquamarine hairstreak)
Parrhasius m-album (white m hairstreak)
Phaeostrymon alcestis (soapberry hairstreak)
Rekoa marius (Marius hairstreak)
Rekoa palegon (gold-bordered hairstreak)
Rekoa zebina (zebina hairstreak)
Satyrium behrii (Behr's hairstreak)
Satyrium calanus (banded hairstreak)
Satyrium edwardsii (Edwards' hairstreak)
Satyrium kingi (King's hairstreak)
Satyrium liparops (striped hairstreak)
Satyrium titus (coral hairstreak)
Siderus tephraeus (pearly-gray hairstreak)
Strymon albata (white scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon alea (Lacey's scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon bazochii (lantana scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon bebrycia (red-lined scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon cestri (tailless scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon istapa (mallow scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon melinus (gray hairstreak)
Strymon rufofusca (red-crescent scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon serapio (bromeliad scrub-hairstreak)
Strymon yojoa (Yojoa scrub-hairstreak)
Subfamily Polyommatinae (blues)
Brephidium exile (western pygmy-blue)
Brephidium isophthalma (eastern pygmy-blue)
Celastrina ladon (spring azure)
Celastrina neglecta (summer azure)
Cupido comyntas (eastern tailed-blue)
Echinargus isola (Reakirt's blue)
Euphilotes rita (rita dotted-blue)
Glaucopsyche lygdamus (silvery blue)
Hemiargus ceraunus (Ceraunus blue)
Icaricia lupini (lupine blue)
Leptotes cassius (Cassius blue)
Leptotes marina (marine blue)
Plebejus melissa (Melissa blue)
Zizula cyna (cyna blue)
Family Riodinidae (metalmarks)
Apodemia chisosensis (Chisos metalmark)
Apodemia duryi (Mexican metalmark)
Apodemia hepburni (Hepburn's metalmark)
Apodemia multiplaga (narrow-winged metalmark)
Apodemia palmeri (Palmer's metalmark)
Apodemia phyciodoides (crescent metalmark)
Apodemia walkeri (Walker's metalmark)
Calephelis nemesis (fatal metalmark)
Calephelis nilus (rounded metalmark)
Calephelis rawsoni (Rawson's metalmark)
Calephelis virginiensis (little metalmark)
Caria ino (red-bordered metalmark)
Emesis emesia (curve-winged metalmark)
Emesis tenedia (falcate metalmark)
Emesis zela (Zela metalmark)
Lasaia sula (blue metalmark)
Melanis pixe (red-bordered pixie)
Family Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies)
Subfamily Libytheinae (snouts)
Libytheana carinenta (American snout)
Subfamily Heliconiinae (heliconians and fritillaries)
Agraulis vanillae (Gulf fritillary)
Dione moneta (Mexican silverspot)
Dryadula phaetusa (banded orange heliconian)
Dryas julia (Julia heliconian)
Eueides isabella (Isabella's heliconian)
Euptoieta claudia (variegated fritillary)
Euptoieta hegesia (Mexican fritillary)
Heliconius charithonia (zebra heliconian)
Heliconius erato (Erato heliconian)
Philaethria dido (scarce bamboo page)
Speyeria cybele (great spangled fritillary)
Subfamily Nymphalinae (true brush-foots)
Anartia fatima (banded peacock)
Anartia jatrophae (white peacock)
Chlosyne acastus (sagebrush checkerspot)
Chlosyne definita (definite patch)
Chlosyne endeis (banded patch)
Chlosyne gorgone (gorgone checkerspot)
Chlosyne janais (crimson patch)
Chlosyne lacinia (bordered patch)
Chlosyne marina (red-spotted patch)
Chlosyne nycteis (silvery checkerspot)
Chlosyne rosita (rosita patch)
Dymasia dymas (tiny checkerspot)
Euphydryas chalcedona (variable checkerspot)
Euphydryas phaeton (Baltimore)
Hypolimnas misippus (mimic)
Junonia coenia (common buckeye)
Junonia genoveva (tropical buckeye)
Microtia elva (elf)
Nymphalis antiopa (mourning cloak)
Phyciodes argentea (chestnut crescent)
Phyciodes graphica (graphic crescent)
Phyciodes mylitta (Mylitta crescent)
Phyciodes phaon (Phaon crescent)
Phyciodes picta (painted crescent)
Phyciodes ptolyca (black crescent)
Phyciodes texana (Texan crescent)
Phyciodes tharos (pearl crescent)
Phyciodes tulcis (Tulcis crescent)
Poladryas minuta (dotted checkerspot)
Polygonia comma (eastern comma)
Polygonia interrogationis (question mark)
Siproeta epaphus (rusty-tipped page)
Siproeta stelenes (malachite)
Texola elada (Elada checkerspot)
Thessalia fulvia (Fulvia checkerspot)
Thessalia theona (Theona checkerspot)
Vanessa annabella (West Coast lady)
Vanessa atalanta (red admiral)
Vanessa cardui (painted lady)
Vanessa virginiensis (American lady)
Subfamily Limenitidinae (admirals and relatives)
Adelpha basiloides (spot-celled sister)
Adelpha bredowii (California sister)
Adelpha fessonia (band-celled sister)
Biblis hyperia (red rim)
Diaethria anna (Anna's eighty-eight)
Diaethria asteria (Mexican eighty-eight)
Dynamine dyonis (blue-eyed sailor)
Dynamine tithia (Tithian sailor)
Epiphile adrasta (common banner)
Eunica monima (dingy purplewing)
Eunica tatila (Florida purplewing)
Hamadryas amphinome (red cracker)
Hamadryas februa (gray cracker)
Hamadryas feronia (variable cracker)
Hamadryas fornax
Hamadryas guatemalena (Guatemalan cracker)
Hamadryas iphthime (brownish cracker)
Historis acheronta (tailed cecropian)
Historis odius (Orion)
Limenitis archippus (viceroy)
Limenitis arthemis astyanax ('Astyanax' red-spotted purple)
Limenitis arthemis (red-spotted purple)
Limenitis weidemeyerii (Weidemeyer's admiral)
Marpesia chiron (many-banded daggerwing)
Marpesia coresia (waiter daggerwing)
Marpesia petreus (ruddy daggerwing)
Mestra amymone (common mestra)
Myscelia cyananthe (blackened bluewing)
Myscelia ethusa (Mexican bluewing)
Smyrna blomfildia (Blomfild's beauty)
Smyrna karwinskii (Karwinski's beauty)
Subfamily Charaxinae (leafwings)
Anaea andria (goatweed leafwing)
Anaea echemus (chestnut leafwing)
Anaea glycerium (angled leafwing)
Anaea pithyusa (pale-spotted leafwing)
Anaea troglodyta (tropical leafwing)
Subfamily Apaturinae (emperors)
Asterocampa celtis (hackberry emperor)
Asterocampa clyton (tawny emperor)
Asterocampa leilia (empress leilia)
Doxocopa laure (silver emperor)
Doxocopa pavon (Pavon emperor)
Subfamily Satyrinae (satyrs)
Cercyonis meadii (Mead's wood nymph)
Cercyonis pegala (common wood nymph)
Cyllopsis gemma (gemmed satyr)
Cyllopsis pertepida (canyonland satyr)
Enodia anthedon (northern pearly eye)
Enodia creola (Creole pearly eye)
Enodia portlandia (southern pearly eye)
Gyrocheilus patrobas (red-bordered satyr)
Hermeuptychia sosybius (Carolina satyr)
Megisto cymela (little wood satyr)
Megisto rubricata (red satyr)
Megisto viola (Viola's wood satyr)
Neonympha areolata (Georgia satyr)
Subfamily Danainae (monarchs)
Danaus eresimus (soldier)
Danaus gilippus (queen)
Danaus plexippus (monarch)
Dircenna klugii (Klug's clearwing)
Lycorea cleobaea (tiger mimic-queen)
Family Hesperiidae (skippers)
Subfamily Pyrrhopyginae (firetips)
Pyrrhopyge araxes (dull firetip)
Subfamily Pyrginae (spread-wing skippers)
Achalarus albociliatus (Skinner's cloudywing)
Achalarus casica (desert cloudywing)
Achalarus jalapus (jalapus cloudywing)
Achalarus lyciades (hoary edge)
Achalarus toxeus (coyote cloudywing)
Achlyodes pallida
Aguna asander (gold-spotted aguna)
Aguna claxon (emerald aguna)
Aguna metophis (tailed aguna)
Arteurotia tractipennis (starred skipper)
Astraptes alardus (frosted flasher)
Astraptes alector (Gilbert's flasher)
Astraptes anaphus (yellow-tipped flasher)
Astraptes egregius (small-spotted flasher)
Astraptes fulgerator (two-barred flasher)
Autochton cellus (golden banded-skipper)
Autochton cincta (Chisos banded-skipper)
Autochton pseudocellus (Sonoran banded-skipper)
Bolla brennus (obscure bolla)
Bolla clytius (mottled bolla)
Cabares potrillo (potrillo skipper)
Carrhenes canescens (hoary skipper)
Celaenorrhinus fritzgaertneri (Fritzgaertner's flat)
Celaenorrhinus stallingsi (Stallings' flat)
Celotes limpia (scarce streaky-skipper)
Celotes nessus (common streaky-skipper)
Chioides catillus (white-striped longtail)
Chioides zilpa (Zilpa longtail)
Chiomara georgina (white-patched skipper)
Codatractus alcaeus (white-crescent longtail)
Codatractus arizonensis (Arizona skipper)
Cogia calchas (mimosa skipper)
Cogia hippalus (acacia skipper)
Cogia outis (Outis skipper)
Eantis tamenund (sickle-winged skipper)
Epargyreus clarus (silver-spotted skipper)
Epargyreus exadeus (broken silverdrop)
Erynnis baptisiae (wild indigo duskywing)
Erynnis brizo (sleepy duskywing)
Erynnis funeralis (funereal duskywing)
Erynnis horatius (Horace's duskywing)
Erynnis juvenalis (Juvenal's duskywing)
Erynnis martialis (mottled duskywing)
Erynnis meridianus (meridian duskywing)
Erynnis scudderi (Scudder's duskywing)
Erynnis telemachus (Rocky Mountain duskywing)
Erynnis tristis (mournful duskywing)
Erynnis zarucco (zarucco duskywing)
Gesta invisa (false duskywing)
Gorgythion begga (variegated skipper)
Grais stigmatica (hermit skipper)
Heliopetes arsalte (veined white-skipper)
Heliopetes laviana (Laviana white-skipper)
Heliopetes macaira (Turk's-cap white-skipper)
Heliopyrgus domicella (Erichson's white-skipper)
Hesperopsis alpheus (saltbush sootywing)
Nisoniades rubescens (purplish-black skipper)
Noctuana stator (red-studded skipper)
Pellicia arina (glazed pellicia)
Pellicia dimidiata (morning glory pellicia)
Phocides belus
Phocides palemon (guava skipper)
Pholisora catullus (common sootywing)
Pholisora mejicana (Mexican sootywing)
Polygonus leo (hammock skipper)
Polygonus manueli (Manuel's skipper)
Polythrix mexicanus (Mexican longtail)
Polythrix octomaculata (eight-spotted longtail)
Proteides mercurius (mercurial skipper)
Pyrgus albescens (white checkered skipper)
Pyrgus communis (common checkered-skipper)
Pyrgus oileus (tropical checkered skipper)
Pyrgus philetas (desert checkered skipper)
Pyrgus scriptura (small checkered-skipper)
Sostrata nordica (blue-studded skipper)
Spathilepia clonius (falcate skipper)
Staphylus azteca (Aztec scallopwing)
Staphylus ceos (golden-headed scallopwing)
Staphylus hayhurstii (Hayhurst's scallopwing)
Staphylus mazans (Mazans scallopwing)
Systasea pulverulenta (Texas powdered skipper)
Systasea zampa (Arizona powdered skipper)
Thorybes bathyllus (southern cloudywing)
Thorybes confusis (confusing cloudywing)
Thorybes drusius (Drusius cloudywing)
Thorybes pylades (northern cloudywing)
Timochares ruptifasciatus (brown-banded skipper)
Typhedanus undulatus (mottled longtail)
Urbanus belli (double-striped longtail)
Urbanus dorantes (Dorantes longtail)
Urbanus doryssus (white-tailed longtail)
Urbanus esmeraldus (Esmeralda longtail)
Urbanus procne (brown longtail)
Urbanus pronus (pronus longtail)
Urbanus proteus (long-tailed skipper)
Urbanus simplicius (plain longtail)
Urbanus tanna (Tanna longtail)
Urbanus teleus (Teleus longtail)
Xenophanes tryxus (glassy-winged skipper)
Zestusa dorus (short-tailed skipper)
Subfamily Hesperiinae (grass skippers)
Adopaeoides prittwitzi (sunrise skipper)
Amblyscirtes aenus (bronze roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes aesculapius (lace-winged roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes alternata (dusky roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes belli (Bell's roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes cassus (cassus roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes celia (Celia's roadside skipper)
Amblyscirtes eos (dotted roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes hegon (pepper and salt skipper)
Amblyscirtes nereus (slaty roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes nysa (Nysa roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes oslari (Oslar's roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes phylace (orange-headed roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes simius (simius roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes texanae (Texas roadside-skipper)
Amblyscirtes vialis (common roadside-skipper)
Anatrytone logan (Delaware skipper)
Anatrytone mazai (glowing skipper)
Ancyloxypha arene (tropical least skipper)
Ancyloxypha numitor (least skipper)
Atalopedes campestris (sachem)
Atrytone arogos (arogos skipper)
Atrytonopsis edwardsii (sheep skipper)
Atrytonopsis hianna (dusted skipper)
Atrytonopsis pittacus (white-barred skipper)
Atrytonopsis python (python skipper)
Atrytonopsis vierecki (Viereck's skipper)
Calpodes ethlius (Brazilian skipper)
Conga chydaea (hidden-ray skipper)
Copaeodes aurantiacia (orange skipperling)
Copaeodes minima (southern skipperling)
Corticea corticea (redundant skipper)
Cymaenes odilia trebius ('Trebius' fawn-spotted skipper)
Decinea percosius (double-dotted skipper)
Euphyes bayensis (bay skipper)
Euphyes dion (Dion skipper)
Euphyes dukesi (Dukes' skipper)
Euphyes vestris (dun skipper)
Hesperia attalus (dotted skipper)
Hesperia juba (Juba skipper)
Hesperia meskei (Meske's skipper)
Hesperia metea (cobweb skipper)
Hesperia ottoe (ottoe skipper)
Hesperia pahaska (Pahaska skipper)
Hesperia uncas (Uncas skipper)
Hesperia viridis (green skipper)
Hesperia woodgatei (Apache skipper)
Hylephila phyleus (fiery skipper)
Lerema accius (clouded skipper)
Lerema ancillaris (Liris skipper)
Lerodea arabus (olive-clouded skipper)
Lerodea eufala (Eufala skipper)
Monca telata tyrtaeus ('Tyrtaeus' violet-patched skipper)
Nastra julia (Julia's skipper)
Nastra lherminier (swarthy skipper)
Nastra neamathla (Neamathla skipper)
Nyctelius nyctelius (violet-banded skipper)
Oarisma edwardsii (Edwards' skipperling)
Oligoria maculata (twin-spot skipper)
Panoquina evansi (Evans' skipper)
Panoquina hecebola (Hecebolus skipper)
Panoquina leucas (purple-washed skipper)
Panoquina ocola (ocola skipper)
Panoquina panoquin (salt marsh skipper)
Panoquina panoquinoides (obscure skipper)
Perichares philetes (green-backed ruby-eye)
Piruna hafernicki (Chisos skipperling)
Piruna microstictus (small-spotted skipperling)
Piruna pirus (russet skipperling)
Piruna polingi (four-spotted skipperling)
Poanes aaroni (Aaron's skipper)
Poanes melane (umber skipper)
Poanes taxiles (Taxiles skipper)
Poanes viator (broad-winged skipper)
Poanes yehl (Yehl skipper)
Poanes zabulon (Zabulon skipper)
Polites carus (Carus skipper)
Polites origenes (crossline skipper)
Polites peckius (Peck's skipper)
Polites rhesus (rhesus skipper)
Polites themistocles (tawny-edged skipper)
Polites vibex (whirlabout)
Pompeius verna (little glassywing)
Problema byssus (byssus skipper)
Quasimellana eulogius (common mellana)
Quasimellana mexicana
Rhinthon cubana osca (osca skipper)
Stinga morrisoni (Morrison's skipper)
Synapte malitiosa (malicious skipper)
Synapte salenus (salenus skipper)
Thespieus macareus (chestnut-marked skipper)
Vettius fantasos (fantastic skipper)
Vidius perigenes (pale-rayed skipper)
Wallengrenia egeremet (northern broken-dash)
Wallengrenia otho (southern broken-dash)
Subfamily Megathyminae (giant-skippers)
Agathymus mariae (Mary's giant-skipper)
Agathymus neumoegeni (orange giant-skipper)
Agathymus remingtoni (Coahuila giant-skipper)
Megathymus streckeri (Strecker's giant-skipper)
Megathymus ursus (ursine giant-skipper)
Megathymus yuccae (yucca giant-skipper)
Stallingsia maculosa (manfreda giant-skipper)
References
Butterflies
Texas |
4077534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Cheney%20hunting%20accident | Dick Cheney hunting accident | On February11, 2006, then-United States vice president Dick Cheney shot Harry Whittington, a then-78-year-old Texas attorney, with a 28-gauge Perazzi shotgun while participating in a quail hunt on a ranch in Riviera, Texas. Both Cheney and Whittington called the incident an accident.
The incident was reported to the Corpus Christi Caller-Times on February12, 2006, by ranch owner Katherine Armstrong. The Bush administration disclosed the shooting incident to the public the afternoon of February12. Local authorities released a report on the shooting on February16, 2006, and witness statements on February22.
On February14, 2006, Whittington suffered a non-fatal heart attack and atrial fibrillation due to at least one lead-shot pellet lodged in or near his heart. He also had a collapsed lung. Cheney did not speak publicly about the incident until February15 in an interview with Fox News. Early reports indicated that Cheney and Whittington were friends and that the injuries were minor. Whittington later clarified that he and Cheney were not close friends but acquaintances.
Shooting incident
Day of shooting
The shooting was widely reported to have taken place on Saturday, February11, 2006, based on the public statements of Katherine Armstrong, owner of the Armstrong Ranch. However, in her statement to the Sheriff, she said the shooting happened on February12. Harry Whittington said shortly after the incident, "Accidents do and will and that's what happened last Friday (February 10)."
Time of shooting
Mary Matalin stated on Meet the Press that "Somebody had talked to some ranch hand". Neither the Sheriff's report nor witness statements identify who this first reporter was.
The Secret Service said that they gave notice to the Sheriff about one hour after the shooting. Kenedy County Sheriff Ramone Salinas III states he first heard of the shooting at about 5:30p.m. from Captain Charles Kirk, and Salinas implies that he received 'official' notice from the Secret Service at about 5:40p.m.
The time of the shooting was not stated by Cheney.
The events
Cheney had a televised interview about the shooting on February15. On February22, the Sheriff's office released statements from Katherine Armstrong, Sarita Hixon, Pamela Pitzer Willeford, Oscar Medellin, Gerardo Medellin, and Andrew Hubert. Cheney's statement and all six other hunting party members specify that Cheney, Whittington, and Willeford had shot at a covey of birds. While Whittington was searching for a downed bird, Cheney, Willeford, and a guide walked towards another covey about away. Whittington approached within of the shooters, at which point a single bird flew up, around, and behind Cheney in the direction of Whittington. Cheney shot at the bird and hit Whittington.
Armstrong, the ranch owner, claimed that all in the hunting party were wearing blaze-orange safety gear and none had been drinking, and that at lunch they drank beer, which is slightly contradictory to her later statement that "there may (have been) a beer or two in [the lunch coolers], but remember not everyone in the party was shooting." Cheney has acknowledged that he had one beer four or five hours prior to the shooting. Armstrong said she never saw Cheney or Whittington drink until later at the house, where Cheney had a few cocktails. Armstrong did not actually see the incident happen, believing that the reason Cheney's security detail was running was that Cheney had a heart problem, but Cheney described her as an eyewitness in his Fox interview.
Secret Service agents and medical aides, who were traveling with Cheney, came to Whittington's assistance and treated his birdshot wounds to his right cheek, neck, and chest. An ambulance standing nearby for the Vice President took Whittington to close by Kingsville before he was flown by helicopter to Corpus Christi Memorial Hospital in Corpus Christi.
People present
At the scene:
Dick Cheney (shooter)
Harry Whittington (victim)
Pamela Pitzer Willeford (eyewitness)
Oscar Medellin (outrider, between Cheney and Willeford, flushed the bird)
"Secret Service personnel" were reported to be with the two shooters and Oscar Medellin
In a car at an unstated distance away from the shooting:
Katherine Armstrong, owner of the ranch
Sarita Storey Armstrong Hixon, Armstrong's sister
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department report
On February13, 2006, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (an agency once headed by Armstrong) issued an incident report. According to the report, Cheney "was swinging on game" (i.e. turning to track it with his shotgun). The summary of the incident given was:
The report cited clear and sunny weather at the time of the shooting.
Whittington's injuries
Whittington was injured in the face, neck, and upper torso. Whittington was reported to be in stable condition at Corpus Christi Memorial Hospital and had been moved from intensive care to a "step-down unit" on Monday. Doctors decided to leave about 30 birdshot pellets lodged in his body rather than try to remove them. Each pellet was less than in diameter.
On February14, 2006, at 6:30a.m., Whittington suffered a minor heart attack and atrial fibrillation due to the shot pellets lodged in or near his heart, as well as a collapsed lung. He was immediately moved back to the intensive care unit. At about 9 a.m., Whittington underwent a cardiac catheterization test to detect blocked or leaky arteries. From the test, doctors found a single lead pellet.
Hospital officials said Whittington was alert and stable and that he did not experience chest pain or other symptoms of a heart attack. Doctors reported signs of inflammation, and Whittington was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs.
Whittington was subsequently discharged from the hospital on February17, 2006. At a press conference, he said: "My family and I are deeply sorry for everything Vice President Cheney and his family have had to deal with. We hope that he will continue to come to Texas and seek the relaxation that he deserves."
In a 2010 interview with The Washington Post, when asked if Cheney had apologized, Whittington declined to answer.
Information release
Though the shooting occurred on Saturday, February11, news of it was not released until after 2:00p.m. (Eastern Standard Time) on Sunday, February12. Kathryn Garcia, a reporter for the Corpus Christi Caller-Times, broke the story at 1:48p.m. after receiving an 11:00a.m. call from Katherine Armstrong, the owner of the ranch where the shooting occurred. Armstrong had notified Cheney earlier in the morning that she would inform the news media about the incident. She said Cheney agreed. Armstrong said that Whittington did not announce his location, and this led to the incident.
According to White House Press secretary Scott McClellan, news at the White House about the shooting "...was coming in to people back here, all the way at 3:00a.m. [Sunday] and beyond." McClellan would not state when the President first learned that Cheney had shot Whittington. When McClellan was asked if Andy Card had told Karl Rove that Cheney was the shooter, McClellan said: "...we still didn't have all the details at that point and additional details were coming into Andy Card at even three [...] in the morning and beyond."
The White House did not disclose the accident until a press conference on Sunday afternoon. McClellan said he did not know Cheney had shot someone until that Sunday morning. He remarked that he did ask the Vice President's office to release the information earlier. He said: "I think you can always look back at these issues and look at how to do a better job."
On February15, Cheney agreed to comment publicly about the accident on the Fox News Channel. He had previously avoided reporters by leaving an Oval Office meeting with United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan. Cheney visited Whittington in the hospital on Monday, February13, and at other times, telephoned him.
In the Fox News interview, Cheney accepted full responsibility for the accident.
Cheney acknowledged that White House Counselor Dan Bartlett and Scott McClellan "urged us to get the story out". Cheney said he was more concerned about accuracy and felt that Armstrong was the best person to make the announcement.
Investigations
Secret Service spokesman Eric Zahren said that about an hour after Whittington was shot, the head of the Secret Service's local office called the Kenedy County sheriff to report the accident. Kenedy County Sheriff Ramon Salinas III receiving a call of 'official' notice from the Secret Service 8–10 minutes after a Saturday, February11, 5:30p.m. phone call from Captain Charles Kirk.
Kirk had called Salinas en route to the Armstrong Ranch to investigate a possible hunting accident. The ensuing official investigation was performed by the Kenedy County Sheriff's department and published in an Incident Report written by Chief Deputy Gilberto San Miguel Jr, a Supplement Report written by Salinas, and several witness statements.
After Salinas finished his call with the Secret Service, Kirk called Salinas again to report that he couldn't get any information about the shooting at the Armstrong gate. Salinas told Kirk: "that it was fine and I [Salinas] would contact someone at the Ranch". Multiple news sources reported that local law enforcement officers were initially barred by United States Secret Service agents from interviewing Cheney.
After dismissing Kirk, Salinas called Constable Ramiro Medellin Jr to ask for information about the accident. None of the police reports say why Salinas thought to call Medellin or where Salinas thought Medellin was. In that first call to Medellin, Salinas reports Medellin saying only he would call Salinas back. Medellin called Salinas back and said that "This is in fact a hunting accident" and that he [Medellin] had spoken with some of the people in the hunting party who were eyewitnesses and that they all said that it was definitely a hunting accident. Salinas says he [Salinas] also spoke with another [unnamed] eyewitness and he[the witness] said the same thing, that it was an accident. Salinas states in his report: "After hearing the same information from eyewitness and Constable Medellin, it was at this time I decided to send my Chief Deputy first thing Sunday morning to interview the Vice-President and other witnesses."
On Sunday morning, Kenedy County Chief Deputy Gilbert San Miguel Jr. interviewed Cheney and other members of the hunting party. He said that Cheney characterized the incident as a "hunting accident".
On Monday, Miguel and Lt. Juan J Guzman went to Spohn Memorial Hospital to interview Whittington. Whittington requested not to be recorded 'due to his voice being raspy' but agreed to supply a written affidavit as soon as he returned home to his office. Whittington characterized the incident as an accident and said no alcohol was involved and that everyone was wearing proper hunting attire. Whittington described shooting at the first covey of quails, searching for a bird, then being sent by Katharine [Armstrong] to shoot the second covey. At that point, "a nurse came into the room and asked Guzman and Salinas to hurry up so Whitington could rest". The officers then left, telling Whittington, "I [Miguel] would give him a call in a few days to get the written affidavit". There is no public record of the promised affidavit being taken or released.
The Kenedy County Sheriff, Ramon Salinas III, has since cleared Cheney of any criminal wrongdoing.
Bush appointed Katharine Armstrong, a commission member of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Steve Hall, education director for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, said that the department would classify the shooting as an error in judgment by Cheney.
The news of the shooting was not released to the press for 21 hours until 1:48p.m. (07:48) Sunday, February12. Kathryn Garcia, a reporter for the Corpus Christi Caller-Times, broke the story after receiving a call from Armstrong at 11:00a.m., after confirming it with the White House and hospital.
A top Republican close to the White House said to Time magazine, "This is either a cover-up story or an incompetence story."
Controversial points
Questions have been raised regarding the shooting, even as Kenedy County Sheriff's Office documents support the official story by Cheney and his party.
Re-creations of the incident were enacted by George Gongora and John Metz, a photographer and producer respectively for the Corpus Christi Caller-Times. Also a hunter re-created it according to the Whidbey News-Times. All tests proved that the distance was much closer than the claimed. Local quail hunters have also argued that the range was closer, while others, such as forensic expert Jon Nordby, confirm the plausibility of the official reports.
The time of the shooting was estimated by Cheney and the other members of the hunting party to be variously between 5:30p.m. and 6:00p.m. In the Kenedy County Sheriff's Report, Officer Ramone Salinas III states that he first heard the news of the shooting from a Captain Charles Kirk at about 5:30p.m. Kirk had heard of the shooting prior to that phone call. In Salinas's statement, Salinas says he received official notice from the Secret Service 10minutes after the 5:30p.m. phone call. The Secret Service is reported to have said that they gave notice to the Sheriff about one hour after the shooting, which would put the time of the shooting at approximately 4:40p.m., 80minutes before the entire hunting party's recollection.
In popular culture
The incident, nicknamed Quailgate in the media, was the subject of jokes, satire and public ridicule. A number of these made reference to other controversies involving Cheney.
David Letterman began his Monday show on February13, 2006, with "Good news, ladies and gentlemen, we have finally located weapons of mass destruction ... it's Dick Cheney," and adding that "We can't get bin Laden, but we nailed a 78-year-old attorney." His Top 10 list was devoted to "Dick Cheney's excuses" and included "he thought the guy was trying to go gay cowboy on me." Al Franken, not yet a U.S. Senator, was a guest on Letterman's program a short time later. He asked people in the studio audience to raise their hands if they had ever shot anyone. He then asked people in the studio audience to raise their hands to indicate if they thought they would accompany a friend to the hospital after shooting him. Franken went on to suggest that Cheney's delay in going to the hospital may have been because he wanted to wait until all signs of his having been drinking passed.
Jay Leno also had a piece on The Tonight Show in which he pretended to host a game show with footage of George W. Bush and Pervez Musharraf that was taken during Bush's visit to Pakistan. Toward the end of that segment, the sound of loud bird calls was played, and Leno asked Cheney to take care of the problem, with footage of the Vice President shooting a gun then shown.
Both Dana Carvey and Paula Poundstone made jokes about this incident in their HBO and Bravo specials, respectively.
Carlos Mencia references the incident in a musical segment called the "Dee Dee Dee Song" in a season 2 episode of Mind of Mencia that aired on August 13, 2006, where he says "You wanna go hunting, for quail someplace, don't go with Cheney, he'll put a fucking shot in your face!"
Texas Monthly won the 2007 Best Cover Line of the Year Award from the Magazine Publishers of America for its January 2007 cover captioned, "If You Don't Buy This Magazine, Dick Cheney Will Shoot You in the Face."
Jon Stewart popularized the phrase "Cheney's Got a Gun" (a play on the 1989 Aerosmith song "Janie's Got a Gun") on The Daily Show soon after the event. Stewart and the Daily Shows correspondents repeatedly accentuated their disbelief at the absurdity of a sitting vice president shooting a 78-year-old man in the face while hunting quail raised in a pen and released mere seconds before they are shot. Stewart, for instance, pointed out that Whittington had been the first person to be shot by a sitting vice president since Alexander Hamilton, and that while Aaron Burr's fatal shooting of Hamilton was during a duel over issues of honor and political maneuvering, Whittington "was mistaken for a bird." Correspondent Ed Helms, reporting supposedly from Corpus Christi Hospital, said that Whittington's condition had been upgraded from "stable" to "stable, but still shot in the face by Dick Cheney." The show also used graphics from the video game Duck Hunt. After Whittington's post-discharge press conference, Stewart noted that Cheney's power was such that upon shooting someone, the victim would apologize.
The incident is mentioned in The Sopranos''' season six episode, "Remember When," where Junior Soprano, living in a mental care center after shooting his nephew (whom he confused with an old enemy because of his deteriorated mental state), writes a letter to Cheney asking for help, saying that they are "both powerful men" who were brought low "by unintentional incidents involving gunplay".
In the beta for the video game Halo 3, a medal called "Cheneymania" was awarded for killing 10 opponents with a shotgun without dying; the medal was later removed from the game.
On his first show after the incident, Stephen Colbert, host of The Colbert Report, confessed to having been involved in a hunting accident of his own over the weekend, then proceeded to show an edited version of Brit Hume's interview with Dick Cheney, featuring Colbert in place of Cheney. Colbert later mentioned the hunting incident in his appearance at the White House Correspondents' Association Dinner in 2006.
The incident has been parodied three times in the comedy Family Guy:
In the season 4 episode "Petergeist", Cheney shoots Peter at point-blank range several times while hunting, and apologizes, "Sorry, I thought you were a deer."
In the season 5 episode "Boys Do Cry", Cheney guards the President's house with a shotgun and, while sleeping, says, "18% approval ratings ... I'll give you 18% of my foot in your ass" about the drop in approval ratings to 18% which followed the shooting.
In the season 5 episode "Meet the Quagmires", Death says to Peter that "Dick Cheney shot "Supreme Court Justice Scalia" in a hunting accident and the bullet went right through him and killed Karl Rove and Tucker Carlson", referencing the incident.
In the fifth episode of Season 10 of Stargate SG1, Colonel Cameron Mitchell remarks about not wanting a Vice-Presidential bird hunt.South Park parodied the incident in the season 10 episode "Mystery of the Urinal Deuce". Cheney attempts to shoot a crossbow to kill Stan and Kyle but misses, leading him to exclaim: "Dang it! I missed again!"American Dad! parodied the incident in the season 11 episode "Blagsnarst, a Love Story" when Roger takes aim at a helicopter and states: "...I just have to pretend I'm Dick Cheney and that helicopter is my friend's face."
In Boston Legal, attorney Alan Shore points to the incident several times to show how the legal system is selective in how it looks at violent incidents involving high-profile individuals.
During a Saturday Night Live skit, Kristen Wiig as Diane Sawyer mentions the incident during a mock interview regarding Cheney's accomplishments as vice president, in which he denies feeling any regrets for the situation. In a later sketch, former President George W Bush (Will Ferrell) shows surprise when then Vice President Joe Biden did not own a shotgun, remarking, "What kind of Vice President are you?"
Former President Barack Obama also joked about this subject. In his speech for the White House Correspondents' Association Dinner on May 9, 2009, he said Mr. Cheney was 'very busy working on his memoirs, tentatively titled, How to Shoot Friends and Interrogate People, a humorous allusion to the self-help classic How to Win Friends and Influence People. Obama also joked about the incident in his final White House Correspondents' Association Dinner as president, in 2016, when he thanked then Vice President Joe Biden "for not shooting anybody in the face".
Episode 9 of the first season of Patriot, titled "Dick Cheney", is about a planned duck-hunting "accident".
The 2018 film Vice has a scene that portrays this Dick Cheney hunting accident and is shown in the movie trailer for the film.The Mindy Project makes a reference to the shooting in Season 4, Episode 21, "Under the Texan Sun." The main character, Mindy, is scared while on a walk at night during a visit to Texas and says: "I am walking on a dirt road in Texas in the middle of the night. Dick Cheney could be running around here looking for some pheasants."Bob Rivers made a parody song about the incident called "Cheney's Got a Gun", another parody of "Janie's Got a Gun" by Aerosmith.
Vic Chesnutt poked fun at the incident on "Dick Cheney", which was recorded on Skitter on Take-Off.''
Legacy
For years afterward, editorial cartoons and comedians continued to crack jokes about the incident.
Cheney was criticized for his handling of the matter. According to polls on February27, 2006, two weeks after the accident, Dick Cheney's approval rating had dropped 5 percentage points to 18%.
See also
Burr–Hamilton duel
Hunting license
References
External links
Witness Statements
2006 controversies in the United States
2006 in American politics
Hunting incident
February 2006 events in the United States
George W. Bush administration controversies
Hunting in the United States
Kenedy County, Texas
Non-fatal shootings
2006 in Texas
Political controversies in the United States |
4077882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf%20%28Dungeons%20%26%20Dragons%29 | Elf (Dungeons & Dragons) | The elf is a humanoid race in the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role-playing game, one of the primary races available for player characters, and play a central role in the narratives of many setting worlds of the game. Elves are described as renowned for their grace and mastery of magic and weapons such as the bow and sword. Becoming physically mature by the age of 25 and emotionally mature at around 125, they are also famously long-lived, capable of living more than half a millennium and remaining physically youthful. Possessed of innate beauty and easy gracefulness, they are viewed as both wondrous and haughty by other races in-universe; however, their natural detachment is seen by some as introversion or xenophobia. They were usually portrayed as antagonistic towards dwarves.
There are numerous different subraces and subcultures of elves, including aquatic elves, dark elves (drow), deep elves (rockseer), grey elves, high elves, moon elves, snow elves, sun elves, valley elves, wild elves (grugach), wood elves and winged elves (avariel). The offspring of humans and elves are known as "half-elves" among humans and in sourcebooks, and as "half-humans" among elves.
Creative influences
Gary Gygax claimed Dungeons & Dragons elves draw very little from Tolkien's version of the elf. However, academic Philip J. Clements sees certain aspects as directly traceable to Tolkien's portrayal. Similarly, academic Philippe Bornet in "Religions in play: games, rituals, and virtual worlds" said that elves in the game are based on Tolkien's version of the elf. Michael J. Tresca, in the book The Evolution of Fantasy Role-Playing Games (2014), stated the elven sub-types in Dungeons & Dragons can be traced to divided lines of Tolkien's elves – Noldor become high elves, Tawarwaith become wood elves and Sindar become grey elves in the game.
Publication history
Original Dungeons & Dragons
The elf first appeared as a player character race in the original 1974 edition of Dungeons & Dragons. The aquatic elf was introduced in the 1975 Blackmoor supplement. Elves in Dungeons & Dragons are immune to paralysis as a holdover from a game balance adjustment in Chainmail. Players with elf characters could chose either the "fighting-man" or "magic-user" class to start with; multiclassing was allowed, however, elf characters could only take a max of four levels in fighter and eight levels in magic-user. Tresca described the Tolkien style of elf as "a burden for game designers" as they were seemingly "more capable than humans". Tresca commented that "Gygax worked hard to curb their power, by giving the race a weak constitution and putting limitations on how high they could level. These limitations would not be removed until the third edition of Dungeons & Dragons".
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 1st edition
The elf appeared as a player character race in the original Player's Handbook (1978). The elf also appeared in the original Monster Manual (1977), with subraces including High Elf, Gray Elf (some of whom are also called Faerie), Dark Elf (also called Drow), Wood Elf (also called Sylvan), and Aquatic Elf. The grugach, valley elf, and cooshee (an elven dog) first appeared in Dragon issue #67 (November 1982) in "Featured Creatures", an ongoing series of articles where Gary Gygax released information on official creatures before their release in the upcoming Monster Manual II. The grugach, valley elf, and cooshee then appeared in the original Monster Manual II (1983). A number of elven subraces were presented as character races in the original Unearthed Arcana (1985).
Basic Dungeons & Dragons
The elf appeared as a character race in the Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set (1977). In subsequent revisions, in order to streamline the game, the non-humans (including the elf) were presented as distinct classes. The elf class is often seen as a blend of the fighter and magic-user classes.
The Shadow elf appears as a character race in GAZ13 The Shadow Elves published by TSR in 1990 as a 64-page booklet and a 32-page booklet.
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition
The high elf appeared as a character race in the second edition Player's Handbook (1989). The high elf also appeared in the Monstrous Compendium Volume One (1989). Several elven races were detailed as player character races in The Complete Book of Elves (1992). Supplements focused on elves in specific campaign settings include Comanthor: Empire of the Elves, Elves of Evermeet and Elves of Athas.
Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition
The elf appeared as a character race in the third edition Player's Handbook (2000), and in the 3.5 revised Player's Handbook. Elves were detailed for the Forgotten Realms setting in Races of Faerûn (2003). Elves were one of the races detailed in Races of the Wild (2005).
Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition
The elf appeared as a character race and as one of three in a family of elven races — the sylvans, the drows, and the eladrins — in the fourth edition Player's Handbook (2008). This version of the elf returns in the Essentials rulebook Heroes of the Fallen Lands (2010). The elf appears in the fourth edition Monster Manual (2008).
Tresca explained that this edition allowed elves and humans to be equal in height and "deemphasized their low constitution, a balancing attribute created for earlier editions". Tresca opined that the introduction of eladrin "restored elves in Dungeons & Dragons to the mysterious, sometimes dangerous, and altogether powerful status they enjoyed in Middle-earth".
Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition
The elf was included as a player race in the 5th edition Player's Handbook (2014). Three subraces were introduced with it: the high elf, the wood elf, and the drow (dark elf). The Player's Handbook connects the high elves to the gray elves and valley elves of the Greyhawk setting, the Silvanesti and Qualinesti of the Dragonlance setting, and the sun elves and moon elves of the Forgotten Realms setting. They also connect the wood elves to the wild elves (grugach) of Greyhawk and the Kagonesti of Dragonlance.
The 5th edition Dungeon Master's Guide (2014) also presented the eladrin (which appeared in 4th edition as a separate but related race) as an elf subrace, using them as an example for creating a new character subrace. The eladrin later appeared as playtest content in "Unearthed Arcana: Eladrin and Gith" (2017); this version was revised and eventually published the following year in Mordenkainen's Tome of Foes (2018).
Fictional characteristics
Spirit vs soul
In early editions of Dungeons & Dragons, elves had spirits instead of souls which impacted some game mechanics such as various resurrection spells. This distinction was dropped in the 3rd Edition. Christian Hoffer of ComicBook.com commented that "while there are lots of theories about the technical reasons (many believe that D&D co-creator Gary Gygax was not a fan of non-human characters, and thus placed the restriction on them when writing up Advanced Dungeons & Dragons,) the only 'official' explanation appears in Deities & Demigods, a D&D supplement released in 1980. [...] The major difference between a soul and a spirit is that souls live one life on the Material Plane and then spend eternity in whatever plane their chosen deity resides, while spirits are eventually reincarnated back into the Material Plane".
Religion
In several campaign settings, elves have their own pantheon often known as the Seldarine; this pantheon usually consists of the leader Corellon Larethian, as well as Aerdrie Faenya, Deep Sashelas, Erevan Ilesere, Fenmarel Mestarine, Hanali Celanil, Labelas Enoreth, Rillifane Rallathil, Sehanine Moonbow, and Solonor Thelandira. Other elven gods may be present in different campaign settings.
Half-elves
Half-elves are the offspring of humans and elves. They look like elves to humans and like humans to elves. Half-Elves have curiosity and ambitions like humans but they have sense for magic and love for nature like their elven parents. Their skin is paler than human skin and they are taller and bigger than elves. Half-Elves have long ears like elves. They live about 180 years.
The half-elf appeared as a player character race in the original Player's Handbook (1978).
Other types of elves
Subraces of elves include Dark Elves and Deep elves.
Drow
Grey Elves
These elves are the most noble of elves, yet also the most arrogant. They are of higher intellectual capabilities than other elves, but, despite the fact that they are taller than high elves, they are physically weaker. They live in isolated mountain strongholds, and rarely allow access to outsiders. They have silver hair and amber eyes, or gold hair and violet eyes, and wear clothes of white, silver, yellow and gold, and usually wear regally colored cloaks.
Shadow Elves
These elves are an isolated race of elves that survived a cataclysm and adapted to live in caves in Mystara. The shadow elves are even paler than normal elves, with white hair and very clear eyes, usually a sparkling blue or gray color. The shadow elves are somewhat smaller and thinner than their surface cousins, standing about five feet tall and weighing about 100 pounds. Their ears are larger than those of wood elves, giving the shadow elves a sort of "walking radar" underground. Shadow elves have high-pitched voices—almost squeaky to human ears.
High Elves
High elves are the original eladrin and the original elves that came Abeir-Toril from the Feywild (dark, sun, moon, green, lythari and star elves), and most commonly encountered by other races, and the most open and friendly of their kind. They travel to other lands more than other elves. They are generally dark-haired and green-eyed, with very pale complexions the color of new cream. They simply do not tan, no matter how much time they spend under Oerth's sun. High elves prefer to wear light pastels, blues and greens and violets, and often dwell in homes built into living wood, high in the trees.
In 4th edition the Eladrin are the High elves.
Painted Elves
This subrace resides in painted deserts and petrified forests, preferring a druidic lifestyle.
Rockseer Elves or Deep Elves
"Rockseer elves are the rarest of all elvenkind. They are far taller than most of their kin, with a few reaching almost to eight feet in height. An average weight for a Rockseer is between 120 and 140 pounds, with little gender difference. Rockseers are very pale skinned, and they have no body hair. Head hair is extraordinarily fine, always worn long, with the appearance and texture of exquisitely fine silk. The hair is silver, and eye color is a pale, almost ice-blue. They are androgynous in appearance, making it difficult for outsiders to tell males and females apart.
"Rockseers have been separated from the rest of elvenkind since mythic times. Their own history tells that they were cowards at the great battle of Corellon Larethian and Lolth, fleeing the combat and taking refuge far below ground. They have no knowledge of surface elves. They know of the Drow and hate them, avoiding them whenever possible. They are extremely seclusive and shun the company of all other races, including the Svirfneblin. The only exception to this are pech, with whom Rockseers sometimes form friendships."
The deep elves are found in 1996's Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three, but originated in the Night Below boxed set campaign published in 1995. In a subplot of Night Below, the player characters can reintroduce the exiled Rockseers to the rest of elvenkind and reconcile them with their god, Corellon Larethian.
Campaign settings
Greyhawk
The elves of Greyhawk include the standard aquatic, dark (Drow), grey, high, and wood (sylvan) elves described in the core rule books of various editions of the game.
Additional elven types created for this setting include the snow elves, valley elves, and wild (grugach) elves.
Dragonlance
The depiction of the elves in Dragonlance fiction is strongly influenced by Tolkien's elves. One of the major character types in the setting, they are presented as aloof and isolationist as a group, but also as caretakers of the natural world. Like in other settings, they are split into several peoples, again echoing the splits among Tolkien's elves: Silvanesti and Qualinesti, two races of high elves estranged from each other; the Kagonesti or Wild Elves; and two races of sea elves: the Dimernesti or Shoal Elves, which inhabit the coastal areas and the Dargonesti or Deep Elves.
Forgotten Realms
The various elven subraces are more prominent in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting, and Faerûn boasts several major subraces. They differ physically from typical Dungeons & Dragons elves in that they are as tall as humans (5′9″ on average), or even taller. The exception are the Drow, who are of standard D&D elven height. In Faerûn, surface elves call themselves Tel-Quessir which means "The People" in the elven language. In 4th edition, most of the elven subraces were classified as drow, eladrin, or elves.
The history of the elven race as portrayed in this setting is marked by great empires and a gradual decline and retreat from the mainland Faerûn. The elves first came to Abeir-Toril from the plane of Faerie more than twenty-five millennia ago. The first wave of elves to arrive were the green elves, lythari, and avariel. The second wave included the dark elves, who arrived in the jungles of southern Faerûn, and the sun and moon elves, who arrived in the north. Not long after, the aquatic elves arrived in the Great Sea. After the second wave of elven immigrants arrived, the Time of Dragons ended and the period known as the First Flowering of the Fair Folk began. The elves settled into five major civilizations along the west and south of Faerûn during this period. Along the Sword Coast, the sun elves established Aryvandaar and Shantel Othreier, and the green elves established Illefarn, Miyeritar (along with the dark elves), and Keltormir. To the south, in present-day Vilhon Reach, the green elves also created the nations of Thearnytaar, Eiellûr, and Syòpiir. In the forests that once covered the Shaar, the moon elves established Orishaar, and the dark elves established Ilythiir and Miyeritar (along with the green elves). All of these realms were gradually destroyed as a result of the Crown Wars, which made way for other elven realms.
Their once expansive realms have shrunk back in territory and prestige due to the influence and expansion of the younger races, particularly humans. They remain influential, however; much of the shape of Faerûn is influenced by conflict between the various subraces of the elves.
The elven subraces of Faerûn include the following:
Aquatic Elves or Sea Elves (Alu-Tel'Quessir) Aquatic elves are also known as sea elves. They live beneath the waves of Faerûn and can breathe water as easily as their cousins on land breathe air. They can also breathe air but for a very short period of time.
or Winged Elves (Aril-Tel'Quessir) The avariel are very rare in Faerûn, since they have been hunted nearly to extinction by various dragons. Avariel remain in any number in only one place—the Aerie of the Snow Eagles, a secluded mountain home in the north. Avariel maintain good relationships with aarakocra, and those in the Aerie of the Snow Eagles have recently reestablished contact with their cousins in Evermeet. The avariel make their homes in open areas, and take immense joy in flying. They absolutely abhor and detest being inside, underground, or otherwise restricted from the open sky. The avariel are known for their fierce clerical tradition, as devout worshippers of the Seldarine sky goddess Aerdrie Faenya.
Drow Once known only as dark elves, one of their greatest kingdoms was Illythiir. They were transformed into drow and banished to the Underdark when their matron goddess Lolth broke from the primary elven pantheon. Of all the elves they are the only ones portrayed as inherently evil and hate their cousins with an undying passion. They are smaller than their cousins, both shorter and thinner. In addition, their skin resembles polished obsidian, and their hair is snow-white or silver. Their eyes are almost inevitably red, gleaming with the hatred for their surface dwelling cousins. In 4th edition, the drow are a separate race rather than an elf subrace.
Dark Elves (Ssri-Tel'Quessir) Recently returned into the fold of the true elven race. These former Drow now live on the surface in the city of hope. They have brown skin and black hair and have been cleansed of all drow traits. They are protected once again by Corellon Larethian.
Lythari (Ly-Tel'Quessir) The lythari are a subrace of elves who can transform into wolves. Unlike most werewolves, they can transform at will and keep their minds while in wolf form. Because the lythari have changed so far from their elven roots, most Faerûnian scholars now consider them a separate race from elves. Lythari are devoted to Selune and their Ancestor Endymion, Father of the race and follower of Selune.
Moon Elves or Silver Elves (Teu-Tel'Quessir) The moon elves are the most common of all the elves in Faerûn and are also known as silver elves. They typically have fair skin and hair that runs in hues from silver-white to black or blue. While human style hair colors are rare, eye color can be remarkably similar, with colors ranging from blue to green. The majority of the half-elves in Faerûn come from parings between humans and moon elves. In 4th edition, moon elves are eladrin.
Star Elves or Mithral Elves (Ruar-Tel'Quessir) This subrace left the forests of Yuirwood for an extraplanar realm known as Sildëyuir. They have recently considered returning due to increasing threats by the alien nilshai.
Sun Elves or Gold Elves (Ar-Tel'Quessir) Sun elves are primarily found upon the island of Evermeet and because of this, they are less common across the rest of Faerûn. With bronze colored skin; gold, black, or green eyes; and gold, blond, black, or (rarely) red hair, they are also called gold elves. Sun elves are less physically fit, but more intellectually advanced, than their counterparts. Sun elves are the primary practitioners of elven High Magic, and are among the greatest magic-users of Toril, both arcane and divine. In 4th edition, sun elves are eladrin.
Wild Elves or Green Elves (Sy-Tel'Quessir) The most reclusive of all the elves, the wild elves pride themselves on their isolation and skill at keeping hidden. Their skin tends to be brown and they have similar colored hair which lightens with age. In 4th edition, wild elves are simply called elves, distinguishing them from the eladrin.
Wood Elves, Copper Elves, or Sylvan Elves (Or-Tel'Quessir) Wood elves are a reclusive subrace, preferring to live in such areas as the High Forest. They place more emphasis on strength than learning. Wood elves are considered by other elven subraces (particularly the austere sun elves) to be boisterous and hedonistic. They have a zest for life and pleasure. According to Races of Faerûn (which was published in March 2003 and only mentions aquatic elves, avariel, drow, lythari, moon elves, sun elves, wood elves, and wild elves), wood elves are the only elven subrace that is native to Toril. They slowly formed for centuries from some of the other elven subraces after the last Crown War. They see their realms as the natural successors to past nations such as Eaerlann and Cormanthyr. In 4th edition, wood elves are simply called elves, distinguishing them from the eladrin.
Vil Adanrath Lythari that have been separated and live in the Endless Wastes.
Eberron
Once the slaves of the giants of Xen'drik, the elves of Eberron are said to have immigrated over time to the continents of Aerenal and Khorvaire, establishing nations and distinct cultures on both. Most notable are the elves of Aerenal, whose culture revolves around the veneration of the Undying Court.
Dark Sun
In the post-apocalyptic setting of Athas, elves are nomadic desert runners rather than the more common image of forest-dwellers.
Athasian elves are portrayed as hostile nomads, marked by savage dispositions and a deep distrust of outsiders. An Athasian elf stands 6½–7½ feet tall. They are slender, lean, and generally in terrific physical condition. Their features are deeply etched into their weather-toughened faces, and their skin is made rough by the windblown sands and baking sun of the wilderness. The dunes and steppes of Athas are home to thousands of tribes of nomadic elves. While each tribe is very different culturally, the elves within them remain a race of long-limbed sprinters given to theft, raiding, and warfare.
The 2nd edition product Mind Lords of the Last Sea introduced a new offshoot of Dark Sun elf. The people of Saragar call them "ghost elves" for their fair complexions, light blonde hair and pale blue eyes. Ghost elves are elitist and xenophobic, and live almost exclusively in the city of Sylvandretta. To maintain a pure bloodline, they have inbred for millennia, resulting in their lighter appearance and halving their lifespan compared to other Athasian elves.
Spelljammer
The elves are the largest political and military presence in space; at the time of the original Spelljammer: AD&D Adventures in Space boxed set, the elves had just completed a remarkably successful extermination of interstellar orcs and goblins throughout the known universe. 5th Edition introduced Astral Elves who are now native to the Astral Sea.
Reception
Classics scholar C. W. Marshall positively remarked on the "wide diversity of genetically unique groups" of elves found in the game, "which can energize fans".
References
Further reading
Baker, Keith. Eberron Campaign Setting. Wizards of the Coast, 2004. .
Cordell, Bruce, Jennifer Clarke-Wilkes, and JD Wiker. Sandstorm (Wizards of the Coast, 2005).
Perry, Chris. "The Seldarine Revisited", Dragon Magazine #236, pages 13–17.
Reynolds, Sean K, et al. Races of Faerûn. Wizards of the Coast, 2003. .
Sargent, Carl. Night Below: An Underdark Campaign (TSR, 1995).
Turley, Kieran. "Ghost Elves: Elves of the Ethereal", Dragon #313 (Paizo Publishing), 2003.
Dungeons & Dragons creatures from folklore and mythology
Dungeons & Dragons humanoids
Dungeons & Dragons monsters
Fictional elves |
4077967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Germany%20during%20World%20War%20I | History of Germany during World War I | During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers. It began participation in the conflict after the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally, Austria-Hungary. German forces fought the Allies on both the eastern and western fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war, except for a brief period in 1914 when East Prussia was invaded. A tight blockade imposed by the Royal Navy caused severe food shortages in the cities, especially in the winter of 1916–17, known as the Turnip Winter. At the end of the war, Germany's defeat and widespread popular discontent triggered the German Revolution of 1918–1919 which overthrew the monarchy and established the Weimar Republic.
Overview
The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions, in a similar way to the populations in other countries of Europe; notions of overt enthusiasm known as the Spirit of 1914 have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The German government, dominated by the Junkers, saw the war as a way to end being surrounded by hostile powers France, Russia and Britain. The war was presented inside Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun," as the Foreign Minister Bernhard von Bülow had put it, which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public. The German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which had been the most vocal critic of the Kaiser in the Reichstag before the war. Despite its membership in the Second International, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort. The German state spent 170 billion Marks during the war. The money was raised by borrowing from banks and from public bond drives. Symbolic purchasing of nails which were driving into public wooden crosses spurred the aristocracy and middle class to buy bonds. These bonds became worthless with the 1923 hyperinflation.
It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials, which were stopped by the British blockade of Germany. First food prices were limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called Schweinemord, both to produce food and to preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called the "turnip winter" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal food, including vile-tasting turnips. From August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths compared to peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians.
Government
According to biographer Konrad H. Jarausch, a primary concern for Bethmann Hollweg in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back Vienna in a local small-scale war against Serbia, while risking a major war with Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. It failed when Russia decided on general mobilization, and his own Army demanded the opportunity to use the Schlieffen Plan for quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, Germany expanded the war to include England. Bethmann thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict.
The crisis came to a head on 5 July 1914 when the Count Hoyos Mission arrived in Berlin in response to Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Leopold Berchtold's plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when Raymond Poincaré himself was preparing a secret mission to St Petersburg. He wrote to Count Sergey Sazonov, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented."
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, Bethmann Hollweg and his foreign minister, Gottlieb von Jagow, were instrumental in assuring Austria-Hungary of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of Austria's actions against Serbia. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter: "Also, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear from my colleagues that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy.
When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II ended his vacation and hurried back to Berlin.
Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by Britain's declaration of war following the German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of France. He reportedly asked the departing British Ambassador Edward Goschen how Britain could go to war over a "scrap of paper" ("ein Fetzen Papier), which was the 1839 Treaty of London guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality.
Bethmann Hollweg sought public approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according to historian Fritz Fischer, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the ethnic cleansing of Poles from the Polish Border Strip as well as Germanisation of Polish territories by settlement of German colonists.
A few weeks after the war began Bethmann presented the Septemberprogramm, which was a survey of ideas from the elite should Germany win the war. Bethmann Hollweg, with all credibility and power now lost, conspired over Falkenhayn's head with Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff (respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the Eastern Front) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President Woodrow Wilson's mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted as a result of Henning von Holtzendorff's memorandum. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917.
According to Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy and secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support.
Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, when a Reichstag revolt resulted in the passage of Matthias Erzberger's Peace Resolution by an alliance of the Social Democratic, Progressive, and Centre parties. That same July the strong opposition to him from high-level military leaders – including Hindenburg and Ludendorff who both threatened to resign – was exacerbated when Bethmann Hollweg convinced the Emperor to agree publicly to the introduction of equal manhood suffrage in Prussian state elections. The combination of political and military opposition forced Bethmann Hollweg's resignation and replacement by a relatively unknown figure, Georg Michaelis.
1914–15
The German army opened the war on the Western Front with a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. The Belgians fought back, and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans. The Germans did not expect this and were delayed, and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians, killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants, including women and children, and burning 25,000 houses and buildings. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14–24 August). By 12 September, the French with assistance from the British forces halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the Battle of Mulhouse had limited success.
In the east, only one Field Army defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the German General Staff. The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory.
1916
1916 was characterized by two great battles on the Western front, at Verdun and the Somme. They each lasted most of the year, achieved minimal gains, and drained away the best soldiers of both sides. Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons, with 280,000 German casualties, and 315,000 French. At the Somme, there were over 400,000 German casualties, against over 600,000 Allied casualties. At Verdun, the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride. The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously. German woes were also compounded by Russia's grand "Brusilov offensive", which diverted more soldiers and resources. Although the Eastern front was held to a standoff and Germany suffered fewer casualties than their allies with ~150,000 of the ~770,000 Central powers casualties, the simultaneous Verdun offensive stretched the German forces committed to the Somme offensive. German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme. Some say it was a standoff, but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost, along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence.
1917
In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left-wing which had been organising as the Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft (SAG, "Social Democratic Working Group"). On 17 January they expelled them, and in April 1917 the left-wing went on to form the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (). The remaining faction was then known as the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany. This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties, the dwindling supply of manpower, the mounting difficulties on the homefront, and the never-ending flow of casualty reports. A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. The only highlight was the first use of mustard gas in warfare, in the Battle of Ypres.
After, morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for what General Erich Ludendorff said would be the "Peace Offensive" in the west.
1918
In spring 1918, Germany realized that time was running out. It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics, hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle. General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg had full control of the army, they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front, and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy's command and communications centers. The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western front, but the German army was too optimistic.
During the winter of 1917-18 it was "quiet" on the Western Front—British casualties averaged "only" 3,000 a week. Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel-thick mud. Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front, selected elite storm troops, and trained them all winter in the new tactics. With stopwatch timing, the German artillery would lay down a sudden, fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry. Moving in small units, firing light machine guns, the stormtroopers would bypass enemy strongpoints, and head directly for critical bridges, command posts, supply dumps and, above all, artillery batteries. By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour. By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy's firepower. Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed. The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders, who would flee in panic. In one instance an easy-going Allied regiment broke and fled; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles. The panicky men seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat. The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility, but not increased firepower. Eventually—in 1939 and 1940—the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks, but in 1918 the Germans lacked both.
Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918, instead of the French. He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics. The exhausted, dispirited French perhaps might have folded. The German assaults on the British were ferocious—the largest of the entire war. At the Somme River in March, 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog. No matter, the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders. The British lost 270,000 men, fell back 40 miles, and then held. They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics: fall back, abandon the trenches, let the attackers overextend themselves, and then counterattack. They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will. In April Ludendorff hit the British again, inflicting 305,000 casualties—but he lacked the reserves to follow up. Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July, inflicting a million British and French casualties. The Western Front now had opened up—the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself. The Allies held. The Germans suffered twice as many casualties as they inflicted, including most of their precious stormtroopers. The new German replacements were under-aged youth or embittered middle-aged family men in poor condition. They were not inspired by the elan of 1914, nor thrilled with battle—they hated it, and some began talking of revolution. Ludendorff could not replace his losses, nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. The British likewise were bringing in reinforcements from the whole Empire, but since their home front was in good condition, and since they could see inevitable victory, their morale was higher. The great German spring offensive was a race against time, for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh young men who would eventually arrive on the Western Front.
The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides. Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had, and still had not conquered much territory. The British likewise were bringing in youths of 18 and unfit and middle-aged men, but they could see the Americans arriving steadily. The French had also nearly exhausted their manpower. Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their men and equipment—but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner, as they left their heavy equipment behind, and relied on British and French artillery, tanks, airplanes, trucks and equipment. Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat, undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting. They soon realized their mistake. The Germans reported that "The qualities of the [Americans] individually may be described as remarkable. They are physically well set up, their attitude is good... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries. The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance."
By September 1918, the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting, the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day, the British Empire was mobilised for war peaking at 4.5 million men and 4,000 tanks on the Western Front. The decisive Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918—what Ludendorff called the "Black Day of the German army." The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered.
Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended, the generals, the civilian leadership—and indeed the soldiers and the people—knew all was hopeless. They started looking for scapegoats. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated revolution throughout Germany. By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered, the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated, and the German Empire had been replaced by the Weimar Republic.
Home front
War fever
The "spirit of 1914" was the overwhelming, enthusiastic support of all elements of the population for war in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, with all the Socialists but one (Karl Liebknecht) joining in. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted the short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time. Industry in late 1914 was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the Hindenburg Program called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.
According to historian William H. MacNeil:
By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort.
Economy
Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort, and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made. Germany had to improvise rapidly. All major political sectors initially supported the war, including the Socialists.
Early in the war industrialist Walter Rathenau held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry, while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father's death in 1915. Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department (Kriegsrohstoffabteilung - 'KRA'); he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures. His senior staff were on loan from industry. KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the British blockade, as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France. It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries. It began the development of ersatz raw materials. KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce, industry, and the government.
While the KRA handled critical raw materials, the crisis over food supplies grew worse. The mobilization of so many farmers and horses, and the shortages of fertilizer, steadily reduced the food supply. Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms, and many women and elderly men took on work roles. Supplies that had once come in from Russia and Austria were cut off.
The concept of "total war" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, "the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated." However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 and 1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program.
Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade that cut off imports from abroad. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter," because that hardly-edible vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.
The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using ersatz materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water. All the cities reduced tram services, cut back on street lighting, and closed down theaters and cabarets.
The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread, it was harder and harder to buy meat. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1916–17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations. Early in the war bread rationing was introduced, and the system worked fairly well, albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918. White bread used imported flour and became unavailable, but there was enough rye or rye-potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians.
German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, and increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently crippled; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches.
Defeat and revolt
Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the United States into the war in April 1917, which tipped the long-run balance of power even more to the Allies.
The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–19. Civilian dock workers led a revolt and convinced many sailors to join them; the revolt quickly spread to other cities. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government.
In November 1918, with internal revolution, a stalemated war, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire suing for peace, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, and pressure from the German high command, the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November 1918; in practice it was a surrender, and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand in negotiations. The now defunct German Empire was succeeded by the Weimar Republic.
7 million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized, and they became a conservative voice that drowned out the radical left in cities such as Kiel and Berlin. The radicals formed the Spartakusbund and later the Communist Party of Germany.
Due to German military forces still occupying portions of France on the day of the armistice, various nationalist groups and those angered by the defeat in the war shifted blame to civilians; accusing them of betraying the army and surrendering. This contributed to the "Stab-in-the-back myth" that dominated German politics in the 1920s and created a distrust of democracy and the Weimar government.
War deaths
Out of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.
The Allied blockade continued until July 1919, causing severe additional hardships.
Soldiers' experiences
Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine, in the air and at sea as well as on land, individual German and soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt. Some examples from letters homework :
"A terrible picture presented itself to me. A French and a General soldier on their knees were leaning against each other. They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground...Courage, heroism, does it really exist? I am about to doubt it, since I haven't seen anything else than fear, anxiety , and despair in every face during the battle. There was nothing at all like courage, bravery, or the like. In reality, there is nothing else than texting discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward" Dominik Richert, 1914.
"Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire. They bring us bread, wine, sardines etc., we bring them schnapps. The masters make war, they have a quarrel, and the workers, the little men...have to stand there fighting against each other. Is that not a great stupidity?...If this were to be decided according to the number of votes, we would have been long home by now" Hermann Baur, 1915.
"I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway, maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality.....There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home. The people who still support the war haven't got a clue about anything...If I stay alive, I will make these things public...We all want peace...What is the point of conquering half of the world, when we have to sacrifice all our strength?..You out there, just champion peace! … We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom. Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again," Anonymous Bavarian soldier, 17 October 1914.
See also
German entry into World War I
History of Germany
History of German foreign policy
Home front during World War I
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Central Powers
Notes
Further reading
Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I (2014), excerpt
Military
Chickering, Roger, et al. eds. Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute) (2000). . 584 pgs.
Cowin, Hugh W. German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower (2000). Osprey Pub Co. . 96 pgs.
Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. A History of the Great War: 1914-1918 (1935) ch 15-29 online free
Herwig, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918 (1996), mostly military
Horne, John, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012)
Karau, Mark D. Germany's Defeat in the First World War: The Lost Battles and Reckless Gambles That Brought Down the Second Reich (ABC-CLIO, 2015) scholarly analysis. excerpt
Kitchen, Martin. The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918 (London: Croom Helm, 1976)
Morrow, John. German Air Power in World War I (U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences.
Home front
Allen, Keith. "Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914– 1923," Journal of Social History (1998), 32#2, pp. 371–96.
Armeson, Robert. Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1964)
Bailey, S. "The Berlin Strike of 1918," Central European History (1980), 13#2, pp. 158–74.
Bell, Archibald. A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918 (London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1937)
Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War I (2005) . Covers France, UK, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands
Burchardt, Lothar. "The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars," in The German Military in the Age of Total War, edited by Wilhelm Deist, 40–70. Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985.
Chickering, Roger. Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (1998), wide-ranging survey
Daniel, Ute. The War from Within: German Working-Class Women in the First World War (1997)
Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany, edited by Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee, (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 221–53.
Davis, Belinda J. Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (2000) online edition
Dobson, Sean. Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920 (2000).
Domansky, Elisabeth. "Militarization and Reproduction in World War I Germany," in Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870–1930, edited by Geoff Eley, (University of Michigan Press, 1996), pp. 427–64.
Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution," Social History, Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358
Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916," Armed Forces & Society (1976), 3#1, pp. 121–145. online
Feldman, Gerald. Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914–1918 (1966)
Ferguson, Niall The Pity of War (1999), cultural and economic themes, worldwide
Hardach, Gerd. The First World War 1914-1918 (1977), economics
Herwig, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918 (1996), one third on the homefront
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Moeller, Robert G. German Peasants and Agrarian Politics, 1914–1924: The Rhineland and Westphalia (1986). online edition
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External links
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Articles relating to Germany at 1914-1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War
Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Germany
Fehlemann, Silke: Bereavement and Mourning (Germany)
Bruendel, Steffen: Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany)
Davis, Belinda: Food and Nutrition (Germany)
Oppelland, Torsten: Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany)
Stibbe, Matthew: Women's Mobilisation for War (Germany)
Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von: Making Sense of the War (Germany)
Ullmann, Hans-Peter: Organization of War Economies (Germany)
Gross, Stephen: War Finance (Germany)
Altenhöner, Florian: Press/Journalism (Germany)
Ther, Vanessa: Propaganda at Home (Germany)
Pöhlmann, Markus: Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany)
Löffelbein, Nils: War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany)
Whalen, Robert Weldon: War Losses (Germany)
Germany and the First World War article index at Spartacus Educational
Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916 From the Collections at the Library of Congress
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4078100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism%20therapies | Autism therapies | Autism therapies include a wide variety of therapies that help people with autism, or their families. Such methods of therapy seek to aid autistic people in dealing with difficulties and increase their functional independence.
Many therapies marketed towards autistic people and/or their parents claim outcomes that have not been supported by Level of Research (LOE) Level 1 (highest level assigned based on the methodological quality of their design, validity, and applicability to patient care). Level 1 research includes evidence from a systematic review or meta-analysis of all relevant RCTs (randomized controlled trial) or evidence-based clinical practice guidelines based on systematic reviews of RCTs or three or more RCTs of good quality that have similar results.
Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by differences in reciprocal social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive interests, behaviors, or activities. As of 2023, no therapy exists to eliminate autism within someone, let alone to a high degree of viability. Treatment is typically catered to the person's needs. Treatments fall into two major categories: educational interventions and medical management. Training and support are also given to families of those diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs).
Studies of interventions have some methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the systematic reviews have reported that the quality of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children with ASD acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often can improve functioning, and decrease severity of the signs and observed behaviors thought of as maladaptive; Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Occupational therapists work with autistic children by creating interventions that promote social interaction like sharing and cooperation. They also support the autistic child by helping them work through a dilemma as the OT imitates the child and waiting for a response from the child. Educational interventions have some effectiveness in children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children, and is well established for improving intellectual performance of young children. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. The limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.
Historically, "conventional" pharmacotherapy has been used to reduce reduce behaviors and sensitivities associated with ASD. Many such treatments have been prescribed off-label in order to target specific symptoms.
Today, medications are primarily prescribed to autistic adults to avoid any adverse effects in the developing brains of children. Therapy treatments, like behavioural or immersive therapies, are gaining popularity in the treatment plans of autistic children.
Depending on symptomology, one or multiple psychotropic medications may be prescribed. Namely antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and antipsychotics.
As of 2008 the treatments prescribed to children with ASD were expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a U.S. study estimated an average discounted lifetime cost of $ ( dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate), with about 10% medical care, 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity. A UK study estimated discounted lifetime costs at £ and £ for an autistic person with and without intellectual disability, respectively ( pounds, inflation-adjusted from 2005/06 estimate). Legal rights to treatment are complex, vary with location and age, and require advocacy by caregivers. Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems; one 2008 U.S. study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD, and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that child care problems will greatly affect parental employment. After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and estate planning.
Educational interventions
Educational interventions attempt to help children not only to learn academic subjects and gain traditional readiness skills, but also to improve functional communication and spontaneity, enhance social skills such as joint attention, develop cognitive skills such as symbolic play, reduce disruptive behavior, and generalize learned skills by applying them to new situations. Several program models have been developed, which in practice often overlap and share many features, including:
early intervention that is not dependent upon a definitive diagnosis;
intense intervention, at least 25 hours per week, 12 months per year;
low student/teacher ratio;
family involvement, including training of parents;
interaction with neurotypical peers;
social stories, ABA and other visually based training;
structure that includes predictable routine and clear physical boundaries to lessen distraction; and
ongoing measurement of a systematically planned intervention, resulting in adjustments as needed.
Several educational intervention methods are available, as discussed below. They can take place at home, at school, or at a center devoted to autism treatment; they can be implemented by parents, teachers, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists. A 2007 study found that augmenting a center-based program with weekly home visits by a special education teacher improved cognitive development and behavior.
Studies of interventions have methodological flaws that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Concerns about outcome measures, such as their inconsistent use, most greatly affect how the results of scientific studies are interpreted. A 2009 Minnesota study found that parents follow behavioral treatment recommendations significantly less often than they follow medical recommendations, and that they adhere more often to reinforcement than to punishment recommendations. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.
National education policies
U.S.
In the United States, there have been three major policies addressing special education in the United States. These policies were the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1997, and the No Child Left Behind in 2001. The development of those policies showed increased guidelines for special education and requirements; such as requiring states to fund special education, equality of opportunities, help with transitions after secondary schooling, requiring extra qualifications for special education teachers, and creating a more specific class setting for those with disabilities. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, specifically had a large impact on special education as public schools were then required to employ high qualified staff. In 2009, for one to be a Certified Autism Specialist the requirements included: a master's degree, two years of career experience working with the autism population, earn 14 continuing education hours in autism every two years, and register with the International Institute of Education.
Perceived disadvantages of autistic people in the U.S. in the 2010s
Martha Nussbaum discusses how education is one of the fertile functions that is important for the development of a person and their ability to achieve a multitude of other capabilities within society. Autism causes many symptoms that interfere with a child's ability to receive a proper education such as deficits in imitation, observational learning, and receptive and expressive communication. As of 2014, of all disabilities affecting the population, autism ranked third lowest in acceptance into a postsecondary education institution. In a 2012 study funded by the National Institute of Health, Shattuck et al. found that only 35% of autistics are enrolled in a 2 or 4 year college within the first two years after leaving high school compared to 40% of children who have a learning disability. Due to the growing need for a college education to obtain a job, this statistic shows how autistics are at a disadvantage in gaining many of the capabilities that Nussbaum discusses and makes education more than just a type of therapy for those with autism. According to the 2012 study by Shattuck, only 55% of children with autism participated in any paid employment within the first two years after high school. Furthermore, those with autism that come from low income families tend to have lower success in postsecondary schooling.
Oftentimes, schools lacked the resources to create (what at the time was considered) an optimal classroom setting for those 'in need of special education'. In 2014 in the United States, it could cost between $6,595 to $10,421 extra to educate a child with autism. In the 2011–2012 school year, the average cost of education for a public school student was $12,401. In 2015, some cases, the extra cost required to educate a child with autism nearly doubled the average cost to educate the average public school student. As the abilities of autistic people varies highly, it is highly challenging to create a standardized curriculum that will fit all autistic learning needs. In the United States, in 2014 many school districts required schools to meet the needs of disabled students, regardless of the number of children with disabilities there are in the school. This combined with a shortage of licensed special education teachers has created a deficiency in the special education system. in 2011 the shortage caused some states to give temporary special education licenses to teachers with the caveat that they receive a license within a few years.
Mexico
In 1993, Mexico passed an education law that called for the inclusion of those with disabilities. This law was very important for Mexico education, however, there have been issues in implementing it due to a lack of resources.
United Nations and internationally
There have also been multiple international groups that have issued reports addressing issues in special education. The United Nations on "International Norms and Standards relating to Disability" in 1998. This report cites multiple conventions, statements, declarations, and other reports such as: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, The Salamanca Statement, the Sundberg Declaration, the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, and many others. One main point that the report emphasizes is the necessity for education to be a human right. The report also states that the "quality of education should be equal to that of persons without disabilities." The other main points brought up by the report discuss integrated education, special education classes as supplementary, teacher training, and equality for vocational education. The United Nations also releases a report by the Special Rapporteur that has a focus on persons with disabilities. In 2015, a report titled "Report of the Special Rapporteur to the 52nd Session of the Commission for Social Development: Note by the Secretary-General on Monitoring of the implementation of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities" was released. This report focused on looking at how the many countries involved, with a focus on Africa, have handled policy regarding persons with disabilities. In this discussion, the author also focuses on the importance of education for persons with disabilities as well as policies that could help improve the education system such as a move towards a more inclusive approach. The World Health Organization has also published a report addressing people with disabilities and within this there is a discussion on education in their "World Report on Disability" in 2011. Other organizations that have issued reports discussing the topic are UNESCO, UNICEF, and the World Bank.
Applied behavior analysis
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the applied research field of the science of behavior analysis, and it underpins a wide range of techniques used to treat autism and many other behaviors and diagnoses, including those who are patients in rehab or in whom a behavior change is desired. ABA-based interventions focus on teaching tasks one-on-one using the behaviorist principles of stimulus, response and reward, and on reliable measurement and objective evaluation of observed behavior. There is wide variation in the professional practice of behavior analysis and among the assessments and interventions used in school-based ABA programs. Conversely, various major figures within the autism community have written biographies detailing the harm caused by the provision of ABA, including restraint, sometimes used with mild self stimulatory behaviors such as hand flapping, and verbal abuse. Punishment procedures are very rarely used within the field today; these procedures were once used in the 70s and 80s however now there are ethical guidelines in place to prohibit the use.
The use of technology has begun to be implemented in ABA therapy for the treatment of autism. Robots, gamification, image processing, story boards, augmented reality, and web systems have been shown to be useful in the treatment of autism. These technologies are used to teach children with autism skill acquisition. The web programs were designed to address skills such as attention, social behavior, communication, and/or reading.
ABA has faced a great deal of criticism over the years. Recently, studies have shown that ABA may be abusive and can increase PTSD symptoms in patients. The Autistic Self Advocacy Network campaigns against the use of ABA in autism.
Discrete trial training
Many intensive behavioral interventions rely heavily on discrete trial teaching (DTT) methods, which use stimulus-response-reward techniques to teach foundational skills such as attention, compliance, and imitation. However, children have problems using DTT-taught skills in natural environments. These students are also taught with naturalistic teaching procedures to help generalize these skills. In functional assessment, a common technique, a teacher formulates a clear description of a problem behavior, identifies antecedents, consequences, and other environmental factors that influence and maintain the behavior, develops hypotheses about what occasions and maintains the behavior, and collects observations to support the hypotheses. A few more-comprehensive ABA programs use multiple assessment and intervention methods individually and dynamically.
ABA-based techniques have demonstrated effectiveness in several controlled studies: children have been shown to make sustained gains in academic performance, adaptive behavior, and language, with outcomes significantly better than control groups. A 2009 review of educational interventions for children, whose mean age was six years or less at intake, found that the higher-quality studies all assessed ABA, that ABA is well-established and no other educational treatment is considered probably efficacious, and that intensive ABA treatment, carried out by trained therapists, is demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children. These gains maybe complicated by initial IQ. A 2008 evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches found that ABA is well established for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD. A 2009 comprehensive synthesis of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), a form of ABA treatment, found that EIBI produces strong effects, suggesting that it can be effective for some children with autism; it also found that the large effects might be an artifact of comparison groups with treatments that have yet to be empirically validated, and that no comparisons between EIBI and other widely recognized treatment programs have been published. A 2009 systematic review came to the same principal conclusion that EIBI is effective for some but not all children, with wide variability in response to treatment; it also suggested that any gains are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention. A 2009 meta-analysis concluded that EIBI has a large effect on full-scale intelligence and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior. However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior. ABA is cost effective for administrators.
Recently, behavior analysts have built comprehensive models of child development (see Behavior analysis of child development) to generate models for prevention as well as treatment for autism.
Pivotal response training
Pivotal response treatment (PRT) is a naturalistic intervention derived from ABA principles. Instead of individual behaviors, it targets pivotal areas of a child's development, such as motivation, responsivity to multiple cues, self-management, and social initiations; it aims for widespread improvements in areas that are not specifically targeted. The child determines activities and objects that will be used in a PRT exchange. Intended attempts at the target behavior are rewarded with a natural reinforcer: for example, if a child attempts a request for a stuffed animal, the child receives the animal, not a piece of candy or other unrelated reinforcer.
Communication interventions
The inability to communicate, verbally or non-verbally, is a core deficit in autism. Children with autism are often engaged in repetitive activity or other behaviors because they cannot convey their intent any other way. They do not know how to communicate their ideas to caregivers or others. Helping a child with autism learn to communicate their needs and ideas is absolutely core to any intervention. Communication can either be verbal or non-verbal. Children with autism require intensive intervention to learn how to communicate their intent.
Communication interventions fall into two major categories. First, many autistic children do not speak, or have little speech, or have difficulties in effective use of language. Social skills have been shown to be effective in treating children with autism. Interventions that attempt to improve communication are commonly conducted by speech and language therapists, and work on joint attention, communicative intent, and alternative or augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) methods such as visual methods, for example visual schedules. AAC methods do not appear to impede speech and may result in modest gains. A 2006 study reported benefits both for joint attention intervention and for symbolic play intervention, and a 2007 study found that joint attention intervention is more likely than symbolic play intervention to cause children to engage later in shared interactions.
Second, social skills treatment attempts to increase social and communicative skills of autistic individuals, addressing a core deficit of autism. A wide range of intervention approaches is available, including modeling and reinforcement, adult and peer mediation strategies, peer tutoring, social games and stories, self-management, pivotal response therapy, video modeling, direct instruction, visual cuing, Circle of Friends and social-skills groups. A 2007 meta-analysis of 55 studies of school-based social skills intervention found that they were minimally effective for children and adolescents with ASD, and a 2007 review found that social skills training has minimal empirical support for children with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism.
SCERTS
The SCERTS model is an educational model for working with children with ASD. It was designed to help families, educators and therapists work cooperatively together to maximize progress in supporting the child.
The acronym refers to the focus on:
SC – social communication – the development of functional communication and emotional expression.
ER – emotional regulation – the development of well-regulated emotions and ability to cope with stress.
TS – transactional support – the implementation of supports to help families, educators and therapists respond to children's needs, adapt the environment and provide tools to enhance learning.
Relationship based, developmental models
Relationship based models give importance to the relationships that help children reach and master early developmental milestones. These are often missed or not mastered in children with ASD. Examples of these early milestones are engagement and interest in the world, intimacy with a caregiver, intentionality of action.
Relationship Development Intervention
Relationship development intervention is a family-based treatment program for children with ASD. This program is based on the belief that the development of dynamic intelligence (the ability to think flexibly, take different perspectives, cope with change and process information simultaneously) is key to improving the quality of life of children with autism.
Son-Rise
Son-Rise is a home-based program that emphasizes on implementing a color- and sensory-free playroom. Before implementing the home-based program, an institute trains the parents how to accept their child without judgment through a series of dialogue sessions. Like Floortime, parents join their child's ritualistic behavior for relationship-building. To gain the child's "willing engagement", the facilitator continues to join them only this time through parallel play. Proponents claim that children will become non-autistic after parents accept them for who they are and engage them in play. The program was started by the parents of Raun Kaufman, who is claimed to have gone from being autistic to normal via the treatment in the early 1970s. A stated goal of the program is to increase eye contact. In a 2017 qualitative study it was found that autistic people have reported to find eye contact distressing. No independent study has tested the efficacy of the program, but a 2003 study found that involvement with the program led to more drawbacks than benefits for the involved families over time, and a 2006 study found that the program is not always implemented as it is typically described in the literature, which suggests it will be difficult to evaluate its efficacy.
TEACCH
Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH), which has come to be called "structured teaching", emphasises structure by using organized physical environments, predictably sequenced activities, visual schedules and visually structured activities, and structured work/activity systems where each child can practice various tasks. Parents are taught to implement the treatment at home. A 1998 controlled trial found that children treated with a TEACCH-based home program improved significantly more than a control group. A 2013 meta-analysis compiling all the clinical trials of TEACCH indicated that it has small or no effects on perceptual, motor, verbal, cognitive, and motor functioning, communication skills, and activities of daily living. There were positive effects in social and maladaptive behavior, but these required further replication due to the methodological limitations of the pool of studies analysed.
Sensory integration
Unusual responses to sensory stimuli are more common and prominent in children with autism, although there is not good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Several therapies have been developed to treat sensory processing disorder (SPD). Some of these treatments (for example, sensorimotor handling) have a questionable rationale and have no empirical evidence. Other treatments have been studied, with small positive outcomes, but few conclusions can be drawn due to methodological problems with the studies. These treatments include prism lenses, physical exercise, auditory integration training, and sensory stimulation or inhibition techniques such as "deep pressure"—firm touch pressure applied either manually or via an apparatus such as a hug machine or a pressure garment. Weighted vests, a popular deep-pressure therapy, have only a limited amount of scientific research available, which on balance indicates that the therapy is ineffective. Although replicable treatments have been described and valid outcome measures are known, gaps exist in knowledge related to SPD and therapy. In a 2011 Cochrane review, no evidence was found to support the use of auditory integration training as an ASD treatment method. Because empirical support is limited, systematic evaluation is needed if these interventions are used.
The term multisensory integration in simple terms means the ability to use all of ones senses to accomplish a task. Occupational therapists sometimes prescribe sensory treatments for children with Autism however in general there has been little or no scientific evidence of effectiveness.
Animal-assisted therapy
Old model
Animal-assisted therapy, where an animal such as a dog or a horse becomes a basic part of a person's treatment, was a controversial treatment for some symptoms. A 2007 meta-analysis found that animal-assisted therapy was associated with "a moderate improvement in autism spectrum symptoms". Reviews of published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies found important methodological flaws and concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood.
New model
Modern animal-assisted therapy as relating to autism is not about 'controlling autistic symptoms' but about a natural way to bring about socializing (via bridging the 'double empathy gap') and also for stress reduction. As in a 2020 program: "the remarkable adherence to the therapy program by study participants and the program's clinically relevant effects indicate that AAT with dogs can be used to reduce perceived stress and symptoms of agoraphobia, and to improve social awareness and communication in adults with ASD with normal to high intelligence." In 2021, a study was conducted on this topic, specifically on "autonomic and endocrine activity in adults with autism spectrum disorder" in part for stress reduction, particularly as for autistic people the "downside of social camouflaging is that it is a major source of stress".
Neurofeedback
Neurofeedback attempts to train individuals to regulate their brainwave patterns by letting them observe their brain activity more directly. In its most traditional form, the output of EEG electrodes is fed into a computer that controls a game-like audiovisual display. Neurofeedback has been evaluated 'with positive results for ASD', but studies have lacked random assignment to controls. This research is ongoing as of 2019 though now focused on "improving attention" and "reducing anxiety".
Patterning
Patterning is a set of exercises that attempts to improve the organization of a child's neurologic impairments. It has been used for decades to treat children with several unrelated neurologic disorders, including autism. The method, taught at The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, is based on oversimplified theories and is not supported by carefully designed research studies.
Other methods
There are many simple methods such as priming, prompt delivery, picture schedules, peer tutoring, and cooperative learning, that have been proven to help autistic students to prepare for class and to understand the material better. Priming is done by allowing the students to see the assignment or material before they are shown in class. Prompt delivery consists of giving prompts to the autistic children in order to elicit a response to the academic material. Picture schedules are used to outline the progression of a class and are visual cues to allow autistic children to know when changes in the activity are coming up. This method has proven to be very useful in helping the students follow the activities. Peer tutoring and cooperative learning are ways in which an autistic student and a nondisabled student are paired together in the learning process. This has shown be very effective for "increasing both academic success and social interaction." There are more specific strategies that have been shown to improve an autistic's education, such as LEAP, Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children, and Non-Model-Specific Special Education Programs for preschoolers. LEAP is "an intensive 12-month program that focuses on providing a highly structured and safe environment that helps students to participate in and derive benefit from educational programming" and focuses on children from 5-21 who have a more severe case of autism. The goal of the program is to develop functional independence through academic instruction, vocational/translational curriculum, speech/language services, and other services personalized for each student. While LEAP, TEACCH, and Non-Model Specific Special Education Programs are all different strategies, there has been no evidence that one is more effective than the other.
Environmental enrichment
Environmental enrichment is concerned with how the brain is affected by the stimulation of its information processing provided by its surroundings (including the opportunity to interact socially). Brains in richer, more-stimulating environments, have increased numbers of synapses, and the dendrite arbors upon which they reside are more complex. This effect happens particularly during neurodevelopment, but also to a lesser degree in adulthood. With extra synapses there is also increased synapse activity and so increased size and number of glial energy-support cells. Capillary vasculation also is greater to provide the neurons and glial cells with extra energy. The neuropil (neurons, glial cells, capillaries, combined) expands making the cortex thicker. There may also exist (at least in rodents) more neurons.
Research on nonhuman animals finds that more-stimulating environments could aid the treatment and recovery of a diverse variety of brain-related dysfunctions, including Alzheimer's disease and those connected to aging, whereas a lack of stimulation might impair cognitive development.
Research on humans suggests that lack of stimulation (deprivation—such as in old-style orphanages) delays and impairs cognitive development. Research also finds that higher levels of education (which is both cognitively stimulating in itself, and associates with people engaging in more challenging cognitive activities) results in greater resilience (cognitive reserve) to the effects of aging and dementia.
Massage therapy
A review of massage therapy as a symptomatic treatment of autism found limited evidence of benefit. There were few high quality studies, and due to the risk of bias found in the studies analyzed, no firm conclusions about the efficacy of massage therapy could be drawn.
Music
Music therapy uses the elements of music to let people express their feelings and communicate. A 2014 review (updated in 2022) found that music therapy may help in social interactions and communication.
Music therapy can involve various techniques depending on where the subject is sitting on the ASD scale. Somebody who may be considered as 'low-functioning' would require vastly different treatment to somebody on the ASD scale who is 'high-functioning'. Examples of these types of therapeutic techniques include:
Free improvisation – No boundaries or skills required
Structured improvisation – Some established parameters within the music
Performing or recreating music – Reproducing a pre-composed piece of music or song with associated activities
Composing music – Creating music that caters to the specific needs of that person using instruments or the voice
Listening – Engaging in specific musical listening base exercises
Improvisational Music Therapy (IMT), is increasing in popularity as a therapeutic technique being applied to children with ASD. The process of IMT occurs when the client and therapist make up music, through the use of various instruments, song and movement. The specific needs of each child or client need to be taken into consideration. Some children with ASD find their different environments chaotic and confusing, therefore, IMT sessions require the presence of a certain routine and be predictable in nature, within their interactions and surroundings. Music can provide all of this, it can be very predictable, it is highly repetitious with its melodies and sounds, but easily varied with phrasing, rhythm and dynamics giving it a controlled flexibility. The allowance of parents or caregivers to sessions can put the child at ease and allow for activities to be incorporated into everyday life.
Sensory enrichment therapy
In all interventions for autistic children, the main strategy is to aim towards the improvement on sensitivity in all senses. Autistic children may lack the ability to name or even feel their own emotions. This can also impact relating to other peoples emotions and infering the moods of others. Many autistic children also live with a Sensory Processing Disorder. In sensory-based interventions, there have been signs of progress in children responding with an appropriate response when given a stimulus after being in sensory-based therapies for a period of time. However, at this time, there is no concrete evidence that these therapies are effective for autistic children. Autism spectrum disorder varies from child to child, which can make it challenging for clinicians to assess and know what therapies to apply.
The purpose of these differentiated interventions are to intervene at the neurological level of the brain in hopes to develop appropriate responses to the different sensations from one's body and also to outside stimuli in one's environment. Scientist have used music therapies, massage therapies, occupational therapies and more. With the Autistic Spectrum being so diverse and widespread, each case or scenario is different.
Mindfulness
Emerging evidence for mindfulness-based interventions for improving mental health in adults with autism has support through a recent systematic review. This includes evidence for decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression.
Parent-mediated interventions
Parent-mediated interventions offer support and practical advice to parents of autistic children. A 2013 Cochrane Review found that there was no evidence of gains in most of the primary measures of the studies (e.g., the child's adaptive behaviour), however there was strong evidence for a positive pattern of change in parent-child interactions. There was some uncertain evidence of changes in the child's language and communication. A very small number of randomized and controlled studies suggest that parent training can lead to reduced maternal depression, improved maternal knowledge of autism and communication style, and improved child communicative behavior, but due to the design and number of studies available, definitive evidence of effectiveness is not available.
Early detection of ASD in children can often occur before a child reaches the age of three years old. Methods that target early behavior can influence the quality of life for a child with ASD. Parents can learn methods of interaction and behavior management to best assist their child's development. A 2013 Cochrance review concluded that there were some improvements when parent intervention was used.
Medical management
Drugs, supplements, or diets are often used to alter physiology in an attempt to relieve common autistic symptoms such as seizures, sleep disturbances, irritability, and hyperactivity that can interfere with education or social adaptation or (more rarely) cause autistic individuals to harm themselves or others. There is plenty of anecdotal evidence to support medical treatment; many parents who try one or more therapies report some progress, and there are a few well-publicized reports of children who are able to return to mainstream education after treatment, with dramatic improvements in health and well-being. However, this evidence may be confounded by improvements seen in autistic children who grow up without treatment, by the difficulty of verifying reports of improvements, and by the lack of reporting of treatments' negative outcomes. Only a very few medical treatments are well supported by scientific evidence using controlled experiments.
Medication
Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD. More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. Only the antipsychotics have clearly demonstrated efficacy.
Between the 1950s and 1970s LSD was studied, however, has not been studied in this capacity since.
Research has focused on atypical antipsychotics, especially risperidone, which has the largest amount of evidence that consistently shows improvements in irritability, self-injury, aggression, and tantrums associated with ASD. Risperidone is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating symptomatic irritability in autistic children and adolescents. In short-term trials (up to six months) most adverse events were mild to moderate, with weight gain, drowsiness, and high blood sugar requiring monitoring; long term efficacy and safety have not been fully determined. It is unclear whether risperidone improves autism's core social and communication deficits. The FDA's decision was based in part on a study of autistic children with severe and enduring problems of tantrums, aggression, and self-injury; risperidone is not recommended for autistic children with mild aggression and explosive behavior without an enduring pattern.
Other drugs are prescribed off-label in the U.S., which means they have not been approved for treating ASD. Large placebo-controlled studies of olanzapine and aripiprazole were underway in early 2008. Aripiprazole may be effective for treating autism in the short term, but is also associated with side effects, such as weight gain and sedation.
Some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and dopamine blockers can reduce some maladaptive behaviors associated with ASD. Although SSRIs reduce levels of repetitive behavior in autistic adults, a 2009 multisite randomized controlled study found no benefit and some adverse effects in children from the SSRI citalopram, raising doubts whether SSRIs are effective for treating repetitive behavior in autistic children. A further study of related medical reviews determined that the prescription of SSRI antidepressants for treating ASDs in children lacked any evidence, and could not be recommended.
Reviews of evidence found that the psychostimulant methylphenidate may be efficacious against hyperactivity and possibly impulsivity associated with ASD, although the findings were limited by low quality evidence. There was no evidence that methylphenidate "has a negative impact on the core symptoms of ASD, or that it improves social interaction, stereotypical behaviours, or overall ASD." Of the many medications studied for treatment of aggressive and self-injurious behavior in children and adolescents with autism, only risperidone and methylphenidate demonstrate results that have been replicated.
A 1998 study of the hormone secretin reported improved symptoms and generated tremendous interest, but several controlled studies since have found no benefit. An experimental drug STX107 has stopped overproduction of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 in rodents, and it has been hypothesized that this may help in about 5% of autism cases, but this hypothesis has not been tested in humans.
Oxytocin may play a role in autism and may be a possible treatment for repetitive and affiliative behaviors; Two related studies in adults found that oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviors and improved interpretation of emotions, but these preliminary results do not necessarily apply to children. Recent research suggests that oxytocin may decrease the noisiness of the brain's auditory system, increasing perception of social cues and the ability to react in social situations. However, the cues detected may not always be positive: increasing awareness of a trusted adult may be beneficial, but increasing awareness of an aggressor may increase distress. The possibility that oxytocin's effects are context-dependent means that its use as a treatment in ASD should be carefully monitored. According to a 2022 systematic review/network meta-analysis, evidence from large trials didn't show efficacy in children/adolescent for oxytocin and balovaptan (both vasopressin-V1A receptor antagonist), however in adults oxytocin improved repetitive behaviors with small-to-medium effect-sizes and moderate-quality evidence (this result needs to be replicated since participants were mainly high-functioning autistic and age-dependent treatment response isn't excluded). Moreover, according to the same systematic review/network meta-analysis, based on two large studies balovaptan wasn't found efficiacious in adults, but small improvements in quality of life were noted.
Aside from antipsychotics, there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. Results of the handful of randomized controlled trials that have been performed suggest that risperidone, the SSRI fluvoxamine, and the typical antipsychotic haloperidol may be effective in reducing some behaviors, that haloperidol may be more effective than the tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine, and that the opioid antagonist naltrexone hydrochloride is not effective. In small studies, memantine has been shown to significantly improve language function and social behavior in children with autism. Research is underway on the effects of memantine in adults with ASDs. A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications and the medications can have adverse side effects.
Prosthetics
Unlike conventional neuromotor prostheses, neurocognitive prostheses would sense or modulate neural function in order to physically reconstitute cognitive processes such as executive function and language. No neurocognitive prostheses are currently available but the development of implantable neurocognitive brain-computer interfaces has been proposed to help treat conditions such as autism.
Affective computing devices, typically with image or voice recognition capabilities, have been proposed to help autistic individuals improve their social communication skills. These devices are still under development. Robots have also been proposed as educational aids for autistic children.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation, which is a somewhat well established treatment for depression, has been proposed, and used, as a treatment for autism. A review published in 2013 found insufficient evidence to support its widespread use for ASDs. A 2015 review found tentative but insufficient evidence to justify its use outside of clinical studies. New findings show TMS can positively affect gamma brainwave oscillations and help improve performance accuracy.
Alternative medicine
Many alternative therapies and interventions used to be popular in the 1990s and early 2000s, ranging from elimination diets to chelation therapy, though few were supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches lacked empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focused on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Scientific evidence appeared to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests. Back then, it was presumed that even if they did not help, conservative treatments such as changes in diet were "expected to be harmless aside from their bother and cost" except that didn't take into account the mental health toll that attitude would have on the children in question who are now adults speaking out against such practices.
Acupuncture
Acupuncture was studied and has not been found to be 'helpful in treating autism'.
Hyperbaric oxygen
In 2007 further studies were needed in order for practitioners and families to make more conclusive and valid decisions concerning HBOT treatments. One small 2009 double-blind study of autistic children found that 40 hourly treatments of 24% oxygen at 1.3 atmospheres provided significant improvement in the children's behavior immediately after treatment sessions but this study has not been independently confirmed. This spawned a relatively large-scale controlled studies since to investigate HBOT. For example, in 2010 using treatments of 24% oxygen at 1.3 atmospheres, though it found less promising results. A 2010 double-blind study compared HBOT to a placebo treatment in children with autistic disorder. Both direct observational measures of behavioral symptoms and standardized psychological assessments were used to evaluate the treatment. No differences were found between the HBOT group and the placebo group on any of the outcome measures. A second 2011 single-subject design study also investigated the effects of 40 HBOT treatments of 24% oxygen at 1.3 atmospheres on directly observed behaviors using multiple baselines across 16 participants. Again, no consistent outcomes were observed across any group and further, no significant improvements were observed within any individual participant. Together, these studies suggest that HBOT at 24% oxygen at 1.3 atmospheric pressure does not result in a clinically significant improvement of the behavioral symptoms of autistic disorder. Nonetheless, news reports and related blogs indicated that HBOT was used for many cases of children with autism in the 2010s.
When considering the financial and time investments required in order to participate in this treatment and the inconsistency of the present findings, HBOT seems to be a riskier and thus, often less favorable. As of May 2011 HBOT could cost up to $150 per hour with individuals using anywhere from 40 to 120 hours as a part of their integrated treatment programs. In addition, purchasing (at $8,495–27,995) and renting ($1,395 per month) of the HBOT chambers is another option some families use.
As of 2017, "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy provides a higher concentration of oxygen delivered in a chamber or tube containing higher than sea level atmospheric pressure. Case series and randomized controlled trials show no evidence to support the benefit of HBOT for children with ASD. Only 1 randomized controlled trial reported effectiveness of this treatment, and those results have yet to be repeated."
Chiropractic
Chiropractic is an alternative medical practice whose main hypothesis is that mechanical disorders of the spine affect general health via the nervous system, and whose main treatment is spinal manipulation. A significant portion of the profession rejects vaccination, as traditional chiropractic philosophy equates vaccines to poison. Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects, claiming that it is hazardous, ineffective, and unnecessary, and in some cases suggesting that vaccination causes autism or that chiropractors should be the primary contact for treatment of autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Chiropractic treatment has not been shown to be effective for medical conditions other than back pain, and there is insufficient scientific evidence to make conclusions about chiropractic care for autism.
Craniosacral therapy
Craniosacral therapy is an alternative medical practice whose main hypothesis is that restrictions at cranial sutures of the skull affect rhythmic impulses conveyed via cerebrospinal fluid, and that gentle pressure on external areas can improve the flow and balance of the supply of this fluid to the brain, relieving symptoms of many conditions. There is no scientific support for major elements of the underlying model, there is little scientific evidence to support the therapy, and research methods that could conclusively evaluate the therapy's effectiveness have not been applied. No published studies are available on the use of this therapy for autism.
Chelation therapy
Based on the speculation that heavy metal poisoning may trigger the symptoms of autism, particularly in small subsets of individuals who cannot excrete toxins effectively, some parents have turned to alternative medicine practitioners who provide detoxification treatments via chelation therapy. However, evidence to support this practice has been anecdotal and not rigorous. Strong epidemiological evidence refutes links between environmental triggers, in particular thiomersal-containing vaccines, and the onset of autistic symptoms. In 2002 Thiamine tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide (TTFD) was hypothesized to act as a chelating agent in children with autism and a 2002 pilot study administered TTFD rectally to ten autism spectrum children, and seemed to find beneficial clinical effect. This study has not been replicated, and a 2006 review of thiamine by the same author did not mention thiamine's possible effect on autism. There is not sufficient evidence to support the use of thiamine (vitamin B1) to treat autism. Dubious invasive treatments are a much more serious matter: for example, in 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old boy with autism.
No scientific data supports the claim that the mercury in the vaccine preservative thiomersal causes autism or its symptoms, and there is no scientific support for chelation therapy as a treatment for autism.
Diets and dietary supplements
1990s hypotheses
In the early 1990s, it was hypothesized that autism could be caused or aggravated by opioid peptides like casomorphine that are metabolic products of gluten and casein. Based on that hypothesis, diets that eliminate foods containing either gluten or casein, or both, are widely promoted, and many testimonials can be found describing benefits in autism-related symptoms, notably social engagement and verbal skills. Studies supporting those claims had significant flaws, so those data were inadequate to guide treatment recommendations. Vitamin C decreased stereotyped behavior in a small 1993 study. The study had not been replicated as of 2005, and vitamin C had limited popularity as an autism treatment. High doses might cause kidney stones or gastrointestinal upset such as diarrhea.
2000-2014 hypotheses and research
In the early 2000s, many parents gave their children dietary supplements in an attempt to 'treat autism' or to 'alleviate its symptoms'. The range of supplements given was wide and few are supported by scientific data.
In 2005, it was thought that: although some children with autism also have gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that autistic children have more or different GI symptoms than usual; studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between GI problems and ASD is unclear. Atypical eating behavior was thought to occur in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur; at the time it did not appear to result in malnutrition in studies. Other elimination diets were also proposed, targeting salicylates, food dyes, yeast, and simple sugars. No scientific evidence has established the efficacy of such diets in 'treating autism' in children. An elimination diet may create nutritional deficiencies that harm overall health unless care is taken to assure proper nutrition.
In 2006 studies suggested that complementary and alternative medical (CAM) therapy use in children with chronic illnesses is higher than in children in the general population. In a study by Helen H L Wong and Ronald G Smith, they investigated patterns of CAM therapy use in children diagnosed with ASD (n = 50) as compared to a control population of children with no ASD (n = 50). Over half of the parents in the ASD group reported using, or had used at least one CAM therapy for their child (52%) as compared to 28% of the control group (P = 0.024). Seventy percent of therapies used in the ASD group were biologically based therapies consisting of special diets or supplements, and parents felt that 75% of the therapies used were beneficial.
For example, a 2008 study found that autistic boys on casein-free diets had significantly thinner bones than usual, presumably because the diets contribute to calcium and vitamin D deficiencies. A 2009 review found some low-quality evidence to support the use of vitamin B6 in combination with magnesium at high doses, but the evidence was equivocal and the review noted the possible danger of fatal hypermagnesemia. A 2005 Cochrane Review of the evidence for the use of B6 and magnesium found that "[d]ue to the small number of studies, the methodological quality of studies, and small sample sizes, no recommendation can be advanced regarding the use of B6-Mg as a treatment for autism."
Probiotics containing potentially beneficial bacteria were hypothesized to 'relieve some symptoms of autism' by minimizing yeast overgrowth in the colon. The hypothesized yeast overgrowth has not been confirmed by endoscopy, the mechanism connecting yeast overgrowth to autism is only hypothetical, and no clinical trials as of 2005 had been published in the peer-reviewed literature.
Dimethylglycine (DMG) was hypothesized to improve speech and 'reduce autistic behaviors', and was a commonly used supplement. Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies found no statistically significant effect on 'autistic behaviors', and no peer-reviewed studies have addressed treatment with the related compound trimethylglycine.
Melatonin is sometimes used to manage sleep problems. Adverse effects were generally reported to be mild, including drowsiness, headache, dizziness, and nausea; however, an increase in seizure frequency was reported among susceptible children. Several small RCTs indicated that melatonin was effective in treating insomnia in autistic children, but further large studies are needed. A 2013 literature review found 20 studies that reported improvements in sleep parameters as a result of melatonin supplementation, and concluded that "the administration of exogenous melatonin for abnormal sleep parameters in ASD is evidence-based."
Although omega-3 fatty acids, which are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), were 'a popular treatment for children with ASD' in the 2000s and 2010s, there is very little high-quality scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness. Several other supplements were hypothesized 'to relieve autism symptoms', including BDTH2, carnosine, cholesterol, cyproheptadine, D-cycloserine, folic acid, glutathione, metallothionein promoters, other PUFA such as omega-6 fatty acids, tryptophan, tyrosine, thiamine (see Chelation therapy), vitamin B12, and zinc. These lack reliable scientific evidence of efficacy or safety in treatment of autism.
2015–Present research
It is now known that "children with ASD are at risk of having alimentary tract disorders – mainly, they are at a greater risk of general gastrointestinal (GI) concerns, constipation, diarrhea, and abdominal pain" and as succinctly summarized the Mayo Clinic website in 2019, "Yes, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to have more medical issues, including gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms such as abdominal pain, constipation and diarrhea, compared with their peers." Presently, there is not 'a diet for autism' just advice to not ingest things the individual's body seems to reject, for example: gluten if the person happens to have Celiac disease. As of 2021, "there is no clinical evidence for applying specific (e.g., gluten-free or pro-biotic) diets" to the topic of autism.
Electroconvulsive therapy
In 2009 studies indicated that 12–17% of adolescents and young adults with autism satisfy diagnostic criteria for catatonia, which is loss of or hyperactive motor activity. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) have been used to treat cases of catatonia and related conditions in people with autism but as of 2009 no controlled trials had been performed of ECT in autism, and there are serious ethical and legal obstacles to its use.
Stem cell therapy
2007-2012
Mesenchymal stem cells and cord blood CD34+ cells have been proposed to treat autism in 2007 and as of 2012 it was thought they may represent a future treatment. Since immune system deregulation has been implicated in autism, mesenchymal stem cells show the greatest promise as treatment for the disorder. Changes in the innate and adaptive immune system have been observed- those with autism show an imbalance in CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells, as well as in NK cells. In addition, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) overproduce IL-1β. It was theorized that MSC mediated immune suppressive activity could restore this immune imbalance.
Other
Pseudoscience
A number of naturopathic practitioners claim that CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements and 'vaccine detoxing', can help people with autism however no robust evidence is available for this.
Packing
In packing, children were wrapped tightly for up to an hour in wet sheets that have been refrigerated, with only their heads left free. The treatment was repeated several times a week, and could continue for years. It was intended as treatment for autistic children who harm themselves and mostly children who could not speak. Similar envelopment techniques had been used for centuries, such as to calm violent patients in Germany in the 19th century; it was re-popularized in France in the 1960s, based on psychoanalytic theories such as the theory of the refrigerator mother. As of 2007, packing was used in hundreds of French clinics. There was no scientific evidence for the effectiveness of packing in 2007, and there was some concern about risk of adverse health effects. As of 2019: "The main French associations of parents with autistic children succeeded in obtaining the prohibition of packing, announced by the French Secretary of State to the Ministry of Health in April 2016."
Religious abuse as treatment
Exorcism
The Table Talk of Martin Luther contains the story of a twelve-year-old boy who some believe was 'severely autistic'. According to Luther's notetaker Mathesius, Luther thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated.
In 2003, an autistic boy in Wisconsin suffocated during an exorcism by an Evangelical minister in which he was wrapped in sheets.
Ultraorthodox Jewish parents in Israel sometimes used spiritual and mystical interventions such as prayers, blessings, recitations of religious text, amulets, changing the child's name, and exorcism.
Shaming / Other
A 2009 study has suggested that spirituality of mothers with ASDs led to positive outcomes whereas religious activities of mothers were associated with negative outcomes for the child.
Historical outlooks
U.S., U.K., and France
Children in Britain and America would often be put in institutions on the instruction of doctors and the parents told to forget about them, for example, "in Britain, until 1961, almost all doctors regarded these symptoms as part of some general "childhood psychosis" or junior version of schizophrenia". Observer journalist Christopher Stevens, father of an autistic child, reports how a British doctor told him that after a child was admitted to such an institution, usually "nature would take its course" and the child would die due to the prevalence of tuberculosis.
Anti-cure perspective and autism rights movement
The exact cause of autism is unclear, yet some organizations advocate researching a cure. Many self-advocacy autism rights organizations such as the Autistic Self Advocacy Network view autism as a different neurology rather than as a mental disorder, advocate acceptance, and are against ABA as it is seen as trying to force conformity to "neuronormative" society.
Criticisms of most educational, social, and behavioral focused autism therapies as put forth by autistic adults, teachers, and researchers frequently fall into the idea of these programs encouraging or even training behavioral responses directed toward "camouflaging", "passing as non-autistic", or "masking". Recent studies indicate that, among autistic people, burnout and mental health difficulties associated with masking "driven by the stress of masking and living in an unaccommodating neurotypical world" is an issue (which also impacts autistic young people and children). Animal-assisted therapy used to be directed toward symptoms of autism and some studies of the programs are now directed toward burnout.
In 2018 more studies began involving the experiences of autistic adults including their experiences with general practice medicine. Subsequent related studies have focused on communication preferences of autistic adults and the idea of "the 'Autistic Advantage', a strengths-based model".
See also
Autism rights movement
Autism friendly
Effects of equine assisted therapy on autism
Equine therapy on autistic people
Ryan's Law
Special education
References
Further reading
Reviewed in:
This describes a special issue of the journal Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, titled "Treating Autism Spectrum Disorders" (volume 17, issue 4, pages 713–932) and dated October 2008.
External links
"Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)" at Therapist Neurodiversity Collective.
Treatment of autism |
4078753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Mahama | John Mahama | John Dramani Mahama (; born 29 November 1958) is a Ghanaian politician who served as President of Ghana from 24 July 2012 to 7 January 2017. He previously served as Vice President of Ghana from January 2009 to July 2012, and took office as president on 24 July 2012 following the death of his predecessor, John Evans Fiifi Attah Mills.
A member of the National Democratic Congress (NDC), he was Member of Parliament for Bole Bamboi from 1997 to 2009 and served as Deputy Minister for Communication between 1997 and 1998 before becoming the substantive Minister for Communications in 1998. Mahama is the first vice president to take over the presidency from the death of his predecessor, John Evans Atta Mills, and is the first head of state of Ghana to have been born after Ghana's independence. He was elected after December 2012 election to serve as full-time President. He contested re-election for a second term in the 2016 election, but lost to the New Patriotic Party candidate Nana Akufo-Addo, in 2016. This made him the first President in the history of Ghana to not have won a second term.
Early years
A member of the Gonja ethnic group in the Savanna Region of Ghana, Mahama hails from Bole in the Savanna Region. Mahama was born on November 29, 1958 in Damongo, an area in present-day West Gonja District. His father, Emmanuel Adama Mahama, a wealthy rice farmer and teacher, was the first Member of Parliament for the West Gonja constituency and the first Regional Commissioner of the Northern Region during the First Republic under Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah. Mahama's father also served as a senior presidential advisor during Ghana's Third Republic under Hilla Limann who was overthrown in 1981 by Jerry Rawlings.
Mahama had his primary education at the Accra Newtown Experimental School (ANT1) before going to boarding school at Achimota Primary School. He completed secondary school at Ghana Secondary School (Tamale, Northern region). He proceeded to the University of Ghana, Legon, receiving a bachelor's degree in history in 1981 and a postgraduate diploma in communication studies in 1986. As a student, he was a member of Commonwealth Hall (Legon). He also studied at the Institute of Social Sciences in Moscow in the Soviet Union, specializing in social psychology; he obtained a postgraduate degree in 1988.
Early career
After completing his undergraduate education, Mahama taught history at the secondary school level for a few years. Upon his return to Ghana after studying in Moscow, he worked as the Information, Culture and Research Officer at the Embassy of Japan in Accra between 1991 and 1995. From there he moved to the anti-poverty non-governmental organisation (NGO) Plan International's Ghana Country Office, where he worked as International Relations, Sponsorship Communications and Grants Manager between 1995 and 1996. In 1993, he participated in a professional training course for Overseas Public Relations Staff, organized by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tokyo. He also participated in a management development course organized by Plan International (RESA) in Nairobi, Kenya.
Political appointments
As Member of Parliament
Mahama was first elected to the Parliament of Ghana in the 1996 elections to represent the Bole/Bamboi Constituency for a four-year term. In April 1997, Mahama was appointed Deputy Minister of Communications. He was promoted to the post of Minister of Communications in November 1998, serving in that post until January 2001, when the ruling National Democratic Congress (NDC) handed over power to the New Patriotic Party's government.
In 2000, Mahama was re-elected for another four-year term as the Member of Parliament for the Bole/Bamboi Constituency. He was again re-elected in 2004 for a third term. From 2001 to 2004, Mahama served as the Minority Parliamentary Spokesman for Communications. In 2002, he was appointed the Director of Communications for the NDC. That same year, he served as a member of the team of International Observers selected to monitor Zimbabwe's Parliamentary Elections. As an MP, he was a member of Standing Orders Committee as well as the Transport, Industry, Energy, Communications, Science and Technology Committee of Parliament.
As Minister and Vice-President
Mahama served as the Deputy Minister of Communications between April 1997 and November 1998. During his tenure as Minister for Communications, Mahama also served as the Chairman of the National Communications Authority, in which capacity he played a key role in stabilising Ghana's telecommunications sector after it was deregulated in 1997. As a minister, he was a founding member of the Ghana AIDS Commission, a member of the implementation committee of the 2000 National Population Census and a deputy chairman of the Publicity Committee for the re-introduction of the Value Added Tax (VAT).
Continuing to expand his interest and involvement in international affairs, in 2003 Mahama became a member of the Pan-African Parliament, serving as the Chairperson of the West African Caucus until 2011. He was also a member of European and Pan African Parliaments' Ad hoc Committee on Cooperation. In 2005 he was, additionally, appointed the Minority Spokesman for Foreign Affairs. He is a member of the UNDP Advisory Committee on Conflict Resolution in Ghana.
On Wednesday, January 7, 2009, Hon. John Dramani Mahama was sworn into office as the Vice-President of the Republic of Ghana after the demise of John Evan Atta Mills. He also served as the Chairman of the National Economic Management Team, the Armed Forces Council of Ghana, the Decentralisation and Implementation Committee and the Police Council of Ghana in this capacity.
As President
In line with Ghana's constitution, Mahama became President of Ghana on 24 July 2012 on the death of his predecessor, John Atta Mills. In July 2012, he became the Ghana's first president to have served at all levels of political office (Ghanaian and Pan-African MP, Deputy Minister, Minister, vice-president and President). He said in parliament upon being sworn in:
This is the saddest day in our nation's history. Tears have engulfed our nation and we are deeply saddened and distraught and I'm personally devastated, I've lost a father, I've lost a friend, I've lost a mentor and a senior comrade. Ghana is united in grief at this time for our departed president.
As a result of his elevation to the presidency, Mahama made political history by becoming the first Ghanaian head of state to have been born after Ghana's declaration of independence on 6 March 1957. The National Democratic Congress (NDC) held a Special National Delegates Congress on 30 August 2012 and endorsed President John Dramani Mahama as its 2012 presidential candidate. President Mahama, the sole candidate of the party, polled 2, 767 votes, representing 99.5% of total votes cast, to pick the slot for the party. Mahama has stated that his administration is deeply committed to continuing the Better Ghana Agenda started under President Mills.
Mahama won the December 2012 general election with 50.70% of the total valid votes cast and a 3% winning margin beating his nearest rival, Nana Akufo-Addo of the main opposition New Patriotic Party, who polled a close 47.74%. This was just barely enough to win the presidency without the need for a runoff. In addition, Mahama won the majority of valid votes cast in eight out of Ghana's ten administrative regions. Thirteen African Heads of State, one Prime Minister, two vice-presidents and 18 government delegations across the world attended his inaugural ceremony at the Black Star Square in Accra on 7 January 2013, when Mahama was sworn in to begin his own four-year term.
After his investiture, the opposition New Patriotic Party led by its 2012 presidential candidate Nana Akufo-Addo, running mate Mahamudu Bawumia and the party chairman Jacob Otanka Obetsebi-Lamptey, challenged the election results, alleging irregularities, malpractices, omissions and violations. The petition was heard by nine justices of the Supreme Court of Ghana. After eight months of hearing, the Court on 29 August 2013 dismissed the petition by a majority opinion.
Mahama is one of Africa's most-followed leaders on the social networking sites, Twitter and Facebook. In May 2013, he stated that all of West Africa is under the threat of Islamist militancy.
On 30 March 2014, he was elected to preside over ECOWAS. On 26 June 2014, he was elected Chairperson of the African Union's (AU's) High-Level African Trade Committee (HATC).
On 21 January 2016 on the occasion of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Mahama became co-chair of the Sustainable Development Goals Advocates group which consists of 17 eminent persons assisting the UN Secretary-General in the campaign to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that world leaders unanimously adopted in September 2015. With a mandate to support the Secretary-General in his efforts to generate momentum and commitment to achieve the SDGs by 2030, the SDG Advocates have been working to promote the universal sustainable development agenda, to raise awareness of the integrated nature of the SDGs, and to foster the engagement of new stakeholders in the implementation of these Goals.
Mahama sought a second full term at the December 2016 general election. He was eligible for a second full term since he ascended to the presidency with only six months remaining in Mills' term. In Ghana, a vice president who ascends to the presidency is allowed to run for two full terms in his own right if more than half of his predecessor's term has expired. He was defeated by main opposition leader Akufo-Addo in a rematch from four years earlier, and conceded defeat on election night. Mahama polled 44.4% of the valid votes cast compared to Akufo-Addo's 53.5%.
In December 2016, he was part of the ECOWAS mediation team to resolve the post-election political impasse in The Gambia between the defeated incumbent, Yahya Jammeh and declared winner, Adam Barrow.
2020 presidential bid
In February 2019, Mahama was confirmed as the candidate of the opposition National Democratic Congress to contest in the 2020 elections, the incumbent president Nana Akufo-Addo who unseated Mahama in a 2016 election, capitalizing on an economy that was slowing due to falling prices for gold, oil and cocoa exports. He won the National Democratic Congress primaries by securing an overwhelming 213,487 votes representing 95.23 percent of the total valid votes cast with the other six contenders managing with about 4 percent of the votes.
On 4 December 2020, Mahama and incumbent President Nana Akufo-Addo, who he faced both in the 2012 and 2016 Ghanaian presidential elections, signed a peace pact to ensure peace before, during, and after the 7 December elections. Akufo-Addo won the election with 51.6% of the vote.
In August 2021, Mahama began a tour dubbed 'Thank you tour' in Ghana to thank Ghanaians for voting in the 2020 presidential election. He visited Upper West, Upper East, North East, Northern and Savannah regions in the first phase. He met Chiefs and Queens, religious leaders and also interacted with the media.
2024 presidential bid
On Saturday 14 May 2023, John Mahama won and was confirmed during the NDC presidential primary as the candidate of the opposition National Democratic Congress to contest in the 2024 General elections. He polled 297,603 votes representing 98.9% and his closest contender, the former Kumasi Mayor Kojo Bonsu, polled a paltry 3,181 representing 1.1%. A third contestant, Dr Kwabena Duffuor, a former Finance Minister of Finance, pulled out of the race on the eve of the elections on Friday, 12 May 2023 making it a two horse race between John Mahama and Bonsu.
Personal life and interests
Mahama is married to Lordina Mahama (née Effah, 6 March 1963). Mahama has five children named Shafik, Shahid, Sharaf, who formerly played for Rostocker FC as a striker, Jesse and Farida. He is a Christian, born and raised a Presbyterian but is now a member of the Assemblies of God, Ghana by marriage. His family is multi-faith, consisting of Christians and Muslims. Being a staunch campaigner for sustainability, he has a keen interest in environmental affairs, particularly the problem of single-use plastic waste pollution in Africa, which he committed himself to addressing during his tenure as vice president.
Over the course of his career, Mahama has written for several newspapers and other publications both locally and internationally. As a Parliamentarian, Mahama wrote Mahama's Hammer, a semi-regular column in a Ghanaian newspaper. His essays have also been published in the Daily Graphic, Ebony, Huffington Post, the Louisville Courier-Journal, the New York Times and The Root. Additionally, he was a featured speaker at the TEDx Great Pacific Garbage Patch Conference in Santa Monica. Mahama is also a devotee of Afrobeat music, especially that of Fela Kuti. Apart from his hobby of reading, Mahama also has a passionate interest in innovation particularly the use of technology in agriculture being a farmer himself. In particular, he is interested in finding the most effective ways to improve agricultural productivity and works to encourage more young people to see farming as a viable business and not a subsistence activity. This has translated into his passion to see the Savanna Accelerated Development Authority (SADA) create new opportunities for people living in the Savanna areas of the country, which includes the three Northern Regions, and the Volta Region. Even on official assignments outside of country, Mahama likes to take advantage of opportunities to visit agricultural establishments and update himself on current trends and developments. He also takes keen interest in the opportunities for simplifying and making tasks easier with the use of information and communications technology, and considers the ICT industry one of the sectors that can play a significant role in economic transformation and job creation. Mahama is the elder brother of Ghanaian businessman Ibrahim Mahama who owns Dzata Cement.
Books
Mahama's first book, a memoir called My First Coup d'État: Memories from the Lost Decades of Africa, was published by Bloomsbury on 3 July 2012. The most promising son of an affluent government minister, he spent his childhood shuttling in his father's chauffeur-driven cars, from his elite boarding school Achimota School in Accra to his many homes. He recalls in its first chapter the day in 1966 when he learned of the ousting of Ghana's founding president, Kwame Nkrumah, in a military coup: "When I look back on my life it's clear to me that this moment marked the awakening of my consciousness. It changed my life and influenced all the moments that followed."
Corruption allegations
It was revealed in 2016 that Mahama accepted a Ford Expedition from a construction firm bidding for a lucrative government contract in 2012, while he was serving as vice president. The Burkinabe contractor who had previously constructed a wall at the Ghanaian Embassy in Ouagadougou was at the time looking to get a road-building contract in Ghana's Volta region; this contractor later secured the contract but the vehicle in question had already been added to the government's fleet of cars by the ex-president for Government use.
Under Mahama's presidency in 2014, Ghana's Savannah Accelerated Development Authority (SADA) misappropriated millions of dollars allocated to it. SADA paid GH₵32,498,000 to ACICL, a business owned by Ghana's Roland Agambire, Mahama's close confidante, to plant five million trees in the savannah zone, but could only account for about 700,000 trees. It was also discovered that SADA spent GH¢15 million on guinea fowl, but could only account for a few of the birds.
In 2015 it was again discovered that the contract for the rebranding of 116 Metro Mass Transit (MMT) buses at a cost of Gh₵3,600,000 was sole-sourced and awarded to a company named "Smarttys," owned by a member of the ruling NDC activist Selassie Ibrahim. It was revealed that the rebranding of the buses cost the government Gh₵3,600,000 which at the time was more than the cost of the 116 buses, the money lost was eventually refunded through the Attorney General's office.
Honours and awards
Mahama received an honorary doctorate in the field of Public Administration, from the Ekiti State University of Nigeria, formerly affiliated to the Obafemi Awolowo University in "recognition of his politico-socio economic development of Ghana and Africa at various stages of his political career." Later the same university passed a resolution to name its Faculty of Management Science after him.
The Cuban government, recognising Mahama's relentless advocacy for the Cuban cause, namely for the lifting of the 50-year economic embargo on the communist country and for the freedom of the detained Cuban five by the United States government, conferred on him the Friendship Medal. The General Council of Assemblies of God, Ghana honoured Mahama with its Daniel Award. The Graduate School of Governance and Leadership also awarded him the African Servant Leadership Award while the Institute of Public Relations recognized Mahama with a prize for his leadership acumen and technocratic flair. In 2013, the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) conferred on Mahama the Africa Award for Excellence in Food Security and Poverty Reduction. In March 2016, University of Aberdeen held a special convocation to confer an honorary degree of Doctors of Laws (LLD) on President John Mahama.
Mahama has also attended numerous conferences and won many fellowships, including a study as a visiting scholar at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United States. He is also a Bill Gates Fellow. He was awarded the Great Cross of the National Order of Benin, the highest award in Benin, by President Yayi Boni.
In February 2017, Mahama received the 2016 African Political Leader of the Year Award from the African Leadership Magazine in South Africa.
In October 2022, Mahama was honored by Liberty University with a Global Leadership and Economic Impact Award in Virginia, USA. This award was to celebrate him for governing wisely, “advocating and achieving a consistent track record on economic development, women’s participation in education, and enhancing economic growth.”
See also
List of Mills government ministers
List of Mahama government ministers
References
External links
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1958 births
20th-century Ghanaian historians
21st-century Ghanaian historians
Alumni of Achimota School
Communications ministers of Ghana
Former Presbyterians
Ghanaian civil servants
Ghanaian commanders in chief
Ghanaian MPs 1997–2001
Ghanaian MPs 2001–2005
Ghanaian MPs 2005–2009
Ghanaian Pentecostals
Living people
Members of the Pan-African Parliament from Ghana
National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians
People from Northern Region (Ghana)
Presidents of Ghana
University of Ghana alumni
Vice-presidents of Ghana
Government ministers of Ghana
21st-century Ghanaian politicians
Ghana Senior High School (Tamale) alumni
Ghanaian writers
20th-century Ghanaian writers
People from Savannah Region (Ghana) |
4079351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Byrne | Simon Byrne | Simon Byrne (1806 – 2 June 1833), nicknamed "The Emerald Gem", was an Irish bare-knuckle prize fighter. The heavyweight boxing champion of Ireland, he was drawn to England by the larger sums of prize money on offer and his hopes of becoming the heavyweight champion there as well. He became one of only six fighters ever to have been involved in fatal fights as both survivor and deceased since records began in 1741.
Byrne fought in an era when English boxing, although illegal, was patronised by many powerful individuals. Its patronage and popularity did not, however, free it from corruption, heavy betting, and staged fights. Byrne fought eight recorded matches, but accounts of his career focus on the last three, against the Scottish champion Alexander McKay, the English champion Jem Ward, and James Burke for the vacant championship of England. The injuries McKay received in his fight with Byrne resulted in his death the following day, and rioting in his home country of Scotland. Byrne went on to lose his next match against Jem Ward, which some commentators believed he was not sufficiently in condition to fight. His final contest in May 1833 was a gruelling 99 rounds against James Burke that lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes, the longest ever recorded prize fight. Byrne died three days later as the result of damage to his brain caused by the beating he had received.
Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter but was acquitted. Following the death in 1838 of another fighter, William Phelps, also known as Brighton Bill, the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced to more clearly define the rules of prize fighting and to introduce certain safety measures, rules that still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing.
Early 19th-century English boxing
During the first half of the 19th century pugilism, better known as prize-fighting, held a curious position in British society. Although supported by members of the establishment from the royal princes downwards, it was considered illegal under the terms of the Riot Act of 1715, which defined a riot as "a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by three or more persons assembling together, of their own authority, with intent mutually to execute a violent enterprise to the terror of the people".
The boxer George Stevenson had died a few days after his 35-minute fight with the English champion Jack Broughton in 1741, an event that triggered Broughton to draw up a set of rules with the help of some of his patrons to prevent a recurrence. Published on 16 August 1743, Broughton's Rules outlawed hitting or seizing any part of an opponent's body below the waist, or striking him when he was down, but otherwise left much to the discretion of referees. Rounds were not of a fixed length but continued until one of the fighters was knocked or thrown to the ground, after which those in his corner were allowed 30 seconds to return him to the "scratch" – the middle of the ring – failing which his opponent was declared the victor.
The sport enjoyed an unprecedented surge in popularity during the Regency period when it was openly patronised by the Prince Regent (later George IV) and his brothers. Championship boxing matches acquired a louche reputation as the places to be seen by the wealthy upper classes. Thus, a match would often be attended by thousands of people, many of whom had wagered money on the outcome. The Duke of Cumberland (an uncle of King George III) was reported to have bet thousands of pounds on Jack Broughton, who was the English champion for 18 years.
Boxing had become a nest of "gambling related corruption" by the 1820s. The epitome of this era was the championship reign of Jem Ward, a fighter who on one occasion admitted taking £100, equivalent to several thousand pounds today, to lose a contest. By 1830 the sport had become widely known for its corruption, and blatant cheating was commonplace. It was against this background that Simon Byrne earned his living.
Early life
Very little is known of Byrne's early life beyond the fact that he was born in Ireland in 1806. His first fight, in 1825, was a loss to Mike Larking; it lasted 138 rounds spread over two and a half hours—despite the fact that at this time a round could vary in length, and usually only ended when a man was knocked down. His second fight was a draw against Jack Manning in 1826, earning Byrne £100. Next was Byrne's first match against the Scottish boxer Alexander McKay, which Byrne won easily in five rounds, earning him a further £100. This match was McKay's first ever prize-fight. This victory was soon followed by a win against Bob Avery, earning a further £50, then another win over Phil Samson in 1829, earning him £200. By the standards of the day these latter sums were enormous; it is therefore surprising that he was then offered £200 for a rematch, regardless of whether he won or not, against the less experienced McKay, whom he had beaten so easily on the first occasion. As of 2008 that would be the equivalent of about £13,600.
Byrne versus McKay
The fight against Alexander McKay was Byrne's first brush with notoriety. On 2 June 1830, Byrne, billed as "Champion of Ireland", fought McKay, the "Champion of Scotland", for the right to challenge Jem Ward, the heavyweight champion of England. The match had been organized at Tom Spring's "Castle Tavern", in Holborn. The former champion boxer Tom Spring, as treasurer of the "Fair Play Club" – the organization which oversaw boxing – was immensely influential in the boxing world. Along with two other well-known boxers, Gentleman Jackson and Tom Cribb (who also acted as Byrne's manager), he was Byrne's sponsor for the match. Cribb was considered to be one of the greatest fighters of the era; more than 20,000 people attended one of his fights.
Contracts were signed at Spring's tavern and it was arranged for the fight to take place at Hanslope, Buckinghamshire. But as a vast crowd of spectators began pouring into Hanslope the venue was switched at the last minute to Salcey Green, just inside Northamptonshire, thus rendering the Buckinghamshire constables powerless to prevent it.
Despite the publicity and billing this was only McKay's fifth prize-fight. Since his defeat at the hands of Byrne two-and-half years earlier McKay had fought and won just three matches, earning him £180, while Byrne had earned £200. Both men were promised £200 for the match whatever its outcome. McKay had earned £100 for his previous fight against Paul Spencer, the most he had ever received; the promised payment was a huge improvement in his fortunes.
McKay's boxing relied on brute strength rather than scientific pugilistic theory, but the fight still lasted for 47 rounds before McKay collapsed under a left-handed punch to the throat that did not seem particularly powerful. He was carried to his corner where he regained consciousness, complaining of severe headache. He was bled by a surgeon on the scene and taken to a local inn, the Watts Arms, where he died at 9:00 pm the following evening. A post mortem examination found the cause of death to be brain damage. McKay was buried in Hanslope Churchyard with the following inscription on his headstone:
McKay's death attracted widespread publicity and led to rioting in the streets of his homeland. In Dundee, three people died and 200 were injured in the fracas. In Glasgow, four people died, and the Dragoons were called out to quell rioting after a Roman Catholic church was burned and looted (the mob would have assumed Byrne, an Irishman, to be a Roman Catholic). Byrne was arrested three days later on board the ferry to Ireland as he tried to leave the country. He was incarcerated in Buckingham Gaol to await his trial and the prospect of the gallows.
Trial
The trial was held at the Assizes in the small rural market town of Buckingham. More used to the trials of local poachers and sheep thieves, Buckingham had never before seen such a spectacle. The town was inundated with journalists and the merely curious. Byrne was charged with manslaughter. Tom Cribb, Reuben Martin, Thomas Reynolds, and George Cooper were charged with aiding and abetting manslaughter. With such illustrious names as Cribb's, Jackson's and Spring's involved, the trial had the potential to turn into a huge establishment scandal. People of all classes had bet hundreds of pounds on the outcome of the boxing match. Despite being banned, prize fighting enjoyed huge public support and patronage from levels up to the younger male members of the Royal family, some of whom Jackson had taught to box. The support received by Byrne at his trial is testimony to the wealth of his backers. The establishment rallied to his support; Byrne was represented by three barristers and five solicitors, and twelve witnesses journeyed from London to give evidence on his behalf.
The defence produced a witness who claimed to have seen McKay fall and strike his head on some stones several hours before the fight, and the Glasgow Free Press began a rumour that McKay had been drugged by "a sleeping draught" introduced into his water bottle. That the fight was illegal, as was the public assembly of spectators does not seem to have been considered in court. This benign neglect is surprising because as recently as 1825, in the case of Rex v. Billingham, Savage and Skinner, it had been deemed that anyone even attending a fight was guilty of an offence.
At the trial Byrne was described by a Bow Street Runner as a "very human kind man", and McKay as "a very large muscular man – a magnificent man". The jury came to a verdict after only ten minutes of deliberation: "Not guilty". Byrne was once again a free man, but the image of the sport had been damaged. The Times of 5 June 1830 condemned the "barbarous, filthy and swindling exhibitions called prize fights" and expressed the hope that "an example will be made of the more wealthy monsters in this affair of blood – the sanguinary cowards who stood by and saw a fellow creature beaten to death for their sport and gain!"
As the "wealthy monsters" patronising boxing included King George IV (who had asked Gentleman Jackson and the country's leading pugilists to act as pages at his coronation in 1821) and his heir, the Duke of Clarence, The Times's words fell on deaf ears, and the sport continued unabated. The following year a similar legal case occurred when another boxer was killed. However, in this instance less wealthy patrons and illustrious names were involved, and the manager of the convicted boxer, unlike Tom Cribb, was found guilty of abetting manslaughter and sentenced to 14 years transportation.
Byrne versus Ward
Cleared of any responsibility for McKay's death, Byrne collected his £200 prize money, and as the winner earned the right to fight the English heavyweight champion Jem Ward. The fight was originally scheduled to take place at Leicester on 10 March 1829, but at the last minute Ward claimed that he was unfit and too ill to fight, much to the disapproval of his backers and friends. Rumours circulated that Ward had refused to enter the ring unless he received a prize money of £250 plus an additional £250 if he lost; the event became known in some quarters as the Leicester Hoax. Ward did not fight again for two years, but he and Byrne finally met on 12 July 1831 at Willeycott, near Stratford upon Avon. Each fighter was paid £200. Although Ward was the older man he prevailed in the contest after one hour and seventeen minutes, when Byrne's seconds, Tom Spring and Tom Reynolds, withdrew their man in the 33rd round.
An observer commented that Byrne may not have been in the best of condition for the fight, as "his appearance failed to favour the impression that he possessed active vigour"; boxing historian Gilbert Odd describes the fight as "disgraceful". Another commentator noted that "it is a singular fact that neither of the men had a black eye; neither had an external cut worth mentioning".
Byrne versus Burke
Jem Ward announced his retirement from the ring in a letter published in the 29 January edition of Bell's Life in London. He was succeeded as champion of England by James Burke, although some disputed Burke's right to the title as Ward had refused to fight him before retiring. Standing tall, weighing 200 lb (90 kg), and handicapped by deafness, Burke had assumed the championship after defeating Harry Macone in one of the prolonged and brutal fights for which he was known. Ward, who had faced public criticism for his refusal to fight Burke, felt that Byrne was the better fighter and promised to acknowledge the victor of a fight between Burke and Byrne as the new champion. The match took place on 30 May 1833 on Nomansland, a tract of common land between the villages of Sandridge and Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire, for a prize of £100 to each man. To get himself into condition for the fight, Byrne had reduced his weight from to , an effort that "as it was effected by hard work and sweating, somewhat impaired his natural stamina, especially as, his habits being far from abstemious when in Ireland, he was scarcely fitted to undergo the necessary amount of labour". Despite his hard work Byrne looked "fleshy", with "no special show of muscle", compared to Burke's "perfect condition", although he did have a slight height advantage. Burke weighed in at , and started the contest as the marginal favourite at odds of 5–4.
Tom Spring was once again in Byrne's corner, as was Jem Ward. In true Burke style the match lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes, during which time 99 rounds were fought the longest ever recorded prize fight. For the most part Byrne seemed to be in control in the early stages of the fight; in the 30th round he trapped Burke against the ropes and battered him severely around the body before throwing him to the ground. Burke fell on his face, vomiting and throwing up blood, and for the next few rounds Byrne looked the more likely winner. By the 49th round however, Burke had recovered sufficiently to knock Byrne to the ground, whose hands by then were so swollen that he was unable to deliver a finishing blow. By the 93rd round Byrne was "scarcely able to stand, and rolled before the Deaf'un like a ship in a storm". Although both men were utterly exhausted Burke continued to "pepper away at [Byrne's] body and head", until in the 99th round Byrne collapsed unconscious and could not be revived to take his place once again at the scratch. A contemporary newspaper report of the day describes a blow-by-blow account of a fair match.
Byrne was carried to "The Woolpack" inn in nearby St Albans, where he was attended to by Tom Spring. On the evening of the fight Byrne was considered to be close to death, but over the course of the following two days he seemed to be recovering, and was sufficiently conscious to thank his friends for their ministrations. But his condition worsened during the afternoon of Saturday 1 June 1833, and he died the following day; the cause of death was given as "congestion of blood in the brain". Byrne himself was reportedly of a different opinion, telling a chambermaid shortly before his death that "If I should die, it will not be from the beating I received but from mortification. I would rather have died than been beaten in that fight." He left behind a wife and four children in Dublin.
Aftermath
One contemporary view of Byrne's fatal fight, and of his earlier contest against Ward, was expressed in a popular poem written by James Catnach, the catchpenny publisher of Seven Dials, London:
On Thursday, 30 May day, Brave Simon took the ring,
Back'd by Jem Ward the champion, likewise by Gallant Spring,
To fight Burke for two hundred pounds, a man of courage bold,
To stop reports that with Ward the battle he had sold.
Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter. He was acquitted on 11 July 1833, but avoided competitive fights for some time afterwards, only taking part in exhibition matches. He retired in 1843 and died of tuberculosis less than two years later in 1845, having by then been reduced to poverty.
Following the death in 1838 of another fighter, William Phelps, also known as Brighton Bill, in a match against Owen Swift, the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced by the Pugilists's Protective Association to more clearly define the range of fouls and to introduce certain safety measures. Butting, gouging, biting, scratching, kicking were all forbidden as was the use of stones or any hard object in the hand. Thirty-second breaks were introduced between rounds, at the end of which each fighter had to walk to the scratch unaided within 8 seconds. The wearing of spiked boots was prohibited, and boxers who went to ground without being hit were disqualified. These rules still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing.
See also
List of bare-knuckle boxers
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
1806 births
1833 deaths
Bare-knuckle boxers
Deaths due to injuries sustained in boxing
Sport deaths in England
Irish male boxers
Heavyweight boxers |
4079660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race%20to%20the%20North | Race to the North | The Race to the North was the name given by the press to occasions in two summers of the late 19th century when British passenger trains belonging to different companies would literally race each other from London to Edinburgh over the two principal rail trunk routes connecting the English capital city to Scotland – the West Coast Main Line which runs from London Euston via Crewe and Carlisle and the East Coast Main Line route from London King's Cross via York and Newcastle. The "races" were never official and publicly the companies denied that what happened was racing at all. Results were not announced officially and the outcomes have since been hotly debated. In the 20th century there were also occasions of competition for speed on the two routes.
Background
The late nineteenth century was a boom time for the railways in Britain with many independent companies operating but with poor coordination between the companies' lines. Gradually merger and other formal agreements were made so that travel across the country became feasible. For the first time long-distance rail travel could be afforded by the general public. By the 1880s two consortia in particular provided services between London and Edinburgh using separate routes on the east and west coasts of Britain terminating in London at King's Cross and stations, and in Edinburgh at Waverley and Princes Street stations. Great Northern Railway (GNR) and North Eastern Railway (NER) ran the East Coast service with London & North Western Railway (LNWR) and Caledonian Railway (CR) on the West Coast. The companies each had territories where they owned the track or had legally enforcible running rights on some other tracks. At the "borders" between these companies' territories – York and Carlisle – locomotives were always changed (and they were generally changed at intermediate points also) but passengers did not necessarily have to change carriage.
In 1888, driven by commercial rivalry, the East Coast and West Coast consortia started competing fiercely over the speed of their express services over these two routes.
By the 1890s, an east coast route had been established further north through Scotland over the Forth and Tay bridges allowing the North British Railway (NBR) to provide a reasonably direct Edinburgh to Aberdeen service so as to extend the East Coast consortium's King's Cross to Scotland route. Although NBR owned the track from further south at Berwick-on-Tweed, NER had running rights to Edinburgh. Caledonian already had a route connecting Carlisle and Aberdeen via Stirling and Perth. In 1895 a second "race" broke out but this time with the added excitement of arriving at the same station in Aberdeen. Indeed, after some 500 miles from London, the two routes converged to being in sight of each other just before Kinnaber Junction from where there was a single track to Aberdeen.
In 1901, the Midland Railway and North British Railway ran an accelerated London St Pancras to Edinburgh Waverley express. East Coast responded by speeding up and West Coast briefly joined in. Although the press hoped for a new "Race", nothing came of it.
London to Edinburgh, 1888
From 1885 the main London to Edinburgh services were as follows.
In 1885, the east coast express service comprised GNR from King's Cross stopping at and and then NER stopping at , Berwick and Edinburgh Waverley – a distance of . On the west coast, LNWR from Euston stopped at , , , and followed by Caledonian stopping at two stations in Scotland before Edinburgh Princes Street – . Even the fastest run (Grantham to York) was slower than .
The East Coast had a very strong hold on the traffic and this was consolidated further in November 1887, when the railways announced that the Special Scotch Express would also take 3rd class passengers. West Coast, faced with dwindling traffic, took a decisive step. Delaying their announcement to the last minute, they stated in June 1888 that the Day Scotch Express would now arrive in Edinburgh an hour earlier, at 19:00. On 1 July the East Coast arrival time became 18:30, with the lunch stop at York being reduced from 30 to 20 minutes – on 1 August West Coast matched this time, cutting out stops between Carlisle and Edinburgh, but East Coast, seemingly in anticipation, started arriving at 18:00 on the same day. West Coast were determined to match this time and decided to run two separate trains with fewer carriages – the racing train travelled non-stop from Euston to Crewe.
This schedule started on 6 August, Bank Holiday, with the press now taking full notice, crowds turning out at Euston and bookmakers taking bets on the results. To the surprise of the experts on that first day the LNWR locomotive to Crewe was the 25-year-old Problem class Waverley 2-2-2 single. Another surprise was that Caledonian ran its brand new and unique No. 123 4-2-2 single and this locomotive was used every day of the series. In fact, both trains used to arrive in Edinburgh earlier than scheduled and reporters would guess which train would arrive first and then would race the mile length of Princes Street in hansom cabs in the hope of seeing the other train arrive. The results were cabled to the New York Herald for reporting the next day. By 13 August East Coast booked an arrival time of 17:45, omitting the stop at Berwick and averaging between Newcastle and Edinburgh. On the same day West Coast abandoned any timetable at intermediate stations and the train left as soon as it was able. In this way they beat the East Coast "record" even before it had been made. Worse, East Coast arrived later than scheduled although they made amends on 31 August, arriving at 17:27. On both lines the overall speed had been over . However, on 14 August the companies held a conference in London and it was agreed that minimum journey times of 7¾ hours (East Coast) and 8 hours (West Coast) would be adhered to during the rest of that month and then times would be increased by 30 minutes.
Throughout the period, the Midland Railway, who had recently completed the Settle and Carlisle Line, and the North British Railway (NBR) on the Waverley Line were faced with a longer route – from London St Pancras via Manchester and Carlisle to Edinburgh Waverley – with many curves and gradients and so they were unable to be competitive on speed.
Thus the racing came to an end after August and the end of the holidays, although there were now 29 express trains a day between London and Scotland (in both directions) compared to 16 in 1885. A new prospect was appearing however, and the Pall Mall Gazette wrote: "The main cause confronts us when we see those three stupendous towers of steel which loom above the horizon of Edinburgh. When the Forth Bridge is finished the North Western and Caledonian will have to struggle hard if they wish to retain much of the traffic to Dundee or Aberdeen".
The companies' locomotives and trains in the 1880s
Innovations in steam locomotive design included the introduction of compound locomotives and bogies rather than axle leading wheels. The railway companies had their own individual locomotive works and locomotive designers.
On the East Coast route, GNR locomotives ran on what was then the fastest line in the world, but the "Flying Scotsman" service was not their fastest train – it was compared to on routes with more competition. A wide variety of locomotives were in use – the Patrick Stirling 4-2-2 "8-foot" singles, complemented with his 2-2-2 "7-foot 6" singles, were outstanding for speed and reliability, being capable of on flat terrain. The latest express NER engines were Tennant 2-4-0s and the T. W. Worsdell–von Borries compound Worsdell 'F' 4-4-0s which were powerful, although not so fast.
Having compound engines required the development of stronger steel coupling rods for fast running, and the 4-4-0s developed from 2-4-0s when it was found that a front bogie gave greater high speed stability. The East Coast route had no severe gradients and was slightly shorter than the west.
Up to the 1880s, the LNWR's rail services were relatively slow and local, and their express locomotives had been designed for economy rather than speed. As somewhat of an exception, John Ramsbottom's "Lady of the Lake" 2-2-2 single hauled the Irish Mail for which the contract stipulated a minimum average speed of and even this could be a problem – the load on the train was important and third class passengers were excluded to keep the load down and the speed up. The Precedent Class 2-4-0s were exceptional for the time, and would eventually turn out to have a good turn of speed. Francis Webb compound steam engines were starting to be introduced but were not yet notably powerful or economic. Regarding the principal express Caledonian locomotives, Dugald Drummond 4-4-0s were good for ascending hills but were untested for speed. Their earlier locomotives needed to be run double-headed on larger trains. A new locomotive, the Single No. 123 4-2-2, was introduced but still untested. For the West Coast line, the climbs to top of Shap and Beattock were the steepest gradients.
For the 1888 accelerations, the West Coast companies willingly double-headed their express trains and so had power in hand. On the GNR, the Stirling Single engines did not allow double-heading and the new third class passengers were creating a greater load. The Caledonian Railway now ran two separate trains north from Carlisle, to Glasgow and Edinburgh, though these were single-headed. However, the journey time improvements came from cutting waiting times and delays as much as by raising running speed. The NER was an exception by being able to raise their average speed from about , and it was later by double-heading their trains that East Coast gained a decisive advantage. Trains ran lightly loaded, typically with only four or five carriages.
London to Aberdeen, 1895
The railways arrived in Aberdeen in 1850 and an east coast through service was instituted in 1855, taking 17½ hours from London, reduced by 1889 to nearly 13 hours. With the opening of the Forth Bridge in 1890, the distances from London to Aberdeen were and on east and west coast routes. The timetables for the main expresses were as follows.
At the beginning of 1893, the West Coast accelerated the Day Scotch Express to arrive at 22:25 and devised a scheme for delaying its rivals at Kinnaber Junction, where Caledonian operated the signal box. The booked time at Dubton, the Caledonian line signalbox before Kinnaber, was six minutes before the time booked for Kinnaber although the journey only took two minutes. The Dubton signalman would offer the train to Kinnaber at its booked Dubton time at the latest – which might be earlier than its actual time. The Kinnaber signalman would accept the train thus keeping the signals against North British. The North British train was only given clearance if it actually passed the North British Montrose signal box before the Dubton booking time. By this means until the NBR realised what was happening and complained, the Caledonian could take priority even with its rival already waiting at Kinnaber.
In the event, competition focussed on the overnight expresses. East Coast soon changed its timetable to arrive at Aberdeen at 08:15 and West Coast followed suit with 08:05. However, whereas West Coast ran a reliable service, North British were often late because of slow changes of engine at Waverley station, and a tortuous and undulating run from there northwards on a line that was partially single track. By June 1893, East Coast had a booked arrival time of 07:35 and West Coast 07:50. However, if the North British train was slightly late it would be beaten to Kinnaber Junction and not be able to pass the Caledonian train. Caledonian owned the line from Kinnaber to Aberdeen but NBR held running rights (Caledonian required running rights over a very short section of NBR line at Monklands, Lanarkshire).
By 1 July 1895, these times had been brought forward to 07:20 (East) and 07:40 (West). This involved NER reaching Edinburgh in 8 hours 13 minutes, in breach of the 1888 agreement not to take less than 8½ hours. In practice West Coast, stopping at seven intermediate stations on its route and pulling trains of 15 to 17 carriages, was frequently arriving later than 08:00. Without prior warning, on 15 July, West Coast widely advertised a new arrival time of 07:00, reducing the intermediate stops to five, and next morning the train actually arrived at 06:47 and on the next run 06:21 was achieved. Inevitably, the East Coast announced a new arrival time of 06:45, which although earlier than the West Coast booked time, was nevertheless beaten by the actual West Coast arrivals. There were urgent communications within the East Coast consortium about whether to try and negotiate their way out of the developing race until on 25 July the Marquis of Tweedale, NBR chairman, wired John Conacher, NBR general manager "My opinion is our best policy is to beat them at any cost...". The NBR train arrived at 06:23, two minutes ahead of the new booked time, only to find the rival train had arrived 06:06.
From the beginning of August, the newspapers were reporting on what they called the "Race to the North" and Kinnaber Junction, until that time an unknown outpost, was analysed in detail. Crowds gathered at the various stations. Even in the early hours of the morning men, women and children gathered at Carlisle Citadel station to join the excitement. For the newspapers sensation required not just speed but also potential disaster and the dangers were debated. At Cupar in Fife the permanent-way gang was called out each night to correct the rails after the express had passed round the curve at speed – the displacement was about three inches.
19/20 August 1895
Unusually, on 18 August East Coast arrived at Aberdeen first. This was achieved by reducing the number of carriages to seven at most, by not allowing passengers to get on or off the train at intermediate stations south of Dundee, and by making greater time allowances for keeping the line clear of other traffic. The companies' internal telegrams make no bones about calling it a "race". The next night, sworn to secrecy, three elite railway journalists were invited to travel. After measuring a speed of approaching the S curves at Portobello (where the speed limit was 15 mph) they were flung to the floor and the train was still going entering Waverley station. The engines were changed in two minutes but a station official kept the train waiting another 8½ minutes. Time was more than made up by Dundee and there was no problem at Kinnaber so the train arrived at Aberdeen at 05:30. The Caledonian train had got in 16 minutes earlier – with only four carriages.
20–23 August 1895
On the night of 20/21 August, both trains made exceptionally good time. NBR had decided to split their train at Waverley with the slower part not due to reach Aberdeen until 06:25. A "considerable number of people" at Dundee station were there to cheer, even at 03:42. Approaching Kinnaber Junction just before dawn at four in the morning, the trains could be seen from each other across the Montrose Basin. North British passed Montrose signal box at 04:22 but Caledonian had reached Dubton at 04:21 and so, receiving a clear line, made its Aberdeen arrival at 04:58 with an average speed from start to finish of over .
By this time, the leading newspapers had reporters at all the stations to telegraph in their accounts of the night. Crowds thronged the platforms. On 21/22 August, NER put in a particularly strong performance averaging between Newcastle and Edinburgh, a distance of . NBR were quickly out of Waverley and beat Caledonian to Kinnaber by 15 minutes, arriving in Aberdeen at 04:40. A "leading official" of LNWR stated "We don't admit that we're racing at all. We only claim that it's possible for us to arrive in Aberdeen at the same time as the trains of the East Coast Railway...". Both trains had averaged over 60 mph London to Aberdeen. NBR general manager John Conacher telegraphed his GNR counterpart Sir Henry Oakley "After this morning's achievement I think we ought to revert to advertised time ... There is a feeling here that rivalry has gone far enough already...". That afternoon the press were told that East Coast would in future arrive at 06:20 – the competitive racing was over.
That evening (22 August) at Euston station there was the usual excitement. West Coast wanted to regain the advantage and next morning the Yorkshire Post were able to report "A Sensational Achievement by the West Coast Express". Pulling only three carriages and leaving out the stop at Stirling, Aberdeen was reached at 04:32. A Caledonian Railway publicity postcard of the time shows the figure of their engine driver John Souter standing alone by his locomotive at Aberdeen station. This picture is belied by the report in the Daily Sketch – "Driver Souter, who has all along been in charge of this engine, is the railway hero of the moment ... There was much excitement at Aberdeen on the great day, the train being waited for by a crowd of spectators. Souter and his stoker were borne shoulder-high...".
In his 1958 book about the series of races, Oswald Nock wrote of the 22/23 August journey, "And at that astonishing average speed of 63.3 mph made sixty-three years ago the London–Aberdeen record still stands today".
The companies' locomotives and trains in the 1890s
Between 1888 and 1895, better-built bogie carriages were becoming available. LNWR had started introducing improved rails and were still the only company with water troughs. There had also been some important development in express locomotive design.
The GNR had the same locomotives as before, but thr NER had made considerable changes. Improved piston valves were introduced generally. The large and heavy Worsdell M 4-4-0 was introduced, designed specifically towards speed – apart from the early models, these had compound cylinders. These achieved the highest average speeds of all, including over a stretch. The Worsdell J class 4-2-2 was converted from compound to simple expansion working. The NBR had four classes of 4-4-0, the earliest by Drummond and the rest by Matthew Holmes..
For the LNWR, Webb compound engines were dominant and were being developed further for the fast three cylinder Teutonic 2-2-2-0 capable of well over . It retained uncoupled driving wheels but had a larger boiler and good steam flow design. The Improved Precedent ("Jumbo") 2-4-0 was as fast but could not take such a heavy load. The Caledonian Railway was still running the Drummond 4-4-0s but now complemented by the Lambie version with increased boiler pressure and estimated by Nock to have averaged over an stretch.
In August up until the time of the serious racing, the express trains ran 8 to 15 carriages ("comparatively light", up to ) with the LNER and Caledonian double-heading when there were more than about 12 carriages. GNR never ran double-headed, pulling up to . Then during the crucial period, the East Coast ran six carriages (one bogie sleeping carriage, three six-wheeler carriages, two brake vans) and the West Coast, single-heading, ran four passenger bogie carriages, about . North of Edinburgh and Perth both trains were reduced by one carriage. Thus passenger accommodation was very comparable. Changing of engines could be done in as little as 90 seconds.
Fastest runs
Oswald Nock summarised the four fastest runs in the following table. He chose stretches of line roughly equal in length and level in aggregate. Each contained one "severe slack" that required slow running. He notes that on Hardwicke's run the train also had the same average speed over a more difficult section of over Shap summit.
Nock picks out another exceptional run of a rather different nature. In the early hours of 22 August, the NBR Holmes No. 293 4-4-0 left Waverley for Dundee with a load of 86 tons. The run, starting and finishing from at rest unlike the runs tabulated above and involving severe curves and other speed restrictions, took 59 minutes for the , a speed of . Nock, writing towards the end of the steam era in 1958, says that since World War I no train had done the run in less than 80 minutes.
Aftermath of the 1895 races
North British considered restarting the competition with Conacher writing to Oakley "Although I share to the full your opinion regarding the childishness of the whole business ... I am quite prepared to run another train as much like theirs as possible, when I have no doubt we could again shew our superiority". To achieve the high speeds very few carriages could be pulled and so a second, longer, slower train had to follow on behind. There was no benefit to the public in arriving so very early and, apart from the publicity, it made no financial sense. For all these reasons the racing was not resumed. In a leading article The Engineer magazine concluded "One gratifying result of the race will be perhaps to silence the boasting of the American press. The far-famed Empire State Express has been thoroughly beaten...".
In July 1896, a West Coast overnight express took the curve at excessively fast and derailed. One person was killed and the train was wrecked. Two "Jumbos" had been double-heading the train and the enquiry found that the only experience either driver had on the line had always involved stopping at Preston. To reassure the public, agreement was reached to slow the runs from London to Edinburgh and Glasgow to take a minimum time of eight hours. This agreement, which gave much the same journey time as in 1889, lasted into the early 1930s, removing any impetus towards improving express train performance or scheduling.
Later rivalry
With the end of specially staged train races, later rivalries between the West Coast and East Coast routes centred on timetabled services based largely on improvements in traction technologies.
London to Edinburgh, 1901
For its summer 1901 service, the Midland Railway and NBR consortium announced the 09:30 London St Pancras express – on the Settle & Carlisle and Waverley lines – would arrive in Edinburgh at 18:05, ten minutes before the GNR/NER Flying Scotsman. Concerned that a possibly delayed Midland train could lead to Portobello East junction becoming like Kinnaber, NER rescheduled their train for 18:02 and then earlier, ignoring the 1896 agreement. The press were anxious to promote this as another "Race to the North" and started publicising Caledonian arrival times as well. Indeed, Caledonian and then NER put on fast runs for a few days but NBR backed down, and the sparring came to an end.
LNER and LMS
In 1923, under the Railways Act 1921 which grouped multiple railway companies together into four large ones, the ECML came under control of the amalgamated London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) whilst the WCML came under the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS).
In 1927, the LNER started the famous non-stop Flying Scotsman express train from London King's Cross to Edinburgh. Speeds respected the old agreement and so were low, but time was gained through making the run non-stop over the whole distance of . This was done by means of a special corridor tender which allowed engine crew changes at speed. However to show that the old rivalry was not dead, just prior to the inaugural date of the LNER train, the LMS thwarted them by running separate "non-stop" trains from London Euston to Glasgow () and London to Edinburgh (). These were operated respectively by one of the new Royal Scot locomotives and by a standard LMS Compound 4-4-0 locomotive both with volunteer crews.
Following the successful launching of the German Flying Hamburger high-speed diesel railcar set in 1933 and the Bugatti cars in France, the LNER began to examine the possibilities of introducing similar trains for key services. On examining German specifications, management concluded that better speed and accommodation should be possible using steam locomotive powered trains. To test the feasibility of this a high-speed trial was run in 1934 between London and Leeds using locomotive 4472 Flying Scotsman, then in modified A1 condition. During this run, the first fully authenticated speed of was reached. On a similar test run from London to Newcastle and back, A3 No, 2750 Papyrus reached , a world record for a non-streamlined steam locomotive. When the streamlined London-Newcastle and Silver Jubilee service was inaugurated, the specially-built A4 Pacifics exceeded all records, starting with a top speed of on the inaugural run. The high-speed service was extended to Edinburgh in 1937 with the introduction of The Coronation.
The LMS again countered in 1937 with the London-Glasgow Coronation Scot streamlined train for which an updated Pacific locomotive type, the Princess Coronation Class, was also specially developed. These locomotives proved fully equal to the A4 and on a press run between Euston and Crewe, 6220 Coronation briefly snatched away the world speed record with a top speed of . The speed record however caused a scare; it was reached just south of Crewe railway station, and the train was unable to slow down sufficiently for the series of crossover points at the approach to the station, which it entered at , well above the speed limit of . The train stayed on the tracks, but nearly derailed, this caused enough alarm for the LMS not to make another attempt at a speed record.
The following year on 3 July 1938, the LNER reclaimed the speed record, when 4468 Mallard set a new record of on Stoke Bank. A record which still stands to this day. The outbreak of World War II from 1939, and subsequent postwar nationalisation to form British Railways in 1948, curtailed further rivalry between the east and west coast routes.
British Rail
In 1979, British Rail set a new record of 3 hours 52 minutes on the length of the WCML between Euston and Glasgow with its experimental Advanced Passenger Train (APT). This record for the northbound run still stands, although the southbound record was broken in 2006 by the APT's spiritual successor, the Class 390 Pendolino with a time of 3 hours 55 minutes, and an average speed of . However, these times cannot be regularly achieved on the WCML under normal operating conditions as it requires other services on the line to be specially re-timed to give the train a non-stop express from Glasgow to London.
In contrast, the modern Flying Scotsman operated by London North Eastern Railway on the East Coast route, can achieve this within 3 hours 59 minutes on a normal service pattern, and with a stop at Newcastle – however, still making for an average speed of .
The two routes today
When Britain's railways were privatised in the mid-1990s, the East Coast and West Coast routes were now once again operated by two different companies – GNER and Virgin Trains West Coast. Between 2015 and 2018, both routes operated under the Virgin Trains brand, albeit with Virgin Trains East Coast being mostly a Stagecoach Group operation. This ended in June 2018 when the East Coast franchise returned to public ownership, under the revived LNER name.
See also
Top Gear's Race to the North, a 21st-century interpretation by Top Gear pitting a car, bike and steam locomotive in a race from London to Edinburgh.
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
A comprehensive review of the participants in the 1895 Railway Races to the North
External links
National Railway Museum – Locomotives – Stirling Single
History of rail transport in the United Kingdom
1895 in rail transport
1888 in rail transport
1901 in rail transport
1895 in the United Kingdom
1888 in the United Kingdom
1901 in the United Kingdom |
4079673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20transfer%20function | Optical transfer function | The optical transfer function (OTF) of an optical system such as a camera, microscope, human eye, or projector specifies how different spatial frequencies are captured or transmitted. It is used by optical engineers to describe how the optics project light from the object or scene onto a photographic film, detector array, retina, screen, or simply the next item in the optical transmission chain. A variant, the modulation transfer function (MTF), neglects phase effects, but is equivalent to the OTF in many situations.
Either transfer function specifies the response to a periodic sine-wave pattern passing through the lens system, as a function of its spatial frequency or period, and its orientation. Formally, the OTF is defined as the Fourier transform of the point spread function (PSF, that is, the impulse response of the optics, the image of a point source). As a Fourier transform, the OTF is complex-valued; but it will be real-valued in the common case of a PSF that is symmetric about its center. The MTF is formally defined as the magnitude (absolute value) of the complex OTF.
The image on the right shows the optical transfer functions for two different optical systems in panels (a) and (d). The former corresponds to the ideal, diffraction-limited, imaging system with a circular pupil. Its transfer function decreases approximately gradually with spatial frequency until it reaches the diffraction-limit, in this case at 500 cycles per millimeter or a period of 2 μm. Since periodic features as small as this period are captured by this imaging system, it could be said that its resolution is 2 μm. Panel (d) shows an optical system that is out of focus. This leads to a sharp reduction in contrast compared to the diffraction-limited imaging system. It can be seen that the contrast is zero around 250 cycles/mm, or periods of 4 μm. This explains why the images for the out-of-focus system (e,f) are more blurry than those of the diffraction-limited system (b,c). Note that although the out-of-focus system has very low contrast at spatial frequencies around 250 cycles/mm, the contrast at spatial frequencies near the diffraction limit of 500 cycles/mm is diffraction-limited. Close observation of the image in panel (f) shows that the image of the large spoke densities near the center of the spoke target is relatively sharp.
Definition and related concepts
Since the optical transfer function (OTF) is defined as the Fourier transform of the point-spread function (PSF), it is generally speaking a complex-valued function of spatial frequency. The projection of a specific periodic pattern is represented by a complex number with absolute value and complex argument proportional to the relative contrast and translation of the projected projection, respectively.
Often the contrast reduction is of most interest and the translation of the pattern can be ignored. The relative contrast is given by the absolute value of the optical transfer function, a function commonly referred to as the modulation transfer function (MTF). Its values indicate how much of the object's contrast is captured in the image as a function of spatial frequency. The MTF tends to decrease with increasing spatial frequency from 1 to 0 (at the diffraction limit); however, the function is often not monotonic. On the other hand, when also the pattern translation is important, the complex argument of the optical transfer function can be depicted as a second real-valued function, commonly referred to as the phase transfer function (PhTF). The complex-valued optical transfer function can be seen as a combination of these two real-valued functions:
where
and represents the complex argument function, while is the spatial frequency of the periodic pattern. In general is a vector with a spatial frequency for each dimension, i.e. it indicates also the direction of the periodic pattern.
The impulse response of a well-focused optical system is a three-dimensional intensity distribution with a maximum at the focal plane, and could thus be measured by recording a stack of images while displacing the detector axially. By consequence, the three-dimensional optical transfer function can be defined as the three-dimensional Fourier transform of the impulse response. Although typically only a one-dimensional, or sometimes a two-dimensional section is used, the three-dimensional optical transfer function can improve the understanding of microscopes such as the structured illumination microscope.
True to the definition of transfer function, should indicate the fraction of light that was detected from the point source object. However, typically the contrast relative to the total amount of detected light is most important. It is thus common practice to normalize the optical transfer function to the detected intensity, hence .
Generally, the optical transfer function depends on factors such as the spectrum and polarization of the emitted light and the position of the point source. E.g. the image contrast and resolution are typically optimal at the center of the image, and deteriorate toward the edges of the field-of-view. When significant variation occurs, the optical transfer function may be calculated for a set of representative positions or colors.
Sometimes it is more practical to define the transfer functions based on a binary black-white stripe pattern. The transfer function for an equal-width black-white periodic pattern is referred to as the contrast transfer function (CTF).
Examples
The OTF of an ideal lens system
A perfect lens system will provide a high contrast projection without shifting the periodic pattern, hence the optical transfer function is identical to the modulation transfer function. Typically the contrast will reduce gradually towards zero at a point defined by the resolution of the optics. For example, a perfect, non-aberrated, f/4 optical imaging system used, at the visible wavelength of 500 nm, would have the optical transfer function depicted in the right hand figure.
It can be read from the plot that the contrast gradually reduces and reaches zero at the spatial frequency of 500 cycles per millimeter, in other words the optical resolution of the image projection is 1/500 of a millimeter, or 2 micrometer. Correspondingly, for this particular imaging device, the spokes become more and more blurred towards the center until they merge into a gray, unresolved, disc. Note that sometimes the optical transfer function is given in units of the object or sample space, observation angle, film width, or normalized to the theoretical maximum. Conversion between the two is typically a matter of a multiplication or division. E.g. a microscope typically magnifies everything 10 to 100-fold, and a reflex camera will generally demagnify objects at a distance of 5 meter by a factor of 100 to 200.
The resolution of a digital imaging device is not only limited by the optics, but also by the number of pixels, more in particular by their separation distance. As explained by the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, to match the optical resolution of the given example, the pixels of each color channel should be separated by 1 micrometer, half the period of 500 cycles per millimeter. A higher number of pixels on the same sensor size will not allow the resolution of finer detail. On the other hand, when the pixel spacing is larger than 1 micrometer, the resolution will be limited by the separation between pixels; moreover, aliasing may lead to a further reduction of the image fidelity.
OTF of an imperfect lens system
An imperfect, aberrated imaging system could possess the optical transfer function depicted in the following figure.
As the ideal lens system, the contrast reaches zero at the spatial frequency of 500 cycles per millimeter. However, at lower spatial frequencies the contrast is considerably lower than that of the perfect system in the previous example. In fact, the contrast becomes zero on several occasions even for spatial frequencies lower than 500 cycles per millimeter. This explains the gray circular bands in the spoke image shown in the above figure. In between the gray bands, the spokes appear to invert from black to white and vice versa, this is referred to as contrast inversion, directly related to the sign reversal in the real part of the optical transfer function, and represents itself as a shift by half a period for some periodic patterns.
While it could be argued that the resolution of both the ideal and the imperfect system is 2 μm, or 500 LP/mm, it is clear that the images of the latter example are less sharp. A definition of resolution that is more in line with the perceived quality would instead use the spatial frequency at which the first zero occurs, 10 μm, or 100 LP/mm. Definitions of resolution, even for perfect imaging systems, vary widely. A more complete, unambiguous picture is provided by the optical transfer function.
The OTF of an optical system with a non-rotational symmetric aberration
Optical systems, and in particular optical aberrations are not always rotationally symmetric. Periodic patterns that have a different orientation can thus be imaged with different contrast even if their periodicity is the same. Optical transfer function or modulation transfer functions are thus generally two-dimensional functions. The following figures shows the two-dimensional equivalent of the ideal and the imperfect system discussed earlier, for an optical system with trefoil, a non-rotational-symmetric aberration.
Optical transfer functions are not always real-valued. Period patterns can be shifted by any amount, depending on the aberration in the system. This is generally the case with non-rotational-symmetric aberrations. The hue of the colors of the surface plots in the above figure indicate phase. It can be seen that, while for the rotational symmetric aberrations the phase is either 0 or π and thus the transfer function is real valued, for the non-rotational symmetric aberration the transfer function has an imaginary component and the phase varies continuously.
Practical example – high-definition video system
While optical resolution, as commonly used with reference to camera systems, describes only the number of pixels in an image, and hence the potential to show fine detail, the transfer function describes the ability of adjacent pixels to change from black to white in response to patterns of varying spatial frequency, and hence the actual capability to show fine detail, whether with full or reduced contrast. An image reproduced with an optical transfer function that 'rolls off' at high spatial frequencies will appear 'blurred' in everyday language.
Taking the example of a current high definition (HD) video system, with 1920 by 1080 pixels, the Nyquist theorem states that it should be possible, in a perfect system, to resolve fully (with true black to white transitions) a total of 1920 black and white alternating lines combined, otherwise referred to as a spatial frequency of 1920/2=960 line pairs per picture width, or 960 cycles per picture width, (definitions in terms of cycles per unit angle or per mm are also possible but generally less clear when dealing with cameras and more appropriate to telescopes etc.). In practice, this is far from the case, and spatial frequencies that approach the Nyquist rate will generally be reproduced with decreasing amplitude, so that fine detail, though it can be seen, is greatly reduced in contrast. This gives rise to the interesting observation that, for example, a standard definition television picture derived from a film scanner that uses oversampling, as described later, may appear sharper than a high definition picture shot on a camera with a poor modulation transfer function. The two pictures show an interesting difference that is often missed, the former having full contrast on detail up to a certain point but then no really fine detail, while the latter does contain finer detail, but with such reduced contrast as to appear inferior overall.
The three-dimensional optical transfer function
Although one typically thinks of an image as planar, or two-dimensional, the imaging system will produce a three-dimensional intensity distribution in image space that in principle can be measured. e.g. a two-dimensional sensor could be translated to capture a three-dimensional intensity distribution. The image of a point source is also a three dimensional (3D) intensity distribution which can be represented by a 3D point-spread function. As an example, the figure on the right shows the 3D point-spread function in object space of a wide-field microscope (a) alongside that of a confocal microscope (c). Although the same microscope objective with a numerical aperture of 1.49 is used, it is clear that the confocal point spread function is more compact both in the lateral dimensions (x,y) and the axial dimension (z). One could rightly conclude that the resolution of a confocal microscope is superior to that of a wide-field microscope in all three dimensions.
A three-dimensional optical transfer function can be calculated as the three-dimensional Fourier transform of the 3D point-spread function. Its color-coded magnitude is plotted in panels (b) and (d), corresponding to the point-spread functions shown in panels (a) and (c), respectively. The transfer function of the wide-field microscope has a support that is half of that of the confocal microscope in all three-dimensions, confirming the previously noted lower resolution of the wide-field microscope. Note that along the z-axis, for x = y = 0, the transfer function is zero everywhere except at the origin. This missing cone is a well-known problem that prevents optical sectioning using a wide-field microscope.
The two-dimensional optical transfer function at the focal plane can be calculated by integration of the 3D optical transfer function along the z-axis. Although the 3D transfer function of the wide-field microscope (b) is zero on the z-axis for z ≠ 0; its integral, the 2D optical transfer, reaching a maximum at x = y = 0. This is only possible because the 3D optical transfer function diverges at the origin x = y = z = 0. The function values along the z-axis of the 3D optical transfer function correspond to the Dirac delta function.
Calculation
Most optical design software has functionality to compute the optical or modulation transfer function of a lens design. Ideal systems such as in the examples here are readily calculated numerically using software such as Julia, GNU Octave or Matlab, and in some specific cases even analytically. The optical transfer function can be calculated following two approaches:
as the Fourier transform of the incoherent point spread function, or
as the auto-correlation of the pupil function of the optical system
Mathematically both approaches are equivalent. Numeric calculations are typically most efficiently done via the Fourier transform; however, analytic calculation may be more tractable using the auto-correlation approach.
Example
Ideal lens system with circular aperture
Auto-correlation of the pupil function
Since the optical transfer function is the Fourier transform of the point spread function, and the point spread function is the square absolute of the inverse Fourier transformed pupil function, the optical transfer function can also be calculated directly from the pupil function. From the convolution theorem it can be seen that the optical transfer function is in fact the autocorrelation of the pupil function.
The pupil function of an ideal optical system with a circular aperture is a disk of unit radius. The optical transfer function of such a system can thus be calculated geometrically from the intersecting area between two identical disks at a distance of , where is the spatial frequency normalized to the highest transmitted frequency. In general the optical transfer function is normalized to a maximum value of one for , so the resulting area should be divided by .
The intersecting area can be calculated as the sum of the areas of two identical circular segments: , where is the circle segment angle. By substituting , and using the equalities and , the equation for the area can be rewritten as . Hence the normalized optical transfer function is given by:
A more detailed discussion can be found in and.
Numerical evaluation
The one-dimensional optical transfer function can be calculated as the discrete Fourier transform of the line spread function. This data is graphed against the spatial frequency data. In this case, a sixth order polynomial is fitted to the MTF vs. spatial frequency curve to show the trend. The 50% cutoff frequency is determined to yield the corresponding spatial frequency. Thus, the approximate position of best focus of the unit under test is determined from this data.
The Fourier transform of the line spread function (LSF) can not be determined analytically by the following equations:
Therefore, the Fourier Transform is numerically approximated using the discrete Fourier transform .<ref>Chapra, S.C.; Canale, R.P. (2006). Numerical Methods for Engineers (5th ed.). New York, New York: McGraw-Hill</ref>
where
= the value of the MTF
= number of data points
= index
= term of the LSF data
= pixel position
The MTF is then plotted against spatial frequency and all relevant data concerning this test can be determined from that graph.
The vectorial transfer function
At high numerical apertures such as those found in microscopy, it is important to consider the vectorial nature of the fields that carry light. By decomposing the waves in three independent components corresponding to the Cartesian axes, a point spread function can be calculated for each component and combined into a vectorial point spread function. Similarly, a vectorial optical transfer function can be determined as shown in () and ().
Measurement
The optical transfer function is not only useful for the design of optical system, it is also valuable to characterize manufactured systems.
Starting from the point spread function
The optical transfer function is defined as the Fourier transform of the impulse response of the optical system, also called the point spread function. The optical transfer function is thus readily obtained by first acquiring the image of a point source, and applying the two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform to the sampled image. Such a point-source can, for example, be a bright light behind a screen with a pin hole, a fluorescent or metallic microsphere, or simply a dot painted on a screen. Calculation of the optical transfer function via the point spread function is versatile as it can fully characterize optics with spatial varying and chromatic aberrations by repeating the procedure for various positions and wavelength spectra of the point source.
Using extended test objects for spatially invariant optics
When the aberrations can be assumed to be spatially invariant, alternative patterns can be used to determine the optical transfer function such as lines and edges. The corresponding transfer functions are referred to as the line-spread function and the edge-spread function, respectively. Such extended objects illuminate more pixels in the image, and can improve the measurement accuracy due to the larger signal-to-noise ratio. The optical transfer function is in this case calculated as the two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform of the image and divided by that of the extended object. Typically either a line or a black-white edge is used.
The line-spread function
The two-dimensional Fourier transform of a line through the origin, is a line orthogonal to it and through the origin. The divisor is thus zero for all but a single dimension, by consequence, the optical transfer function can only be determined for a single dimension using a single line-spread function (LSF). If necessary, the two-dimensional optical transfer function can be determined by repeating the measurement with lines at various angles.
The line spread function can be found using two different methods. It can be found directly from an ideal line approximation provided by a slit test target or it can be derived from the edge spread function, discussed in the next sub section.
Edge-spread function
The two-dimensional Fourier transform of an edge is also only non-zero on a single line, orthogonal to the edge. This function is sometimes referred to as the edge spread function (ESF). However, the values on this line are inversely proportional to the distance from the origin. Although the measurement images obtained with this technique illuminate a large area of the camera, this mainly benefits the accuracy at low spatial frequencies. As with the line spread function, each measurement only determines a single axes of the optical transfer function, repeated measurements are thus necessary if the optical system cannot be assumed to be rotational symmetric.
As shown in the right hand figure, an operator defines a box area encompassing the edge of a knife-edge test target image back-illuminated by a black body. The box area is defined to be approximately 10% of the total frame area. The image pixel data is translated into a two-dimensional array (pixel intensity and pixel position). The amplitude (pixel intensity) of each line within the array is normalized and averaged. This yields the edge spread function.
where
ESF = the output array of normalized pixel intensity data
= the input array of pixel intensity data
= the ith element of
= the average value of the pixel intensity data
= the standard deviation of the pixel intensity data
= number of pixels used in average
The line spread function is identical to the first derivative of the edge spread function, which is differentiated using numerical methods. In case it is more practical to measure the edge spread function, one can determine the line spread function as follows:
Typically the ESF is only known at discrete points, so the LSF is numerically approximated using the finite difference:
where:
= the index
= position of the pixel
= ESF of the pixel
Using a grid of black and white lines
Although 'sharpness' is often judged on grid patterns of alternate black and white lines, it should strictly be measured using a sine-wave variation from black to white (a blurred version of the usual pattern). Where a square wave pattern is used (simple black and white lines) not only is there more risk of aliasing, but account must be taken of the fact that the fundamental component of a square wave is higher than the amplitude of the square wave itself (the harmonic components reduce the peak amplitude). A square wave test chart will therefore show optimistic results (better resolution of high spatial frequencies than is actually achieved). The square wave result is sometimes referred to as the 'contrast transfer function' (CTF).
Factors affecting MTF in typical camera systems
In practice, many factors result in considerable blurring of a reproduced image, such that patterns with spatial frequency just below the Nyquist rate may not even be visible, and the finest patterns that can appear 'washed out' as shades of grey, not black and white. A major factor is usually the impossibility of making the perfect 'brick wall' optical filter (often realized as a 'phase plate' or a lens with specific blurring properties in digital cameras and video camcorders). Such a filter is necessary to reduce aliasing by eliminating spatial frequencies above the Nyquist rate of the display.
Oversampling and downconversion to maintain the optical transfer function
The only way in practice to approach the theoretical sharpness possible in a digital imaging system such as a camera is to use more pixels in the camera sensor than samples in the final image, and 'downconvert' or 'interpolate' using special digital processing which cuts off high frequencies above the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing whilst maintaining a reasonably flat MTF up to that frequency. This approach was first taken in the 1970s when flying spot scanners, and later CCD line scanners were developed, which sampled more pixels than were needed and then downconverted, which is why movies have always looked sharper on television than other material shot with a video camera. The only theoretically correct way to interpolate or downconvert is by use of a steep low-pass spatial filter, realized by convolution with a two-dimensional sin(x)/x'' weighting function which requires powerful processing. In practice, various mathematical approximations to this are used to reduce the processing requirement. These approximations are now implemented widely in video editing systems and in image processing programs such as Photoshop.
Just as standard definition video with a high contrast MTF is only possible with oversampling, so HD television with full theoretical sharpness is only possible by starting with a camera that has a significantly higher resolution, followed by digitally filtering. With movies now being shot in 4k and even 8k video for the cinema, we can expect to see the best pictures on HDTV only from movies or material shot at the higher standard. However much we raise the number of pixels used in cameras, this will always remain true in absence of a perfect optical spatial filter. Similarly, a 5-megapixel image obtained from a 5-megapixel still camera can never be sharper than a 5-megapixel image obtained after down-conversion from an equal quality 10-megapixel still camera. Because of the problem of maintaining a high contrast MTF, broadcasters like the BBC did for a long time consider maintaining standard definition television, but improving its quality by shooting and viewing with many more pixels (though as previously mentioned, such a system, though impressive, does ultimately lack the very fine detail which, though attenuated, enhances the effect of true HD viewing).
Another factor in digital cameras and camcorders is lens resolution. A lens may be said to 'resolve' 1920 horizontal lines, but this does not mean that it does so with full modulation from black to white. The 'modulation transfer function' (just a term for the magnitude of the optical transfer function with phase ignored) gives the true measure of lens performance, and is represented by a graph of amplitude against spatial frequency.
Lens aperture diffraction also limits MTF. Whilst reducing the aperture of a lens usually reduces aberrations and hence improves the flatness of the MTF, there is an optimum aperture for any lens and image sensor size beyond which smaller apertures reduce resolution because of diffraction, which spreads light across the image sensor. This was hardly a problem in the days of plate cameras and even 35 mm film, but has become an insurmountable limitation with the very small format sensors used in some digital cameras and especially video cameras. First generation HD consumer camcorders used 1/4-inch sensors, for which apertures smaller than about f4 begin to limit resolution. Even professional video cameras mostly use 2/3 inch sensors, prohibiting the use of apertures around f16 that would have been considered normal for film formats. Certain cameras (such as the Pentax K10D) feature an "MTF autoexposure" mode, where the choice of aperture is optimized for maximum sharpness. Typically this means somewhere in the middle of the aperture range.
Trend to large-format DSLRs and improved MTF potential
There has recently been a shift towards the use of large image format digital single-lens reflex cameras driven by the need for low-light sensitivity and narrow depth of field effects. This has led to such cameras becoming preferred by some film and television program makers over even professional HD video cameras, because of their 'filmic' potential. In theory, the use of cameras with 16- and 21-megapixel sensors offers the possibility of almost perfect sharpness by downconversion within the camera, with digital filtering to eliminate aliasing. Such cameras produce very impressive results, and appear to be leading the way in video production towards large-format downconversion with digital filtering becoming the standard approach to the realization of a flat MTF with true freedom from aliasing.
Digital inversion of the optical transfer function
Due to optical effects the contrast may be sub-optimal and approaches zero before the Nyquist frequency of the display is reached. The optical contrast reduction can be partially reversed by digitally amplifying spatial frequencies selectively before display or further processing. Although more advanced digital image restoration procedures exist, the Wiener deconvolution algorithm is often used for its simplicity and efficiency. Since this technique multiplies the spatial spectral components of the image, it also amplifies noise and errors due to e.g. aliasing. It is therefore only effective on good quality recordings with a sufficiently high signal-to-noise ratio.
Limitations
In general, the point spread function, the image of a point source also depends on factors such as the wavelength (color), and field angle (lateral point source position). When such variation is sufficiently gradual, the optical system could be characterized by a set of optical transfer functions. However, when the image of the point source changes abruptly upon lateral translation, the optical transfer function does not describe the optical system accurately.
See also
Bokeh
Gamma correction
Minimum resolvable contrast
Minimum resolvable temperature difference
Optical resolution
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal transfer function
Strehl ratio
Transfer function
Wavefront coding
References
External links
"Modulation transfer function", by Glenn D. Boreman on SPIE Optipedia.
"How to Measure MTF and other Properties of Lenses", by Optikos Corporation.
Transfer function |
4079815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/37%20mm%20gun%20M3 | 37 mm gun M3 | The 37 mm gun M3 is the first dedicated anti-tank gun fielded by United States forces in numbers. Introduced in 1940, it became the standard anti-tank gun of the U.S. infantry with its size enabling it to be pulled by a jeep. However, the continuing improvement of German tanks quickly rendered the 37 mm ineffective and, by 1943, it was being gradually replaced in the European and Mediterranean theaters by the more powerful British-developed 57 mm gun M1. In the Pacific, where the Japanese tank threat was less significant, the M3 remained in service until the end of the war, but some 57mm guns were issued.
Like many other light anti-tank guns, the M3 was widely used in the infantry support role and as an anti-personnel weapon, firing high-explosive and canister rounds.
The M5 and M6 tank mounted variants were used in several models of armored vehicles most notably in the Stuart Light Tank M3/M5, the Lee Medium Tank M3, and Greyhound Light Armored Car M8. In addition, the M3 in its original version was mated to a number of other self-propelled carriages.
The inability of the 37mm round to penetrate the frontal armor of mid-war tanks severely restricted the anti-armor capabilities of units armed with them.
Development history
In the mid-1930s, the United States Army had yet to field a dedicated anti-tank artillery piece; anti-tank companies of infantry regiments were armed with machine guns. Although some consideration had been given to replacing the machine guns with a more powerful anti-tank gun, the situation began to change only after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. Combat experience from Spain suggested that a light anti-tank gun, such as the German 37 mm PaK 35/36, was capable of neutralizing the growing threat posed by tanks.
In January 1937, the Ordnance Committee recommended development of such a weapon; two PaK 36 guns were acquired for study. As the projected main user of the weapon, the Infantry Branch was chosen to oversee the work. They wanted a lightweight gun that could be moved around by the crew, so any ideas of using a larger caliber than that of the German gun were discarded. The 37 mm was a popular caliber of anti-tank guns in the 1930s; other anti-tank guns of the same caliber included Swedish Bofors gun, Czechoslovakian vz. 34 and vz. 37, Japanese Type 94 and Type 1.
Development and testing continued until late 1938. Several variants of gun and carriage were proposed until on 15 December a combination of the T10 gun and T5 carriage was officially adopted as the 37 mm gun M3 and carriage M4. Although the weapon followed the concept of the PaK 36 and was often referred to as a copy of it, the M3 differed significantly from the German design and used different ammunition.
The gun was manufactured by Watervliet Arsenal and the carriage by Rock Island Arsenal. The first production examples of the M3 were delivered in July 1940. It took until August 1941 for production to accelerate, and some infantry antitank units were forced to use wooden mock-ups of the new gun or their original weapons (37 mm gun M1916) during the Louisiana Maneuvers and Carolina Maneuvers, and did not get their first weapons until late 1941. Production continued until October 1943.
Minor changes in the gun construction were introduced during production. The carriage received a modified shoulder guard and traverse controls (carriage M4A1, standardized on 29 January 1942). Although ordnance requested an upgrade of all M4 carriages to M4A1, this process was not completed. Another change was a threaded barrel end to accept a big five-port muzzle brake (gun M3A1, adopted on 5 March 1942). According to some sources, the latter was intended to avoid kicking too much dust in front of the gun, which hindered aiming; however, the brake turned out to be a safety problem when firing canister ammunition and consequently the M3A1 went into combat without the muzzle brake. Other sources state that the muzzle brake was intended to soften the recoil, and that it was dropped simply because additional recoil control measures were not really needed.
In an attempt to increase the armor penetration of the M3, several squeeze bore adapters (including the British Littlejohn adaptor) were tested; none was adopted. Experiments with rocket launchers on the M4 carriage (e.g. rocket projector T3) did not produce anything practical either.
Description
The barrel was of one-piece forged construction, with uniform rifling (12 grooves, right-hand twist, one turn in 25 calibers). The breech end of the barrel was screwed into a breech ring. The breech mechanism was of standard vertical sliding-block type, but unlike the overwhelming majority of the anti-tank guns of the era, it was not semi-automatic, meaning that a crew member had to manually open and close the breech at each shot. The barrel was fitted with a hydrospring recoil system.
The carriage was of split trail type, with pneumatic tires but without any spring suspension whatsoever. Mounted on the axle next to the wheels were the "wheel segments"; these were segment-shaped supports that could be lowered to provide more stability in the firing position or raised so that they would not impede movement of the gun.
The telescopic sight on the M6 and both elevation and traverse controls were located on the left side, so one gunner was able to aim the gun. The traverse gear had a release mechanism which allowed free movement of the barrel in case a quick traverse was needed.
Organization
US Army
Under the April 1942 organization, each infantry battalion had an anti-tank platoon with four 37 mm guns (1/4 ton trucks, better known as jeeps, were authorized as prime movers) and each regiment an anti-tank company with twelve (towed by 3/4 ton trucks). Each of the four divisional artillery battalions possessed six anti-tank guns, the combat engineering battalion had nine pieces (towed by M2 halftracks); in addition, the division's headquarters company had four (towed by 3/4 ton trucks) and the divisional maintenance company two.
In 1941, provisional antitank battalions had been formed from divisional or brigade anti-tank weapons (producing companies armed with 37 mm guns and 75 mm guns), in December 1941, these battalions became permanent and were reorganized as independent tank destroyer battalions. The towed guns of many battalions were replaced with self-propelled ones as soon as the latter became available.
In 1942, the first airborne divisions were formed. According to their October 1942 organizational structure, an airborne division had 44 37 mm anti-tank guns: four in divisional artillery (AA/AT battery of parachute field artillery battalion), 24 in the AA/AT battalion, and eight in each of two glider infantry regiments; parachute infantry regiments did not have anti-tank guns. In practice, airborne divisions often had only one glider infantry regiment and therefore 36 guns.
37 mm guns were also issued to the infantry regiments of the only mountain division formed in the U.S.: the 10th Mountain Division.
Finally, U.S. armored divisions under the March 1942 organization possessed 68 37 mm anti-tank guns. Of these, 37 belonged to the armored infantry regiment (four in each company and one in regiment HQ); 27 to the armored engineer battalion; three to the divisional train and one to division HQ.
US Marine Corps
Under the D-series Tables of Organization (TO) from 1 July 1942, the role of AT weapons in Marine Corps service was officially entrusted to 20 mm automatic guns, which were in the regimental weapon company (three platoons) and the battalion weapon company (one platoon). In practice, units used the World War I-era 37 mm M1916 for training. They were equipped with the M3 (four in each platoon) before being sent to the frontline. Additionally, a divisional special weapons battalion was equipped with self-propelled 37 mm GMC M6.
Under the E-series TO from 15 April 1943, self-propelled guns in the divisional special weapons battalion were replaced with eighteen 37 mm towed guns in three batteries of six; an infantry regiment had a weapons company with 12, in three platoons of four. The battalion-level AT guns were removed. In total, a division possessed 54 pieces. The F-series TO from 5 May 1944 removed the special weapons battalion from the divisional organization, resulting in a total of 36 guns per division. The subsequent G-series TO reduced regimental weapon companies to two platoons, meaning 24 pieces per division. Although the G-series TO was only adopted on 4 September 1945, in practice in some divisions this change was introduced early in 1945.
Other operators
The only major lend lease recipient of the M3 was the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (1,669 pieces). The gun was also supplied to Bolivia (4), Canada (3), Chile (198), Colombia (4), Cuba (1), El Salvador (9), France (130), Paraguay (12), United Kingdom (78), Soviet Union (63), Nicaragua (9), and other countries. Some nations still had it in service in the early 1970s.
Combat service
As an infantry anti-tank gun
The M3 saw action for the first time during the defense of the Philippines in December 1941. It went on to become a factor in the Guadalcanal Campaign, where it was successfully employed against both Japanese armor and infantry. Throughout the war it remained effective against Japanese vehicles, which were thinly armored and were rarely committed in large groups. The light weight of the gun made it easy to move through difficult terrain; for example, when attacked by Japanese tanks on Betio during the Battle of Tarawa, Marines were able to heave the M3 over the -high seawall. While high-explosive and canister ammunition proved useful in stopping Japanese infantry attacks, against enemy fortifications the M3 was only somewhat effective because of its small high-explosive projectile. Its overall effectiveness and ease of use meant the gun remained in service with the Marine Corps and with some army units in the Pacific until the end of the war. Unhappy with the unusually low shield of the M3, some Marine Corps units extended it to provide better protection. These extensions sometimes had a scalloped top edge, intended to improve camouflage. A standard kit was tested in 1945, but was never issued.
The experience of the M3 in the North African Campaign was completely different. The gun was not powerful enough to deal with late production German Panzer III and IV tanks. After the nearly disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass in February 1943, reports from some of the involved units mentioned 37 mm projectiles "bouncing off like marbles" from the turret and front armor of German medium tanks and proclaimed the gun "useless unless you have gun crews with the guts to stand and shoot from 100 yards". The Army was initially uncertain if these reports reflected the obsolescence of the weapon, or whether unrefined tactics and lack of experience were to blame. Yet, on 26 May 1943, a new organization had the M3 replaced by the 57 mm Gun M1 (the U.S.-produced version of the British 6-pounder gun), with Dodge 1½ ton trucks as prime movers. Only by spring 1944 did the 57 mm gun reach the battlefield in large numbers.
Meanwhile, the Italian campaign was launched, and M3 guns saw action from the day of the Sicily landing on 10 July 1943. That day the 37 mm guns demonstrated once again both their effectiveness against pre-war tanks—when they helped to repel an attack by Italian Renault R 35s—and inability to cope with modern threats in a subsequent encounter with Tiger Is from the Hermann Göring division. The Italian theater had a lower priority for reequipment than Northwest Europe, and some M3s were still in use in Italy in late 1944.
By mid-1944, the M3 had fallen out of favor even with airborne troops, despite their strong preference for compact and lightweight weapon systems. The Airborne Command had rejected the 57 mm M1 in the summer of 1943 claiming its unfitness for airlifting and the Table of Organisation and Equipment (TO&E) of February 1944 still had airborne divisions keeping their 37 mm guns. Nevertheless, the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were reequipped with British-manufactured 6-pounder gun (57 mm) on carriage Mk III (designed to fit into the British Horsa glider) for the Normandy airdrops. This change was officially introduced in the TO&E of December 1944.
As a tank gun
The 37mm gun was used as the primary armament for M3/M5 Stuart light tanks and M8 Greyhound armored cars. AP rounds from these guns could defeat light enemy armor, including all Japanese and Italian armor, German half-tracks and armored cars, and most surfaces of tanks and early self-propelled guns based on the German Panzer II, Panzer III, and early Panzer IV chassis, but were useless against later Panzer IV, Panzer VI (Tiger) tanks and the frontal armor of Panzer V (Panther) tanks. It was also similarly useless against later, more heavily armored self-propelled guns and Jagdpanzer tank destroyers. The HE rounds were not powerful enough for effective infantry support in most situations. The rounds were enough, however, to attack enemy light reconnaissance units, and both the M3/M5 Stuart and M8 Greyhound were restricted to reconnaissance for the majority of the war in Europe. Canister rounds were often used to good effect against Japanese infantry in many battles, such as Bloody Ridge.
There were also serious issues with the gun's ability to function effectively in the infantry support role. The 37mm HE round had 39 grams (0.085 lb) of TNT, producing an explosive power of 161 Kilojoules. By way of contrast, the HE round from a Sherman 75mm gun had 667 grams (1.47 lb) of TNT, producing 2790 Kilojoules, while the modern 40mm shell from M203 grenade launchers has 32 grams (0.07 lb) of Comp B, producing an explosive power of 134 Kilojoules.
The M3 was phased out of U.S. service soon after the end of the war.
Variants
Test variants:
T3 – the first prototype.
T7 – a prototype with semi-automatic horizontal sliding-block breech.
T8 – a prototype with Nordenfelt eccentric screw breech.
T10 – standardized as M3 (1938) – an adopted version, with manual vertical block breech.
Model variants
M3 towed version, manual breech.
M3A1 (1942) – version with threaded barrel end to accept a muzzle brake, which was never issued.
M5 (1939) – tank mounted variant with shorter barrel.
M6 (1940) – tank mounted variant with barrel of the original length and with semi-automatic breech.
Carriage variants:
T1, T1E1 – prototypes.
T5, standardized as M4 – first adopted version.
M4A1 (1942) – carriage with improved traverse controls.
In 1942, the Airborne Command requested a version with removable trails. A prototype was tested, but in 1943 the project was dropped as unnecessary.
At least in one case, Fifth Army Ordnance in Italy fitted the gun experimentally with fifteen aircraft rockets, in five clusters of three, mounted above the shield.
Variants of the M3 should not be confused with other 37 mm guns in the U.S. service. Those other pieces included the M1916 infantry gun of French design (these were later used extensively as subcaliber devices for heavy artillery.), M1 antiaircraft autocannon, M4/M9/M10 aircraft-mounted autocannons, M12/M13/M14/M15 subcaliber guns.
Self-propelled mounts
Two tank gun variants were developed based on the barrel of the M3. The first, initially designated M3A1 but renamed M5 on 13 October 1939, was shortened by to avoid damage to the tube in wooded areas. Later, a variant with a semi-automatic breech (with empty cartridge ejection) was developed. This variant—initially designated M5E1, adopted as M6 on 14 November 1940—received a full length barrel. The tubes were interchangeable, but replacing M5 with M6 and vice versa would result in an unbalanced mount and was therefore prohibited. These guns were mounted on several models of tanks and other armored vehicles:
Light Tank M2A4: M5 in mount M20. The recoil mechanism, protruding beyond the gun mask, had to be protected by an armored casing.
Light Tank M3: M5 in mount M22, in late production vehicles M6 in mount M23. These mounts were fitted with more compact recoil mechanism, eliminating the need for the protective casing.
Light Tank M3A1, M5: M6 in mount M23.
Light Tank M3A3, M5A1: M6 in mount M44.
Light Tank (Airborne) M22: M6 in mount M53.
M3 series medium tanks (as a secondary weapon): M5 or M6 in mount M24.
Heavy Tank M6 (as a secondary weapon): M6 in mount T49.
LVT(A)-1 : M6 in mount M44.
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T22 – eventually Light Armored Car M8: M6 in mount M23A1; the competing designs 37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T43 / Light Armored Car T21 and 37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T23 / Light Armored Car T23 mounted the same weapon.
Armored Car T13.
Armored Car T17: M6 in mount M24.
Armored Car T17E1 in the "Staghound Mk I" configuration: M6 in mount M24A1.
The first pilot of the Armored Car T18: M6. The production variant T18E2 received the 57mm M1.
Armored Car T19: M6 in mount M23A1.
Armored Car T27: M6 in mount M23A1 modified.
Armored Car T28 / M38: M6 in mount M23A2.
British Humber Armoured Car Mk IV: M6.
Versions of the gun in turret mounts were also used in the Medium Tank T5 Phase III (T3 barrel, mount T1), in the Medium Tank M2 / M2A1 (M3 barrel, M2A1: mount M19), and in the 37mm Gun Motor Carriage T42 (mount M22).
In addition, the M3 on different pedestal mounts was mated to a number of other vehicles, resulting in an assortment of 37 mm gun motor carriages. Only the M6 reached mass production.
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T2 (Bantam jeep).
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T8 (Ford 4x4 "Swamp Buggy").
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T13, T14 (Willys 6x6 "Super Jeep").
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T21 / M4 / M6 (Fargo 3/4 ton 4x4 truck).
37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T33 (Ford 3/4 ton 4x4 cargo carrier).
M3A1E3 Scout Car.
The gun was sometimes mounted on M2 Halftrack, M29 Weasel and on the 1/4 ton Willys MB / Ford GPW jeep (see photo on the right).
On several occasions, the M3 was mounted on PT boats to increase their firepower. One of these boats was John F. Kennedy's PT-109. The gun with its wheels removed was mounted on wooden planks nailed to the deck.
Ammunition
The M3 utilized fixed ammunition. Projectiles were fitted with a 37x223R cartridge case, designated Cartridge Case M16. Available projectiles included armor-piercing, high-explosive and canister. 1943 Soviet analysis described armor-piercing shots as modern, but criticized the M63 HE shell, claiming its M58 base fuze didn't work properly in tests.
Armor penetration of the M5 was about 3 mm less at all ranges.
Gallery
Notes
Notes
Citations
References
Moschanskiy, I. (1999). Armored vehicles of the Great Britain 1939–1945 part 2, Modelist-Konstruktor, Bronekollektsiya 1999–02 ().
External links
Photo gallery at Fightingiron.com
Photo gallery at SVSM.org .
Popular Science, April 1940, "Tanks Can Be Destroyed"—article on early US Army concepts for tank destroyers using Gun M3 on various vehicles
"Little Poison", August 1942, Popular Science—excellent detailed article on the M3 antitank cannon
37 mm artillery
Anti-tank guns of the United States
Tank guns of the United States
World War II anti-tank guns
World War II weapons of China
World War II tank guns
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1940 |
4080082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marouane%20Chamakh | Marouane Chamakh | Marouane Chamakh (; ; born 10 January 1984) is a former professional footballer who played as a forward. He is described as a prototypical target man and is noted for his "link-up play", "tall stature" and "excellent heading ability". Chamakh is also Bordeaux's eleventh highest goalscorer of all-time.
Chamakh started his career training with various clubs in the Aquitaine region. In 2000, he signed with Bordeaux. Chamakh made his professional debut for the club in the 2002–03 season. He spent nine years at the club and helped Bordeaux win the Coupe de la Ligue in 2007. In the 2008–09 season, Chamakh won the league title as Bordeaux were crowned champions for the first time since the 1998–99 season. The club also won the Coupe de la Ligue completing the league and league cup double. In May 2010, Chamakh joined Premier League club Arsenal on a free transfer after agreeing a four-year contract with the club. Whilst with the Gunners, he helped take the club to the League Cup final of 2011. During his stay at the Emirates, Chamakh also became the first player in UEFA Champions League history to score in six consecutive games.
Chamakh, who was born and raised in France, chose to play international football for Morocco due to his Moroccan parents. He made his national team debut in July 2003 and played in three Africa Cup of Nations tournaments, including the 2004 tournament in which Morocco finished as runners-up. In August 2010, he captained the national team for the first time.
Club career
Early career
Chamakh began his football career at the age of four playing for local club Nérac FC in the nearby commune of Nérac. After six years at Nérac, Chamakh joined FC Marmandais. While in Marmande, he developed his physical skills and traits, growing as tall as 6 ft (1.83 m) and also earning his first regional selection to play for the Aquitaine regional team in the Coupe Nationale.
Bordeaux
In 2000, Chamakh was pursued by several professional clubs that wanted to obtain his services. He drew interest from Lens, Toulouse, Lorient, and Bordeaux. Chamakh eventually decided to sign with Bordeaux due to the club's infrastructure and training facilities and also because of the close proximity to his family. Upon his arrival, Chamakh was placed into the club's youth academy. For the 2001–02 season, he was promoted to the club's Championnat de France amateur 2 team in the fifth division. Chamakh was involved heavily in the campaign of the team, coached by Jean-Louis Garcia. He appeared in 17 matches and scored six goals as the team finished first in their group, thus earning promotion to the Championnat de France amateur.
Following the season, Chamakh turned professional and signed a three-year contract with Bordeaux. He spent the first half of the 2002–03 campaign playing in the fourth division, but following the winter break, was called up to the senior team by manager Élie Baup. Chamakh made his professional debut on 19 January 2003 in the team's Coupe de la Ligue match against Metz. He appeared as a substitute and played 15 minutes in a 1–0 defeat. Chamakh made his league debut three weeks later in a 2–0 home defeat to Bastia again appearing as a substitute. On 20 May, he scored his first professional goal against Nice, netting the equalizing goal just a minute before injury time in a 1–1 draw. Chamakh appeared in 14 games, always as a substitute, during the campaign. In the 2003–04 season, he was promoted to the senior team permanently by new manager Michel Pavon and made his first professional league start on 1 November 2003 in a 1–0 win over Marseille. In the team's following match, Chamakh scored the opening goal in a 1–1 draw with Strasbourg just before halftime. However, midway through the second half, he received his first career red card after incurring a second yellow. Upon returning from his one-game suspension, Chamakh developed into a regular starter for the club, scoring goals in consecutive matches against Metz and Montpellier. He finished the league campaign with six goals in 25 matches. In the club's UEFA Cup campaign, Chamakh netted four times in eight appearances.
In the 2004–05 season, Pavon decided to move Chamakh into the lead striker position and install Argentine playmaker Juan Pablo Francia as a support striker. The move was a success with Chamakh scoring ten league goals. He opened the campaign by scoring his first professional hat-trick in a 5–1 victory over Nice. In September 2004, Chamakh scored goals in back-to-back matches against Bastia and Derby de la Garonne rivals Toulouse. He finished the campaign by scoring the opening goal in a 1–1 draw with Monaco. Despite the positive individual season from Chamakh, Bordeaux finished the campaign in 15th place; its worst finish since ending the league campaign in 16th over a decade before. Pavon, due to heart problems, stepped down from his position and was replaced by Ricardo Gomes. Under Gomes, Chamakh struggled to meet the success of his previous season scoring only 12 league goals in 58 matches over the course of two seasons. Two of his notable performances during Gomes' reign included scoring a double in league matches against Metz and Nancy. In the match against the former club, Chamakh scored both of his goals within a minute of each other. He was later ejected from the match after committing a red card offense. Chamakh ended the 2006–07 Ligue 1 campaign by hoisting the Coupe de la Ligue trophy after featuring in the team's 1–0 victory over Lyon in the final match. It was Chamakh's first major club honour.
Following the departure of Gomes, Bordeaux hired rookie manager Laurent Blanc ahead of the 2007–08 season. Chamakh has stated on several occasions that Blanc was an important figure in his development as a footballer. However, when Blanc first arrived to the club, Chamakh struggled to earn meaningful minutes because Blanc preferred David Bellion, a new recruit. His playing time up front was further hampered by the arrival of striker Fernando Cavenaghi, who had a prolific season scoring 15 goals in only 23 appearances. Due to Cavenaghi's emergence, Chamakh was used as a target man and scored four goals, his lowest output since becoming a professional. In the 2008–09 season, Chamakh was relegated to appearing as a substitute for the first half of the campaign. However, on 21 December 2008, Chamakh convinced Blanc to change his mind. With Bordeaux trailing 3–0 against Monaco, Chamakh appeared as a substitute and, within minutes on the field, scored a goal. Following a goal from Alou Diarra to make the match 3–2, Chamakh equalized three minutes from time and, two minutes later, Cavenaghi netted the game-winner to give Bordeaux a 4–3 victory. Following the winter break, Blanc decided to use both Chamakh and Cavenaghi in the attack with influential playmaker Yoann Gourcuff acting in support. It was the former who developed a consistent partnership with Gourcuff, and Chamakh responded by scoring eight league goals in the second half of the season. On 30 May 2009, Bordeaux sealed their first league title since the 1998–99 season after defeating Caen 1–0 at the Stade Chaban-Delmas. Chamakh played the entire match. The club also won the Coupe de la Ligue, completing the league and league cup double.
During the club's victory parade, with only one year left on his contract Chamakh declared that he would be staying at Bordeaux for the 2009–10 season, despite strong interest from Premier League club Arsenal. Despite the statement, rumors of a move to Arsenal continued to surface with negotiations reportedly having been ongoing throughout the summer. On 3 August 2009, president Jean-Louis Triaud declared that Arsenal had sent a bid of €7 million for Chamakh and that he had rejected it, demanding that Arsenal improve its offer. The following day, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger announced that he would not be offering a better deal and declared the possible transfer dead. The announcement subsequently led Chamakh to confirm his intent to remain at Bordeaux for the 2009–10 season. On 29 August, Chamakh reportedly snubbed a move to West Ham United. The club offered Bordeaux £18 million for the player and offered Chamakh a four-year contract worth £3 million a year. However, Chamakh remained firm on his stance, reiterating his commitment to Bordeaux.
In his final season with Bordeaux, Chamakh was equally adept in both the league and the Champions League. He began the season claiming his fifth trophy on 25 July 2009 as Bordeaux won the Trophée des Champions in a 2–0 victory over Guingamp. Chamakh scored ten goals in league play and netted five in the Champions League, which included goals against Italian club Juventus and German club Bayern Munich in the group stage. Bordeaux were only one of two clubs to finish the group stage portion undefeated. In the knockout rounds, Chamakh scored a goal in Bordeaux's 2–1 victory over Greek club Olympiacos in the second leg of the team's UEFA Champions League opening knockout round match. Bordeaux won the tie with a 3–1 aggregate scoreline to advance to the quarter-finals, where they faced league rivals Lyon. In the first leg, which Lyon won 3–1, Chamakh scored a vital away goal. In the second leg, Chamakh converted another goal to get the scoreline 3–2 on aggregate. In the second half, however, Bordeaux were unable to score another as Lyon advanced to the semi-finals on the aggregate scoreline. In Ligue 1, Chamakh appeared in all 38 matches for the first time in his career. Despite starting the campaign strong, Bordeaux fell out of the running for the league title in the spring and eventually finished the season in sixth place, failing to qualify for European competition next season.
Arsenal
On 21 May 2010, Chamakh completed his move to Arsenal on a free transfer after completing his contract with Bordeaux. The transfer took effect on 1 July 2010. He made his debut in a pre-season friendly against Barnet on 17 July, appearing as a substitute. On 27 July, he scored his first pre-season goal for the club, converting a penalty in a 4–0 victory over Austrian club SC Neusiedl. In the 2010 edition of the Emirates Cup, Chamakh scored on his home debut against Italian club Milan. On 7 August 2010, he scored the first goal in 6-5 win against Legia Warsaw in a friendly match and the last match for pre-season. He made his Premier League debut on 15 August in the team's 1–1 draw with Liverpool. Chamakh contributed to the team's equalising goal by heading a cross off the goal post, which then redirected off goalkeeper Pepe Reina and into the back of the net, resulting in an own goal.
On 21 August 2010, Chamakh scored his first Premier League goal with a header against Blackpool. In the same match, he won a penalty when he was fouled by Ian Evatt, which Andrey Arshavin subsequently converted in a 6–0 win for Arsenal. In his third start in four games, Chamakh scored the team's second goal against Bolton Wanderers in a 4–1 victory. On 15 September, in his first Champions League match for the club, he scored the third goal in a 6–0 win against Portuguese club Braga. Two weeks later, Chamakh scored his second Champions League goal for Arsenal against Serbian outfit Partizan. The goal was his seventh goal in eight Champions League matches. Following the international break, Chamakh continued his solid form, scoring the winning goal in a 2–1 victory over Birmingham City. Three days later, he scored his eighth goal in nine Champions League matches against Ukrainian club Shakhtar Donetsk in a 5–1 rout. On 10 November, Chamakh scored both goals in a midweek victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers. He scored the opening goal 37 seconds into play, which is the fastest league goal scored in the club's history.
On 20 November, Chamakh scored a goal in a 3–2 defeat by Tottenham Hotspur in the North London derby. A week later, he converted another goal, this time in a 4–2 win over Aston Villa. Following the goal against Villa, Chamakh went scoreless in the winter months, often appearing as a substitute in a majority of the matches. In matches he did start, he was often substituted on early in the second half. On 15 February 2011, he admitted that he felt burnt-out, stating, "By the start of January I felt that I had completely lost my edge." The striker also admitted he needed some rest and wouldn't return to full form until March. On 20 February, Chamakh played the entire match in Arsenal's 1–1 draw with Leyton Orient in the FA Cup. It was the first time in nearly two months he had played the full 90 minutes in a match. On 2 March, in the replay against Leyton Orient, Chamakh scored his first goal since November in a 5–0 win.
In the 2011–12 season, Chamakh made just 11 league appearances, most of which as a substitute, and scored only one goal, which came in the 4–3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers.
On 30 October 2012, Chamakh made his first start since January, scoring two goals to help Arsenal recover from a 4–0 disadvantage and defeat Reading 7–5 in extra time and advance to the quarter-finals of the League Cup.
Loan to West Ham United
On 4 January 2013, it was announced that Chamakh had been loaned to West Ham United until the end of the 2012–13 season. The loan deal was confirmed on West Ham's official site with the striker saying, "I didn't have opportunities to play recently, but I did well before and I know I am a very good striker. We played only one striker at Arsenal, so I didn't play a lot, so I hope to do so more with West Ham." He played only three games for West Ham and did not score any goals.
Crystal Palace
On 10 August 2013, Ian Holloway announced the signing of Chamakh on a one-year deal from Arsenal to Crystal Palace. On 24 August 2013 he scored his first Premier League goal since September 2011 and his first for Crystal Palace, in a 2–1 away defeat to Stoke City.
On 9 November 2013, Chamakh was given a standing ovation by the home fans at Selhurst Park whilst being substituted, despite not scoring, impressing with his work rate and attitude against Everton. On 3 December 2013, Chamakh scored in a 1–0 win against West Ham from a cross by Barry Bannan, his first goal in 11 matches. He continued his good form with a well-hit low volley in a 2–0 home win over Cardiff City. On 14 December 2013, he scored his third goal in three matches against Chelsea in a 2–1 away loss; he received a standing ovation for "working his socks off literally" when replaced on the 88th minute.
At the end of the 2013–14 season, Chamakh was listed as being released by the club, as his contract had expired. On 11 July 2014, however, it was announced that Chamakh had signed a new two-year contract with Palace. On 24 January 2015, he scored a brace in a 2–3 away win against Southampton in the FA Cup.
On the final day of the 2014–15 Premier League season, Chamakh scored the winner in a 1–0 home victory against Swansea City at Selhurst Park, the club's final home goal of the season. Coincidentally, the Moroccan had scored his first Palace home goal of that season, when he scored against his former club West Ham in August. The goal was only his second league goal of the season. On 13 June 2016, it was announced that Chamakh had again been released by Crystal Palace.
Cardiff City
On 11 October 2016, Chamakh joined Championship side Cardiff City on a short-term contract. He made his debut for the club on 19 October as a second-half substitute in place of Rickie Lambert during a 1–1 draw with Sheffield Wednesday. He was released by Cardiff in December 2016 having made two appearances, both as a substitute.
Retirement
On 26 May 2019, Chamakh confirmed that he retired from professional football after not playing for almost two-and-a-half years.
International career
Chamakh is a Moroccan international at the senior level. Prior to representing Morocco, he played for the under-19 team of France and made his debut on 12 February 2003 in a friendly match against the Czech Republic. That was his only appearance with the team. Chamakh was then selected within the French squad for the 2003 UEFA European Under-19 Championship, but declined the offer after being called up by Moroccan national team coach Badou Zaki for the team's 2004 African Cup of Nations qualification matches against Sierra Leone and Gabon. On 7 June 2003, he made his debut with the team in the match against Sierra Leone. On 10 September 2003, Chamakh scored both goals, which included his first international goal, in a 2–0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. He participated in the rest of the qualification matches and was later named to participate in the tournament. Chamakh scored two goals in the competition; one against Benin in the group stage and another in the quarter-finals against Algeria. Morocco beat Mali in the semi-finals to reach the final where they faced Tunisia. In the match, Chamakh played the entire contest as Morocco were defeated 2–1 at the Stade 7 Novembre in Tunis.
In qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Chamakh scored three goals. One of his goals during qualification occurred on 8 October 2010 against Tunisia. With Morocco needing a win to qualify for the World Cup, Chamakh opened the scoring in the third minute. However, the match finished 2–2, which resulted in the team failing to qualify for the competition. However, the draw did allow Morocco qualification for the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations. In the tournament, Morocco were eliminated in the group stage and departed the tournament without scoring a goal. In 2008, Chamakh was selected to participate in his third consecutive Africa Cup of Nations and was held scoreless in the competition as Morocco were again eliminated in the group stage. In 2009–2010, Chamakh appeared in only four matches and scored no goals as Morocco failed to qualify for both the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations and the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
On 11 August 2010, Chamakh captained the national team for the first time in a 2–1 win over the Equatorial Guinea. Three months later, he scored the opening goal in the team's 1–1 away draw to Northern Ireland. After going scoreless for six months at international level, on 4 June 2011, Chamakh scored the second goal in a 4–0 win over Algeria in qualification for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations.
Chamakh was excluded from Morocco's squad for the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations, with coach Rachid Taoussi explaining that the striker had not been playing enough club football to be considered.
Personal life
Chamakh was born in Tonneins, a small town near the Garonne River, to Moroccan parents, and was raised in the nearby commune of Aiguillon. His father, El Mostafa Chamakh, was a former footballer in Morocco and played for club Difaâ Aïn Sbaâ in Casablanca. In 1979, he left Morocco to locate more favorable living conditions and to find a better job.
While pursuing his career as a professional footballer, Chamakh was equally adept off the field earning good grades in school. During his early years at Bordeaux, he began attending high school. He hoped to earn a Baccalauréat in accounting, which he later accomplished. In addition to having a Baccalauréat, Chamakh is also very interested in politics and, in February 2010, voiced his support for the Democratic Movement (MoDem) political party ahead of the upcoming regional elections. In the 2010 regional elections, Chamakh was, surprisingly, listed as a candidate by the MoDem for the Gironde department in the Aquitaine region. The lead deputy of the party, Jean Lassalle, stated on the decision to name Chamakh to the ballot: "I want to gather all the forces of Aquitaine to sustain our region, and Marouane is one of those forces who Aquitaine needs." Chamakh was listed as a non-eligible candidate on the ballot and Lasalle was accused of using Chamakh in order to garner votes from football supporters in the region.
Chamakh is a practising Muslim and has stated that "I have no problem fasting during Ramadan, it becomes normal. The day before a game and on match days I do not fast, but I'll make up the lost days later."
Career statistics
Club
International
Source:
International goals
Scores and results list Morocco's goal tally first.
Honours
Bordeaux
Ligue 1: 2008–09
Coupe de la Ligue: 2006–07, 2008–09, runner-up: 2009–10
Trophée des Champions: 2008, 2009
Arsenal
Football League Cup runner-up: 2010–11
Morocco
Africa Cup of Nations runner-up: 2004
Individual
Marc-Vivien Foé Award: 2008–09
UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year: 2009–10
Bordeaux Player of the Year: 2010
See also
References
External links
Crystal Palace FC Profile
1984 births
Living people
French men's footballers
French expatriate men's footballers
France men's youth international footballers
French sportspeople of Moroccan descent
French Muslims
Moroccan men's footballers
Moroccan expatriate men's footballers
Morocco men's international footballers
Men's association football forwards
FC Girondins de Bordeaux players
Arsenal F.C. players
West Ham United F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
Expatriate men's footballers in England
2004 African Cup of Nations players
2006 Africa Cup of Nations players
2008 Africa Cup of Nations players
2012 Africa Cup of Nations players
Expatriate men's footballers in Wales
Sportspeople from Lot-et-Garonne
Footballers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
French expatriate sportspeople in England
Moroccan expatriate sportspeople in Wales
Moroccan expatriate sportspeople in England
French expatriate sportspeople in Wales |
4080646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapy%20Smith | Soapy Smith | Jefferson Randolph "Soapy" Smith II (November 2, 1860 – July 8, 1898) was an American con artist and gangster in the American frontier.
Smith operated confidence schemes across the Western United States, and had a large hand in organized criminal operations in both Colorado and the District of Alaska. Smith gained notoriety through his "prize soap racket," in which he would sell bars of soap with prize money hidden in some of the bars' packaging in order to increase sales. However, through sleight of hand, he would ensure that only members of his gang purchased "prize" soap. The racket led to his sobriquet of "Soapy."
The success of his soap racket and other scams helped him finance three successive criminal empires in Denver and Creede, both in Colorado, and in Skagway, Alaska. He was killed in the shootout on Juneau Wharf in Skagway, on July 8, 1898.
Early years
Jefferson Smith was born on November 2, 1860, in Coweta County, Georgia, to a wealthy family. His grandfather was a plantation owner and Georgia legislator, while his father was an attorney. However, the Smith family was met with financial ruin at the close of the American Civil War and in 1876, they moved to Round Rock, Texas, to start anew. It was in Round Rock where Smith began his career as a confidence man. In 1877, Smith's mother died and he left home shortly thereafter, but not before witnessing the death of the outlaw Sam Bass in 1878.
Career
Smith moved to Fort Worth, Texas, where he formed a close-knit, disciplined gang of shills and thieves to work for him. He quickly became a well-known crime boss and, eventually, the "king of the frontier con men." His gang of swindlers, known as the Soap Gang, including men such as Texas Jack Vermillion and "Big Ed" Burns, moved from town to town plying their trade on unwary victims. Their principal method was short cons, in which swindles were quick and needed little setup and assistance. The short cons included the shell game, three-card monte, and rigged poker games, which they called "big mitt."
The prize soap racket
Smith's most well-known short con was a ploy which the Denver newspapers dubbed the "prize soap racket." Smith would set a display case, piled with bars of soap, on a busy street corner. As he sold the bars of soap and spoke to a growing crowd of onlookers, he would wrap money—ranging from one to a hundred dollars—around a few select bars of soap. He then wrapped plain paper around all the bars so that the money was hidden.
He then made the appearance of mixing the money-wrapped "prize soap" in with the regular soap and sold the soap to the crowd for one dollar per bar. Then, a shill in the crowd would buy a bar, tear it open, and loudly proclaim that he had won some money, waving it around for all to see. The performance led to the sale of even more bars of soap. Midway through the sale, Smith would announce that the hundred-dollar bill still remained in the pile. He would then auction off the remaining soap bars to the highest bidders. Through manipulation and sleight-of-hand, the only money "won" went to his shills.
On one occasion, Smith was arrested by policeman John Holland for running his prize soap racket. While writing in the police logbook, Holland had forgotten Smith's first name and wrote "Soapy." The sobriquet stuck, and he became known as "Soapy Smith."
Denver, Colorado
In 1879, Smith arrived in Denver for the first time and, by 1882, he had successfully built the first of his three empires. Con men usually moved from town to town to avoid the law, but as Smith's power and gang grew, so did his influence at city hall, which allowed him to remain in the city, protected from prosecution. By 1887, he was reputedly involved with most of the criminal activities in the city. Newspapers in Denver reported that he controlled the city's criminals and underworld gambling, and accused corrupt politicians and the police chief of accepting bribes.
The Tivoli Club
In 1888, Smith opened The Tivoli Club—a combination saloon and gambling house—on the southeast corner of Market and 17th Street. Allegedly, a sign above the entrance to the gambling games read "caveat emptor," Latin for "let the buyer beware." Smith's younger brother, Bascomb Smith, joined the gang and operated a cigar store that was a front for dishonest poker games and other swindles, which operated in one of the back rooms. Other operations included fraudulent lottery shops, a "sure thing" stock exchange, fake watch and diamond auctions, and the sale of stocks in nonexistent businesses.
Politics and other cons
Due to receiving bribes, some of the police officers patrolling the streets would not arrest Smith or members of his gang, and other officers feared Smith's quick and violent anger. On those occasions when Smith or one of his men were arrested, their friends, attorneys, and associates were always ready to obtain their quick release from jail. An electoral fraud trial after the municipal elections of 1889 brought attention to the corrupt ties and payoffs among Smith, the mayor and the chief of police—a combination referred to in local newspapers as "the firm of Londoner, Farley, and Smith." The mayor lost his job, but Smith remained untouched. He opened an office in the prominent Cheever block (one block south of his Tivoli Club) from which he ran his many operations. This also fronted as a business tycoon's office for high-end swindles.
Smith was not without enemies and rivals for his position as underworld boss. He faced several attempts on his life and shot several of his assailants. He became known increasingly for his gambling and bad temper.
Creede, Colorado
In 1892, with Denver in the midst of anti-gambling and saloon reforms, Smith sold the Tivoli and moved to Creede, Colorado, a mining boomtown that sprang up on the site of a major silver strike. Using Denver-based prostitutes to get close to property owners and convince them to sign over leases, he acquired numerous lots along Creede's main street and rented them to his associates. After gaining enough allies, he announced that he was the camp boss.
With brother-in-law and gang member William Sidney "Cap" Light as a deputy sheriff, Smith began his second empire, opening a gambling hall and saloon called the Orleans Club. He purchased and briefly exhibited a petrified man nicknamed "McGinty" for an admission of 10 cents. While customers were waiting in line, Smith ran shell and three-card monte games to swindle even more money.
Smith provided an order of sorts, protecting his friends and associates from the town's council and expelling violent troublemakers. Many of the influential newcomers were sent to meet him. Smith grew rich in the process but was also known to give money away freely, using it to build churches, help the poor, and to bury unfortunate prostitutes.
Creede's boom quickly waned, and corrupt Denver officials sent word that the reforms in Denver were coming to an end. Smith returned to Denver and brought "McGinty" with him. He left at the right time, as Creede soon lost most of its business district in a huge fire on 5 June 1892. Among the buildings destroyed was the Orleans Club.
Return to Denver, Colorado
Upon his return to Denver, Smith opened new businesses which served as fronts for his many short cons. One involved allegedly discounted railroad tickets, in which potential purchasers were told the ticket agent was out of the office, but that they could benefit from a discount by playing any of several rigged games. Smith's power had grown to the point that he admitted to the press he was a con man and saw nothing wrong with it, telling a reporter, "I consider bunco steering more honorable than the life led by the average politician."
In 1894, Colorado's newly-elected governor Davis Hanson Waite fired three Denver officials as part of anti-corruption reforms. They refused to leave their positions and fortified themselves in the Denver City Hall with others who felt their jobs were threatened. Governor Waite called on the state militia to remove them, which brought two cannons and two Gatling guns. Smith joined the corrupt officeholders and police at City Hall and was commissioned a deputy sheriff. Smith and several of his men climbed the City Hall's central tower with rifles and dynamite to fend off any attackers. However, Governor Waite eventually decided to withdraw the militia and the battle was instead fought in the courts, in which Soapy Smith was an important witness. The Colorado Supreme Court ruled that Governor Waite had authority to replace the commissioners, but was to be reprimanded for bringing in the militia, in what became known as the "City Hall War."
Governor Waite then ordered the closure of all of Denver's gambling dens, saloons, and bordellos. Smith exploited the situation, using his new title of deputy sheriff to make fake arrests in his own gambling houses by apprehending patrons who had lost large sums in rigged poker games. The victims were happy to leave when the "officers" allowed them to walk away from the crime scene—without recouping their losses—rather than be arrested.
Eventually, Soapy and his brother Bascomb Smith became too well-known, and even the most corrupt city officials could no longer protect them. When they were charged with attempted murder for the beating of a saloon manager, Bascomb was jailed but Soapy managed to escape, becoming a wanted man in Colorado.
Before leaving, Smith tried to convince the Mexican President Porfirio Díaz that his country needed the services of a foreign legion made up of American toughs. Smith became known as Colonel Smith, and managed to organize a recruiting office before the deal failed.
Skagway and the Klondike Gold Rush
When the Klondike Gold Rush began in 1897, Smith moved his operations to Dyea and Skagway. His first attempt at occupying Skagway ended in failure when miners' committees encouraged him to leave the area after operating his three-card monte and pea-and-shell games on the White Pass Trail for less than a month. He traveled to St. Louis and Washington, D.C., and did not return to Skagway until late January 1898.
Smith set up his third empire much the same way as he had in Denver and Creede. He put the town's deputy U.S. marshal on his payroll and began collecting allies for a takeover. Smith opened a fake telegraph office in which the wires went only as far as the wall. Not only did the telegraph office obtain fees for "sending" messages, but also cash-laden victims soon found themselves losing even more money in poker games with newfound "friends." Telegraph lines did not reach or leave Skagway until 1901. Smith opened a saloon named Jeff. Smith's Parlor in March 1898 as an office from which to run his operations. Although Skagway already had a municipal building, Smith's saloon became known as "the real city hall."
Smith's men played a variety of roles, such as newspaper reporter or clergyman, with the intention of befriending a new arrival and determining the best way to rid him of his money. The new arrival would be steered by his "friends" to dishonest shipping companies, hotels, or gambling dens until he was wiped out. If the man was likely to make trouble or could not be recruited into the gang, Smith would then appear in person and offer to pay his way back to civilization.
When a vigilance committee, the "Committee of 101," threatened to expel Smith and his gang, he formed his own "law and order society," which claimed 317 members, to force the vigilantes into submission. Most of the petty gamblers and con men did indeed leave Skagway at this time, and Smith resorted to other means to appear respectable to the community.
During the Spanish–American War in 1898, Smith formed his own volunteer army with the approval of the United States Department of War, known as the "Skaguay Military Company," with himself as its captain. Smith wrote to President William McKinley and gained official recognition for his company, which he used to strengthen his control of the town.
On July 4, 1898, Smith rode as marshal of the Fourth Division of the parade leading his army on his gray horse. On the grandstand, he sat beside the territorial governor and other officials.
Death
On July 7, 1898, John Douglas Stewart, a returning Klondike miner, came to Skagway with a sack of gold valued at $2,700 ($82,620 in 2017 dollars). Three gang members convinced the miner to participate in a game of three-card monte. When Stewart balked at having to pay his losses, the three men grabbed the sack and ran. The "Committee of 101" demanded that Smith return the gold, but he refused, claiming that Stewart had lost it "fairly."
On the evening of July 8, the vigilance committee organized a meeting on the Juneau Wharf. With a Winchester rifle draped over his shoulder, Smith began an argument with Frank H. Reid, one of four guards blocking his way to the wharf. A gunfight, known as the Shootout on Juneau Wharf, began unexpectedly, and both men were fatally wounded.
Smith's last words were "My God, don't shoot!" A letter from Sam Steele, the legendary head of the Canadian Mounties at the time, indicates that another guard, Jesse Murphy, may have fired the fatal shot. Smith died on the spot with a bullet to the heart. He also received a bullet in his left leg and a severe wound on the left arm by the elbow. Reid died 12 days later with a bullet in his leg and groin area. The three gang members who robbed Stewart received jail sentences.
Soapy Smith was buried several yards outside the city cemetery.
Legacy and portrayals
Festivals
Soapy Smith Wake in Skagway, Alaska. Held annually on July 8.
Soapy Smith Party at the Magic Castle in Hollywood. An annual party on July 8 with costume contests, charity gambling, and magic shows.
Fiction
You Can't Win (1926), Smith appears in Jack Black's autobiography.
The Great Alone (1987), Smith is a major character in the novel by Janet Dailey.
The Yukon Trail (1994), a video game where the player can meet Soapy Smith and play his shell game featured in "The Wretched Hive".
The King of the Klondike (1995) (Uncle Scrooge #292, part 8 of The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck),Soapy Slick is the crooked saloon operator and profiteer in the Uncle Scrooge comic series.
How Much for Just the Planet? (2000), in the Star Trek Worlds Apart novel by John M. Ford, a 1987 Star Trek tie-in novel, a small 3-person Sulek-Class dilithium-scouting prospector starship was named after the infamous con-man, USS Jefferson Randolph Smith, NCC-29402.
Tara Kane (2001), presents a fictionalized version of Soapy Smith (and his death) featured in George Markstein's novel.
American Gods (2002), Smith and his schemes are mentioned repeatedly in the novel by Neil Gaiman.
Lili Klondike (2008), a book by Mylène Gilbert-Dumas, Smith is the villain.
The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2013), Smith is depicted as a business rival of an antagonist to Robert Ford in the novel by Ron Hansen.
The Klondike (1996), Smith appears in a Lucky Luke story by Jean Léturgie.
Film
The Girl Alaska (1919) is believed to be the first portrayal of Soapy Smith. The film was shown in a theater in St. Louis, where Soapy's widow and son lived and caused them to sue the production company.
Call of the Wild (1935), portrayed by Harry Woods.
Honky Tonk (1941), portrayed by Clark Gable. Due to legal pressure from Smith's descendants, the name "Soapy Smith" was changed to "Candy Johnson."
The Great Jesse James Raid (1953), portrayed by Earle Hodgins.
The Far Country (1955), John McIntire portrays a character loosely based on Smith.
Klondike Fever (1980), portrayed by Rod Steiger.
The Call of the Wild (2020), an extra bearing a striking resemblance to Smith can be seen in an Alaskan saloon in a dark suit and wide-brimmed white hat.
Television
The Alaskans (1959–1960), portrayed by John Dehner.
Alias Smith and Jones (1971–1972), portrayed by Sam Jaffe in three episodes: "The Great Shell Game" (aired February 18, 1971), "A Fistful of Diamonds" (March 4, 1971), and "Bad Night in Big Butte" (March 2, 1972).
Klondike (2014), portrayed by Ian Hart. The series depicts Smith operating in Dawson City in 1897 as opposed to Skagway and instead of dying in a shootout, he is stabbed to death by a Tlingit.
An Klondike (2015–2017), portrayed by Michael Glenn Murphy. Smith's nationality was changed to English in the series, which depicts him as operating in the fictional town of Dominion Creek.
HBO television series Deadwood (2004–2006): A character known to sell soap with a prize inside, amongst other small cons, like selling fake strands of hair supposedly taken from a decapitated Indian.
Also depicted in a Canadian "Heritage Minute" being refused entry by Sir Sam Steele into the Klondike during the gold rush.
Citations
General and cited references
Further reading
Collier, William R. and Edwin V. Westrate, The Reign of Soapy Smith: Monarch of Misrule, New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1935.
Pullen, Harriet S., Soapy Smith Bandit of Skagway: How He Lived; How He Died, Stroller's Weekly Print, undated (the early 1900s).
Shea & Patten, The Soapy Smith Tragedy, The Daily Alaskan Print, 1907.
External links
Jeff. Smiths Parlor Museum
Alias Soapy Smith: The Life and Death of a Scoundrel
1860 births
1898 deaths
19th-century American criminals
American confidence tricksters
American gamblers
American political bosses
Criminals from Alaska
Criminals from Texas
Deaths by firearm in Alaska
Outlaws of the American Old West
People from Coweta County, Georgia
People from Denver
People from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Mineral County, Colorado
People from Round Rock, Texas
People from the Municipality of Skagway Borough, Alaska
People of pre-statehood Alaska
People of the Klondike Gold Rush
Saloonkeepers |
4080673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravindra%20Jadeja | Ravindra Jadeja | Ravindrasinh Anirudhsinh Jadeja (born 6 December 1988), commonly known as Ravindra Jadeja, is an Indian international cricketer who represents the Indian national cricket team in all formats. He is an all-rounder, who bats left-handed and bowls left-arm orthodox spin. He is regarded as one of the best all-rounders of the last decade, becoming the fifth Indian and fifth-fastest player to score 2,000 runs and take 200 wickets in Test cricket in 2021. Jadeja was the leading wicket-taker in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy and received the man of the match award as a member of the final-winning team. He represents Saurashtra in first-class cricket and has captained the Chennai Super Kings in the Indian Premier League. As of August 2023, Ravindra Jadeja is the 8th highest ODI wicket taker for India with 194 wickets.
Jadeja was vice-captain of the Indian U-19 cricket team that won the World Cup in Malaysia in 2008, under the captaincy of former Indian captain Virat Kohli. He made his ODI debut against Sri Lanka on 8 February 2009 and scored an unbeaten 60 off 77 balls in that match. However, his Test debut came almost four years later, on 13 December 2012, against England at Nagpur.
Jadeja was bought for $2 million by the Chennai Super Kings at the 2012 IPL Players Auction. He was bought by the Gujarat Lions in the 2016 IPL Players Auction for 9.5 crores after the Chennai Super Kings were banned from the IPL for two seasons. On 22 January 2017, Jadeja became the first Indian left-arm spinner to take 150 One Day International wickets, when he dismissed Sam Billings at Eden Gardens, Kolkata. In March 2017, he became the top ranked bowler in the world leaving behind Ravichandran Ashwin who held that position for a long time. He was announced as captain of the Chennai Super Kings IPL franchise, for the 2022 IPL season, succeeding MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season.
Personal life
Jadeja was born on 6 December 1988 in a Gujarati Rajput Hindu family in Navagam Ghed city of Jamnagar district in Gujarat. His father Anirudh was a watchman for a private security agency. His father wanted him to become an Army officer but his interest was in Cricket, he was scared of his father in his childhood. His mother Lata died in an accident in 2005 and the trauma of his mother's death almost made him quit cricket. His sister Naina is a nurse. He lives in Jamnagar.
Jadeja married politician Rivaba Jadeja on 17 April 2016. They have a daughter born in June 2017.
Domestic career
Youth career
Jadeja made his first Under-19 appearance for India in 2005 at the age of 16. He was picked in the Indian squad for the 2006 U/19 Cricket World Cup in Sri Lanka. India finished runners-up with Jadeja impressing in the final against Pakistan with a haul of 3 wickets. He was the vice-captain of the victorious Indian team at the 2008 U/19 Cricket World Cup. He played a crucial role with the ball in the tournament, taking 10 wickets in 6 games at an average of 13.
First-class cricket
Jadeja made his first-class debut in the 2006–07 Duleep Trophy. He played for West Zone in the Duleep Trophy and for Saurashtra in the Ranji Trophy.
In 2012, Jadeja became the eighth player in history, and the first Indian player, to score three first-class triple centuries in his career, joining Don Bradman, Brian Lara, Bill Ponsford, Wally Hammond, WG Grace, Graeme Hick and Mike Hussey. His first came in early November 2011 against Orissa, in which he scored 314 off 375 balls. His second came in November 2012 against Gujarat, in which he scored 303 not out. His third came against Railways in December 2012, in which he scored 331 runs in 501 balls. Jadeja reached this milestone at the young age of only 23.
International career
Jadeja caught the attention of the national selectors with his strong all-round showing in the 2008–09 Ranji Trophy – 42 wickets and 739 runs – and was picked for the ODI series in Sri Lanka. His international debut came in the final match of the series on 8 February 2009, where he scored 60*, although India lost the match. In the 2009 World Twenty20, Jadeja was criticised for not scoring fast enough in India's loss to England. After the incumbent all-rounder Yusuf Pathan suffered a loss of form, Jadeja took his place at No. 7 in the ODI team in late 2009. In the third ODI against Sri Lanka in Cuttack on 21 December 2009, Jadeja was awarded the man of the match award following a haul of four wickets. His best bowling is 4–32.
He made a comeback into the Indian ODI side in the third ODI against England at The Oval in London. Arriving at the crease with India 58–5 after 19 overs, he scored 78, adding 112 with skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni and 59 off only 5.1 overs with Ravichandran Ashwin to help his side reach 234–7 in 50 overs. He also took 2–42 from his 9 overs and was named "player of the match", but England won the rain-affected game. His performance in the fourth ODI at Lord's was mixed: he gave away four crucial overthrows with a poor throw from the boundary, but then took a catch on the boundary off the last ball.
In the second T20I of the Australian tour in February 2012, Jadeja had figures of 1/16 in 3 overs and effected two run outs in the Australian innings. India went on to win the game and Jadeja was awarded Man of the Match, mainly for his fielding effort.
After his impressive performance at the start of Ranji Trophy season 2012–13, when he scored two 300+ scores in 4 matches (4/125 and then 303* against Gujarat at Surat; 331 and 3/109 against Railways at Rajkot in the Ranji Trophy 2012–13), he was called up to join the 15-member India Test team to play the fourth Test against England at Nagpur. In his Test debut against England at Nagpur, he bowled 70 overs and picked 3/117.
During the second ODI in the India-England series at Kochi, Jadeja hit 61 off just 37 balls, which took India to a total of 285. In the second innings, he bowled a spell of 2 for 12 in 7 overs, helping India beat England by 127 runs and level the series 1–1. This performance earned Jadeja the Man of the Match award.
In the historic 4–0 home Test series win against Australia in February–March 2013, Jadeja took 24 wickets, dismissing the Australian captain Michael Clarke five out of six times in the series which cemented his place in the team as an all-rounder, despite not contributing much with the bat. His seven-wicket haul, including a five-for in the second innings of the final Test match, earned him the Man of the Match award. He played an important role for India in lifting the ICC Champions Trophy 2013. He was the highest wicket-taker of the tournament with 12 wickets, which won him the Golden Ball. He made 33* with bat and took 2 wickets in the final against England. He was also named as part of the 'Team of the Tournament' by the ICC and ESPNCricinfo.
He was ranked as the No.1 bowler in ODI Cricket by the ICC in August 2013. Jadeja is the first India bowler to top the rankings since Anil Kumble, who topped the table in 1996. He is the fourth India bowler after Kapil Dev, Maninder Singh and Kumble to be ranked No. 1.
Jadeja scored his maiden test fifty on 20 July 2014, playing against England and saving the match for India, who were struggling at 235/7. He made 68 runs from just 57 balls. His partnership of 99 with Bhuvneshwar Kumar helped India set England a target of 319.
Jadeja was selected for the 2015 Cricket World Cup in Australia and New Zealand despite not being fully fit due to a shoulder injury. He took 9 wickets in 8 games. His returns with the bat were modest, scoring just 57 runs from 5 innings. India went on to lose against Australia in the semi-final. After his poor performance in the next ODI series in Bangladesh, he was dropped from the Indian team.
Jadeja returned strongly in the next Ranji season (2015–16), where he picked up 38 wickets from 4 games and 215 runs, including 3 50+ scores. His strong performances were rewarded with selection for the Indian test side facing South Africa at home. Jadeja helped his team achieve victory, by taking 23 wickets in 4 games. He scored 109 runs in the series, which included crucial knocks lower down the order. Jadeja was included in Indian limited-overs side touring Australia to play 5 ODIs and 3 T20Is. In ODIs, Jadeja bowled economically in a series where more than 3000 runs were scored in 5 matches. He took 3 wickets at an economy rate of 5.35. He was the second-highest wicket-taker in T20Is, picking up 5 wickets in 3 games. In the second game of the series, Jadeja took a blinder off his own bowling to get the important wicket of Shane Watson, and he also ran Aaron Finch out, who was batting on 74 at that moment.
He featured in all four tests against the visiting Australian side. He bagged 25 wickets and made two half-centuries down the order, which earned him the player of the match as well as the player of the series award in the latest concluded series on 28 March 2017.
He along with Ravichandran Ashwin, became the first pair of spinners to be jointly ranked number 1 bowler in ICC Test Rankings history. On 5 August 2017, Jadeja became the fastest left-arm bowler to reach 150 wickets in terms of number of Tests played (32).
On 5 October 2018, he scored his first century in Tests. In March 2019, during the second ODI against Australia, Jadeja became the third cricketer for India to score 2,000 runs and take 150 wickets in ODIs. In April 2019, he was named in India's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup.
In October 2019, in the first Test against South Africa, Jadeja took his 200th wicket in Test cricket.
On 6 August 2021, batting during the first innings of the first Test against England at Trent Bridge, Jadeja became the fifth Indian and fifth-fastest player score 2,000 runs and take 200 wickets in Tests.
In September 2021, Jadeja was named in India's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. His spin-bowling partner on many occasions, R Ashwin, was also named in the squad after 4 years out of the white-ball team.
On 5 March 2022, in a Test match against Sri Lanka, Jadeja broke the 35-year-old record of Kapil Dev by scoring 175*. He made the record of the highest score by a No. 7 or below.
He then took 5/41 and then 4/46 in the two innings, registering match figures of 9/87 to help India beat Sri Lanka by an innings and 222 runs.
He scored his first overseas century in the fifth Test match of the 2022 Indian tour of England.
In July 2022, he was named as India's vice-captain for the away ODI series against the West Indies.
In September 2022, Jadeja was named in the Indian squad for the 2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup but was unable to play due to a severe knee injury. Following a five-month recovery, Jadeja returned to the test squad for the home edition of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy on 9 February in Nagpur, where he achieved a Five-wicket haul. Jadeja Becomes Fastest Indian to Take 250 Wickets and Score 2500+ Runs in Test Cricket.
Indian Premier League
Ravindra Jadeja was selected by the Rajasthan Royals for the inaugural season of the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2008, and played an important role in their victory (Royals defeated Chennai Super Kings in the final). Jadeja scored 135 runs from 14 matches at a strike rate of 131.06, his best score being 36* against Kings XI Punjab. He did even better in 2009, scoring 295 runs at a strike rate of 110.90, and conceding fewer than 6.5 runs per over. Shane Warne, the captain of Rajasthan Royals, referred to Jadeja as a "superstar in the making". Warne also nicknamed him "Rockstar".
Jadeja sat out the 2010 IPL because of a ban arising from contractual irregularities. In 2011, he was bought by the Kochi Tuskers Kerala for $950,000. Kochi Tuskers were terminated from the IPL in September 2011, and in the 2012 IPL player auction, Jadeja was bought by Chennai Super Kings for $2 million (approx. Rs. 9.8 crores) after a tie-breaker with Deccan Chargers who bid the same amount. Jadeja was the most expensive player of the year's auction. He won the Man of the Match award in the second match of the season against Deccan Chargers for his all-round performance (48 runs off 29 balls, 5/16 in 4 overs).
For his performances in 2014, he was named in the Cricinfo CLT20 XI.
In a Mother's Day game during IPL 2015, Jadeja put in a fine spin bowling performance in Chennai; he took four wickets for 11 runs with a brilliant spell of bowling against Rajasthan Royals.
In the 19th match of the 2021 Indian Premier League, Jadeja hit 62*, including a joint-highest ever 37 runs in the last over bowled by Harshal Patel. He later took 3/13 in his four overs and was named Man of the Match.
Jadeja was appointed as the captain for the Chennai Super Kings ahead of the 2022 IPL season, replacing MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season, handing over the captaincy back to Dhoni. He was later ruled out of the tournament due to a rib injury. Jadeja and the franchise later unfollowed each other on Instagram, leading to reports about a rift. But the CEO of CSK maintained that he was ruled out on medical advice, and denied allegations of the rift.
In the final of the 2023 Indian Premier League final, Chennai Super Kings required 10 from the final two balls. Jadeja hit a 6 and 4 to give CSK the title.
Media image
Sunil Gavaskar said in March 2013 that Ravindra Jadeja, along with Cheteshwar Pujara, was a role model for youngsters. Jadeja's contributions in India's 4–0 test series win over Australia in February and March 2013 were praised in the media, and Gavaskar called him one of the architects of the win. Jadeja's dominance of Clarke was also praised in the media. Jadeja was named Player of the Week by the portal Cricket World after the end of the fourth test.
Since his performance at the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 event, Jadeja has been a consistent target of sarcasm and jokes on cricket portals and by Indian cricket fans. On Twitter and Facebook, he is jokingly referred to as Sir Ravindra Jadeja since an online joke calling him the same went viral. When Jadeja was out clean bowled for 16 while not offering a shot in the February 2013 Chennai test against Australia, a cricket portal described his dismissal as "Jadeja falls 284 runs short of what would have been a fourth first-class triple-century". Following his good performance against Australia in the 2013 test series, there was a flurry of Jadeja jokes on Twitter comparing him to Rajinikanth. His Wikipedia article was temporarily vandalized to mock him. In April 2013, Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina and Ravichandran Ashwin, teammates of Jadeja in Chennai Super Kings, tweeted several Jadeja jokes on Twitter, in one of which Dhoni referred to him as Sri Sri Pandit Sir Lord Ravindra Jadeja. In response, Jadeja said in April 2013 that it was a joke which everybody was enjoying, and that he had no problem with the prefix Sir.
For his flamboyancy with bat, ball and while fielding, Jadeja is often nicknamed 'Rockstar', as he was originally called by Shane Warne. His IPL jersey has the name 'Jaddu' on the back rather than Jadeja, and Dhoni can often be heard calling him this from behind the stumps. Jadeja's sword celebration has been a popular feature of world cricket over the years, as he usually brings this out after scoring a 50 or a 100. Though, he has often been criticised for his caste reference regarding the sword celebration.
During the 2019 Cricket World Cup, commentator Sanjay Manjrekar criticised Jadeja by calling him a 'bits and pieces player'. The former apologised after Jadeja's performance at the tournament.
Awards
ICC ODI Team of the Year: 2013, 2016
Madhavrao Scindia Award for most wickets in Ranji Trophy: 2008–09
Ranked 1st in ICC Top 10 Test all-rounders (2021)
Arjuna Award : 2019
References
External links
Ravindra Jadeja's profile page on Wisden.com ()
1988 births
Indian cricketers
India Test cricketers
India One Day International cricketers
India Twenty20 International cricketers
Saurashtra cricketers
West Zone cricketers
Rajasthan Royals cricketers
Chennai Super Kings cricketers
Kochi Tuskers Kerala cricketers
India Blue cricketers
India Red cricketers
Living people
Cricketers at the 2015 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 2019 Cricket World Cup
Gujarat Lions cricketers
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Gujarati people
Indian Hindus |
4080735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dido%20Elizabeth%20Belle | Dido Elizabeth Belle | Dido Elizabeth Belle (June 1761 – July 1804) was a free black British gentlewoman. She was born into slavery and illegitimate; her mother, Maria Belle, was an enslaved Black woman in the British West Indies. Her father was Sir John Lindsay, a British career naval officer who was stationed there. Her father was knighted and promoted to admiral. Lindsay took Belle with him when he returned to England in 1765, entrusting her upbringing to his uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. The Murrays educated Belle, bringing her up as a free gentlewoman at their Kenwood House, together with another great-niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray, whose mother had died. Lady Elizabeth and Belle were second cousins. Belle lived there for 30 years. In his will of 1793, Lord Mansfield provided an outright sum and an annuity to her.
Early life
Dido Elizabeth Belle was born into slavery in 1761 in the British West Indies to an enslaved African woman known as Maria Belle. (Her name was spelled as Maria Bell in her daughter's baptism record.) Her father was 24-year-old Sir John Lindsay, a member of the Lindsay family of Evelix branch of the Clan Lindsay and a descendant of the Clan Murray, who was a career naval officer and then captain of the British warship HMS Trent, based in the West Indies. He was the son of Sir Alexander Lindsay, 3rd Baronet and his wife Amelia, daughter of David Murray, 5th Viscount Stormont. Lindsay is thought to have found Dido's mother Maria Belle held as a slave on a Spanish ship which his forces captured in the Caribbean. Maria Belle was a 14-year-old child slave when she was captured, around the same time she got pregnant by Sir John Lindsay, and gave birth to Dido when she was about 15 years old. Her age was confirmed by the Pensacola property record about her later life: "the manumission transaction for ‘the sum of two hundred Spanish milled dollars ... paid by Maria Belle a Negro Woman Slave about 28 years of age" dated 22 August 1774; this confirmed that Maria Belle was about 14 when Dido was conceived.
Sir John Lindsay returned to London after the war in 1765 presumably with his young daughter, Dido Belle, and her mother, Maria Belle. After they arrived in England for sometimes, he presumably took her to Kenwood House just outside the city, the home of his uncle, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. Belle was baptised as Dido Elizabeth Belle in 1766 at St George's, Bloomsbury by her mother Maria Belle but Sir John Lindsay was absent from the baptism. The Murray family raised Belle as an educated woman along with their niece and Dido's cousin, Lady Elizabeth Murray, whose German mother had died.
Sir John Lindsay married Mary Milner, daughter of Sir William Milner in 1768. They had no children together. Maria Belle was known to have remained in England with Lindsay until 1774, when Lindsay having made her free and paid for her manumission, also transferred a piece of property in Pensacola to Maria, where she was required to build a house within 10 years, Maria Belle appeared in the Pensacola property record and her manumission paper.
Sir John Lindsay would father a total of five illegitimate children from five different women. Dido Belle in June 1761, John Edward Lindsay on 9 February 1762, Ann in November 1766, Elizabeth Lindsay (later Palmer) in December 1766, and John Lindsay in November 1767. Only the latter two were named in his will.
A contemporary obituary of Sir John Lindsay, who had eventually been promoted to admiral, acknowledged that he was the father of Dido Belle, and described her: "[H]e has died, we believe, without any legitimate issue but has left one natural daughter, a Mulatta who has been brought up in Lord Mansfield's family almost from her infancy and whose amiable disposition and accomplishments have gained her the highest respect from all his Lordship's relations and visitants." At one time, historians thought her mother was an African slave on a ship captured by Lindsay's warship during the Siege of Havana, but this specific date is unlikely, as Dido was born in 1761.The obituary also failed to mention the existence of John and Elizabeth Lindsay named in Sir John Lindsay's will.
At Kenwood House
The Earl and Countess of Mansfield lived at Kenwood House in Hampstead, just outside the City of London. Childless, they were already raising their motherless great-niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray, born in 1760. It is possible that the Mansfields took Belle in to be Lady Elizabeth's playmate and, later in life, her personal attendant. As a result, Dido was baptised eight months after Lady Elizabeth's arrival. Her role within the family suggests that Belle became more that of a lady's companion than a lady's maid.
At Kenwood House, Dido Elizabeth Belle would work as an amanuensis for Lord Mansfield in his later years.
Belle lived at Kenwood House for 31 years. Her position was unusual because she had been born into slavery according to colonial law. Lord and Lady Mansfield to some extent treated her and brought her up as a member of the Murray family. As she grew older, she often assisted Mansfield by taking dictation of his letters, which showed she had been educated.
One of Mansfield's friends, American Thomas Hutchinson, a former governor of Massachusetts who as a Loyalist had moved to London, recalled in his personal diary a visit to Kenwood in 1779 that Belle "was called upon by my Lord every minute for this thing and that, and showed the greatest attention to everything he said". He described her as "neither handsome nor genteel – pert enough". He also talked about his first impressions of her at Lord Mansfield's house, saying "A Black came in after dinner and sat with the ladies, and after coffee, walked with the company in the gardens, one of the young ladies having her arm within the other. She had a very high cap, and her wool was much frizzled in her neck, but not enough to answer the large curls now in fashion. I knew her history before, but my Lord mentioned it again. Sir Lindsay, having taken her mother prisoner in a Spanish vessel, brought her to England, where she delivered of this girl, of which she was then with child, and which was taken care of by Lord M., and has been educated by his family. He calls her Dido, which I suppose is all the name she has. He knows he has been reproached for showing a fondness for her – I dare say not criminal". From Lord Mansfield's statement to Hutchinson, Mansfield seemed to have disguised the fact that Dido was his own great niece from the Governor, which created an implication that Hutchinson thought she was Mansfield's mistress. Such a relationship would have been common in the West Indies as his diary implied "I dare say not criminal".
A brief reference to Belle occurs in volume II of James Beattie's Elements of Moral Science. Beattie refers to her intelligence, saying "But I happened, a few days after, to see his theory overturned, and my conjecture established by a negro girl about ten years old, who had been six years in England, and not only spoke with the articulation and accent of a native, but repeated some pieces of poetry, with a degree of elegance, which would have been admired in any English child of her years." Following this is a footnote which states, "She was in Lord Mansfield's family; and at his desire, and in his presence, repeated those pieces of poetry to me. She was called Dido, and I believe is still alive." This and the quotations from Thomas Hutchinson are some of the few direct references to Dido found in primary source material. However, neither Beattie nor Hutchinson were aware of Dido's familial ties to Lord Mansfield.
Lord Mansfield ruled on a related matter of the status of slaves in England in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales. When called on in 1772 to judge Somerset v Stewart, the case of an escaped slave whose owner wanted to send him back to the West Indies for sale, Mansfield tried hard to prevent the case coming to trial, Mansfield also suggest to Somerset's abolitionist protectors to buy him from Stewart, they refused. The case went for trial and he decreed:
Mansfield's ruling that slavery did not exist in common law and had never been introduced by positive law. he later said his decision was intended only to apply to the slave at issue in the case. Mansfield's ruling may have warned for some slave owner to not bring their slaves to England, but it didn't stop slavery law in the colony. Later his ruling was used by the abolitionists to argue that slavery was abolished in England.
At the time, it was suggested that Mansfield's personal experience with raising Dido Belle influenced his decision. Thomas Hutchinson later recalled a comment by a slave-owner: "A few years ago there was a cause before his Lordship brought by a Black for recovery of his liberty. A Jamaica planter, being asked what judgment his Lordship would give [answered] 'No doubt... he will be set free, for Lord Mansfield keeps a Black in his house which governs him and the whole family.'"
Social position
The notion of a mixed-race child born in this era to be raised as part of an aristocratic British family was virtually unheard of, and the social conventions of Mansfield's household are somewhat unclear. A 2007 exhibit at Kenwood suggests that Dido's African origins may have played a part in the disparity, yet it was also usual to treat illegitimate children as lesser family, therefore she wasn't permitted to dine in with guests, as was reported by Thomas Hutchinson. He said Belle joined the ladies afterwards for coffee in the drawing-room. In 2014, author Paula Byrne wrote that Belle's exclusion from this particular dinner was pragmatic rather than the custom. She notes that other aspects of Belle's life, such as being given expensive medical treatments and luxurious bedroom furnishings, were evidence of her position as Lady Elizabeth's equal at Kenwood.
As Belle grew older, she took on the responsibility of managing the dairy and poultry yards at Kenwood. This was a typical occupation for ladies of the gentry, but helping her uncle with his correspondence was less usual. This was normally done by a male secretary or a clerk. However, Elizabeth was never recorded managing dairy or poultry yards. Thomas Hutchinson also remarked on Dido's position in 1779 "She is a sort of Superintendent over the dairy, poultry yard, &c., which we visited, and she was called upon by my Lord every minute for this thing and that, and shewed the greatest attention to everything he said."
Although Lady Elizabeth attended Royal balls and parties with her father, Dido apparently wasn't allowed to attend. Dido was even absent from the ball thrown by Elizabeth's stepmother in 1782. Lord Mansfield would also take Elizabeth riding with him to visit their neighbours, as noted by Mrs. Boscawen, but not Dido.
Belle was also given an annual allowance of £20, additional of £5 for birthday and Christmas. By contrast, Lady Elizabeth received £100, not including birthday and other gifts, as the only surviving account book started just as Lady Elizabeth was leaving to be married, but Lady Elizabeth was an heiress in her own right through her mother's aristocratic family. Belle, quite apart from her race, was illegitimate, in a time and place when great social stigma usually accompanied such status. Dido's allowance was also given quarterly which means she received £5 every 3 months, while Lady Elizabeth received £50 every 6 months, this would had further limited Dido's purchasing power compared to Elizabeth's at any given time.
For comparison, the annual wage of a female domestic worker holding the position of a housekeeper in a high-status household ranged from £20 to £70 at that time, while a Royal Navy lieutenant would draw about £100 a year. About £200 purchased a 3-bedroom house with garden outside the city of London.
In Lord Mansfield's will written and directed by himself, Mansfield didn't acknowledge Dido as his niece, unlike how Mansfield referred Lady Elizabeth, Lady Anne, and Lady Margery Murray all as his nieces.
Contemporary accounts from family friends did not mention Belle
Mary Hamilton (1756-1816), diarist, served Queen Charlotte as royal governess, she wrote in her diary that in spring 1784, her first cousin Lady Stormont and her stepdaughter Lady Elizabeth were invited to a royal ball at Carlton house by The Prince of Wales. But evidently, Dido was not invited to the ball. Throughout Hamilton's diary, she never once mentioned Dido Belle, despite her numerous visits to Kenwood, in which she had described all members of the Murray family including Lady Elizabeth, Elizabeth's 3 half siblings, 2 unmarried aunts, old Lord Mansfield, even the Parish Priest. Belle was apparently excluded from excursion to church, tour of Kenwood, and other family outings that was attended by Hamilton, which seems to consolidate Dido's awkward position in the household.
Accounts from Lady Mansfield's lifelong friends, Mrs. Boscawen and Mary Delany both prominent members of Blue Stockings Society who wrote frequently to each other about the news of the Mansfield's family, ranging from Lord Mansfield's health to Lady Elizabeth's marriage. Mrs. Boscawen visited Kenwood in 1782 and said "Kenwood, where I am always received in kindness. My Lord has gone to London; but my lady and 3 Miss Murrays made me almost forget to go home". But they too never mentioned Dido Belle.
Later life
Lady Mansfield died on 10 April 1784 after long illness, thus Elizabeth's two aunts, Lady Anne and Lady Margery took charge of the household accounts.
On 15 December 1785, Lady Elizabeth married George Finch Hatton, a rich aristocratic gentlemen, heir to Earl of Winchilsea and Earl Nottingham after his unmarried cousin, he was also Lady Mansfield's nephew, their wedding was witnessed by Lord Stormont and Lord Mansfield. Belle's companion, Elizabeth, left Kenwood at the age of 25 and began her married life between her husband's two vast estates Kirby Hall and Eastwell Park.
Belle's father died in 1788 without legitimate heirs, bequeathing £1,000 to be shared by his "reputed children", John and Elizabeth Lindsay (as noted in his will) and nothing for Dido. Overwhelming sources said that the Elizabeth named in his will was his other illegitimate daughter called Elizabeth Lindsay later Palmer (born c. 1765), who lived in Scotland. Elizabeth Palmer and her half brother John Lindsay were known to keep in contact.
Belle's legal status while Lord Mansfield was alive is uncertain. In his will written in 1783, published in 1793, Lord Mansfield officially confirmed or conferred Belle's freedom but unlike Lady Elizabeth, he didn't refer to Dido as his niece. To secure her future after his death, he bequeathed to her £500 as an outright sum and a £100 annuity. In 1799, Belle also inherited £100 from Lady Margery Murray, one of two female relatives who had come to live with and help care for the Murrays in their later years.
However, Lord Mansfield left his niece Lady Elizabeth Murray £10,000. Her father was in line to inherit his uncle's title and entire wealth, Elizabeth received £7,000 more from her father.
Initially in the original 1782 will of Lord Mansfield, he only intended Dido to receive the £100 annuity, but then decided to add the lump sum of £200 and another £300 resulting in £500 saying "I give Dido the sum of two hundred pounds to set out with” then “I think it right considering how she has been bred and how she has behaved to make a better provision for Dido", Lady Elizabeth was always intended to receive £10,000, he also added to Lady Elizabeth's two aunts's inheritances resulting in £22,000 and £1,000 annuity for their life, it is also worth noting that Mansfield was well aware as judge that Elizabeth would eventually inherit the wealth of her two aunts, making Lady Elizabeth's total inheritance from the family around £40,000.
After Lord Mansfield's death in March 1793, Belle now aged 32 married Jean Louis Charles Davinière (anglicized to John Davinier) on 5 December 1793 at St George's, Hanover Square, their wedding was witnessed by John Coventry and Martha Darnell (dairymaid from Kenwood). Belle's husband was a French servant from Ducey in Normandy. His date of birth is unknown, but he was baptised on 16 November 1768; assuming this happened shortly after birth, he was seven years younger than his wife. He had left France for England towards the end of the 1780s and found work as valet or steward, the terminology of his occupation varies on different sources, but his employer John ('Fish') Craufurd died in 1814 and in his will, he referred John Davinière firmly as his valet. They were both then residents of the parish. The Daviniers had at least three sons: twins Charles and John, both baptised at St George's on 8 May 1795; and William Thomas, baptised there on 26 January 1802.
Belle died in 1804 at the age of 43, and was interred in July of that year at St George's Fields, Westminster, a burial ground close to what is now Bayswater Road. In the 1970s, the site was redeveloped and her grave was moved. Her husband John Davinière later remarried to a white woman named Jane Holland and had two more children with his second wife.
Ancestry
Descendants
Two of Belle's sons, William Thomas and Charles, were employed by the East India Company; William in England and Charles in India. Presumably, both of them had enjoyed a good private school education in their childhood, with tuition in English, Greek, Latin, French, accounting, land surveying, mathematics and drawing.
Charles Davinière joined the army in 1811 and initially served as ensign with the Madras Army (one of the territorial armies of the East India Company (HEIC), preceding the British Indian Army). He was assigned to the 15th Madras Native Infantry (MNI) and later to the 30th MNI (that was formed from the 2nd Battailon, 15th MNI, in 1824). He was promoted to lieutenant in 1817 and captain in 1827. In August 1837, he was "to have charge of Infantry recruits" in the headquarters at Fort St. George. Becoming major in 1841, Davinière retired on health grounds in 1845 or 1847, still serving then with the 30th MNI. Nonetheless, he was promoted one more time, to lieutenant colonel of the Madras Infantry, in 1855. The reason seems unclear; possibly he was reactivated for an unknown number of years.
Charles Davinière had married Hannah Nash, youngest daughter of J. Nash, Esquire of Kensington, at Kensington Church in August 1836. After his (final) retirement, Charles lived with his wife, children, and servants at Lansdowne Villas in Notting Hill, where he died on 24 January 1873.
William Thomas Davinière married a widow, Fanny Graham, and had a daughter, Emily. Emily died unmarried in 1870, several years after the death of her parents.
Belle's last known descendant, her great-great-grandson Harold Davinier, died childless in South Africa in 1975.
Representation in media
18th-century portrait painting
The family commissioned a painting of Dido and Elizabeth. Completed in 1779, it was formerly attributed to Johan Zoffany, but, following research by the BBC TV programme Fake or Fortune?, it has now been verified by the Scottish National Gallery as a painting of the Scottish portraitist David Martin in the Zoffany style. The family archivist stated that the painting was put in storage at Kenwood House just 3 years after Lord Mansfield's death and stayed there until the 1920s, when the family sold Kenwood House and moved their belongings to Scone Palace in Perth, Scotland.
According to Historic England, the painting is "unique in British art of the 18th century in depicting a black woman and a white woman as near equals". It shows Dido alongside and slightly behind her cousin Elizabeth, carrying exotic fruit and wearing a turban with a large ostrich feather. The painting is owned by the present Earl of Mansfield and housed at Scone Palace. In 2007, it was exhibited in Kenwood House as part of an exposition marking the bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807, together with more information about Belle.
The painting is discussed by English Heritage in the following way:
Film, music, plays
Dido Belle (2006), a film by Jason Young, was written as a short period drama titled Kenwood House. It was workshopped at Battersea Arts Centre on 21 June 2006 as part of the Battersea Writers' Group script development programme.
Shirley J. Thompson's operatic trilogy, Spirit Songs – including Spirit of the Middle Passage about Dido Elizabeth Belle, with Abigail Kelly in the role – was performed with the Philharmonia Orchestra at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall, Southbank Centre, in March 2007 as part of the 200-year commemoration of the act abolishing the Atlantic slave trade.
An African Cargo by Margaret Busby, a play staged by Black Theatre Co-operative (now NitroBeat) featuring actor Jeffery Kissoon at Greenwich Theatre, 2007, in commemoration of the bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, deals with a landmark 1783 trial presided over by Lord Mansfield at the Guildhall, resulting from the Zong massacre. The character of Dido Belle expresses to the audience feelings of horror and injustice for the murder of the slaves on the ship.
Let Justice Be Done by Suchitra Chatterjee and Maureen Hicks, a play put on by the Mixed Blessings Theatre Group was premiered at the 2008 Brighton Fringe and explored the influence that Dido Belle might have had on her great-uncle's Somersett Ruling of 1772.
Belle (2013), a highly fictionalised feature film directed by Amma Asante, explores Dido's life as the multiracial natural daughter of an aristocrat in 18th-century England, who became an heiress but occupied an ambiguous social position. The film is based on the 1779 painting of Dido and her cousin Elizabeth. The film stars Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Dido and Tom Wilkinson as her guardian Lord Mansfield.
Fern Meets Dido (2018), A musical written by Evadne Bygrave based on the book Fern and Kate Meet Dido Elizabeth Belle by David Gleave. The story of a modern-day young girl of mixed heritage, disaffected at school and uncertain about her identity. On a school trip to Kenwood House, something magical happens, and she goes back in time and meets Dido.
I, Dido (2018), a three-handed play by Non Vaughan-O'Hagan was commissioned by St George's Bloomsbury where Dido was baptised. The play explores the relationship between Dido, Lord Mansfield and Lady Betty. Act I takes place on the night of 6 June 1780 when the Mansfields' home in Bloomsbury Square was destroyed in the Gordon Riots. Act II takes place in Kenwood House six years later, after the death of Lady Betty. The play has also been adapted as a short film of the same name, directed by Penelope Shales-Slyne.
Novels
Family Likeness, a 2013 novel by Caitlin Davies, was inspired in part by the life of Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Author Paula Byrne was commissioned to write Belle: The True Story of Dido Belle (2014) as a tie-in to the 2013 film Belle. It was published in paperback and as an audiobook when the movie opened in the United States.
Zadie Smith mentions the story of Belle in her 2016 novel Swing Time when the narrator goes to Kenwood House and overhears a tour guide talking about her.
The short-story collection The Woman Who Gave Birth to Rabbits, by Emma Donoghue, contains a short story called "Dido", about Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Dangerous Freedom, a 2021 historical novel about Dido Belle by Lawrence Scott, the story was largely spun from a lot of known facts about Dido Elizabeth Belle.
Dido Elizabeth Belle features as one of the two central characters in The Lizzie and Belle Mysteries: Drama and Danger by children's author J.T. Williams, published in 2022. This is the first of series of historical novels set in eighteenth century London, anchored around the imagined friendship of Dido Belle with Elizabeth "Lizzie" Sancho, daughter of Ignatius Sancho.
References
External links
Slavery And Justice: Lord Mansfield And Dido Belle At Kenwood, Untold London, 2007
Slavery and Justice exhibition at Kenwood House, on Mansfield and Dido.
Historic England leaflet, Slavery and Justice: the legacies of Dido Belle and Lord Mansfield, Part 1, Part 2
Paula Byrne, Belle: The True Story of Dido Belle, Harper Collins, 2014.
"Inside Out: Abolition of the British Slave Trade special", BBC London, 24 September 2014
Article on discovering Dido, in Hampstead Matters, February 2014
1761 births
1804 deaths
Black British former slaves
Black British history
British socialites
Clan Murray
British Anglicans
Black British women
English people of Scottish descent
English people of West Indian descent
Lindsay family of Evelix
People from the British West Indies
18th-century English women
19th-century English women
18th-century slaves |
4080846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhana%20Sargam | Sadhana Sargam | Sadhana Sargam (née Ghanekar, born 7 March 1969) is an Indian singer known for her playback career in Indian cinema predominantly in Hindi, Bengali and Tamil language films. She is a recipient of the National Film Award and Filmfare Awards South. She has also won five Maharashtra State Film Awards, four Gujarat State Film Awards, and one Orissa State Film.
Early life
Sargam was born in a Marathi family of musicians at Dabhol, the seaport town in Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra. Her mother Neela Ghanekar was a classical singer and music teacher and knew arranger–composer Anil Mohile, who then arranged music for Kalyanji-Anandji. He introduced Sargam to them, and she was in the children's chorus in "Pam Pararampam, Bole Jeevan Ki Sargam" sung by Kishore Kumar in G. P. Sippy's Trishna (1978). Sargam performed at music festival Sawai Gandharva at the age of 4.
She sang the popular song Ek Anek Aur Ekta for Doordarshan at the age 6. The song was composed by Vasant Desai. Speaking about her memory of singing the song, Sargam said, "My parents took me for that recording. I don't remember much of it. It feels quite surreal when I hear it now." Sargam studied at the A. B. Goregaonkar English School in Goregaon, Mumbai.
She won a Central Government scholarship at the age 10 and this led to a 7-year learning stint under Pandit Jasraj. From childhood she was also learning and performing with Vasant Desai for his documentaries, children's films and stage shows. Desai advised her mother that Sargam was competent enough to handle both classical and light music and should remain in touch with both, as her mother wanted her to take up light singing. In fact, it was Desai who recommended that she learn under Pandit Jasraj.
Career
1982–1990: Early career
Sargam made her playback debut in Kanku Pagli, a Gujarati film. Her first Hindi song was the solo "Door Nahin Rehna" from the film Rustom. However, Rustom was delayed and was released only in 1985, and Sargam ’s first released film was Subhash Ghai's Vidhaata (1982) in which she sang the song "Saat Saheliyan" for actress Padmini Kolhapure. The song, composed by Kalyanji-Anandji, also had the voices of Kishore Kumar and Alka Yagnik.
Sargam continued to sing in films like Taqdeer, Pighalta Aasmaan, Raj Tilak, Karishma Kudrat Ka (in which she was the only female singer), but it was only with "Har Kisiko Nahin Milta" (Janbaaz 1986) that she was noticed.
Khudgarz was followed by Khoon Bhari Maang (1988) and Sargam also began to sing for other composers like Anu Malik, R. D. Burman, Anand Milind and sparingly under Laxmikant–Pyarelal. Her main hits continued to be with Rajesh Roshan, which included 'Jab Koi Baat Bigad Jaaye' / Jurm, 'Radha Bina Hai' / Kishan Kanhaiya, and songs in Dariya Dil, Aasmaan Se Ooncha and Jaisi Karni Waisi Bharni. She also sung several songs in B.R. Chopra's popular television series Mahabharat (1988).
She got a boost from Tridev (Kalyanji – Anandji – Viju Shah) in 1989 in which she worked on "Main Teri Mohabbat Mein" and "Gajar Ne Kiya Hai Ishara".
1990–2010: Fame and migration to South Indian music industries
In the early 1990s, Sargam emerged as one of the most sought-after female singers, along with Kavita Krishnamurthy, Alka Yagnik, Anuradha Paudwal and Poornima. She sang for composers like Nadeem–Shravan, Anand–Milind, Anu Malik, Jatin – Lalit, Bappi Lahiri, Viju Shah and Dilip Sen – Sameer Sen.
For the 1992 film Vishwatma, she sang "Saat Samundar Paar" for debutant Divya Bharti which became a chartbuster. The same year she sang "Teri Umeed Tera Intezar", "Teri Isi Ada Pe Sanam" in Deewana and "Aashiqui Mein Har Aashiq" in Dil Ka Kya Kasoor. The songs were superhits. Sargam would have become the voice of Divya Bharti were it not for the latter's untimely demise. Also in 1992, she sang the enduring duet “Pehla Nasha” by Jatin-Lalit with Udit Narayan in the film Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikander.
Her most critically acclaimed Hindi songs from the 2000s are in the film Water, composed by A. R. Rahman, in which she sang three songs: "Aayo Re Sakhi", "Piya Ho" and "Naina Neer". Her other notable songs in Hindi with the same composer include "Aahista Aahista" from Swades, "Chupke Se" and "Naina Milaike" from Saathiya, "Chanda Re" from Sapney, "O Palanhare" from Lagaan, "Jhulaa Bahon Ka" from Doli Saja Ke Rakhna, and "Banno Rani" from 1947: Earth. Her other notable rhapsodic Hindi hits are "Neele Neele Ambar Par" from Kalakaar, "Jab Koi Baat Bigad Jaye" from Jurm, "Pehla Nasha" from Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar, "Na Kajre Ki Dhar" from Mohra, "Tere Dar Pe Sanam" from Phir Teri Kahani Yaad Aayee, "Jhinimini" from Maqbool and "Aao Na" from Kyun! Ho Gaya Na....
Sargam has sung more than 200 songs in Tamil, almost all of them having been well received. Her hits include, but not limited to, "Vennilave" from Minsara Kanavu, "Nenje Nenje" from Ratchagan, "Snehithane" from Alaipayuthey, "Swasame" from Thenali, "Konjum Mainakkale" from Kandukondain Kandukondain, "Anbae Sugama" from Paarthale Paravasam, "Deewana Deewana" from Gemini, "Vaanaville Vaanaville" from Ramanaa, "Chanakya Chanakya" from Dum, "Manmadhane Nee" from Manmadhan, "Thaiyyatha Thaiyyatha" from Thiruttu Payale, "Akkam Pakkam" from Kireedam, Enadhuyirae from Bheemaa, "Mukundha Mukundha" from Dasavathaaram, "Om Zaarare" from Kuselan, and "Kaiya Pudi" from Mynaa.
With nearly 100 tracks to her credit in Telugu, her hits include "Vennelave" from Merupu Kalalu, "Snehithuda" from Sakhi, "Palike Gorinkaa Chudave" from Priyuralu Pilichindi, "Sathamaanaa Mannadile" from Mrugaraju, "Baba Neeku Mokkutha" from Baba, "Jaajimalli Thota" and "Kommallo Koyila" from 'Ninu Chusaka Nenundalenu', "Pedave Palikina Matallone" from Naani, "Ela Vacchenamma" from Sankranti, "Manasa" from Munna, "Mooga Manase" from Nava Vasantham, "Ninnena" from Salute, "Panchirey" from Konchem Ishtam Konchem Kashtam, "Kanu Paapalloo Prema" from Shambo Shiva Shambo, "Anthapuramloo" and "Avuna Neevena" from Rudhramadevi.
Sargam won her first Star Screen award for "Chupke Se Lag Ja Gale" from Saathiya. She also won Filmfare, IIFA, Star Screen, GIFA, Apsara awards, Zee Cine Award, Star Screen Award and Stardust Best Playback Singer Female award nomination for "Aao Na" from " Kyon Ho Gaya Na..!" She received prestigious Zee Cine Award at Dubai for "Halki Halki Mulaqate Thi" from Kuch Na Kaho in 2003. She is the only playback singer from India who currently sings in 27 Indian languages. She won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the song "Pattu Solli" from Thankar Bachan's cult classic movie Azhagi; the music was by maestro Ilaiyaraaja, whom she has praised, time and again, for "giving her such a wonderful song, and making her eligible for the National Award".
2010–Recent works
Sargam sang several songs in Hindi and Odia for music director Kajol-Saroj. She has also sung the Tamil version of "Mann Mohana" from the Hindi film Jodhaa Akbar. Another foot-tapping recent solo Tamil song is "Sutri Varum Bhoomi" from the Vidhyasagar-composed Jeyamkondaan and "En Nenjil" from Baana Kaathadi. She also sang the track "Rara Are Tu Aaja.." for the Hindi-dubbed version of Chandramukhi in 2008. Sargam's Kannada song Marali Mareyagi from the movie Savaari in 2009 was well-received and won several accolades. The recent Ilaiyaraaja-composed Tamil film Naan Kadavul has a song titled "Amma Un Pillai" featuring her voice. In 2014, Sargam sang for A. R. Rahman in India's first-ever photorealisitc motion capture film, Kochadaiiyaan, which was lip-synced by Deepika Padukone on screen. The same year, Sargam recorded two other hit tracks, "Kannukkul Pothivaippen" in Thirumanam Enum Nikkah and "Sonnathu Sonnathu" in Aranmanai. In 2015, she sang two songs for Ilaiyaraaja in the historical drama, Rudhramadevi (soundtrack).
In 2011, Sargam made a contribution to the spiritual music world by singing an album: Mahalaxmi Mukti Samvad, MMS i.e. Mahalaxmi's Dialogues of Salvation. The lyrics are written by Dr. Pradeep Wagh. This album was released at the hands of spiritual Guru Vidyavachaspati Dr. Shankar Abhyankar.
In 2013, Sadhana Sargam sang a romantic duet with Udit Narayan, "Ek Dil Hai Toota Idhar Bhi" penned by Raghvendra Singh in the music direction of Navin Manish for Rajshri Production's TV show Jhilmil Sitaaron Ka Aangan Hoga on Sahara One channel.
In 2014, Sargam recorded a bhajan, "O Kaanha Kaa Tohe Arpan Karun" penned by Raghvendra Singh in the music direction of Navin Manish for Rajshri productions TV show Mere rang mein rangne waali on Life Ok channel.
In 2015, Sargam, along with Kumar Sanu, recorded the runaway hit track, "Dard Karaara", from Dum Laga Ke Haisha in Anu Malik music. In 2017, the duo joined once again, but to record the title track for a TV serial, Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai; the song became an instant hit.
In 2018, Sargam sang an energetic and inspiring song Houn Jau Dya in Madhuri Dixit's Marathi film debut, Bucket List. The song also has the voices of Shreya Ghosal and Shaan.
In 2019, Sargam, along with Jonita Gandhi recorded a song, "Nee Sirichalum" from the Vishal-starrer, Action. The same year to commemorate the 500th episode of the hit serial Sembaruthi, Sargam and Vijay Prakash dueted a song in the music direction of Sekar Sai Barath.
In June 2021, Sargam collaborated with A R Rahman and Gulzar to record the song "Meri Pukaar Suno." The emotionally gravid track has an ensemble of six other singers: Alka Yagnik, K.S. Chithra, Shreya Ghoshal, Shashaa Tirupati, Armaan Malik and Asees Kaur. Described as a "heartfelt song of healing" by Rolling Stone India, the video for the song, featuring all the singers, was directed by Nazeef Mohammed.
Bengali career
Sargam sang her first song in the year 1992 film called Daan Pratidan, music composed by Ajoy Das. The following year Bappi Lahiri approached her to sing in the film Tomar Rakte Amar Sohag. She sang in films like Sagar Kinare, Kotha Chilo, Phiriye Dao and Dhushar Godhuli. She has sung the song "Holo Dhonno Jibon" along with Sonu Nigam in the film Bandhan (2004) which has been remade in Hindi as superhit "Hum Mar Jaayenge", sung by Arijit Singh and Tulsi Kumar. Further, she also sang "Akashe Batase Chal Sathi Ure Jai" with Kavita Krishnamurthy in Moner Majhe Tumi (2003), but the film's title track, her duet with Udit Narayan, "Premi O Premi" became an enormous hit.
Legacy
Beginning her career in the early 1980s, Sargam has sung over 15,000 film and non-film songs in 36 Indian languages including Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Nepali, Meitei, Odia, Kannada, Malayalam and many others. In 2002, she became the first non-South Indian singer to win the National Award for a South Indian song. She is also the first non-South Indian singer to receive two Filmfare South Awards in the same year.
She is the only playback singer who actively participates and sings devotional and meditation songs for spiritual foundations like Prajapita Brahmkumari Vishwavidyalaya and Satya Saibaba. Her 2015 bhajan Sai Ram Sai Shyam Sai Bhagwan has crossed more than 100 million views on YouTube, and is immensely popular throughout India. Sargam has recorded hundreds of devotional albums in various languages, especially in Hindi, Gujarati, and Bengali.
Having achieved all prestigious awards in India, she is surprisingly yet to receive a Filmfare Award. In fact, she has neither won a Filmfare nor National Award for a Hindi song. Though she has numerous tracks to her credit (more than 2000 songs in Hindi alone), she had only been nominated twice for Filmfare Awards; once in 1989, for Main Teri Hoon Janam and sixteen years later, in 2005, for Aao Na. Coincidentally, her contemporary, Alka Yagnik bagged the coveted trophies, both times.
Sargam's work in the international films Earth (1998 film) and Water are not happenstance, explains Deepa Mehta, the films' director. Mehta says, "I'm not fond of high pitched Indian women's voices. So there's this wonderful singer Sadhana Sargam, whose voice is low and we used her voice." On her frequent collaborations with Sargam, Rahman says, "I am surprised every time I work with her." Her other notable international collaboration was with Bally Sagoo, with whom she recorded Sometimes, Sometimes, a remixed version of the well known Kabhie Kabhie Mere Dil.
Sargam's voice is the favorite of artists like Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, K.S.Chithra, Sunidhi Chauhan A R Rahman, Ilaiyaraaja, Amitabh Bachchan, Shashaa Tirupati and others.
Awards and nominations
National Film Awards
2002 – National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Paattu Cholli" (Azhagi), Tamil film.
Filmfare Awards
1988 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Main Teri Hu Janam" ("Khoon Bhari Maang ")
2000 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Snehidhane" ("Alaipayuthey")
2001 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Swasame" ("Thenali")
2002 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Kadhal Vandhadhum" ("Poovellam Un Vaasam")
2002 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Paattu Cholli" ("Azhagi")
2004 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – "Aao Na" ("Kyun! Ho Gaya Na...")
2007 – Winner – Best Female Playback Singer (Tamil) – "Akkam Pakkam" (Kireedam)
2007 – Winner – Best Female Playback Singer (Telugu) – "Manasa" (Munna)
2008 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – "Mukundha Mukundha" ("Dasavathaaram")
2008 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Telugu – "Ninnena" ("Salute")
2009 – Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Kannada – "Mareli Mareyagi" ("Savaari")
Zee Cine Awards
2004 – Zee Cine Award for Best Playback Singer – Female – "Kuch Naa Kaho" (Kuch Naa Kaho)
Maharashtra State Film Awards
1993 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Saarech Sajjan
1994 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Mayechi Sawli
2000 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – "Kshitijavaril Tara" (Jodidar)
2002 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – Aadhar
2005 – State Award for Best Singer – Female – "Saanjh Jhali Tari" (Sarivar Sari)
Orissa State Film Awards
1994 – Best Playback Singer (Female) – Sagar Ganga
Zee Gaurav Puraskar
2000 – Award for Best Female Singer – Jodidar
2002 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aadhar
2004 – Award for Best Female Singer – Ek Hoti Wadi
2005 – Award for Best Female Singer – Sarivar Sari
2006 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aaishappath
2007 – Award for Best Female Singer – Aevdhasa Aabhal
Star Screen Awards
2003 – Star Screen Award for Best Female Playback – "Chupke Se" (Saathiya)
Uninor South Radio Mirchi Awards
2009 – Song of the Year – "Marali Mareyaagi" (Savaari; along with Composer Manikanth Kadri)
2009 – Best Kannada Song Listener's Choice – "Marali Mareeyaagi" (Savaari)
Other awards and recognitions
'Lata Mangeshkar Award' from the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
Konkan Sahyadri Swar Ratna Award for Invaluable contribution in Indian Music
2000 – Dinakaran Award for Best Female Singer – "Snegithane" (Alaipayuthey)
2002 – Dinakaran Award for Best Female Singer – "Paattu Cholli" (Azhagi)
2004 – Kalakar Award for Best Female Playback
2005 – Vitusco Award for Best Female singer – "Oru Vaarthai" (Ayya)
2005 & 2008 – Bhojpuri Film Award for Best Singer – Female
2005, 2006 & 2007 – Sanskruthi Kaladarpan Awards
2006 – Gujarath State Film Award for Best Singer – Female
2008 – Chitrapathi V. Shantaram Award for Best Female singer – "Tu Aevdhasa Aabhal" (Aevdhasa Aabhal)
Discography
References
External links
Unofficial Website
1969 births
Living people
Tamil playback singers
Telugu playback singers
Bollywood playback singers
Malayalam playback singers
Kannada playback singers
Hindustani singers
Indian women classical singers
Indian women playback singers
Marathi people
Mewati gharana
Marathi playback singers
Marathi-language singers
Nepali-language singers from India
Filmfare Awards South winners
20th-century Indian singers
21st-century Indian singers
Women Hindustani musicians
Singers from Maharashtra
20th-century Indian women singers
21st-century Indian women singers
Women musicians from Maharashtra
Screen Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards winners
Best Female Playback Singer National Film Award winners |
4080953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi%20racial%20theories | Nazi racial theories | The Nazi Party adopted and developed several pseudoscientific racial classifications as part of its ideology (Nazism) in order to justify the genocide of groups of people which it deemed racially inferior. The Nazis considered the putative "Aryan race" a superior "master race", and they considered black people, mixed-race people, Slavs, Roma, Jews and other ethnicities racially inferior "sub-humans", whose members were only suitable for slave labor and extermination. These beliefs stemmed from a mixture of 19th-century anthropology, scientific racism, and anti-Semitism. The term "Aryan" belongs in general to the discourses of Volk (the people as a lineage group sharing a territory, language, and culture).
Racial hierarchy
The Nazis claimed to observe a strict and scientific hierarchy of the human race. Adolf Hitler's views on race and people are found throughout his autobiographical manifesto book Mein Kampf but more specifically, they are found in chapter 11, the title of which is "Nation and Race". The standard-issue propaganda text which was issued to members of the Hitler Youth contained a chapter on "The German Races" that heavily cited the works of Hans F. K. Günther. The text seems to address the European races in descending orders in the Nazi racial hierarchy: the Nordic (including the Phalic sub-race), Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic races. In 1937, Hitler spoke in the Reichstag and declared, "I speak prophetically. Just as the discovery that the earth moved around the sun led to a complete transformation of the way people looked at the world, so too the blood and racial teachings of National Socialism will change our understanding of mankind's past and its future."
Aryan: Germanic and Nordic
In his speeches and writings, Hitler referred to the supposed existence of an "Aryan race", a race that he believed founded a superior type of humanity. According to Nazi ideology, the purest stock of Aryans were the Nordic people of Germany, England, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. The Nazis defined Nordics as being identified by their tall stature (average ), their long faces, their prominent chins, their narrow and straight or aquiline noses with a high base, their lean builds, their doliocephalic skulls, their straight and light hair, their light eyes, and their fair skin. The Nazis regarded the Germans as well as the English, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as the most racially pure in Europe. Indeed, members of the Schutzstaffel (SS) considered Aryans not to be of a single ethnic group, and did not have to be exclusively German, but instead could be selected from populations across Europe to create the "master race". The normative German term for them was that existed an arisches Volk, not arische Rasse.
The Nazis believed that the Germanic peoples of Europe belonged to a racially superior Nordic subset of the larger Aryan race, who were regarded as the only true culture-bearers in civilized society. Hitler's conception of the 'Aryan migration' followed a common pattern of historical development: since antiquity, the Nordic 'Aryan' race conquered foreign peoples and territories, founded great civilizations (like ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Persian Empire, etc.) and finally perished because of a lack of racial hygiene, specially because the toleration shown to Semitic people. 'Aryan' world history became the link between East and West, also between the Old World and New World. The principal dogma, in this Nazi historiography, was that the glories of all human civilizations were creations of the 'Aryan' master race, a culture-bearing race. The northern European (Germanic) Aryans did not develop into great civilizations in ancient history because they lived in the cold, damp, and harsh environment for a long time. However, they kept their purity intact and later only the Germanic Aryans at the end of history would eventually conquer and dominate the world because of their purity was maintained, being proved during the Germanic domain of Industrial Revolution (the Slavs later mixed with Asiatic peoples during the Middle Ages and lost their racial purity and superior talent as well).
The Nazis claimed that the Germanic peoples specifically represented a southern branch of the Aryan-Nordic population. The Nazis considered that the Nordic race was the most prominent race of the German people, but that there were other sub-races that were commonly found amongst the German people such as the Alpine race population who were identified by, among other features, their lower stature, their stocky builds, their flatter noses, and their higher incidences of darker hair and eyes. Hitler and the Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther framed this as an issue which would be corrected through the selective breeding of "Nordic" traits. In general terms, Hans F. K. Günther diagnosed combinations of the following elements in the German Volk: Nordic (nordisch); Mediterranean (westisch, mediterran, mitelländisch); Dinaric (dinarisch); Alpine (ostisch, alpin); East Baltic (ostbaltisch); Phalian (fälisch, dalisch). These theories generated some fear in southern Germans, as they thought that Nazism was a form of "Nordic colonialism" and that non-Nordics would be treated as second-class citizens.
The Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler in the 1920s became under the influence of Richard Walther Darré who was a leading proponent of the blood and soil concept. Darré held a strong belief that the Nordic race was racially superior to other races and that the German peasants would play a fundamental role in securing Germany's future and German expansion in Eastern Europe. Darré believed that the German peasant played a key role in the racial strength of the German people.
Himmler made all SS candidates to undergo a racial screening and forbid any German who had Slavic, Negroid or Jewish racial features from the joining the Schutzstaffel (SS). Applicants had to provide proof that they had only Aryan ancestors back to 1800 (1750 for officers).
Although Himmler endorsed occultism with his racial theories, Hitler did not and on 6 September 1938 at Nuremberg he declared:
Himmler in February 1940 spoke during a secret meeting to Gauleiters and said, "We are firmly convinced, I believe it, just as I believe in a God, I believe that our blood, the Nordic blood, is actually the best blood on this earth... In a thousand centuries this Nordic blood will still be the best. There is no other. We are superior to everything and everyone. Once we are liberated from inhibitions and restraints, there is no one who can surpass us in quality and strength."
Hitler in private in 1942 said, "I shall have no peace of mind until I have planted a seed of Nordic blood wherever the population stand in need of regeneration. If at the time of the migrations, while the great racial currents were exercising their influence, our people received so varied a share of attributes, these latter blossomed to their full value only because of the presence of the Nordic racial nucleus."
Nazi propaganda aimed at the members of the Hitler Youth emphasized the "Nordic" nature of Germans, with the text issued to all Hitler Youth members stating: "the principal ingredient of our people is the Nordic race (55%). That is not to say that half our people are pure Nordics. All of the aforementioned races appear in mixtures in all parts of our fatherland. The circumstance, however, that the great part of our people is of Nordic descent justifies us taking a Nordic standpoint when evaluating our character and spirit, bodily structure, and physical beauty." Nazi propaganda stated that the Nordic must dominate Germany, although it didn't matter if they were Germans who did not have the physical appearance of the Nordic race as long as they shared the traits of being a "German" which were considered to be "courage, loyalty and honor".
The matter of satisfactorily defining who precisely was an "Aryan" remained problematic for the duration of Nazi rule. In 1933, a definition of "Aryan" according to the Nazi official Albert Gorter for the Civil Service Law stated:
That definition of "Aryan" was deemed unacceptable by the Nazis because it included members of some non-Europeans ethnic groups; therefore, the Expert Advisor for Population and Racial Policy redefined an "Aryan" as someone who was "tribally" related to "German blood". It was generally agreed amongst Nazi racial theorists that the term "Aryan" was not a racial term and strictly only a linguistic term. Nevertheless, the term "Aryan" was still used in Nazi propaganda in a racial sense.
In June 1935, Nazi politician and Reich Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick argued that "non-Aryan" should have been replaced with "Jewish" and "of foreign origin". His recommendation was rejected. Frock then commented, "'Aryan' and 'non-Aryan' are sometimes not entirely tenable... From a racial political point, it is Judaism that interests us more than anything else."
After the Nuremberg Laws (Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour and The Reich Citizenship Law) were passed in September 1935, Nazi Party lawyer and State Secretary in the Reich Interior Ministry Wilhelm Stuckart defined "related blood" (artverwandtes Blut) as:
Dr. Ernst Brandis, a legal bureaucrat, who made an official comment about the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour and the Law for the Protection of the Hereditary Health of the German people on 18 October 1935, defined "German blood" as:
Frick on 3 January 1936 commented about the Nuremberg Laws and defined "related blood" as:
Stuckart and Hans Globke in 1936 published the Civil Rights and the Natural Inequality of Man and wrote about the Nuremberg Laws and Reich citizenship:
The Nuremberg Laws criminalized sexual relations and marriages between people of "German or related blood" and Jews, blacks and Gypsies as Rassenschande (race defilement).
In 1938, a brochure for the Nuremberg Party Rally included all Indo-European peoples as being of "related blood" to the Germans:
However, soon after the invasion of Poland in 1939, the Nazis decided to relegate the Slavs to a non-European status:
In 1942, Himmler redefined the term "related" which until that year had referred to non-German European nations as follows: "that the racial structure of all European nations is so closely related to that of the German nation that if interbreeding occurs there is no danger that the German nation's blood will be racially contaminated". The term "related" was defined as "German blood and blood of related Germanic races" (to which members of "non-Germanic" nations who were capable of being Germanised and secondly, "related blood but not from related races", by which Himmler meant all the non-Germanic European nations (Slavs, Latins, Celts and Balts).
Jews, Romani, black people, and Slavs (including Poles, Serbs, and Russians) were not considered Aryans by Nazi Germany. Instead, they were considered subhuman and inferior races.
East Asians
The Nazi government began to enact racial laws after Hitler came to power in 1933, and during that year, the Japanese government protested against several racial incidents which involved Japanese or Japanese-Germans. Later, the disputes were resolved when the Nazi high command treated its Japanese allies leniently. This was especially the case after the collapse of Sino-German cooperation and the formation of the official alliance between Germany and Japan.
Chinese and Japanese were subjected to discrimination under Germany's racial laws, however, which—with the exception of the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, which specifically mentioned Jews—were generally applied to all "non-Aryans" but the Eastern Asian peoples (excluding Koreans) were considered "Honorary Aryans".
After China declared war on Germany and joined the Allies, Chinese nationals were persecuted in Germany. The influential Nazi anti-Semite Johann von Leers favored the exclusion of Japanese people from the laws because he believed in the existence of the alleged Japanese-Aryan racial link and because he sought to improve Germany's diplomatic relations with Japan. The Foreign Ministry supported von Leers and on several occasions between 1934 and 1937, it sought to change the laws, but other government agencies, including the Racial Policy Office, opposed the change.
Hitler invited Chinese soldiers to study in German military academies and serve in the Nazi German Wehrmacht as part of their combat training. Since 1926, Germany had supported the Republic of China militarily and industrially. Germany had also sent advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen and Hans von Seeckt to assist the Chinese, most notably in the Chinese Civil War and China's anti-communist campaigns. Max Bauer was sent to China and served as one of Chiang Kai-shek's advisers. Around this time, Hsiang-hsi Kung (H. H. Kung), the Republic of China Minister of Finance, visited Nazi Germany and was warmly welcomed by Adolf Hitler on 13 June 1937. During this meeting, Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring and Hjalmar Schacht bestowed upon Hsiang-hsi Kung an honorary doctorate degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. And in order to attract more Han Chinese students to study in Germany, Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring and Hjalmar Schacht earmarked 100,000 reichsmarks for Han Chinese students who were studying in the universities and military academies of Nazi Germany after they persuaded a German industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Additionally, Hsiang-hsi Kung, who favored commercial credits, politely refused a generous international loan which was offered by Adolf Hitler. As a result of this exchange a very small number of Chinese nationals served in the German armed forces. The most famous of these Han Chinese Nazi soldiers was Chiang Wei-kuo, the son of Republic of China President Chiang Kai-shek, who studied military strategy and tactics at a Nazi German Kriegsschule in Munich, and subsequently acquired the rank of lieutenant and served as a soldier in the Wehrmacht on active combat duty in Europe until his return to the Republic of China during the later years of World War II.
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that he had supported the Empire of Japan as early as 1904 when he stated that, "When the Russo-Japanese War came I was older and better able to judge for myself. For national reasons I then took the side of the Japanese in our discussions. I looked upon the defeat of the Russians as a blow to Austrian Slavism". He made a number of other statements in the book expressing his respect and admiration for the Japanese people.
Although they belonged to a different evolutionary race than the Germans did, the Japanese were considered to have sufficiently superior qualities as were people with German-Nordic blood to warrant an alliance by Nazi ideologists such as Himmler, who possessed a great interest in, and was also influenced by, the anthropology, philosophies and pantheistic religions of East Asia, mentioned how his friend Hiroshi Ōshima, the Japanese Ambassador to Germany, believed that the noble castes in Japan, the daimyo and the samurai, were descended from gods of celestial origin, which was similar to Himmler's own belief that "the Nordic race did not evolve, but came directly down from heaven to settle on the Atlantic continent."
Karl Haushofer, a German general, geographer, and geopolitician, whose ideas may have influenced the development of Hitler's expansionist strategies, saw Japan as the brother nation of Germany. In 1908, he was sent to Tokyo by the German Army "to study the Japanese Army and advise it as an artillery instructor. The assignment changed the course of his life and it also marked the beginning of his love affair with the Orient. During the next four years, he traveled extensively in East Asia, adding Korean, Japanese, and Mandarin to his repertoire of languages, he also knew how to speak Russian, French, and English. Karl Haushofer had been a devout student of Arthur Schopenhauer, and during his stay in the Far East, he was introduced to Oriental esoteric teachings." It was based on such teachings that he came to make similar bestowals of his own upon the Japanese people, calling them the "Aryans of the East", and even calling them the "Herrenvolk of the Orient" (i.e. the "Master race of the Orient").
An October 1933 statement by Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath which was published in response to the Japanese protests falsely claimed that Japanese were exempt. The wide publication of this statement caused many in Germany, Japan, and elsewhere to believe that such an exemption actually existed. Instead of granting Japanese a broad exemption from the laws, an April 1935 decree stated that any racial discrimination cases that might jeopardize German diplomatic relations because they involved non-Aryans—i.e., Japanese—would be dealt with individually. Decisions on such cases often took years to make, and those people who were affected by them were unable to obtain jobs or interracially marry, primarily because the German government preferred to avoid exempting people from the laws as much as possible. The German government often exempted more German-Japanese than it preferred to because it wanted to avoid a repeat of the 1933 controversies. And in 1934, it prohibited the German press from discussing the race laws with regard to Japanese. During World War II, Hitler privately expressed fears concerning the replacement of "white rule" in Asia (that of European colonial powers) with "yellow" supremacy as a result of Japanese conquests.
Uralic Aryans
The Nazis in an attempt to find a satisfactory definition of "Aryan" were faced with a dilemma with regard to the European peoples who did not speak an Indo-European language or Indo-Aryan language, namely Estonians, Finns and Hungarians.
The first legal attempt was in 1933 for the Civil Service Law, when a definition of "Aryan" was given by Albert Gorter for the Civil Service Law that included the Uralic peoples as Aryans. However, that definition was deemed unacceptable because it included some non-European peoples. Gorter changed the definition of 'Aryan' to the definition that was given by the Expert Advisor for Population and Racial Policy (Sachverständigenbeirat für Bevölkerungs- und Rassenpolitik) which was, "An Aryan is one who is tribally related (stammverwandt) to German blood. An Aryan is the descendant of a Volk domiciled in Europe in a closed tribal settlement (Volkstumssiedlung) since recorded history". That definition of 'Aryan' included Estonians, Finns and Hungarians. In 1938 a commentary was made about the Nuremberg Laws that proclaimed that "the overwhelming majority" of Finns and Hungarians were of Aryan blood.
Estonians
In 1941, Nazi Germany established the Reichskommissariat Ostland in order to administer the conquered territory of Estonia. The colonial department in Berlin under Minister Alfred Rosenberg (born in Tallinn in 1893) favorably looked upon Estonians as Finno-Ugrics and thus, it looked upon them as "Aryans", Generalkommissar Karl-Siegmund Litzmann authorized the establishment of a Landeseigene Verwaltung, or a local national administration.
During the war, Hitler remarked that Estonians contained a lot of "Germanic blood".
Finns
The Finns had a debatable position in the Nazi racial theories, as they were considered a part of the "Eastern Mongol race" with the Sámi people in traditional racial hierarchies. Finland did not have Lebensborn centres, unlike Norway, although Finland had tens of thousands of German soldiers in the country. Archival research however has found out that 26 Finnish women were in contact with the Lebensborn program for unspecified reasons.
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Finnish army, alongside German units in Lapland, invaded the USSR following Soviet air attacks on Finnish cities. Finland fought the USSR primarily in order to recover the territories which it was forced to cede to the USSR after the Moscow Peace Treaty which ended the Winter War between the Finns and the Soviets. In November 1942, owing to Finland's substantial military contribution to the German war effort on the northern flank of the Eastern Front of World War II, Hitler decreed that "from now on Finland and the Finnish people be treated and designated as a Nordic state and a Nordic people", which he considered one of the highest compliments that the Nazi government could bestow upon another country. Hitler stated in private conversation that:
Hungarians
According to the Interior Ministry, Hungarians were "tribally alien" (fremdstämmig) but were not necessarily "blood alien", which added to even more confusion with regard to defining Hungarians on a racial basis. In 1934, a brochure from the series Family, Race, Volk in the National Socialist State simply stated that Hungarians (which it did not define) were Aryans. But, the following year an article in the Journal for Racial Science on the "Racial Diagnosis of the Hungarians", remarked that "opinions on the racial condition of the Hungarians are still very divided". As late as 1943, the question of whether a Hungarian woman was to be allowed to marry a German man was disputed; she was determined to be of 'related blood' and they were allowed to get married.
Western Aryans
Although Günther and Hitler viewed Western nations as Aryans, they held dismissive racial views about the lower classes in Britain and France.
British
According to Günther, the purest Nordic regions were Scandinavia and northern Germany, particularly Norway and Sweden, specifying: "We may, perhaps, take the Swedish blood to be over 80 per cent Nordic, the Norwegian blood about 80 per cent." Britain and southern Germany by contrast were not considered entirely Nordic. Germany was said to be 55% Nordic, and the rest Alpine (particularly southern Germany), Dinaric, or East Baltic (particularly eastern Germany). On the British Isles, Günther stated: "we may adopt the following racial proportions for these islands: Nordic blood, 60 percent; Mediterranean, 30 percent; Alpine, 10 percent." He added that "The Nordic strain in Germany seems to be rather more distributed over the whole people than in England, where it seems to belong far more to the upper classes." Hitler echoed this sentiment, referring to the British lower classes as "racially inferior".
Günther claimed that the Anglo-Saxons had been more successful than the Germans in maintaining racial purity and had been infused with additional Nordic blood through Norse raids and colonization during the Viking Age, Günther referred to this process as Aufnordung ("additional nordification"), which finally culminated in the Norman Conquest. Britain was thus a nation created by struggle and the survival of the fittest among the various Aryan peoples of the isles, and Britain's global conquest and empire-building was a result of its superior racial heredity. Hitler's admiration of the British empire was on the same track. For the Nazis, the ruthless British attitude in the English people was an example of what was needed for a master race to rule over large, inferior, masses of people. Britain's role as a world power, colonial empire, and an agent of international politics was admired by Nazis as a quality of their superiority. Hitler and many others in Germany were convinced that brutality in the colonies and in war was a key feature of the British national character.
Hitler seems to have lumped all the peoples (English, Scots, and Irish) of the British Isles in together, unlike mid 19th century English race theorists, who believed they were superior to the Catholic Irish and tried to claim that Celts were less evolved as subhuman nonwhite others (some of these tropes were repeated by the Imperial Fascist League), or indeed some Irish nationalist types who turned this theory around to claim that Celts had greater spiritual and cultural capacity than the plodding Anglo-Saxon shopkeepers. A big plus, in Nazi eyes, about the Celts was that, living in the far west of Europe in Ireland, Brittany etc., they were less 'contaminated' by 'inferior' East European or Jewish blood than people in the middle of Europe. However, some nazi theories claimed that the Irish were close to the Mediterranean peoples, which made them inferior to the more Nordic English.
Up until November 1938 when Anglo-German relations started to deteriorate, Hitler had viewed the British on the whole as fellow Aryans and saw the British Empire as a potential German ally. However, the subsequent deterioration of relations and the outbreak of World War II led Nazi propaganda to portray the British establishment as a racially degenerate for supposedly allowing thousands of Jews to immigrate to the United Kingdom, intermarry with the upper class and dominate British foreign policy. A 1944 article described Winston Churchill as a "slave of the Jews and of alcohol". Nazi propaganda also vilified the British as oppressive and hating plutocrats with materialistic tendences who were an existential threat to the world, as they were the creators of "international high finance" and the degeneracy of Capitalism.
French
Hitler viewed the French as close to the Germans racially, but not quite their peers. He said of their racial character: "France remains hostile to us. She contains, in addition to her Nordic blood, a blood that will always be foreign to us." Günther echoed this sentiment, saying that the French were predominantly Alpine and Mediterranean rather than Nordic, but that a heavy Nordic strain was still present. He characterized the French as possessing the following racial proportions: Nordic, 25%; Alpine or Dinaric, 50%; Mediterranean, 25%. These types were said to be most prevalent in north, central, and southern France respectively.
Hitler planned to remove a large portion of the French population to make way for German settlement. The zone interdite of eastern France was set aside and planned to be made part of the German Reich after the rest of France was fully subdued. The French residents of the zone, some 7 million people accounting for nearly 20% of the French population at the time, were to be deported, and the land then occupied by at least a million German settlers. The plan was either postponed or abandoned after Operation Barbarossa in favor of expediting the settlement of the east instead and was never put into place owing to the German defeat in the Second World War.
Mediterranean Aryans
Nazi propaganda described the Mediterranean race as brown-haired, brown-eyed, light skinned but slightly darker than their Northern European counterparts, and short (average ), with dolichocephalic or mesocephalic skulls, and lean builds. People who fit this category were described as "lively, even loquacious" and "excitable, even passionate", but they were also described as being "prone to act more on feeling than on reason", and as a result, "this race has produced only a few outstanding men".
For the Nazis, in the beginning there were two types of Aryans: one was predominantly red or blonde haired and blue-eyed (Germanic Aryans); while the other was predominantly dark eyed and dark haired (Mediterranean Aryans). Blond, red hair, and dark hair were common among both kind of Aryans but one predominated over the other. The dark-haired (Mediterranean) Aryans migrated to Southern Europe and in that environment released their superior talent in the arts, philosophy, and government. This was due primarily to the favorable conditions of the Mediterranean. This is why the Greeks and Romans created the greatest civilizations known to man. Also, nazis believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans were the racial ancestors of the Germans, and the first torchbearers of "Nordic–Greek" art and culture. Later the Mediterraneans Aryans in Spain, France and Italy also committed the great sin of mixing with the other populations (mainly Semitic, Celtic, and North African) who were brought by the Greeks and Romans into their empires and during the Moorish invasions.
Italians
Nazi racial theorists questioned the amount of Aryan blood Italians had . Hitler himself viewed northern Italians as strongly Aryan, but not southern Italians. The Nazis viewed the downfall of the Roman Empire as being caused by racial intermixing, claiming that Italians were a hybrid of races, including black African races. When Hitler met Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini in June 1934 he told him that all Mediterranean peoples were "tainted" by Negro blood.
According to Hitler, Germans are more closely linked with the Italians than with any other people:
Greeks
During a speech in 1920, Hitler claimed that Greek civilization descended from Aryans. In his unpublished Second Book in 1928, he wrote that Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch state. Similarly, during a speech in August 1929 he reiterated the same thought by stating that Sparta was the "purest racial state" in history. Alfred Rosenberg believed that the civilisation of ancient Greece was the result of an "Aryan-Greek race soul". Himmler instructed the people carrying out Ahnenerbe think tank to study the "Indo-Germanic and Aryan" origins of Greece.
A 1939 article by Tito Körner in the Nazi magazine Volk Und Rasse compared the Greeks of Laconia, with the Greeks of Attica. According to the article, "in the land of the old Indo-Germanic Sparta", "blond hair, blue eyes, and tall height are common", while the Athenians were just a "people of mixed race". Körner believed that the former were directly the "descendants of the ancient Greeks". A 1941 article by Roland Hampe in the same magazine, stated that "nothing could be more false than to say that the Greek people as a whole have been Balkanized. Curiously, we tend to hold the Greek people to a higher racial standard than we do other people", arguing that the Greeks displayed a mental disposition that tended to indicate a common racial descent with those from northern Europe: "An unconscious recollection of their Nordic roots from deepest antiquity seems to reverberate through the veins of the Greek people". According to historian Johann Chapoutot:
During the Italian invasion of Greece in 1940, Hitler "rather admired the Greeks, and expected them to resist successfully". After the German invasion of Greece in 1941, Alfred Rosenberg noted in his diary that Hitler "is very sorry that he has to fight with the Greeks".
Spaniards
For Nazis, the psychology of the Spaniards deemed incompatible with the ideal Nazi Germans, particularly regarding their Catholicism. Also, Ottavio de Peppo noted that Spaniards' religious sentiments were useful to weaken Germany's position because of that contempt of the Nazis to the Spanish psychology. Hitler himself said that "All of Spain is contained in Don Quixote—-a decrepit society unaware the world has passed it by", because Spain was a stagnant nation dominated by three elements that Nazis detested; the aristocracy, the Church and the monarchy, past and future, since Franco had promised a royal restoration. Also, Hitler referred to Spaniards as "lazy", of "moorish blood" and in love with "the greatest whore in history", referencing Catholic Queen Isabel. Wilhelm Faupel, Nazi director of the Ibero-American Institute, conceived his cultural foreign policy as a tool to restore the German presence on the world stage ("Weltgeltung"). Faupel then putting all his care to prevent the racism inherent to the regime from scaring away its "multipliers". Thus he sought, through the Ministry of Propaganda, to have certain libels of black legend removed from circulation, such as those of Arnold Noldens (pseudonym of Wilhelm Pferdekamp), one of whom p. ex. it bore the title Afrika beginnt hinter den Pyrenäen ("Africa begins behind the Pyrenees").
About the crisis in Spanish society during the Civil War (and the Carlist Wars), several authors presented adherence to Marxism as a degenerative psychosis, and attempted to offer descriptions of the physiological terrain conducive to this illness. The answer was to be found in the mixed racial inheritance of Spain's long history. Antonio Vallejo-Nájera, a Spanish Nazi sympathizer, thought that Hispanic-Roman-Gothic people (Mediterranean Aryans) struggle against the Judeo-Moors (untermensch) since the Reconquista. So, the Marxist Spanish racial core had to be linked with Judeo-Moorish, and this degeneration of the Spanish race would be the cause of Spanish decadence since the fall of Spanish Empire. Also, the Spanish population, though seemingly unified, was in reality divided into two irreconcilable camps because the assimilation of Jews and Muslims had been fraudulent in ther false conversions to Catholicism.
However, Hitler's opinion of Spaniards changed after that Spanish proved themselves superior to the Italians and French, because they defeated the communists in the Civil War, and mostly after the Blue Division fought very well against the Red Army, demonstrating that the gallantry of the Spanish was a manifestation of it Volkgeist through history (like the Tercio). Although, emphasizing that his Latin character was a real drag.
Basques
The SS-Obergruppenführer, Werner Best, and his lieutenant, Manchen, were enchanted by the fascinating "Basquenfrage", because Basques kept their racial purity by prohibiting Jews from entering the Basque country. They were also convinced that Basque tradition based its conception of the people on their blood. As this was the same racial principles as Germans, they took this as a sign that their theories of race were a natural truth. However, there was a "Basque question", because there was not a clear answer about where Basques come from, preoccupying nazi specialists on race if they were Aryans or not. There were theories that they could be descendants of Untermensch like the Phoenicians, Finns, or the Mongols. There were also other mythical theories, influenced by Esoteric Nazism, that they could be descendants of legendary races like Atlanteans or from those who built the Tower of Babel. However, the most popular theory said that they came from the Iberians, so, they had to be Mediterranean Aryans. Some Basques, like Jon Mirande, had sympathy for those theories.
Eastern Aryans
During the mid-1930s, foreign diplomats from Iran and Turkey who visited Germany wanted to know what the Nazis regarded them as, since Iranians in particular spoke an Indo-European language. The Nazis concluded that the Indo-European speakers, including Anatolian languages, Turks and Iranians were Aryans. The Nazis regarded the Turks to be Europeans.
Iranians
Alfred Rosenberg, in The Myth of the Twentieth Century, spoke about an ancient migration of a "Nordic race", in which he described the ancient Persians as "Aryans with northern blood", who had finally degenerated because of mixing with "lower races". Nazi scholars, of Deutsche Judenforschung discipline, used their linguistic, historical and racial research to propose the thesis of an Aryan race that originated in Northern Europe, and in ancient times spread over the globe, founding ancient civilisations, like the Persian Empire (which had been a "world power"—"an Aryan power"), but eventually intermingled and mixed with native races, it degenerated and fell by "denordification" (Entnordnung). German orientalists and historians during the Nazi era, like Heinrich Schaeder, Heinrich Lüders, Helmut Berve, Fritz Schachermeyr, Walther Wüst, and Wilhelm Weber, adopted the racial thesis of a northern migration to Asia, believing that northern European "Aryans" once colonized the Middle East and Inner Asia to defend their Nordic homeland against Asiatic hordes. Even the ancient wars between Greeks and Persians in this Nazi historiography were relativised as 'quarrels among brother people'. Even some Nazi racial scientists, like Gerhard Heberer, referred to the idea of an ancient Indo-Germanic "Aryan" race in central Germany who start a migration.
Beginning in 1933, Nazi leadership made efforts to increase their influence in Iran, and they financed and managed a racist journal, Iran-e Bastan, co-edited by a pro-Nazi Iranian, Abdulrahman Saif Azad. This and other chauvinistic publications in the 1930s were popular among Iranian elites; they "highlighted the past and the pre-Islamic glories of the Persian nation and blamed the supposedly 'savage Arabs and Turks' for the backwardness of Iran." In Iran:
Nazi ideology was most common among Persian officials, elites, and intellectuals, but "even some members of non-Persian groups were eager to identify themselves with the Nazis" and a supposed Aryan race. On 1934, the Nazis celebrated the Ferdowsi millennial celebration in Berlin, in which the Nazi government declared that the German and Persian people share membership in a common Indo-Germanic race. Hitler declared Iran to be an "Aryan state"; the changing of Persia's international name to Iran in 1935 was done by the Shah at the suggestion of the German ambassador to Iran as an act of "Aryan solidarity". Also, Hitler personally promised that if he defeated the Soviet Union, he would return all of the Persian land taken by Russians during the Russo-Persian Wars. Even in 1939, Germany provided Iran with the so-called German Scientific Library. The library contained over 7,500 books selected "to convince Iranian readers... of the kinship between the National Socialist Reich and the Aryan culture of Iran".
In 1936, the Nazi Office of Racial Politics, in response to a question from the German Foreign Ministry, classified non-Jewish Turks as Europeans, but "left unanswered the question of how to think about the obviously non-European Arabs, Persians, and Muslims." Later that year, ahead of the Summer Olympic Games in Berlin, the Nazis responded to questions from the Egyptians by saying that the Nuremberg racial laws did not apply to them, and after the Iranian ambassador to Berlin "assured German officials that 'there was no doubt that the Iranian, as an Aryan,' was 'racially kindred (artverwandt) with the Germans," the German Foreign Ministry "assured the Iranian Embassy in Berlin that the correct distinction between was not between "Aryans and non-Aryans" but rather between "persons of German and related blood on one hand and Jews as well as racially alien on the other." Iranians were classified as "pure-blooded Aryans" and thus were excluded from the Nuremberg Laws.
Indians and Indo-Aryans
During the Nazi regime, India was still ruled by the British Raj. Because of this, Hitler's views on Indians were generally disparaging, and his plans for the region were heavily influenced by his racial views, especially related to India's subdued colonized status. Hitler was an Anglophile and considered the Indian independence movement was carried out by the "lower Indian race against the superior English Nordic race", and referred to participants in the movement as "Asiatic jugglers".
Alfred Rosenberg claimed that although Vedic culture was Aryan in origin, especially since the word "Aryan", and related expressions like "Arya", appeared in ancient Indian inscriptions and texts, any Nordic blood in India had long since dissipated due to racial miscegenation. Even Gunther proposed that Indian cultural sphere was produced by Nordic immigrants which in his view were tall and fair and brought with them the elite of ancient India, the art of building in wood, and body-burning, and had a comparatively highly developed social system that was placed in the caste system (as by having the lightest skin that the highest caste Hindus are still recognized, being a sign of the dislike towards the Hither Asiatic race that is to-day fairly clearly to be seen there). Gunther believed that there were many parallels between Hindu Vedas and Zoroastrian Avesta with the Germanic paganism and Nordic mythology that could only be explained by a North European origin, specially because Hindus and Romans alike set the abode of the gods in the north. Only infiltration by the native non-Indo-European peoples (which were mostly dark skinned and shorter) had led to its decline of Indo-Aryan peoples and the fall of the Indian civilization. Similarly, Heinrich Lüders made the case for the "Aryan" migration, focusing mostly on India.
However, the appearance of Buddha and of Buddhism (which, in its essence, had lost all Nordic inspiration), that first wholly and irretrievably broke down the racial discipline and forethought of the "wonderful gifted people" of Indo-Aryan, being a religion spread mainly by non-Nordic missionaries. Buddhism sapped the courageous soul of the early Hindu wisdom, and in its stead preached the spirit of resignation. For the religious aspects of Nazism, Buddhism shows no really constructive thought that only led to the abnegation of the will to beget life with its hostility to the individual rooting himself at all within his people (tore him out of his historical framework), distorting and put a different value on what Brahminism had created in early Hindu times, being against that harmony with all life because its demand for the renunciation of the sexual life, through its discouragement of marriage and all property (helping in the disappearance of Nordic blood). Also, the Indian climate played a very important part in the disappearing of this Aryan elite, as they were not adapted to a tropical region and having a deep effect in a negatively selective direction on the Nordic element in the people. However, the invasion of Indo-Scythian tribes by the Greeks (after Alexander the Great's Indian campaign) seemed to have brought a Nordic revival after establishing Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom. But, racial mixture were bound to lead to the decay of the Hindu culture. With the rise of the Mongol dominion (which lasted from the eighth century until 1536), the victory of the Asiatic racial elements in India was complete, and the Hindu mind ever drifting farther and farther away from the old Aryans, being proved.
Turks
In 1935, a half-Turkish half-German man named "Johannes Ruppert" was forced to leave the Hitler Youth, due to the belief that as the son of a Turkish man he was not a full Aryan as required by the Reich Citizenship Law. Ruppert sought assistance from the Turkish Embassy in Berlin to clarify how “the Aryan question” affected his case. The Turkish Embassy brought the matter to the attention of the German Foreign Ministry. In a note of December 20, 1935, a Foreign Ministry official wrote that "opening up the Aryan question in relation to Turkey is extraordinarily undesirable as well as dangerous for our relations with Turkey". However, in January 1936, Foreign Ministry wrote a memo to the Nazi Party Office of Racial Policy, writing that it was "essential that determination of whether the Turks are Aryan be decided as soon as possible", so that the Foreign Ministry could give "a satisfactory answer" to the Turkish Embassy’s repeated questions about the issue, since there had been individual cases, that is, others in addition to Ruppert, in which "German citizens with Turkish mixed-blood had run into difficulties with the state and the [Nazi] Party due to their origins". The classification of Turks as "non-Aryans", in keeping with Nazi racial theories, led to foreign policy complications, because the Nazis considered the Turkish government as a potential ally. Consequently, the racial theories had to be "modified" to some degree in accordance with foreign policy requirements. In April 30, 1936 Nazi Office for Racial Policy released a circular which stated that the Turks were "Europeans" while explaining that Turkish citizens of Jewish background would still be considered Jews and Turks of "colored origin" would be considered non-European. Some Turkish and international newspapers, such as the Swiss Le Temps and the Turkish Republique, reported at the time that the Turks had been recognized as an "Aryan nation" and that they were exempt from the Nuremberg laws. Turkish newspaper Akşam published an article with the headline "The Turks are Aryans!". Such reports were picked up by other international newspapers, as well as by some modern scholarship, however the claim that that the Turks had been recognized as an "Aryan nation" and that they were exempt from the Nuremberg laws was a hoax. Nazi officials themselves disputed these reports by publishing a press release which stated that they were unfounded and that this should have been immediately obvious given the fact that the Nuremberg laws do not refer to the term "Aryan" at all. The Nazis classified Turks as "European" and not as "Aryans" and the decision had no practical consequences. In addition, this decision was designed to appease Turkey from a foreign policy standpoint, although, from a racial standpoint, Nazi officials did not believe that the Turks were neither European nor Aryan.
In May 1942, a writer in the official journal of the Nazi Office for Racial Policy, Neues Volk, replied to a father's question caused by his daughter's relationship with a Turkish man, about whether racial differences between Germans and Turks meant that a marriage should not take place. The reply read:
Although the Nazi leadership agreed with the content of the reply, they criticized the journal for publishing it, because, in a foreign policy point of view, it was really clumsy ("denkbar ungeschickt") to publish before defeating the British in Middle East. For example, Franz von Papen, the German ambassador to Turkey, informed the German Foreign Ministry that the publication of this text "has serious foreign policy considerations". He noted that such statements could aid "our Anglo-Saxon opponents" in their "propaganda against us" and asked the Office of Racial Politics not to publish such things in the future. On May 16, 1942, Franz Rademacher, director of the Office of Jewish Affairs in the German Foreign Ministry, wrote to Walter Gross, the founder and editor of the magazine, that he "had no objection to the content of the information from a racial-political viewpoint but that it was "from a foreign policy standpoint, really clumsy” and "a political blunder" that would have "embarrassing and awkward foreign policy implications". Nazi officials sought to prevent miscegenation between Turks and Germans and, if necessary, sought to imprison or deport the "offending" Turkish man.
Georgians
Hitler remarked about the Georgians during one of his table talks:
Compared to other Soviet nationalities, Georgians were given preferential treatment and there was even a Georgian Legion. Hitler also theorized that Joseph Stalin's Georgian ethnicity, as well as the fact that the Georgian SSR was nominally autonomous, would eventually draw the Georgians closer to the USSR than to Germany. Several Georgian scholars such as Alexander Nikuradze and Michael Achmeteli served as advisors for Nazis such as Alfred Rosenberg.
On 24 August 1939, during the meeting of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Hitler asked his personal photographer Heinrich Hoffmann to photograph Georgian-born Soviet leader Stalin's earlobes to determine whether or not he was an "Aryan" or a "Jew". Hitler concluded that he was an "Aryan". Himmler regarded Stalin as being descended from lost "Nordic-Germanic-Aryan blood".
Armenians
Armenians were considered an Aryan people, both by the Nazi state and Alfred Rosenberg's racial theory. However, Adolf Hitler personally did not trust them. Due to this, the Armenian Legion was mainly stationed in the Netherlands. Speaking about military units from Soviet peoples, Hitler said: "I don't know about these Georgians. They do not belong to the Turkic peoples...I consider only the Muslims to be reliable...All others I deem unreliable. For the time being I consider the formation of these battalions of purely Caucasian peoples very risky, while I don't see any danger in the establishment of purely Muslim units...In spite of all declarations from Rosenberg and the military, I don't trust the Armenians either."
Alfred Rosenberg declared that the Armenians were Indo-European, or Aryans, and thus they were immediately subject to conscription. According to Versteeg, however, "Although Armenians officially were considered 'Aryans', the notion of them being 'Levantine traders', similar to the Jews, was deep-seated in Nazi circles, and racial 'purists' along with Hitler himself were prone to look upon the Armenians as 'non-Aryans.'"
Arabs
Albert Speer, in his best-selling memoir Inside the Third Reich, mentions many famous anecdotes told about Adolf Hitler's views on Islam and Arabs. Hitler was transcribed as saying: "Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiers [...] then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism, that cult which glorifies the heroism and which opens up the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world." Nazis intellectuals thought that the Germans would have become heirs "of a religion that believes in spreading the faith by means of the sword and subjecting all nations to this faith" and that this doctrine suited well with the German temperament (tracked from Germanic paganism), and better than the passivity of the Catholicism who dominated the Holy Roman Empire (Nazis viewed Catholicism as a meekness and weakness religion for peasants, and a Jewish ideological plague in equal danger like Marxism or Masonic liberalism, who were making a common cause against Nazi racial thought), concluying that was a misfortune to be in the wrong religion and that Arabs had developed a religion for master races. Also, Nazis admired the legacy of Al-Andalus in Spain, considering it as the most glorious period of Spanish history.
About the possibility that Germans, who had converted to Islam, wanted to become or remain members of the Nazi Party, Martin Bormann, the head of the Nazi Party Reichskanzlei, sent Hitler's decision:
In 1936, in response to questions from the Turkish, Persian, and Arab diplomats in Berlin, officials in the Foreign Ministry, the Nazi Party's Rassenpolitisches Amt, and the Propaganda Ministry discussed the matter of whether Arab were Aryans. Reports from "Jewish-French newspapers" (according to Eberhard von Stohrer, German ambassador in Cairo) saying that the German race legislation would have classified Egyptians (Arabs), Iranians, and Turks as non-Aryans caused considerable controversy in Muslim world; even the chairman of Egypt's Olympic Committee expressed "great disquiet and concern" in a telegram to German officials organizing the Berlin Olympic committee. Walter Gross wrote to the Foreign Ministry to assure it that neither he nor anyone else in the Rassenpolitisches Amt had made such claims (of declare Egyptians and Arabs as non-Aryans) to the press. The German government reassured that the Nuremberg Laws do not, in fact, label Arabs as non-Aryans. Also, the German government explained that German law had no objections to marriages between Arabs, on the one hand, and Germans, on the other, treating those marriages like a German marriage with Europeans. These confused and utilitarian discussions about the meaning of blood and race at the 1936 Summer Olympics offered a legal and theoretical basis for reconciling German racial laws with closely related peoples of interest such as non-Jewish Semites (Arabs and Muslims) before and during the World War II.
However, love affairs, sexual relations and marriages between Arab men and German women (with the intention of procreating mixed-race children) in Nazi Germany aroused the hostile attention of the Rassenpolitisches Amt, whose officials sought to prevent such bonds and, if necessary to imprison or deport the "offending" Arab and Muslim man. Hitler had told his military commanders in 1939, shortly before the start of World War II:
Then, in the summer of 1940 and again in February 1941, during Anglo-Iraqi War, Amin al-Husseini submitted to the Nazi German government a draft declaration of German-Arab cooperation, containing a clause about their thoughts of the Arabs as having a volkisch superior to the Jews, even if both were Semitic.
Hitler, recalling Husseini, remarked that he "has more than one Aryan among his ancestors and one who may be descended from the best Roman stock." On October 23, 1942, Nazi Germany's Arabic language station, "Berlin in Arabic," sent the following broadcast to Egypt, in which presented Gross's reply to "H.E. [His Excellency] The Prime Minister of Iraq", after Raschid Ali al-Gaylani solicit an answer from an official source regarding the German consideration of the Arab race.
Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany's propaganda efforts fell were receptive in a minority of Arab and Islamic political and intellectual elites, but was not great enough to tip the scales of the war in North Africa in 1942. If axis powers would have won the campaign, that minority would likely have been collaborators in a German occupation of Egypt and perhaps Palestine.
At times a racial fanatic from the Rassenpolitisches Amt made a public matter the crusade against miscegenation between Germans and Arabs (as they were Semites). If and when that happened, it caused problems for German diplomats and soldiers in his propaganda campaigns to convince Arabs and Muslims that Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers were their friends and natural allies against international communism, British colonialism and the "judenfrage". Demanding their officers to have discretion until they won the war. This being the case, the Foreign Office Archives indicate that, at the same time as Nazi radio broadcasts and pamphlets were being distributed by the North African corps proclaiming Germany's sympathy and support for Arab independence and freedom, the Nazi officials at the Rassenpolitisches Amt and various university officials were determined to prevent "foreign" (artfremder) students from Arab countries from continuing personal relationships with German women by withdrawing their permission to study at German universities. Fritz Grobba, the official in the Foreign Ministry who was responsible for liaison with the former Iraqi politician, Raschid Ali al-Gailani (pro-Axis), agreed that expelling Arab students during the war was also out of the question. Deportation would have to be to a neutral country where the students "would fall into the hands of hostile intelligence services". Nazi propaganda was a pragmatic case, namely that the regime's racial hatred was limited to that of the Jews, while non-Jewish Semites, like Arabs in general, were simply different but not for that reason necessarily inferior.
Slavs
As early as World War 1, Hitler had viewed Slavs as primitive subhumans and for this reason detested German alliance with Austria-Hungary. In his works such as the Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch, Hitler accused the Slavs of lacking any capability to form a working government. In addition, Hitler believed that Slavs like Poles didn't deserve education. With the formation of Soviet Union, Hitler's hostilities against Russia increased drastically, viewing the country as a base for a global Jewish conspiracy. As early as 1934, Joseph Stalin had suspected Nazi Germany of organizing a racial war against Slavic populations and informed this publicly during the 17th Communist Party Congress. Hitler's beliefs in the racial inferiority of Russians personally convinced him that German invasion of Soviet Union will succeed. During the execution of General Plan Ost, Nazis implemented numerous discriminatory laws against Slavic populations. Furthermore, Hitler issued numerous directives banning Slavs from access to education, healthcare and hygiene.
While anti-Slavism had precedent in German society before Hitler's rule, Nazi racism against Slavs was also based on the doctrines of scientific racism. Historian John Connelly argues that the Nazi policies carried out against the Slavs during World War II cannot be fully explained by the racist theories endorsed by the Nazis because of the contradictions and opportunism that occurred during the war.
Prior to the outbreak of the war in 1939, there was only a vague notion of Slavs as an inferior group in the minds of the leading Nazis. How inferior would be determined later on during the war. The Nazis thought that Eastern Europe, namely the areas whose inhabitants speak Slavic languages, was the most racially inferior part of Europe, and very distinct from the rest of Europe. In addition to deeming them inferior, Nazis also viewed Slavs as the agents of Judeo-Bolshevism. In a 1941 article titled "Zur Psychologie des Ostraumes" ("On the psychology of the Eastern Realm") published in Zeitschrift für Geopolitik journal, Nazi psychologist Gustav Richard Heyer characterized Slavs as "natural slaves" predisposed to servitude, inhabiting Eastern Europe in a primitive state akin to wildlife. Heyer further depicted Germans as a "Prometheus"-like figure for Eastern Europe.
Günther in his book The Racial Science of Europe wrote that the Slavs were originally Nordic but over the centuries had mixed with other races. In The Racial Elements of European History he wrote: "The east of Europe shows a gradual transition of the racial mixtures of Central Europe into predominantly East Baltic and Inner Asiatic regions... Owing to the likeness between East Baltic and Inner Asiatic bodily characters it will often be hard to fix a sharp boundary between these two races". He noted that the Nordic race was prominently found along the Vistula, the Neva, the Dwina and in southern Volhynia, but the further south and east, the East Baltic race became more common and finally in some regions there was "a strong Inner Asiatic admixture". In the Russian-speaking regions he estimated were between at 25 per cent and 30 per cent Nordic. In the Polish regions there was an increase in the East Baltic race, Alpine race, and Inner Asiatic the further east.
Günther, who greatly influenced Hitler and Nazi ideology, studied and wrote about the supposed racial origins of the Slavs. He concluded that Slavs were originally Nordic, but after mixing with other races over the centuries they eventually came to be predominantly of the East Baltic race. However, some Poles and other Slavs were considered to have enough Nordic admixture to be Germanized, because they were supposedly descended from the Nordic ruling class of the early Slavs. He wrote that the further East the more the "Inner Asiatic" racial ancestry was prominent. He wrote that of the Poles and other Slavs who were predominantly of the East Baltic race that they were mentally slow, dirty and incapable of long term planning. He also claimed that the East Baltic race was the reason why some German districts had "a heavy proportion of crime".
Himmler in the 1920s was a member of the anti-Slavic Artaman League and wrote:
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that Germany's Lebensraum (living space) was going to be in Eastern Europe:
Hitler in his unpublished second book Zweites Buch wrote that the Nazi Party's foreign policy was going to be based on securing Lebensraum for the German people:
In the same book, he wrote that the peoples in the annexed territories would not be Germanized:
To justify their acquisition of Lebensraum (living space) for Germans, the Nazis later classified Slavs as a racially inferior "Asiatic-Bolshevik" horde.
During the war, the Gestapo persecuted sexual relations between Germans and the peoples of Eastern Europe because of the "risk for the racial integrity of the German nation".
Himmler in a secret memorandum titled Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East commented about the forceful Germanisation of children of German blood in Eastern Europe:
In the same memorandum, Himmler remarked that the future of the non-German population in the East would be:
Himmler classified Slavs as "bestial untermenschen" and regarded Jews as the "decisive leader of the untermenschen". In 1941, Himmler advocated that in the annexed territories a bulwark "be created against the Slav nations through the settlement of German farmers and farmers of German descent". Himmler declared that the Germanisation of Eastern Europe would be fully completed when "in the East dwell only men with truly German, Germanic blood".
Himmler in his Posen speeches in 1943 said:
Bulgarians
Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary on 14 December 1938 that the Bulgarians were a "courageous people and also our friends". During the war, Hitler remarked "to label the Bulgarians as Slavs is pure nonsense; originally they were Turkomans".
Croats
Hitler remarked about the Croats during a table talk:
The Croatian fascist Ustaše government rejected the idea that the Croats were descended from Slavic tribes and endorsed to the idea that they were descended from Germanic Gothic tribes. On 30 April 1941, the government passed three racial laws: the "Legal Decree on Racial Origins", the "Legal Decree on the Protection of Aryan Blood and the Honor of the Croatian People" and the "Legal Provision on Citizenship".
Bosniaks
The romantic notions that Himmler had about the Bosniaks were probably significant in the genesis of the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) and 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian). Nonetheless, a memorandum dated 1 November 1942 also indicates that leading Muslim autonomists had already suggested the creation of a volunteer Waffen-SS unit under German command. Himmler was personally fascinated by the Islamic faith and believed that Islam created fearless soldiers. He found their ferocity preferable to the gentility of Christians and believed their martial qualities should be further developed and put to use. He thought that Muslim men would make perfect SS soldiers as Islam "promises them Heaven if they fight and are killed in action."
Czechs
After the Nazis' proclamation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 16 March 1939, Karl Frank defined a 'German' as:
The Nazis aimed to Germanize the Bohemian and Moravian areas. The issue of sexual relations and marriages between Czechs and Germans was problematic. The Nazis did not prohibit marriages between Czechs and Germans and no law prohibited Jews from marrying Czechs. German women who married Czech men lost their Reich citizenship whereas Czech women who married German men were allowed to become part of the German Volk.
Although Hitler considered Czechs to be of Mongolian origin, in accordance with the idea of completely Germanising the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in 1940 he agreed with racial anthropologists that up to 50% of Czechs contained enough Nordic blood that they could be Germanized, while the "Mongoloid types" and the Czech intelligentsia were not to be Germanized and were to be "deprived of their power, eliminated, and shipped out of the country by all sorts of methods".
In 1941 Hitler praised the "hard work and inventiveness of the Czechs" to his Propaganda Minister Goebbels and a year later he remarked that the Czechs were "industrious and intelligent workers".
Poles
Hitler thought of Poles as a foreign race and in Mein Kampf he criticised earlier attempts to Germanise ethnic Poles because he argued that the racial inferiority of the Poles would weaken the German nation.
Günther regarded Northern Poland as being predominantly Nordic and that the Nordic race was to be found amongst the upper classes.
An influential figure among German racist theorists was Otto Reche, who became director of the Institute for Racial and Ethnic Sciences in Lipsk and advocated the genocide of the Polish nation. In this position he wrote that ethnic Poles were "an unfortunate mixture" consisting among others of Slavs, Balts and Mongolians, and that they should be eliminated to avoid possible mixing with the German race. When Germany invaded Poland he wrote "We need Raum (space), but no Polish lice on our fur".
After the invasion of Poland, Nazi propaganda began to depict Poles as subhumans. On 24 October 1939, after a meeting in the Propaganda Ministry, the Directive No.1306 of Nazi Germany's Propaganda Ministry was issued and stated: "It must be made clear even to the German milkmaid that Polishness equals subhumanity. Poles, Jews and Gypsies are on the same inferior level... This should be brought home as a leitmotiv, and from time to time, in the form of existing concepts such as 'Polish economy', 'Polish ruin' and so on, until everyone in Germany sees every Pole, whether farm worker or intellectual, as vermin." Goebbels and Hitler believed that Asia began in Poland.
Goebbels in his diary on 10 October 1939 wrote what Hitler thought of the Poles:
In December 1939, Himmler declared that racial assessments were essential to avoid "mongrel types from emerging in the territories that are to be newly settled. I want to create a blond province."
The Polish decrees that were about forced Polish workers working in Germany and were enacted on 8 May 1940 stated that any Polish man or woman for having sexual intercourse with a German man or woman. Nazi propaganda issued leaflets for farmhouses where Polish workers resided and informed Germans:
German women who had sexual intercourse with Polish workers had their heads shaved and were then forced to have a placard around her neck detailing her crime and paraded around the place where she lived. After 1940, Poles were regularly hanged without trials for accusations of sexual intercourse with German women.
During the war Hitler stated that Germans should not mix with Poles in order to prevent any "Germanic blood" being transmitted to the Polish ruling class.
The Germanization of Poles in Nazi-occupied Poland was troublesome since different Nazis had different beliefs about who could be Germanized. Although Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Danzig-West Prussia Albert Forster advocated for the extermination of Poles, he was more than happy to accept Poles who claimed to have "German blood" to be Germans. Attempting to find out if those Poles were of German ancestry was almost an impossibility and Poles who were interviewed by Nazi Party workers were taken at face value without requiring any documents to prove their claims. However, this policy was at odds with Himmler and the Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of the German-occupied territory of Wartheland Arthur Greiser. Himmler and Greiser both advocated for an ethnic cleansing policy of the Poles in the Wartheland so the territory could be resettled by Germans. Hitler left each Gauleiter to Germanise his own territory to how he saw fit with "no questions asked". Under the classifications set out by the Deutsche Volksliste (German Peoples' List), approximately two-thirds of the Polish population in Forster's occupation were classified as Germans.
Russians
Hitler in Mein Kampf wrote that, "The organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race".
Influenced by the Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia that were issued by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) on 19 May 1941, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated:
After the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the Nazis aimed to exterminate the peoples of the Soviet Union. An order by Hitler ordered that the Einsatzgruppen were to execute all Soviet functionaries who were "less valuable Asiatics, Gypsies and Jews". Nazi propaganda depicted the war against the Soviet Union as a racial war between Germans and the Jewish, Romani and Slavic sub-humans. Similarly, it depicted Russians as "Asiatic hordes", "Mongol storm", and "subhumans".
Himmler gave a speech in Stettin to Waffen SS soldiers of the Eastern Front Battle Group "Nord" and said that the war was a battle of "ideologies and struggle races". He argued that it was between Nazism that was based on "the values of our Germanic, Nordic blood" against "the 180 millionth people, a mixture of races and peoples, whose names are unpronounceable" which soldiers should "shoot without pity or mercy" and reminded the soldiers who were fighting in the war that they were fighting against "the same subhumans, against the same inferior races" that had appeared under different names 1,000 years ago, but reminded them that they were now called "Russian under the political banner of Bolshevism".
Goebbels wrote an essay on 19 July 1942 titled "The So-Called Russian Soul" in which he argued that the Russians' stubborn manner was down to their national character being "animalistic".
Ukrainians
Initially after the invasion of the Soviet Union some Ukrainians viewed the German soldiers as "liberators" from the Soviets and some Nazis toyed with the idea of setting up an independent Ukrainian state, but those views were short-lived after the German army began to murder Ukrainians en masse. Hitler and other leading Nazis forbade any Ukrainian independence. The Reichskommissar in Reichskommissariat Ukraine Erich Koch publicly declared the Ukrainians to be racially inferior and forbade subordinates from having any social contact with Ukrainians. Koch also publicly referred to the Ukrainians as "niggers".
Hitler remarked during the war that the Ukrainians were "every bit as idle, disorganized, and nihilistically Asiatic as the Greater Russians". He also speculated that blue-eyed Ukrainians were descended from ancient German tribes.
Koch on 5 March 1943 said:
In 1943, Himmler foresaw the publication of a pamphlet which showed photographs illustrating the alleged racial superiority of the Germans and the racial inferiority of the Ukrainians.
Jews
Hitler shifted the blame for Germany's loss in the First World War upon the "enemies from within". In the face of economic hardship as triggered by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Jews who resided in Germany were blamed for sabotaging the country. The Nazis, therefore, classified them as the most inferior race and used derogatory terms such as Untermensch (sub-human) and Schwein (pig). Nazi propaganda endorsed the anti-Semitic Stab-in-the-back conspiracy theory which claimed that the Germans did not lose the First World War, but instead were betrayed by German citizens, especially Jews.
On 24 February 1920, Hitler announced the 25-point Program of the Nazi Party. Point 4 stated, "None but members of the nation may be citizens of the state. None but those of German blood, whatever their creed may be. No Jew, therefore, may be a member of the nation."
In his works, for instance, in Rassenkunde des jüdischen Volkes ("Ethnology of the Jewish people"), Günther wrote that Jews predominantly belonged to the "Near Eastern race" (often known as the "Armenoid race"). He thought that Jews had become so racially mixed that they could possibly be regarded as a "race of the second-order". He described Ashkenazi Jews as being a mixture of Near Easterners, Orientals, East Baltic peoples, Inner-Asians, Nordic peoples, Hamites and Negroes, and he described Sephardi Jews as being a mixture of Orientals, Near Easterners, Mediterranean peoples, Hamites, Nordic peoples, and Negroes. He also believed that Jews had physical characteristics which were different from the physical characteristics of Europeans. After concluding the racial origins of Jews, Günther began to develop theories about why Jews were so distinguishable as a people and different to European peoples; he wrote that it was because of the way they looked, spoke, gestured and smelled.
In 1934, the Nazis published a pamphlet titled "Why the Aryan Law?" in which they attempted to justify their segregation of non-Jewish Germans from Jewish Germans.
In 1935, the Nazis announced the passage of the Nuremberg Laws which forbade sexual relations and marriages between non-Jewish Germans and Jewish Germans. The laws also stated that Jews were not allowed to employ non-Jewish Germans who were under 45 years old in their households and they also stated that Jews were not allowed to fly the Reich or national flag nor were Jews allowed to display the colors of the Reich.
Romani people
The Nazis believed that the Romani were originally Aryans, but over the centuries due to their nomadic lifestyle they had mixed with non-Aryans and therefore regarded them as an "alien race". Romani were subjected to the Nuremberg Laws and were forbidden from having sexual relations and marriages with people of "German or related blood" and were stripped of their citizenship.
The Nazis established the Racial Hygiene and Demographic Biology Research Unit in 1936. It was headed by Robert Ritter and his assistant Eva Justin, this Unit was mandated to conduct an in-depth study of the "Gypsy question (Zigeunerfrage)" and to provide data required for formulating a "Gypsy law".
After extensive fieldwork in the spring of 1936, consisting of interviews and medical examinations to determine the racial classification of the Roma, the Unit decided that most Romani, whom they had concluded were not of "pure Gypsy blood", posed a danger to German racial purity and should be deported or eliminated. No decision was made regarding the remainder (about 10 percent of the total Romani population of Europe), primarily Sinti and Lalleri tribes living in Germany. Several suggestions were made. Himmler suggested deporting the Romani to a remote reservation, as had been done by the United States for its Native Americans, where "pure Gypsies" could continue their nomadic lifestyle unhindered. According to him:
Although the law Himmler wanted never was enacted, in 1938 he advised that to solve the "Gypsy question" it could be done "on the basis of race".
Sub-Saharan Africans
In Mein Kampf, Hitler described the children who resulted from relationships between European women and French occupation soldiers of African origin as a contamination of the Aryan race "by Negro blood on the Rhine in the heart of Europe." He blamed the Jews for these so-called Rhineland Bastards, writing that "[Jews] were responsible for bringing Negroes into the Rhineland, with the ultimate idea of bastardizing the white race which they hate and thus lowering its cultural and political level so that the Jew might dominate." He also implied that this was a plot on the part of the French, saying the population of France was being increasingly "negrified".
The Nazis banned jazz music because they considered it "corrupt Negro music". The Nazis believed that the existence of jazz in Germany was a Jewish plot to dominate Germany and the non-Jewish German people and destroy German culture.
Nazi eugenicist Eugen Fischer, who was also a professor of anthropology and eugenics, thought that Germany's small black population should be sterilised in order to protect the German people. In 1938, at least 400 black children were forcibly sterilised in the Rhineland.
Black people were subjected to discrimination under the Nuremberg Laws and as a result, they were not allowed to be Reich citizens and they were also forbidden from having sexual relations or marriages with people who were of "German or related blood" (Aryans).
Native Americans
Nazi Germany was inspired to develop its Lebensraum doctrine by the American doctrine of manifest destiny, Hitler and Himmler were both admirers of the conquest of the Old West and they tried to imitate it in their plans of Drang nach Osten, likening their projects of Generalplan Ost on the Eastern Front to the American Indian Wars, seeking to reconfigure the demography of Eastern Europe (against the Slavs so it would become favorable to Germanics) in the same way that the US reconfigured the demography of North America (against Native Americans so it could become favorable to Anglo-Saxons), Nazi leaders routinely referred to Eastern Europe as "East Germany" or they referred to it as the "Wild East," and sometimes, they referred to its inhabitants as "Indians." In his book Mein Kampf, Hitler discussed U.S. laws and policies and noted that the United States was a racial model for Europe and that it was "the one state" in the world that was creating the kind of racist society that nacionalsocialists wanted, praising the way the "Aryan" US conquered "its own continent" by clearing the "soil" of "natives" to make way for more "racially pure" occupiers and laying the foundation of their economic self-sufficiency and growing global power. Himmler even believed Eastern Europe "could be a paradise, a California of Europe" and Nazi plans called for the removal of tens of millions of German Jews and Poles to Eastern "reservations", that were the Nazi ghettos. According to Holocaust historian, Timothy Snyder, the US was "the exemplary land empire" on which the Nazis based their colonizing vision of Eastern Europe. Also, Hitler spoke of his intention to similarly "Germanize" the east "by the immigration of Germans, and to look upon the natives [slavs] as Redskins." For example, in a 1928 speech, Hitler stated that Americans had "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage...". Also, the anti-miscegenation spirit of US Indian law were an inspiration to the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, specially in Heinrich Rieger, Roland Freisler, Herbert Kier, and Johann von Leers. The Nazis frequently referred to "the bloody conquest of the American West [as] the historical warrant [they] needed to justify the clearance of the Slav population." This analogy was used by the Nazis to compare their conquest to the conquest of the Wild West, and it informed their strategies for handling Jews, Polish, Russians, Slavs, and other peoples who were viewed as inferior and, thus, comparable to American Indians as untersmenchen.
However and paradoxically, Nazis pragmatically utilized popular tropes of Indian imagery (Indianthusiasm) to portray Germans as the Indians of Europe, in a sense of asserting the image of Germans as an original indigenous people who were distinct from other Europeans, and to present National Socialism as the political and spiritual manifestation of natural law. So, the imagery of Native Americans was appropriated in Nazi propaganda and used both against the US and to promote a "holistic understanding of Nature" among Germans, which gained widespread support from various segments of the political spectrum in Germany. The connection between anti-American sentiment and sympathetic feelings toward the underprivileged but authentic Indians was common in Germany, and it was to be found among both Nazi propagandists such as Goebbels and left-leaning writers such as Nikolaus Lenau as well. The pro-Nazi German American Bund tried to persuade Indians not to register for the draft, for example using the swastika with some Native Americans as a symbol depicting good luck in order to gain sympathy. In 1938 the first outdoor Karl May festivals took place at the Rathen Open Air Stage. The influence of Karl May's writing in Hitler youth and German society generate the believe that native people somehow possessed a quasi-Aryan nature. The open-air theater was laid out in 1936, inspired by the ideas of the Thingspiele movement, which was active in the early stages of the Nazi period. The Thingspiele movement failed in staging neopagan and Nordic mythical aspects of the völkisch movement, while May's all-Christian legends found more approval with the mainstream. In general, tried to use May's popularity and his work for their purposes. Also, in the late 1930s, Nazis even attempted to enlist American Indian support, mostly from Sioux and Lakota peoples, for Nazi Germany, also they were interested in exploiting the plight of indigenous peoples, hoping to incite an uprising by the "hemispheric Indian" against their brutal treatment, creating allies and instability to undermine American arguments for the moral superiority of democracy. Certain Native American advocate groups, such as the fascist-leaning American Indian Federation, were to be used to undermine the Roosevelt administration from within by means of propaganda. Fictitious reports about Berlin declaring the Sioux as Aryans were circulated by the German-American Bund with the aim of increasing tensions between Native Americans and the government of the United States, impelling Native Americans to resist being drafted or registered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Nazi propagandists went as far as declaring that Germany would return expropriated land to the Indians, while Goebbels predicted they possessed little loyalty to America and would rather rebel than to fight against Germany; such rumours were reported by John Collier, commissioner of Indian Affairs, to the Congress as true, thus not merely spreading them further but also legitimating them in the eyes of many. However, Native American authorities, like the Iroquois Confederacy, declared war to Axis powers, based that the racial policy of Nazi Germany and fascism ideology were against their traditional values, also as a protest against Indian New Deal (reclaiming their authority to declare war, independent from US government). Also, the declaration, about Sioux being apparently Aryans, resulted from a request by a German immigrant, descended from a Sioux grandmother, for German citizenship. Ruling that the immigrant fell within the pale for citizenship, this declaration stated that Indians were Aryans. However, this was a propaganda move in order to foment unrest among Native American groups in the US, but the Nazis did not actually believe this.
About the pre-hispanic Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Nazis thought that Andean civilizations (like Tiwanaku Empire, Wari Empire, Chimu Empire, or Inca Empire) were founded by an elite of Aryans who were lost of the historical record, and believing without a doubt that the ancestors of Lake Titicaca's local peoples, the Aymaras and Quechuas, because his rural 'uncivilized' condition, would have been incapable of accomplishing such a magnificent feat. The amateur archeologist and SS commander, Edmund Kiss, proposed that Tiwanaku ruins were built a million years ago by his Aryan ancestors—an ancient Nordic race—who had migrated from the Lost City of Atlantis. Nazi officials seized on Kiss's work and featured the ancient Nordic city of Tiwanaku in party newspapers and Hitler Youth publications. Even Heinrich Himmler wanted to send Kiss, as representative of Ahnenerbe, to lead a trip to Bolivia and demonstrate that Tiwanaku were an ancient Nordic civilization in the Andes that revealed the presence of the Aryan Master Race in prehistoric South America, but that wasn't possible due to the war.
The exiled French Nazi and archaeologist, Jacques de Mahieu (member of Charlemagne Division), after settling in Argentina, started to analyze the pre-Hispanic cultures and concluded, throughout his works La Agonía del Dios Sol [The Great Voyage of the Sun-God] and El Rey Vikingo del Paraguay [The Viking King of Paraguay], that a certain Nordic named Ullman (from Siesvig, the southern province of Denmark, and related to the god of hunters, Ull) arrived in Ancient Mexico, around the year 1067 AD in Panuco, and after making contacts with the Aztecs (which adored him as Quetzalcoatl), gradually descended from Mesoamerica across the American continent, to go to found, on South America, the Cara culture, until he settled in present-day Tiahuanaco (in Bolivia), where he established another kingdom (thus denying Aymara legends), the Tiahuanaku civilization, around the middle of the 10th century, which was a "Viking empire" and that was proved by the similarity of Nordic religion and pre-Inca religion, in addition to supposed inscriptions and figures about animals typical of European fauna. Then, after the whites lost their capital by Diaguita invaders in 1290, this Aryan elite fled along the coast to present-day Puerto View on Ecuador, built rafts, and headed for the Oceanian islands. Other Aryans managed to take refuge in the mountains where they rebuilt their forces with the help of loyal tribes and, later, they went down to Cusco where they founded the Tahuantinsuyo. Other Aryans hid in the eastern jungles (Amazon rainforest and Gran Chaco) where they would slowly degenerate, but founding Chachapoya culture and Guaraní culture. So, Inca civilization also had to be a Viking empire because of some coincidences in Quechuan languages and Nordic languages, especially because he believed that Inca folklore contained stories (especially those stories which were documented by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega) about viracochas, which he believed were stories about white and bearded men, he also believed that in Paracas (Peru) there was a mummy of a blonde Inca child. All of these pieces of evidence had to be proof of the existence of an Aryan elite of white and bearded Incas who were pure Nordics and constituted a minority with royal blood that ruled over the Indian rabble and constructed great volkisch empires, a claim which could be proven true because the Quechua and Aymara languages supposedly contain proto-German traces [The word Viracocha (the Andean civilizing god) has its alleged roots in the German words wirth (white) and goth (god); and the name Inca comes from the German ing (descendant)]. Mahieu also stated, with the help of Hermann Munk (German runologist) and Paraguayan historian Vicente Pistilli, that in Paraguay existed a lost Viking empire, saying that they were in the Cuenca del Plata and settled in the 14th century (at least a century before Columbus) and they left traces like; the countless of runes he perceived in cerro guazú, seeing the Guaraní village as a copy from the Viking fortress, concluding that the Guaraní language was having (apparently) numerous words from the Norse spoken by the Vikings, and appealing that the names collected by the Jesuits -Weibingo, Storting, Tocanguzir, etc.- undoubtedly have to had Viking origins, and being confirmed with the legend of the white apostle.
Other Nazi racial theorists believed that the elites of pre-Hispanic empires may have been Phoenicians, Egyptians, Chinese, Aramaic, Celts, Mediterranean, Semite or Etruscans, nations of merchants and intrepid navigators which had a superior volk than Native Americans mass of people, this elite (mostly Aryans) gave laws to the Indians, converted them to their religion, taught them agriculture and metallurgy and gave them works of art and architectural, while the mass of Native Americans were untersmensch that were incapable of replicate those prehistoric cities and empires developed by Aryan men who arrived in their lands as representatives of a special civilization from the other side of the sea. That status of the indigenous people as untersmensch was proved after the European colonization of the Americas and the existence of Criollo elites (related to aryans because their Iberian heritage) controllings Latin Americans countries. About mestizo people in Spanish America, neither Hitler nor any other major Nazi leader showed much interest in them, except to warn the German population that they were a clear example of the negative consequences of "racial mixing".
Racialist ideology
Ideology
Different Nazis offered a range of pseudo-religious or pseudoscientific arguments to prove that the Aryan race was superior to all other races. The central dogma of Aryan superiority was espoused throughout the party by officials who used scientific racist propaganda.
A person deemed to be a "subhuman" would be stripped of all of his/her rights, he or she would be treated like an animal, his or her life would be considered a Lebensunwertes Leben (life unworthy of living) and he or she would only be considered fit for enslavement and extermination.
In schools, Nazi ideology taught German youths to understand the differences which supposedly existed between the Nordic German "Übermenschen" and the "ignoble" Jewish and Slavic "subhumans". An illustration of this ideology was described in the 1990s by a German-Jewish woman, who vividly recalled hearing Nazis march by her home in central Germany in the mid-1930s while they were singing, "When Jewish blood squirts from my knife." A biography of Lise Meitner says "In the Reichstag the NSDAP deputies stretched their arms in the Nazi salute and sang their party anthem, the Horst Wessellied: "SA marching... Jew blood in the streets".'
Richard Walther Darré, Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture from 1933 to 1942, popularized the expression "Blut und Boden" ("Blood and Soil"), one of the many terms in the Nazi glossary ideologically used to enforce popular racism in the German population. There were many academic and administrative scholars of race who all had somewhat divergent views of racism, including Alfred Rosenberg and Hans F. K. Günther.
Fischer and Lenz were appointed to senior positions overseeing the policy of racial hygiene. The Nazi state used such ideas about the differences between European races as part of their various discriminatory and coercive policies which culminated in the Holocaust.
The first (1916) edition of the American eugenicist Madison Grant's popular book The Passing of the Great Race classified Germans as being primarily Nordic, but the second edition, published after the US had entered WWI, reclassified the now-enemy power as being dominated by "inferior" Alpines, a tradition which was echoed in Harvard Professor of Anthropology Carleton Coon's book The Races of Europe (1939).
Günther's book stated that the Germans are definitely not a fully Nordic people, and it also divided them into Western (Mediterranean), Nordic, Eastern (Alpine), East Baltic and Dinaric races. Hitler himself was later to downplay the importance of Nordicism in public for this very reason. The simplistic tripartite model of Grant which divided Europeans into only Alpine, Mediterranean, and Nordic, Günther did not use, and erroneously placed most of the population of Hitler's Germany in the Alpine category, especially after the Anschluss. This has been used to downplay the Nordic presence in Germany. Gunther considered Jews an "Asiatic race inferior to all European races".
J. Kaup led a movement opposed to Günther. Kaup took the view that a German nation, all of whose citizens belonged to a "German race" in a populationist sense, offered a more convenient sociotechnical tool than Günther's concept of an ideal Nordic type to which only a very few Germans could belong. Nazi legislation identifying the ethnic and "racial" affinities of the Jews reflects the populationist concept of race. Discrimination was not restricted to Jews who belonged to the "Semitic-Oriental-Armenoid" and/or "Nubian-African/Negroid" races, but was directed against all members of the Jewish ethnic population.
The German Jewish journalist Kurt Caro, who emigrated to Paris in 1933 and served in the French and British armies, published a book under the pseudonym Manuel Humbert unmasking Hitler's Mein Kampf in which he stated the following racial composition of the Jewish population of Central Europe: 23.8% Lapponoid race, 21.5% Nordic race, 20.3% Armenoid race, 18.4% Mediterranean race, 16.0% Oriental race.
By 1939, Hitler had abandoned Nordicist rhetoric in favor of the idea that the German people as a whole were united by distinct "spiritual" qualities. Nevertheless, Nazi eugenics policies continued to favor Nordics over Alpines and other racial groups, particularly during the war when decisions were being made about the incorporation of conquered peoples into the Reich. The Lebensborn program sought to extend the Nordic race.
In 1942, Hitler stated in private:
Hitler and Himmler planned to use the SS as the basis for the racial "regeneration" of Europe following the final victory of Nazism. The SS was to be a racial elite chosen on the basis of "pure" Nordic qualities.
Addressing officers of the SS-Leibstandarte "Adolf Hitler" Himmler stated:
The ultimate aim for those 11 years during which I have been the Reichsfuehrer SS has been invariably the same: to create an order of good blood which is able to serve Germany; which unfailingly and without sparing itself can be made use of because the greatest losses can do no harm to the vitality of this order, the vitality of these men, because they will always be replaced; to create an order which will spread the idea of Nordic blood so far that we will attract all Nordic blood in the world, take away the blood from our adversaries, absorb it so that never again, looking at it from the viewpoint of grand policy, Nordic blood, in great quantities and to an extent worth mentioning, will fight against us.
Philosophy
Philosophers and other theoreticians participated in the elaboration of Nazi ideology. The relationship between the German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Nazism has remained a controversial subject in the history of philosophy, even today. According to the philosopher Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger said of Baruch Spinoza that he was "ein Fremdkörper in der Philosophie", a "foreign body in philosophy"—Faye notes that Fremdkörper was a term which belonged to the Nazi glossary, and not to classical German. However, Heidegger did to a certain extent criticize racial science, particularly in his Friedrich Nietzsche lectures, which reject biologism in general, while generally speaking even Heidegger's most German nationalist and pro-Nazi works of the early 30s, such as his infamous Rectorial address, lack any overtly racialized language. Thus it is problematic to connect Heidegger with any racial theory. Carl Schmitt elaborated a philosophy of law praising the Führerprinzip and the German people, while Alfred Baeumler instrumentalized Nietzsche's thought, in particular his concept of the "Will to Power", in an attempt to justify Nazism.
Propaganda and implementation of racial theories
The Nazis developed an elaborate system of propaganda which they used to diffuse their racial theories. Nazi architecture, for example, was used to create the "new order" and improve the "Aryan race". The Nazis also believed that they could use Sports to "regenerate the race" by exposing supposedly inferior peoples, namely the Jews, as slovenly, sedentary and out-of-shape. One of the basic motivations of the Hitler Youth, founded in 1922, was the training of future "Aryan supermen" and future soldiers who would faithfully fight for Nazi Germany.
In 1920, the Nazi Party announced that only Germans of "pure Aryan descent" could become party members and if the person had a partner then he or she also had to be a "racially pure" Aryan. Party members could not be related either directly or indirectly to a so-called "non-Aryan". Nazi Party members and members of other Nazi organisations had to ask permission from their regional party official (Gauleiter) if they wanted to marry people who had two grandparents who were members of the "Czech, Polish, or Magyar Volk groups". German farmers who were Nazi Party members were prohibited from marrying Czechs and Poles in order to "preserve the purity" of their "own racial and ethnic foundations" to prevent the latter from marrying into German farmsteads.
German cinema was used to promote racist theories, under the direction of Goebbels' Propagandaministerium. The German Hygiene Museum in Dresden diffused racial theories. A 1934 poster of the museum shows a man with distinctly African features and reads, "If this man had been sterilized there would not have been born ... 12 hereditarily diseased."(sic). According to the current director Klaus Voegel, "The Hygiene Museum was not a criminal institute in the sense that people were killed here," but "it helped to shape the idea of which lives were worthy and which were worthless".
Nazi racial theories were soon translated into legislation, the most notable pieces of legislation were the July 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring and the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. The Aktion T4 euthanasia program, in which the Kraft durch Freude (KdF, literally "Strength Through Joy") youth organization participated, targeted people accused of representing a danger of "degeneration" towards the "Deutsches Volk". Under the race laws, sexual relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans known as Rassenschande ("race defilement") became punishable by law.
To preserve the "racial purity" of the German blood, after the beginning of the war the Nazis extended the race defilement law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).
Despite the laws against Rassenschanden, German soldiers raped Jewish women during the Holocaust.
The Nazi regime called for all German people who wanted to be citizens of the Reich to produce proof of Aryan ancestry. Certain exceptions were made when Hitler issued the "German Blood Certificate" for those people who were classified to be of partial Aryan and Jewish ancestry by the race laws.
During World War II, Germanization efforts were carried out in Central and Eastern Europe in order to cull those people of "German blood" who lived there. This started with the classification of people into the Volksliste. Those people who were considered German and selected for inclusion in the Volksliste were either kidnapped and sent to Germany to undergo Germanization, or they were killed in order to prevent "German blood" from being used against the Nazis. In regions of Poland, many Poles were either murdered or deported in order to make room for Baltic Germans induced to emigrate after the pact with the USSR. Efforts were made to identify people of German descent with Nordic traits from pre-war citizens of Poland. If these individuals passed the screening process test and were considered "racially valuable", they were abducted from their parents to be Germanized and then sent to Germany to be raised as Germans. Those children who failed such tests might be used as subjects in medical experiments or as slave laborers in German industry.
Western countries, such as France, were treated less harshly because they were viewed as racially superior to the "subhuman" Poles who were to be enslaved and exterminated, though they were not considered as good as full Germans were; a complex of racial categories was boiled down by the average German to mean that "East is bad and West is acceptable." Still, extensive racial classification was practiced in France, for future uses.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Carl Müller Frøland (2023) Nazi Universe (Hindi, Rajmangal Publishers, India)
1930s introductions
Anti-Armenianism in Europe
Antisemitism in Germany
Anti-Slavic sentiment
Antiziganism in Europe
Racism in Germany
Society of Nazi Germany |
4080979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Nazi%20Germany | Religion in Nazi Germany | Nazi Germany was an overwhelmingly Christian nation with similarly overwhelmingly self-identified Christian leadership. A census in May 1939, six years into the Nazi era and after the annexation of mostly Catholic Austria and mostly Catholic Czechoslovakia into Germany, indicates that 54% of the population considered itself Protestant, 41% considered itself Catholic, 3.5% self-identified as Gottgläubig (lit. "believing in God"), and 1.5% as "atheist". Protestants were over-represented in the Nazi Party's membership and electorate, and Catholics were under-represented.
Smaller religious minorities such as the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Baháʼí Faith were banned in Germany, while the eradication of Judaism was attempted along with the genocide of its adherents. The Salvation Army and the Seventh-day Adventist Church both disappeared from Germany, while astrologers, healers, fortune tellers, and witchcraft were all banned. Some religious minority groups had a more complicated relationship with the new state, for example the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) withdrew its missionaries from Germany and Czechoslovakia in 1938, but German LDS church branches were permitted to continue to operate throughout the war, however, they were forced to make some changes in their structure and teachings. The Nazi Party was frequently at odds with the Pope, who denounced the party by claiming that it had an anti-Catholic veneer.
There were differing views among the Nazi leaders as to the future of religion in Germany. Anti-Church radicals included Hitler's personal secretary Martin Bormann, the propagandist Alfred Rosenberg, and Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler. Some Nazis, such as Hans Kerrl, who served as Hitler's Minister for Church Affairs, advocated "Positive Christianity", a uniquely Nazi form of Christianity which rejected Christianity's Jewish origins and the Old Testament, and portrayed "true" Christianity as a fight against Jews, with Jesus depicted as an Aryan.
Nazism wanted to transform the subjective consciousness of the German peopleits attitudes, values and mentalitiesinto a single-minded, obedient "national community". The Nazis believed that they would therefore have to replace class, religious and regional allegiances. Under the Gleichschaltung (Nazification) process, Hitler attempted to create a unified Protestant Reich Church from Germany's 28 existing Protestant churches. The plan failed, and was resisted by the Confessing Church. Persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany followed the Nazi takeover. Hitler moved quickly to eliminate political Catholicism. Amid harassment of the Church, the Reich concordat treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933, and promised to respect Church autonomy. Hitler routinely disregarded the Concordat, closing all Catholic institutions whose functions were not strictly religious. Clergy, nuns, and lay leaders were targeted, with thousands of arrests over the ensuing years. The Catholic Church accused the regime of "fundamental hostility to Christ and his Church". Many historians believe that the Nazis intended to eradicate traditional forms of Christianity in Germany after victory in the war.
Background
Christianity has ancient roots among Germanic peoples dating to the missionary work of Columbanus and St. Boniface in the 6th–8th centuries. The Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, divided the German population between a two-thirds majority of Protestants and a one-third minority of Roman Catholics. The south and west remained mainly Catholic, while north and east became mainly Protestant. The Catholic Church enjoyed a degree of privilege in the Bavarian region, the Rhineland and Westphalia as well as parts in south-west Germany, while in the Protestant north, Catholics suffered some discrimination.
Bismarck's Kulturkampf ("Culture Struggle") of 1871–1878 had seen an attempt to assert a Protestant vision of German nationalism over Germany, and fused anticlericalism and suspicion of the Catholic population, whose loyalty was presumed to lie with Austria and France, rather than the new German Empire. The Centre Party had formed in 1870, initially to represent the religious interests of Catholics and Protestants, but was transformed by the Kulturkampf into the "political voice of Catholics". Bismarck's "Culture Struggle" failed in its attempt to eliminate Catholic institutions in Germany, or their strong connections outside of Germany, particularly various international missions and Rome.
In the course of the 19th century, both the rise of historical-critical scholarship of the Bible and Jesus by David Strauss, Ernest Renan and others, progress in the natural sciences, especially the field of evolutionary biology by Charles Darwin, Ernst Haeckel and others, and opposition to oppressive socioeconomic circumstances by Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and others, and a rise in more liberal and progressive churches, resulted in increasing criticism of the traditional churches' dogmas, and moved numerous German citizens into rejecting traditional theological concepts and either following liberal forms of religion or discarded it altogether. By 1859, they had established the (literally "Union of Free Religious Communities of Germany"), an association of persons who consider themselves to be religious without adhering to any established and institutionalized church or sacerdotal cult. In 1881 in Frankfurt am Main, Ludwig Büchner established the German Freethinkers League (Deutscher Freidenkerbund) as the first German organisation for atheists and agnostics. In 1892 the Freidenker-Gesellschaft and in 1906 the were formed.
In 1933, 5 years prior to the annexation of Austria into Germany, the population of Germany was approximately 67% Protestant and 33% Catholic, while the Jewish population was less than 1%.
Denominational trends during the Nazi period
Christianity in Germany has, since the Protestant Reformation in 1517, been divided into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. As a specific outcome of the Reformation in Germany, the large Protestant denominations are organized into Landeskirchen (roughly: State Churches). The German word for denomination is Konfession. For the large churches in Germany (Catholic and Evangelical, i.e. Protestant) the German government collects the church tax, which is then given to these churches. For this reason, membership in the Catholic or the Evangelical Church is officially registered. It is apparent they were politically motivated. For this reason historian Richard Steigmann-Gall argues that "nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context" and determining someone's actual religious convictions should be based on other criteria. It is important to keep this 'official aspect' in mind when turning to such questions as the religious beliefs of Adolf Hitler or those of Joseph Goebbels. Both men had ceased to attend Catholic mass or to go to confession long before 1933, but neither had officially left the Church and neither of them refused to pay their church taxes.
Historians have taken a look at the number of people who left their church in Germany during the 1933–1945 period. There was "no substantial decline in religious practice and church membership between 1933 and 1939". The option to be taken off the church rolls (Kirchenaustritt) has existed in Germany since 1873, when Otto von Bismarck had introduced it as part of the Kulturkampf aimed against Catholicism. For parity this was also made possible for Protestants, and for the next 40 years it was mostly them who took advantage of it. Statistics exist since 1884 for the Protestant churches and since 1917 for the Catholic Church.
An analysis of this data for the era of the Nazis' rule is available in a paper by Sven Granzow et al., published in a collection edited by Götz Aly. Altogether more Protestants than Catholics left their church, however, overall Protestants and Catholics decided similarly. One has to keep in mind that German Protestants were twice the number of Catholics. The spike in the numbers from 1937 to 1938 is the result of the annexation of Austria in 1938 and other territories. The number of Kirchenaustritte reached its "historical high" in 1939 when it peaked at 480,000. Granzow et al. see the numbers not only in relation to the Nazi policy towards the churches, (which changed drastically from 1935 onwards) but also as indicator of the trust in the Führer and the Nazi leadership. The decline in the number of people who left the church after 1942 is explained as resulting from a loss of confidence in the future of Nazi Germany. People tended to keep their ties to the church, because they feared an uncertain future.
According to Evans, those members of the affiliation gottgläubig (lit. "believers in god", a non-denominational nazified outlook on god beliefs, often described as predominately based on creationist and deistic views), "were convinced Nazis who had left their Church at the behest of the Party, which had been trying since the mid 1930s to reduce the influence of Christianity in society". Heinrich Himmler was a strong promoter of the gottgläubig movement and did not allow atheists into the SS, arguing that their "refusal to acknowledge higher powers" would be a "potential source of indiscipline". The majority of the three million Nazi Party members continued to pay their church taxes and register as either Roman Catholic or Protestants. The Salvation Army, Christian Saints and Seventh-day Adventist Church all disappeared from Germany during the Nazi era.
Sicherheitsdienst des Reichsführers-SS (or SD) members withdrew from their Christian denominations, changing their religious affiliation to gottgläubig, while nearly 70% of the officers of the Schutzstaffel (SS) did the same.
Nazi attitudes towards Christianity
Nazi ideology could not accept an autonomous establishment whose legitimacy did not spring from the government. It desired the subordination of the church to the state. Although the broader membership of the Nazi Party after 1933 came to include many Catholics and Protestants, aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels, Alfred Rosenberg, Martin Bormann, and Heinrich Himmler saw the Kirchenkampf campaign against the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-Church and anticlerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists.
Hitler's Propaganda Minister, Joseph Goebbels, saw an "insoluble opposition" between the Christian and Nazi world views. The Führer angered the churches by appointing Alfred Rosenberg as official Nazi ideologist in 1934. Heinrich Himmler saw the main task of his SS organization to be that of acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a "Germanic" way of living. Hitler's chosen deputy, Martin Bormann, advised Nazi officials in 1941 that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable."
Hitler himself possessed radical instincts in relation to the conflict with the Churches in Germany. Though he occasionally spoke of wanting to delay the Church struggle and was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism out of political considerations, his "own inflammatory comments gave his immediate underlings all the license they needed to turn up the heat in the Church Struggle, confident that they were 'working towards the Fuhrer, according to Kershaw. In public speeches, he portrayed himself and the Nazi movement as faithful Christians. In 1928 Hitler said in a speech: "We tolerate no one in our ranks who attacks the ideas of Christianity... in fact our movement is Christian." But, according to the Goebbels Diaries, Hitler hated Christianity. In an 8 April 1941 entry, Goebbels wrote "He hates Christianity, because it has crippled all that is noble in humanity." In Bullock's assessment, though raised a Catholic, Hitler "believed neither in God nor in conscience", retained some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but had contempt for its central teachings, which he said, if taken to their conclusion, "would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure". Bullock wrote: "In Hitler's eyes, Christianity was a religion fit only for slaves; he detested its ethics in particular. Its teaching, he declared, was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest."
As a measure in the struggle for power against the influence of the churches (Kirchenkampf) the Nazis tried to establish a "third denomination" called "Positive Christianity", aiming to replace the established churches to reduce their influence. Historians have suspected this was an attempt to start a cult which worshipped Hitler as the new Messiah. However, in a diary entry of 28 December 1939, Joseph Goebbels wrote that "the Fuhrer passionately rejects any thought of founding a religion. He has no intention of becoming a priest. His sole exclusive role is that of a politician." In Hitler's political relations dealing with religion he readily adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes."
Many Nazi leaders, including Adolf Hitler, subscribed either to a mixture of pseudoscientific theories, and also Social Darwinism as well as mysticism and occultism, which was especially strong in the SS. Central to both groupings was the belief in Germanic (white Nordic) racial superiority. The existence of a Ministry of Church Affairs, instituted in 1935 and headed by Hanns Kerrl, was hardly recognized by ideologists such as Alfred Rosenberg or by other political decision-makers. A relative moderate, Kerrl accused dissident churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil" and gave the following explanation of the Nazi conception of "Positive Christianity," telling a group of submissive clergy in 1937:
During the war Alfred Rosenberg formulated a thirty-point program for the National Reich Church, which included:
The National Reich Church claims exclusive right and control over all Churches.
The National Church is determined to exterminate foreign Christian faiths imported into Germany in the ill-omened year 800.
The National Church demands immediate cessation of the publishing and dissemination of the Bible.
The National Church will clear away from its altars all Crucifixes, Bibles, and pictures of Saints.
On the altars there must be nothing but "Mein Kampf" and to the left of the altar a sword.
When exploring the Nazi Party's public speeches and writings, Steigmann-Gall notes that they can provide insight into their "untempered" ideas.
Prior to the Reichstag vote for the Enabling Act under which Hitler gained legislative powers with which he went on to permanently dismantle the Weimar Republic, Hitler promised the Reichstag on 23 March 1933, that he would not interfere with the rights of the churches. However, with power secured in Germany, Hitler quickly broke this promise. Various historians have written that the goal of the Nazi Kirchenkampf ("Church Struggle") entailed not only ideological struggle, but ultimately the eradication of the Churches. However, leading Nazis varied in the importance they attached to the Church Struggle.
William Shirer wrote that "under the leadership of Rosenberg, Bormann and Himmler, who were backed by Hitler, the Nazi regime intended to destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and substitute the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods and the new paganism of the Nazi extremists." During a speech on 27 October 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt revealed evidence of Hitler's plan to abolish all religions in Germany, declaring:
Your Government has in its possession another document, made in Germany by Hitler's Government... It is a plan to abolish all existing religions –Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jewish alike. The property of all churches will be seized by the Reich and its puppets. The cross and all other symbols of religion are to be forbidden. The clergy are to be forever liquidated, silenced under penalty of the concentration camps, where even now so many fearless men are being tortured because they have placed God above Hitler.
But according to Steigman-Gall, some Nazis, like Dietrich Eckart (died 1923) and Walter Buch, saw Nazism and Christianity as part of the same movement. Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann saw the conflict with the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-church and anti-clerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists.
Writing for Yad Vashem, the historian Michael Phayer wrote that by the latter 1930s, church officials knew that the long-term aim of Hitler was the "total elimination of Catholicism and of the Christian religion", but that given the prominence of Christianity in Germany, this was necessarily a long-term goal. According to Bullock, Hitler intended to destroy the influence of the Christian churches in Germany after the war. In his memoirs, Hitler's chief architect Albert Speer recalled that when drafting his plans for the "new Berlin", he consulted Protestant and Catholic authorities, but was "curtly informed" by Hitler's private secretary Martin Bormann that churches were not to receive building sites. Kershaw wrote that, in Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of Eastern Europe, he made clear that there would be "no place in this utopia for the Christian Churches".
Geoffrey Blainey wrote that Hitler and his fascist ally Mussolini were atheists, but that Hitler courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant communist atheism. (Other historians have characterised Hitler's mature religious position as a form of deism.) "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Blainey, and with the Nazis becoming the main opponent of communism in Germany: "[Hitler] himself saw Christianity as a temporary ally, for in his opinion 'one is either a Christian or a German'. To be both was impossible. Nazism itself was a religion, a pagan religion, and Hitler was its high priest... Its high altar [was] Germany itself and the German people, their soil and forests and language and traditions". Nonetheless, a number of early confidants of Hitler detailed the Führer complete lack of religious belief. One close confidant, Otto Strasser, disclosed in his 1940 book, Hitler and I, that Hitler was a true disbeliever, succinctly stating: "Hitler is an atheist."
According to Kershaw, following the Nazi takeover, race policy and the church struggle were among the most important ideological spheres: "In both areas, the party had no difficulty in mobilizing its activists, whose radicalism in turn forced the government into legislative action. In fact the party leadership often found itself compelled to respond to pressures from below, stirred up by the Gauleiter playing their own game, or emanating sometimes from radical activists at a local level". As time went on, anti-clericalism and anti-church sentiment among grass roots party activists "simply couldn't be eradicated", wrote Kershaw and they could "draw on the verbal violence of party leaders towards the churches for their encouragement." Unlike some other fascist movements of the era, Nazi ideology was essentially hostile to Christianity and clashed with Christian beliefs in many respects. The Nazis seized hundreds of monasteries in Germany and Austria and removed clergymen and laymen alike. In other cases, religious journals and newspapers were censored or banned. The Nazi regime attempted to shut down the Catholic press, which declined "from 435 periodicals in 1934 to just seven in 1943." From the beginning in 1935, the Gestapo arrested and jailed over 2720 clerics who were interned at Germany's Dachau concentration camp, leading to over 1,000 deaths. Nazism saw the Christian ideals of meekness and conscience as obstacles to the violent instincts required to defeat other races. From the mid-1930s anti-Christian elements within the Nazi Party became more prominent; however, they were restrained by Hitler because of the negative press their actions were receiving, and by 1934 the Nazi Party pretended a neutral position in regard to the Protestant Churches.
Alfred Rosenberg held among offices the title of "the Fuehrer's Delegate for the Entire Intellectual and Philosophical Education and Instruction for the National Socialist Party". In his Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930), Rosenberg wrote that the main enemies of the Germans were the "Russian Tartars" and "Semites" – with "Semites" including Christians, especially the Catholic Church: Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Minister for Propaganda, was among the most aggressive anti-Church Nazi radicals. Goebbels led the Nazi persecution of the German clergy and, as the war progressed, on the "Church Question", he wrote "after the war it has to be generally solved... There is, namely, an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a heroic-German world view". Martin Bormann became Hitler's private secretary and de facto "deputy" führer from 1941. He was a leading advocate of the Kirchenkampf, a project which Hitler for the most part wished to keep until after the war. Bormann was a rigid guardian of Nazi orthodoxy and saw Christianity and Nazism as "incompatible". He said publicly in 1941 that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable". In a confidential message to the Gauleiter on 9 June 1941, Martin Bormann, had declared that "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable." He also declared that the Churches' influence in the leadership of the people "must absolutely and finally be broken." Bormann believed Nazism was based on a "scientific" world-view, and was completely incompatible with Christianity. Bormann stated:
When we National Socialists speak of belief in God, we do not mean, like the naive Christians and their spiritual exploiters, a man-like being sitting around somewhere in the universe. The force governed by natural law by which all these countless planets move in the universe, we call omnipotence or God. The assertion that this universal force can trouble itself about the destiny of each individual being, every smallest earthly bacillus, can be influenced by so-called prayers or other surprising things, depends upon a requisite dose of naivety or else upon shameless professional self-interest.
Nazi anti-Semitism
Instead of focusing on religious differentiation, Hitler maintained that it was important to promote "an antisemitism of reason", one that acknowledged the racial basis of Jewry. Interviews with Nazis by other historians show that the Nazis thought that their views were rooted in biology, not in historical prejudices. For example, "S. became a missionary for this biomedical vision... As for anti-Semitic attitudes and actions, he insisted that "the racial question... [and] resentment of the Jewish race... had nothing to do with medieval anti-Semitism...That is, it was all a matter of scientific biology and of community."
In his book about the history of Christianity, Geoffrey Blainey wrote that "Christianity could not escape some indirect blame for the terrible Holocaust. The Jews and Christians had been rivals and sometimes enemies for a long period of history. Furthermore, it was traditional for Christians to blame Jewish leaders for the crucifixion of Christ...", but, Blainey noted, "At the same time, Christians showed devotion and respect. They were conscious of their debt to the Jews. Jesus and all the disciples and all the authors of his Gospels were of the Jewish race. Christians viewed the Old Testament, the holy book of the synagogues as equally a holy book for them...".
Laurence Rees noted that "emphasis on Christianity" was absent from the vision expressed by Hitler in Mein Kampf and his "bleak and violent vision" and visceral hatred of the Jews had been influenced by quite different sources: the notion of life as struggle he drew from Social Darwinism, the notion of the superiority of the "Aryan race" he drew from Arthur de Gobineau's The Inequality of the Human Races; and from Alfred Rosenberg he took the idea of a link between Judaism and Bolshevism. Hitler espoused a ruthless policy of "negative eugenic selection", believing that world history consisted of a struggle for survival between races, in which the Jews plotted to undermine the Germans, and inferior groups like Slavs and defective individuals in the German gene pool, threatened the Aryan "master race". Richard J. Evans wrote that his views on these subjects have often been called "social Darwinist", but that there is little agreement among historians as to what this term may mean. According to Evans, Hitler "used his own version of the language of social Darwinism as a central element in the discursive practice of extermination...", and the language of Social Darwinism, in its Nazi variant, helped to remove all restraint from the directors of the "terroristic and exterminatory" policies of the regime, by "persuading them that what they were doing was justified by history, science and nature".
Kirchenkampf (church struggle)
As the Nazi Party began its takeover of power in Germany in 1933 the struggling, but still nominally functioning Weimar government, led by its president, Paul von Hindenburg, and represented by his appointed Vice-Chancellor, Franz von Papen, initiated talks with the Holy See concerning the establishment of a concordat. The talks lasted three and half months while Hitler consolidated his hold on power. This attempt achieved the signing of the Reichskonkordat on 20 July 1933, which protected the freedom of the Catholic Church and restricted priests and bishops from political activity.
Like the idea of the Reichskonkordat, the notion of a Protestant Reich Church, which would unify the Protestant Churches, also had been considered previously. Hitler had discussed the matter as early as 1927 with Ludwig Müller, who was at that time the military chaplain of Königsberg.
Christianity remained the dominant religion in Germany through the Nazi period, and its influence over Germans displeased the Nazi hierarchy. Evans wrote that Hitler believed that in the long run Nazism and religion would not be able to coexist, and stressed repeatedly that it was a secular ideology, founded on modern science. According to Evans: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition." Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope, and "Priests, he said, were 'black bugs,' abortions in black cassocks.
During Hitler's dictatorship, more than 6,000 clergymen, on the charge of treasonable activity, were imprisoned or executed. The same measures were taken in the occupied territories; in French Lorraine, the Nazis forbade religious youth movements, parish meetings, and scout meetings. Church assets were taken, Church schools were closed, and teachers in religious institutes were dismissed. The Episcopal seminary was closed, and the SA and SS desecrated churches and religious statues and pictures. Three hundred clergy were expelled from the Lorraine region; monks and nuns were deported or forced to renounce their vows.
The Catholic Church was particularly suppressed in Poland: between 1939 and 1945, an estimated 3,000 members (18%) of the Polish clergy, were murdered; of these, 1,992 died in concentration camps. In the annexed territory of Reichsgau Wartheland it was even more harsh: churches were systematically closed and most priests were either killed, imprisoned, or deported to the General Government. Eighty per cent of the Catholic clergy and five bishops of Warthegau were sent to concentration camps in 1939; 108 of them are regarded as blessed martyrs. Religious persecution was not confined to Poland: in Dachau concentration camp alone, 2,600 Catholic priests from 24 countries were killed.
A number of historians maintain that the Nazis had a general covert plan, which some argue existed before the Nazis' rose to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich. To what extent a plan to subordinate the churches and limit their role in the country's life existed before the Nazi rise to power, and exactly who among the Nazi leadership supported such a move remains contested. However, a minority of historians maintain, against consensus, that no such plan existed. Summarizing a 1945 Office of Strategic Services report, The New York Times columnist Joe Sharkey, stated that the Nazis had a plan to "subvert and destroy German Christianity," which was to be accomplished through control and subversion of the churches and to be completed after the war. However, the report stated this goal was limited to a "sector of the National Socialist party," namely Alfred Rosenberg and Baldur von Schirach. Historian Roger Griffin maintains: "There is no doubt that in the long run Nazi leaders such as Hitler and Himmler intended to eradicate Christianity just as ruthlessly as any other rival ideology, even if in the short term they had to be content to make compromises with it." In his study The Holy Reich, the historian Richard Steigmann-Gall comes to the opposite conclusion, "Totally absent, besides Hitler's vague ranting, is any firm evidence that Hitler or the Nazis were going to 'destroy' or 'eliminate' the churches once the war was over." Regarding his wider thesis that, "leading Nazis in fact considered themselves Christian" or at least understood their movement "within a Christian frame of reference", Steigmann-Gall admits he "argues against the consensus that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated to Christianity or actively opposed to it."
Although there are high-profile cases of individual Lutherans and Catholics who died in prison or in concentration camps, the largest number of Christians who died would have been Jewish Christians or mischlinge who were sent to death camps for their race rather than their religion. Kahane (1999) cites an estimate that there were approximately 200,000 Christians of Jewish descent in Nazi Germany. Among the Gentile Christians 11,300 Jehovah's Witnesses were placed in camps, and about 1,490 died, of whom 270 were executed as conscientious objectors. Dachau had a special "priest block." Of the 2,720 priests (among them 2,579 Catholic) held in Dachau, 1,034 did not survive the camp. The majority of these priests were Polish (1,780), of whom 868 died in Dachau.
Specific groups
Catholicism
The attitude of the Nazi Party towards the Catholic Church ranged from tolerance to near-total renunciation and outright aggression. Bullock wrote that Hitler had some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but he had utter contempt for its central teachings, which he said, if taken to their conclusion, "would mean the systematic cultivation of the human failure". Many Nazis were anti-clerical in both private and public life. The Nazi Party had decidedly pagan elements. One position is that the Church and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic Weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person.
Adolf Hitler himself has been described as a "spiritualist" by Laqueur; but he has been described by Bullock as a "rationalist" and a "materialist" with no appreciation for the spiritual side of humanity; and a simple "atheist" by Blainey. His fascist comrade Benito Mussolini was an atheist. Both were anticlerical, but they understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs against Catholicism prematurely. Such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, was put off while they dealt with other enemies.
The nature of the Nazi Party's relationship with the Catholic Church was also complicated. In early 1931, the German bishops issued an edict excommunicating all leaders of the Nazi Party and banning all Catholics from membership. The ban was conditionally modified in 1933 when State law mandated that all trade union workers and civil servants must be members of the Nazi Party. In July 1933 a Concord Reichskonkordat was signed with the Vatican which prevented the Church in Germany from engaging in political activities; however, the Vatican continued to speak out on issues of faith and morals and it opposed Nazi philosophy.
In 1937 Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge condemning Nazi ideology, notably the Gleichschaltung policy directed against religious influences upon education, as well as Nazi racism and antisemitism. His death prevented the issuing of a planned encyclical Humani generis unitas, but the similar Summi Pontificatus was the first encyclical released by his successor (Pius XII), in October 1939. This encyclical strongly condemned both racism and totalitarianism, without the anti-Judaism present in the draft presented to Pope Pius XI for Humani generis unitas. The massive Catholic opposition to the Nazi euthanasia programs led them to be quieted on 28 August 1941. Catholics, on occasion, actively and openly protested against Nazi antisemitism through several bishops and priests such as Bishop Clemens von Galen of Münster.
In Nazi Germany, political dissenters were imprisoned, and some German priests were sent to the concentration camps for their opposition, including the pastor of Berlin's Catholic Cathedral Bernhard Lichtenberg and the seminarian Karl Leisner.
In 1941 the Nazi authorities decreed the dissolution of all monasteries and abbeys in the German Reich, many of them effectively being occupied and secularized by the Allgemeine SS under Himmler. However, on 30 July 1941 the Aktion Klostersturm (Operation Monastery Storm) was put to an end by a decree from Hitler, who feared that the increasing protests by the Catholic segment of the German population might result in passive rebellions and thereby harm the Nazi war effort on the eastern front.
Plans for the Roman Catholic Church
Historian Heinz Hürten (professor emeritus at the Catholic University of Eichstaett) noted that the Nazi Party had plans for the Roman Catholic Church, according to which the Church was supposed to "eat from the hands of the government." Hürten states the sequence of these plans: an abolition of the priestly celibacy and a nationalisation of all Church property, the dissolution of monastic religious institutes, and an end to the influence of the Catholic Church upon education. Hürten states that Hitler proposed to reduce vocations to the priesthood by forbidding seminaries from receiving applicants before their 25th birthdays, and thus he had hoped that these men would marry beforehand, during the time (18–25 years) in which they were obliged to work in military or labour service. Also, along with this process, the Church's sacraments would be revised and changed to so-called "Lebensfeiern", the non-Christian celebrations of different periods of life.
There existed some considerable differences among officials within the Nazi Party on the question of Christianity. Goebbels is purported to have feared the creation of a third front of Catholics against their regime in Germany itself. In his diary, Goebbels wrote about the "traitors of the Black International who again stabbed our glorious government in the back by their criticism", by which Hürten states he meant the indirectly or actively resisting Catholic clergymen (who wore black cassocks).
Protestantism
According to Peter Stachura, the backbone of Nazi electoral support was rural and small-town Protestant middle class, whereas German Catholics rejected the party and overwhelmingly voted for the confessional Catholic Centre Party and Bavarian People's Party instead. Both Protestant clergy and laymen were generally supportive of National Socialism, with Paul Althaus writing that "our Protestant churches have greeted the turning point of 1933 as a gift and miracle from God". According to Robert Ericksen, sermons in Protestant churches were full of praise for the new regime, with a Protestant church in Bavaria announcing that the Nazi party "may expect not just the applause but the joyous cooperation of the church." Lutherans were particularly supportive of the Nazi regime, with a Lutheran diocesan magazine Allgemeine Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung welcoming the rise of Hitler as a "great thing [that] God has done for our Volk" in April 1933. Ericksen also notes that the "most thoroughly Protestant regions of Germany gave the Nazi Party its strongest support". Protestants were overrepresented within the Nazi Party, and according to Jürgen W. Falter, 83 % of recruits to the NSDAP between 1925 and 1932 were Protestant. Falter observes that the Nazi Party found it challenging to build up any support amongst Catholics, and fared considerably worse in terms of both electoral support and new recruits in Catholic areas.
Richard Steigmann-Gall remarks that "scholarship since the 1980s has quite clearly demonstrated that nominal Protestant confessional membership was a better indicator of who voted for the National Socialist Party (NSDAP) than any other single category like class, region, geography or gender." Analysing the results of the July 1932 German federal election, Steigmann-Gall concludes that religious piety among German Protestants, rather than apostasy, was the defining factor in regards to supporting National Socialism, with most religious Protestants being most likely to vote for NSDAP. He also observes a stark contrast between Catholic and Protestant voters in mixed areas; regarding Baden, Steigmann-Gall observes that "in contrast to the Catholic south, which saw near total opposition to the Nazis, the Protestant north saw a clear ascendancy of the Nazi party", while "in Bonn, the Protestant Mittelstand made up the bulk of the party's
success, while the Catholic population almost entirely stayed away". Steigmann-Gall concludes that "Nazi party's share of a region's vote was inversely proportional to the Catholic percentage of its population".
According to Ericksen, the reason for Protestant support for Nationalism Socialism was the reactionary and nationalist nature of Political Protestantism, noting that "the German Protestant church was a place where hyper-nationalism, overt militarism, and hostility toward modern culture were in full flower". Despite the generally supportive attitude towards National Socialism amongst German Protestants, there was also resistance. Some Protestant theologians such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer were outspoken opponents of the new regime since the beginning, while others such as Martin Niemöller came to oppose the NSDAP once the extremist nature of its rule manifested itself. Richard Steigmann-Gall believes that the apparent swing towards the right of German Protestants can be attributed to the nationalist and reactionary character that the Protestant churches have assumed in the imperial and Kulturkampf era. It was believed that "the true German is a Protestant", and as such, "the narrative of national identity in Germany was written in a distinctly Protestant language". Protestant theology focused on German nationalism and showed Germany as a nation favoured by God itself, which Steigmann-Gall calls "war theology". The first known instance of the Dolchstoßlegende came from a Protestant court chaplain Bruno Doehring, and following the end of World War I, the political and social influence that the Protestant churches have amassed was used to attack the Weimar Republic, portraying it as a "metaphor for cultural and social degeneracy".
Martin Luther
During the First and Second World Wars, German Protestant leaders used the writings of Luther to support the cause of German nationalism. On the 450th anniversary of Luther's birth, which fell only a few months after the Nazi Party began its seizure of power in 1933, celebrations were conducted on a large scale by both the Protestant Churches and the Nazi Party. At a celebration in Königsberg, Erich Koch, at that time the Gauleiter of East Prussia, made a speech in which he, among other things, compared Adolf Hitler to Martin Luther and claimed that the Nazis fought with Luther's spirit. Such a speech might be dismissed as mere propaganda, but, as Steigmann-Gall points out: "Contemporaries regarded Koch as a bona fide Christian who had attained his position [as the elected president of a provincial Church synod] through a genuine commitment to Protestantism and its institutions." Even so, Steigmann-Gall states that the Nazis were not a Christian movement.
The prominent Protestant theologian Karl Barth, of the Swiss Reformed Church, opposed this appropriation of Luther in both the German Empire and Nazi Germany, when he stated in 1939 that the writings of Martin Luther were used by the Nazis to glorify both the State and state absolutism: "The German people suffer under his error of the relationship between the law and the Bible, between secular and spiritual power", in which Luther divided the temporal State from the inward state, focusing instead on spiritual matters, thus limiting the ability of the individual or the church to question the actions of the State, which was seen as a God ordained instrument.
In February 1940, Barth specifically accused German Lutherans of separating biblical teachings from the teachings of the State and thus legitimizing the Nazi state ideology. He was not alone with his view. A few years earlier on 5 October 1933, Pastor Wilhelm Rehm from Reutlingen declared publicly that "Hitler would not have been possible without Martin Luther", though many have also made this same statement about other influences on Hitler's rise to power. Anti-communist historian Paul Johnson has said that "without Lenin, Hitler would not have been possible".
Protestant groups
Different German states possessed regional social variations as to class densities and religious denomination. Richard Steigmann-Gall alleges a linkage between several Protestant churches and Nazism. The German Christians (Deutsche Christen) were a movement within the Protestant Church of Germany with the aim of changing traditional Christian teachings to align with the ideology of Nazism and its anti-Jewish policies. The Deutsche Christen factions were united in the goal of establishing a Nazi Protestantism and abolishing what they considered to be Jewish traditions in Christianity, and some but not all rejected the Old Testament and the teaching of the Apostle Paul. In November 1933, a Protestant mass rally of the Deutsche Christen, which brought together a record 20,000 people, passed three resolutions:
Adolf Hitler is the completion of the Reformation,
Baptized Jews are to be dismissed from the Church
The Old Testament is to be excluded from Sacred Scriptures.
The German Christians selected Ludwig Müller (1883–1945) as their candidate for in 1933. In response to Hitler's campaigning, two-thirds of those Protestants who voted elected Lutheran minister Ludwig Müller to govern the Protestant Churches. Müller was convinced that he had a divine responsibility to promote Hitler and his ideals, and together with Hitler, he favoured a unified Reichskirche of Protestants and Catholics. This Reichskirche was to be a loose federation in the form of a council, but it would be subordinated to the Nazi regime.
The level of ties between Nazism and the Protestant churches has been a contentious issue for decades. One difficulty is that Protestantism includes a number of religious bodies and many of them had little relation to each other. Added to that, Protestantism tends to allow more variation among individual congregations than Catholicism or Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which makes statements about the official positions of denominations problematic. The German Christians were a minority within the Protestant population, numbering one fourth to one third of the 40 million Protestants in Germany. With Bishop Müller's efforts and Hitler's support, the German Evangelical Church was formed and recognized by the state as a legal entity on 14 July 1933, with the aim of melding the State, the people and the Church into one body. Dissenters were silenced by expulsion or violence.
The support of the German Christian movement within the churches was opposed by many adherents of traditional Christian teachings. Other groups within the Protestant church included members of the Bekennende Kirche, Confessing Church, which included such prominent members as Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer; both rejected the Nazi efforts to meld volkisch principles with traditional Lutheran doctrine. Martin Niemöller organized the Pfarrernotbund (Pastors' Emergency League) which was supported by nearly 40 percent of the Evangelical pastors. They were, however, (as of 1932) a minority within the Protestant church bodies in Germany. But in 1933, a number of Deutsche Christen left the movement after a November speech by Reinhold Krause urged, among other things, the rejection of the Old Testament as Jewish superstition. So when Ludwig Müller could not deliver on conforming all Christians to Nazism, and after some of the German Christian rallies and more radical ideas generated a backlash, Hitler's condescending attitudes towards Protestants increased and he lost all interest in Protestant church affairs.
The resistance within the churches to Nazi ideology was the longest lasting and most bitter of any German institution. The Nazis weakened the churches' resistance from within but the Nazis had not yet succeeded in taking full control of the churches, which was evidenced by the thousands of clergy who were sent to concentration camps. Rev. Martin Niemöller was imprisoned in 1937, charged with "misuse of the pulpit to vilify the State and the Party and attack the authority of the Government." After a failed assassination on Hitler's life in 1943 by members of the military and members of the German Resistance movement, to which Dietrich Bonhoeffer and others in the Confessing Church movement belonged, Hitler ordered the arrest of Protestant, mainly Lutheran clergy. However, even the "Confessing Church made frequent declarations of loyalty to Hitler". Later, many Protestants were solidly opposed to Nazism after the nature of the movement was better understood. However, a number also maintained until the end of the war the view that Nazism was compatible with the teachings of the church.
The small Methodist population was deemed foreign at times; this stemmed from the fact that Methodism began in England, and did not develop in Germany until the nineteenth century under the leadership of Christoph Gottlob Müller and Louis Jacoby. Because of this history they felt the urge to be "more German than the Germans" in order to avoid coming under suspicion. Methodist Bishop John L. Nelsen toured the U.S. on Hitler's behalf in order to protect his church, but in private letters he indicated that he feared and hated Nazism, and he eventually retired and fled to Switzerland. Methodist Bishop F. H. Otto Melle took a far more collaborationist position that included his apparently sincere support for Nazism. He was also committed to an asylum near the war's end. To show his gratitude to the latter bishop, Hitler made a gift of 10,000 marks in 1939 to a Methodist congregation so it could pay for the purchase of an organ. The money was never used.
Outside Germany, Melle's views were overwhelmingly rejected by most Methodists.
The leader of the pro-Nazi segment of the Baptists was Paul Schmidt. The idea of a "national church" was possible in the history of mainstream German Protestantism, but generally forbidden among the Anabaptists, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Catholic Church. The forms or offshoots of Protestantism that advocated pacifism, anti-nationalism, or racial equality tended to oppose the Nazi state in the strongest possible terms. Other Christian groups known for their efforts against Nazism include the Jehovah's Witnesses.
Jehovah's Witnesses
In 1934, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society published a letter entitled "Declaration of Facts". In this personal letter to then Reich Chancellor Hitler, J. F. Rutherford stated that "the Bible Researchers of Germany are fighting for the very same high ethical goals and ideals which also the national government of the German Reich proclaimed respecting the relationship of humans to God, namely: honesty of the created being towards its creator". However, while the Jehovah's Witnesses sought to reassure the Nazi government that their goals were purely religious and non-political and they expressed the hope that the government would allow them to continue their preaching, Hitler still restricted their work in Nazi Germany. After this, Rutherford began denouncing Hitler in articles through his publications, potentially making the plight of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany worse.
Jehovah's Witnesses or "Bible Researchers" () as they were known in Germany, comprised 25,000 members and they were among those persecuted by the Nazi government. All incarcerated members were identified by a unique purple triangle. Some members of the religious group refused to serve in the German military or give allegiance to the Nazi government, for which 250 were executed. An estimated 10,000 were arrested for various crimes, and 2,000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where approximately 1,200 were killed. Unlike Jews and Romani, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.
Atheists
On 13 October 1933, Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess issued a decree stating: "No National Socialist may suffer any detriment on the ground that he does not profess any particular faith or confession or on the ground that he does not make any religious profession at all." However, the regime strongly opposed "Godless Communism" and all of Germany's freethinking (freigeist), atheist, and largely left-wing organizations were banned the same year.
In a speech made during the negotiations for the Nazi-Vatican Concordant of 1933, Hitler argued against secular schools, stating: "Secular schools can never be tolerated because such schools have no religious instruction, and a general moral instruction without a religious foundation is built on air; consequently, all character training and religion must be derived from faith." One of the groups closed down by the Nazi regime was the German Freethinkers League. Christians appealed to Hitler to end anti-religious and anti-Church propaganda promulgated by Free Thinkers, and within Hitler's Nazi Party some atheists were quite vocal in their anti-Christian views, especially Martin Bormann. Heinrich Himmler, who himself was fascinated with Germanic paganism, was a strong promoter of the gottgläubig movement and he did not allow atheists into the SS, arguing that their "refusal to acknowledge higher powers" would be a "potential source of indiscipline". In the SS, Himmler announced: "We believe in a God Almighty who stands above us; he has created the earth, the Fatherland, and the Volk, and he has sent us the Führer. Any human being who does not believe in God should be considered arrogant, megalomaniacal, and stupid and thus not suited for the SS." He also declared: "As National Socialists, we believe in a Godly worldview."
Esoteric groups
In the 1930s there already existed an esoteric scene in Germany and Austria. The organisations within this spectrum were suppressed, but, unlike Freemasonry in Nazi Germany, they were not persecuted. The only known case in which an occultist might have been sent to a concentration camp for his beliefs is that of Friedrich Bernhard Marby.
Also, some Nazi leaders had an interest in esotericism. Rudolf Hess had an interest in Anthroposophy. Heinrich Himmler showed a strong interest in esoteric matters.
The esoteric Thule Society lent support to the German Workers' Party, which was eventually transformed into the Nazi Party in 1920. Dietrich Eckart, a remote associate of the Thule Society, actually coached Hitler on his public speaking skills, and while Hitler has not been shown to have been a member of Thule, he received support from the group. Hitler later dedicated the second volume of Mein Kampf to Eckart. The racist-occult doctrines of Ariosophy contributed to the atmosphere of the völkisch movement in the Weimar Republic that eventually led to the rise of Nazism.
Other beliefs
In the Appendix of The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, Conway has included a document: "List of sects prohibited by the Gestapo up to December 1938." It mentions the "International Jehovah's Witness" under No.1, but also includes a so-called "Study group for Psychic Research" and even the "Bahai Sect."
Astrologers, healers and fortune tellers were banned under the Nazis, while the small pagan "German Faith Movement", which worshipped the sun and the seasons, supported the Nazis.
Churches and the war effort
Hitler called a truce to the Church conflict with the outbreak of war, wanting to back away from policies which were likely to cause internal friction inside Germany. He decreed at the outset of war that "no further action should be taken against the Evangelical and Catholic Churches for the duration of the war". According to John Conway, "The Nazis had to reckon with the fact that, despite all of Rosenberg's efforts, only 5 percent of the population registered themselves at the 1930 census as no longer connected with Christian Churches." The support of millions of German Christians was needed in order for Hitler's plans to come to fruition. It was Hitler's belief that if religion is a help, "it can only be an advantage". Most of the 3 million Nazi Party members "still paid the Church taxes" and considered themselves Christians. Regardless, a number of Nazi radicals in the party hierarchy determined that the Church Struggle should be continued. Following the Nazi victory in Poland, the repression of the Churches was extended, despite their early protestations of loyalty to the cause.
Goebbels' Ministry of Propaganda issued threats and applied intense pressure on the Churches to voice support for the war, and the Gestapo banned Church meetings for a few weeks. In the first few months of the war, the German Churches complied. No denunciations of the invasion of Poland, or the Blitzkrieg were issued. On the contrary, Bishop Marahrens gave thanks to God that the Polish conflict was over, and "that He has granted our armies a quick victory." The Ministry for Church Affairs suggested that Church bells across Germany ring for a week in celebration, and that pastors and priests "flocked to volunteer as chaplains" for the German forces. The Catholic bishops asked their followers to support the war effort: "We appeal to the faithful to join in ardent prayer that God's providence may lead this war to blessed success for Fatherland and people." Likewise, the Evangelicals proclaimed: "We unite in this hour with our people in intercession for our Fuhrer and Reich, for all the armed forces, and for all who do their duty for the fatherland."
Even in the face of evidence of Nazi atrocities against Catholic priests and lay people in Poland, which were broadcast on Vatican Radio, German Catholic religious leaders continued to express their support for the Nazi war effort. They urged their Catholic followers to "fulfill their duty to the Fuhrer". Nazi war actions in 1940 and 1941 similarly prompted the Church to voice its support. The bishops declared that the Church "assents to the just war, especially one designed for the safeguarding of the state and the people" and wants a "peace beneficial to Germany and Europe" and calls the faithful to "fulfill their civil and military virtues." But the Nazis strongly disapproved of the sentiments against war expressed by the Pope through his first encyclical, Summi Pontificatus and his 1939 Christmas message, and they were angered by his support for Poland and the "provocative" use of Vatican Radio by Cardinal Hlond of Poland. Distribution of the encyclical was banned.
Conway wrote that anti-church radical Reinhard Heydrich estimated in a report to Hitler dated October 1939, that the majority of Church people were supporting the war effort – although a few "well known agitators among the pastors needed to be dealt with". Heydrich determined that support from church leaders could not be expected because of the nature of their doctrines and their internationalism, so he devised measures to restrict the operation of the Churches under cover of war time exigencies, such as reducing the resources available to Church presses on the basis of rationing, and prohibiting pilgrimages and large church gatherings on the basis of transportation difficulties. Churches were closed for being "too far from bomb shelters". Bells were melted down. Presses were closed.
With the expansion of the war in the east from 1941, there also came an expansion of the regime's attack on the churches. Monasteries and convents were targeted and expropriations of Church properties surged. The Nazi authorities claimed that the properties were needed for wartime necessities such as hospitals, or accommodations for refugees or children, but they instead used them for their own purposes. "Hostility to the state" was another common cause given for the confiscations, and the actions of a single member of a monastery could result in the seizure of the whole. The Jesuits were especially targeted. The Papal Nuncio Cesare Orsenigo and Cardinal Bertram complained constantly to the authorities but they were told to expect more requisitions owing to war-time needs.
Religious aspects of Nazism
Several elements of Nazism were quasi-religious in nature. The cult of Hitler as the Führer, the "huge congregations, banners, sacred flames, processions, a style of popular and radical preaching, prayers-and-responses, memorials and funeral marches" have all been described by historians of esotericism such as Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke as "essential props for the cult of race and nation, the mission of Aryan Germany and her victory over her enemies." These different religious aspects of Nazism have led some scholars to consider Nazism, like communism, to be a kind of political religion.
Hitler's plan, for example, to erect a magnificent new capital in Berlin (Welthauptstadt Germania), has been described as his attempt to build a version of the New Jerusalem. Since Fritz Stern's classical study The Politics of Cultural Despair, most historians have viewed the relationship between Nazism and religion in this way. Some historians see the Nazi movement and Adolf Hitler as fundamentally hostile to Christianity, though not irreligious. In the first chapter of The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, historian John S. Conway elaborates that Christian Churches had lost their appeal in Germany during the era of the Weimar Republic, and Hitler responded to it by offering "what appeared to be a vital secular faith in place of the discredited creeds of Christianity."
Hitler's chief architect, Albert Speer, wrote in his memoirs that Hitler himself had a negative view of the mystical notions which were pushed by Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg. Speer quotes Hitler as having said of Himmler's attempt to mythologize the SS:
Relationship between religion and fascism
Stanley Payne, a scholar of fascism, notes that fundamental to fascism was the foundation of a purely materialistic "civic religion" that would "displace preceding structures of belief and relegate supernatural religion to a secondary role, or relegate it to none at all", and "though there were specific examples of religious or would-be 'Christian fascists,' fascism presupposed a post-Christian, post-religious, secular, and immanent frame of reference." One theory is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic Weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person. Along these lines, Yale political scientist Juan Linz and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by another total ideology, making secular totalitarianism possible, and Roger Griffin has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious political religion.
However, Robert Paxton finds that "Fascists often cursed ... materialist secularism" and he adds that the circumstances of past fascisms do not mean that future fascisms can not "build upon a religion in place of a nation, or serve as the expression of national identity. Even in Europe, religion-based fascisms were not unknown: the Falange Española, the Belgian Rexism, the Finnish Lapua Movement, and the Romanian Legion of the Archangel Michael are all good examples". Separately, Richard L. Rubenstein maintains that the religious dimensions of the Holocaust and Nazi fascism were decidedly unique.
Messianic aspects of Nazism
A significant amount of literature about the potential religious aspects of Nazism has been published. Wilfried Daim suggests that Hitler and the Nazi leadership planned to replace Christianity in Germany with a new religion in which Hitler would be considered the messiah. In his book on the connection between Lanz von Liebenfels and Hitler, Daim published a reprint of an alleged document of a session on "the unconditional abolishment of all religious commitments (Religionsbekenntnisse) after the final victory (Endsieg) ... with a simultaneous proclamation of Adolf Hitler as the new messiah." This session report came from a private collection.
Thuringian German Christian Prayer for Hitler
Schütze, Herr, mit starker Hand
unser Volk und Vaterland!
Laß' auf unsres Führers Pfade
leuchten Deine Huld und Gnade!
Weck' in unserem Herz aufs neue
deutscher Ahnen Kraft und Treue!
Und so laß' uns stark und rein
Deine deutschen Kinder sein!
This translates roughly as:
Protect, O Lord, with strength of hand,
Our people and our fatherland!
Allow upon our leader's course
To shine your mercy and your grace!
Awaken in our hearts anew
Our German bloodline, loyalty, and strength!
And so allow us, strong and pure,
To be your German youth!
See also
Antisemitism in Christianity
Catholic resistance to Nazi Germany
Christmas in Nazi Germany
Christofascism
Clerical fascism
Criticism of Christianity
Savitri Devi
Esoteric Nazism
Marcionism
Nazi eugenics
Occultism in Nazism
Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world
Religion and politics
Notes and references
Bibliography
John S. Conway 1968: The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933–45, Weidenfeld and Nicolson
Sven Granzow, Bettina Müller-Sidibé, Andrea Simml 2006: Gottvertrauen und Führerglaube, in: Götz Aly (ed.): Volkes Stimme. Skepsis und Führervertrauen im Nationalsozialismus, Fischer TB , pp. 38–58
Kolnai, Aurel The War Against the West, New York, 1938: Viking Press
.
External links
The German Churches and the Nazi State in the Holocaust Encyclopedia
Review of Richard Steigmann-Gall's Holy Reich - by John S. Conway
Christianity and the Nazi Movement - by Richard Steigmann-Gall
Faith And Thought - Kolnai, Aurel, The War Against the West
Messianism |
4081056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Australia | Religion in Australia | Religion in Australia is diverse. In the 2021 national census, 43.9% of Australians identified with Christianity and 38.9% declared "no religion".
Australia has no official religion. Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia states: "The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth."
The Christian festivals of Easter and Christmas are public holidays.
History
The Aboriginal peoples of Australia traditionally followed a set of beliefs known as The Dreaming; some of the earliest evidence on earth for religious practices among humans has been found in the archaeological record of their ancestors. Torres Strait Islander religion bore similarities to broader Melanesian spirituality.
Christianity came to Australia in 1788 with British colonial settlement. Of the convicts and free settlers, most were members of the established Church of England with lesser numbers of Nonconformist Protestants, Catholics and other faiths. The first religious census in 1828 divided the early colony into four groups: Protestants, Catholics, Jews and Pagans.
Other smaller groups also arrived and established their churches. Jews started arriving in the early 19th century. The Australian gold rushes brought in workers from China and the Pacific islands, as well as specialised workers from British India, such as the mainly Muslim "Afghan Cameleers".
Indigenous Australian religion
Dreaming (spirituality) has been practised for tens of thousands of years. It is at once a collection of stories of an ancient view of creation and present day spirituality. It places significant emphasis on belonging to the land. It shaped and continues to shape Aboriginal law and customs; and Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions.
There is evidence of contact between indigenous Australians with colonisers, fishermen, and survivors of numerous shipwrecks from peoples of various non-Indigenous cultures and faiths prior to British colonisation. Indigenous Australians of (Arnhem Land) (in Northern Australia) retain stories, songs and paintings of trade and cultural interaction with sea-faring peoples from the north, generally regarded as being from the east Indonesian archipelago. There is some evidence of Islamic terms and concepts entering northern Aboriginal cultures via these interactions. (See: Macassan contact with Australia.)
Christianity
While the Church of England originally held a position of privilege in early colonial Australia, a legal framework guaranteeing religious equality evolved within a few decades, especially when the Church of England was disestablished in the colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the reformist attorney-general John Plunkett, the act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians, and was later extended to Methodists. British Nonconformist Methodist, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Baptists set up their own churches in the 19th century, as did Lutherans from Germany.
Large numbers of Irish Catholics were transported to Australia through the British criminal justice system. Religious tensions, largely fuelled by historical grievances between Catholics and other Christians, continued into the 20th century.
The gold rush of the 1850s led to significantly increased immigration and diversity of religious traditions, such as Irish Catholicism, Scottish Presbyterianism, and more English Anglicanism, among other religious traditions.
Australian Aboriginal peoples suffered a decline during this period as they were dispossessed of their lands; and diseases spread among their populations. Christian churches organised missions during this period, intended to "civilise" Aboriginal communities and spread Christianity. The overall consequences of this activity contributed to the decline of indigenous languages and beliefs, the extent to which are still being determined and recorded.
By 1901, apart from the indigenous population and descendants of gold rush migrants, Australian society was predominantly Anglo-Celtic, with 40% of the population being Anglican, 23% Catholic, 34% other Christian and about 1% professing non-Christian religions. There was a Lutheran population of German descent in South Australia.
Freedom of Religion was enshrined in Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia of 1901.
Other religions
There were at least 15 Jews in the First Fleet, 14 convicts and one "free" child.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced to penal transportation to Australia because friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be the predominant role of trade unions.
As noted above, the Australian gold rushes brought in workers from China and the Pacific islands, as well as specialised workers from British India such as, from the 1860s onwards, the mainly Muslim "Afghan Cameleers". From the 1870s Malay divers were recruited (with most subsequently repatriated). Before 1901, some Muslim sailors and prisoners came to Australia on convict ships.
In 1901, the government passed an act limiting immigration to those of European descent in what came to be known as the White Australia Policy. By effectively limiting the immigration of practitioners of different faiths, this policy ensured that Christianity remained the religion of the overwhelming majority of Australians for the foreseeable future and, indeed, to the present day. The first census in 1911 showed 96% identified themselves as Christian. Sectarian tensions continued into the 1960s; e.g. job vacancy advertisements sometimes stated "Protestant preferred" or that "Catholics need not apply". Nevertheless, Australia elected its first Catholic prime minister, James Scullin, in 1929, and in 1930 Sir Isaac Isaacs, an Australian-born Jew, was appointed Governor-General.
Demographics
A question on religion has been asked in every census taken in Australia, with the voluntary nature of this question having been specifically stated since 1933. In 1971, the instruction "if no religion, write none" was introduced. This saw a sevenfold increase from the previous census year in the percentage of Australians stating they had no religion. Since 1971, this percentage has progressively increased to 38.9% in 2021.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2006 Census Dictionary statement on religious affiliation states the purpose for gathering such information:
Data on religious affiliation are used for such purposes as planning educational facilities, aged persons' care and other social services provided by religion-based organisations; the location of church buildings; the assigning of chaplains to hospitals, prisons, armed services and universities; the allocation of time on public radio and other media; and sociological research.
The census question about religion is optional, and asks "What is the person's religion?", giving respondents a choice of nine religions, "Other" and "No religion". At the 2016 census 9.6% of people declined to answer, or they did not give a response adequate for interpretation. This figure dropped to 7.2% in 2021.
The 2021 Australian census data showed that 43.9% of Australians classify themselves Christian, 8.2% less in real terms than five years prior, The second-largest classification was the 38.9% who identified as "no religion".
As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is likely to be under 1 million, about 4% of the population.
The fastest growing religious classifications over the fifteen years between 2006 and 2021 were:
No religion – up from 18.7% to 38.9%
Islam – up from 1.7% to 3.2%
Hinduism – up from 0.7% to 2.7%
Sikhism – up from 0.1% to 0.8%
Buddhism - from 2.1% to 2.4%
Meanwhile, all Christian denominations combined decreased from 63.9% to 43.9%.
Census data
1: Includes relatively small numbers declaring "secular beliefs", such as atheism, agnosticism, humanism and rationalism, and spiritual beliefs such as New Age, "own spiritual beliefs", theism(!), etc. See 7
2: Includes "inadequately described"
3: Due to rounding, figures may not add up to the totals shown.
Line and bar charts
"Over the past 50 years, there has been a steady decline in the proportion of Australians who reported an affiliation with Christianity. The same period has seen a consistent rise in Other religions and No religion, particularly in the last 20 years".
Total fertility rates
, Buddhists (1.68), Hindus (1.81) and the non-religious (1.84) had the lowest fertility rates. Christians (2.11) and Jews (2.17) had moderate fertility rates, and Muslims had the highest rate at 3.03.
Indigenous Australian traditions
Dreaming (spirituality)—the Dreaming or Dreaming—places significant emphasis on belonging to the land. It is at once a collection of stories of an ancient view of creation and present day Dreaming (spirituality). It shaped and continues to shape Aboriginal law and customs; and Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw on these spiritual traditions.
There were a great many different nations, each with their own individual culture, belief structure, and language. The Rainbow Serpent is a major dream spirit for Aboriginal people across Australia. The Yowie and Bunyip are other well known dream spirits. At the time of the British settlement, traditional religions were animist and tended to have elements of ancestor worship.
Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality, even among those Aboriginal peoples who identify themselves as members of a traditional organised religion, are intrinsically linked to the land generally and to certain sites of significance in particular. As Mircea Eliade put it, "There is a general belief among the [indigenous] Australians that the world, man, and the various animals and plants were created by certain Supernatural beings who afterwards disappeared, either ascending to the sky or entering the earth." There were and still are ritual systems, with an emphasis on life transitions such as adulthood and death.
The spirituality and customs of Torres Strait Islanders, who inhabit the islands between Australia and New Guinea, reflected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea.
Since British settlement
European culture and Christianity have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians. As in many colonial situations the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous Australian culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance. The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788. Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of indigenous people.
In the Torres Strait Islands, the Coming of the Light Festival marks the day the Christian missionaries first arrived on the islands on 1 July 1871 and introduced Christianity to the region. This is a significant festival for Torres Strait Islanders, who are predominantly Christian. Religious and cultural ceremonies are held across Torres Strait and mainland Australia.
Prominent Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson, himself raised at a Lutheran mission in Cape York, has written that missions throughout Australia's colonial history "provided a haven from the hell of life on the Australian frontier while at the same time facilitating colonisation". Prominent Aboriginal Christians have included Pastor David Unaipon, the first Aboriginal author; Pastor Sir Douglas Nicholls, athlete, activist and former Governor of South Australia; Mum (Shirl) Smith, a celebrated Redfern community worker who, assisted by the Sisters of Charity, work to assist Aboriginal peoples.; and former Senator Aden Ridgeway, the first Chairman of the Aboriginal Catholic Ministry. In recent times, Christians such as Fr Ted Kennedy of Redfern, Jesuit human rights lawyer Fr Frank Brennan and the Josephite Sisters have been prominent in working for Aboriginal rights and improvements to standards of living.
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
After the arrival of the first Christian settlers on the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, Christianity quickly became the major religion in Australia. Consequently, the Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are public holidays, the skylines of Australian cities and towns are marked by church and cathedral spires. Christian churches played a significant role in the development of early education, health and welfare services in Australia.
The churches with the largest number of members are the Catholic Church, the Anglican Church of Australia and the Uniting Church in Australia. The National Council of Churches in Australia has been the main Christian ecumenical body.
The Christian churches played an integral role in the development and provision of welfare services in Australia. The first chaplain, Richard Johnson, a Church of England cleric, was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip with improving "public morality" in the colony, and he was also heavily involved in health and education.
For much of Australian history, the Church of England in Australia, now known as the Anglican Church of Australia, was the largest religious affiliation. However its relative position has declined, with the Catholic Church, benefiting from post-war Australia multicultural immigration, among other factors, to become the largest single religious group. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and other congregations associated with non-British cultures have also expanded.
Today, the Catholic education system is the second biggest sector after government schools, with more than 750,000 students in 2018 (and around 21 per cent of all secondary school enrolments). The Anglican Church educates around 105,000 students and the Uniting Church has around 48 schools. Smaller denominations, including the Lutheran Church also have a number of schools in Australia. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia also has 8 schools across the country. There are two Catholic universities in Australia: the Australian Catholic University which opened in 1991 following the amalgamation of four Catholic tertiary institutions in eastern Australia, and the University of Notre Dame Australia based in Perth.
Catholic Social Services Australia's 63 member organisations help more than a million Australians every year. Anglican organisations work in health, missionary work, social welfare and communications; and the Uniting Church does extensive community work, in aged care, hospitals, nursing, family support services, youth services and with the homeless, and especially throughout inland Australia. Christian charities such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society, the Salvation Army, Anglicare, and Youth Off the Streets receive considerable national support. Religious orders founded many of Australia's hospitals, such as St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, which was opened as a free hospital in 1857 by the Sisters of Charity and is now Australia's largest not-for-profit health provider and has trained prominent Australian surgeons such as Victor Chang.
Notable Australian Christians have included: Mary MacKillop – educator, founder of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart and the first Australian to be recognised as a saint by the Catholic Church; David Unaipon – an Aboriginal writer, inventor and Christian preacher currently featured on the Australian $50 note; Archbishop Daniel Mannix of Melbourne – a controversial voice against Conscription during World War I and against British policy in Ireland; the Reverend John Flynn – founder of the Royal Flying Doctor Service, currently featured on the Australian $20 note; Sir Douglas Nicholls – Aboriginal rights activist, athlete, pastor and former Governor of South Australia; Archbishop Stylianos Harkianakis – Archbishop and primate of the Greek Orthodox church in Australia from 1975 to 2019
Sectarianism in Australia tended to reflect the political inheritance of Britain and Ireland. Until 1945, the vast majority of Catholics in Australia were of Irish descent, causing the British majority to question their loyalty to the British Empire. The first Catholic priests arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800, but the Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and no further priests were allowed in the colony until 1820, when London sent John Joseph Therry and Philip Connolly. In 1901, the Australian Constitution guaranteed Separation of Church and State. A notable period of sectarianism re-emerged during the First World War and the 1916 Easter Uprising in Ireland, but sectarian division declined after World War II. There was a diversification of Christian churches (especially with the growth of Greek, Macedonian, Serbian and Russian Orthodox churches), together with an increase in ecumenism among Christians through organisations such as the National Council of Churches in Australia, as well as an increase in non-religious adherence.
One of the most visible signs of the historical importance of Christianity to Australia is the prominence of churches in most Australian towns and cities. Among Australia's oldest are Ebenezer Chapel and the Anglican St Matthew's, Windsor, St Luke's, Liverpool, St Peter's, Campbelltown and St James Church, Sydney, built between 1819 and 1824 by Governor Macquarie's architect, Francis Greenway. St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney, was built to a design by William Wardell from a foundation stone laid in 1868; the spires of the cathedral were not finally added until the year 2000. Wardell also worked on the design of St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne – among the finest examples of ecclesiastical architecture in Australia. The Anglican St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, in the iconic hub of the city opposite Flinders Street station. Adelaide is known as the "City of Churches", but churches extend far into the Australian Outback, as at the historic Lutheran Mission Chapel at Hermannsburg, Northern Territory. Along with community attitudes to religion, church architecture changed significantly during the 20th century. Urban churches, such as the Wayside Chapel (1964) in Sydney, differed markedly from traditional ecclesiastical designs. In the later 20th century, distinctly Australian approaches were applied at places such as Jambaroo Benedictine Abbey, where natural materials were chosen to "harmonise with the local environment" and the chapel sanctuary is of glass overlooking rainforest. Similar design principles were applied at Thredbo Ecumenical Chapel built in the Snowy Mountains in 1996.
The Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are national public holidays in Australia. Christmas, which recalls the birth of Jesus Christ, is celebrated on 25 December during the Australian summer (although on 7 January by some Eastern Orthodox) and is an important cultural festival even for many non-religious Australians. The European traditions of Christmas trees, roast dinners, carols and gift giving are all continued in Australia, but they might be conducted between visits to the beach.
Here are some Christian denominations with Australian articles:
Anglican Church of Australia (formerly the Church of England in Australia)
Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia
Australian Christian Churches (formerly the Assemblies of God in Australia)
Australian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists
Baptist Union of Australia
Christian City Churches, started in Australia
Churches of Christ in Australia
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Australia
Fellowship of Congregational Churches, Australian only
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia
CRC Churches International
Lutheran Church of Australia
Presbyterian Church of Australia
Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia
Presbyterian Reformed Church (Australia)
Catholic Church in Australia
Uniting Church in Australia
Two by Twos
A 2023 IPSOS survey found that 22% of the population was Protestant or Evangelical while 18% was Catholic.
Islam
The first contacts that Islam had with Australia was when Muslim fishermen native to Makassar, which is today a part of Indonesia, visited North-Western Australia long before British settlement in 1788. This contact of South East Asian ethnic groups of Islamic faith can be identified from the graves they dug for their comrades who died on the journey, being that they face Mecca (in Arabia), in accordance with Islamic regulations concerning burial, as well as evidence from Aboriginal cave paintings and religious ceremonies which depict and incorporate the adoption of Makassan canoe designs and words.
In later history, throughout the 19th century following British settlement, other Muslims came to Australia including the Muslim 'Afghan' cameleers, who used their camels to transport goods and people through the otherwise unnavigable desert and pioneered a network of camel tracks that later became roads across the Outback. Australia's first mosque was built for them at Marree, South Australia in 1861. Between the 1860s and 1920s around 2000 cameleers were brought from Afghanistan and the north west of British India (now Pakistan) and perhaps 100 families remained in Australia. Other outback mosques were established at places like Coolgardie, Cloncurry, and Broken Hill – and more permanent mosques in Adelaide, Perth and later Brisbane. A legacy of this pioneer era is the presence of wild camels in Outback and the oldest Islamic structure in the southern hemisphere, at Central Adelaide Mosque. Nonetheless, despite their significant role in Australia prior to the establishment of rail and road networks, the formulation of the White Australia policy at the time of Federation made immigration difficult for the 'Afghans' and their memory slowly faded during the 20th century, until a revival of interest began in the 1980s.
Successive Australian governments dismantled the White Australia Policy in the Post-WW2 period. From the 1970s onwards, under the leadership of Gough Whitlam and Malcolm Fraser, Australia began to pursue multiculturalism. Australia in the later 20th century became a refuge for many Muslims fleeing conflicts including those in Lebanon, Bosnia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan and Afghanistan. General immigration, combined with religious conversion to Islam by Christians and other Australians, as well as Australia's participation in UN refugee efforts has increased the overall Muslim population. Around 36% of Muslims are Australian born. Overseas born Muslims come from a great variety of nations and ethnic groups – with large Lebanese and Turkish communities.
Following the 11 September attacks in the USA, attempts to associate the ideology/ies of Osama bin Laden and the religion of Islam stirred some debate in some quarters in Australia about Islam's relationship with the wider community. The deaths of Australians in bombings by militant Islamic fundamentalists in New York in 2001, Bali in 2002–5 and London in 2005; as well as the sending of Australian troops to East Timor in 1999, Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003; the arrest of bomb plotters in Australia; and concerns about certain cultural practices such as the wearing of the Burkha all contributed to a degree of tension. A series of comments by a senior Sydney cleric, Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly also stirred controversy, particularly his remarks regarding "female modesty" following an incident of gang rape in Sydney. Australians were among the targets of Islamic Fundamentalists in the Bali bombings in Indonesia and an attack on the Australian Embassy in Jakarta; and the South East Asian militant group Jemaah Islamiyah has been of particular concern to Australians.
The Australian government's mandatory detention processing system for asylum seekers became increasingly controversial after the 11 September attacks. A significant proportion of recent Asylum seekers arriving by boat have been Muslims fleeing the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan and elsewhere. Some Islamic leaders and social commentators claim that Islam has suffered from unfair stereotyping Violence and intimidation was directed against Muslims and people of Middle Eastern appearance during southern Sydney's Cronulla riots in 2005. In 2005, the Howard government established the Muslim Community Reference Group to advise on Muslim community issues for one year, chaired by Ameer Ali. Inter-faith dialogues were also established by Christian and Muslim groups such as The Australian Federation of Islamic Councils and the National Council of Churches in Australia. Australia and Indonesia co-operated closely following the Bali-bombings, not only in law-enforcement but in improving education and cross-cultural understanding, leading to a marked improvement in relations. After a series of controversies, Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly retired as Grand mufti of Australia in 2007 and was replaced by Fehmi Naji El-Imam AM.
Today, over 604,000 people in Australia identify as Muslim, with diverse communities concentrated mainly in Sydney and Melbourne. More than half are non-practising cultural Muslims. Since the 1970s Islamic schools have been established as well as more than 100 mosques and prayer centres. Many notable Muslim places of worship are to be found in large Australian cities, including the Central Adelaide Mosque, which was constructed during the 1880s; and Sydney's Classical Ottoman style Auburn Gallipoli Mosque, which was largely funded by the Turkish community and the name of which recalls the shared heritage of the foundation of modern Turkey and the story of the ANZACs. 1,140 people identified as Aboriginal Muslims in the 2011 census, almost double the number recorded in the 2001 census. Notable Australian Muslims include boxer Anthony Mundine; community worker and rugby league star Hazem El Masri; cricketer Usman Khawaja and academic Waleed Aly. In 2013, Labor MP Ed Husic became Australia's first Muslim member of Cabinet, briefly serving as Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister and for Broadband in the short lived Second Rudd government.
Judaism
At least eight Jewish convicts are believed to have been transported to Sydney aboard the First Fleet in 1788, when the first British settlement was established on the continent. An estimated 110,000 Jews currently live in Australia, the majority being Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern European descent, with many being refugees and Holocaust survivors who arrived during and after World War II.
The Jewish population has increased slightly in recent times due to immigration from South Africa and the former Soviet Union. The largest Jewish community in Australia is in Melbourne, with about 60,000, followed by Sydney with about 45,000 members. Smaller communities are dispersed among the other state capitals.
Following the conclusion of the British colonial period, Jews have enjoyed formal equality before the law in Australia and have not been subject to civil disabilities or other forms of state-sponsored anti-Semitism which exclude them from full participation in public life.
Sydney's gothic design Great Synagogue, consecrated in 1878, is a notable place of Jewish worship in Australia. Notable Australian Jews have included the Sir John Monash, the notable World War I general who opened the Maccabean Hall in Sydney in 1923 to commemorate Jews who fought and died in the First World War and who is currently featured on the Australian $100 note; and Sir Isaac Isaacs who became the first Australian born governor general in 1930. Sir Zelman Cowen also served as Governor-General, between 1977 and 1982. The Sydney Jewish Museum opened in 1992 to commemorate The Holocaust "challenge visitors' perceptions of democracy, morality, social justice and human rights".
Until the 1930s, all synagogues in Australia were nominally Orthodox, with most acknowledging leadership of the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom. To this day the vast majority of synagogues in Australia are Orthodox. However, there is a wide range of Orthodox congregations, including Mizrachi, Chabad and Adass Israel congregations. There are also Sephardi congregations.
There had been short-lived efforts to establish Reform congregations as early as the 1890s. However, under the leadership of Ada Phillips, a sustained liberal congregation, Temple Beth Israel, was established in Melbourne. Subsequently, another synagogue linked to the United States Reform Movement, Temple Emanuel, was established in Sydney. Following these two congregations, a number of other Liberal synagogues have been founded in other cities.
Since 1992 Conservative (Masorti) services have been held as an alternative service usually in the Neuweg, the smaller second synagogue within Temple Emanuel, Woollahra, Sydney. In 1999, Kehilat Nitzan, Melbourne's first Conservative (Masorti) congregation was established, with foundation president John Rosenberg. The congregation appointed its first rabbi, Ehud Bandel in 2006. In 2010 Beit Knesset Shalom became Brisbane's first Conservative (Masorti) synagogue.
In 2012, the first humanistic Jewish congregation, known as Kehilat Kolenu, was established in Melbourne with links to the cultural Jewish youth movement Habonim Dror. Later in 2012, a similar congregation was established in Sydney, known as Ayelet HaShachar. The services are loosely based on the Humanistic Jewish movement in the United States and the musical-prayer group Nava Tehila in Israel.
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith first arrived in Australia in 1922, and at less than 0.1% of the total population, is one of the smaller religious minorities. The Sydney Baháʼí Temple is situated in Ingleside, a northern suburb of Sydney. According to Jennifer Taylor, a historian at Sydney University, it is among Sydney's four most significant religious buildings constructed in the twentieth century. Dedicated in 1961, it was also the world's fourth Baháʼí House of Worship to be completed.
The 1996 Australian Census lists Baháʼí membership at just under 9,000. In 2001, the second edition of A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services added the Baháʼí Faith to its coverage of religions in Australia and noted that the community had grown to over 11,000. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 17,700 Baháʼís in 2005, and over 19,300 in 2010. However, census data from 2016 reported a much lower population of only 13,988.
Indian/Dharmic religions
Hinduism
Hindus numbered 684,000 in the 2021 census, making Hinduism the fourth largest religious or non-religious affiliation. It is one of the fastest growing religions in Australia (12.0% per year since 2011). In the 19th century, Hindus first came to Australia to work on cotton and sugar plantations. Many who remained worked in small business, as camel drivers, merchants and hawkers, selling goods between small rural communities. Their population increased dramatically from the 1960s and 1970s and more than doubled between the 1996 and 2006 census to around 148,000 people. Most were migrants from countries such as Fiji, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and South Africa. At present many Hindus are well-educated professionals in fields such as medicine, engineering, commerce and information technology. Among Australia's best-known Hindus is the singer Kamahl. There are around forty-three Hindu temples in Australia, the Sri Mandir Temple in Auburn, Sydney being the first established in 1977.
Buddhism
Buddhists began arriving in Australia in significant numbers during the goldrush of the 1850s with an influx of Chinese miners. However, the population remained low until the 1960s. Buddhism is now one of the fastest growing religions in Australia. Immigration from Asia has contributed to this, but some people of non-Asian origin have also converted. The three main traditions of Buddhism—Theravada, East Asian and Tibetan—are now represented in Australia. According to the 2021 census, Buddhism has 615,800 adherents: 2.4% of the total population.
Buddhist temples can be very active. Quang Minh Temple in Braybrook, Melbourne, Victoria gets about 2,000 people through every Sunday and gives a free vegetarian meal to about 600 people. For important events, more than 20,000 people come. Even more come to the Nan Tien Temple, or "Southern Paradise Temple", in Wollongong, New South Wales, began construction in the early 1990s, adopting the Chinese palace building style and is now the largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere. This temple follows the Venerable Master Hsing Yun of the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist order. Bodhinyana Monastery is a Theravadin Buddhist monastery in the Thai Forest Tradition located in Serpentine, Western Australia.
Sikhism
Sikhism has been one of the fastest growing religions in Australia in recent years. According to census data, Australia's Sikh population grew from 72,000 to 210,400 between 2011 and 2021, an average growth rate of 14.8% per year. Around 42% of Australia's Sikhs live in the state of Victoria.
Jainism
Jainism is currently the fourth fastest growing religion in Australia, recording 4,050 adherents in 2016 and growing an average of 7.7% per year. The overwhelming majority (94.7%) of Jains live inside the state capitals, primarily Sydney, Melbourne and Perth.
Irreligion
Non-religious
Australia is one of the least religious nations in the developed world, with religion not described as a central part in many people's lives. This view is prominent among Australia's youth, who were ranked as the least religious worldwide in a 2008 survey conducted by The Christian Science Monitor. In the 2021 census, the ABS categorised ~9,887,000 Australians (38.9%) as having no religion, up 16.6% in real terms from 4,796,800 (22.3%) in 2011. This category includes agnosticism, atheism, humanism, rationalism, and people who are unaffiliated with any particular religion.
Atheism
While people with no religion are more than 30% of the Australian population, the Australian Bureau of Statistics does not provide information in the annual "1301.0 – Year Book Australia" on religious affiliation as to how many people fall into each sub-category. Data on religious affiliation is only collected by the ABS at the five yearly population census. Atheist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Atheist Foundation of Australia. Humanist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Council of Australian Humanist Societies. Rationalist interests in Australia are represented nationally by the Rationalist Society of Australia. The Global Atheist Convention, a prominent atheist event, has been held in Melbourne.
Other religions
The 2006 census shows 53 listed groups down to 5000 members, most of them Christian denominations, many of them national versions such as Greek, Serbian Orthodox and Assyrian Orthodox. Of the smaller religions, Pagan religions 29,328, the Baháʼí Faith at 12,000, Humanism about 7000. Between 1000 and 5000 are: Taoism, Druse, Satanism, Zoroastrian, Rationalism, Creativity, Theosophy, Jainism. There are also adherents of Tenrikyo, Shinto, Unitarian Universalism, Eckankar, Cao Dai, Rastafari, Pantheism, Scientology and Raelianism.
In general, non-Christian religions and those with no religion have been growing in proportion to the overall population. With fewer classifications, data from 1996 and 2001 showed Aboriginal religion decreasing from 7000 to 5000 while Baháʼí grew from just under 9,000 to over 11,000 and the rest of the "Other" category growing from about 69,000 to about 92,000.
Paganism
Alexandrian Wiccans and Gardnerian Wiccans arrived in Australia from England and the United States around the late 1960s.
In the 2011 census, 32,083 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 8,413 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Neopagan witchcraft.
Religion and the law
Constitutional status
Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia provides that:
The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth.
Technically, this does not affect the states' authority to legislate on religion. Nor would it block federal legislation on religion, aside from that establishing an official religion of Australia. In practice, though, federal governments have respected Section 116 and generally allowed the free practice of religions. Australia does not have explicit "separation of church and state"—the essence of a "secular state"—in the sense that countries like the USA do. In view of Section 116 of Australia's constitution ("The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance ..."), it is commonly believed that Australia is already a "secular state". This is a misconception: in 1981, the High Court determined that there is in fact no constitutional separation of church and state in Australia. However, there is no general "mood" to legislate establishment of religions.
Other interactions
In 1983, the High Court of Australia defined religion as "a complex of beliefs and practices which point to a set of values and an understanding of the meaning of existence". The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001 Census Dictionary defines "no religion" as a category of religion which includes subcategories such as agnosticism, atheism, Humanism and rationalism (but the ABS also categorises these as "secular beliefs").
The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) is able to inquire into allegations of discrimination on religious grounds.
In 1998 the HREOC addressed the right to freedom of religion and belief in Australia against article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, stating that "despite the legal protections that apply in different jurisdictions, many Australians suffer discrimination on the basis of religious belief or non-belief, including members of both mainstream and non-mainstream religions, and those of no religious persuasion." An example of an HREOC response to such views is the IsmaU project, which examines possible prejudice against Muslims in Australia since the 11 September 2001 attacks in the US and the Bali bombings.
Interfaith efforts
Interfaith efforts between various religious institutions occur. Since the early 2000s, the Abraham Conference convenes as an annual interfaith event between Christians, Muslims, and Jews.
See also
A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services
Australian Association for Jewish Studies
Broken Rites & Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Australia
Freedom of religion in Australia
National Church Life Survey
Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse
Separation of church and state in Australia
Stolen Generations
References
Further reading
Berndt, R. M. Australian Aboriginal Religion, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1974
Bouma, Gary, ed. Many Religions All Australian: Religious Settlement, Identity and Cultural Diversity. Melbourne: Christian Research Association, 1997.
Carey, Hilary M. Believing in Australia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992.
Eliade, M., Australian Religions: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, London, 1973
Hilliard, David. "Popular Religion in Australia in the 1950s: A Study of Adelaide and Brisbane." Journal of religious history 15.2 (1988): 219–235.
Hilliard, David. "The religious crisis of the 1960s: the experience of the Australian churches." Journal of religious history 21.2 (1997): 209–227.
Humphreys, Robert, and Rowland S. Ward. Religious bodies in Australia: a comprehensive guide (New Melbourne Press, 1995).
Hunt, A. D. "For God, King, and country": A study of the attitudes of the Methodist and Catholic press in South Australia (1979)
Jupp, James, ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion in Australia, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Lovat, Terence. New Studies in Religion. Social Science Press pg 148 (2002)
O'Brien, Anne. God's Willing Workers: Women and Religion in Australia (University of New South Wales Press, 2005)
O'Brien, Anne. "Historical overview spirituality and work Sydney women, 1920–1960." Australian Historical Studies 33.120 (2002): 373–388.
Thompson, Roger C. Religion in Australia: A history (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994), a standard scholarly survey
Anglicans
B. Kaye, ed., Anglicanism in Australia: a History (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2002)
T. Frame, A Church for the Nation: a History of the Anglican Diocese of Canberra and Goulburn (Sydney: Hale & Iremonger, 2000).
D. Hilliard, Godliness and Good Order: A History of the Anglican Church in South Australia (Adelaide: Wakefield Press, 1986)
S. Judd and K. J. Cable, Sydney Anglicans: A History of the Diocese (Sydney: Anglican Information Office, 1987)
B. Porter, ed., Melbourne Anglicans: The Diocese of Melbourne 1847–1978 (Melbourne: Mitre Books, 1997)
Catholics
Campion, Edmund. Rockchoppers: Growing Up Catholic in Australia (1983)
Dixon, Robert E. The Catholics in Australia (1996)
Hamilton, Celia. "Irish-Catholics of New South Wales and the Labor Party, 1890–1910," Historical Studies: Australia & New Zealand (1958) 8(31): 254–267
Laffin, Josephine. "'Sailing in Stormy Waters': Archbishop Matthew Beovich and the Catholic Archdiocese of Adelaide in the 1960s." Journal of Religious History 34.3 (2010): 289–311.
McGrath, Sophie. "Women Religious in the History of Australia 1888–1950: a Case Study – the Sisters of Mercy Parramatta," Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society (1995) 81(2): 195–212
Murtagh, James G. Australia: The Catholic Chapter (1959)
O'Donoghue, Thomas A. Upholding the Faith: The Process of Education in Catholic Schools in Australia, 1922–1965 (2001)
O'Farrell, Patrick. The Irish in Australia: 1798 to the Present Day (3rd ed. Cork University Press, 2001)
Protestants
Brauer, Alfred. Under the Southern Cross: History of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Australia (Lutheran Publishing House, 1985)
Ellis, Julie-Ann. "'Cross-Firing over the Gulf': The Rift between Methodism and the Labour Movement in South Australia in the 1890s" Labour History (1993): 89–102. in JSTOR
Hardgrave, Donald W. For Such a Time: A History of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia (1988)
Harrison, John. Baptism of Fire: The first ten years of the Uniting Church in Australia (1986)
Hunt, Arnold Dudley. This Side of Heaven: A History of Methodism in South Australia (Lutheran Publishing House, 1985)
External links
Australian Standard Classification of Religious Groups (ASCRG), 1266.0, 1996
1996 Census Dictionary – Religion category
2001 Census Dictionary – Religion category
Year Book Australia, 2006. Religious Affiliation section
Australia in USA Department of State International Religious Freedom Report
(History of Religion in Sydney) [CC-By-SA]
Demographics of Australia
Religion in the British Empire |
4081135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Knight%20%28politician%29 | Frederick Knight (politician) | Colonel Sir Frederick Winn Knight (9 May 1812 – 3 May 1897) was an English Conservative politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1841 to 1885.
Origins
Frederick Knight was the eldest son of John Knight II (d.1850) of Lea Castle, Wolverley, (2 miles north of Kidderminster) Worcestershire and 26 miles east of Downton Castle) (built by his father John Knight I) and 52 Portland Place in London, by his wife Hon. Jane Elizabeth Allanson-Winn, daughter of George Allanson-Winn, 1st Baron Headley (1725–1798). His grandfather, John Knight I of Lea Castle was an ironmaster and the grandson of Richard Knight of
Downton Castle, Downton on the Rock, Herefordshire, (about five miles west of Ludlow, Shropshire) a magnate in the iron industry. He had at least two brothers:
Charles Allanson Knight (1814–1879) who married Jessie Ramsay (1828–1922), daughter of William Ramsay (1800–1881) (a.k.a. Innes) of Barra, Inverurie, and widow of Count Alexander de Polignac(d.pre-1862). His children were under the guardianship of the Fane Family of Fulbeck Hall, Lincolnshire, between 1876 and 1887. W.D. Fane wrote in his correspondence of Summer 1855 of visiting his friend "Knight" in Rome, probably at the house of John Knight II who had retired to Rome.
Edward Lewis Knight (1817–1882), of Hornacott Manor, Boyton, Cornwall. He married three times:
Firstly to Elizabeth Harris
Secondly in 1868 to Henrietta Mary Sanford, by whom he had issue, see section below, heir.
Thirdly 1877 to Edith Emma Butler (1851–1936)
Career
He was educated at Charterhouse School and was lieutenant-colonel of the Worcestershire Yeomanry Cavalry and of the 1st Battalion Worcestershire Rifle Volunteers, raised by him after 1859, for which service he received a knighthood. He was Deputy Lieutenant and JP for Worcestershire and was a family trustee of the British Museum, as representative of Richard Payne Knight (1750–1824) of Downton Castle, the classical scholar and elder brother of his great-great-grandfather Edward Knight (d.1780). In 1841, Knight was elected Member of Parliament for West Worcestershire. He was Parliamentary Secretary to the Poor Law Board under Lord Derby's Governments of 1852 and 1858–9. He held his parliamentary seat until 1885, for a remarkably long continuous period of 44 years, remarked on in the Vanity Fair caricature of him by Spy of the previous year captioned: "has sat for three and forty years".
Exmoor reclamation
Knight took over from his father in managing the 10,262 1/4 acre estate, (subsequently increased to about 20,000 acres) formerly the royal forest of Exmoor, Somerset, purchased for £50,122 by public tender by his father in August 1818 from King George III's Commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues. His father had commenced the great task of reclaiming the rough grazing of the high moors, all over 1,000 ft, to arable production, and had built two farmsteads, Honeymead and Cornham, to the east and west respectively of his own residence at Simonsbath House, Simonsbath, formerly the only residence on the forest, built by James Boevey (1622–1696) in 1654, which already had enclosed farmland of 108 acres.
There existed a familial connection between the Knights and the Bampfylde Baronets (from 1831 Barons Poltimore), lords of the manor of North Molton, which large manor was adjacent to the west side of the royal forest of Exmoor. Col. Coplestone Warre Bampfylde (d. 29 August 1791), Colonel of the Somerset Militia and nephew of Sir Coplestone Warwick Bampfylde, 3rd Baronet (c. 1689–1727), had married Mary Knight, 2nd daughter of Edward Knight of Wolverley, Worcestershire.
In 1841 John Knight II withdrew from the task and retired to Rome, and Frederick took up the task with much vigour. He built 15 further farmsteads and changed his father's policy of "in-hand" farming of the forest as one huge entity to one of colonising the moor with tenant farmers who would bear the risks and rewards of the farming operations themselves and would pay him rents. This was during a time of great population expansion when it was widely feared that food supplies would inevitably run short. The political situation was uncertain and revolution was feared unless the price of food could be reduced. Thomas Malthus had written in 1798: "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man". Both father and son were unsuccessful with the mining ventures they planned on Exmoor, although much expenditure was made in prospecting for minerals and one mine-shaft was sunk, named Wheal Eliza. A large pond known as Pinkworthy Pond, was dug on The Chains, a boggy expanse of moorland in the NW corner of the forest, the purpose of which is unknown, but was possibly to drive mill machinery. Knight was a keen sportsman and also valued his Exmoor estate for the stag-hunting, which had been practised there with hounds for centuries. He also encouraged the abandonment of his father's determined policy of attempting to grow wheat, more suited to lowlands, and sought to introduce a pastoral system using sheep. He is said to have largely designed many of the farmstead lay-outs himself, and these have been found to the present day to be well sheltered and well drained. Most of Knight's farmsteads survive today, only 5 having been demolished or partly so, namely:
Cloven Rocks,
Pinkworthy, farm buildings demolished, house remains, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959.
Titchcombe,
Larkbarrow, requisitioned in WWII for artillery practice and destroyed by shelling.
Tom's Hill.
The remaining farms and house which survive are:
Simonsbath House, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959.
Horsen, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959.
Wintershead, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959.
Driver, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959.
Emmett's Grange, sold by Lady Margaret Fortescue in 1959. Built in 1840, it was the home of Knight's land agent Robert Smith and included cowhoses for thirty-five animals, a relatively large herd for the period. It is the highest farmhouse on Exmoor at 1,250 ft. The house is larger than a simple farmhouse and clearly was built as an elegant Georgian residence. Elements of landscape tree-plantings survive in the grounds. In the 1930s it was rented as a hunting lodge from Hugh Fortescue, 5th Earl Fortescue (1888–1958) by his younger brother Hon. Denzil Fortescue who later became Denzil Fortescue, 6th Earl Fortescue (1893–1977) The property at present (2012) includes 900 acres. It is owned by the Barlow family, of whom Lucy Barlow is a joint-master of the Dulverton West Foxhounds. The property is let-out to paying guests on a weekly basis.
Warren. This is the most perfectly preserved of the historic Knight farmsteads. It was sold by the Fortescues to the Exmoor National Park Authority which sold it in 1983 to its tenant-farmer, Mr Hawkins, who later served as a joint-master of the Devon & Somerset Staghounds. It is occupied in 2012 by his son Andrew Hawkins and his wife a Councillor on Exmoor Parish Council.
Simonsbath Barton
Cornham
Duredon
Honeymead: Now modernised beyond recognition. Sold by Earl Fortescue in 1927 to the industrialist and director of Royal Dutch Shell Sir Robert Waley Cohen (1877–1952), who had leased it since 1924. This was the first separate disposal made from the former Exmoor Forest. Waley Cohen purchased Honeymead with 1,745 acres, including Winstitchen Allotment and Exe Cleave Allotment, together with the farmsteads of Pickedstones, Winstitchen and Red Deer (a.k.a. Gallon House), comprising most of the eastern part of the former forest. Sir Robert brought modern farming techniques to Exmoor, and bred prize-winning herds of Friesian dairy cattle, Red Ruby Devon cattle, Exmoor Horn and Devon Closewool sheep. He also pioneered the planting of tree shelter belts as an addition to the traditional wall and beech hedge-banks. Sir Robert's son, Sir Bernard Waley-Cohen (1914–1991), was Lord Mayor of London (1960–61) and Chairman of the Devon and Somerset Staghounds for many years. He was created a baronet, "of Honeymead in the County of Somerset" in 1961. He continued to farm at Honeymead but gave up the dairy cattle. It is still owned by the Waley-Cohen family, which retains 1,000 acres.
Gallon House (formerly Red Deer)
Pickedstones
Winstitchen
After the early death of his son aged 28 in 1879, Knight sold the reversion after his death of Exmoor to Viscount Ebrington, Master of the Devon and Somerset Staghounds, the future Hugh Fortescue, 4th Earl Fortescue (1854–1932), whose family's principal seat was Castle Hill, Filleigh, 10 miles SW of Simonsbath. In 1927 the Fortescues sold 1,745 acres with Honeymead, Gallon House, Pickedstones and Winstitchen to Sir Robert Waley Cohen. The remainder of the estate continued to be held by the Fortescues until after the death of the 5th Earl in 1958, when the latter's eldest daughter and co-heiress, Lady Margaret Fortescue (b. 1923), sold much of the "Simonsbath Estate", as the former Royal Forest was termed by the family, together with much of the two Fortescue estates centred on Challacombe and West Buckland, to pay large death duties. The Simonsbath Estate properties sold were as follows, per the sales particulars headed "The Challacombe Estate and part of the Exmoor Estate, North Devon" dated 18 September 1959:
Driver Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Driver Cottages, Driver Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Pinkery Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Hoar Oak Herding, Lynton and Lynmouth
Exmoor Forest Hotel, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Emmetts Grange Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Wintershead Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Wintershead Cottages, Wintershead Farm, Exmoor
1 Wintershead Cottages, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Horsen Farm, Simonsbath, Exmoor
Wintershead Cottages, Horsen Farm, Exmoor
2 Wintershead Cottages, Simonsbath, Exmoor
It was a decision Lady Margaret said in 2001 that she then regretted, but had been advised at the time not to burden the remaining estate with the large borrowing required to meet the tax bill. She did however retain what she termed "the heart of the Exmoor estate", comprising Simonsbath Barton and Cornham, and started to farm this land in-hand using her own employees, not renewing tenancies on farms when they expired. She established five large flocks of sheep and two large cattle herds, the latter based at Cornham and Simonsbath Barton. Simonsbath sawmill was closed down as it was unprofitable. In 1989 Lady Margaret handed over the family estates to her daughter the Countess of Arran, who later on sold the remainder of the Simonsbath estate to John Ewart, a keen follower of the Staghounds, whilst Exmoor National Park purchased much of the moorland. Some of the houses however were retained where occupied by retired Fortescue employees. Ewart farmed under the name "Exmoor Forest Farms". In June 2006 Ewart offered Simonsbath Barton estate for sale via estate agents Savills and Strutt & Parker. The land offered comprised 2,080 acres freehold and a further 3,788 acres rented under a grazing licence from Exmoor National Park expiring in 2031. Also included was a 5-bedroom house, another of 4 bedrooms and a range of buildings and cottages. The asking price was £4 1/2 million.
On his 1818 purchase Knight's father had accepted a contractual potential liability of having to build a parish church at Simonsbath should the population expand to the size to need one, and this became the case in 1845 when 18 residents of his estate put forward a petition stating a church was then needed. The Church of St Luke, about 1/2 mile to the east and uphill of Simonsbath House, was finally consecrated in 1856, and a new parish called Exmoor was created to cover the whole estate which had always been extra-parochial. Knight gave 12 acres to form the churchyard.
Some of the Knight plans for Exmoor, never realised, are revealed by documents held at Somerset Archives:
"Two letters from John Knight of Simonsbath to Charles Bailey, Nynehead, concerning a rail road, with inclined planes, from Porlock to Exmoor Forest, 1826-7.
Letter, with prospectus, from the Somersetshire and North Devon Junction Railway Company, concerning the extension of a line to Porlock, and the proposed development of the harbour, dependent on the good will of Capt. Blathwayt, 1845.
Plan, on scale of 2 miles to one inch, showing Exmoor with G.W.R. railway, and a proposed ropeway between Porlock Bay and Picketstones Shaft, itself lying between Rogers Shaft near Simonsbath and Withypool; undated.
Blueprint, endorsed "Exmoor Ironstone Deposit", showing boundaries of Exmoor Forest, proposed railway, and tramway to pits or workings; undated. c. 1850-55.
Agreement between George William Blathwayt and Frederick Winn Knight of Wolverley House (co. Worcs.), esq., M.P., concerning the construction of a double line of locomotive narrow gauge railway from the property of said Knight on the forest of Exmoor to the harbour of Porlock, 1860".
It would appear that the Knights' development of Exmoor gained them enemies as the following extract shows:
"Letter from John Knight, Simonsbath, Exmoor Forest, near South Molton, Devon, concerning the attempted murder of Osmond Lock (Mr Knights agent), who was shot in bed in his cottage at Exford, Somerset. Two shots were fired, the first just...
Date: 1834"
Marriage and progeny
In 1850 Knight married Maria Louisa Couling Gibbs (d.1900), daughter of E. Gibbs.
They had one son, who predeceased both his parents aged only 28. They do not appear to have had any daughters as is suggested by the selection of his nephew as Knight's heir. Progeny:
Frederic Sebright Winn Knight (1851–1879), JP, DL, who pre-deceased his parents. He was born at Wolverley and was appointed one of two Deputy Lieutenants for Somerset on 16 September 1878.
Portraits
Five Knight family portraits were sold by the Sebright Educational Foundation at Christie's on 8 January 2008, in the style of the 19th-century English School, consisting of two young men and three young ladies, all in identical frames. Only one portrait was identified in the sale catalogue with certainty, namely that of Frederick Knight (1812–1897). It is likely the other young man was one of his brothers, and is unlikely to have been his son who died as a young man in 1879, the clothing fashion of which period is not represented in the portrait. The ladies are likely to be his sisters. The Sebrights were an ancient family of Wolverley, created Sebright Baronets in 1626. It must be assumed that the Knights were descended from a branch of this family, evidenced by the second forename of Sir Frederic's son, and by the fact the portraits came into the possession of the Sebright Educational Foundation, founded in 1620 under the will of William Sebright (1541–1620) of Besford, still existing today and very richly endowed.
Death
Sir Frederic Knight died on 3 May 1897 as the inscription on the pink granite tombstone memorial to his son in Simonsbath churchyard records: "In memory of Frederic Sebright Winn Knight JP DL born at Wolverley 11 May 1851 died 28 February 1879. Colonel Sir Frederic Winn Knight KCB born 9 May 1812 died 3 May 1897. Also of Dame Florence Maria his wife who died December 9, 1900".
Heir
His heir was his nephew Major Eric Ayshford Knight (1862/3-1944), the son of his younger brother Edward Lewis Knight (1817-1882) by his second wife Henrietta Mary Sanford (d.1876), daughter of Edward Ayshford Sanford (d.1876) MP, of Nynehead Court, Somerset. Edward Sanford was descended from John Sanford (1638–1711), son of Henry Sanford (1612–1644) of Nynehead Court by his wife Mary Ayshford (1606–1662), of Burlescombe, Devon. Through his mother John Sanford became the heir of the manor of Burlescombe, which he inherited from his cousin John Ayshford (1641–1689), whose mural monument exists in the Ayshford Chapel in the grounds of Ayshford Manor, Burlescombe. Eric Knight was Conservative MP for Kidderminster for four consecutive terms 1906–1922, Chairman of Kidderminster Rural District Council and Chairman of The Governors of Sebright School.
See also
Knight v Knight (1840) A famous legal case which set certain precedents in the common law relating to trusts. Provides genealogical information on Knight family.
References
External links
1812 births
1897 deaths
People educated at Charterhouse School
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1841–1847
UK MPs 1847–1852
UK MPs 1852–1857
UK MPs 1857–1859
UK MPs 1859–1865
UK MPs 1865–1868
UK MPs 1868–1874
UK MPs 1874–1880
UK MPs 1880–1885
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Deputy Lieutenants of Worcestershire
Worcestershire Yeomanry officers |
4081172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394%20in%20English%20football | 1993–94 in English football | The 1993–94 season was the 114th season of competitive football in England.
Overview
From the start of this season, the Premier League would be sponsored by Carling, an association which would last for eight years. The Premier League was without a sponsor for the previous season.
Events
Manchester United broke the English transfer record before the start of the season by paying relegated Nottingham Forest £3.75million for promising young midfielder Roy Keane. The 22-year-old Irishman was signed by Alex Ferguson as a long-term replacement for Bryan Robson, who at 36 was in the twilight of his illustrious Old Trafford career.
Graham Taylor resigned as England manager after their failure to qualify for the World Cup. He was succeeded by Terry Venables.
Sir Matt Busby died on 20 January at the age of 84. He had been associated with Manchester United since being appointed manager at the end of the Second World War, and remained at the club as a director after calling time on his managerial career in 1969.
Manchester United won the Premiership title and FA Cup to become only the fourth club this century to be league champions and FA Cup winners in the same season. Only a 3–1 defeat against Aston Villa in the League Cup final prevented them from winning a unique treble of domestic trophies. They led the Premiership from the fourth game onwards and in the final table had an eight-point lead over second-placed Blackburn Rovers. French striker Eric Cantona scored 25 goals in all competitions and was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year. Ryan Giggs, Lee Sharpe and Andrei Kanchelskis also hit the headlines with their brilliant form. In the FA Cup final, United crushed Chelsea 4–0 thanks to two penalties from Eric Cantona and single goals from Mark Hughes and Brian McClair.
Howard Kendall resigned three years into his second spell as Everton manager and was replaced by Norwich City's Mike Walker. They looked set for relegation from the Premiership on the final day of the season as they were 2–0 down to Wimbledon – just seven years after they had been league champions – but turned the tables on their opponents to win 3–2 and beat the drop. Sheffield United went down instead.
Swindon Town, in the top division for the first time, were relegated from the Premiership after collecting just five wins, conceding 100 goals in 42 games. Many fans pointed the finger of blame at the club's directors for giving the manager's job to the inexperienced John Gorman. Swindon were joined in the relegation zone by Sheffield United and Oldham Athletic.
Bryan Robson left Manchester United after 13 years to become player-manager of Middlesbrough F.C. in place of Lennie Lawrence. Robson was impressed by the club's ambitions, which included plans for a new 30,000-seat stadium on the banks of the River Tees scheduled for completion in the summer of 1995. Robson brought in former Manchester United teammate Viv Anderson as his assistant.
Huddersfield Town relocated from Leeds Road to the new Alfred McAlpine Stadium at Kirklees. Their new home was initially a two-sided 15,000-seat stadium, with plans for an eventual capacity of 25,000. It took its name from the world-famous building company, with which it had a 10-year sponsorship deal.
After the end of the season, Tottenham Hotspur were docked 5 points and were found guilty of financial irregularities dating back to the 1980s and hit with the most severe punishment handed down on any English club: a £600,000 fine, 12 league points deducted for the 1994–95 season, and a one-year ban from the F.A Cup. The points deduction and F.A Cup were eventually quashed after a series of appeals, although the fine was increased to £1.5million.
Northampton Town, who spent one season in the top division during the 1960s, finished bottom of Division Three but retained their league status because Conference champions Kidderminster Harriers were unable to meet the Football League's minimum stadium capacity requirements. This was the first time that there had been no exits or arrivals in the Football League since the re-election system was scrapped in 1987.
Famous debutants
15 September 1993: Darren Eadie, 18-year-old winger, makes his debut for Norwich City in their first ever European fixture – the UEFA Cup first round first leg clash with Dutch side Vitesse Arnhem.
22 September 1993: Robbie Fowler, 18-year-old striker, makes his debut for Liverpool in their 3–1 win at Fulham in the Football League Cup second round first leg.
29 September 1993: Stephen Carr, 17-year-old Irish defender, makes his debut for Tottenham Hotspur in a Premier League fixture against Ipswich Town at Portman Road.
3 November 1993: Ade Akinbiyi, 19-year-old London-born striker of Nigerian descent, makes his debut as a substitute for Norwich City in their UEFA Cup second round second leg fixture with Bayern Munich at Carrow Road, which ends in a 1–1 draw.
4 May 1994: Michael Duberry, 17-year-old defender, played in Chelsea's final Premier League game of the season – a 2–1 home defeat by Coventry City.
Top goalscorers
Premier League
Andy Cole (Newcastle United) – 34 goals
Division One
John McGinlay (Bolton Wanderers) – 25 goals
Division Two
Jimmy Quinn (Reading) – 35 goals
Division Three
Tony Ellis (Preston North End) – 26 goals
Honours
Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour (First Division & Premier League). Number after slash is Premier League only. * indicates new record for competition
England national team
Even with the 7–1 victory over San Marino (in which Davide Gualtieri scores the fastest goal in FIFA World Cup qualification history). England fail to qualify for the finals of the 1994 World Cup and manager Graham Taylor resigns within days of the failure. Terry Venables is appointed as his replacement.
Qualifying Group Final Positions
League tables
FA Premiership
The second season of the Premier League saw Manchester United retain their title, taking the lead before the end of August and not surrendering it all season, holding a double-digit lead for much of it and eventually finishing eight points ahead of runners-up Blackburn Rovers, who had managed to draw level on points with them a few weeks before the season's end. United then went on to lift the FA Cup and become only the sixth team ever to win the double of the league title and FA Cup. Their top scorer and key player Eric Cantona was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year, while colleagues including Ryan Giggs, Paul Ince and Lee Sharpe also received many plaudits. Blackburn Rovers finished runners-up, thanks to Alan Shearer, whose 31 goals earned him the FWA Footballer of the Year award but weren't quite enough to gain his team the league title.
Newly promoted Newcastle United finished third, largely thanks to the 34 goals of PFA Young Player of the Year Andy Cole who was the division's top scorer and his formidable strike partner Peter Beardsley, as well as support from the likes of Rob Lee and Barry Venison. Fourth placed Arsenal won the European Cup Winners' Cup to claim their sixth trophy in eight seasons under manager George Graham. Leeds United completed the top five, recovering from their dismal Premier League debut the previous season, while unfancied Wimbledon achieved an impressive sixth-place finish.
The previous season's runners-up, Aston Villa, dropped to 10th place in the league but compensated for this with a League Cup triumph. Norwich, who had finished third the previous campaign, started the season well but their league form slumped after manager Mike Walker left for Everton in January and they finished twelfth, while Walker's new club only narrowly avoided relegation.
Swindon Town, in the top flight for the first time, endured a hopeless season with just five wins in the league, 100 goals conceded and no wins from their opening 16 games; they went bottom of the table after three games, and never left it. Oldham Athletic's three-year spell in the top flight came to an end after they failed to defeat Norwich on the final day of the season, just weeks after they had almost reached the FA Cup final before a last-gasp equaliser for Manchester United in the semi-final forced a replay, in which they were well beaten. The last relegation place went to Sheffield United, who were relegated in dramatic fashion when they suffered a last minute defeat to FA Cup finalists Chelsea. Their late collapse meant that Ipswich Town were the lucky side to preserve their top flight status.
Leading goalscorer: Andy Cole (Newcastle United) - 34
League Division One
Alan Smith kicked off his management career by guiding Crystal Palace to the Division One title and regaining their Premiership place at first invitation. Frank Clark began Nottingham Forest's post Brian Clough era by helping them finish second to achieve promotion back to the top flight. They were joined by play-off winners Leicester City, who beat local rivals Derby County in the final which they finally won promotion to the Premiership after two successive play-off final defeats.
Notts County narrowly missed out on the play-offs, as did Wolverhampton Wanderers, who had just replaced Graham Turner as manager after nearly eight years with the former England manager Graham Taylor. Ninth placed Middlesbrough brought in Manchester United and former England captain Bryan Robson as their new player-manager at the end of the season to succeed Lennie Lawrence.
Oxford United's decline since losing their top flight status in 1988 continued as they slid into Division Two, along with Peterborough United (who had finished a strong 10th in the previous season, their first in the second tier) and Birmingham City. Newly promoted West Bromwich Albion narrowly avoided relegation at the expense of their local rivals, while Portsmouth's bottom half finish was a major disappointment after they had almost won promotion the previous season, although they did at least have the satisfaction of reaching the quarter-final of the League Cup and taking Manchester United to a replay. Luton Town endured a second successive struggle against relegation, eventually finishing a point above the drop zone, but enjoyed a run to the FA Cup semi-finals for the first time in nine years.
Leading goalscorer: John McGinlay (Bolton Wanderers) - 25
League Division Two
Mark McGhee won the Division Two championship for Reading after their first successful season in years. They were joined by John Rudge's Port Vale in second place. Burnley triumphed in the Division Two playoffs to secure their second promotion in three seasons, beating a Stockport County side who lost at Wembley for the fourth time in three seasons. Peter Shilton oversaw Plymouth's best season for nearly a decade but they finished three points short of automatic promotion and lost to Burnley in the playoffs.
Going down to Division Three were Fulham (who would be in the league's lowest tier for the first time in their history), Hartlepool United, Exeter City and Barnet. Blackpool narrowly avoided relegation, but chairman Owen Oyston decided it was time for a change after three-and-a-half seasons under the management of Billy Ayre, and appointed Sam Allardyce as the club's new manager.
Leading goalscorer: Jimmy Quinn (Reading) - 35
League Division Three
Shrewsbury Town, Chester City and Crewe Alexandra occupied the three promotion places in Division Three, while Martin O'Neill's Wycombe Wanderers won the playoffs in their first season of league football. The Chairboys beat Preston North End, whose manager John Beck was looking to repeat the same success he had enjoyed at Cambridge. Carlisle and Torquay were the losing semi-finalists, but it was a big step forward for two sides who had narrowly avoided relegation to the Conference a year earlier.
Northampton Town finished bottom of the league but were saved from demotion because Conference champions Kidderminster Harriers did not meet the league's stadium capacity requirements.
Wigan Athletic's first season at this level for over a decade brought their lowest ever finish of 19th place (89th out of the league's 92 clubs).
Leading goalscorer: Tony Ellis (Preston North End) - 26
Successful players
Eric Cantona received the PFA Players' Player of the Year award after his 25 goals in all competitions were the key force in Manchester United's double glory.
Alan Shearer was voted FWA Footballer of the Year after returning from injury to score 31 Premier League goals for runners-up Blackburn Rovers.
Andy Cole was voted PFA Young Player of the Year after finishing top scorer in the Premier League with 34 goals for newly promoted Newcastle United, who finished third and qualified for Europe for the first time since the 1970s.
Cole's veteran partner Peter Beardsley scored 24 goals in all competitions in his first season back on Tyneside.
Dean Saunders was again a consistent goalscorer for Aston Villa, who dipped to 10th in the league a year after finishing runners-up, but booked themselves another UEFA Cup campaign thanks to glory in the League Cup.
21-year-old striker Chris Sutton attracted huge attention from England's top clubs before his record-breaking transfer from Norwich City to Blackburn Rovers.
Stan Collymore established himself as one of the country's top marksmen as he powered Nottingham Forest back into the Premier League at the first attempt.
Veteran Reading striker Jimmy Quinn scored 35 league goals to lead his side to the Division Two title.
Successful managers
Crystal Palace and Nottingham Forest gained promotion to the Premiership in their first season under the respective management of Alan Smith and Frank Clark.
Brian Little helped Leicester City win promotion to the Premiership.
Jimmy Mullen inspired Burnley's second promotion in two seasons as they won the Division Two playoffs.
Martin O'Neill helped Wycombe Wanderers gain their second successive promotion and earn a place in Division Two.
Retirements
21 January 1994: Mel Sterland, 32-year-old Leeds United defender, retires after failing to overcome an achilles injury suffered more than a year ago.
2 May 1994: Frank Stapleton, 38-year-old former Arsenal and Manchester United striker, retires from playing after being dismissed as player-manager by Division Two club Bradford City.
9 May 1994: Paul Elliott, 30-year-old Chelsea central defender, retires from playing 20 months after suffering a serious knee injury for which he began a legal challenge against Dean Saunders, the former Liverpool striker who collided with him when he was injured.
31 May 1994: Kevin Moran, 38-year-old Blackburn Rovers central defender, announces his retirement as a player but will not retire completely until the end of the Republic of Ireland's World Cup campaign.
Diary of the season
1 July 1993 – Barnsley appoint Sheffield Wednesday defender Viv Anderson as their player-manager to succeed Mel Machin.
5 July 1993 – Gordon Cowans begins his third spell at Aston Villa after joining them on a free transfer from Blackburn Rovers, while Nottingham Forest pay £2million for 22-year-old Southend United striker Stan Collymore.
9 July 1993 - Ian Porterfield returns to football management four months after being sacked by Chelsea to become the new Zambia national coach, just over two months after the previous national coach and 18 members of the national squad were killed in an air crash.
12 July 1993 - Veteran striker Mick Harford returns to the Premier League after four months in Division with Sunderland to sign for Coventry City in a £200,000 deal.
14 July 1993 – After Lee Chapman departs to Portsmouth on a free transfer, Leeds United replace him with record signing Brian Deane from Sheffield United for £2.9million, while England midfielder David Platt is transferred for the third year running when he leaves Juventus in a £5.2million move to Italian Serie A rivals Sampdoria.
15 July 1993 – Huddersfield Town manager Ian Ross pays the price for the club's horrid form in the first half of the previous season by being sacked. He is replaced by Neil Warnock, who recently left the manager's job at Torquay United.
16 July 1993 – Peter Beardsley returns to Newcastle United in a £1.4million move from Everton, six years after he left Tyneside for Liverpool.
20 July 1993 – For the first time in more than 40 years, the British transfer fee record is broken by a Scottish club rather than an English one, when Rangers sign Dundee United striker Duncan Ferguson for £4million.
22 July 1993 - Manchester United pay an English record fee of £3.75million for Nottingham Forest midfielder Roy Keane.
26 July 1993 – Aston Villa sign Republic of Ireland midfielder Andy Townsend from Chelsea for £2.1million.
29 July 1993 – Former Manchester United, Everton and Wales winger Mickey Thomas, 39, is sentenced to 18 months in prison for producing and distributing forged banknotes. This comes just eight days after he was in court to see two men sent to prison for assaulting him.
1 August 1993 – Guy Whittingham, whose 42 Division One goals weren't quite enough to get Portsmouth promoted to the Premier League last season, is transferred to Aston Villa for £1.2million. In Division Three, 37-year-old Keith Alexander becomes the first black manager of a Football League club when he takes over at Lincoln City.
4 August 1993 – John Smith, leader of the Labour Party, opens Millwall's New Den, a 20,000-seat stadium, which sees its first action in a friendly with Sporting Clube de Portugal that ends in a 2–1 win for the Lisbon club. The stadium was first planned in 1990 in the wake of the Taylor Report and was initially going to have a capacity of 25,000, but these plans were downsized as Millwall could not meet the cost.
7 August 1993 – Frank Clark is named as manager of Nottingham Forest, replacing Brian Clough, who retired earlier in the summer after 18 years at the helm. His first task is to guide Forest back into the Premier League after last season's relegation. On the same day, Ipswich Town manager John Lyall announces that he will become the club's director of football, and that Mick McGiven will take over as first-team manager. Manchester United win the FA Charity Shield on penalties after a 1–1 draw with Arsenal.
12 August 1993 – Chelsea buy midfielder Gavin Peacock from Newcastle United for £1.2million, while Everton's longest-serving player Kevin Ratcliffe leaves Goodison Park after 15 years and joins Cardiff City on a free transfer.
14 August 1993 – On the opening day of the Premier League season, Coventry City pull off a major surprise by beating Arsenal 3–0 in the first game at the new all-seater Highbury, with Micky Quinn scoring all three goals. Swindon Town's first top division game ends in a 3–1 defeat at Sheffield United. Last season's runners-up Aston Villa head the table with a 4–1 win over QPR. Ipswich Town beat Oldham Athletic 3–0 at Boundary Park. The Division One campaign kicks off with a 5–0 win for Derby County over Sunderland at the Baseball Ground. Middlesbrough begin their quest for an immediate return to the Premier League with a 3–2 win at Notts County. Crystal Palace begin their comeback trail with a goalless draw at home to Tranmere Rovers.
15 August 1993 – Manchester United's defence of the Premier League title begins with a 2–0 away win over Norwich City, last season's third placed side. Nottingham Forest begin their Division One promotion push with a 1–1 draw at Southend United.
17 August 1993 – Sheffield Wednesday pay a club record fee £2.7million for Queens Park Rangers midfielder Andy Sinton.
18 August 1993 - The second round of Premier League fixtures include a 3–0 home win for Manchester United over Sheffield United, in which record signing Roy Keane scores his first two goals from the club. Norwich City win 3–2 over Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park, 10 months after their found themselves on the receiving end of a 7–1 defeat there. Coventry City beat Newcastle United 2–1 at home, and QPR find themselves on the receiving end of a second successive comprehensive defeat, this time losing 3–1 at home to Liverpool.
19 August 1993 – Tony Barton, who managed Aston Villa to European Cup glory in 1982, dies of a heart attack aged 56.
21 August 1993 – Manchester United are held to a 1–1 home draw with newly promoted Newcastle United, allowing Everton (who beat Sheffield United 4–2, with Tony Cottee scoring a hat-trick) to go top of the Premier League after three games. Ipswich Town go second with a 1–0 home win over Chelsea. Norwich manage an impressive 4–0 win over Leeds at Elland Road. The Division One fixtures include a 5–3 home win for Nottingham Forest over Grimsby Town, Sunderland's 4–0 win over Charlton Athletic at Roker Park, and a 3–0 win over Derby County for Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park.
22 August 1993 - Liverpool go top of the league for the first time since early 1991 with a 5–0 away win over Swindon Town. Southend United, who were contenders for place in the new Premier League two seasons ago, give their promotion dreams for this season a boost with a 4–1 win at Millwall in Division One in one of the first games staged at Millwall's new stadium. A Midlands derby at St Andrew's sees Birmingham City and Wolves draw 2-2.
23 August 1993 – Lee Sharpe scores twice as Manchester United beat last season's runners-up Aston Villa 2–1 at Villa Park, allowing United to go top of the Premier League – they will not be headed all season.
24 August 1993 - Arsenal beat Leeds United 2–1 at Highbury. Blackburn Rovers beat Manchester City 2–0 at Maine Road. A thrilling game at Boundary Park sees Oldham and Coventry battle out a 3–3 draw. Dave Bassett's Sheffield United beat his old club Wimbledon 2–1 at Bramall Lane. Middlesbrough remain top of Division One with a 4–1 win at Barnsley.
25 August 1993 – Swindon Town's dismal Premier League debut continues as they are crushed 5–1 at Southampton.
26 August 1993 – Peter Reid is sacked by Manchester City, who have lost three of their four opening FA Premier League games.
27 August 1993 – Brian Horton leaves Oxford United to become the new manager of Manchester City. He takes charge of his second game later in the day, as the Blues draw 1–1 at home to Coventry City in the Premier League.
28 August 1993 - The Premier League action includes a 2–0 home win over Arsenal over Everton, a 3–1 win at Southampton for Manchester United and a 4–0 away win for QPR over their London rivals West Ham. Crystal Palace boost their bid for an immediate return to the Premier League by beating Portsmouth 5–1. Last season's beaten playoff finalists Leicester City beat Millwall 4–0 at Filbert Street.
29 August 1993 – Alan Shearer scores his first goal for Blackburn Rovers since returning from injury in a 1–1 draw at his hometown club Newcastle United.
31 August 1993 – The first month of the league season ends with defending champions Manchester United top of the Premier League with Liverpool, Arsenal, Norwich City and Ipswich Town completing the top five. Meanwhile, Swindon Town have gained just one point from their first-ever five top division games, and prop up the table. Completing the bottom three are Manchester City and Sheffield Wednesday, who had been largely expected to compete near the top of the table this season. The first month of the Division One campaign has seen Middlesbrough and Charlton Athletic take a joint lead at the top of the table with 12 points. Nottingham Forest, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Southend United and Crystal Palace occupy the playoff places.
1 September 1993 - Manchester United keep up their winning ways a 3–0 home win over West Ham. Sheffield Wednesday are still looking for their first Premier League win six games into the season when they are held to a 3–3 draw at home to Norwich. Coventry hold on to fourth place with a 1–0 home win over Liverpool, who drop one place into third. Manchester City achieve their first win of the season with a 3–1 away win over Swindon, who have picked up one point from their opening six games.
3 September 1993 – Paul Warhurst moves from Sheffield Wednesday to Blackburn Rovers in a £2.75million deal – the fifth highest fee between English clubs.
5 September 1993 - The Black Country derby is contested for the first time in three seasons, with West Bromwich Albion beating Wolves 3–2 at The Hawthorns.
8 September 1993 – England put their World Cup qualification hopes back on track with a 3–0 win over Poland at Wembley.
11 September 1993 – Kevin Campbell scores a hat-trick in Arsenal's 4–0 home league win over Ipswich Town. Eric Cantona's shot from the halfway line at Stamford Bridge hits the crossbar, and a Gavin Peacock goal gives Chelsea a 1–0 win over Manchester United. Down in Division One, Oxford United climb six places from the foot of the table with a spectacular 4–2 home win over Bristol City.
13 September 1993 - Newcastle United beat Sheffield Wednesday 4–2 in the only league action of the day.
14 September 1993 - Tranmere Rovers go top of Division One with a 4–1 home win over bottom club Luton Town.
15 September 1993 – Manchester United beat Honved of Hungary 3–2 away in their first European Cup fixture since 1969.
16 September 1993 – After two months at Portsmouth, Lee Chapman returns to the Premier League with newly promoted West Ham United for £250,000.
17 September 1993 – Liverpool sign West Ham United defender Julian Dicks for £1.5million, with Mike Marsh and David Burrows going to Upton Park in exchange.
19 September 1993 - Manchester United go into their fixture with second placed Arsenal as Premier League leaders on goal difference, but then go ahead by three points with a 1–0 victory at Old Trafford. Nottingham Forest's erratic start to their Division One season continues with a 3–2 home defeat to Stoke City.
21 September 1993 - The first leg of round two in the Football League Cup sees top-flight clubs Oldham Athletic and Sheffield United beaten by Division Two opposition, while Premier League outfit Leeds United lose away at Sunderland from Division One. Elsewhere, Paul Rideout's hat-trick-completing late winner against basement tier club Lincoln City avoids another upset, Division Two side Wrexham draw 3–3 with First Division Nottingham Forest and Ian Wright scores a hat-trick as Arsenal put five past Huddersfield Town without reply.
22 September 1993 – Mark Stein scores twice for Stoke City in their surprise 2–1 over Manchester United in the first leg of the League Cup second round at the Victoria Ground. South African born Stein, 27, is a target for several Premier League clubs.
25 September 1993 – Everton, fourth in the Premier League, suffer a 5–1 defeat at home to Norwich City in one of the most thrilling league games so far this season. Norwich striker Efan Ekoku scores four goals in the game – the first player to score four goals in a Premier League game. Manchester United maintain their lead at the top of the table with a 4–2 home win over Swindon, who are still bottom with no wins and a mere three points from their first nine games. Southampton remain level with Swindon at the bottom of the table with a 1–0 defeat at Arsenal. An East Midlands derby at Meadow Lane sees Notts County beat Derby County 4–1 in Division One.
30 September 1993 – September draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the table, leading by three points over Arsenal. Aston Villa, Leeds United, Norwich City and Wimbledon are just some of the many other clubs currently in strong contention. Liverpool, meanwhile, have slumped to 13th place after a disappointing month, mounting the pressure upon Graeme Souness. Swindon are still bottom of the table and looking for their first-ever top division win after nine games, being level on points with a Southampton side who have lost eight of their first nine games, while Oldham Athletic have fallen into the relegation zone as well. In the race to win promotion to the Premier League, Crystal Palace top Division One on goal difference ahead of Tranmere Rovers. The playoff zone is occupied by Leicester City, Charlton Athletic, Middlesbrough and Southend United.
1 October 1993 – Former Manchester City player-manager Peter Reid signs a short-term playing contract with Southampton, while Everton striker Mo Johnson returns to his homeland after agreeing a contract with Hearts.
2 October 1993 – Gary Speed and Gary McAllister both score twice from midfield in a 4–0 home league win for Leeds United against Wimbledon. Liverpool hold Arsenal to a goalless draw at Anfield, allowing Manchester United to extend their lead of the Premier League after coming from behind twice to beat Sheffield Wednesday 3–2 away from home. Southampton and Sheffield United draw 3–3 at The Dell. Crystal Palace maintain their lead of Division One with a 4–1 home win over Stoke City. Luton Town climb of the bottom of the table in style with a 5–0 home win over Barnsley.
3 October 1993 - Derby County manager Arthur Cox, who had already been under pressure after the club's poor start to the season, resigns due to health problems. His assistant, Roy McFarland replaces him as manager until the end of the season.
4 October 1993 – Jim Holton, who played for Manchester United at centre-half in the 1970s, dies from a heart attack at the wheel of his car. He was 42 years old.
7 October 1993 – Newcastle United manager Kevin Keegan rules him out of the running to take over as England manager if Graham Taylor's reign is ended by failure to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup.
13 October 1993 – England are left with little hope of qualifying for the 1994 World Cup after suffering a 2–0 defeat by the Netherlands in their penultimate qualifying game.
16 October 1993 - Manchester United extend their lead of the Premier League to seven points with a 2–1 home win over Tottenham. Norwich go second with a 2–1 win at Chelsea, while Arsenal drop into third with a goalless draw at home to Manchester City. The big news in Division One is Southend's 6–1 home win over Oxford United, which keeps up their surprise promotion push.
18 October 1993 – Lou Macari walks out on Stoke City to succeed Liam Brady as manager of Glasgow club Celtic.
19 October 1993 - Norwich City become the first English team to beat German giants Bayern Munich on their own soil, winning 2–1 in the UEFA Cup second round first leg.
20 October 1993 - Manchester United surrender a two-goal lead over Turkish champions Galatasaray to draw 3–3 in the European Cup second round first leg at Old Trafford.
23 October 1993 - Manchester United extend their lead of the Premier League to nine points with a 1–0 win over Everton at Goodison Park, with Lee Sharpe scoring the only goal of the game. Their nearest challengers Norwich, Arsenal and Leeds all drop points, while QPR move into fifth place with a 5–1 home win over Coventry. Swindon Town hold Tottenham to a 1–1 draw at White Hart Lane but are still bottom of the table and without a win after 12 games. Charlton Athletic go top of Division One with a 1–0 win over Grimsby Town at Blundell Park. Watford keep up their promotion push with a 4–3 home win over Bolton.
24 October 1993 - Southampton boost their survival push with a 2–1 home win over Newcastle, only their second league win of the season.
26 October 1993 – Blackburn Rovers pay Leeds United £2.75million for midfielder David Batty.
30 October 1993 – 18-year-old Liverpool striker Robbie Fowler scores a hat-trick in a 4–2 home league win over Southampton. Newcastle beat Wimbledon 4–0 at home, and leaders Manchester United now have an 11-point lead after beating QPR 2–1 at Old Trafford, with their nearest rivals Norwich and Arsenal drawing 0–0 at Highbury. An entertaining mid-table game in Division sees Stoke beat Barnsley 5–4 at the Victoria Ground.
31 October 1993 – Manchester United end October as Premier League leaders with an 11-point margin over their nearest rivals Norwich City, Arsenal, Blackburn Rovers and Aston Villa who are all bracketed together on points. Swindon are still bottom of the league and their winless run has now stretched to 13 games, while Southampton and Sheffield Wednesday are still in the relegation zone. Liverpool have improved after last season's wobbles to occupy seventh place. Charlton Athletic are top of Division One, with Leicester City occupying second place. The playoff zone is occupied by Crystal Palace, Tranmere Rovers, Middlesbrough and Derby County. Nottingham Forest and Wolverhampton Wanderers, who both began the season in promotion form, have slipped into the bottom half of the table.
3 November 1993 – Manchester United are eliminated from the European Cup on away goals by Turkish side Galatasaray, while Arsenal progress to the next stage of the European Cup Winners' Cup with a 7–0 away victory over Standard Liège of Belgium.
4-5 November 1993 – 34-year-old goalkeeper Dave Beasant joins Southampton from Chelsea in a £300,000 deal, while the national record fee for a goalkeeper (a record of which Beasant was once a holder) is broken when Tim Flowers exits The Dell from Blackburn Rovers for £2.4million.
6 November 1993 - Sheffield Wednesday climb out of the relegation one with a 4–1 win over Ipswich at Portman Road. Chelsea are on the brink of the relegation zone after losing 4–1 to Leeds at Elland Road. Leicester go top of Division One with a 3–0 home win over Southend.
7 November 1993 – The Manchester derby at Maine Road sees City take a 2–0 lead in the first half with two goals from Niall Quinn, only for Eric Cantona (twice) and Roy Keane to overturn City's lead and win the game 3–2 for United. In Division One, a Steve Bull hat-trick sees Wolves beat Derby at the Baseball Ground and ensure that they remain in the hunt for a playoff place.
17 November 1993 – England beat San Marino 7–1 in their final World Cup qualifying game, but fail to qualify for the finals, as Holland beat Poland. Media reports suggest that manager Graham Taylor is likely to resign or be sacked imminently.
20 November 1993 – Alan Shearer scores both of Blackburn's goals in their 2–0 home league win over his old club Southampton, as his new club close in on the leading pack in the Premier League. Manchester United maintain their 11-point lead of the table by beating Wimbledon 3–1.
21 November 1993 - Andy Cole scores a hat-trick for Newcastle in a 3–0 home win over Liverpool in the Premier League, lifting Kevin Keegan's men into eighth place, displacing their opponents whose promising start to the season has given way to what appears to be another frustrating league campaign.
23 November 1993 - Blackburn climb five places into second place in the Premier League with a 2–1 home win over Coventry.
24 November 1993 – Graham Taylor announces his resignation as England manager after being vilified by the media (notably The Sun newspaper, who branded him a "turnip") for failing to achieve qualification for the 1994 World Cup. On the same day, Swindon Town finally win a Premier League game at the 16th attempt in their first-ever top division campaign, beating Queens Park Rangers 1–0 at home with a goal from Keith Scott. Manchester United now have a 12-point lead at the top of the table despite being held to a goalless draw at home to Ipswich. Newcastle's surge continues as a 4–0 home win over Sheffield United lifts them into fourth place and pushes the visitors into the drop zone.
27 November 1993 – QPR manager Gerry Francis rules himself out of the running to become the next England manager. Manchester City striker Niall Quinn suffers a knee injury against Sheffield Wednesday. Manchester United now have a 14-point lead at the top of the Premier League after beating Coventry 1–0, while Blackburn and Newcastle both drop points.
29 November 1993 – Peter Swales resigns as Manchester City chairman after 20 years. Francis Lee, who had been campaigning for control of the club's board since early in the year, succeeds him.
30 November 1993 – November draws to a close with Manchester United now leading by 14 points ahead of their nearest rivals Leeds United and Arsenal, while newly promoted Newcastle United are starting to give the top five a run for their money. Swindon Town finally managed to win a league game at the 16th attempt, but are still bottom of the division with a mere nine points from their opening 17 games, while Oldham Athletic remain second from bottom and Chelsea have slipped into the relegation zone after Southampton climbed out of it on goal difference. Charlton Athletic remain top of Division One, with Tranmere Rovers occupying second place. Southend United's resurgence in form has seen them rise to third place in the league, with the playoff zone being completed by Crystal Palace, Leicester City and Millwall. Niall Quinn's knee injury is diagnosed as cruciate ligament damage, and he is warned that he is likely to miss the rest of the English league season as well as next summer's World Cup. Jimmy Armfield, the former England international, is selected by The Football Association as the man with the task of finding the national side's next manager.
4 December 1993 – Howard Kendall resigns after three years in his second spell as charge of Everton, who have fallen into the bottom half of the Premier League table after topping it in the first month of the season. Curiously, Kendall's resignation comes within hours of Everton's 1–0 home league win over Southampton. Manchester United and Norwich draw 2–2 in a thrilling match at Old Trafford, while second placed Leeds beat Manchester City 3–2 at Elland Road.
7 December 1993 – Lazio deny rumours that Paul Gascoigne is due to return to English football in a move to either Leeds United or Manchester United.
10 December 1993 – Former England manager Bobby Robson resigns as manager of Portuguese side Sporting Clube de Portugal, sparking media speculation that he will be offered the Everton job.
11 December 1993 - Liverpool are held to a 2–2 at home to bottom club Swindon in the Premier League, although the visitors still have just one league win to their names after 20 matches.
12 December 1993 – Northampton Town, who are bottom of Division Three, dismiss manager Phil Chard and replace him with John Barnwell.
18 December 1993 - The main Premier League action sees Sheffield Wednesday win 5–0 at home over West Ham and Tottenham draw 3–3 at home to Liverpool. Swindon win for the second time in the Premier League this season and for the first time at home by beating Southampton 2–1.
19 December 1993 - With three of the game's four goals coming during the closing few minutes, Manchester United beat Aston Villa 3–1 at Old Trafford to go 13 points ahead at the top of the Premier League.
21 December 1993 - David Rocastle leaves Leeds after 16 months to sign for Manchester City in a £2million, after David White went in the opposite direction for the same fee.
26 December 1993 - The Boxing Day action sees a late equaliser from Paul Ince give Manchester United a 1–1 draw at home to Blackburn after Kevin Gallacher had put the visitors ahead.
27 December 1993 – Kevin Campbell scores his second league hat-trick of the season as Arsenal beat Swindon Town 4–0 at the County Ground. Meanwhile, Arsenal's underperforming North London rivals Tottenham are beaten 3–1 at home by a Norwich City side with two goals coming from prolific 20-year-old striker Chris Sutton. In Division One, Leicester draw 4–4 with Watford in a thrilling match at Filbert Street, and Southend climb back into the top six with a 4–2 home win over fourth-placed Charlton.
29 December 1993 - Manchester United beat Oldham 5–2 at Boundary Park in a match where Andrei Kanchelskis scores twice for the defending champions, who now lead the Premier League by 14 points. Swindon keep up their fight for survival by battling out it for a 3–3 draw at Sheffield Wednesday.
30 December 1993 – Lawrie McMenemy, Southampton manager from 1973 to 1985 and until last month assistant manager of the England team since 1990, returns to The Dell as Director of Football, working alongside under-fire manager Ian Branfoot.
31 December 1993 – The year draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the table with a 14-point lead over nearest rivals Blackburn Rovers, who have a game in hand. Leeds United, Arsenal and Newcastle United complete the top five, while at the other end of the table Swindon Town remain bottom with Oldham Athletic and Chelsea now out of the relegation zone at the expense of Southampton and Sheffield United. Crystal Palace are now leaders of Division One, with the other automatic promotion place currently being occupied by Tranmere Rovers. Charlton Athletic, Leicester City and Southend United complete the top six. Nottingham Forest are catching up with the leading pack and are now just one point and two places outside the playoff zone.
1 January 1994 - The new year begins with Manchester United still 12 points ahead at the top of the Premier League after a goalless draw at home to Leeds. Blackburn narrowly eat in their lead with a 1–0 win at Aston Villa. The key action in Division One includes a 4-2 for Bolton over Notts County at Burnden Park, while Millwall keep up their promotion push with a 3–0 home win over London rivals Crystal Palace and Southend United keep hold of their place in the top six with a 3–1 home win over Birmingham City.
3 January 1994 - Chelsea climb five points clear of the relegation zone with a 4–2 home win over Everton. Derby County keep their push for a playoff place on track with a 4–0 home win over Tranmere Rovers, who lose their place in the top two to Charlton, who win 2–1 at home to West Bromwich Albion.
4 January 1994 – After taking a 3–0 lead in the first half, Manchester United are held to a 3–3 draw by Liverpool in the league at Anfield.
5 January 1994 – It is reported in the media that the former Tottenham Hotspur manager Terry Venables will take over as manager of the England team.
8 January 1994 – The FA Cup third round sparks some major upsets. Bristol City hold Liverpool to a 1–1 draw, while an identical scoreline occurs for Everton at Bolton Wanderers. Queens Park Rangers are defeated by Stockport County, but the big shock comes when Division One Birmingham City lose 2–1 at home to Conference leaders Kidderminster Harriers. Chelsea were surprised to be held 0–0 at Stamford Bridge by Barnet, despite it being Barnet's 'home' tie. Barnet had been struggling at the bottom of the third tier for the entire season, having seen most of their squad and manager leave for Southend United, who they ironically knocked out of the season's League Cup. The match against Chelsea was billed as Hoddle vs Hoddle, as Glenn managed Chelsea, whilst his brother, Carl, had scored a Hoddlesque goal for Barnet versus Crawley Town in the 2nd Round.
11 January 1994 – Ian Branfoot resigns after two and a half years as manager of Southampton, with former England manager Graham Taylor rumoured to be on the shortlist of possible successors. Sheffield Wednesday beat Wimbledon 2–1 in the League Cup quarter-final. Terry Butcher sues Coventry City for £40,000 after his fourteen-month spell as player-manager was ended in January 1992.
12 January 1994 - Manchester United are held to a 2–2 draw in the League Cup quarter-final against Portsmouth at Old Trafford, with Paul Walsh scoring twice for Portsmouth to force a replay. Aston Villa beat Tottenham 2–1 at White Hart Lane in their quarter-final clash.
13 January 1994 – Alex Ferguson sells his son, midfielder Darren Ferguson, from Manchester United to Wolverhampton Wanderers for £250,000.
14 January 1994 – Mike Walker, the manager who took Norwich City to a club best of third place in the Premier League last season, departs Carrow Road to take over at Everton. Norwich announce that Walker's assistant, John Deehan will succeed him as manager with immediate effect, and that the club will be taking legal action against Everton for "tapping up" Walker.
15 January 1994 – Mike Walker starts on a high at Everton, guiding them to a 6–2 home win over Premier League basement club Swindon Town, in which Tony Cottee scores his second league hat-trick of the season. Aston Villa beat West Ham 3–1 at Villa Park and Liverpool win 3–0 at Oldham. In Division One, a relegation crunch game at Vicarage Road sees Watford beat Birmingham 5–2, with Paul Furlong scoring a hat-trick.
20 January 1994 –
– Legendary former Manchester United manager Sir Matt Busby dies at the age of 84.
– Alan Ball is appointed manager of Southampton, who pay £100,000 to release him from his contract as manager of Exeter City.
– Colin Harvey, who has been at Everton since joining them as a player 30 years ago, leaves the Goodison Park club. He had worked under Howard Kendall as a coach during his two spells as manager, and was also manager of the club from June 1987 to October 1990 between Kendall's two spells.
22 January 1994 - Manchester United beat Everton 1–0 at Old Trafford with a goal from Ryan Giggs in their first match since the death of Sir Matt Busby. The Steel City derby at Hillsborough sees Sheffield Wednesday beat Sheffield United 3–1.
24 January 1994 - A thrilling match at Upton Park sees West Ham draw 3–3 with Norwich, who have scored 32 goals on their travels in the Premier League this season but just eight times at home.
25 January 1994 - A Brian Tinnion goal gives Bristol City a 1–0 win over Liverpool in the FA Cup third round replay.
26 January 1994 - Manchester United reach the League Cup semi-finals for the third time in four seasons by beating Portsmouth 1–0 in the Fratton Park quarter-final replay.
28 January 1994 –
– The Football Association's two-month search for a successor to Graham Taylor ends with the appointment of Terry Venables.
– Graeme Souness quits as Liverpool manager after their shock FA Cup exit at the hands of Bristol City. He is succeeded by long-serving coach Roy Evans. Neighbouring Everton are also reeling from a third round replay exit in the FA Cup at the hands of a much smaller club, in their case Bolton Wanderers.
29 January 1994 – Kidderminster Harriers claim another Football League scalp when they triumph 1–0 at home to Preston North End in the FA Cup fourth round. Other surprise results include Manchester City's 1–0 defeat to Division Two strugglers Cardiff City. Tranmere reach the League Cup semi-finals for the first time ever by beating Nottingham Forest 2–0 in the quarter-final replay at Prenton Park.
30 January 1994 - Manchester United keep their treble bid on track with a 2–0 win at Norwich in the FA Cup fourth round.
31 January 1994 – Manchester United finish January as leaders with a 16-point margin, though Blackburn Rovers in second place have three games in hand. Arsenal, Newcastle United and a resurgent Liverpool side undaunted by the FA Cup shock and change of manager complete the top five. Swindon Town remain bottom, while Oldham Athletic occupy the next lowest position, though Sheffield United have climbed out of the relegation zone at the expense of Manchester City. In Division One, Crystal Palace and Charlton Athletic lead the race for promotion to the Premier League. The playoff zone is occupied by Millwall, Leicester City, Tranmere Rovers and Nottingham Forest. Wolverhampton Wanderers are on the comeback trail after a run of dismal form before Christmas, and are now just two points and two places outside the playoff zone.
2 February 1994 – Newcastle United pay a club record £2.5million for Norwich City winger Ruel Fox.
5 February 1994 – Having scored only one league goal all season before now, Norwegian striker Jan Age Fjortoft scores a hat-trick for Swindon Town (still bottom of the Premier League) in their 3–1 home win over Coventry City.
6 February 1994 - Middlesbrough arrest their slide down Division One with a 4–2 win over Millwall at Ayresome Park, denying the visitors the chance of going second in the league. An East Midlands derby at the City Ground sees Nottingham Forest beat Leicester 4–0.
9 February 1994 – The FA Cup fourth round replays witness some of the most surprising results ever seen in the competition. Holders Arsenal lose 3–1 at home to Division One underdogs Bolton Wanderers. Leeds United, chasing a UEFA Cup place in the Premier League, lose 3–2 at home to an Oxford United side who are battling against relegation to Division Two. Newcastle United, another team in the race for a European place, lose 2–0 at another Division One struggling side – Luton Town. This means that a mere seven of the 16 clubs in the FA Cup fifth round will be Premier League members.
12 February 1994 – Dean Saunders scores a hat-trick for Aston Villa in their 5–0 home league win over Swindon Town. Wimbledon beat Newcastle United 4–2 at Selhurst Park.
13 February 1994 - A spectacular goal from Ryan Giggs gives Manchester United a 1–0 lead over Sheffield Wednesday in their League Cup semi-final first leg at Old Trafford.
14 February 1994 – Matthew Le Tissier scores a hat-trick for Southampton in their 4–2 home league win over Liverpool.
16 February 1994 – Tranmere Rovers, who have never played in an FA Cup or Football League Cup final, move closer to their Wembley dream with a 3–1 win over Aston Villa in the first leg of the League Cup semi-final.
17 February 1994 – In the wake of a two-month winless run, Ipswich Town announce that John Lyall will be returning as team manager, and that Mick McGiven will revert to his previous job as assistant manager.
19 February 1994 –
– Aston Villa's hopes of achieving a cup double are ended when they are beaten 1–0 by Bolton Wanderers at Burnden Park in the FA Cup fifth round. Kidderminster Harriers, among the few non-league teams ever to reach this stage of the competition, have their dream ended in a 1–0 defeat by West Ham United.
– Jan Age Fjortoft's goalscoring surge continues as he scores twice in the league for Swindon against Norwich City, but the East Anglians still hold out for a 3–3 draw at the County Ground. Coventry beat Manchester City 4–0 at Highfield Road. Derby County climb into the Division One playoff zone with a 4–3 win at Watford.
20 February 1994 - Cardiff City's FA Cup ends with a 2–1 home defeat to Luton Town in the fifth round. Bolton knock out Aston Villa with a 1–0 win at Burnden Park. Manchester United travel to Selhurst Park to take on Wimbledon and win 3–0.
22 February 1994 - Sheffield United's survival hopes are hit by a 3–2 defeat Ipswich. Manchester City climb out of the bottom three on goal difference with a goalless draw at Aston Villa. Blackburn are now six points behind Manchester United after a 2–2 draw at Norwich.
23 February 1994 – Andy Cole scores a hat-trick for Newcastle in a 4–0 home win over Coventry City.
26 February 1994 - An epic Premier League clash at Upton Park sees Mark Hughes give Manchester United an early lead over West Ham, before the hosts go ahead with goals from Lee Chapman and Trevor Morley, until Paul Ince scores a late equaliser against his old club to make it a 2–2 draw. West Bromwich Albion complete the "double" over their local rivals Wolves with a 2–1 win at the Molineux, which boosts their survival bid and dents the playoff challenge of their rivals, mounting the pressure on long-serving manager Graham Turner.
27 February 1994 - Aston Villa reach a domestic cup final for the first time in 17 years after clawing back a two-goal deficit to beat Tranmere 3-1 and win the penalty shootout at Villa Park. In the Premier League, Chelsea boost their survival push with a 4–3 home win over Tottenham.
28 February 1994 – February draws to a close with Manchester United still top, though with their lead now cut to seven points, and they have a game in hand over second-placed Blackburn Rovers. Arsenal, Newcastle United and Liverpool complete an unchanged top five at this month end. At the other end of the table, Oldham Athletic and Swindon Town prop up the rest of the Premier League while Manchester City have climbed out of the bottom three at the expense of Sheffield United. Crystal Palace remain top of Division One, with Charlton Athletic second in the table. The playoff zone is occupied by Leicester City, Derby County, Millwall and a Stoke City side who have prospered under new manager Joe Jordan since the departure of Lou Macari to Celtic in October and mounted a serious challenge for a second successive promotion.
2 March 1994 – Manchester City sign German striker Uwe Rosler from Dynamo Dresden for £750,000. Manchester United reach their third League Cup final in four seasons with a 4–1 win at Sheffield Wednesday in the semi-final second leg. Charlton and Wolves both reach the FA Cup quarter-finals.
5 March 1994 – Arsenal heap misery upon Ipswich Town, this time with a 5–1 league win at Portman Road in which Ian Wright scores a hat-trick. Meanwhile, Manchester United suffer their first home league defeat since October 1992 when they lose 1–0 to Chelsea at Old Trafford.
6 March 1994 - Aston Villa climb into fifth place with a 1–0 win at Coventry.
7 March 1994 – New England manager Terry Venables announces that David Platt, who currently plays for Sampdoria of Italy, will be the captain of the national team.
9 March 1994 – England beat Denmark 1–0 in a friendly at Wembley in their first game under Terry Venables.
10 March 1994 – Division One leaders Crystal Palace prepare for their inevitable return to the Premier League with a £1.1million move for Watford striker Bruce Dyer.
12 March 1994 – The biggest win of the Premier League season so far sees Newcastle United beat Swindon Town 7–1 at St James's Park. Peter Beardsley, Rob Lee and Steve Watson all find the net twice, with Ruel Fox also scoring. The consolation goal comes from John Moncur. QPR beat Norwich 4–3 in a thrilling match at Carrow Road. In the FA Cup, Peter Schmeichel is sent off for handling the ball outside the penalty area but Manchester United still beat Charlton 3–1 in the Old Trafford quarter-final. Bolton's FA Cup run ends with a 1–0 defeat at home to Oldham.
13 March 1994 - Liverpool beat Everton 2–1 in the last Merseyside derby at Anfield before the Spion Kop is rebuilt.
16 March 1994 - Midweek drama in the Premier League sees Manchester United return to their winning ways with a 5–0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, which gives them a seven-point lead over Blackburn with 11 games remaining.
19 March 1994 – Eric Cantona is sent off for stamping on John Moncur in Manchester United's 2–2 league draw with Swindon Town at the County Ground. Ian Wright scores a second successive Premier League hat-trick for Arsenal in a 4–0 win at Southampton. Newcastle win 4–2 at West Ham. Nottingham Forest's surge in Division One continues with a 3–2 win over Bolton which puts them just two points behind leaders Crystal Palace.
22 March 1994 – Three days after being sent off against Swindon, Eric Cantona is sent off again – also in a 2–2 draw, this time in the league against Arsenal at Highbury. Lee Sharpe scores both of United's goals.
23 March 1994 - Luton Town reach the FA Cup semi-final when a Scott Oakes hat-trick gives them a 3–2 win over West Ham in the quarter-final replay at Kenilworth Road.
24 March 1994 – Manchester City sign Everton winger Peter Beagrie for £1.1million. He is succeeded at Goodison Park by Arsenal's Anders Limpar for £1.6million. Tottenham Hotspur's quest to sign a new striker in an attempt to stave off relegation ends in failure when West Ham's Clive Allen signs for Division One promotion chasers Millwall for £75,000, ending talk his return to Tottenham, who also fail to lure Frenchman Jean-Pierre Papin from Bayern Munich. Steve Morrow is reportedly set for a new Arsenal contract after a proposed move to a Swindon Town side heading for relegation is called off. Another player going nowhere is QPR striker Les Ferdinand, who has been subject to transfer speculation for months. Joining Anders Limpar at Goodison Park is 20-year-old AFC Bournemouth midfielder Joe Parkinson, a hot prospect costing £250,000. Leicester City boost their promotion challenge with a £360,000 move for Portsmouth midfielder Mark Blake. Wimbledon sign Brentford striker Marcus Gayle for £250,000. Loan moves include Jeroen Boere (West Ham United to Portsmouth), Ian Kilford (Nottingham Forest to Wigan Athletic), Tom Cowan (Sheffield United to Huddersfield Town), Scott Marshall and Jimmy Carter (both Arsenal to Oxford United) and Paul Dickov (Arsenal to Brighton & Hove Albion).
26 March 1994 – Fulham manager Don Mackay is sacked at half-time by chairman Jimmy Hill, with the team losing 2–0 to fellow strugglers Leyton Orient. Former manager Ray Lewington is put in charge again for the second half, during which the Cottagers score twice and salvage a 2–2 draw. In the Premier League, Blackburn cut Manchester United's lead to three points with a 3–1 home win over Swindon. In Division One, Notts County home in on the playoff places with a 3–1 home win over East Midlands rivals Leicester.
27 March 1994 – Manchester United's bid for a unique domestic treble ends when they lost 3–1 to Aston Villa in the 1994 Football League Cup Final.
28 March 1994 - Sheffield United boost their survival bid with a 3–2 home win over West Ham.
29 March 1994 – Blackburn's hopes of catching Manchester United in the title race are dealt a major blow when they lose 4–1 away to Wimbledon. Andrew Cole becomes the first player to reach the 30-goal mark in the Premier League when he scores in Newcastle's 3–0 home win over Norwich City.
30 March 1994 - Manchester United extend their lead of the Premier League to six points with a 1–0 win over Liverpool, in which Paul Ince scores the only goal. Oldham climb out of the bottom three with a 3–1 win at Southampton, who take their place in the relegation zone.
31 March 1994 – Manchester United's treble bid may be over, but they finish March as Premier League leaders by a six-point lead over their nearest rivals Blackburn Rovers. They are also in the FA Cup semi-finals. Newcastle United, Arsenal and Leeds United complete the top five. Oldham Athletic, who will soon be competing in the FA Cup semi-final with Manchester United, are starting to look set for Premier League survival as they have climbed out of the relegation zone at the expense of Southampton, while Sheffield United and Swindon Town remain there. In Division One, Crystal Palace continue to head the table and have been joined in the automatic promotion places by a Nottingham Forest side who weren't even in the playoff zone a month ago. Leicester City, Millwall, Derby County and Tranmere Rovers occupy the playoff zone.
2 April 1994 – Blackburn Rovers cut Manchester United's lead at the top of the Premier League to two points after beating them 2–0 at Ewood Park, three months after United had established a 16-point lead. Alan Shearer scores both of Blackburn's goals. In the relegation battle, Oldham Athletic give themselves a fresh boost by beating QPR 4–1 at Boundary Park, while Everton's relegation woes deepen when they lose 5–1 to Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough.
4 April 1994 – Everton are pushed further into the relegation mire with a 3–0 home defeat by Blackburn Rovers, who are kept off the top by Manchester United's 3–2 home win over Oldham Athletic. Tottenham Hotspur are still in danger of relegation after suffering a 4–1 home defeat to West Ham United. Leeds beat QPR 4–0 at Loftus Road.
5 April 1994 - A thrilling East Midlands derby at Filbert Street sees Leicester and Derby draw 3-3 in the Division One promotion race. At the opposite end of the table, Watford win 4–3 at Peterborough.
9 April 1994 – Chelsea beat Luton Town 2–0 in the FA Cup semi-final to reach their first FA Cup final since 1970. In the league, the drama of the day comes as Southampton boost their survival bid with a dramatic 5–4 win over Norwich City at Carrow Road. Matt Le Tissier scores a hat-trick for the Saints, while Chris Sutton scores twice for the Canaries. Everton, meanwhile, give their own survival bid a boost with a 1–0 away win over West Ham United, with Tony Cottee scoring against his old club.
10 April 1994 – A late equaliser by Mark Hughes forces a replay for Manchester United as they draw 1–1 with Oldham Athletic in the FA Cup semi-final, on the same day that Eric Cantona (suspended for today's game) is voted PFA Player of the Year – the first foreign player to receive this accolade.
11 April 1994 – Alan Shearer scores his 30th league goal of the season in Blackburn's 1–0 home league win over Aston Villa to put Blackburn level on points with Manchester United, three months after 16 points separated the two teams.
12 April 1994 - Arsenal reach the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup with a 2-1 aggregate win over Paris St Germain.
13 April 1994 – Manchester United beat Oldham Athletic 4–1 in the FA Cup semi-final replay at Maine Road.
16 April 1994 - Wimbledon beat Manchester United 1–0 in the Premier League but Blackburn miss the chance to go top by losing 3–1 at Southampton, a result which is a big boost for Alan Ball's men in their bid for survival. In Division One, Crystal Palace make promotion almost certain with a 1–0 win at Luton.
17 April 1994 - Crystal Palace's promotion is confirmed when Millwall - one of two teams who were still capable of finishing above them - draw 2–2 at home to second placed Nottingham Forest.
20 April 1994 – The Football League confirms that no team will be relegated to the GM Vauxhall Conference this year, as none of the teams in the top half of the Conference (which, curiously, includes former League members Southport) have a ground which meets the criteria for admission to the League. The recent requirement that all clubs must have a stadium holding at least 6,000 fans (1,200 or more seated) and must own their own stadium is the result of the collapse of Maidstone United at the start of last season; they had won promotion to the Football League in 1989 but had no home of their own at the time and went on to spend a large sum of money on purchasing a piece of land with the intention of building a stadium there, only to be refused planning permission to build the stadium. This leaves Northampton Town and Darlington, who are both well adrift at the bottom of Division Three, fighting only the dishonour of placing as the League's bottom club. Northampton are in the process of building a new stadium to replace the County Ground later this year.
23 April 1994 – Eric Cantona returns from his five-match ban in style by scoring both of Manchester United's goals in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford, which United win 2–0, going three points ahead of Blackburn with four games remaining. Swindon's relegation is confirmed with a 4–2 home defeat to Wimbledon. Ipswich are still in danger of going down after losing 5–0 at Sheffield Wednesday. Oldham miss an opportunity to climb back out of the relegation zone by losing 3–2 at Newcastle.
24 April 1994 - Blackburn are held to a 1–1 draw at home by QPR, denting their title bid just as Manchester United look to be recapturing their form.
26 April 1994 – A Dean Holdsworth hat-trick gives Wimbledon a 3–0 home league win over Oldham Athletic, who fall further into relegation trouble.
27 April 1994 - Newcastle move closer to a UEFA Cup place by beating Aston Villa 5–1, and Manchester United move closer to the title with a 2–0 win at Leeds, placing them potentially four days away from winning the title. Blackburn keep their title hopes alive with a 2–1 win at West Ham. Nottingham Forest are on the brink of joining Crystal Palace for an immediate return to the Premier League with a 2–0 win at Derby leaving them needing just two points from their final three games to be sure of promotion.
30 April 1994 – April draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the league, though leading by just two points with a game in hand over Blackburn Rovers, the only team who now stand a mathematical chance of catching them. Newcastle United, Arsenal and Leeds United complete the top five, which a resurgent Wimbledon would now be in had it not been for their weaker form earlier on in the season. Swindon Town, meanwhile, have had their relegation confirmed as they occupy bottom place with a mere 27 points and just four wins so far this season, although they did record a first away win in the top flight today by beating QPR 3–1 at Loftus Road. Oldham Athletic and Sheffield United complete the bottom three, while Southampton, Everton, Ipswich Town, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City are still under threat of relegation. Crystal Palace and Nottingham Forest will be playing Premier League football next season after sealing promotion from Division One, a year after relegation. The playoff zone is occupied by Tranmere Rovers, Leicester City, Derby County and Millwall, but there is still a chance of Notts County or Wolverhampton Wanderers ousting Millwall from the playoff places. The last game is played in front of Liverpool's Spion Kop before it is rebuilt as an all-seater stand. Nottingham Forest's promotion was secured today with a 3–2 win at doomed Peterborough.
1 May 1994 – Manchester United move to the brink of a back-to-back FA Premier League title triumph after winning 2–1 at relegation-threatened Ipswich Town, with Eric Cantona and Ryan Giggs both scoring the net after Chris Kiwomya gave the hosts an early lead. Down in Division One, Lennie Lawrence resigns as manager of Middlesbrough after the Ayresome Park side missed out on the playoffs and the chance of an immediate return to the Premier League. Former player Graeme Souness is one of the names quickly linked to the Middlesbrough manager's job, as are the likes of Bryan Robson, Brian Little, Gordon Strachan and Steve Coppell.
2 May 1994 - Blackburn's 2–1 defeat at Coventry gives the Premier League title to Manchester United for a second successive season.
4 May 1994 – Arsenal win the European Cup Winners' Cup by beating Parma 1–0. The only goal in the Final comes from Alan Smith, who has missed most of this season due to injuries.
7 May 1994 – On the final weekend of the Premier League season, Oldham go in to their final game at Norwich needing a win to stand any chance of survival, but a 1–1 draw at Carrow Road is not enough to save them and they go down after three seasons in the top flight. Already-relegated Swindon lose 5–0 at home to Leeds, meaning that they become the first top flight team in 30 years to finish a league campaign with 100 goals conceded. Everton perform a miracle escape from relegation by beating Wimbledon 3-2 after going two goals down in the first half at Goodison Park. Sheffield United would have stayed up goal difference had they not conceded a last time goal at Stamford Bridge which gave Chelsea 3–2 win and enabled Ipswich Town to survive by a single point after drawing 0–0 with league runners-up Blackburn at Ewood Park. Newcastle secure a UEFA Cup place for the first time in 17 years by finishing third.
8 May 1994 - The last Premier League game of the season sees Manchester United draw 0–0 at home to Coventry and receive the Premier League trophy.
14 May 1994 – Manchester United complete the 'double' by beating Chelsea 4–0 in the 1994 FA Cup Final. The deadlock had yet to be broken at half time, before Eric Cantona converted two penalties, Mark Hughes scored United's third goal (his sixth cup final goal in five seasons) and substitute Brian McClair completed the scoring just before the final whistle. United's status as league champions means that Chelsea will enter the European Cup Winners' Cup next season, their first venture into European competition for more than 20 years.
18 May 1994 - Bryan Robson calls time on 13 years and nearly 500 appearances for Manchester United to become player-manager of Middlesbrough.
20 May 1994 – QPR give a free transfer to 37-year-old midfielder Ray Wilkins, the veteran midfielder who played 84 times for England between 1978 and 1986. Middlesbrough announce the appointment of Bryan Robson as player-manager, ending the 37-year-old Manchester United captain's 13-year spell at Manchester United.
24 May 1994 – Matt Le Tissier, who has been linked with a move to several big clubs including Manchester United, signs a new contract to stay at Southampton until at least 1997.
26 May 1994 – Ray Wilkins becomes player-coach of newly promoted Crystal Palace.
28 May 1994 - Wycombe Wanderers win the Division Three playoffs at the end of their first season as a Football League club, defeating Preston North End 4-2 at Wembley.
29 May 1994 - Burnley beat Stockport County 2-1 in the Division Two playoff final, ending their 11-year spell in the lower two tiers of the English league, and condemning Stockport to their fourth Wembley defeat in three seasons.
30 May 1994 - Leicester City beat their East Midlands rivals Derby County 2-1 in the Division One playoff final to end their seven-year absence from the top flight, as well as winning at Wembley for the first time after seven attempts (four FA Cup final defeats and most recently back-to-back playoff final defeats).
31 May 1994 - Arsenal sign Swedish midfielder Stefan Schwarz from SL Benfica for £1.75million.
1 June 1994 - Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar leaves Anfield after 13 years to sign for Southampton on a free transfer. The club's longest serving player Ronnie Whelan leaves Anfield on a free transfer after 15 years.
10 June 1994 – Bobby Charlton, record goalscorer for both Manchester United and England, receives a knighthood.
14 June 1994 – Tottenham Hotspur are found guilty of financial irregularities and receive the heaviest punishment ever imposed on an English club. The Football Association fines Tottenham £600,000, bans them from the 1994–95 FA Cup, and deducts them 12 league points from the start of next season.
18 June 1994 - With England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland all having failed to qualify for the World Cup, a mostly English based Republic of Ireland national side pull off a major shock in first group stage game of the tournament in the USA when a goal from Aston Villa winger Ray Houghton gives the Irishmen a 1-0 win over Italy in East Rutherford. The Republic are still managed by England's 1966 World Cup winning centre-half Jack Charlton, who has been in charge for eight years.
22 June 1994 – West Ham United sign Oxford United winger Joey Beauchamp for £1million.
24 June 1994 - Manchester City sign winger Nicky Summerbee from Swindon Town for £1.5million. The Republic of Ireland's second World Cup group game ends in a 2-1 defeat to Mexico in Orlando, with the only goal coming from 35-year-old Tranmere Rovers striker John Aldridge.
28 June 1994 - The Republic of Ireland national side go through to the last 16 of the World Cup after holding Norway (also with a number of English based players) to a goalless draw in East Rutherford.
4 July 1994 - The Republic of Ireland's World Cup dream ends with a 2-0 defeat to Holland in the Orlando last 16 clash. The only English based player still active in the World Cup is Bulgarian striker Boncho Genchev of Ipswich Town.
13 July 1994 - Bulgaria are beaten 2-1 by Italy in the World Cup semi-finals, ending the representation of English based players at the World Cup.
Deaths
20 August 1993 – Tony Barton, 56, was manager of Aston Villa when they won the European Cup in 1982. Had taken over from Ron Saunders earlier during the 1981–82 season. He remained in charge for two more seasons at Villa Park and later in his career he managed Northampton Town as well as being assistant manager of Portsmouth and finally Southampton before retiring from football in 1991.
5 October 1993 - Jim Holton, 41, was centre-half in Manchester United's Second Division title winning side of 1975, having signed from Shrewsbury Town in 1972. Later played for Sunderland and finally Coventry City before his career was ended by injury at the age of 29, after which he worked as a pub landlord in Coventry.
5 November 1993 - Arthur Rowe, 87, played more than 200 games for Tottenham Hotspur in the interwar years, becoming manager in 1949 and taking them to promotion in his first season in charge, securing the club's first top division title a year later. At the time no other club had won the top division title a year after promotion. Remained in charge at White Hart Lane until 1955. Later managed Crystal Palace.
4 December 1993 - Roy Vernon, 56, scored 101 goals in 176 league games for Everton between 1960 and 1965, helping them win the league title in 1963 after signing from Blackburn Rovers. Also won 32 caps for Wales, scoring eight goals.
7 December 1993 - John Simpson, 60, was Gillingham's first choice goalkeeper for most of his 15-year spell at the club, making a club record 571 league appearances between 1957 and 1972.
9 December 1993 – Danny Blanchflower, 67, was wing-half and captain of Tottenham Hotspur when they won the double in 1961, F.A Cup in 1962 and Cup Winners Cup in 1963. He retired through injury in 1964. During the late 1970s he managed Chelsea but was unable to sustain himself as a successful football manager, although he did make a successful living.
12 January 1994 - Arthur Turner, 84, played 358 league games as a centre-half in a career which took him from Stoke City to Birmingham City and finally to Southport between 1930 and 1948, being disrupted by World War II. As a manager, he took Birmingham City to runners-up spot in the FA Cup in 1956 and Oxford United into the Football League in 1962, remaining there until 1969, by which time they were in the Second Division.
20 January 1994 – Sir Matt Busby, 84, won F.A Cup as player with Manchester City in 1934. Became one of the most famous names in world football when manager of Manchester United from 1945 to 1969. Built three great teams. The first great team made its name in the postwar years with an F.A Cup victory and a league title. Busby replaced the ageing members of this teams with exciting young players who were known as the 'Busby Babes'. They won two straight league titles before eight players died and two had their careers ended by the Munich Air Disaster in 1958. Busby himself was gravely injured but made a full recovery against all the odds. He then built a third great team for the 1960s which won an F.A Cup and two league titles before reaching its pinnacle with the European Cup in 1968. He retired a year later but remained as a director and later as president until his death, which marked the end of his association with the club which had lasted 49 years.
21 January 1994 – Tony Waddington, 68, was manager of Stoke City from 1960 to 1977 and guided them to League Cup glory in 1972 – still their only major trophy to date.
7 February 1994 - Billy Briscoe, 97, one of the oldest surviving players to have appeared in the Football League, was with Port Vale when they joined the league in 1919 and played 307 league games for them leading up to 1931, scoring 51 goals.
19 February 1994 - Johnny Hancocks, 74, scored 158 goals in 343 league games for Wolverhampton Wanderers as a right-winger between 1946 and 1957, helping them win the FA Cup in 1949 and league title in 1954. Won three England caps and scored twice, being denied more caps by the fact that his career coincided with that of Stanley Matthews.
14 April 1994 - Bobby Gurney, 86, spent his entire professional career at Sunderland from 1925 to 1950, playing 388 league games and scoring a club record 228 goals and collecting a league title medal in 1935 and an FA Cup winner's medal in 1937. He played for the Wearside club, having joined them at 18, until his 43rd year, and then switched to management to take charge of Peterborough United, Darlington and finally Hartlepool United. Was capped for England once in 1935.
7 May 1994 - Andy McEvoy, 55, played 183 league games for Blackburn Rovers between 1956 and 1967, scoring 89 goals. He was capped 17 times for the Republic of Ireland, scoring six goals, and later returned to his homeland to play for Limerick and later manage Bray Wanderers.
19 May 1994 - John Malkin, 72, succeeded Stanley Matthews on the right wing for Stoke City in 1946, and played 175 league games for the club before injury ended his playing career in 1956.
15 June 1994 - Gerry Mannion, 54, played 17 league appearances as a right-winger for Wolverhampton Wanderers between 1957 and 1961, including the final 10 games of the 1959-60 season, when Wolves were pipped to the title by Burnley. Then played for Norwich City, scoring in both legs of their 1962 League Cup final triumph.
References |
4081192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable%20habitat | Sustainable habitat | A Sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms, without resource depletion and in such a way that no external waste is produced. Thus the habitat can continue into the future tie without external infusions of resources. Such a sustainable habitat may evolve naturally or be produced under the influence of man. A sustainable habitat that is created and designed by human intelligence will mimic nature, if it is to be successful. Everything within it is connected to a complex array of organisms, physical resources, and functions. Organisms from many different biomes can be brought together to fulfill various ecological niches.
Definition
A sustainable habitat is achieving stability between the economic and social development of human habitats together with the defense of the environment, shelter, basic services, social infrastructure, and transportation.
A sustainable habitat is required to make sure that one species' waste ends up being the energy or food source for another species. It involves the preservation of the ecological balance in terms of a symbiotic perspective on urban development while developing urban extensions of existing towns.
The term often refers to sustainable human habitats, which typically involves some form of green building or environmental planning.
History
In creating the sustainable habitats, environmental scientists, designers, engineers and architects must not consider any elements as a waste product to be disposed of somewhere off site, but as a nutrient stream for another process to feed on. Researching ways to interconnect waste streams to production creates a more sustainable society by minimizing pollution.
Sustainability of marine ecosystems is a concern. Rigorous fishing has decreased top trophic levels and affected the ecological dynamics and resilience of fisheries by reducing the numbers and lengths of food webs. Historically intense commercial and rising recreational fishing pressures have resulted in "unsustainable rates of exploitation for 70% of the snapper-grouper complex, which consists of over 50 species, mainly of groupers and snappers" in Florida and the Florida Keys. The systematic and widespread conversion of estuarine habitats into agricultural, industrial, and urban uses has demonstrated a historical devotion to valuing the use of land for purposes from a position of simple but defective logic. Unused land provides no products, which is useless land.
The ecosystem services approach fills gaps in a sustainability analysis by demanding the account for the linkages between ecosystem goods and services, and ecosystem processes and human wellbeing.
The World Commission on Environment and Development states that "sustaining oceans are marked by a fundamental unity." Interconnected cycles of energy, climate, marine living resources, and human activities move through coastal waters, regional seas, and the closed oceans. Global pressures on the ocean include rising levels of greenhouse gas emissions, which impact species and food webs throughout ocean ecosystems, deoxygenation, overfishing, and run-off pollution from land and coastal sources.
Transformation to a thriving ocean system requires changes in governance across sectors and scales. "The end result would be a form of polycentric governance that can manage shared resources and ocean space." A polycentric governance goal from The World Commission on Environment and Development is "to support multiple governing bodies by establishing a shared vision and creating principled guiding frameworks and processes to facilitate coherent systems-oriented regulation."
Types of sustainable habitats
Coral reefs
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Coral reefs serve as a habitat for a diverse range of fish and invertebrates, while also providing economic resources to fishing communities.
The coral reefs' foundation is made up of stony corals with calcareous skeletons that protect shores from storm surges. They also help produce sand for recreational beaches and aquariums.
Coral reefs are a largely self-sustaining ecosystem and up to 90% of the corals' nutrients may come from their symbiotic relationships. The coral polyps and microscopic algae zooxanthellae in coral reefs have a symbiotic relationship wherein the algae provide nourishment to the coral polyps from within their tissue.
Parks
A park is a protected area of wildlife. It is a natural sustainable habitat. Parks promote a culture of wellness that engages members of their surrounding communities and promotes healthy and active lifestyles. People who volunteer at parks may support these sustainable habitats and help to maintain them.
Parks may serve as recreational areas for communities, encouraging people to spend time in nature. Urban parks are in urban areas, creating a natural space that benefits those living in cities.
Plants and animals may flourish in parks, where they are able to have a sustainable habitat away from the interference of humans. This is especially true of national parks, where land is set aside and preserved. These habitats are sustainable in nature.
Cities
A sustainable city is a city that is designed and built in an ecologically friendly way. Sustainable cities may also be known as eco-cities or green cities. These cities are constructed with guidelines about spatial planning and operational rules pertaining to urbanism in mind. Spatial planning takes into account ecological, social, cultural, and economic issues and policies. This leads to the creation of mindfully built cities that are aware and conscious of their impact on the environment.
Sustainable cities in earthquake-prone areas are built with input from civil engineers, architects, and urban planners who collaborate on safe architecture that can withstand disasters. This reduces waste and ensures that buildings will last for many years to come. In areas that are protected because of nature and cultural heritage, this heritage may be reflected in the choice of construction materials and the design of the buildings. This helps to preserve culture. Additionally, construction materials and building orientation may be chosen with the intent to mitigate the effects of climate change. Cities may also be planned to include green spaces and trees that reduce heat stress.
Creating sustainable habitats
In creating sustainable habitats, environmental scientists, designers, engineers and architects must not consider any elements as a waste product to be disposed of somewhere off-site, but as a nutrient stream for another process to feed on.
Net-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB)
These buildings are made to use the minimum amount of energy possible. When these buildings contain renewable sources they are able to produce the specific amount of energy required to function. In some cases they can produce more than the energy they need and they will harness this energy.
Energy positive buildings
Currently, "buildings account for almost 40 percent of global carbon emissions." Energy-positive buildings produce more energy than the energy they demand, this is a demand for most countries that are focused on total carbon emissions. Hydro and the Zero Emission Resource Organisation (ZERO) is a specific company that has created energy-positive buildings in Norway. They have an interesting approach that includes embodied energy, which means that the total energy with every step of collecting materials and constructing the building. For example, timber or wood takes less energy to collect, cut, and construct into something than concrete. Whereas recycled material contains the lowest embodied energy. This company has engineered its buildings to self-ventilate, have maximum daylight, and more. This is one alternative to building sustainable habitats.
Sustainable building materials
Concrete
Sustainable building materials can change the way we move forward as a society. A very common form of building material is concrete. However, this is not a sustainable resource for building materials because it can crack and degrade over time. An alternative to concrete is bacterial concrete (self-healing concrete), which is a substance that mixes Bacillus pseudofirmus, Bacillus cohnii, and concrete. This mixture can be a sustainable switch because it is a self-healing substance. Since concrete can crack from weathering, plates shifting, and the temperature it is important to consider using something that will last a long time and won't need several repairs. This bacteria concrete improves strength, reduces water absorption, and more. Depending on the bacteria used you can have different effects on the overall durability of the concrete. For example, in a place where chloride is used, you can add Sporosarcina pasteuria to increase the overall resistance to the chloride ion that can penetrate the concrete. Another example is water absorption, in this situation Bacillus sphaericus reduced water absorption. The different types of bacteria can assist in the sustainability of the overall structure and length of the substance. The cost of adding bacteria can be 2.3 to 3.9 times higher in cost than normal concrete.
Wood
Wood can be a great resource for building structures because of the longevity of the material. However, since wood is a natural resource specific protocols need to be followed for using this material in order to be a sustainable building. Wood is the most commonly used building material in the United States. Wood has a low carbon impact and a low embodied energy. This is the amount of energy that is required to harvest and create said building.
The process of environmental planning
Environmental planning can be numerous things including building structures, effeminacy, and useability. A lot of factors go into play for planning something that is sustainable, and environmentally friendly, while still implementing culture and aspects to improve society. One topic why environmental planning is so important is tourism. When people visit a new place they spend a lot of money, this money goes to the economy of the town with several tourists.
List of steps for planning
Create a planning team
Make a vision for future
Figure out community wants and needs for the environment
Find solutions
Create a plan
Proceed with plan
Evaluate steps and fix any issues.
This list can create a wonderful set of baseline monitoring. This is important for sustainable habitats because it is a framework to ensure that the environment will not be negatively impacted by human actions of creating specific things like parks, houses, community buildings, and more.
Sustainable transportation
Transportation can be considered an important way that an economy can help society succeed. Transportation actually produces 23% of the carbon emissions in the world. Also, it accounts for 64% of the world's oil use. This is a huge percentage of natural resources going into transportation. There are solutions that can be implemented to create a sustainable habitat for the communities and economies of the world. An example of sustainable public transportation in Jakarta, Indonesia, which has won the Sustainable Transport Award. One way they one this award and implemented sustainability is by connecting local buses, vehicles, and micro busses within their cities and urban regions. The city of Jakarta has created a transportation system called BRT system that had specific lanes just for public transportation. This has decreased traffic overall because more people are using the BRT system instead of driving. Something else that the BRT transportation system has is that it can take people farther than the individual car can. This lowered carbon emissions and oil consumption.
Green energy
Green energy is an alternative to using fossil fuels. Some examples are solar energy, wind energy, and nuclear energy. These alternatives use natural energy instead of fossil fuels to promote green electricity. The use of green energy can boost any economy, for example in India it could create a green energy market worth 80 billion by 2030. India has created 59 solar parks in the country. One of the largest parks in India has a capacity of 30 GW for a solar wind hybrid park. All of the parks in India have changed the way the economy works overall. They have decreased the amount of money it cost using fossil fuels because they are using natural energy. They have also implemented a self-cleaning tool that cleans the solar panels in the solar parks they created. Solar panels can get dirty from weathering. This tool cleans the top of the solar panel so that the maximum amount of energy is produced.
Remedial efforts
Restoration and protection of parks
The restoration and protection of parks begins with the acknowledgement of the need for actions. After a government or state is aware of the need for restoration, protection, and the creation of these sustainable habitats, action takes place.
The need for funding creates the foundational roadblock in protecting and restoring parks. Funding can be received by state legislations and fundraising projects hosted by supporting organizations. This funding can then be systematically distributed to encompass movements that make a significant stride towards protecting and restoring parks. These movements include but are not limited to setting up fences around parks, establishing park security, and supplying and resupplying proper nutritional elements to the parks to sustain and promote growth of habitats.
Ocean Governance
Ocean Governance is defined as the “integrated conduct of the policy, actions, and affairs regarding the world’s oceans to protect ocean environment, sustainable use of coastal and marine resources as well as to conserve its biodiversity.”
Ocean governance as a process is recommended to be integrated horizontally and vertically. Integrating a process horizontally entails requiring the participation of “governmental institutions, the private sector, NGOs, academics, [and] scientists”, while integrating a process vertically entails essential communication, collaboration, and coordination between the chosen governmental institutions and other participatory agencies.
Partnership is an essential aspect of ocean governance as it covers all bases of collective remedial efforts. Essentially, it connects local and state governments who both want to induce the remedial efforts. Communication between inter-governmental agencies and regional institutions aids in strengthening collective efforts that are set into motion.
Coastal national parks and oceans are facing many threatening changes to their equilibrium. These include but are not limited to rising sea levels, damaged coral reefs, storm activity, and erosion. At the Timucuan Ecological & Historic Preserve and the Cumberland Island National Seashore, teams such as the National Park Foundation (NPF), National Park Services (NPS), and the Green Team Youth Corps at Groundwork Jacksonville are all making strides to prevent and stabilize eroding shorelines, regrowing native marsh grasses, and reemerging the once stable habitat that was once known as home for a plethora of marine species.
Green building
Green building is a foundationally different mode of building and operating a series of buildings that contrast to those built in the past in their aspects of sustainability. The buildings funded for by the Green Building Initiative and the United States Green Building Council enable access to “environmentally and socially responsible, healthy, and prosperous environment[s] that improve[s] the quality of life.”
A system by the name of LEED, is “the world’s most widely used green building system with more than 100,000 buildings participating” to date.
Buildings that are funded by the Green Building Initiative and LEED have been proven to be financially, environmentally, and efficiently healthier for individuals. Lower carbon emissions, healthier living spaces, and improved efficiency are all the reap of the crop of the USGBC’s remedial efforts that are “constructed and operated through LEED.”
See also
Alternative natural materials
Autonomous building
Ecovillage
Integrated Pest Management
Permaculture
Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
References
External links
Creating sustainable communities in harmony with nature. Urban Permaculture.
Path to Freedom - Urban Agriculture & Sustainability
Helping create sustainable habitats around the world-the SHIRE
Habitats
Sustainable design
Habitat
Human habitats
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable architecture
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable urban planning
Habitat |
4081318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396%20in%20English%20football | 1995–96 in English football | The 1995–96 season was the 116th season of competitive football in England.
Overview
Premiership
Newcastle United were at one stage twelve points clear of Manchester United at the top of the table, but Alex Ferguson's relatively young and inexperienced side overhauled them during the second half of the season to win the title. Manchester United were England's entrants for the Champions League, while Newcastle United were joined in the UEFA Cup by Liverpool, the League Cup winners Aston Villa and Arsenal.
The teams relegated were Manchester City, Queens Park Rangers and Bolton Wanderers.
Division One
Sunderland and Derby County returned to the Premiership after a five-year exile, joined by Division One play-off winners Leicester City.
Watford and Luton Town, who had both been established top division sides a decade earlier, were relegated to the league's third tier. On the last day of the season they were joined by Millwall, who had been top of the division five months earlier but slumped dramatically after Mick McCarthy's departure for the Republic of Ireland manager's job.
Division Two
Swindon Town returned to Division One at the first attempt after lifting the Division Two championship trophy. They were joined by runners-up Oxford United, who were enjoying their first successful season since the mid-1980s, and playoff winners Bradford City.
Going down were Carlisle United, Swansea City (who got through five managers in a season), Brighton & Hove Albion (sinking further into a financial crisis) and Hull City.
Division Three
Preston North End, Gillingham, Bury and playoff winners Plymouth Argyle won promotion to Division Two. Preston's win made them the third club to win all four top tiers of English football, next to Wolverhampton Wanderers and Burnley.
Torquay United finished at the bottom of Division Three, having won just five games all season, but were saved from demotion because Conference champions Stevenage Borough did not meet the league's required minimum stadium capacity.
Successful managers
Alex Ferguson guided Manchester United to a unique second double of the league title and FA Cup.
Brian Little guided Aston Villa to victory in the League Cup as well as a fourth-place finish in the Premiership.
Peter Reid brought some long-awaited success to Sunderland as they finished champions of Division One and won promotion to the Premiership.
Experienced manager Jim Smith achieved another managerial success by winning promotion to the Premiership with Derby County.
Martin O'Neill achieved his third promotion in four seasons by winning promotion to the Premiership with Leicester City.
Steve McMahon succeeded in getting Swindon Town back into Division One at the first attempt as they were crowned champions of Division Two.
Denis Smith built on the success he achieved earlier in his career (with York City and later Sunderland) by gaining promotion to Division One with Oxford United.
Gary Peters had a dream start to his reign as Preston North End manager as they were crowned champions of Division Three.
Stan Ternent finally enjoyed some success in his long management and coaching career by winning promotion to Division Two with Bury.
Neil Warnock achieved the fifth promotion of his managerial career (and his fourth via the playoffs) by winning the Division Three playoffs with Plymouth Argyle.
Chris Kamara got Bradford City promoted via the Division 2 playoffs just 6 months after taking over as manager. The feat was all the more amazing considering they lost 0–2 at home to Blackpool in the 1st leg of the play off semi final. A 3–0 victory in the 2nd leg saw Bradford City reach Wembley for the first ever time defeating Notts County 2–0 in the final with goals from 19-year-old local boy Des Hamilton and Kamara's first signing Mark Stallard.
Tony Pulis guided Gillingham F.C. out of Division Three and was named the Manager of the Season.
Successful players
Alan Shearer topped the Premiership scoring charts with 31 goals, the highest number of goals in the league charted at the time. Shearer was followed closely by Robbie Fowler on 28, Ian Wright and Les Ferdinand, who won the PFA Players' Player of the Year award.
Steve McManaman led the assists chart with 25 assists this season, also a new record for the league.
Eric Cantona was awarded the FWA Footballer of the Year for his comeback and galvanising influence over a successful young Manchester United side.
Events
Double delight for United
Manchester United made history as the first English club to win the double of the league title and FA Cup twice. They did so despite having sold key players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Andrei Kanchelskis before the start of the season. Manager Alex Ferguson selected young players like Paul Scholes, Nicky Butt, David Beckham, Gary Neville and Phil Neville, alongside more experienced players Steve Bruce, Gary Pallister and Eric Cantona. Cantona, who returned from his suspension to spearhead United's chase for trophies, was voted the FWA Footballer of the Year.
At Christmas, United trailed Newcastle United by 12 points. On 27 December they beat Newcastle 2–0 to cut the gap to seven points, and a 1–0 win at St. James' Park on 4 March cut the gap to a single point. A 1–0 win against Tottenham Hotspur on 24 March put United on top of the Premiership and they remained in that position for the rest of the season. On the final day of the season they confirmed their status as Premiership champions for the third time in four seasons thanks to a 3–0 away win over Middlesbrough, who were managed by former United captain Bryan Robson.
On 11 May, United faced Liverpool in the FA Cup final at Wembley. A late goal from Cantona saw United make history and lift the FA Cup as England's first 'double double' winners.
Venables out, Hoddle in
Terry Venables announced in January that he would not be continuing as England manager after the 1996 European Championships, so the FA began their hunt for his successor. The likes of Alex Ferguson, Howard Kendall, Steve Coppell, Gerry Francis and Kevin Keegan were all linked with the job, but all quickly ruled themselves out either because of club commitments or a lack of experience.
In the end, the 39-year-old Chelsea manager Glenn Hoddle agreed to take charge of the England team on a four-year contract. Hoddle's successor at Chelsea was the 33-year-old Dutch legend Ruud Gullit.
Euro '96: So close for England
In 1996 England hosted the European Championships for the first time. They went through to the quarter-finals after drawing with Switzerland and beating Scotland and the Netherlands in the group stages. They drew 0–0 with Spain in the quarter finals but England went through on penalties. A goal by Alan Shearer gave them an early lead over Germany in the semi-finals, but the Germans forced extra-time and England lost the ensuing penalty shoot-out. Germany went on to beat Czech Republic 2–1 in the final.
European competitions
English clubs endured a tough time in European competition during the 1995–96 season. Manchester United, Liverpool and Leeds United suffered early exits from the UEFA Cup, while Blackburn Rovers were eliminated from the Champions League at the group stages and Everton were dumped out of the Cup Winners Cup in the Second Round. That left Nottingham Forest as the only English club still in Europe after Christmas.
Forest took on Bayern Munich in the UEFA Cup quarter-finals and lost 2–1 away in the first leg. Jürgen Klinsmann scored twice as the German side defeated Forest 5–1 at the City ground and went on to win the competition.
Bosman ruling
A legal challenge in the European Court of Human Rights by the Belgian midfielder Jean-Marc Bosman gave out-of-contract players aged 23 or above the right to become free agents and move to other clubs for no fee. There was widespread controversy following the announcement, as many clubs feared that they would lose expensively signed players for nothing. The Bosman ruling also saw an end to the three foreigner rule which restricted teams to fielding a maximum of three players born outside the country that they were employed in. In the Premiership, the limit of three foreigners in a match squad had covered Welsh, Scottish and Northern and Southern Irish players. The Bosman ruling allowed clubs in EU countries to field an unlimited number of players who were of EU nationalities, although they were still restricted to fielding 3 players of non-EU nationalities.
Honours
England national team
As England was hosting the 1996 UEFA European Football Championship the England national team did not play any competitive fixtures up until the championships themselves but played a number of friendlies this season.
League tables
Premiership
Manchester United were Premiership champions for the third time in four seasons, after Newcastle United led for most of the season, the Tyneside club's lead having peaked at 10 points just before Christmas. Manchester United also won the FA Cup to complete the double. The star of their season was undoubtedly striker Eric Cantona, who returned from his eight-month suspension at the beginning of October to spearhead United's attack with 19 goals in all competitions, several of them in crucial late season games as they took the initiative in the title race, and the last being the winning goal in the FA Cup final.
Liverpool continued to show signs of a return to their former glory by finishing third and ending the season as runners-up in the FA Cup final. Aston Villa, enjoying a revival with a reshaped squad under Brian Little, finished fourth and won the Football League Cup. Arsenal built the foundations for a revival under new manager Bruce Rioch by finishing fifth and coming within a goal of reaching the League Cup final. However, Rioch was gone by the start of the following season after a dispute with the club's directors.
FA Cup holders Everton failed to retain the cup and finished in sixth place in the league one place outside of a UEFA Cup place.
Blackburn Rovers failed to retain their league title and finished seventh in the league, with Alan Shearer finding the net more than 30 times for the third season in a row.
Nottingham Forest finished ninth in the league and were the only English side to progress to the quarter-finals of any of the European competitions, doing so in reaching the quarter-final UEFA Cup. 1995-96 was one of the worst seasons ever for English clubs in European competitions.
Bolton Wanderers were relegated in bottom place, having won just twice before New Year's Day, with not even an improvement under caretaker manager Colin Todd helping them. Queens Park Rangers were unable to recover from the sale of star striker Les Ferdinand to Newcastle and finished second bottom, ending 13 seasons in the top division. Manchester City were the last team to be relegated, eventually undone by their failure to win in their first 11 matches, but they did manage to take the fight to the last day of the season. Coventry City and Southampton stayed up on goal difference.
Leading goalscorer: Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers) - 31
Division One
Sunderland gave their best performance in years by clinching the Division One title, and were joined among the elite by runners-up Derby County and play-off winners Leicester City. Crystal Palace conceded a last-minute Leicester winner at Wembley, and would have gone up automatically had it not been for their dismal first half of the season.
Luton Town, Watford and Millwall, who had all played in the top flight at some stage in the last nine seasons, went down to Division Two. Millwall had been top of the league five months before going down on the final day of the season before a 6–0 defeat at Sunderland signaled a dramatic decline in their fortunes.
Oldham Athletic narrowly avoided a second relegation in three seasons, while Wolverhampton Wanderers finished 20th and the last safe place was secured by Portsmouth. Norwich City and Birmingham City finished in the bottom half of the table after both enjoying spells at the top during the first half of the season. West Bromwich Albion finished 12th after a dramatic season where they had looked like promotion contenders in the autumn, before enduring a 14-match winless run where they picked up just one point and dropped into the relegation zone.
Leading goalscorer: John Aldridge (Tranmere Rovers) - 27
Division Two
Swindon Town secured an immediate return to Division One by winning the Division Two title. They were joined by local rivals and runners-up Oxford United, while the final promotion place went to playoff winners Bradford City whose Wembley glory gave Chris Kamara a dream start in management.
Blackpool, who missed out on automatic promotion by one place, attained their highest league finish for more than 20 years but a playoff semi-final failure cost them a place in Division One and cost Sam Allardyce his job. Crewe Alexandra were defeated in the playoffs for the second season running, while beaten finalists Notts County had been relegated the season before.
Carlisle United, Swansea City, Brighton & Hove Albion and Hull City were relegated to Division Three. York City, who made headlines by knocking Manchester United out of the League Cup early in the season, avoided relegation by three points after beating Brighton in their delayed final fixture of the season, sending Carlisle down.
Leading goalscorer: Marcus Stewart (Bristol Rovers) - 21
Division Three
Preston North End got on the right path towards better days by sealing the Division Three title, making them the third club to finish top of all four professional divisions of English football. Joining them in Division Two were runners-up Gillingham (after seven years in the league's basement division), third placed Bury and playoff winners Plymouth Argyle.
Torquay United finished at the bottom of the league by quite a margin, but avoided relegation because Conference champions Stevenage Borough did not meet the required Football League stadium capacity standards. Scarborough endured another torrid season, finishing second from bottom in the league for the second season in succession.
Lincoln City climbed up to 18th place under John Beck, who took over in October after the club had propped up the Football League. Fulham suffered the lowest finish of their history by finishing 17th, and weeks before the end of the season they appointed Micky Adams as player-manager in hope that the former Coventry and Southampton defender could revive the club after a decade of decline. Cambridge United finished 16th in the table, a mere four years after narrowly missing out on promotion to the inaugural Premier League.
Leading goalscorers: Steve White (Hereford United) - 30
Diary of the season
1 July 1995: Nottingham Forest pay £2.5 million for Sheffield Wednesday midfielder Chris Bart-Williams, the day after they sold striker Stan Collymore to Liverpool for a national-record £8.5 million. Collymore's successor is Kevin Campbell, a £2.8million signing from Arsenal.
3 July 1995: Alan Ball is appointed the new manager of Manchester City after 18 months as manager of Southampton.
5 July 1995: Aston Villa sign Leicester City midfielder Mark Draper for £3.25 million.
6 July 1995: Newcastle United sign French winger David Ginola from Paris St Germain for £2.5 million and striker Les Ferdinand from Queens Park Rangers for a club record fee of £6 million.
10 July 1995: England midfielder Paul Gascoigne returns to Britain after three years in Italy with Lazio when he completes a £4.3million move to Scottish champions Rangers.
12 July 1995: George Graham is banned from football worldwide for a year for accepting illegal payments, which had resulted in his sacking as Arsenal manager five months ago.
14 July 1995: Arsenal sign England captain David Platt from Sampdoria for £4.75million. Platt is now the world's costliest players, with his career transfer fees now totalling more than £22million.
17 July 1995: Mike Naylor, chairman and founder of the sponsors of the Football League, Endsleigh Insurance, dies in a car crash in France.
19 July 1995: Sheffield Wednesday sign Belgian midfielder Marc Degryse from Anderlecht for £1.5 million.
24 July 1995: Southampton goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar, Wimbledon goalkeeper Hans Segers and former Wimbledon and Aston Villa striker John Fashanu are charged with match-fixing and bribery.
26 July 1995: Queens Park Rangers sign Australia national football team captain Ned Zelic from Borussia Dortmund of Germany for £1.25million.
1 August 1995: Everton sign Derby County defender Craig Short for £2.4 million.
3 August 1995: Coventry City sign winger John Salako from Crystal Palace for £1.5 million.
5 August 1995: Middlesbrough prepare for their return to the Premier League by paying a club-record £5.25 million for Tottenham forward Nick Barmby.
8 August 1995: Eric Cantona announces his intention to leave English football, but Manchester United refused to terminate his contract.
10 August 1995: Cantona announces his intention to stay with Manchester United after a meeting with Alex Ferguson in Paris. Newcastle United sign Reading goalkeeper Shaka Hislop for £1.575 million.
12 August 1995: The Football League season begins. Relegated Crystal Palace begin their bid for an immediate return to the Premier League with a dramatic 4–3 home win over Barnsley. Oldham, who went down a year earlier, start the season well with a 3–0 home win over newly promoted Huddersfield. Portsmouth beat Southend 4–2 at Fratton Park.
13 August 1995: A Vinny Samways goal gives Everton a 1–0 win over Blackburn in the FA Charity Shield. Norwich City begin their quest for an immediate return to the Premier League by beating Luton Town 3–1 at Kenilworth Road.
16 August 1995: Andrea Silenzi becomes first Italian to play for a Premier League side when he joins Nottingham Forest in a £1.8million move from Torino.
19 August 1995: The FA Premier League season begins with Manchester United defeated 3–1 at Aston Villa, which sparks immediate criticism throughout the media due to the number of young players in the team as well as the fact that United have sold three key players this summer and not made any major signings, Alan Hansen is known for coining the phrase "you can't win anything with kids". Blackburn Rovers begin their defence of the Premier League title with a 1–0 win at home over Queens Park Rangers. Matt Le Tissier scores a hat-trick for Southampton at The Dell but they lost 4–3 to Nottingham Forest. Newcastle United beat Coventry City 3–0 at home, with record signing Les Ferdinand scoring on his debut. Bolton Wanderers lose 3–2 to Wimbledon at Selhurst Park in their first top flight game since May 1980.
20 August 1995: Middlesbrough's Nick Barmby scores on his debut, a 1–1 draw against Arsenal at Highbury.
23 August 1995: Manchester United bounce back from their opening day defeat with a 2–1 home win over West Ham United.
24 August 1995: Everton complete their club record £5 million signing of Manchester United winger Andrei Kanchelskis, more than a month after their offer for Kanchelskis was first accepted.
26 August 1995: Middlesbrough defeat Chelsea 2–0 in their first game at the new Riverside Stadium, with Craig Hignett scoring the stadium's first goal. Manchester United beat Wimbledon 3–1 at Old Trafford. Leeds are top of the league for the first time since their 1992 title triumph after a 2–0 home win over Aston Villa.
27 August 1995: Newcastle United go top of the Premier League with a 2–0 win at Sheffield Wednesday.
28 August 1995: Manchester United defeat Blackburn Rovers 2–1, despite being reduced to 10 men after Roy Keane was sent off for two bookable offences.
30 August 1995: Newcastle are the month-end leaders in the Premier League with a 1–0 home win over Middlesbrough, with second-placed Leeds being held to a 1–1 draw at Southampton.
2 September 1995: The upcoming international fixtures mean that there is no action in the Premier League this weekend, but it is business as usual in the Football League. Newly-promoted Birmingham City win 5–0 at Barnsley in Division One. Millwall go top of the table with a 1–0 win over Portsmouth at Fratton Park. Sheffield United's 3–1 defeat at West Bromwich Albion leaves them bottom of the table and still looking for their first point of the season after five games.
9 September 1995: In a rematch of last season’s FA Cup Final, Manchester United defeat Everton 3–2. Lee Sharpe scores twice, and former United player Andrei Kanchelskis is taken off with a dislocated shoulder, ruling him out for the next few weeks. United are now level on points with leaders Newcastle, who lose 1–0 at Southampton. Wimbledon go third with a 1–0 home win over Liverpool. In Division One, Sheffield United pick up their first points of the season with a 2–1 home win over Norwich City.
11 September 1995: A London derby at Upton Park sees Chelsea beat West Ham 3–1.
16 September 1995: Newcastle United and Manchester United remain level on points at the top of the Premier League after both managing home victories. Aston Villa move into third place with a 2–0 home win over Wimbledon.
20 September 1995: York City defeat an under-strength Manchester United 3–0 in the League Cup second-round first leg at Old Trafford. This will ultimately prove to be the only home defeat all season in any competition for the hosts.
23 September 1995: Manchester United go top of the Premier League after drawing 0–0 at Sheffield Wednesday. Defending champions Blackburn snap out of a recent run of dismal form and defeat Coventry City 5–1 at Ewood Park with Alan Shearer scoring a hat-trick. Liverpool remain third after a 5–2 home win over Bolton. Tony Yeboah scored a hat-trick for Leeds in a 4–2 win at Wimbledon. Manchester City are bottom of the table with one point from their first seven games, losing 1–0 at home to Middlesbrough today.
24 September 1995: Newcastle go back to the top of the Premier League with a 2–0 home win over Chelsea.
26 September 1995: Manchester United are knocked out of the UEFA Cup on away goals after drawing 2–2 at home to Russian side Rotor Volgograd in the first round second leg, but still maintain their 39-year unbeaten run in European competitions following a late equaliser by goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel - the club's first goalkeeper to score a goal in any competitions since Alex Stepney in 1973.
30 September 1995: Manchester City's terrible start to the season continues with a 3–0 defeat at Nottingham Forest, which makes it one point from their first eight league games. Aston Villa go second with a 3–0 away win over their former manager Ron Atkinson's new club Coventry City.
1 October 1995: Eric Cantona returns from his eight-month suspension to score a late equaliser from the penalty spot in a 2–2 home draw with Liverpool. Newcastle extend their lead to four points with a 3–1 win at Everton.
3 October 1995: York City eliminate Manchester United from the League Cup despite their Premier League opponents winning 3–1 in the second round second leg at Bootham Crescent. Striker Paul Scholes scores twice, with United’s other goal coming from teenage winger Terry Cooke, who only made his competitive debut last month.
11 October 1995: Everton striker Duncan Ferguson is sentenced to three months' imprisonment for assault for head butting Raith Rovers player John McStay 18 months ago, when he was still playing for Rangers. making him the first British professional footballer to be imprisoned for an on-field offence.
14 October 1995: 20-year-old striker Paul Scholes scores the only goal of the Manchester derby at Old Trafford, aiding United's title challenge and pushing City further into relegation trouble. Newcastle remain four points ahead at the top with a 3–2 win at QPR. Arsenal go third by beating Leeds 3–0 at Elland Road.
15 October 1995: Middlesbrough sign 22-year-old Brazilian midfielder Juninho in a £4.75million deal.
21 October 1995: Les Ferdinand scores a hat-trick in Newcastle's 6–1 home league win against Wimbledon, and Manchester United remain in second place with a 4–1 away victory over Chelsea. The gap remains four points wide. Middlesbrough‘s fine start to life back in the Premier League continues with a 1–0 home win over QPR keeping their hold on fourth place. Down in Division One, West Bromwich go second with a 2–1 home win over Portsmouth, sparking hope at The Hawthorns that Albion are close to ending their decade-long absence from the top flight.
28 October 1995: The Football Association announces that the 72 Football League clubs would receive an additional £21 million in television revenue after they failed to agree on an initial sum of nearly £120 million. Liverpool's Ian Rush scores twice in a 6–0 home league win against Manchester City, who are still without a win after 11 games, and Leeds United captain Gary McAllister scores a hat-trick in a 3–1 home league win over Coventry City. Millwall knock Leicester off the top of Division One with a 2–1 win over West Bromwich Albion, while Leicester lose 3–2 at home to Crystal Palace.
30 October 1995: Striker John McGinlay scores for struggling Bolton Wanderers in a surprise 1–0 home win against Arsenal.
4 November 1995: Manchester United lose 1–0 at Arsenal with an early goal from Dennis Bergkamp, their first Premier League defeat since the opening day of the season, and Newcastle extend their lead to five points with a 2–1 home win over Liverpool, with Steve Howey scoring a late winner. Manchester City finally win a Premier League at the 12th attempt, being fellow strugglers Bolton 1–0 at Maine Road. In Division One, Sheffield United climb off the bottom of the table and out of the bottom three with a 4–1 home win over Portsmouth. Tranmere beat Derby 5-1 and Stoke beat Luton 5–0.
6 November 1995: Nottingham Forest go third in the Premier League with a 4–1 win over Wimbledon, who remain fourth from bottom.
8 November 1995: Chelsea sign Romanian defender Dan Petrescu from Sheffield Wednesday for a club record fee of £2.3million.
10 November 1995: The FA withdraws its £118.5-million television deal with Football League clubs after they failed to meet a deadline.
11 November 1995: In the FA Cup's first round, Shrewsbury Town defeat Northern Premier League side Marine by a club-record 11-2 and Division Two crisis club Swansea City lose 7–0 to Division Three side Fulham. Division Two's Bradford City are made to work hard for a 4–3 win over non-league Burton Albion. Hitchin Town, another non-league side, eliminate Bristol Rovers with a 2–1 win. Dorchester Town lose 9–1 to Oxford United.
13 November 1995: Former England manager Graham Taylor resigns after 20 months managing Wolverhampton Wanderers, who began the season as Division One promotion favourites but have fallen to 17th. His final game in charge, a televised home match against 10-man Charlton Athletic in the league, ended in a goalless draw.
17 November 1995: Kenny Dalglish, director of football at Blackburn Rovers since June after guiding them to the Premier League title, is reported to be in the running to be the new Wolves manager.
18 November 1995: Alan Shearer scores a hat-trick for Blackburn in their 7–0 home win over Nottingham Forest, while leaders Newcastle are held to a 1–1 draw at Aston Villa, enabling Manchester United to cut the gap at the top to six points (and having the advantage of a game in hand) with their 4–1 home win over Southampton.
22 November 1995: Manchester United beat Coventry City 4–0 at Highfield Road to cut the gap at the top to three points and sent their opponents to the bottom of the Premier League table. Bolton miss the chance to climb out of the bottom three as they lose 3–2 at Chelsea. Manchester City's slow improvement continues with a 1–0 win over Wimbledon at Maine Road.
24 November 1995: Leeds United pay a club record £4.5million for Parma's Swedish striker Tomas Brolin. Everton striker Duncan Ferguson is released from prison after serving 44 days of his three-month sentence for assault.
25 November 1995: 34-year-old defender Steve Nicol returns to the Premier League less than a year after leaving Liverpool for a Notts County side now in Division Two, signing for Sheffield Wednesday. Newcastle United remain in the driving seat at the top of the Premier League with a 2–1 home win over Leeds. Coventry and Wimbledon both grind out a point in the battle for Premier League survival with a thrilling 3–3 draw at Highfield Road.
27 November 1995: The Football League signs a five-year television-coverage deal worth £125 million with BSkyB. Manchester United are held to a 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest at the City Ground, with Eric Cantona converting a penalty to equalise in the second half after the home side took the lead. They have now played as many games as leaders Newcastle but are still five points behind.
2 December 1995: Alan Shearer scores a hat-trick in Blackburn's 4–2 home win against West Ham United, and Manchester United are held to a 1–1 home draw by Chelsea, meaning that Newcastle could be on the verge of a seven-point lead at the top of the Premier League.
3 December 1995: Newcastle are held to a 3–3 draw at Wimbledon, limiting their lead at the top of the table to five points. Sunderland overtake Millwall at the top of Division One with a 1–0 win over Crystal Palace at Roker Park.
4 December 1995: Coventry striker Dion Dublin finds himself in the unusual situation of scoring a hat-trick for the losing side when the Sky Blues lose 4–3 to Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough in the Premier League. Coventry are bottom of the table, having won just one of their first 16 Premier League games.
7 December 1995: Mark McGhee leaves Division One promotion challengers Leicester City after a year in charge to become manager of Wolves.
9 December 1995: Defending Premier League champions Blackburn Rovers are beaten 5–0 at Coventry, and in Division One Sunderland beat Millall 6–0 to maintain their lead of the table with a 6–0 win at Roker Park. Manchester United drop two points when they are held to a 2–2 draw at home to Sheffield Wednesday in the Premier League, but leaders Newcastle drop all three points when they lose 1–0 at Chelsea, meaning that their lead is cut to four points when a victory would have put them seven points ahead.
10 December 1995: Having fallen into the bottom three yesterday when other results went against them, Wolves climb three places in Division One when a 3–2 win at Luton ends their six-match winless run in the league.
12 December 1995: Dave Bassett, the fifth-longest-serving manager in the English league, resigns as manager of Division One's Sheffield United after nearly eight years in charge. Walsall beat Torquay United 8–4 in the FA Cup second-round replay at Bescot Stadium which followed a 1–1 draw in the first match at Plainmoor 10 days ago.
13 December 1995: Former Everton manager Howard Kendall is named the new manager of Sheffield United.
15 December 1995: QPR sell misfits defender Ned Zelic to Eintracht Frankfurt for £1million.
16 December 1995: Blackburn Rovers left back Graeme Le Saux fractures his ankle in a 1–0 home win against Middlesbrough in the FA Premier League, an injury which is set to rule him out of action until next season. Newcastle United go seven points ahead in the Premier League with a 1–0 victory over Everton, and Aston Villa striker Savo Milosevic scores a hat-trick in Villa's 4–1 home win against Coventry City. Yorkshire rivals Sheffield Wednesday and Leeds United clash at Hillsborough, with the hosts winning a thrilling match 6–2. Bolton remain bottom of the table after losing 2–1 at QPR, who climb out of the bottom three.
17 December 1995: Manchester United remain seven points behind Newcastle after losing 2–0 at Liverpool, with Robbie Fowler scoring both of Liverpool's goals. A series of saves from Peter Schmeichel prevent United from suffering a considerably heavier defeat.
21 December 1995: Martin O'Neill resigns after six months as Norwich manager to take over at Leicester City, and Division One bottom club Luton Town replace Terry Westley with Bradford City's Lennie Lawrence. England World Cup winner Jack Charlton resigns after nearly 10 years as manager of the Republic of Ireland national football team, following the nation’s failure to qualify for Euro 96.
22 December 1995: Bolton Wanderers, the bottom club in the Premier League, pay a club-record £1.2 million for Sheffield United striker Nathan Blake.
23 December 1995: Coventry City defeat Everton 2–1 at home. Robbie Fowler scores a hat-trick for Liverpool at home against Arsenal for the second season running in a 3–1 win. Newcastle United extend their lead to 10 points with a 3–1 win over Nottingham Forest. Middlesbrough go fifth with a 4–2 home win over West Ham. Derby go top of Division One with a 2–1 home win over Sunderland, who fall into second place.
24 December 1995: Newcastle remain 10 points ahead as their nearest rivals, Manchester United, lose 3–1 at Leeds United. The top two will meet in three days time for a showdown at Old Trafford.
26 December 1995: A Boxing Day London derby at Highbury sees Arsenal beat QPR 3–0 to send the hosts fifth in the Premier League and leave the hosts fourth from bottom.
27 December 1995: Manchester United cut the lead in the FA Premier League to seven points with a 2–0 home win against Newcastle with goals from Andy Cole and Roy Keane. The only other league action of the day sees Leeds keep their bid for a second successive UEFA Cup campaign on track with a 2–0 win over Bolton at Burnden Park.
30 December 1995: Manchester United reduce Newcastle's lead to four points with a 2–1 win against struggling Queens Park Rangers. Alan Shearer scores his 100th goal for Blackburn in a 2–1 home win against Tottenham.
1 January 1996: Manchester United suffer their heaviest Premier League defeat yet when they lose 4–1 to Tottenham at White Hart Lane. They are still four points behind Newcastle, but Kevin Keegan's team have two games in hand. Liverpool muscle in on the top two with a 4–2 home win over Nottingham Forest. Bolton remain rooted to the bottom of the table with a 4–2 defeat at Sheffield Wednesday.
2 January 1996: Roy McFarland is sacked as co-manager of Bolton Wanderers, with Colin Todd being put in sole charge. Newcastle United regain a seven-point by defeating Arsenal 2–0 at home.
6 January 1996: Ian Rush breaks Denis Law's FA Cup goal-scoring record with two goals for Liverpool in their 7–0 win over Rochdale in the third round. An 80th-minute goal by Eric Cantona forces a 2–2 draw for Manchester United against Sunderland at Old Trafford, taking the tie to a replay at Roker Park, in what could potentially be the old stadium’s final FA Cup game, as Sunderland’s new stadium at Monkwearmouth is expected to be completed in 18 months time.
10 January 1996: Terry Venables announces that he will resign as England manager after Euro 96 to concentrate on clearing his name in a legal dispute with Alan Sugar over his June 1993 dismissal from Tottenham Hotspur.
13 January 1996: Manchester United's title hopes are hit hard when they drop two points at home to Aston Villa, who hold them to a goalless draw. Their neighbours City are pushed deeper into relegation trouble with a 1–0 defeat at Tottenham, who move into third place. Down in Division One, Huddersfield boost their hopes of a second successive promotion with a 1–0 win at struggling Watford lifting them into second place. The Black Country derby ends in a goalless draw at the Hawthorns, with both Wolves and Albion on the brink of the relegation zone.
14 January 1996: Newcastle are now nine points ahead with a game in hand at the top of the Premier League with a 1–0 win at Coventry. Charlton go second in Division One with a thrilling 4–3 away win over Birmingham, whose own promotion hopes are hit hard as a result.
15 January 1996: Bryan Robson, Middlesbrough manager and England assistant manager, is reportedly in line to succeed Terry Venables as England manager after Euro 96.
16 January 1996: Sunderland take the lead against Manchester United in the FA Cup third round replay at Roker Park before Nicky Butt equalises and Andy Cole scores a late winner to give Alex Ferguson's team a 2–1 win and a fourth round clash with Reading at Elm Park.
17 January 1996: In the FA Cup third round, Sheffield United eliminate Arsenal with a 1-0 replay win at Bramall Lane in which Carl Veart scores the winning goal.
20 January 1996: Neil Ruddock and Robbie Fowler score twice each in Liverpool's 5–0 home win over Leeds United in the league. Newcastle United beat Bolton Wanderers 2–1 to go 12 points clear at the top of the table, ahead of Liverpool and Manchester United.
22 January 1996: Despite being reduced to 10 men after Nicky Butt was sent off, Manchester United still manage a 1–0 win over West Ham at Upton Park (where they last won seven years ago) thanks to an Eric Cantona goal which cuts Newcastle's lead to nine points, although the Tynesiders still have a game in hand.
23 January 1996: Blackburn Rovers block a move by the Irish Football Association to appoint their director of football, Kenny Dalglish, as the national coach.
24 January 1996: Out-of-favour Liverpool striker Nigel Clough is sold to Manchester City for £1.5 million.
27 January 1996: Manchester United defeat Reading 3–0 in the FA Cup fourth round at Elm Park on a weekend where most league and cup fixtures are cancelled due to heavy snow.
31 January 1996: January ends with Newcastle United still ahead of Manchester United at the top of the Premier League by nine points, with a game in hand. Manchester United sign Manchester City goalkeeper Tony Coton for £500,000 as cover for Peter Schmeichel. Derby County are top of Division One, with Charlton Athletic second. West Bromwich Albion are in danger of relegation less than three months after being among the leading promotion contenders, a goal away from the bottom three.
3 February 1996: Eric Cantona returnsto Selhurst Park for the first time since his flying kick the previous year, scoring twice as Manchester United defeat Wimbledon 4–2 to keep their title hopes alive. Newcastle are still nine points ahead with a game in hand, beating Sheffield Wednesday 2–0 at home. Liverpool are confined to third place after a goalless draw at home to Tottenham. Aston Villa go fourth win a 3–0 home win over Leeds.
4 February 1996: Gavin Peacock scores a hat-trick in Chelsea's 5–0 win against Middlesbrough.
5 February 1996: Millwall manager Mick McCarthy is appointed manager of the Republic of Ireland team, some 18 months after the end of his playing career for the national side.
6 February 1996: Wolverhampton Wanderers reserve midfielder Jimmy Kelly, 22, is jailed for five years for manslaughter following his part in a fight outside a Liverpool hotel in September 1994, in which a 26-year-old man died.
8 February 1996: The Department of Employment denies work permits to Marc Hottiger (who agreed to move from Newcastle United to Everton) and Ilie Dumitrescu (who agreed to move from Tottenham Hotspur to West Ham). Both clubs are set to appeal the decisions. Crystal Palace, 16th in Division One, appoint Dave Bassett manager, ending Steve Coppell's brief second spell as manager.
10 February 1996: Newcastle United pay a club record £6.7million for Parma and Colombia striker Faustino Asprilla, on the same day that they beat Middlesbrough 2–1 at the Riverside Stadium. Manchester United keep up the pressure with a goal from Lee Sharpe and a series of spectacular saves from Peter Schmeichel giving them a 1–0 home win over Blackburn.
14 February 1996: Former Liverpool manager Bob Paisley dies at 77 after several years of suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Everton surrender their defence of the FA Cup with a fourth-round replay defeat by Port Vale.
17 February 1996: Middlesbrough lose 4–1 at home to a resurgent Bolton Wanderers, while QPR also give their survival hopes a boost with a 3–1 win at Sheffield Wednesday. In Division One, new Crystal Palace manager Dave Bassett oversees a 4–0 home win over bottom club Watford which gives his side's hopes of reaching the playoffs a major boost. In the FA Cup third round, a Manchester derby at Old Trafford sees City take an early lead through Uwe Rosler before Eric Cantona scores a quick equaliser from the penalty spot, with Lee Sharpe finally getting the winning goal for the hosts.
20 February 1996: Glenn Roeder is sacked after nearly three years as manager of Watford. Away from the Division One relegation battle, Crystal Palace home in on the playoff places with a 3–2 win at Tranmere, who are now in the bottom half of the table after spending much of the first half of the season in the top six.
21 February 1996: The title race takes an unexpected turn when Newcastle lose 2–0 at West Ham, allowing Manchester United to cut their lead to six points with a 2–0 home win over Everton, although Kevin Keegan's men still have a game in hand.
22 February 1996: Former Wolves and England manager Graham Taylor is appointed manager of Watford for the second time.
24 February 1996: Manchester City hold Newcastle United to a 3–3 draw at Maine Road, meaning that the Premier League leaders still have a seven-point lead over Manchester United but no longer have the advantage of a game in hand. Liverpool remain in contention for the title, beating Blackburn 3–2 at Ewood Park.
25 February 1996: Newcastle's lead is cut to four points when Manchester United beat Bolton Wanderers 6–0 at Burnden Park, which also gives Alex Ferguson’s team a major boost to their goal difference.
28 February 1996: Swindon Town and Huddersfield Town, the last remaining non-Premier League teams in the FA Cup, are defeated in fifth-round replays. Liverpool announce that Ian Rush will be leaving on a free transfer at the end of the season.
2 March 1996: A much-changed Nottingham Forest team find their first away win since October with victory over Sheffield Wednesday. At the lower reaches of the table, Manchester City climb out of the relegation zone at the expense of Southampton, and bottom club Bolton win at Leeds to keep their survival hopes alive.
4 March 1996: Manchester United cut Newcastle United's lead to one point with a goal by Eric Cantona goal giving them a 1–0 win on Tyneside, following a series of thrilling saves by Peter Schmeichel.
5 March 1996: Arsenal's bid for a UEFA Cup place is bolstered with a 3–1 win over Manchester City at Highbury.
7 March 1996: Marc Hottiger and Ilie Dumitrescu receive work permits to complete their long-awaited transfers.
9 March 1996: Aston Villa boost their chances of making a late run to the title with a 4–2 home win over QPR, which deprives the visitors of vital points needed in their battle to avoid relegation.
11 March 1996: Manchester United remain in contention for a unique second double by defeating Southampton 2–0 in the FA Cup quarter-final at Old Trafford.
13 March 1996: Liverpool drop two points in their push for the title when they are held to a 2–2 draw at home to Wimbledon.
16 March 1996: Manchester United go top of the Premier League on goal difference, with a 1–1 away draw against Queens Park Rangers, Eric Cantona equalising after Denis Irwin scored an own goal.
18 March 1996: Newcastle regain their lead with a 3–0 home win against West Ham.
20 March 1996: An Eric Cantona goal from 25 yards puts Manchester United level on points at the top as they beat Arsenal 1–0 at Old Trafford.
23 March 1996: Arsenal aid Manchester United's title bid by defeating Newcastle United 2–0 at Highbury, sending Alex Ferguson's team back to the top on goal difference.
24 March 1996: Aston Villa beat Leeds United 3–0 in the League Cup final to equal Liverpool's record of five victories in the competition. Manchester United defeat Tottenham Hotspur 1-0 for a three-point lead over Newcastle. Eric Cantona scores the only goal of the game.
25 March 1996: To celebrate England's hosting of the European Championships, an edition of stamps commemorating five legends of the English game is released. After a public poll, Dixie Dean, Bobby Moore, Duncan Edwards, Billy Wright and Danny Blanchflower were selected.
28 March 1996: Manchester City sign Georgian striker Mikhail Kavelashvili from Alania Vladikavkaz for £1.4 million.
30 March 1996: Queens Park Rangers beat Southampton 3–0 at Loftus Road to keep their Premier League survival hopes alive. In the race for a UEFA Cup place, Andrei Kanchelskis scores twice as Everton beat Blackburn 3–0.
3 April 1996: Liverpool defeat Newcastle United 4–3 in a thrilling game where Robbie Fowler and Stan Collymore both scored twice for the hosts, helping keep Newcastle in second and boosting Manchester United's title bid, as well as boosting Liverpool’s own slim title hopes.
5 April 1996: Middlesbrough move closer to survival and mid-table security with a 3–1 home win against Sheffield Wednesday, who are still in a precarious position.
6 April 1996: Manchester United retained their lead in the Premier League with a 3–2 win over City in the Manchester derby at Maine Road, putting the hosts deeper into relegation trouble.
8 April 1996: Coventry City defender David Busst sustains a compound leg fracture in the 1-0 Premier League defeat by Manchester United at Old Trafford. Busst is expected to be out of action for at least a year and may never be fully fit to play professional football again. United moved closer to the title with Newcastle's 2–1 defeat by Blackburn. Queens Park Rangers kept their survival bid alive by defeating Everton 3–1. Bolton Wanderers also kept their survival hopes alive by defeating Chelsea, 2–1.
12 April 1996: 37-year-old striker John Aldridge is appointed player-manager of Tranmere Rovers, succeeding John King, who steps down as manager after nine years.
13 April 1996: Mark Hughes scores his first hat-trick for Chelsea as they defeat Leeds United 4–1 at Stamford Bridge. His old club Manchester United lose 3–1 at Southampton but still have a six-point lead at the top of the Premier League, while the win is a big boost to Southampton's survival bid.
14 April 1996: Newcastle kept their title challenge alive by defeating Aston Villa 1–0, cutting Manchester United's lead to three points.
16 April 1996: The Merseyside derby at Goodison Park ended in a 1–1 draw, with Andrei Kanchelskis scoring for Everton and Robbie Fowler for Liverpool.
17 April 1996: Manchester United and Newcastle United won 1–0 at home (against Leeds United and Southampton, respectively), keeping Manchester's lead at three points. Roy Keane scores the only goal of the game against 10-man Leeds, whose goalkeeper Mark Beeney is sent off.
20 April 1996: Sunderland win promotion to the Premier League, ending their five-year absence from the top flight, meaning that the north-East’s three top clubs will all be in the top flight for the first time since the 1970s.
22 April 1996: England midfielder Paul Gascoigne publicly asks Terry Venables to remain as national team manager.
25 April 1996: Bryan Robson agrees to remain as manager of Middlesbrough until at least the end of the 1999–2000 season, effectively ending speculation that he will take over as the England manager if Terry Venables follows through with his intention to resign this summer.
27 April 1996: Bolton Wanderers are relegated after one season in the Premier League, losing 1–0 at home to Southampton. Although Queens Park Rangers defeat West Ham United 3–0, it is too late to save their 13-year tenure in the top flight. Manchester City boost their survival bid with a 1–0 win over Aston Villa, as do Coventry City with a 2–0 win over Wimbledon.
28 April 1996: A 5–0 home win against Nottingham Forest moves Manchester United closer to their third league title in four seasons.
29 April 1996: The Football Association offer Chelsea manager Glenn Hoddle the England manager's job. Hoddle, in management since taking over at Swindon Town five years ago, took his first club into the Premier League in 1993 before taking over at Chelsea, guiding them to an FA Cup final and a European semi-final. Newcastle United defeat Leeds 1–0, with Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan ranting on live television against his opposite number at Manchester United, Alex Ferguson.
2 May 1996: Chelsea boss Glenn Hoddle agreed to a four-year contract as England manager after the European Football Championships. Former Manchester City chairman Peter Swales dies of a heart attack at 63. Newcastle United are held to a 1–1 draw at Nottingham Forest, helping leaders Manchester United move closer to the title.
5 May 1996: Manchester United clinched the Premier League title with a 3–0 away win against Middlesbrough on the season's final day, also clinching a place in the European Cup. Runners-up Newcastle, who have gone without winning a league title since 1927 and had a 12-point lead in January, are held to a 1–1 draw at Tottenham, who finish eighth and miss out on a UEFA Cup place. Liverpool finish third and draw 2–2 at Maine Road with Manchester City, who are relegated on goal difference, while Coventry and Southampton avoid the drop, both finishing the season with goalless draws. Liverpool will compete in next season's Cup Winners' Cup, while fourth placed Aston Villa and fifth placed Arsenal will join Newcastle in the UEFA Cup. Down in Division One, Millwall are relegated five months after being top of the table, going down on the final day with Watford, while Luton's relegation was confirmed before the final game. Champions Sunderland and runners-up Derby have already secured automatic promotion, while Crystal Palace, Stoke, Leicester and Charlton will contest the playoffs.
10 May 1996: Ruud Gullit accepted Chelsea's offer to become their player-manager, replacing Glenn Hoddle. Gullit, 33, is set become the youngest manager in the Premier League and one of the first foreign managers in the English game.
11 May 1996: Manchester United become the first English team to repeat the "double" when a late Eric Cantona goal gives them a 1–0 win over Liverpool in the FA Cup final.
14 May 1996: Middlesbrough agree to sign FC Porto's Brazilian midfielder Emerson for £4million.
18 May 1996: England beat Hungary 3–0 in a friendly witnessed by incoming Three Lions manager Glenn Hoddle and his second-in-command John Gorman. A Darren Anderton goal in each half coming either side of David Platt's 27th international goal.
19 May 1996: Ian Rush agrees to sign for Leeds United on a free transfer on 1 June, after spending 15 of the last 16 years with Liverpool.
20 May 1996: Glenn Hoddle agrees to play for Chelsea in a posthumous testimonial match for the former Swindon Town physio Kevin Morris.
24 May 1996: Gianluca Vialli agrees to sign for Chelsea on a free transfer from Juventus, who won the European Cup two days ago. Gary Speed agrees to join Everton from Leeds United for £3.5million.
27 May 1996: Although England's 22-man squad for Euro 96 has yet to be confirmed, it is reported that 35-year-old Newcastle United forward Peter Beardsley is no longer being considered for a place in the squad.
28 May 1996: Leicester City win promotion back to the Premier League with a 2–1 win against Crystal Palace at Wembley Stadium, with Steve Claridge scoring the winner during the final minute of extra time. England's Euro 96 squad is announced, but does not include Peter Beardsley, Ugo Ehiogu, Dennis Wise, Robert Lee and Jason Wilcox. Stuart Pearce, who is the oldest player in the England squad at 34, signs a three-year contract with Nottingham Forest.
8 June 1996: FIFA mandates licensing for all football agents involved in transfers. The Premier League announces that teams would be able to select five substitutes on the match squad (increased from three), although only three could be used, for the 1996–97 season.
26 June 1996: England bow out of Euro 96 in the semi-final when a Gareth Southgate penalty miss put them out after a 1–1 draw with Germany. Alan Shearer had put England ahead in the third minute before Stefan Kuntz equalised, and a German goal in extra time was disallowed before the whistle blew for 120 minutes. The defeat sparks a night of rioting in British towns and cities including London, Birmingham, Swindon, Bedford, Dunstable, Bradford and Solihull.
30 June 1996: Euro 96 is won by Germany, who defeat the Czech Republic 2–1 at Wembley despite the Czechs taking an early lead through a Patrik Berger penalty. Oliver Bierhoff scores both of Germany's goals.
Transfer deals
For subsequent transfer deals see 1996-97 in English football.
Notable debutants
26 August 1995: Michael Brown, 18-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for Manchester City in a 1–0 defeat to QPR at Loftus Road in the Premier League.
13 January 1996: Ian Harte, 18-year-old left-back, makes his debut as a substitute in a 2–0 home win for Leeds United against West Ham United in the Premier League.
31 January 1996: Frank Lampard, 17-year-old midfielder, makes his debut for West Ham United—where his father Frank Lampard made over 650 appearances—in their 3–2 home win over Coventry City in the Premier League.
30 March 1996: Harry Kewell, 18-year-old Australian winger, makes his debut for Leeds United against Middlesbrough in the Premier League.
5 May 1996: Rio Ferdinand, 18-year-old central defender, makes his debut for West Ham United in their 1–1 home draw with Sheffield Wednesday on the final day of the Premier League season.
Retirements
19 July 1995: Alan Smith, 32-year-old Arsenal striker who helped them win five major trophies since joining them in 1987, retires after failing to recover from an ankle injury.
10 October 1995: Clive Allen, 34-year-old striker, retires after being given a free transfer by Carlisle United after playing just three games for them in Division Two. His best days came at Tottenham Hotspur, where he scored 49 goals in all competitions in the 1986–87 season and was voted PFA Player of the Year.
16 October 1995: David O'Leary, 37-year-old Leeds United defender, retires due to an Achilles injury after 18 months out of action.
11 November 1995: Jimmy Case, 41-year-old Brighton & Hove Albion player-manager, announces his retirement from playing. Case, who is best known for his time at Liverpool and Southampton, was the oldest outfield player registered in the English Football League or Premier League.
11 November 1995: Simon Webster, 31-year-old West Ham United defender, retires after failing to recover from a broken leg suffered in a training ground collision with Julian Dicks.
4 January 1996: Paul Lake, 27-year-old Manchester City midfielder, retires after failing to recover from a succession of knee injuries which had seen him out of action for more than three years and play just six times in as many seasons. He underwent numerous operations to try to regain full fitness, but was unsuccessful.
Deaths
July 1995 – John Marshall, 16, England Youth international who died suddenly from a heart defect just before he was due to sign an apprenticeship with Everton.
13 July 1995 – Garth Butler, 72, played 134 games at full-back for Port Vale after the end of World War II, before an ankle injury halted his career in 1951.
August 1995 – Dennis Allen, 56, was a former player of Charlton Athletic, Reading and Portsmouth. He was a member of a strong footballing family, being the father of Martin Allen, the brother of Les Allen, and the uncle of Paul Allen, Clive Allen and Bradley Allen.
23 August 1995 – Johnny Carey, 76, former Manchester United defender and Republic of Ireland international. Won the league in 1952, and the FA Cup in 1948. Later managed a number of clubs, including Blackburn Rovers, Everton, Leyton Orient and Nottingham Forest.
14 September 1995 – Harold Shepherdson, 76, longtime assistant coach for the England national team, a role he held during England's 1966 World Cup victory.
21 September 1995 – Michael Millett, 17, Wigan Athletic defender, died in a car crash one day before his 18th birthday. Had played three times for his club and was tipped by many to reach the highest level.
25 September 1995 – Dave Bowen, 67, former Arsenal and Northampton Town defender, who won 19 caps for Wales and represented his country at the 1958 World Cup. Later became Northampton's most successful manager of all time, guiding the Cobblers from the fourth to the first division in four seasons.
28 September 1995 – Albert Johanneson, 55, South African winger who played for Leeds United during the 1960s and played in their first league championship winning team in 1969. Moved to York City a year later. Died alone at his tower block flat in Leeds.
23 October 1995 – James Mangham, 88, one of the oldest surviving league players, played twice in goal in the Third Division North for Nelson in the late 1920s.
30 October 1995 – William "Taffy" Davies, 85, played 284 league games on the wing for Watford between 1930 and 1950, his career being disrupted by World War II. His only international recognition for Wales came in 1944 when he played for the wartime national side.
25 November 1995 – Alan Nicholls, 22, former Plymouth Argyle goalkeeper, was killed in a motorcycle crash near Peterborough which also claimed the life of the motorcyclist whose motorcycle he was a passenger on. At the time of his death, was playing for Stalybridge Celtic in the Conference after a brief spell at Gillingham.
14 December 1995 – Eddie Clamp, 61, played 214 times at wing-half for Wolverhampton Wanderers between 1953 and 1961, during which time the club won three league titles and an FA Cup. Was capped four times for England. Signed for Arsenal in 1961, later playing for Stoke City before playing his last senior game in 1965 for Peterborough United.
29 December 1995 – Harry Cripps, 54, played 400 league games in Millwall's defence between 1961 and 1974, during which time Millwall enjoyed a 59-match unbeaten run at home at reached the Second Division with two successive promotions. Finished his career at Charlton Athletic, later serving the South London side as a coach, before moving into management with non-league Barking and then back in the Football League at Southend United.
11 January 1996 – Bobby Cowell, 73, spent his entire playing career at Newcastle United, making 289 appearances in the league as a defender between 1946 and 1955, winning three FA Cups before his career was ended by injury.
13 January 1996 – Bobby Langton, 77, former Blackburn Rovers and Preston North End left-winger who also won 11 caps for England.
16 January 1996 – Harry Potts, 75, former Burnley player and manager. Played 165 league games for the Charets between 1946 and 1950, and was appointed manager in 1958, a post he held until 1970, winning the 1959-60 league championship. He also had a second spell as Burnley manager between 1977 and 1979.
16 January 1996 – Dai Ward, 61, former Bristol Rovers, Cardiff City, Watford and Brentford striker who made over 300 appearances in the Football League, averaging just over a goal every other game, and won two caps for Wales.
9 February 1996 – Neil Franklin, 74, an outstanding centre-half with Stoke City, winning 27 England caps. In 1950, he agreed to join Santa Fé of the non-FIFA sanctioned Colombian league where he would allegedly receive "ten times his English wages", but returned to England disillusioned and never played top-flight football again.
14 February 1996 – Bob Paisley, 77, former Liverpool manager who won a total of 21 trophies (including six league titles and three European Cups) between 1974 and 1983. He had previously been employed by the club as a player and later as a coach. After retiring, he remained at the club as a director and later president. At the time of his death he was still the most successful manager in English football.
8 March 1996 – Alan Brown, 81, played 148 games as a centre-half for Huddersfield Town, Burnley and Notts County between 1933 and 1949. Later coached at Sheffield Wednesday before managing Burnley and Sunderland before returning to Sheffield Wednesday as manager, then managing Sunderland again before his managerial career ended in dismissal in November 1972, six months before his Roker Park successor Bob Stokoe guided the club to FA Cup glory.
16 March 1996 – Dennis Jennings, 85, became Birmingham City's oldest player when he made his final appearance for them in May 1950 just before his 40th birthday, the last of 192 league appearances for the club he had first joined in 1936, having previously played for Huddersfield Town and Grimsby Town.
1 May 1996 – Eric Houghton, 85, managed Aston Villa to a then record seventh FA Cup triumph in 1957, having served as a player for two decades after signing for them in 1927, scoring more than 200 goals in all competitions. He was also capped seven times by England. Houghton was the great-uncle of former England goalkeeper Chris Woods.
2 May 1996 – Peter Swales, 63, who was chairman of Manchester City from 1973 to 1993, died after suffering a heart attack.
15 June 1996 – Allenby Chilton, 77, was centre-half in Manchester United's FA Cup winning side of 1948 and league champions of 1952, playing a total of nearly 400 games for the club between 1938 and 1955, when he transferred to Grimsby Town to become player-manager after losing his place in Matt Busby's team to Mark Jones, who went on to lose his life in the Munich crash of 1958. Chilton was capped twice by England in the early 1950s.
References |
4081374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Museum%20of%20Costume | National Museum of Costume | The National Museum of Costume was located at Shambellie House, in New Abbey, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland and it formed part of the National Museums of Scotland. The museum started operating in 1982.
The museum allowed a look at fashion and the lifestyle of the wealthy from the 1850s to the 1950s. The clothes were presented in lifelike room settings. In January 2013, National Museums Scotland announced that the National Museum of Costume was to close and the site would not reopen for 2013.
Construction
Shambellie House is a Victorian country house and was designed by the Scottish architect David Bryce in 1856 for the Stewart family. Charles William Stewart's father had inherited Shambellie House before World War II. In 1976, Charles W. Stewart gave the costume collection he had built up over several years to the Royal Scottish Museum and handed over Shambellie House to the Department of the Environment.
Rooms
Each of the rooms presents clothes in different periods and for different events. The portrait paintings one can see around the house show the Stewart family.
Dining room
The dining room presents a scene in summer 1895.
"See the family members gathering for a summer evening party. The gentleman and lady of the house in evening wear ready to welcome further guests. A cold collation is already laid out, whilst the butler is arranging glasses on the side table.
Highlights include a beautiful selection of evening dresses and also a mourning dress, of black satin, trimmed with jet. The mourning process in Edwardian and Victorian society followed a strict code.
Furniture and paintings include a rosewood sideboard by Alexander Burgess, about 1890, a marble clock and matching vases, part of the original 19th century furnishings of the room, and an oak inlaid plinth, one of a pair designed by William Burges for Ruthin Castle, Wales, and is dated 1853. Also in the Dining Room is a portrait of Bethia Donaldson, the second wife of William Stewart (1750-1844) and mother of the William Stewart who built Shambellie."
Drawing room
A scene in May 1945 is presented in the drawing room.
"Members of the household and a visitor are gathering excitedly to listen to the latest news about the Second World War on the wireless. The room is furnished with 19th century sofa and chairs, a tea service is English porcelain about 1900, a display of nineteenth century ceramics, a gramophone dating from the 1920s and a portrait of Queen Victoria.
Shortages of fabrics during the war forced the introduction of the Utility Scheme in June 1941. All garments, even handkerchiefs, had to carry the CC41 symbol, indicating that they conformed to the regulated fabric amounts. This extended to all household textiles including tea towels as well as to furniture and other household items. The scheme continued until 1949. The hostess wears a printed rayon dress that bears the Utility label. 'Make Do and Mend' was one of the many war time slogans designed to encourage the public to recycle old out-of-date clothes.
A child's dress on display is a perfect example of this as it has been altered from an adult's and dates to 1943. The family are welcoming guests to afternoon tea - wartime food rationing would make the home-made scones, jam and cake on offer a very special treat."
Library
In the library, one can observe a scene which plays on 31 December 1952.
"It is 31 December 1952 and the family have been invited to the annual Hogmanay Ball by the Dumfries Chamber of Commerce at the Assembly Rooms. Father, mother and daughter are just gathering their bags, gloves and coats. On display are lovely examples of 1950s evening dresses including the daughter's dress, c1950, which is made of black machine made cotton lace over black taffeta with festoon and raised flower decorations made of sequins and beads and pink nylon "horsehair" rosettes with pearlised edges, made by the Cruikshank Salon, Greensmith Downes, Princes Street. Edinburgh.
Several prints hang on the walls, all connected to the Stewart family. A portrait of Captain William Stewart (1879 -1930) hangs over the fireplace, commissioned from David Alison in about 1913. On either side of the fireplace hang portraits of William Craik of Arbigland (artist unknown) and his wife, Elizabeth Stewart of Shambellie, by William de Nune, painted in the 1740s"
Hall
"The hall of any house is intended to say something important about its owner. For someone visiting the house for the first time it would convey the owner's status, wealth and taste. They would be asked to wait in the hall for some time giving them a chance to survey the paintings, furniture and other trophies. Hopefully they would be suitably impressed!
In the hall of Shambellie House stands a grandfather clock by D Duff, Paisley, mid 19th century and a long bench, one of several used until recently in the library of the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, Queen Street, Edinburgh.
There are photographs of William Stewart of Shambellie, the builder of the house, and his wife, Katherine Hardie and portrait of his father, also William Stewart (1750-1844) painted in about 1790 by an unknown artist."
Upstairs landing
"The linen cupboard shows some of the Museum's collection of household linen, other soft furnishings and lavender bags.
Strict regimes were often laid down about household linen; items were often marked as to what belonged to each room and exact timetables were adhered to for changing beds and towels.
Laundry was usually done once a week with one or two people from the village being brought in especially for the extremely heavy work of boiling, washing, drying and ironing. Fine and delicate items would be laundered separately.
Winter curtains and other furnishings were often changed for summer ones in the spring and vice-versa. The un-used sets being cleaned and store in cupboards such as these. Lavender and other perfumed sachets were employed to give the linens a sweet smell and to keep away moths.
Along the bedroom corridors are hung various engravings including fashion plates and portraits."
Bedroom
A day in September 1945 is shown in the bedroom.
"In this room visitors see an older woman and her granddaughter are getting dressed for a local ball to celebrate the end of British military action in the Far East. The Second World War is usually taken to have ended on the 8th of May 1945 when fighting ceased in Europe. However many British families and communities had to wait until the autumn to celebrate the homecoming of loved ones
The grandmother is wearing a black satin evening dress with a pattern of flowers and leaves in green and cream. It is in a typical 1940s style with broad shoulders and a sweet-heart neckline. New long dresses were not available to buy during the war, so it may have been adapted from an existing dress, or made from material bought before 1939. Everyone in Britain had the same restricted access to new clothing during the war. However, the wealthier sections of society began the war with bigger wardrobes and therefore it was easier for them to 'keep up appearances'.
Her granddaughter is wearing a red velvet dress of 1943, which has been made from adult's clothing. This is another good example of how even wealthy people had to 'Make do and Mend' during the war.
A set of brushes and bottles on the dressing table were a wedding present to Mrs Kathleen Bibby in 1932. The hairdryer is typical of those used in the 1930s.
Country houses can be notoriously cold, even in September, therefore the grandmother has the luxury of an electric hot water bottle to ensure a good night's sleep. A 1930's electric fire stands in the hearth.
The rug is from Sanandaj, Iran about 1870."
Playroom
A scene of an early evening in August 1913 is presented in the playroom.
"Here we see the nanny is caring for the latest addition to the family. Toys, clothes and baby paraphernalia are strewn around the room. Centre stage is a beautifully carved wooden rocking horse.
In this scene the mother is off to an afternoon function and wears a high-waisted day dress, circa1910, made of maroon wool with a woven strip with a deep band of net edged with maroon velvet forms a low decorative collar; this is heavily embroidered with silk and metal thread.
The little boy wears a traditional white summer sailor suit. The young Prince Edward first started the trend for sailor suits when he posed for a portrait by the painter Winterhalter in 1846 dressed in an exact replica made by the official naval outfitters. It remained a popular outfit for boys throughout the second part of the 19th and early 20th century. Wide brimmed straw hats trimmed with a ribbon complemented these.
A high chair, perambulator and wheeled baby chair are also on display.
Samplers are also displayed around the walls - these are typically Scottish and reflect the themes young girls would have been encouraged to use as suitable subjects whilst learning the different techniques of embroidery and needlework.
Alongside these are paintings of Dorothea and Euphemia Stewart, the 14th and 15th children of William Stewart (1750 -1844) and his first wife, Anne Murray, painted in about 1803 by John Allen of Dumfries."
Room with a view
"This former bedroom has the best views in the house and has been deliberately left so that visitors can circulate freely and appreciate why this site was chosen for the house. On the walls some information is given about the village of New Abbey and the building of Shambellie.
From one of the windows the ruins of Sweetheart Abbey can just be seen and on a clear day, in the far distance, the hills of Cumbria. Criffel, the mountain that dominates the skyline for miles around, can be seen from the other window. All around are the woods and forestry plantations of the Shambellie estate.
In the next door rooms are displayed some of the pieces from Charles Stewart's collection which do not fit into the themes or time-scale of the period rooms. At present the theme is fancy dress. Fancy dress was extremely popular for parties and balls in Victorian times. People sometimes posed for portraits in costumes from classical or romantic costume and a number of wonderful costumes are on display including an '18th century Venetian woman' outfit probably from the 1930s, a Pierrot costume made from curtaining material, and worn by Sydney E Taylor, who won First Prize in it at a ball on board ship for Brazil about 1920-5 and part of an 1890s 'Knave of Hearts' costume."
Bathroom
One can watch an early morning scene in November 1905 in the bathroom.
"A Paisley shawl is hung on a towel rail in front of the bath. These shawls were highly fashionable for women's daywear until around 1870. By 1905 a beautiful Paisley shawl might still have been used to visit a chilly country house bathroom.
The lady has braved the elements allowing a glimpse of her beautifully embroidered cotton nightgown of about 1905. She has rolled her hair in strips of cotton the night before. This was a popular way to ensure curled hair.
The bidet is late 18th century and was bequeathed to the Museum by Lady Clementina Waring.
The linen is from the Museum collections and the other items are lent by the Stewart family."
Sitting room
A late summer afternoon in 1882 is presented in the sitting room.
"The home, in Victorian times, was regarded as a haven from the busy world of commerce and politics outside. It was the domain of women who were expected to create cosy, comfortable surroundings. Women strove to be respectable, capable and accomplished home-makers who had to manage servants, budgets and plan menus for the household. Pastimes of this period reflected this ideal of domesticity in sewing and embroidery as well as painting, drawing, reading and playing music.
This room features four figures in clothes that date from the 1873 to early 1880s period. It was typical of the time that some people wore more up-to-date styles than others; whether people wore the very latest fashions depended on their tastes, income and also their age.
This period saw many changes in the fashionable body shape or silhouette that are clearly shown by the outfits displayed. All four dresses are examples of the bustle style, which was a way of exaggerating the size and shape of the bottom through the use of specialised underwear.
A purple silk dress highlights the fact that new technologies were being developed in the Victorian era. In the 1850s aniline dyes, the first synthetic dyes were invented and one of the first to be developed was aniline purple. This dress would have been worn by the most fashionable woman in the room as its shape and ruched, or gathered, detailing is typical of styles that can be seen in fashion plates and journals of the early 1880s.
A grey, silk dress on show was originally worn in 1873 by a Scottish bride, reflecting the popular practice of the time to wear coloured, formal day clothes for a wedding. White wedding dresses appeared from the mid-eighteenth century and became commonly worn from around 1800.
In the fireplace stands an embroidered fire screen with Daniel in the Lions Den, dating from about 1850-60. On the mantelpiece two hand screens can be seen that were used to shield the face from the fire."
Accessories room
"No outfit is ever complete without the right accessories. The plainest of dresses can look the height of glamour with the right bag & shoes. Fans & parasols are not so common now but were once an essential part of attire for the well dressed woman. The decoration lavished on these small articles is often quite stunning; their very size meant that expensive and even exotic materials were used to provide that unique look.
Here you can see beetle wing cases, tortoiseshell, ivory, pearls, feathers from exotic birds, and even in one case a whole humming-bird! (Attitudes have changed quite a lot to the use of animals in adornment)."
Changes in costume
The way people dress changed over the years. Today's fashion is completely different from the fashion that was worn from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century.
From 1850 - 1900
The 1850s are well known for the crinolines, which reached greatest popularity around 1860. The crinolines were made of whalebone and were covered with layers of flounced petticoats. The dresses were made of several materials such as brocade, taffeta, silk and velvet. There was a difference between dresses for the day and dresses for the evening. Dark coloured fabrics were usually used for day dresses. In complete contrast to this, the evening dresses were usually white. Very fashionable were also flounced dresses with flower prints, stripes and bands. The sleeves were worn wider; they were no longer fitted to the wrist.
Flounced dresses went out of fashion soon and women began to wear skirts over the crinoline frames. But not only the fabric changed, the colour did, too. There were used warmer tones like brown and dark red.
In the late 1860s, the crinolines disappeared and the bustles came into fashion in the 1870s. This led to a change in the dresses' shapes. The bustle, retained at the back, was worn under petticoats. Because of this bustle the gowns often had elaborate folds at the back. Typical for this type of dresses was the front fastening bodice. The bodice was used for shaping the body from the shoulder to the hips. In the 1880s, the so-called "princess line" was very fashionable. The princess line is defined by a bodice and a skirt which doesn't have a waist seam. The sleeves changed from wider to close fitting again. Special for the evening dresses were the short puffed sleeves. Also typical for this time were dresses made of two textiles and two colours. Usually, colours such as white, blue, lilac, grey, pink and pale brown were used but in the 1880s the colours became stronger.
From 1900 - 1950
Probably the most important factors that influenced fashion worn in the first half of the 20th century were the Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945).
At the beginning of the century, the bulky skirts were replaced by the sheath line silhouette. The first hobble skirts showed up. They were close-fitting and often seemed to shackle below the knee. The hobble skirt period lasted for about 5 years. It ended in 1914 when the Great War began.
As already mentioned, the South African War also played a role in fashion. It influenced the design and colouring of women's dress. Examples for the influence are khaki hats and blouses with red applications or yellow skirts. Khaki, red and yellow are colours that can be found in traditional clothing of African peoples.
The Edwardian era (1901–1910) introduced a new style in women's underclothing. The underclothing was very different from the one that was worn in the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, people became aware of the sex attraction underclothing is capable to display. Also en vogue was the so-called "Ulster". "Ulster" was the name that was used for certain top coats. Three-quarter and full-length capes with wide revers were very common at this time. In 1907, women wore coats that looked like men's morning coats and in 1908 ground-length coats came into fashion. In 1909, the so-called full-length or half-length "Russian" coat became popular. The "Russian" coat was characterized by a belt and an embroidered border. Coats with horizontal decoration bands or with big buttons became fashionable, too.
The changes in fashion which had begun at the very beginning of the 20th century were suppressed by new styles that arose during World War I. Between 1913 and 1916, the brassiere was introduced and the emphasis in evening dresses was put on the bosom. However, from 1915 on, skirts became wider and shorter and the cut of jackets and coats was influenced by the army officer's tunic. In 1918, waists and the bosom did not play a big role anymore. The middle of the body became more important. This resulted in the attempt to introduce a "National Standard Dress", which ended unsuccessfully.
After the war there was a backsliding in fashion to 1913. Skirts were longer and the hobble skirt was en vogue again; but also tight tube-like dresses were worn in these days. This led to a reduction of the mass of underclothing and put more emphasis on the body itself.
From 1920 to 1930, the focus in fashion was on youth. This was an effect of the war since the death of many young men resulted in a glorification of the male youth. It became typical for girls to flatten their breasts and to hide their waist since this was the ideal of a girl in this time. The beginning recovery of economy might be the factor that brought a change in fashion again in 1925. Women's clothes, especially evening wear, were cut in a more feminine line but important to mention the ideal of the youthfulness was still alive. The first skirts with a flare and flounces were introduced. As the skirts had been very short up to that point, from 1928 on they became longer.
Also important to mention is the emergence of the zip fastener. First used in the U.S. Navy, it was found in 1925 in Britain, too.
With the Great Depression came the change to a feminine ideal of womanliness again. The waist line was put higher and the skirts became longer. In addition, the cut of women's clothes was more complex, which made a more elegant silhouette. In contrast to the day costume, the evening costume exudes much more sex appeal.
Furthermore, royal occasions had influence on fashion in the 1930s, e.g. the marriage of the Duke of Kent to Princess Marina of Greece in 1934, the Silver Jubilee of King George V in 1935 and the Coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937. The wardrobes of women with fashion awareness contained Marina hats, Jubilee blue and Royal purple.
During World War II, the woman's wardrobe was reduced to a minimum. In 1942, "utility" clothes were introduced. The utility clothes included suits, dresses and top coats. The standard patterns for these clothes were produced by a committee of designers. The prices for these clothes were controlled. Something special about it was the label that looked like a double crescent, which all clothes carried. The "utility" clothes should create a uniform style for all civilians, even though the manufactures achieved differences in the clothes.
The end of war brought a tenor among women for anti-uniforms, longer skirts and curves. After the traditional materials reappeared, the new synthetics and plastics came up in 1946. Christian Dior created the "New Look" in France at this time. This look did not find real acceptance in Britain.
In 1949, the next remarkable change in costume started. The skirts length was reduced from very long to thirteen inches from the ground. The shape was a middle course between wide and slim.
As a lot of women had to wear trousers during the war, they began to wear trousers by choice at this point.
Together with the synthetics and plastics, nylon also emerged in 1946. In the post-war years, nylon was available for people from ex-R.A.F. parachutes. People began to make blouses, lingerie, children's wear, curtains and several other things out of these parachutes.
Site closure
As a consequence of the economic recession, National Museums Scotland announced the site was to close in January 2013.
References
Bibliography
Alan Mansfield & Phillis Cunnington (1973). Handbook of English Costume in the Twentieth century, 1900-1950. London: Faber and Faber Limited,
Iris Brooke (1972). A History of English Costume. New York: Theatre Arts Books
External links
National Museums Scotland website
Costume
Museums in Dumfries and Galloway
Fashion museums in the United Kingdom
Historic house museums in Dumfries and Galloway |
4081389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther%20Bible | Luther Bible | The Luther Bible () is a German language Bible translation by the Protestant reformer Martin Luther. A New Testament translation by Luther was first published in September 1522, and the completed Bible, containing a translation of the Old and New Testaments with Apocrypha, in 1534. Luther continued to make improvements to the text until 1545. It was the first full translation of the Bible into German that used not only the Latin Vulgate but also the Greek.
Luther did not translate the entire Bible by himself; he relied on a team of translators and helpers that included Philip Melanchthon, a scholar of Koine Greek who motivated and assisted Luther's New Testament translation from Greek, and Matthäus Aurogallus, a linguist and scholar of Hebrew. One of the textual bases of the New Testament translation was the Latin and Greek versions, and its philological annotations, recently published by the Dutch Catholic humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam and called the Novum Testamentum omne (1519).
The project absorbed Luther's later years. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany, promoting the development of non-local forms of language and exposing all speakers to forms of German from outside their own areas. Thanks to the then recently invented printing press, the result was widely disseminated and contributed significantly to the development of today's modern High German language.
Previous German translations
A number of Bible translations into German, both manuscript and printed, were produced prior to Luther's birth. Starting around the year 1460 at least eighteen complete German Bible editions, ninety editions in the vernacular of the Gospels and the readings of the Sundays and Holy Days, and some fourteen German Psalters were printed, sometimes in multiple editions. These were all translations from the Latin Vulgate not influenced by the emerging Hebrew and Greek scholarship.
Luther's New Testament translation
While he was sequestered in the Wartburg Castle for three months (Dec 8, 1521–early March 1522), Luther began to translate the New Testament from Latin and Greek into German in order to make it more accessible to all the people of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German nation".
Luther used Erasmus' second edition (1519) of the Latin New Testament with Greek (later developed into the Textus Receptus) and annotations. After leaving the castle, he revised passages obscure to him with the assistance of Greek specialist Phillip Melanchthon. Like Erasmus, Luther had learned some Greek at the Latin schools led by the Brethren of the Common Life (Erasmus in Deventer, the Netherlands; and Luther in Magdeburg, Germany). These lay brothers had added Greek as a new subject to their curriculum in the late 15th century. At that time Greek was seldom taught even at universities.
Known as the "September Bible", this translation included only the New Testament and was printed in September 1522. Luther also published the Bible in the small octavo format.
To help him in translating into contemporary German, Luther made forays into nearby towns and markets to listen to people speaking. He wanted to ensure their comprehension by translating as closely as possible to their contemporary language usage. This translation, known as the "September Bible", was published in September 1522, six months after he had returned to Wittenberg. In the opinion of the 19th-century theologian and church historian Philip Schaff,
The same writer notes
Old Testament translation
The Old Testament was translated using a Masoretic text of Soncino, the Vulgate of Jerome, the Septuagint, and, later, Latin versions by Santes Pagnino and by Sebastian Münster.
Publication of the complete Bible translation
The translation of the entire Bible into German was published in a six-part edition in 1534, a collaborative effort of Luther and many others such as Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Caspar Creuziger, Philipp Melanchthon, Matthäus Aurogallus, and Georg Rörer. Luther worked on refining the translation up to his death in 1546; he had worked on the edition that was printed that year.
The 1534 edition issued by the Hans Lufft press in Wittenberg included 117 original woodcuts. This reflected the recent trend (since 1522) of including artwork to reinforce the textual message.
Luther's Bible was a bestseller in its time. About 200,000 copies in hundreds of reprinted editions appeared before Luther died in 1546. However, the book remained too expensive for most people; an unbound copy of the complete 1534 Bible cost the equivalent of a month's wages for the average laborer. Instead, the Bible was bought by churches, pastors, and schools.
Johannes Bugenhagen published a Middle Low German version in 1534.
Editions and revisions
Revisions were made during and after Luther's lifetime, sometimes with multiple editions in a single year. The 1530 edition is regarded as his most thoroughgoing revision of the New Testament. The successive revisions were less constrained by Latin and Greek.
In 2017, a revised version was published for the 500th anniversary of the posting of the Ninety-five Theses.
Books of the Luther Bible
The complete 1534 edition of the Luther Bible contains a total of 75 books, including 39 books of the Old Testament, 9 books of the Apocrypha, and 27 books of the New Testament:
Mistranslations and controversies
Luther controversially added the word "alone" (allein in German) to Romans 3:28 so that it read: "So now we hold, that man is justified without the help of the works of the law, alone through faith". The word "alone" does not appear in the Greek texts, but Luther defended his translation by maintaining that the adverb "alone" was required both by idiomatic German and the apostle Paul's intended meaning according to his interpretation, and that sola had been used in Western theological tradition before him.
Many Protestant scholars have noted the bias in Luther's translation, including Anglican apologist Alister McGrath:
The 2017 version has added footnotes on Romans 1:17, Romans 2:13, Romans 3:21, and Romans 3:28 that warn about the deliberate mistranslations Luther committed. For example, while the text of the 2017 version retains the disputed word "alone" (So halten wir nun dafür, dass der Mensch gerecht wird ohne des Gesetzes Werke, allein durch den Glauben), the footnote gives a "literal" translation (Wörtlich: »dass der Mensch aus Glauben gerechtfertigt wird, ohne Werke des Gesetzes«) for the second half of the verse.
Another controversial translation in the 1522 New Testament is 1 Timothy 2:4, which translates that God wills that all men "be helped" () rather than the expected "be saved" for .
Karl-Heinz Göttert, a professor of Medieval Studies at the University of Cologne, in reference to his book Luther's Bible - History of a Hostile Takeover noted:
Luther did not know ancient Greek well, and when he referenced the Greek New Testament, he relied on his friend Melanchthon and a number of other philologists. Significant changes correcting Luther's translations were made in the 2017 version of the Luther Bible.
Luther also added German legal terminology which is not found in the original text, for example in Matthew 23.5. There were also many understandable mistranslations due to a lack of knowledge, such as in Psalms 104 where he mistranslated chamois as "rabbit" because he did not know what a chamois was.
View of canonicity
Initially Luther had a low view of the Old Testament book of Esther and of the New Testament books of Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Revelation of John. He called the Letter of James "an epistle of straw", finding little in it that pointed to Christ and his saving work. He also had harsh words for the Revelation of John, saying that he could "in no way detect that the Holy Spirit produced it". In his translation of the New Testament, Luther moved Hebrews and James out of the usual order, to join Jude and the Revelation at the end, and differentiated these from the other books which he considered "the true and certain chief books of the New Testament. The four which follow have from ancient times had a different reputation." His views on some of these books changed in later years, and became more positive.
Luther chose to place the books he considered Biblical apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments. These books and addenda to Biblical canon of the Old Testament are found in the ancient Greek Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Masoretic text. Luther left the translating of them largely to Philipp Melanchthon and Justus Jonas. Though included, they were not numbered in the table of contents of his 1532 Old Testament, and in the 1534 Bible they were given the well-known title: "Apocrypha: These Books Are Not Held Equal to the Scriptures, but Are Useful and Good to Read". See also Development of the Christian Biblical canon.
Influence
A large part of Luther's significance was in his influence on the emergence of the German language and national identity. This stemmed predominantly from his translation of the Bible into the vernacular, which was potentially as revolutionary as canon law and the burning of the papal bull.
Publishing success
The Luther Bible was not the first translation of the Bible into German. A previous German translation from 1350 translated exclusively from the Vulgate, printed by Johann Mentelin in 1466, has been called linguistically clumsy and partially incomprehensible.
Luther's goal was to equip every German-speaking Christian with the ability to hear the Word of God, and his completing his translation of the Old and New Testaments from Hebrew and Greek into the vernacular by 1534 was one of the most significant acts of the Reformation.
Although Luther was not the first to attempt such a translation, his has been called superior to all its predecessors. Previous translations had contained poor German, and had been from the Vulgate Latin translation only, i.e. translations of a translation rather than including any direct translation into German from the originals. However, at least some passages can be explained as translations from the Vulgate.
Luther sought to translate as closely to the original text as possible, but at the same time his translation was guided by how people spoke in the home, on the street, and in the marketplace. Luther's faithfulness to the language spoken by the common people was to produce a work which they could relate to. This led later German writers such as Goethe and Nietzsche to praise Luther's Bible.
Moreover, because Luther's Bible was printed, it could spread rapidly and could be read by or to all. Hans Lufft, the Bible printer in Wittenberg, printed over 100,000 copies between 1534 and 1574, and these were read by or to millions. Luther's vernacular Bible came to be present in virtually every German-speaking Protestant's home, and there can be no doubts regarding the Biblical knowledge attained by the German common masses. Luther even had large-print Bibles made for those who had failing eyesight. German humanist Johann Cochlaeus complained that
Luther's New Testament was so much multiplied and spread by printers that even tailors and shoemakers, yea, even women and ignorant persons who had accepted this new Lutheran gospel, and could read a little German, studied it with the greatest avidity as the fountain of all truth. Some committed it to memory, and carried it about in their bosom. In a few months such people deemed themselves so learned that they were not ashamed to dispute about faith and the gospel not only with Catholic laymen, but even with priests and monks and doctors of divinity."
Emergence of modern German
Luther's German Bible and its widespread circulation facilitated the emergence of a standard, modern German language for the German-speaking people throughout the Holy Roman Empire, an empire extending through and beyond present-day Germany. It is also considered a landmark in German literature, with Luther's vernacular style often praised by modern German sources for the forceful vigor ("kraftvolles Deutsch") with which he translated the Holy Scripture.
The spread of Luther's Bible translation had implications for the German language. The German language had developed into so many dialects that German speakers from different regions could barely understand each other. This led Luther to conclude that “I have so far read no book or letter in which the German language is properly handled. Nobody seems to care sufficiently for it; and every preacher thinks he has a right to change it at pleasure and to invent new terms." Scholars preferred to write in the Latin which they all understood.
Luther's Bible translation, based primarily on Saxon Chancery language used in royal courts and his native Upper Saxon dialect and enriched with the vocabulary of German poets and chroniclers, was a step on the path to a standardized German language, as Early New High German developed into modern "neuhochdeutsch." A contemporary of Luther's, Erasmus Alberus, labeled him the German Cicero, as he reformed not only religion but the German language also.
Luther's Bible has been hailed as the first German "classic", comparable to the English King James Version of the Bible. German-speaking Protestant writers and poets such as Klopstock, Herder, and Lessing owe stylistic qualities to Luther's vernacular Bible. Luther adapted words to the capacity of the German public and through the pervasiveness of his German Bible, created and spread the modern German language.
National identity
Luther's vernacular Bible also had a role in the creation of a German national identity. Because it penetrated every German-speaking Protestant home, the language of his translation became part of a German national heritage. Luther's program of exposure to the words of the Bible was extended into every sphere of daily life and work, illuminating moral considerations for Germans. It gradually became infused into the culture of the whole nation and occupied a permanent space in a German history.
According to some hagiographers, the popularity and influence of his translation gave Luther confidence to act as a spokesperson of a nation and as the leader of an anti-Roman movement throughout Germany. It made it possible for him to be a prophet of a new German national identity and helped form the spirit of a new epoch in German history. The existence of the vernacular Bible was a public affirmation of empowerment and reform, such as might deprive any elite or priestly class of exclusive control over words, as well as over the word of God.
Through the translation, Luther was intending to make it easier for "simple people" to understand what he was teaching. In some major controversies of the time, even some evangelicals, let alone the commoners, did not understand the reasons for disagreement; and Luther wanted to help those who were confused to see that the disagreement between himself and the Roman Catholic Church was real and had significance. So the translation of the Bible would allow the common people to become aware of the issues at hand and develop an informed opinion. The common individual would thus be given the right to have a mind, spirit, and opinion, to exist not as an economic functionary but as subject to complex and conflicting aspirations and motives. In this sense, Luther's vernacular Bible acted as a force towards the liberation of the German people.
Luther's vernacular Bible broke the domination and unity of the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe. He had claimed Holy Scripture to be the sole authority, and through his translation every individual would be able to abide by its authority, and might nullify his or her need for a monarchical pope. As Bishop John Fisher put it, Luther's Bible had “stirred a mighty storm and tempest in the church”.
Literacy and order
Although not as significantly as on German linguistics, Luther's Bible also made a large impression on educational reform throughout Germany. Luther's goal of a readable, accurate translation of the Bible became a stimulus towards universal education, since everyone should be able to read in order to understand the Bible. At the time, only 5% of Germans had good literacy, 30% in the cities, though estimates vary from 1% to 17%. Luther followed Erasmus, who followed Thomas More, on the benefits of educating girls.
Luther believed that mankind had fallen from grace and was ruled by selfishness, but had not lost moral consciousness: all were sinners and needed to be educated. Thus his vernacular Bible could become a means of establishing a form of law, order, and morality which everyone could abide by, if all could read and understand it. The possibility of understanding the vernacular Bible allowed Luther to found a State Church and educate his followers into a law-abiding community. The Protestant states of Germany became educational states, which encouraged the spirit of teaching which was ultimately fueled by Luther's vernacular Bible.
Used as basis of other translations
Finally, Luther's translated Bible also had international significance in the spread of Christianity. Luther's translation influenced the English translations by William Tyndale and Myles Coverdale, who in turn inspired many other translations of the Bible such as the Bishops' Bible of 1568, the Douay–Rheims Bible of 1582–1609, and the King James Version of 1611. It also inspired translations in Scandinavia and the Netherlands. In a metaphor, it was Luther who 'broke the walls' of translation in western Europe and once such walls had fallen, the way was open to all, including some who were quite opposed to Luther's beliefs. Luther's Bible spread its influence for the remolding of Western European culture in the ferment of the sixteenth century. The worldwide implications of the translation far surpassed the expectations of even Luther himself.
Excerpted examples
See also
Elector Bible
German Bible translations
Protestant Bible
Permanent Exhibition Luther and the Bible at Lutherhaus Eisenach
References
Notes
Further reading
Antliff, Mark. The Legacy of Martin Luther. Ottawa, McGill University Press, 1983
Atkinson, James. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1968
Bindseil, H.E. and Niemeyer, H.A. Dr. Martin Luther's Bibelübersetzung nach der letzten Original-Ausgabe, kritisch bearbeitet. 7 vols. Halle, 1845–55. [The N. T. in vols. 6 and 7. A critical reprint of the last edition of Luther (1545). Niemeyer died after the publication of the first volume. Comp. the Probebibel (the revised Luther-Version), Halle, 1883. Luther's Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen und Fürbitte der Heiligen (with a letter to Wenceslaus Link, Sept. 12, 1530), in Walch, XXI. 310 sqq., and the Erl. Frkf. ed., vol. LXV. 102–123.] Free open access edition with new English translation by Howard Jones for the Taylor Institution Reformation Pamphlet Series with an introduction by Henrike Lähnemann.
Bluhm, Heinz. Martin Luther: Creative Translator. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1965.
Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. 3 Volumes. James L. Schaaf, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–1993. , , .
.
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Gerrish, B.A. Reformers in Profile. Philadelphia: Fortpress Press, 1967
Green, V.H.H. Luther and the Reformation. London: B.T. Batsford, 1964
Grisar, Hartmann. Luther: Volume I. London: Luigi Cappadelta, 1914
Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996
Lyons, Martin. Books: A Living History. Thames and Hudson: 2011.
Reu, [John] M[ichael]. Luther and the Scriptures. Columbus, OH: The Wartburg Press, 1944. [Reprint: St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1980].
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Ritter, Gerhard. Luther: His life and Work. New York: Harper & Row, 1963
External links
Luther Bible (1912 Edition).
Luther's Translation of the Bible in Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church.
Standard German Bible at World Bibles
1912 Luther Bible at Word Project
1522 books
1534 books
16th-century Christian texts
Early printed Bibles
Works by Martin Luther
Bible translations into German
Christian terminology
1534 in Christianity |
4081441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20Smith%20%28American%20Dad%21%29 | Stan Smith (American Dad!) | Stanford Leonard "Stan" Smith is a fictional character and the title character protagonist of the animated television series American Dad!. He is voiced by the series' co-creator and executive producer, Seth MacFarlane.
Stan is the patriarch of the Smith family. As the family's breadwinner, he works for the Central Intelligence Agency. Although he once held the position of a case officer at the CIA, he is also weapons expert for this agency. Stan often makes the mistake of applying the same extreme measures suited and used for his job in his personal life and with his family.
Stan is portrayed as drastic, endangering, rash, insensitive, inconsiderate, dog-eat-dog, racist, and very masculine. In the series he is emphasized as a conservative Republican. Stan has an exaggeratedly large chin, which has been described satirically as a "Jay Leno jaw". He usually wears a blue suit with a lapel pin that is a simplified version of the U.S. flag, consisting of three red and white stripes and a blue square.
Although he has all of these traits, he is shown to deeply care for his family (despite the different traits between them). He is shown to say that "you're right" to family members to show that he cares and listens to them. In the episode "I'm Dreaming of a White Porsche Christmas" he doesn't like his alternate universe family.
While Stan's exact age has been contradicted by multiple episodes, it is in the vicinity of around 42 years old. In "Bullocks to Stan", Stan is revealed to be two years and ten months older than Francine, whose birthday is revealed to be September 26, putting his birthday around November 26. Stan is married to Francine Smith. Like all characters, Stan doesn't have a set height but he is described as being between and and depicted as rather tall dwarfing most of his family. A lot of evidence points to as the most consistent answer like his license and in "The Shrink" when he warns Francine that if she makes him a little too big "I'll end up 6'2", and I'll have to go into modeling". However, he is depicted as a fair bit shorter than Shannon Sharpe and Barack Obama who are both around . He is the father of Hayley and Steve Smith. In “The Kidney Stays In The Picture,” it is revealed that he may not be the biological father of Hayley, and it is not confirmed at the end of the episode. In "Cock of the Sleepwalk", Stan adopted an unnamed little girl. Also living under Stan's roof are three housemates: Roger, an alien; Klaus, the family's man-in-a-fish-body pet; and Jeff Fischer, who is Hayley's boyfriend turned husband. Stan's mother is named Betty, and his father is a jewel thief (as revealed in the episode "Con Heir") named Jack Smith. He grew up in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Personality
Stan Smith is the exaggeratedly masculine husband of Francine and father of Steve and Hayley. Though Hayley may not be Stan's biological daughter—Francine was revealed to have cheated on Stan at her bachelorette party in the episode "The Kidney Stays in the Picture"—Stan still regards her as such and refused to learn the results of a DNA test. As the Smith family's breadwinner, Stan is an agent for the CIA. Tending to take extreme measures with no regard for others nor potentially disastrous consequences, Stan is portrayed as insanely drastic; endangering; rash; dog-eat-dog; and both inconsiderate and insensitive of others. Stan's mentality is of a staunchly conservative Republican and self-proclaimed American patriot. His conservatism is expressed ludicrously with him often coming off as severely intolerant, self-abnegating, and wrongheaded. All the same however, Stan has numerous alternate ways of taking drastic measures beyond politics. As examples—in the episode "Dope & Faith" when Stan found out one of his friends was an atheist, he tried getting him to pray by blowing up his home, spreading the bird flu at his restaurant, brainwashing his wife into thinking she was a lesbian, and taking his kids away; in the episode "I Can't Stan You", Stan evicted his entire neighborhood and his own family just for overhearing some of his neighbors gossiping about him behind his back; in the episode "Four Little Words", Stan framed his wife as a murderer all so as not to hear her say the words "I told you so"; etc.
Troublesome sides and extreme-measure taking
Insanely drastic and rashly so, Stan at times acts on his first impulses which typically result in extreme measures. Often, his extreme measures are of a conspicuously destructive, disastrous, offensive, or life-threatening nature to others. Very selfish and inconsiderate, Stan never stops to think about the feelings, needs, or welfare of others, even in circumstances where others obviously could be or have been negatively impacted. Moreover, Stan often proves to be insensitive, completely unfazed when fully conscious of the distresses, displeasure and sufferings brought upon and felt by others including his very own family. His intentions, generally, are good, but he is often far too irrational to ever acknowledge this or learn any lessons from it.
Masculinity
Stan is also shown to be very virile and masculine. He often bears out his chest, stands up rigidly straight, and possesses a deep, thick voice quality. Moreover, he has expressed macho beliefs. For example, he has expressed opposition to showing emotion, associating it with being a woman. He once told Steve, "Son, feelings are what women have. They come from their ovaries."
Troublesome/redeeming qualities
Though Stan typically tries to effect a masculine image and repress his feelings, his emotions, sensitivity, and endearing side still manifest themselves from time to time. For example, on several occasions, it has been revealed that even as an adult Stan has desperately desired the fatherly love and attention that he never got as a child, such as in the episode "American Stepdad" when Roger became his stepfather.
At the same time, however, his incredibly drastic, dog-eat-dog, and inconsiderate qualities tend to show through in combination with his sensitive and redeeming qualities. For example, Hayley once told Stan, "Dad, I've never seen this side of you. It's so sweet." Stan playfully replied, "Well, if you tell anybody I'll kill you." The two laughed together for a moment before Stan suddenly took a serious, browbeating manner and added, "I'm serious, I will kill you. I will reach into your chest, pull out your beating heart and eat it. All of it, every last bit!" He concluded by affectionately stating, "Well, sweet dreams, angel." As another example, in the episode "Oedipal Panties", Stan went to extremes to keep his mother, Betty, from finding a romantic partner for fear he would lose her. In the episode, Stan was revealed to have captured and detained all of Betty's former lovers to an uncharted island.
Original persona
In the beginning of the series, it was heavily emphasized that Stan was a highly Conservative Republican, bordering on right-wing authoritarianism. He idolized then United States President George W. Bush and former President Ronald Reagan.
Combined with these traits, he was also portrayed as patriotic and Christian. Stan regularly caused havoc and disorder with his bigotry, Conservatism, patriotism, chauvinism, xenophobia, and paranoia. MacFarlane has likened Stan's original character to Archie Bunker from All in the Family.
Under his initial persona, he also opposed homosexuality and gay marriage for a time. He changed his views on homosexuality, however, in the episode "Lincoln Lover", once becoming associated with the Log Cabin Republicans. Stan's stance on homosexuality further softened in the episode "Surro-Gate" when Francine acted as a surrogate mother for gay couple Greg and Terry's baby. At the end of this episode, Stan realized what a loving family Greg and Terry were.
After the first few seasons and as the series progressed, Stan was portrayed as growing out of these particular traits and they were largely dropped from his character. Branching out, he later began displaying his wrongheadedness and penchant for taking to extremes in numerous other ways beyond ultra right-wing politics. He has also exhibited instances of gullibility (like his son Steve) such as when he believed he was taking cold medicine when in fact he was smoking "crack" as Roger nonchalantly points out. Hayley has also tricked him into buying mirrored sunglasses that wound up getting him kidnapped by a group of radicals. In another episode, Roger states to Stan that he has to "give" his champion racehorse "a full release", which Stan ultimately does so. Stan has also once drunk Roger's urine due to the alien telling him it was a fancy beer. The episode "Irregarding Steve" reveals that Stan believes that popcorn doesn't pop above sea level. In "Love, AD Style" when Francine points out if they added another "C" before the "K" in the acronym of the new car Stan wants to buy he says he doesn't know what she's talking about, clearly not realizing what the new acronym would spell out. In "Stanny Tendergrass" Stan thought he was able to afford a membership at Mr. Vanderhill's (Roger's) country club after working there thirty years at the cost of seven grand, completely unaware of the vast price inflation cost (two hundred grand).
Occupation
Stan's history can be traced back to 1987 when he was 24. He joined the army and quickly rose to become an Airborne Ranger, and eventually being selected to join the army's elite anti-terrorist group, Delta Force. After leaving the army, he was again elected to undergo extensive special forces training to join the CIA's ultra-secretive Special Activities Division, specifically the Special Operations Group.
When he was wounded on a top-secret mission inside North Korea, Stan returned home to a desk job. Stan is now an official officer of the CIA. Stan has shown expertise and knowledge in hand-to-hand combat, small arms, covert surveillance methods, torture, the ability to fly aircraft and the handling of assault weapons. Even though he has been arrested several times on several felony charges, such as animal cruelty, child pornography (though this was a wrongful accusation), attempted murder, drug trafficking, possession and use of crack cocaine (he almost flees to South America), transporting infected cattle to be slaughtered for food, impersonating a U.S. Marshal, and identity theft, he retains his official position.
Though it is well known he works for the CIA, very little is actually known about what exactly he does; and, as a result of this ambiguity, Stan's job in any given episode tends to be conducive of whatever CIA skill set is convenient for a given episode's plot. At various times in the series, he has been shown to work as a CIA analyst, an agency bureaucrat, a field agent, and a special forces operative; additionally, he has held a number of different titles during his time with the CIA, including (but not limited to) "Deputy-Deputy Director of the CIA ("Bullocks to Stan")" and "Deputy Under-Director of Missing Foreign Agents" ("Red October Sky"). Usually he is seen working in a small cork-walled cubicle with a few of his buddies: Jackson, Sanders, Dick Reynolds, and others. Smith's assumption of these different roles may indicate that he works as a sort of troubleshooter, taking on different responsibilities as required. However, since assuming the role of Deputy Deputy Director, his duties do not appear to have changed.
In the episode "Chimdale", it is revealed that Stan Smith has been bald since college and wears a wig (however, this episode contradicts several past episodes, including "Frannie 911", in which Roger scalped Stan while role playing as an American Indian, and "Choosy Wives Choose Smith", in which Stan's hair grew after spending months on a deserted island). He drives a black Ford Explorer but has also been seen driving a black Chrysler 300C and owns a DeLorean despite not having seen or even knowing about the movie Back to the Future. Later in the series, he buys a red C6 Chevrolet Corvette to deal with the fact that he could possibly be a grandfather, which he continues to drive when not in the Explorer. Stan is also known to have an unexplained fear of seagulls, first mentioned by Francine in "American Dream Factory", although he got over it in "Choosy Wives Choose Smith".
Despite his traditional values, he has been married to two other women. In Saudi Arabia, Stan married an Arab woman and named her "Thundercat" because he could not pronounce her name, though Stan married her mainly as a servant. At one point, Francine divorced Stan so that he could have pointless sex, and he met and married a woman named Joanna, but went back to Francine, though Stan reports that he did consummate the marriage. Both Stan and Francine admit that each married the other for what Stan describes as selfish reasons. That is, that Stan admits that he married Francine because she was attractive. Francine, for her part, says that she wants someone to take care of her financially and both go so far as to admit this during their vow renewal ceremony to a room full of people. In the episode "Stan's Food Restaurant", it is revealed that Stan is originally from Philadelphia.
Hobbies
Stan also enjoys a number of hobbies. Chief among these is collecting Franklin Mint Plates as well as a number of creative outlets such as designing and making themed stuffed bears, fly-tying, gun cleaning, wood burning, figure skating, and writing right-wing children's literature. He also enjoys reading books about the things he is doing at that very moment (i.e. he was reading a book called "Reading While Waiting", as he waited for someone). Other examples include "How to Do a Spit Take", "How to Furrow Your Brow", "How to Look Chastened", "How to Read With One Hand", and "Anticipating Doorbells".
Alternate versions
In "May the Best Stan Win" Stan is revealed to have signed up for the CIA's cybernetics program and intends for his body to be cryogenically frozen until the CIA develops the technology needed to turn him into an cyborg. Eventually, Stan's cybernetically enhanced self finds a way to travel back 1,000 years to the present because he missed Francine and wishes to spend time with her, however this eventually sparks friction between the present Stan and the cyborg Stan, leading to a fight in which the current Stan successfully defeats his future self.
In "The Longest Distance Relationship" one possible version of the future is shown when Jeff and Ghost Sinbad emerge from a wormhole some sixty years in the future. In this version of the future Stan is shown to have migrated into a Gorilla body due to his belief that an ape uprising will occur. As the episode draws to a close Stan's prediction proves true, but when Stan moves to side with the apes he is unexpectedly killed by them.
In "Dreaming of a White Porsche Christmas" it is revealed that the reason that Stan's family is so dysfunctional is due to Stan's failure to appreciate what he has, which resulted in his marriage to Francine, his geeky son, his liberal daughter, and his adoption of a liberal version of Roger. Initially this was supposed to be a temporary setup, but the Angel assigned to Stan's case died, and it took his Christmas wish for the situation to resolve itself. Stan is then returned to what was supposed to be his ideal family: a conservative wife named Mary, an athletic son, a conservative and mild manner daughter named Ruth, and a version of Roger who does not partake in disguises, drinking, or drug use and holds a single legitimate job as an optometrist named Gerald. Despite being described as Stan's "ideal" family Stan rejects this version of his wife, his children, and Roger, and goes to great lengths to get back to his original, dysfunctional family, which he succeeds in doing.
In "A Star is Reborn" it is established that Stan is the reincarnation of a deceased movie star named Lenard. At the time Lenard was having an affair with Gloria Delmar, an alternate version of Francine. After the affair came to light both were killed by June Rosewood, Lenard's wife at the time. After rediscovering Lenard's reincarnation in Stan in the present, June welcomed Stan to her house and showed him the old movies he had made in his past life. When Stan rejects her for Francine, June once again attempts to kill them both, only to end up dying when Stan and Francine turn the tables on her.
Cameo appearances
Stan appears alongside Avery Bullock in the Family Guy episode "Lois Kills Stewie" and Stewie Griffin mistakes Stan for Joe Swanson due to their large chins.
Stan makes a brief cameo in the Family Guy episode "Excellence in Broadcasting", commending Brian Griffin for becoming a conservative.
Stan and his family appear in Family Guy in the episode "Bigfat" and Peter Griffin also mistakes him for Joe for their large chins.
Stan and his family later appear again in Family Guy, this time as brief, silent background characters in one scene of the episode, "No Giggity, No Doubt".
Stan and Roger also makes an appearance in the near end of the Family Guy episode, "The Movement", where Meg Griffin was traded by Peter's request to American Dad!, and during her singing the show's theme song, she is interrupted by Stan by commanding her, "Shut Up Meg!"
In the season 17 episode of The Simpsons (called "The Italian Bob"), Stan, along with Peter Griffin from Family Guy, can be glimpsed in an Italian sheriff's police book of criminal offenders. Peter Griffin is dubbed "Plagiarismo" (faux Italian for Plagiarism) and Stan is dubbed "Plagiarismo di Plagiarismo" (Plagiarism of Plagiarism).
Stan makes a brief cameo as a background character in one panel of the 2007 Futurama comic, "Futurama Returns".
A bobblehead of Stan can be seen in the Mad episode "Garfield of Dreams".
References
External links
Stan Smith at Fox.com
American Dad! characters
Animated human characters
Fictional characters from Philadelphia
Television characters introduced in 2005
Animated characters introduced in 2005
Fictional Central Intelligence Agency personnel
Fictional alcohol abusers
Fictional assassins
Fictional secret agents and spies in television
Fictional torturers and interrogators
Fictional Republicans (United States)
American male characters in television
Characters created by Seth MacFarlane
Male characters in animated series |
4081690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto%20Plata%2C%20Dominican%20Republic | Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic | Puerto Plata, officially known as San Felipe de Puerto Plata, is a major coastal city in the Dominican Republic, and capital of the province of Puerto Plata. The city is a major trading port. Puerto Plata has resorts such as Playa Dorada and Costa Dorada, which are located east of the city proper. There are 100,000 hotel beds in the city. The first aerial tramway of the Caribbean is located in Puerto Plata, in which visitors can ride up to the Pico Isabel de Torres, a 793-meter (2600-foot) high mountain within the city.
The city’s history dates back to the early 16th century, when Spanish colonists founded a small colonial settlement in the region. During the first decades of the existence of the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, the settlement was considered the main commercial and maritime port of the island. In 1605, it was depopulated and destroyed by order of Philip III of Spain to counter raids by English privateers and pirates; a hundred years later, the city was repopulated with farmers from the Canary Islands. From 1822 to 1844 the city was under Haitian control. From 1844 on began the period of the republic, in which the city began to recover its maritime and commercial boom. Beginning in 1865, the current Puerto Plata began to be built. This explains the Victorian style of much of its current architecture. By the end of the 19th century, Puerto Plata had become important for its cultural, social, maritime, and economic development.
Geography
The city sits on land that rises abruptly from the sea making it almost completely visible from the port. It is bordered on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and to the south and southwest by the hill Isabel de Torres.
The small bay around which the city was built provides a natural harbor. Puerto Plata is the largest city on the northern seaboard. Its subdivisions include: El Cupey, Maimón, Los Mameyes, Sabana Grande, El Toro, Tubagua and Yásica. The mountain Isabel de Torres is situated some 5 km to the southwest of the city of San Felipe. Geographically it forms part of the Cordillera Septentrional, reaching a maximum height of 800 m above sea level. It is possible to drive to the top of the mountain by following the highway Don José Ginebra. The highway, upon leaving the city, continues west, passing the populated areas of San Marcos, Piedra Candela and El Cruce, arriving at a paved section that continues southeast and then leads directly to the top. The area surrounding Loma Isabel de Torres has been declared a National Monument with an area that covers approximately 20 km2. At the summit there is a tropical botanical garden covering about , featuring 600 varieties of tropical plants.
Hydrography
The most significant rivers are Camú del Norte, San Marcos, Corozo, Muñoz, Maimón, El Violón, San Piñez, Río Seco, as well as the streams Fú, Blanco, Caballo, Culebra and San Cristóbal.
Climate
Puerto Plata has a tropical climate, more specifically a tropical monsoon climate, with hot, somewhat wet summers and warm, very wet winters (Köppen climate classification Am), due to its tropical location and the cold fronts that reach the region during the "winter" which typically brings the area humid, wetter weather.
Seal
In 1508, Serrano and Diego Nicuëza were sent to the Spanish court to beg the king to treat their cities as the cities in their home country. On December 6, 1508 the Spanish king granted the cities of Hispaniola their seal and their rights.
For "Puerto de Plata", as it was called in those years, it was described as follows:
A silver shield with a green mountain, on it was also a golden F and Y crowned and on the top of this, silver and blue. The initials are for the King and Queen of the Spanish Empire, the Catholic Monarchs Fernando and Ysabel (now usually "Isabel").
History
Since the founding of La Isabela, the first village in the New World, on January 2, 1494, Puerto Plata has been a town of firsts in the Americas. Historians are not clear on the exact year of Puerto Plata's founding. Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi, Américo Lugo, Jose Bordonada, and Samuel Hazard give the year 1502 as recorded by Nicolás of Ovando. Dr. Llenas affirmed that it was 1503. Dr. Joaquín Marino Incháustegui, in his Dominican history records, cites 1504. Dr. Manuel Arturo Roca Batlle indicates that the city was founded in 1505. The historians Alonso Rodriguez Demorizi (brother of Emilio) and Jacinto Gimbernard assert that it was in the year 1496, and Padre Español said it was in 1506.
Christopher Columbus, in his first trip, called the mountain Monte de Plata, observing that since the top is frequently foggy it had a silver-like appearance, hence the name of the port. The city was designed by the brothers Christopher and Bartolomé Columbus, in 1496. The aforementioned Nicolás de Ovando recorded a port existing in the northern coast of the island about 1502. In its first phase as a Spanish colony the town was considered the main commercial and maritime port of the island. Around 1555, Puerto Plata's importance as a port town was lost and it became one of the places of the Antilles frequented by pirates. In 1605 it was depopulated and destroyed by order of Philip III of Spain to counter raids by English privateers and pirates.
A hundred years later, the town was repopulated with farmers originating from the Canary Islands. During the Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor, the United States Marine Corps landed on the island and attacked a French ship and Fortaleza San Felipe. After capturing the French privateer Sandwich and spiking the guns at the fort, the Americans retired victorious. This was during the Quasi-War, an undeclared conflict between France and the United States from 1798 to 1800. From 1822 to 1844 the city was under Haitian control. From 1844 on began the period of the republic, in which the city began to recover its maritime and commercial boom.
The city grew under the influence of European immigrants, who left a cultural and social footprint that remains unique among other cities on the island. In 1863, during the Dominican Restoration War, the city was razed completely. Beginning in 1865, the current Puerto Plata began to be built, explaining the Victorian style of much of its current architecture. By the end of the 19th century, Puerto Plata had become important for its cultural, social, maritime, and economic development. In 1996, Birgenair Flight 301 crashed near Puerto Plata, killing all 189 people on board.
Economy
The Municipality of San Felipe de Puerto Plata is prominent in agrobusiness and tourism, making it a major contributor to the economic growth of the entire country. Other forms of income and economic development that serve to support some segments of the population include port management, sea vessel production, fishing, and textiles. The port has a significant impact in the national and provincial economy.
The port receives cruise ships as well as general bulk freighters which export a variety of merchandise, including farm products and manufactured products in the duty-free zones of the region. A new cruise terminal, closer to the city than Carnival's Amber Cove, is planned: Taino Bay, the new terminal is opened in December 2021.
Culture
The reports on the celebration of the carnival in the Puerto Plata date from the end of the 19th century. The central personage is the devil cojuelo, that in Puerto Plata becomes Taimáscaro, that produces deities Taínas in its masks, and a suit where elements of Spanish and culture are symbolized and the African essences, in multicolored tapes in its arms, and all that is complemented with the conches of the Atlantic Ocean, as natural elements of identity of the town Puertoplateño.
These festivities are celebrated during the months of February and March, in the avenue of the Jetty and the streets of the city. The people are entertained by the parades of disguises, the music, the popular dances, and the different demonstrations of the arts reflecting cultural identity. Each year the organizers of the carnival choose the King Momo, representing the city that has fought to maintain its traditions.
Architecture
The city of Puerto Plata is characterized by its dominant Victorian style architecture, combined with various other architectural styles, giving a varied character to the process of urban development. Inside this variety is the old style related to the colonial epoch, of which remains as an example the Fortress San Felipe.
Another it is the traditional style, originated when the city was founded by migrant canarios, and of the one that the balconies are inherited, and as an example is the bridge of the Guinea, of the year 1879. Then developed the Victorian model, because of the French, Italian, German, and English immigration, and from other European countries, which began after the Dominican Restoration War and had its height at the end of the 19th century and start of the 20th. This style was utilized in dwellings and in buildings destined for social activities. This type of construction gives its own image to the province.
Finally, Puerto Plata developed a modern architecture because of the American occupation (1916 and 1924), and continuing under Trujillo, based on cement block construction.
Downtown Puerto Plata
Education
Some of the illustrious educators who left a mark in the Puerto Plata education system include Antera Mota, Emilio Prud'Homme, Ana Isabel Jiménez, Mercedes Mota, José Dubeau, Doña Isabel Díaz-Alejo y Reyes, Doña Elvia Campillo, Isabel Meyreles, María Concepción Gómez Matos, among others. Currently, the municipality of San Felipe of Puerto Plata counts on 182 educational centers, of which the 67% correspond to the public sector and 39% to the private sector.
This municipality has a total of 29,279 students, of whom 1,567 are at the initial level, 19,395 at the basic level, 6,642 at the medium level, 1,505 students to the subsystem of adults, 84 students of special education and 86 of the labor school.
Besides the universities, four operations offer different careers of technical and upper degree. These universities are:
Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra (PUCMM)
Universidad Organización y Método
Universidad Tecnológica de Santiago (UTESA)
Centro Universitario Regional del Atlántico de la Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (CURA-UASD)
Sports
Since the 1950s, the main sports institution of the municipality of San Felipe has been the League of the Atlantic one, which was founded on August 16, 1958, prompted by Fabio Rafael González. This institution celebrates activities during all the year, mainly baseball, and years later added basketball, with the time various clubs were incorporated; the Gustavo Behall, the Hugo Kunhard, and Juan Luis Plá, among others. Since the 1970, the main activities have been the school events that are celebrated during all the year, in its respective dates in which competes in the different disciplines. At present, in Golden Beach, Brugal & Company celebrates periodically the Club Golf Puerto Plata tournament, with the participation of the most noticeable athletes of this discipline, so much at the local level, as national and international.
Tourism
The city's tourist centers include Playa Dorada and Costa Dorada, located to the east of San Felipe of Puerto Plata. There are a total of 100,000 hotel beds in the city; there are a number of "all-inclusive" resort hotels.
Puerto Plata is served by Gregorio Luperón International Airport, situated around to the east of the city, near the town La Union.
In 2015, Carnival Cruise Line opened an $85 million cruise port called Amber Cove.
Fort
The fort is the main colonial monument of the city of Puerto Plata, since around it the city developed most of its history. In 1540, Álvaro Caballero went to the Court to request that a fortress be constructed in Puerto Plata. In 1549 the Archbishop and governing Fuenmayor was entrusted with its construction, but it was still not done even in 1560, when the Audiencia Real ordered it commence under the charge of the French-born judge Juan Echagoín to initiate its work. This work was finished in 1577. The purpose was to protect the city against the incursions of bandits, the corsairs and French and English pirates who continuously terrified inhabitants of Puerto Plata. Its name is in honor of FelipeII, in whose reign its construction was finished. In 1980 it was declared a national monument.
Ocean World
Ocean World is an adventure park located amidst the reefs of the Beach of Cofresí, boasting the largest man-made dolphin habitat in the world.
The park is a main tourist attraction, and is the largest and most complete park of its kind in the Caribbean.
The investment on this project is valued at more than 45 million dollars. It includes a yacht marina (the permanent residence of 19 dolphins), beaches, and forests, as well as fishbowls, picturesque and exotic birds, a casino, and Malayan tigers.
Ocean World is located within a tourist complex on the north coast of the Dominican Republic.
The investor and president of Ocean World, L. A. Meister, showed great interest in the tourist potential of Puerto Plata, in its first incursions in this city, as he was directed and oriented by Juan Carlos Moral, original owner of the lands of Cofresí.
Museums
Museo del Ámbar: The business Costa, Inc., a cultural company of family administration, directed by Aldo Costa, founded the Museo del Ámbar Dominicano in 1982 in the Villa Bentz, (more elegant Hotel of Puerto Plata of the year 1918, built by the Spanish architect Marín Gallart and Cantú). This museum is considered the first Museum of Amber of the Dominican Republic and at the same time, is a great historic monument of the city.
La Zona Colonial (Casas Victorianas): From 1857, it was initiated in Puerto Plata. The Victorian style originating from England, call thus, in honor of the Queen Victoria, manager of that epoch. This it extended to almost everyone and was considered it more modern.
The fundamental characteristics were the elaboration of the wood in artistic form, for the construction of dwellings. From that moment, Puerto Plata defined clearly their architectural style, evolving to what we have nowadays as our patrimony. The rise and development of that new modality in the art of construction, was what gave start, to the buildings of the Victorian houses of the decade from the 70 of the 19th century. Creating a unique style in the city, which him is known today as Victorian architecture of Puerto Plata.
El Faro
The cast-iron lighthouse was built in 1879, under the interim regime of Gregorio Luperón. It consists of a tower elevated on a masonry base, on Doric columns, and rising to above sea level. Due to its position on the coast the cast iron suffered from corrosion and for its poor condition it was included in the 2000 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. American Express provided funds for a restoration project, which was completed in 2004. After the restoration, the Dominican Republic's Dirección Nacional de Patrimonio Monumental announced that the historic district around the lighthouse would also be revitalized.
Teleférico
The Teleférico cable car was inaugurated in 1975, with construction of Italian origin. It can carry 17 people and takes eight minutes to climb and descend the mountain. It is moved by an electric hydraulic system, conducted by a central operator, situated in the base station. This small train has protective glass walls, and offers the visitor a panoramic view of the city descending from the hill (which at its top is above sea level). Visitors can see the local landscape, including a garden of 215 features and the flora of the country, gift shops and a restaurant with Dominican food. It is managed by a patronage, which maintains it under the principles of conservation.
Beaches
With its golden sands and a mountainous natural landscape combined with the turquoise of the water that many times dresses of a turquoise tone with the reflections of the sun in the day, and of the moon at night. These beaches bring pleasing memories by their landscapes, stones, waves, sand, uveros, almonds, yawls, rowboats, music, and dances. Many of them represent an epoch of daydream and traditions, like at La Poza del Castillo, Cofresí, Costámbar, Long Beach, Marapicá, Playa Dorada, Maimón, and Bergantín. The beaches are considered one of the main tourist attractions of the city.
Mountain Pico Isabel de Torres
On the -high mountain Pico Isabel de Torres, the highest point of Puerto Plata, there is a botanical garden and a replica of Christ the Redeemer, the famous statue in Rio de Janeiro; though the statue is of a smaller size, the mountain itself is taller than that of Rio. The roads leading up the mountain are subject to large amounts of rain and are occasionally impassable.
Transportation
Puerto Plata is served by Gregorio Luperón International Airport which has service by 13 passenger and 3 cargo airlines.
Notable residents
Ulises Heureaux y Antonio Imbert former president of the Dominican Republic
Al Horford current NBA player
Chris Duarte current NBA player
Vojislav Stanimirović Journalist owns a villa overlooking the Puerto Plata Bay since 1990's .
Tito Horford former NBA player and father of Al Horford
Arthur Lithgow, American-Dominican actor and director; born in Puerto Plata in 1915
Gregorio Luperón former president of the Dominican Republic
Carlos Martínez, current MLB player
Carlos Felipe Morales former president of the Dominican Republic
Emilio Prud'Homme writer of the "National Anthem of the Dominican Republic"
José Fermín, current MLB player
Segundo Gonzáles Tamayo former vice-president of the Dominican Republic
Oscar Taveras MLB player, 2014 (d. 2014)
References
https://dominicantoday.com/dr/tourism/2019/12/14/new-cruise-terminal-in-puerto-plata-will-be-operational-in-2020/
External links
Puerto Plata Excursions
Trip Guide Destination
Puerto Plata Carnival
Live and timelapse webcam images from Puerto Plata province
Puerto Plata DR Travel Guide
Puerto Plata City Guide
the Amber Museum
Municipalities of the Dominican Republic
Populated places established in 1502
Populated places in Puerto Plata Province
1502 establishments in the Spanish Empire |
4081777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20association%20football | Timeline of association football | This page indexes the individual year in association football pages. Each year is annotated with one or more significant events as a reference point.
Pre-1860s
1820s in football
Order imposed on folk football.
Public schools start devising versions of football.
The Foot Ball Club of Edinburgh was founded as the first club to play any type of organized football.
1830s in football
1840s in football
The Cambridge Rules are created in 1848.
Official referees appear for the first time in a football match at a match held in Cheltenham in 1849.
1850s in football
Sheffield F.C., the oldest surviving independent football club in the world, is founded in 1857. In 1858 it created its first set of rules, which would become known as the Sheffield Rules.
1860s in football
British railway builders introduce football to Argentina. The Football Association is founded in 1863 (the first football association in the world), and it ratifies the original 14 rules of the game. In 1860, the first non-British team in Europe, Lausanne Football and Cricket Club of Switzerland, is formed. In 1862, Notts County F.C. is founded. In 1865 Buenos Aires FC was formed by British residents. In 1866, the Football Association introduces a 'cross tape' between goalposts as a precedent to the 'crossbar'. The first ever football tournament, the Youdan Cup, is played by twelve Sheffield clubs in 1867; the Cromwell Cup, the second oldest football tournament in the world, takes place in 1868 with Sheffield Rules. Goal kicks are introduced in 1869 and Scottish club Kilmarnock F.C founded.
1870s
1870 in football
First "goalkeepers", and the transition from "dribbling game" to "passing game" is seen in club matches in Sheffield and London. The first international match arranged by the Football Association between England and Scotland on 5 March 1870 finishes in a 0–0 draw at the Kennington Oval in London. Combination Game developed by Royal Engineers AFC.
1871 in football
Charles William Alcock creates the Football Association Challenge Cup, the oldest cup tournament still extant.
1872 in football
Scotland and England draw 0–0 in the first FIFA-recognized international football match, played at the West of Scotland Cricket Club. Wanderers beat Royal Engineers in the first FA Cup final. Kick corner and ball fixture is introduced by The Football Association. The first Welsh football club, Wrexham A.F.C., is founded. Football introduced in France by English sailors, and Le Havre is founded. Rangers F.C. is founded in Scotland.
1873 in football
The Scottish Football Association is founded. The offside law is changed so that an offside position is determined when the ball is played by a teammate, rather than when it is received. The corner kick is defined. 1874 in football
The FA authorizes referees to send players off for certain offences and makes a rule requiring teams to change ends at halftime. The first shin pads are introduced. Aston Villa F.C. and Bolton Wanderers F.C are founded.1875 in football
The crossbar is introduced, replacing tape as the means of marking the top of the goal. Oxford University tour Germany and a number of German universities take up the game (one of first countries to play under FA rules outside of Britain). Blackburn Rovers F.C. is founded.1876 in football
Carlton Cricket Club (Canada) form football section and subsequently tours Britain. Middlesbrough F.C. were founded.1877 in football
The length of a match is set at 90 minutes. Wolverhampton Wanderers were founded.1878 in football
Referees begin to use whistles. West Bromwich Albion, Manchester United (as Newton Heath L&YR F.C.) and Everton (as St. Domingo's FC) are founded. The first football match to be staged under electric floodlighting takes place at Bramall Lane, Sheffield, between two local representative teams.1879 in footballKjøbenhavns Boldklub introduces itself as the first sports club in continental Europe. Sunderland A.F.C. and Doncaster Rovers F.C. are founded.
1880s 1880 in football
Irish Football Association founded. Clubs charge for admission. Players paid lost wages and expenses (players still part-time). Manchester City are founded as St. Marks.1882 in football
Queens Park Rangers FC, Tottenham Hotspur F.C., and Burnley F.C. are founded. The first club in Uruguay formed by an English professor at Montevideo University; another club later formed by British railway engineers. Two-handed throw-in introduced.1883 in football
Coventry City FC is founded.1884 in football
Played for the first time the British Home Championship, the oldest tournament for national teams: the Scotland national team emerges as winner. Derby County are founded along with Leicester City, who are founded as Leicester Fosse. 1885 in football
The Football Association legalises professionalism. The first non-European international was contested on 28 November 1885, at Newark, New Jersey, between the United States and Canada, the Canadians winning 1–0. Arbroath beat Bon Accord 36–0 in the Scottish Cup, a record which stands to this day.1886 in football
The FAs of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland form the International Football Association Board. The referee and the captain player for each team are introduced. Arsenal F.C. is founded.1887 in football
The first football team in South America is founded, Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata, Argentina. British introduce football to Russia. Hamburger SV is founded. Hibernian F.C. wins the Football World Championship against Preston North End, 2–1 in Edinburgh.1888 in football
The Football League, the world's first national football league competition, is founded in England by Aston Villa director William McGregor. Celtic F.C. is founded. Renton F.C. wins the Football World Championship against West Bromwich Albion, 4–1 in Glasgow.1889 in football
The Royal Dutch Football Association and the Danish Football Association are founded. The Danish association is the first non-British European football association.
The Football Alliance is formed as a rival to The Football League.
The first football association not admitted to FIFA is formed: the Cornwall County Football Association.
Rosario Central, and
Mohun Bagan A.C., the oldest football club in India, is founded. RC Recreativo de Huelva, the first club in Spain, is founded.
1890s 1890 in footballThe IFA Premiership (Irish League) is formed (NIFL Premiership).
The Scottish Football League is formed.
Goal nets used for the first time.1891 in football
The penalty kick is introduced. Liverpool engineer John Alexander Brodie invents the football net.
Assistant referees are first introduced as linesmen.
The first Oceanian football association is formed: the New Zealand Soccer Association.
The first ever championship outside of Britain takes place in Argentina: AAF Championship.
C.A. Peñarol is founded.1892 in football
The Football League introduces a second division. Liverpool F.C. and Newcastle United F.C. are founded. The first Asian football association is formed: the Football Association of Singapore. Argentina is the first country outside of Britain to have a national championship.1893 in football
Argentine Football Association is founded, the first South American football association. Genoa Cricket and Football Club, the first Italian club football team, and F.C. Porto are founded.1894 in football
Referee in complete control of game. 1894 in football
Floriana FC of Malta is founded. 1895 in football
The Federación de Fútbol de Chile, the Belgian Football Association and the Gibraltar Football Association are founded. Clube de Regatas do Flamengo is founded. Sunderland A.F.C. wins the Football World Championship against Hearts of Midlothian F.C., 5–3 in Edinburgh.1896 in football
Italy's first national championship is organised by the Italian Federation of Gymnastics. Football played at the first Summer Olympics in Athens as demonstration sport. The match length is set to 90 minutes. 1897 in football
The Football League introduces automatic promotion and relegation between its two divisions. Juventus F.C. is founded as Sport Club Juventus.1898 in football
The Italian Football Federation is formed. CR Vasco da Gama, Standard Liège and Portsmouth FC are founded. CS Constantine of Algeria is founded. 1899 in football
FC Barcelona, Club Nacional de Football and A.C. Milan are founded. The number of a football team is defined to be 11 players.
1900s 1900 in football
Asociación Uruguaya de Fútbol and German Football Association were founded. FC Bayern Munich, AFC Ajax, RCD Espanyol, Borussia Mönchengladbach and S.S. Lazio (as Società Podistica Lazio) are founded. The first clubs dedicated to football still active in Brazil, Sport Club Rio Grande and Associação Atlética Ponte Preta are founded. The Malta Football Association is founded.1901 in football
Czechoslovak Football Association and Hungarian Football Federation are founded. The match between Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and Hearts of Midlothian F.C. for the Football World Championship finishes 0–0, in London. Hibernian win Scottish Cup on 23 April. Club Atlético River Plate is founded in Argentina, C.F. Pachuca is founded, Alianza Lima is founded in Peru. 1902 in football
The first international match between South American national teams is played between Uruguay 0–6 Argentina, and the first international match between non-British European national teams: Austria 5–0 Hungary. 26 people die and over 500 are injured when a section of the terracing collapses after a Scotland-England British Home Championship match at Ibrox Park. Five Spanish clubs compete for the 1902 Copa de la Coronación, which was unofficially the first Copa del Rey. The first Brazilian football league, Campeonato Paulista, is won by São Paulo Athletic Club. The first North American football association (geographically South American but affiliated to CONCACAF) is formed: the Guyana Football Federation. The penalty area is defined. Real Madrid, Olimpia Asunción and Fluminense Football Club are founded. Hearts of Midlothian F.C. won the Football World Championship against Tottenham Hotspur F.C., 3–1 in Edinburgh.1903 in football
Beşiktaş J.K., Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense, Racing Club de Avellaneda and Atlético Madrid are founded.1904 in football
FIFA is founded in Paris on 21 May. The first football association geographically in North America is formed: the Fédération Haïtienne de Football. Swedish Football Association is founded. S.L. Benfica, Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas and Argentinos Juniors are founded. Professional Footballers' Association (PFA) formed.1905 in football
The Muratti Vase, the oldest tournament for FAs not admitted to FIFA, played for the first time, won by Guernsey. Galatasaray, Chelsea F.C., Club Atlético Boca Juniors, Estudiantes de La Plata, Club Atlético Independiente and Sport Club do Recife are founded.1906 in football
England joins FIFA. Club Deportivo Guadalajara and Sporting Clube de Portugal is founded.1907 in football
Fenerbahçe S.K., Al-Ahly and Bradford Park Avenue A.F.C. are founded.1908 in football
For the first time, officially, a football tournament is played at the Summer Olympics in London, which was won by Great Britain. FC Internazionale, San Lorenzo de Almagro, Clube Atlético Mineiro, Feyenoord and Panathinaikos F.C. are founded. Organized in Italy the Torneo Internazionale Stampa Sportiva, the first international football tournament for clubs, but not officially.1909 in football
R.S.C. Anderlecht, Sport Club Internacional and Borussia Dortmund are founded. The first official national football tournament was organized in 1909 by the recently founded Romanian Football Federation, then called the Association of Athletic Societies in Romania. Played for the first time in Italy the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, considered the first official international football tournament for clubs.
1910s 1910 in football
Club Atlético Vélez Sársfield , Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, MKE Ankaragücü and FC St. Pauli are founded. The Copa Centenario Revolución de Mayo 1910, played in and won by Argentina, is the first South American competition with more than two national teams, and is considered unofficially the first Copa América. 1911 in football
FK Austria Vienna, El Zamalek and Anorthosis Famagusta are founded.1912 in football
Goalkeepers banned from handling the ball outside their own penalty area. Santos FC and Karşıyaka S.K. are founded.1913 in football
Opposing players forced to stand at least ten yards away from a free kick. Royal Spanish Football Federation and United States Soccer Federation are founded.1914 in football
The oldest surviving club trophy soccer competition in the Americas, Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, is founded in the United States as National Challenge Cup and the Brooklyn Field Club (1898–1924) are crowned champions. Glentoran from Belfast wins first ever European competition, the Vienna Cup. Brazilian Football Confederation is founded. Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras, Levski Sofia and Altay S.K. are founded.1916 in football
CONMEBOL is founded. Uruguay wins the first Copa América, held in Argentina. Club América is founded.
1918 in football
LDU Quito are founded under the name Club Universitario.1919 in football
Congolese Association Football Federation, the first African football association, French Football Federation and Polish Football Association are founded. Leeds United, Liga Deportiva Alajuelense, Valencia CF, Dacia Unirea Braila, U.S. Salernitana, Espérance Sportive de Tunis are founded.
1920s 1920 in football
For the first time an African national team plays an international match, which is also the first intercontinental national team match between Italy and Egypt, which ends 2–1, at the Summer Olympics in Belgium.1921 in football
Egyptian Football Association is founded. Cruzeiro Esporte Clube is founded. The IFA Premiership (Irish League) is now the national league of Northern Ireland, following partition.1923 in football
Bolton Wanderers defeat West Ham United in the first English FA Cup final played at Wembley Stadium, remembered as the White Horse Final. Rapid București , Gençlerbirliği S.K. and Turkish Football Federation are founded.1924 in football
Players allowed to score directly from a corner kick. For the first time a South American national team and a European national team play each other: Uruguay-Yugoslavia 7–0, at the Summer Olympics in France. Uruguay wins the gold medal. For the first time an Oceanian national team plays an international match: Australia-Canada 3–2. Chinese Football Association is founded. Following their Italian league victory in 1923–24, Genoa C.F.C. becomes the first team ever to add a scudetto patch to their shirt.1925 in football
The offside rule is changed: a player is now onside if a minimum of two (instead of three) opposing players are between him and the goal line. Étoile Sportive du Sahel, Colo-Colo and Olympiacos F.C. are founded.1926 in football
Huddersfield Town become the first team to win the Football League in three consecutive seasons. ACF Fiorentina PAOK and APOEL FC are founded.1927 in football
AC Sparta Prague wins the inaugural Mitropa Cup, the first international major European cup for clubs, the predecessor to the Champions League. Federación Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación is founded. FC Dynamo Kyiv and Cruz Azul are founded. First League match broadcast on radio.1928 in football
La Liga is formed. Uruguay wins the gold medal for the second time in a row.1929 in football
Lega Calcio Serie A is formed. Goalkeepers have to stand still on their lines for penalty kicks.
1930s 1930 in football
Thirteen teams enter the first World Cup, held in Uruguay. The hosts beat Argentina 4–2 in the final. Contested between the top national teams of continental Europe, Dr. Gerö Cup' first edition is won by Italy. São Paulo.1932 in football
Football is excluded from the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States at the time. Bologna becomes the first Italian club to win a major international competition following their Mitropa Cup conquest. 1934 in football
Hosts Italy become the second World Cup winners and the first European team to do so, beating Czechoslovakia 2–1 in the final. For the first time a qualification stage occurs and an Asian national team plays an international match: Egypt-Palestine 7–1. Egypt becomes the first African team to compete.1935 in football
Deportivo Saprissa is founded.Juventus becomes the first team in Italian football history to win 5 national titles in a row.1936 in footballItaly wins gold at the Olympics in Berlin and joins Uruguay to become Olympic and World champion.1937 in football
The largest football crowd was recorded, 149,415 people turned up at Hampden Park, Glasgow, to see Scotland play England1938 in football
In the 1938 World Cup held in France, Italy beats Hungary 4–2 in the final and becomes the first team to successfully defend the title and the first to win on foreign soil. Vittorio Pozzo becomes the first coach and only at present to guide his team to two World Cup victories. Polish Ernest Willimowski becomes the first player to score four goals in a World Cup game during Poland's 6–5 loss against Brazil. Following the Anschluss with Germany, Austria withdraws and some Austrian players joins the German squad. Argentina and Uruguay boycott the tournament as it is held in Europe for the second successive time. First live TV transmission of FA Cup Final.1939 in football
Shirt numbering is made compulsory.
1940s 1941 in football
CCCF Championship Is organized for the first time by CCCF, won and hosted by Costa Rica.1945 in football
Red Star Belgrade is founded.1946 in football
The Burnden Park Disaster kills 33 Bolton Wanderers fans. The PFC is formed. JS Kabylie is founded.1947 in football
NAFC Championship is organized for the first time by North American Football Confederation in Cuba, and won by Mexico. Atlético Nacional and FC Steaua București are founded.1948 in football
CSKA Sofia and Dinamo București are founded.1949 in football
FC Barcelona win the inaugural Latin Cup, one of the forerunners of the European Cup. The Superga air disaster kills 31 people, including 18 Grande Torino players, the backbone of the Italy national football team. Raja Casablanca is founded.
1950s 1950 in football
Uruguay win the 1950 FIFA World Cup held in Brazil, when they beat the hosts 2–1 in the final group match of the tournament, also known as the Maracanazo, the highest attendance at any sporting match at 200,000. Earlier in the same tournament, one of the biggest upsets in football history occurs, when the United States shock England 1–0.1951 in football
Use of white ball permitted. Copa Rio, the first world tournament for clubs, is played for the first time in Brazil, and won by Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras.1952 in football
Hungary's revolutionary tactics help the Golden Team to win the football at the 1952 Summer Olympics. The Panamerican Championship is played for the first time in Chile, won by Brazil.1953 in football
England lose a home match for the first time, 6–3 to Hungary.1954 in football
UEFA is founded in Basel, Switzerland, Asian Football Confederation is formed. West Germany win the 1954 FIFA World Cup held in Switzerland (it was the first World Cup with a sponsor), coming back from 0–2 to win the final game 3–2 against Hungary, a match known as The Miracle of Bern. Club Universidad Nacional is founded.1955 in football
First European Cup starts. The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, considered the precursor of the UEFA Cup, is played for the first time and won by Barcelona.1956 in football
Real Madrid beat Stade de Reims-Champagne 4–3 in the first European Cup final. First RAI TV's transmission of football match Serie A happens in Italy in a match between Fiorentina and Napoli. The first Asian Cup is played in Hong Kong, won by Korea Republic. Saudi Arabia Football Federation is founded. Floodlighting used for first time at League match (Portsmouth). The Ballon d'Or is assigned for the first time to Stanley Matthews.1957 in football
CAF is founded; only three teams enter the first African Cup of Nations in Sudan, won by Egypt. Al-Hilal is founded.1958 in football
Pelé and Garrincha star as Brazil win their first World Cup in Sweden, beating the hosts 5–2 in the final. 23 people, including eight Manchester United players, are killed in the Munich air disaster. Just Fontaine becomes the first and to this day only player to score 13 goals in a single World Cup. Juventus becomes the first team in history to adopt a golden star above their crest to represent their tenth Serie A title, a national record then. 1959 in football
The first season of the Brazilian National Championship takes place and is won by Esporte Clube Bahia. Once Caldas is founded.
1960s 1960 in football
The first European Championship is played in France, won by USSR. The Copa Libertadores is played for the first time and won by C.A. Peñarol, and the Intercontinental Cup is played for the first time, won by Real Madrid. First European Cup Winners' Cup.1961 in football
CONCACAF is founded with the fusion of CCCF and NAFC. Benfica become the second team to win the European Cup, beating FC Barcelona 3–2 in the final. ACF Fiorentina wins the first edition of UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and becomes the first Italian team to win an UEFA competition. Football Federation Australia is founded.1962 in football
Brazil retain the 1962 World Cup, beating Czechoslovakia 3–1 in the final. The CONCACAF Champions League is organized for the first time, and won by Club Deportivo Guadalajara. FIFA reaches 100 members.1963 in football
The West German national league Bundesliga is formed. Lev Yashin becomes the first goalkeeper to win European Footballer of the Year. The first CONCACAF Championship is played in El Salvador, won by Costa Rica. Tottenham Hotspur become the first British club to win a European football competition, European Cup Winner's Cup beating Atlético Madrid 5–1 in the final.1964 in football
Internazionale wins the European Cup for the first time joining city rivals AC Milan as European champions. Milano becomes the first city and only at present to have won the Champions League with two different clubs. CAF Champions League organized for the first time and won by Oryx Douala.1965 in football
FC Twente is founded.1966 in football
England win the 1966 World Cup as hosts, beating West Germany 4–2 in the final as Geoff Hurst becomes the first player to score a hat-trick in the final. The OFC is founded.1967 in football
Celtic become the first British club to win the European Cup, beating Internazionale 2–1 in the final. Flórián Albert became the first Hungarian player who win the European Golden Boot. The AFC Champions League is played for the first time, won by Hapoel Tel Aviv F.C.1968 in football
Manchester United win the European Cup ten years after the Munich air disaster killed eight of their players. Eusébio wins the inaugural Golden Boot award as the continent's top club scorer.1969 in football
2000 people die when El Salvador and Honduras declare war on each other following a World Cup qualifying match.
1970s 1970 in football
Brazil becomes the first national side to win a third World Cup in Mexico, the first ever held outside Europe and South America, beating Italy 4–1 in the final as their captain Pelé becomes the first player to win three World Cup medals. Earlier in the tournament, The Game of the Century occurs, Italy beats Germany 4–3 in the semifinal after five goals scored in extra time. Yellow and red cards for sendings off and admonitions appear. Paris was founded.1971 in football
66 die in the second Ibrox disaster. First UEFA Cup. The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is abolished. The first FIFA-recognised women's international match is played: France 4 Netherlands 0.1972 in football
Rangers F.C. wins the European Cup Winners' Cup. Tottenham Hotspur wins the first UEFA Cup. AFC Ajax wins the first edition of the UEFA Super Cup.1973 in football
Ajax win the European Cup for the third consecutive season. The first OFC Nations Cup is organized and won by New Zealand.1974 in football
Hosts West Germany win the 1974 World Cup, beating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final.1975 in football
The AFC Women's Asian Cup is organized for the first time in Hong Kong, won by New Zealand.1976 in football
Bayern Munich win the European Cup for the third consecutive season. Iran national team win its third consecutive Asian Cup, a record.1977 in football
Juventus become the first Italian and South European club to win the UEFA Cup. The first FIFA U-20 World Cup is organized in Tunisia, and won by USSR.1978 in football
Hosts Argentina win the 1978 World Cup, beating the Netherlands 3–1 in the final; Johann Cruyff refuses to play in the tournament.1979 in football
Nottingham Forest lift their first European Cup in Munich, defeating Malmö 1–0 in the final.
1980s 1980 in football
West Germany defeats Belgium 2–1 in the final at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome to take the European Football Championship.1981 in football
The Football League begins awarding three points for a win instead of two. In Uruguay, to celebrate the 50 years of the World Cup, the 1980 Mundialito is organize; won by the hosts.1982 in football
The 1982 FIFA World Cup is played in Spain, the first with 24 teams, the tournament was won by Italy, after defeating West Germany 3–1 in the final in the Spanish capital of Madrid. It was Italy's third World Cup win and first since 1938. The holders Argentina were eliminated in the second group round. Algeria, Cameroon, Honduras, Kuwait and New Zealand made their first appearances in the finals. for the first time all continents were represented in the competition.
Aston Villa win the European Cup, beating Bayern Munich 1–0 in the final.1983 in football
Aberdeen beat Real Madrid to win their first European Trophy, the European Cup Winners' Cup soon followed by defeating Hamburg to win the European Super Cup. The OFC Women's Championship is played for the first time in New Caledonia, won by New Zealand.1984 in football
Michel Platini leads Juventus to the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, beating F.C. Porto in the final and the hosts France to the European Football Championship, beating Spain in the final. France also wins the gold medal in the 1984 Olympic Games, beating Brazil in the final at the Rose Bowl. The UEFA Women's Championship is organized for the first time, won by Sweden.1985 in football
On 29 May, the Heysel Stadium disaster takes place in Brussels prior the European Cup final between Liverpool and Juventus, leading to English clubs being banned from European club competition for five years. Juventus becomes the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major confederation competitions after defeating Liverpool 1–0 in that match, as well as the first in association football history to have won all possible international competitions after defeating Argentinos Juniors 6–4 (2–2 a.e.t.) in the Intercontinental Cup final at Tokyo's National Stadium on 8 December. The Bradford City stadium fire occurs at Valley Parade, taking the lives of 56 people and injuring another 200 during Bradford City's fixture with Lincoln City. For the first time, an African squad wins a FIFA tournament, the World Championship Under 16, as Nigeria surprisingly defeat favourites West Germany 2–0 in China. The Artemio Franchi Trophy is organized for the first time, won and hosted by France. Michel Platini wins for the third consecutive time the Ballon d'Or, a record then.1986 in football
The 1986 World Cup finals are played for the second time in Mexico, with Argentina defeating West Germany 3–2 for their second title at the Azteca Stadium in Mexico City; the tournament sees the dominance of Argentinian player Diego Maradona, scoring the infamous Hand of God goal, before his "Goal of the Century" solo dribble second goal, both in the quarterfinal against England. Alex Ferguson, the most decorated manager in English Football history, is appointed to be manager of Manchester United.1987 in football
F.C. Porto wins the European Cup for the first time after defeating Bayern Munich 2–1 in the final. In the second World Championship FIFA Under 16, the Soviet Union defeats Nigeria on penalties. The OFC Champions League is played for the first time and won by Adelaide City.1988 in football
The Netherlands, led by captain Ruud Gullit and top goal scorer Marco van Basten, defeat the Soviet Union 2–0 to win the Euro 1988 championship. Competing in Serie B, Atalanta reaches the Cup Winners' Cup semifinal, the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition to this day. Start of the FIFA Fair Play campaign.1989 in football
The Hillsborough disaster occurs in Sheffield, England, before the FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest, resulting in the loss of 96 lives. A football tournament is played for the first time at the Island Games, by FAs not admitted to FIFA, hosted and won by Faroe Islands. Saudi Arabia win the FIFA U-17 World Cup, the first time an Asian team wins a FIFA World Cup.
1990s 1990 in football
For the first time three clubs from the same country, Italy's Juventus, Sampdoria and A.C. Milan wins all four UEFA club competitions in the same season, a feat no more possible since the Cup Winner's Cup no longer exists. West Germany wins the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Rome, Italy, defeating defending champion Argentina 1–0 in the final. In their first appearance in the tournament, Republic of Ireland reaches the quarter-finals without winning a single game, the furthest a team has ever advanced without winning. "Waterloo Day" for Austrian football in Euro 92 qualifying at Landskrona, Sweden, where the Faroe Islands defeat Austria 1–0 in the former's first ever international match.1991 in football
In the inaugural Women's World Cup held in China, the USA win 2–1 over Norway (for the first time a Northern American team win a World Cup). After being banned for six years, English clubs are again allowed to participate in competitions sponsored by UEFA. Diego Maradona is banned for 15 months in Italy's Serie A after testing positive for cocaine in a drug test. The CAF Women's Championship is played for the first time won by Nigeria. The CONCACAF Women's Championship is played for the first time in Haiti, won by USA. The Sudamericano Femenino, CONMEBOL's main women's tournament, is played for the first time, hosted and won by Brazil. The FIFA World Player of the Year is assigned for the first time.1992 in football
The back-pass rule is applied, whereby a goalkeeper is no longer permitted to pick up or catch a ball played directly by a fellow team member's foot. In the final of Euro 92, Denmark surprisingly win 2–0 over Germany. Stadium Furiani disaster takes place in Bastia, Corsica. FA Premier League created as the top flight in English Football. The first FIFA Confederations Cup is organized in Saudi Arabia, and won by Argentina. Capello's Milan wins Serie A unbeaten.1993 in football
Olympique de Marseille becomes the first French club to win the European Cup, newly renamed as the UEFA Champions League, defeating AC Milan 1–0 at the Olympiastadion in Munich. Marseille also win Ligue 1, but are stripped of the title due to a corruption scandal. 18 members of the Zambia national team die in a plane crash. Manchester United win the first FA Premier League title. Brian Clough retires from his coaching role in Nottingham Forest after 18 years as coach.1994 in football
The 1994 World Cup held in the United States was the first to be decided on penalties, with Brazil edging out Italy in the final at the Rose Bowl to claim their fourth title. Russia's Oleg Salenko becomes the first player and only to this day to score five goals in a single World Cup game in his country's 6–1 win over Cameroon. In the same match, 42-year-old Roger Milla of Cameroon, becomes the oldest player ever to score in a World Cup match.1995 in football
The second FIFA Confederations Cup is organized in Saudi Arabia, and won by Denmark. The Bosman ruling allows all footballers playing in the European Union and not under contract to freely change clubs, and also abolishes foreign player quotas with respect to EU nationals. win the second FIFA Women's World Cup. Suwon Samsung Bluewings is founded.1996 in football
Bayern Munich becomes the third club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA competitions after winning the UEFA Cup. In the Euro 96 final, Germany defeat the Czech Republic 2–1 with a golden goal from Oliver Bierhoff; Nigeria become the first African team to win the Olympic Tournament. A football women's tournament is played for the first time at the Summer Olympics in Atlanta, won by the United States.1997 in football
Helenio Herrera, legendary coach of Inter in the 1960s, dies.1998 in football
In the 1998 FIFA World Cup final, France win 3–0 over Brazil at Stade de France to claim their first World Cup. Palestinian Football Federation is admitted to FIFA. The first openly gay footballer, Justin Fashanu commits suicide.1999 in football
The USA, the hosting nation, defeat China in a penalty shootout to win the Women's World Cup in front of the largest crowd ever to witness a women's sporting event. Organized in Italy by UEFA the first continental tournament for regions: the UEFA Regions' Cup, won by Veneto. Mexico win the Confederations Cup: for the first time a male national team form Northern America win a FIFA tournament. The UEFA Cup Winners' Cup is abolished.
2000s 2000 in football
France wins their second European Championship title after beating Italy 2–1, with a golden goal in extra time. First FIFA Club World Cup, won by Sport Club Corinthians Paulista. FIFA Player of the Century, a one-off award created by FIFA to decide the greatest football player of the 20th century, is awarded to Pelé and Diego Maradona, shared: both men are officially considered winners of the award.2001 in football
Real Madrid sign playmaker Zinedine Zidane of Juventus in a world record transfer fee of 72 million euros. Colombia wins the 40th edition of Copa América, as hosts. Australia beats American Samoa 31–0 in 2002 World Cup qualification, the world record in an international match.2002 in football
Brazil sets up a record fifth title in World Cup competition, the first ever to be played in Asia (also the first outside Europe and the Americas), defeating Germany 2–0 in the 2002 FIFA World Cup final. The first FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship is held in Canada, with the USA defeating the hosts in the final 1–0 on a golden goal in extra time.2003 in football
Founded the NF-Board, the first international organization for FAs not admitted to FIFA. Paolo Maldini makes history by captaining AC Milan to a champions league victory, a feat his father Cesare did with the same club exactly 40 years before. Latvia is the first football team from the Baltic states to make an appearance in a major football competition, UEFA Euro 2004.2004 in football
Greece produce one of the shocks in football history and become surprise winners of the Euro 2004 football tournament, defeating hosts Portugal 1–0 in the final. Waitakere United is founded. Arsenal wins the 2003–04 FA Premier League unbeaten, the second time an English club goes undefeated for an entire season.2005 in football
The Champions League final in Istanbul sees Liverpool come back from a 0–3 half-time score to defeat A.C. Milan 3–2 in a penalty shootout, following a 3–3 draw. Also, a match-fixing scandal rocks German football, though it does not directly affect the Bundesliga. The Australian A-League is launched in replacement of the NSL to improve the quality of the game in the country.2006 in football
The 2006 World Cup is held in Germany and won by Italy on a penalty kick shootout over France, and Zinedine Zidane plays his last professional game in the final captaining France only to be sent off in extra time. A major match-fixing scandal erupts in Italy, with five Serie A teams implicated. Egypt record victory for the fifth time in the African Cup of Nations.2007 in football
Brazil wins the 42nd edition of Copa América, held in Venezuela. Iraq produce one of international football's greatest fairytale victories as the fractured, war-torn nation were crowned champions of the 2007 AFC Asian Cup. FIFA Women's World Cup is held in China and won by Germany. On 9 November Étoile Sportive du Sahel became the first African squad to have won all official club competitions recognized by CAF, after defeating Al-Ahly 3–1 in the CAF Champions League final in Susa.2008 in football
Spain win their second European Championship title after beating Germany 1–0. Italy and A.C. Milan becomes the first national and club side to wear on their jerseys the FIFA badge of World champions.. CONCACAF Champions Cup is replaced by the CONCACAF Champions League, modelled after the UEFA Champions League expand his participant teams from 8 to 24. The FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup is played for the first time in New Zealand, won by Korea DPR. The Women's Viva World Cup, the first World Cup for women's national teams not affiliated to FIFA, is played for the first time, hosted and won by Sapmi. 2009 in football
The FIFA Confederations Cup is won by Brazil and is held in South Africa (for the first time a FIFA tournament for senior national teams is held in Africa). Spain achieves two world records: most consecutive wins (15) and most matches without a loss (35, with Brazil). Barcelona achieves a sextuple: La Liga, Copa del Rey, Supercopa de España, UEFA Champions League, UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup. RB was founded.
2010s 2010 in football
The FIFA World Cup is held in South Africa, the first African nation to host the tournament. Spain win the World Cup for the first time, becoming the first nation outside of South America to win the tournament outside of Europe.
The FIFA Ballon d'Or is awarded for the first time (to Lionel Messi) after France Football's Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award were merged.
Egypt win the Africa Cup of Nations for the third time in a row.
Inter Milan win the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time, beating TP Mazembe, the first African club to reach the final.2011 in football
Japan defeat the United States in the FIFA Women's World Cup final to win the tournament for the first time.
Barcelona wins the FIFA Club World Cup for a then-record second time, beating Santos in the final.2012 in football
Zambia defeats third-time finalists Ivory Coast after a dramatic penalty shootout in the final, giving Zambia their first continental title, becoming the fourteenth nation to win the tournament.
Tahiti wins the OFC Nations Cup for the first time, becoming the first nation other than Australia or New Zealand to win the tournament.
The 2012 VIVA World Cup, played in Iraqi Kurdistan, with 9 participants, holds the largest number of participating teams for a non-FIFA tournament. The hosts emerge as winners in the final match played against Northern Cyprus, who fail to win a non-FIFA tournament in which they took part for the first time.
Spain wins the 2012 European Championship: for the first time the trophy was won by the same team twice in a row.
Lionel Messi scores 91 goals, establishing the new world record for most goals scored in a single calendar year, surpassing Gerd Müller's record of 85 set in 1972.
Corinthians wins the FIFA Club World Cup for the second time, beating Chelsea in the final.2013 in football Nigeria wins the Africa Cup of Nations for the third time, ending their 19-year wait after defeating surprise finalists Burkina Faso.
Nigeria wins the FIFA U-17 World Cup for a record fourth time.
Bayern Munich wins the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time, beating Raja Casablanca in the final.2014 in football
Japan wins the FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup for the first time.
The FIFA World Cup is held in Brazil for the second time, the first South American nation to host the tournament in 36 years.
Julio Grondona, continuous president of AFA since 1979 dies in office.
The FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup is held in Canada, the first nation to host the tournament twice.
Germany wins both competitions above.
German Miroslav Klose becomes the all time FIFA World Cup top scorer with 16 goals.
Real Madrid becomes the first team in European history to win 10 European titles and wins the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time, beating San Lorenzo in the final.2015 in football
The FIFA Women's World Cup is held in Canada, United States defeat Japan in the final to win the tournament for the third time.
Chile win the Copa America for the first time, in home soil after defeat Argentina in the final.
The FIFA Ballon d'Or is awarded (to Lionel Messi) and he won the fifth FIFA Ballon d'Or in his career.
Australia win the AFC Asian Cup for the first time.
Sepp Blatter (1998–2015) ends his tenure as president of FIFA and is replaced by the acting president Issa Hayatou.
Barcelona win the FIFA Club World Cup for the third time, beating River Plate, in the final.2016 in football
Lionel Messi (, Barcelona wins the 2015 FIFA Ballon d'Or and Carli Lloyd (, Houston Dash) wins 2015 FIFA Women's World Player of the Year.
Gianni Infantino is elected president of FIFA.
Copa America Centenario is hosted in the United States, the first time the Copa is held outside of South America. 16 teams from CONMEBOL and CONCACAF participate, and the tournament is won by Chile on penalties after defeating Argentina in the final.
Euro 2016 is held in France, the third time the nation hosts it. Portugal defeats France 1–0 in the final to claim their first major championship in their history.2017 in footballin January, The Best FIFA Football Awards 2016 Cristiano Ronaldo (, Real Madrid) wins The Best FIFA Men's Player and Carli Lloyd (Houston Dash, ) The Best FIFA Women's Player.
in May, Juventus becomes the first team in Italian football history to win 6 national titles in a row and the first in win the Italian Cup thrice consecutively, beating Lazio in the final.
In October, FIFA Council officially recognized all European and South American teams that won the Intercontinental Cup as club world champions with the same status to the FIFA Club World Cup winners.
Manchester United become the UEFA Europa League champions and Real Madrid won the UEFA Champions League. 2018 in footballLiverpool's Mohamed Salah breaks record for the most goals scored in a 38-game season in the Premier League. Salah also won goal of the year and the PL golden boot.
Real Madrid win their third consecutive Champions League by beating Liverpool. Atlético Madrid become Europa League Champions. Atlético Madrid beat derby rivals Real Madrid to become UEFA Super Cup champions.
The 21st edition FIFA World Cup is held in Russia and is won by France for the second time. The World Cup broke the record for most penalties.
UEFA launches the first edition of the UEFA Nations League
Switzerland and Lithuania hosted respectively the U-19 and U-17 feminine competitions. The masculine versions of U-19 and U-17 are hosted by Finland and England. These 4 competitions are won by Spain (feminine: both U-19 and U-17), Portugal (masculine: U-19) and the Netherlands (masculine: U-17).2019 in football The FIFA Women's World Cup is hosted by France and is won for the second time, and fourth overall, by the United States after defeating the Netherlands in the final.
Algeria win the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations and Brazil the 2019 Copa América.
Liverpool F.C. win the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final, the 2019 FIFA Club World Cup and the 2019 UEFA Super Cup, beating fellow English side Chelsea F.C. who won the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final in the latter.
Manchester City F.C. complete a clean sweep of the English trophies, winning the 2018–19 FA Premier League, 2019 FA Cup Final, 2019 EFL Cup Final and 2019 FA Community Shield.
2020s 2020 in football As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, most leagues are either suspended or abandoned. Amongst the postponed tournaments are the 2020 CONCACAF Nations League Finals, 2020 Copa América, UEFA Euro 2020 and the Football at the 2020 Summer Olympics, all of which are scheduled to be held in 2021.
During a match between Canada and Saint Kitts and Nevis, Christine Sinclair scores her 185th international goal, the most of any footballer in either gender.
Bayern Munich win the 2020 UEFA Champions League Final and the 2020 UEFA Super Cup, beating Europa League winners Sevilla in the latter.
Liverpool win their 19th English title, their first since 1989–90 and their first in the Premier League era.2022 in football'''
The 22nd edition of the FIFA World Cup is held in Qatar and won by Argentina (their third time).
See also
List of association football competitions
History of association football
Timeline of English football
References
Football (soccer)
History of association football
Association football |
4082379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Green%20Room%20%28film%29 | The Green Room (film) | The Green Room () is a 1978 French historical drama film directed by François Truffaut, based on the 1895 short story "The Altar of the Dead" by Henry James, in which a man becomes obsessed with the dead people in his life and builds a memorial to them. It is also based on two other works by James: the 1903 novella The Beast in the Jungle and the 1896 short story "The Way It Came". It was Truffaut's seventeenth feature film as a director and the third and last of his own films in which he acted in a leading role. It stars Truffaut, Nathalie Baye, Jean Dasté and Patrick Maléon.
Truffaut spent several years working on the film's script and felt a special connection to the theme of honouring and remembering the dead. In the film, he included portraits of people from his own life at the main character's "Altar of the Dead". The Green Room was one of Truffaut's most praised films, and also one of his least successful financially.
Plot
The action takes place ten years after the end of World War I in a small town in France. The protagonist, Julien Davenne, is a war veteran who works as an editor at the newspaper, The Globe. He specializes in funeral announcements ("a virtuoso of the obituary", as defined by its editor-in-chief) and the thought of death haunts him. Davenne has reserved a room for the worship of his wife, Julie, on the upper floor of the house he shares with his elderly housekeeper, Mrs. Rambaud, and Georges, a deaf-mute boy. His wife had died eleven years previously, at the height of her beauty.
During a thunderstorm, a fire destroys the green room, Davenne managing to save only pictures and portraits of his wife. On discovering an abandoned chapel in ruins, at the same cemetery where Julie is buried, Julien decides to consecrate it not only to his wife but to all the cemetery's dead, having reached "that point in life where you know more dead than alive." The place is transformed into a forest of lighted candles, with photos of all the people he treasured in life.
To keep the chapel, Davenne calls a young woman, Cécilia, secretary of the auction house that has regained a ring that had belonged to Julie. The friendship between the two seems to evolve when Paul Massigny, a French politician and Davenne's former best friend, dies. The film suggests that Massigny once betrayed Davenne but does not say what constituted the betrayal. When Davenne first visits Cécilia at home, Davenne discovers that the living room is full of pictures of Massigny and, without asking for explanations, leaves.
At the chapel, Cecilia tells him that she was one of Massigny's many women and still loves him. She requests that Massigny be represented by one of the candles on the altar. After being rebuffed by Davenne, Cecilia breaks off the relationship and he breaks down. He locks himself away at home, refusing to eat, to see the doctor, or talk. The managing editor of The Globe recommends that Cécilia write him a letter. She finally declares her love, knowing he would never reciprocate, "because to be loved by you, I should be dead." Having forgiven Massigny, Davenne joins her in the chapel, but he is weakened, falls to the ground and dies. Cécilia completes the work, as she had asked the first time, dedicating one last candle to Julien Davenne.
Cast
Production
Background and writing
Truffaut first began work on The Green Room in December 1970 after reading the works of Henry James. Truffaut especially liked "The Altar of the Dead" and asked his friend Aimée Alexandre to translate a new French version for him. Alexandre also recommended works by Anton Chekov and Leo Tolstoy with similar themes, while Truffaut did his own research on James's life and visited his home in Boston. Truffaut worked on other projects until 1974, when a new French version of the short story was published, renewing his interest. Truffaut commented on the film, "the story was difficult to construct, but at the same time, I was attracted to the subject." In July of that year he then reached a contract agreement with screenwriter Jean Gruault to begin drafting a film adaptation. Truffaut and Gruault had previously collaborated on Jules and Jim (1962), The Wild Child (1970), and Two English Girls (1971).
For several years Truffaut had become increasingly interested in people from his life who had died, beginning with his mentor and father-figure André Bazin, who had died the day before Truffaut began shooting his first feature, The 400 Blows. Truffaut told a reporter for L'Express: "I'm faithful to the dead, I live with them. I'm forty-five and already beginning to be surrounded by dead people." In 1977 Truffaut lost two other important father-figures: Cinémathèque Française director Henri Langlois and Roberto Rossellini, whom Truffaut called "the most intelligent man, with André Bazin" during an interview with Le Matin de Paris. Around this time Truffaut had watched Shoot the Piano Player and noticed that half the actors had since died. In an interview with L'Humanité-Dimanche magazine Truffaut asked "Why not have the same range of feelings for the dead as for the living, the same aggressive or affectionate relationship?" and added that he wanted to film "what it would be like to show on screen a man who refuses to forget the dead." According to him, The Green Room is not the worshipping of death, but an extension of the love for the people that we have met and who are no longer alive, and the idea that they have a permanency. What matters is that Davenne refuses to forget, and this refusal is important for Truffaut.
Truffaut recommended that Gruault read James's 1903 novella The Beast in the Jungle and 1896 short story "The Way It Came", which were also incorporated into the film. Truffaut also wanted to change the setting of the original story to 1920s France with World War I as a major factor in the plot. In fact, he stated that he chose to adapt Henry James’ 1928 themes because he wanted to link them directly with the memory of the First World War. The idea of massacre, millions of deaths, is not evoked as effectively by the Second World War. By spring 1975, Gruault had finished a first draft called La Fiancée disparue (The Vanished Fiancée). Truffaut thought the script was too long and Gruault made cuts. Truffaut's continuing requests for script modifications caused Gruault to become dissatisfied working with him. Truffaut, also busy writing the script for Alain Resnais's Mon oncle d'Amérique, put the entire project on hold and eventually shot Small Change and The Man Who Loved Women. He continued to research the themes of The Green Room, reread Marcel Proust's Remembrance of Things Past and Japanese literature such as the works of Jun'ichirō Tanizaki. He also asked Éric Rohmer for help with the script, but the material thus far produced did not interest the director.
In October 1976, Truffaut showed a new draft to Gruault, which now included a deaf-mute child as the main character Julien Davenne's protégé, and had Davenne work as an obituary writer in a small Parisian magazine. The presence of Paul Massigny was also vital for the development of the story. Indeed, Truffaut stated that without Massigny there would be no film because it would be too static, and that The Green Room is a tale in which Massigny is the anti-hero. Gruault finished a new version of the script by February 1977. Truffaut worked on it with his assistant Suzanne Schiffman and completed the final draft in May 1977.
Casting
For the lead role of Julien Davenne, Truffaut first wanted to cast actor Charles Denner, but he was not available. Because of the personal nature of the film and the character of Julien Davenne, Truffaut decided to play the part, stating that "this film is like a handwritten letter. If you write by hand, it isn’t perfect, the writing may be shaky, but it is you, your writing." . This decision was not simply taken because Truffaut embodied the character, but because Davenne’s obsession, what he does throughout the whole film, what defines him, that is, keeping the memory of the dead alive, refusing to forget them, linked in a way to the activity of the director. Specifically, he felt a closeness to the character of Davenne, due to his own valuations of remembrance of the dead as helping in the "struggle against the transience of life". Despite his strong feeling for the character, Truffaut was hesitant about the role and thought he may be perceived as too old. He had a wig made, but ended up not using it.. It was Truffaut's third and last of his own film in which he played a leading role. According to co-star Nathalie Baye, Truffaut almost shut the film down for fear of a bad performance: "He would say to me, 'It's madness; it will never work!' And he came close to wanting to stop everything."
Baye was cast as Cécilia after having worked with her in Day for Night and The Man Who Loved Women. Baye later stated that "If Francois asked me to perform with him, it was because he knew I wasn't the kind of actress who caused problems. He could rely on me, which was very reassuring to him." Truffaut filled out the cast with Jean Dasté as Davenne's boss at The Globe, Antoine Vitez as a clergyman, Jean-Pierre Moulin as a widower that Davenne comforts in the film and Patrick Maléon as the deaf-mute child. Truffaut also cast technicians and personnel from his production company in small roles.
When asked about the message of The Green Room, Truffaut said "I am for the woman and against the man. As this century approaches its end, people are becoming more stupid and suicidal, and we must fight against this. The Green Room is not a fable, not a psychological picture. The moral is: One must deal with the living! This man has neglected life. Here we have a breakdown of the idea of survival."
Filming
The Green Room was shot in the fall of 1977 in Honfleur, France with a budget of 3 million francs provided by United Artists. That summer, Truffaut scouted locations and hired his longtime collaborator, Néstor Almendros, as cinematographer. To give the film a Gothic look, Almendros used candle light as both source and practical lighting, with electrical lights used to "exploit the contrast between electric light and a flood of candlelight to give the film a ghostly quality." Truffaut also intended a resulting lack of colour throughout filming, condemning colour as a removal of the final "barrier" between film and reality: "If there is nothing false in a film, then it is not a film." Almendros later said that, despite the film's somber tone, "this film was put together with joy, and the shooting was the most pleasant" of his career. Many of the scenes were shot in the four-story Maison Troublet in Honfleur. This house and its grounds included sets for many of the film's main locations: Davenne's house, his office at The Globe and the auction room.
Other locations included the Caen cemetery and the Carbec Chapel in Saint-Pierre-du-Val. The chapel was used for Davenne's shrine to the dead, with Jean-Pierre Kohut-Svelko designing the set inside. Among the portraits included in the shrine are Henry James, Oscar Wilde, an old man who played a small role in Truffaut's Two English Girls, actor Oskar Werner in a World War I uniform, Jacques Audiberti, Jean Cocteau, Maurice Jaubert, Raymond Queneau, Jeanne Moreau and her sister Michelle Moreau, Louise Lévêque de Vilmorin, Aimée Alexandre, Oscar Lewenstein, Marcel Proust, Guillaume Apollinaire and Sergei Prokofiev, many of whom were idolised figures of Truffaut's .
Filming began on October 11, 1977 and lasted until November 27, 1977. The atmosphere on the set was especially fun and Nathalie Baye revealed that she and Truffaut often had laughing fits during takes. However, she also admits to having found it difficult to receive comprehensive direction from Truffaut, as he remained highly focused on his own performance. Baye also had difficulty performing alongside Truffuat, due to his "expressionless, nearly mechanical" approach to acting, which required her to adjust her own approaches accordingly.
Themes
Since the semi-autobiographical The 400 Blows (1959), it has been noted that Truffaut often portrayed personal experiences and emotions throughout his films. Via such expressionistic use of the medium, he proclaimed himself as a film auteur, within a theory of film as art which he personally advocated as a director and a critic. As a result, Truffaut's films often appeared to focus on certain themes and stylisations, such as the vitality of youth and childhood, particularly embodied by the character of Antoine Doinel, who is a recurring presence across a number of his films. The Green Room however was made towards the end of Truffaut's career, and thematically the film contrasts to his earlier works. The Green Room appears to reminisce on childhood, whilst focusing more on the final stages of life, as Truffaut expresses his views of death and remembrance of the dead. This theme for a film had "preoccupied him for several years and had been accentuated by the deaths of numerous friends and colleagues", such as those who previously worked alongside him on Shoot the Piano Player. Nonetheless, the alternative theme of the film again reflects Truffaut's sense of personal expressionism throughout his career. When asked "what do you make of the contradiction between the cult of death and the love of the life?" Truffaut replied "it's the theme of the film." Gillain wrote that the film "points to cinema as a celebration of memory." Yet, also thematic throughout The Green Room is a familiar "estrangement from human contact and romantic obsession", which has been prominent in "most of the films that Truffaut has made over a period of twenty years."
Music
Truffaut chose pre-recorded music from composer Maurice Jaubert's 1936 "Concert Flamand", whose work he had already used four times, and played it on set in order to create a rhythm and establish a religious, ritualistic atmosphere for the cast and crew. As Truffaut has stated, both camera and actors movements follow Jaubert's music rhythm. Filmmaker François Porcile later said "It's not surprising to find, in the sudden explosive tension and somber conviction of his acting, a direct echo of Jaubert's style, with its gathering momentum and sudden restraint, its reticence and violence." Truffaut explained: "I realized that his music, full of clarity and sunlight, was the best to accompany the memory of all these dead." However, an infrequent use of music throughout the final film sees a consistent quietness take place, which is regarded to have masked "an exploration of human isolation in an inhuman society and of the strength and limitations of moral and aesthetic purity." Gillain wrote that the film is cut like a musical composition and that each scene "performs a suite of variations on a single theme."
Release and reception
Truffaut completed the editing of The Green Room in March 1978 and showed it to his trusted friends and co-workers, who immediately praised the film and called it one of his best. Many wrote to him via letter, such as Isabelle Adjani, who stated: 'Of all your films it is the one that most moved me and spoke to me, along with Two English Girls. I felt good crying in your presence.' Alain Delon told Truffaut: "The Green Room, along with Clément, Visconti and very few others, is part of my secret garden." Éric Rohmer said to him: 'I found your film deeply moving. I found you deeply moving in your film.' Antoine Vitez told Truffaut: 'I haven't yet told you the emotion I felt on seeing The Green Room. What I see in it, deep down, is kindness, and that's what touches me most. Thank you for having included me in it.'
Publicly, The Green Room was Truffaut's biggest financial failure, but one of his most critically praised films. One major French film critic, François Chalais of Le Figaro, disliked the film, but Truffaut received high praise elsewhere. Pascal Bonitzer viewed the film as 'most profound, and without much exaggeration, one of the most beautiful French films of recent years', and that 'it is not for nothing that Truffaut embodies his character, and that in the latter, Julien Davenne, the author and the actor are entwined in the tightest possible way...rarely does a filmmaker involve himself to that point - involving his body (and note all the ambiguity of the word in the context of this funeral film) and even his dead; mixing together Julien Davenne's dead with those of François Truffaut in the flaming chapel where the film comes to an end.' Joel Magny called Davenne the ultimate 'truffaldian' hero, 'unable to live the present moment in the fullness of his being, where he is...in a perpetual time-lag with reality'. The French magazine Télérama called Davenne 'l'homme qui aimait les flammes' ('the man who loves the flames'). Jean-Louis Bory of Le Nouvel Observateur wrote that: 'In its simple and pure line, it resembles a cinematic testament. There will be other Truffaut films, but none that will ever be more intimate, more personal, more wrenching than this Green Room, altar of the dead.'
The Green Room was released on April 5, 1978 and was a financial failure, selling slightly more than 30,000 tickets (it has sold 161,293 admissions total as of 2015). Truffaut knew that a film about death would be difficult to market or attract an audience, but felt strongly that 'this kind of theme can touch a deep chord in many people. Everyone has their dead.' He hoped that the film would connect with the audience, and stated that he wanted people to watch it with their jaws dropped, moving from one astonishing moment to the next.
Truffaut took a personal interest in promoting the film and hired renowned press agent, Simon Misrahi, in his determination to make the film reach a larger audience, despite its subject matter. A few days before the film's premiere, Truffaut completely changed his approach, putting more emphasis on his own track record as a filmmaker and the presence of rising star, Nathalie Baye. In a television appearance to promote the film, Truffaut showed two scenes from the film that had nothing to do with the dead. Truffaut was extremely upset by the film's financial failure, and referred to it as "The Empty Room". He publicly stated that he would not act again for at least ten years, and admitted to Paris Match that he regretted not casting Charles Denner in the lead role. Truffaut later blamed United Artists for not promoting the film properly, which led to his breaking from the US company for the first time in over ten years. His next film, made independently of American influence, would be L'amour en fuite/Love on the Run.
Truffaut premiered The Green Room in the US at the 1978 New York Film Festival, where its reception was again ill-fated. Vincent Canby, writing for The New York Times, gave the film a mixed review and criticized Truffaut's performance, saying that: 'Truffaut does not make it easy for us to respond to Davenne'. Canby went on to call the film 'a most demanding, original work and one must meet it on its own terms, without expectations of casual pleasures'. Dave Kehr, in the Chicago Reader, said that the film 'dead-ends in sheer neurosis' while praising the cinematography. A negative review from Time Out blamed the film's 'failure' on 'Truffaut's lack of range as an actor [which] is not helped by the script's purple prose'. Truffaut himself eventually reflected on the reception of The Green Room as a case where he was able to 'get out of trouble', rather than simply assert 'I succeeded', in relation to the commercial failure but general critical success of the film.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 38%, based on 8 reviews, earning an average rating of 5.5 out of 10.
Awards and nominations
References
Bibliography
Articles
Article Unknown, L'Aurore, April 3, 1978, cited in Baecque, Antoine de; Toubiana, Serge (1999), Francois Truffaut: a Biography. New York: Knopf.
Article Unknown, L'Express, March 3, 1978, cited in Baecque, Antoine de; Toubiana, Serge (1999), Francois Truffaut: a Biography. New York: Knopf.
Article Unknown, L'Humanité-Dimanche, June 5, 1977, cited in Baecque, Antoine de; Toubiana, Serge (1999), Francois Truffaut: a Biography. New York: Knopf.
Article Unknown, Le Nouvelle Observateur, April 3, 1978, cited in Baecque, Antoine de; Toubiana, Serge (1999), Francois Truffaut: a Biography. New York: Knopf.
Article Unknown, Paris Match, May 4, 1978, cited in Baecque, Antoine de; Toubiana, Serge (1999), Francois Truffaut: a Biography. New York: Knopf.
Books
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External links
1978 films
1978 drama films
1970s French-language films
1970s historical drama films
Films about grieving
Films based on multiple works
Films based on novellas
Films based on short fiction
Films based on works by Henry James
Films directed by François Truffaut
Films set in the 1920s
Films shot in Normandy
Films with screenplays by François Truffaut
French historical drama films
1970s French films |
4082579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uys | Uys | Uys is the surname of a family that played a significant role in South African history during the nineteenth century and made distinguished contributions to South African culture, politics and sports during the course of the twentieth.
Origins
The earliest existing records show the Uys family living in Leiden and Amsterdam in the Netherlands.
The mother of the family's South African progenitor, Daentie Rycken (1645/46 – Stellenbosch 1725), was the first to arrive at the Cape in 1677 with her second husband, Jan Hendriksz de Lange (died Cape of Good Hope before June 1690). She briefly travelled to the Netherlands in 1697 with her third husband, Dirk Mol (died Stellenbosch 1731), and returned to the Cape in 1699 accompanied by her adult son, Cornelis Jansz Uys (Amsterdam 1671 – Cape of Good Hope c. 1716). Shortly thereafter, in 1704, Daentie settled on the farm By Den Weg in the Stellenbosch Kloof where she lived until her death in 1725.
Cornelis Jansz Uys was the only child from Daentie Rycken's first marriage to the maritime carpenter Jan Cornelisz (Uys) (1641/42 – died Newcastle upon Tyne c. 1674). Cornelis was accompanied to the Cape by his wife, Dirkje Matthysdr (van) Westerhout (Leiden 1673 – Cape of Good Hope 1714), the niece of his mother's third husband. The couple established themselves in the heart of the Cape settlement on modern-day Strand Street.
In 1722 their only son, Dirk Cornelisz Uys (born Leiden 1698 – died Stellenbosch 1758), settled on the farm Groote Zalze in Stellenbosch, where he married Dina le Roux (Stellenbosch 1702 – Stellenbosch 1740), who was of Norman Huguenot descent, and played a distinguished role in the local community as farmer, deacon, elder, burgher officer and alderman. Dirk was also one of the first European pioneers in the Overberg area of the Cape. The Uys family of southern Africa descend from this couple's three sons.
Two of the sons of Dirk Cornelisz Uys moved further into the interior of the Cape during the mid eighteenth century; their progeny played a notable role in the history of the colony and enjoyed fame as a distinguished and progressive frontier dynasty. The family also played a major role in the governance of the Dutch Republics in South Africa.
Onomastics
Surname
Genealogists have speculated that the name could be a variation of the French name de Louis or related to the Scottish island of Uist or perhaps a variation of the German name Husse. Reliable records do not exist to confirm any of these theories.
First names and nicknames
The Uys surname can also be used as a first name (generally in reference to an Uys descent through the distaff side), as is the case with the poet, writer and adventurer Uys Krige. A character in the novel Het Beloofde Land by Dutch author Adriaan van Dis also has this first name.
Arms
The arms of the Uys family are blazoned as:
Party per pale, in dexter vert three onions or in pale, in sinister argent a farmer standing on a stretch of grass holding a basket under his right arm proper.
These canting arms appear similar to those of the Van Uye family of Zeeland, to whom the Uys family are not related. The Uys arms are differenced from the Van Uye arms by the basket which the farmer holds; in the Van Uye arms the farmer is holding a bunch of onions (French: "une glane d'oignons"). The onions (Dutch: ui) in the dexter half of the arms are a canting reference to the Uys family name.
These arms were presented to the Dutch-South African heraldist and genealogist Cornelis Pama in 1960 by J.W. Prinsloo née Uys who informed him that they had been found in old family documents. Pama subsequently recorded these arms in his genealogical publications which led to their widespread dissemination and use by members of the Uys family. The Rootenberg family who descend from an extra-marital branch of the Kapkamma Uyses also have a canting reference to onions in their arms.
Legacy
Monuments and museums
Bible Monument, Grahamstown; monument commemorating the presentation of a large Dutch bible by Thomas Philipps and the British settlers of Grahamstown to Jacobus Johannes Uys (1770–1838) and the Uys trek party prior to their departure from the Cape Colony on the Great Trek in April 1837; the monument was unveiled by State President C.R. Swart of South Africa in 1962
Ou Pastorie Museum, Utrecht; museum on the history of Utrecht and the surrounding area that contains multiple objects and references relating to the Uys family
Uys House, Utrecht; home of the Uys family built by "Swart" Dirk Uys (1814–1910) in 1855; the house is one of the oldest houses north of the Tugela River in KwaZulu-Natal; it is the location where the Prince Imperial, Louis Napoleon, courted Swart Dirk's daughter, Sannie Uys; the house is a National Monument
Uys Memorial, Dirk Uys Kraal, near Quoin Point, Overberg; memorial marking the site where Dirk Cornelisz Uys (1698–1758) was granted permission to graze his livestock as one of the first European pioneers in the Overberg
Uys Monument, Utrecht; erected in honour of Commandant Petrus Lafras Uys (1827–1879) by the burghers of Utrecht, Sir Evelyn Wood and the British officers who fought alongside Uys during the course of the Anglo-Zulu War; the monument is in the shape of an obelisk with plaques in Dutch and English; the English text reads: To the memory of Petrus Lafras Uys, Commandant of the Burgher Force in the Zulu War of 1879, who fell whilst fighting on the Hlobani March 28th. This monument is erected by his fellow burghers of the town and district of Utrecht and the officers and men of the flying column under the command of General Wood with whom he served. A token of their admiration and respect.
Uysklip, National Museum, Bloemfontein; a stone with the inscription "1837 Kerkspruijt" followed by the name of Jacobus Johannes Uys (1770–1838) that was left at the site of the Uys camp along the Modder River near Thaba 'Nchu to commemorate the fact that the Uys trek party had built a mud and daub church and requested the Wesleyan missionary, James Archbell, to officiate at the first Holy Communion held by the Voortrekkers north of the Orange River; the stone is currently part of the collection of the National Museum in Bloemfontein
Voortrekker Monument, Pretoria; the monument contains a series of marble friezes in the central hall depicting key events from the Great Trek, including the presentation of the Uys Bible by the British settlers of Grahamstown to Jacobus Johannes Uys as well as a scene of Dirkie Uys (1823–1838) defending his dying father, Piet Uys (1797–1838), at the Battle of Italeni; the Uys Bible is part of the collection of the Monument's museum
Voortrekker Monument, Winburg; a five-tiered monument on the outskirts of Winburg that carries the names of the principal Voortrekker leaders: Piet Uys, Andries Hendrik Potgieter, Andries Pretorius, Piet Retief and Gerrit Maritz; the lengths of the five tiers are proportional to the distances travelled by each of the respective Voortrekker parties; on the Day of the Vow (16 December) the sun passes directly over the monument and a plaque with a Christian religious message at the base is illuminated; the monument is built near the site of the birth-house of Martinus Theunis Steyn, who was president of the Boer Republic of the Orange Free State
Voortrekker / Msunduzi Museum, Pietermaritzburg; the collection of the museum contains a wide variety of historical objects relating to the Great Trek that once belonged to the Uys family
Locations
Uysberg, Free State; mountain on the South African border with Lesotho, south-south-east of Clocolan and north-east of Ladybrand
Uysklip, Free State, railway station south-east of Bloemfontein on the line between Dewetsdorp and Sannaspos; the station is close to the site baptised as Kerkspruijt by the Uys trek party in 1837; the neighbouring mountain is also known as Uysklip
Uyskop, KwaZulu-Natal; mountain (1827 meters altitude) on the south-eastern outskirts of Utrecht
Wakkerstroom, KwaZulu-Natal, formerly part of the South African Republic; the plans for the town were surveyed with an eland hide rope in 1859 by "Swart" Dirk Uys (1814–1910) who called the settlement Uysenburg; the town was subsequently renamed Marthinus Wesselstroom, and is today known as Wakkerstroom
Miscellaneous
A race of cattle that was bred by the Voortrekker Uys family in northern KwaZulu-Natal came to be known as the Uysbees (Uys cattle); in 1947 the name of the breed was changed to Drakensberger.
Notable family members
Arts and humanities
Amalia Uys (born 1984), South African actor in the soap opera 7de Laan
Dirk "Dagga-Dirk" ("Marihuana-Dirk") Uys, iconoclastic Afrikaans songwriter of the 1980s and 1990s, manager of the Voëlvry tour
Professor C.J. Uys, historian and Professor of History at the University of the Free State
Ian S. Uys (born 1942), historian and writer
Jamie Uys (1921–1996), South African film director (born as Jacobus Johannes Uys)
Professor Leana Ria Uys (1948–2014), researcher and academic in the field of nursing, Deputy Vice Chancellor and Head of College of Health Sciences at University of KwaZulu-Natal and Director of World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Nursing and Midwifery, laureate of the Women Super Achievers Award in Singapore.
Pieter Uys (born 1956), Afrikaans poet
Pieter-Dirk Uys (born 1945), South African satirist, active as a performer, author, and social activist
Sannie "Pikkie" Uys, actress
Sannie Uys (1886–1976), writer and poet, mother of writer Uys Krige
Uys Krige (christened Mattheus Uys Krige) (1910–1987), son of Sannie Uys, South African writer, poet, playwright, translator, rugby player, war correspondent and romantic
Stanley Uys (1922–2014), South African and English journalist
Shaun Uys (born 1970), South African businessman
Military
Major Dr. Adriaan Izak Uys (1893-after 1972), host of the Greek Royal Family in Egypt during the Second World War, commander of the military repairs depot in Alexandria
Dirkie Uys (1823–1838), young Voortrekker hero during the Great Trek, his death is commemorated with a frieze in the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria
Dirk Cornelis "Swart Dirk" Uys (1814–1910), first Commandant of the Utrecht district, adviser of Boer Commandant-General Piet Joubert and Commissioner of the Boer Laagers during the First Anglo-Boer War; plenipotentiary of the South African Republic at the signing of the subsequent peace treaty at O'Neill's Cottage on 21 March 1881
Dirk Cornelis "Dirks" Uys (1865- Battle of Talana 1899), the first Boer to reach the summit at the Battle of Majuba during the First Anglo-Boer War and reputed to have killed General Sir George Pomeroy Colley during the course of the battle
Jacobus Johannes Uys (1770–1838), frontier leader and nominal head of the Uys party in the Great Trek, commemorated in the Bible Monument at Grahamstown and with a frieze depicting his departure from the colony in the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria
Jacobus Johannes Uys (1800–1871), one of the Voortrekker commanders at the Battle of Blood River
Piet Uys (1797– Battle of Italeni 1838), Voortrekker leader during the Great Trek, he is commemorated with a frieze depicting his death in the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria
Petrus Lafras Uys (1827 – Battle of Hlobane 1879), Commandant, Chief Magistrate (Landdrost) and Member of Parliament for Utrecht in the South African Republic, led the "Gallant Forty" commando of Boer volunteers who fought alongside the British forces during the Anglo-Zulu War, he was described by Sir Evelyn Wood as "South Africa's noblest patriot" and a monument was raised to him by British officers in Utrecht and in 1880 at the site of his death by the Empress Eugenie
Petrus Lafras Uys (1852–1924), member of the Volksraad of the South African Republic; commandant of the Pretoria North Commando in the Anglo-Boer War and one of the sixty Boer delegates to the peace conference that led to the Treaty of Vereeniging; he was awarded the Dekoratie voor Trouwe Dienst for his wartime services
Captain Stoffel (C.J.B.) Uys (1883–1968), Afrikaans soldier in British service during the conquest of German South-West Africa (1914–15), Inspector of the South West Africa Police Force
Brigadier Thys (Matthys Johannes) Uys, S.M., A.F.C. (1911–1964), South African air ace in the Second World War
Politics and administration
D.C.H. (Dirk Cornelis) Uys, South African Minister of Agriculture and of Water Affairs (appointed 1968) and Senator on behalf of the National Party
David Israel Uys Rootenberg (born 1948), nationalist Afrikaner politician in the 1980s and 1990s, former commandant of AWB's military wing Aquila; he descends from an extra-marital branch of the Kapkamma Uyses
Dirk Cornelis Uys (1845–1926), member of the Executive Council of Natal
Jacobus Johannes (Kootjie) Uys (1858–1942), senator in the parliament of the Union of South Africa
Johann Kunz Uys (1907–1978), South African diplomat and ambassador to West-Germany
Juan-Duval Uys, controversial politician, former leader of the Gay and Lesbian Alliance, co-founder of the revived National Party South Africa in 2008
Pierre Uys (born 1956), former Provincial Minister of Health of the Western Cape, chief whip of the African National Congress in the Western Cape Provincial Legislature
Colonel Piet Uys, former South African soldier, Secretary-General of the Afrikaner nationalist Freedom Front Plus party
Wessel Hendrik Uys (1824–1877), elected as first member for Utrecht on the Executive Council of the South African Republic in 1859
Sports
Antoinette Uys (born 1976), female badminton player from South Africa
BG (Burrie Gildenhuys) Uys (born 1988), South African rugby union player
Corné Uys (born 1981), South African rugby union player
Jan (Jan-Frederik) Uys (born 1994), South African rugby union player
Lafras Uys (born 1982), South African rugby union player
Francois Uys (born 1986), South African rugby union player
Pierre Uys (born 1976), former Springbok rugby player
Ronnie Uys (born 1979), South African rugby union player
References
Sources
Binckes, Robin, The Great Trek Uncut, 30 Degree South Publishers, Pinetown 2013.
Brookes, E.H, and Webb, C. de B., A History of Natal, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg 1987 (2nd edition).
Cilliers, Ben, Genealogieë van die Afrikaner Families in Natal, Mosselbaai 1985; pp. 608–614.
Endeman, L.C.P (Editor), South African Genealogies – Suid Afrikaanse Geslagregisters, Volume 13 (T-U), Genealogical Institute of South Africa, Stellenbosch 2006; pp. 488–527.
Hopkins, Ds. H.C., "Die Stamouers van die Familie Uys" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 1979, pp. 28–31.
Houte de Lange, C.E.G. ten, (Editor), Nederland's Wapenboek – Deel 1, Koninklijk Nederlandsch Genootschap voor Geslachts- en Wapenkunde, 's-Gravenhage 1998; pp. 184–185.
Lehmann, Joseph, The First Boer War, Jonathan Cape, London 1972.
Morris, Donald R., The Washing of the Spears, The Rise and Fall of the Zulu Nation, Jonathan Cape, London 1965.
Muller, C.F.J., "Die arrestasie van Mev. Piet Uys op Sondag 25 Oktober 1835, in Historia, Amptelike Orgaan van die Historiese Genootskap van Suid-Afrika, Year 1972, pp. 244–264.
Muller, C.F.J., "Die wording van Piet Uys as Voortrekkerleier" in Leiers na die Noorde, Studies oor die Groot Trek, Tafelberg, Kaapstad 1976 (pp. 108–129).
Muller, C.F.J., Die Oorsprong van die Groot Trek, Universiteit van Pretoria, Pretoria 1987 (2nd Edition).
Preller, Gustav S., "Geskiedenis van die Uijs Kommissie" and "Losse Mededelingen van Z.J. Uijs" in Voortrekkermense, 'n Vijftal oorspronkelike Dokumente oor die Geskiedenis van die Voortrek, De Nasionale Pers, Kaapstad 1918; pp. 275–296.
Prinsloo, J.W., "Geskiedenis van die Voortrekker Uys-Familie" in Historia, Amptelike Orgaan van die Historiese Genootskap van Suid-Afrika, Year 1968, pp. 33–35.
Theal, George McCall, "Chronicles of two leaders of the Great Emigration, Louis Triegard and Pieter Uys" and "Pieter Lavras Uys" in Willem Adriaan van der Stel and other historical sketches, Thomas Maskew Miller, Cape Town 1913.
Redelinghuys. J.H., Die Afrikaner Familienaamboek, Publisitas, Kaapstad 1954.
Robbertze, F.P. du P., Die Sterfplek van Dirkie Uys, Pietersburg 1983.
Rootenberg, Francesco Uys, "The Origins of the Uys Family in the Netherlands" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 1997, volume 4; pp. 144–151.
Rootenberg, Francesco Uys, "The Life and Times of Daentie Rijcken, the Remarkable Uys Stammoeder" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 2016, volume 1; pp. 29–52.
Rosenthal, Eric, South African Surnames, Howard Timmins, Cape Town 1965; pp. 146–148 ("The Uyses").
Saul, David, Zulu, The Heroism and Tragedy of the Zulu War of 1879, Penguin, London 2004.
Uys, Ian S., Die Uys Geskiedenis, Heidelberg 1974.
Uys, Ian S., "A Boer Family" in Military History Journal (South African Military History Society), Vol 3. No. 6, December 1976.
Uys, Ian, South African Military Who's Who, 1452–1992, Fortress Publishers, Germiston 1992.
Uys, Ian, Rearguard, The Life and Times of Piet Uys, Fortress Publishers, Kynsna 1998.
Uys, Dr. J.F. (Frikkie), "Die Eerste Uys" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 2011, volume 1; pp. 26–34.
Uys, Dr. J.F. (Frikkie), "Die Eerste Uys – Deel 2" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 2013, Parts 2 & 3, pp. 143–144.
Uys, Dr. J.F. (Frikkie), "Die Eerste Uys – Deel 2: Nijs, 'n regstelling" in Familia, Quarterly Journal of the Genealogical Society of South Africa, Year 2013, Part 4, pp. 187–190.
Uys, J.R., Uys Familie Register, Pinelands 1984.
Uys, Petrus Lafras, and Uys, Dirk Cornelius, "Die Voortrekker Uys-Familie vanaf 1704", in Historia, Amptelike Orgaan van die Historiese Genootskap van Suid-Afrika, Year 1967, pp. 276–279.
de Villiers, J.F.K., Uys Familie, Hersamestelling van die Uys Register van 1984 / The Uys Family, Rearrangement of the Uys Register of 1984, Gisborne (New Zealand) 2014.
Visagie, Jan C., Voortrekkerstamouers 1835–1845, Protea Boekhuis, Pretoria 2011 (2nd edition), pp. 501–505.
Surnames
Afrikaans-language surnames
Surnames of Dutch origin |
4082874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace%20bullying | Workplace bullying | Workplace bullying is a persistent pattern of mistreatment from others in the workplace that causes either physical or emotional harm.
It can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, and physical abuse, as well as humiliation. This type of workplace aggression is particularly difficult because, unlike the typical school bully, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. In the majority of cases, bullying in the workplace is reported as having been done by someone who has authority over the victim. However, bullies can also be peers, and subordinates. When subordinates participate in bullying this phenomenon is known as upwards bullying .The least visible segment of workplace bullying involves upwards bullying where bully- ing tactics are manipulated and applied against “the boss,” usually for strategically designed outcomes.
Research has also investigated the impact of the larger organizational context on bullying as well as the group-level processes that impact on the incidence and maintenance of bullying behaviour. Bullying can be covert or overt. It may be missed by superiors; it may be known by many throughout the organization. Negative effects are not limited to the targeted individuals, and may lead to a decline in employee morale and a change in organizational culture. It can also take place as overbearing supervision, constant criticism, and blocking promotions.
Definitions
While there is no universally accepted formal definition of workplace bullying, and some researchers even question whether a uniform definition is possible due to its complex and multifaceted forms, but several researchers have endeavoured to define it:
According to the widely used definition from Olweus, "[Workplace bullying is] a situation in which one or more persons systematically and over a long period of time perceive themselves to be on the receiving end of negative treatment on the part of one or more persons, in a situation in which the person(s) exposed to the treatment has difficulty in defending themselves against this treatment".
According to Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf and Cooper, "Bullying at work means harassing, offending, socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someone's work tasks. In order for the label bullying (or mobbing) to be applied to a particular activity, interaction or process it has to occur repeatedly and regularly (e.g. weekly) and over a period of time (e.g. about six months). Bullying is an escalated process in the course of which the person confronted ends up in an inferior position and becomes the target of systematic negative social acts."
According to Tracy, Lutgen-Sandvik, and Alberts, researchers associated with the Arizona State University's Project for Wellness and Work-Life, workplace bullying is most often "a combination of tactics in which numerous types of hostile communication and behaviour are used"
Gary and Ruth Namie define workplace bullying as "repeated, health-harming mistreatment, verbal abuse, or conduct which is threatening, humiliating, intimidating, or sabotage that interferes with work or some combination of the three."
Pamela Lutgen-Sandvik expands this definition, stating that workplace bullying is "persistent verbal and nonverbal aggression at work, that includes personal attacks, social ostracism, and a multitude of other painful messages and hostile interactions."
Catherine Mattice and Karen Garman define workplace bullying as "systematic aggressive communication, manipulation of work, and acts aimed at humiliating or degrading one or more individual that create an unhealthy and unprofessional power imbalance between bully and target(s), result in psychological consequences for targets and co-workers, and cost enormous monetary damage to an organization's bottom line"
Dr. Jan Kircher attempts to redefine workplace bullying, what she calls persistent workplace aggression, as an issue thought primarily about through the lens of individual conflict to an issue of organizational culture, arguing, "One of the biggest misconceptions that people have about workplace bullying it that it is similar to conflict and therefore, persistent workplace aggression is handled like conflict." However, according to Kircher, this approach is detrimental, and actually prevents organizations from being able to effectively prevent, handle or resolve bullying situations in the work environment.
The most common type of complaint filed with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission involves retaliation, where an employer harasses or bullies an employee for objecting to illegal discrimination. Patricia Barnes, author of Surviving Bullies, Queen Bees & Psychopaths in the Workplace, argues that employers that bully are a critical but often overlooked aspect of the problem in the United States.
Because it can occur in a variety of contexts and forms, it is also useful to define workplace bullying by the key features that these behaviours possess. Bullying is characterized by:
Repetition (occurs regularly)
Duration (is enduring)
Escalation (increasing aggression)
Power disparity (the target lacks the power to successfully defend themselves)
Attributed intent
This distinguishes bullying from isolated behaviours and other forms of job stress and allows the term workplace bullying to be applied in various contexts and to behaviours that meet these characteristics. Many observers agree that bullying is often a repetitive behaviour. However, some experts who have dealt with a great many people who report abuse also categorize some once-only events as bullying, for example with cases where there appear to be severe sequelae. Expanding the common understanding of bullying to include single, severe episodes also parallels the legal definitions of sexual harassment in the US.
According to Pamela Lutgin-Sandvik, the lack of unifying language to name the phenomenon of workplace bullying is a problem because without a unifying term or phrase, individuals have difficulty naming their experiences of abuse, and therefore have trouble pursuing justice against the bully. Unlike sexual harassment, which named a specific problem and is now recognized in law of many countries (including the U.S.), workplace bullying is still being established as a relevant social problem and is in need of a specific vernacular.
Euphemisms intended to trivialize bullying and its impact on bullied people include: incivility, disrespect, difficult people, personality conflict, negative conduct, and ill treatment. Bullied people are labelled as insubordinate when they resist the bullying treatment.
There is no exact definition for bullying behaviours in workplace, which is why different terms and definitions are common. For example, mobbing is a commonly used term in France and Germany, where it refers to a "mob" of bullies, rather than a single bully; this phenomenon is not often seen in other countries. In the United States, aggression and emotional abuse are frequently used terms, whereas harassment is the term preferred in Finland. Workplace bullying is primarily used in Australia, UK, and Northern Europe. While the terms "harassment" and "mobbing" are often used to describe bullying behaviors, "workplace bullying" tends to be the most commonly used term by the research community.
Statistics
Approximately 72% of bullies outrank their victims.
Prevalence
Research suggests that a significant number of people are exposed to persistent workplace bullying, with a majority of studies reporting a 10 to 15% prevalence in Europe and North America. This figure can vary dramatically upon what definition of workplace bullying is used.
Statistics from the 2007 WBI-Zogby survey show that 13% of U.S. employees report being bullied currently, 24% say they have been bullied in the past and an additional 12% say they have witnessed workplace bullying. Nearly half of all American workers (49%) report that they have been affected by workplace bullying, either being a target themselves or having witnessed abusive behaviour against a co-worker.
Although socioeconomic factors may play a role in the abuse, researchers from the Project for Wellness and Work-Life suggest that "workplace bullying, by definition, is not explicitly connected to demographic markers such as sex and ethnicity".
According to the 2015 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS), the national prevalence rate for workers reporting having been threatened, bullied, or harassed by anyone on the job was 7.4%.
In 2008, Dr. Judy Fisher-Blando wrote a doctoral research dissertation on Aggressive behaviour: Workplace Bullying and Its Effect on Job Satisfaction and Productivity. The scientific study determined that almost 75% of employees surveyed had been affected by workplace bullying, whether as a target or a witness. Further research showed the types of bullying behaviour, and organizational support.
Gender
In terms of gender, the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007) states that women appear to be at greater risk of becoming a bullying target, as 57% of those who reported being targeted for abuse were women. Men are more likely to participate in aggressive bullying behaviour (60%), however when the bully is a woman her target is more likely to be a woman as well (71%).
In 2015, the National Health Interview Survey found a higher prevalence of women (8%) workers who were threatened, bullied, or harassed than men.
However, varying results have been found. The research of Samnani and Singh (2012) reviews the findings from 20 years' literature and claims that inconsistent findings could not support the differences across gender. Carter et al. (2013) found that male staff reported higher prevalence of workplace bullying within UK healthcare.
It is important to consider if there may be gender differences in level of reporting.
Race
Race also may play a role in the experience of workplace bullying. According to the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007), the comparison of reported combined bullying (current plus ever bullied) prevalence percentages in the USA reveals the pattern from most to least:
Hispanics (52.1%)
Blacks (46%)
Whites (33.5%)
Asian (30.6%)
The reported rates of witnessing bullying were:
Asian (28.5%)
Blacks (21.1%)
Hispanics (14%)
Whites (10.8%)
The percentages of those reporting that they have neither experienced nor witnessed mistreatment were:
Asians (57.3%)
Whites (49.7%)
Hispanics (32.2%)
Blacks (23.4%)
Research psychologist Tony Buon published one of the first reviews of bullying in China in PKU Business Review in 2005.
Marital status
Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for divorced or separated workers compared to married workers, widowed workers, and never married workers.
Education
Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers with some college education or workers with high school diploma or GED, compared to workers with less than a high school education.
Age
Lower prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers aged 65 and older compared to workers in other age groups.
With respect to age, conflicting findings have been reported. A study by Einarsen and Skogstad (1996) indicates older employees tend to be more likely to be bullied than younger ones.
Industry
The prevalence of a hostile work environment varies by industry. In 2015, the broad industry category with the highest prevalence was healthcare and social assistance 10%. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 16,890 workers in the private industry experienced physical trauma from nonfatal workplace violence in 2016.
Occupation
The prevalence of hostile work environment varies by occupation. In 2015, the occupation groups with the highest prevalence was protective services (24%) and community and social services (15%).
Within UK healthcare, it has been found that 20% of staff have experienced bullying, and 43% witnessed bullying, with managers being the most common source of bullying.
Disability
In the UK's National Health Service, individuals with disabilities are also at a higher risk of experiencing workplace bullying.
Profiling
Researchers Caitlin Buon and Tony Buon suggest that attempts to profile 'the bully' have been damaging. They state that the "bully" profile is that 'the bully' is always aware of what they are doing, deliberately sets out to harm their 'victims', targets a particular individual or type of person, and has some kind of underlying personality flaw, insecurity, or disorder. But this is unproven and lacks evidence. The researchers suggest referring to workplace bullying as generic harassment along with other forms of non-specific harassment, as this would enable employees to use less emotionally charged language for starting a dialogue about their experiences, rather than being repelled by having to define their experiences as victims. Tony Buon and Caitlin Buon also suggest that the perception and profile of the workplace bully does not facilitate interventions. They suggest that to make significant progress and achieve long-term behaviour change, organisations and individuals need to embrace the notion that everyone potentially houses 'the bully' within them and their organisations. It exists in workplace cultures, belief systems, interactions, and emotional competencies, and cannot be transformed if externalization and demonization further the problem by profiling 'the bully' rather than talking about behaviours and interpersonal interactions.
Relationship among participants
Based on research by H. Hoel and C.L. Cooper, most perpetrators are supervisors. The second most common group is peers, followed by subordinates and customers. The three main relationships among the participants in workplace bullying:
Between supervisor and subordinate
Among co-workers
Employees and customers
Bullying may also occur between an organization and its employees.
Bullying behaviour by supervisors toward subordinates typically manifests as an abuse of power by the supervisor in the workplace. Bullying behaviours by supervisors may be associated with a culture of bullying and the management style of the supervisors. An authoritative management style, specifically, often includes bullying behaviours, which can make subordinates fearful and allow supervisors to bolster their authority over others.
If an organization wishes to discourage bullying in the workplace, strategies and policies must be put into place to dissuade and counter bullying behavior. Lack of monitoring or of punishment/corrective action will result in an organizational culture that supports/tolerates bullying.
In addition to supervisor – subordinate bullying, bullying behaviours also occur between colleagues. Peers can be either the target or perpetrator. If workplace bullying happens among the co-workers, witnesses will typically choose sides, either with the target or the perpetrator. Perpetrators usually "win" since witnesses do not want to be the next target. This outcome encourages perpetrators to continue their bullying behaviour. In addition, the sense of the injustice experienced by a target might lead that person to become another perpetrator who bullies other colleagues who have less power than they do, thereby proliferating bullying in the organization.
Maarit Varitia, a workplace bullying researcher, found that 20% of interviewees who experienced workplace bullying attributed their being targeted to their being different from others.
The third relationship in the workplace is between employees and customers. Although less frequent, such cases play a significant role in the efficiency of the organization. Overly stressed or distressed employees may be less able to perform optimally and can impact the quality of service overall.
The fourth relationship in the workplace is between the organization or system and its employees. An article by Andreas Liefooghe (2012) notes that many employees describe their employer as a "bully".
These cases, the issue is not simply an organizational culture or environmental factors facilitating bullying, but bullying-like behaviour by an employer against an employee. Tremendous power imbalances between an organization and its employees enables the employer to "legitimately exercise" power (e.g., by monitoring and controlling employees) in a manner consistent with bullying.
Although the terminology of bullying traditionally implies an interpersonal relationship between the perpetrator and target, organizations' or other collectives' actions can constitute bullying both by definition and in their impacts on targets. However, while defining bullying as an interpersonal phenomenon is considered legitimate, classifying incidences of employer exploitation, retaliation, or other abuses of power against an employee as a form of bullying is often not taken as seriously.
Organizational culture
Bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least the implicit blessing of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. Vertical violence is a specific type of workplace violence based on the hierarchical or managerial structure present in many healthcare based establishments. This type of workplace violence, “is usually generated by a power imbalance, whether due to a real hierarchical structure or perceived by professionals. It generates feelings of humiliation, vulnerability, and helplessness in the victims, limiting their ability to develop competency and defend themselves” (Pérez-Fuentes et al. 2021, pg 2) Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.
When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. People may be bullied irrespective of their organizational status or rank, including senior managers, which indicates the possibility of a negative domino effect, where bullying may cascade downwards, as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression onto their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.
Workplace bullying and occupational stress
The relationship between occupational stress and bullying was drawn in the matter of the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) issuing an Improvement Notice to the West Dorset General Hospital NHS Trust. This followed a complaint raised with the HSE by an employee who was off sick having suffered from bullying in the workplace. His managers had responded by telling him that in the event of his returning to work it was unlikely that anything would be done about the bullying. The HSE found that the Trust did not have an occupational stress policy and directed them to create one in accordance with the soon to be published HSE Management Standards. These are standards that managers should meet in their work if they are to ensure a safe workplace, as is required by the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 as was amended by the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, the latter directing that risks in the workplace must be identified, assessed and controlled. These risks include those hazards known to cause occupational stress. One of the six standards relates to managing relationships between employees, a matter in which the Trust had shown itself to be deficient.
UK Legal protection from workplace bullying
The six HSE Management Standards define a set of behaviours by managers that address the main reported causes of occupational stress. Managers that operate against the standards can readily be identified as workplace bullies i.e. have no regard for the demands, remove control whenever possible, let them struggle, allow bullying to run uncontrolled and never let them know what is going to happen next (mushroom management) i.e. 'show them who is in charge'. The standards define the main known causes of occupational stress, in accord with the DCS Model, but also provide a 'bullying checklist'.
The HSE Management Standards
Demands – this includes issues such as workload, work patterns and the work environment
Control – how much say the person has in the way they do their work
Support – this includes the encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues
Relationships – this includes promoting positive working to avoid conflict and dealing with unacceptable behaviour
Role – whether people understand their role within the organisation and whether the organisation ensures that they do not have conflicting roles
Change – how organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in the organisation
Geographical culture
Research investigating the acceptability of the bullying behaviour across different cultures (e.g. Power et al., 2013) clearly shows that culture affects the perception of the acceptable behaviour.
National background also influences the prevalence of workplace bullying (Harvey et al., 2009; Hoel et al., 1999; Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007).
Humane orientation is negatively associated with the acceptability of work-related bullying.
Performance orientation is positively associated with the acceptance of bullying. Future orientation is negatively associated with the acceptability of bullying. A culture of femininity suggests that individuals who live and work in this kind of culture tend to value interpersonal relationships to a greater degree.
Three broad dimensions have been mentioned in relation to workplace bullying: power distance; masculinity versus femininity; and individualism versus collectivism (Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007).
In Confucian Asia, which has a higher performance orientation than Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, bullying may be seen as an acceptable price to pay for performance. The value Latin America holds for personal connections with employees and the higher humane orientation of Sub-Saharan Africa may help to explain their distaste for bullying. A culture of individualism in the US implies competition, which may increase the likelihood of workplace bullying situations.
Culture of fear
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants, i.e., leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies "get away with it", a climate of fear may be the result. Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile. In professions where workplace bullying is common, and employees do not receive sufficient support from their coworkers or managers, it often generates feelings of resignation that lead them to believe that the abuse is a normal and inevitable part of the job. In a study of public-sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained these figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had "got away with it" previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying.
Kiss up kick down
The workplace bully may be respectful when talking to upper management but the opposite when it comes to their relationship with those whom they supervise: the "kiss up kick down" personality. Bullies tend to ingratiate themselves to their bosses while intimidating subordinates. They may be socially popular with others in management, including those who will determine their fate. Often, a workplace bully will have mastered kiss up kick down tactics that hide their abusive side from superiors who review their performance.
As a consequence of this kiss up kick down strategy:
A bully's mistakes are always concealed or blamed on underlings or circumstances beyond their control
A bully keeps the target under constant stress
A bully's power base is fear, not respect
A bully withholds information from subordinates and keeps the information flow top-down only
A bully blames conflicts and problems on subordinate's lack of competence, poor attitude, or character flaws
A bully creates an unnatural work environment where people constantly walk on eggshells and are compelled to behave in ways they normally would not
The flow of blame in an organization may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and integrity. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Confused roles and responsibilities also contribute to a blame culture. Blame culture reduces the capacity of an organization to take adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradicts high reliability organizations best practices. Blame culture is considered a serious issue in healthcare organizations by the World Health Organization, which recommends to promote a no-blame culture, or just culture, a means to increase patients safety.
Fight or flight
The most typical reactions to workplace bullying are to do with the survival instinct – "fight or flight" – and these are probably a victim's healthier responses to bullying. Flight is often a response to bullying. It is very common, especially in organizations in which upper management cannot or will not deal with the bullying. In hard economic times, however, flight may not be an option, and fighting may be the only choice.
Fighting the bullying can require near heroic action, especially if the bullying targets just one or two individuals. It can also be a difficult challenge. There are some times when confrontation is called for. First, there is always a chance that the bully boss is labouring under the impression that this is the way to get things done and does not recognize the havoc being wrought on subordinates.
Typology of bullying behaviours
With some variations, the following typology of workplace bullying behaviours has been adopted by a number of academic researchers. The typology uses five different categories.
Threat to professional status – including belittling opinions, public professional humiliation, accusations regarding lack of effort, intimidating use of discipline or competence procedures.
Threat to personal standing – including undermining personal integrity, destructive innuendo and sarcasm, making inappropriate jokes about the target, persistent teasing, name calling, insults, intimidation.
Isolation – including preventing access to opportunities, physical or social isolation, withholding necessary information, keeping the target out of the loop, ignoring or excluding.
Overwork – including undue pressure, impossible deadlines, unnecessary disruptions.
Destabilisation – including failure to acknowledge good work, allocation of meaningless tasks, removal of responsibility, repeated reminders of blunders, setting target up to fail, shifting goal posts without telling the target.
Tactics
Research by the Workplace Bullying Institute, suggests that the following are the 25 most common workplace bullying tactics:
Falsely accused someone of "errors" not actually made (71%).
Stared, glared, was nonverbally intimidating and was clearly showing hostility (68%).
Unjustly discounted the person's thoughts or feelings ("oh, that's silly") in meetings (64%).
Used the "silent treatment" to "ice out" and separate from others (64%).
Exhibited presumably uncontrollable mood swings in front of the group (61%).
Made-up rules on the fly that even they did not follow (61%).
Disregarded satisfactory or exemplary quality of completed work despite evidence (discrediting) (58%).
Harshly and constantly criticized, having a different standard for the target (57%).
Started, or failed to stop, destructive rumours or gossip about the person (56%).
Encouraged people to turn against the person being tormented (55%).
Singled out and isolated one person from other co-workers, either socially or physically (54%).
Publicly displayed gross, undignified, but not illegal, behaviour (53%).
Yelled, screamed, threw tantrums in front of others to humiliate a person (53%).
Stole credit for work done by others (plagiarism) (47%).
Abused the evaluation process by lying about the person's performance (46%).
Declared target "insubordinate" for failing to follow arbitrary commands (46%).
Used confidential information about a person to humiliate privately or publicly (45%).
Retaliated against the person after a complaint was filed (45%).
Made verbal put-downs/insults based on gender, race, accent, age or language, disability (44%).
Assigned undesirable work as punishment (44%).
Created unrealistic demands (workload, deadlines, duties) for person singled out (44%).
Launched a baseless campaign to oust the person; effort not stopped by the employer (43%).
Encouraged the person to quit or transfer rather than to face more mistreatment (43%).
Sabotaged the person's contribution to a team goal and reward (41%).
Ensured failure of person's project by not performing required tasks, such as sign-offs, taking calls, working with collaborators (40%)
Abusive workplace behaviours
According to Bassman, common abusive workplace behaviours are:
Disrespecting and devaluing the individual, often through disrespectful and devaluing language or verbal abuse
Overwork and devaluation of personal life (particularly salaried workers who are not compensated)
Harassment through micromanagement of tasks and time
Over evaluation and manipulating information (for example concentration on negative characteristics and failures, setting up subordinate for failure).
Managing by threat and intimidation
Stealing credit and taking unfair advantage
Preventing access to opportunities
Downgrading an employee's capabilities to justify downsizing
Impulsive destructive behaviour
According to Hoel and Cooper, common abusive workplace behaviours are:
Ignoring opinions and views
Withholding information in order to affect the target's performance
Exposing the target to an unmanageable workload
Threatening employees’ personal self esteem and work status.
Giving tasks with unreasonable or impossible targets or deadlines
Ordering the target to do work below competence
Ignoring or presenting hostility when the target approaches
Humiliation or ridicule in connection with work
Excessive monitoring of a target's work (see micromanagement)
Spreading gossip
Insulting or making offensive remarks about the target's person (i.e. habits and background), attitudes, or private life
Removing or replacing key areas of responsibility with more trivial or unpleasant tasks.
According to Faghihi, some abusive workplace behaviors include:
Excessive workload
Placement in an area where there is less experience or uncomfortable
Low salary
Working overtime without benefits
Poor work environment
Increase in stress in the workplace
Lack of facilities
Abusive cyberbullying in the workplace can have serious socioeconomic and psychological consequences on the victim. Workplace cyberbullying can lead to sick leave due to depression which in turn can lead to loss of profits for the organisation.
In specific professions
Academia
Several aspects of academia, such as the generally decentralized nature of academic institutions and the particular recruitment and career procedures, lend themselves to the practice of bullying and discourage its reporting and mitigation.
Blue-collar jobs
Bullying has been identified as prominent in blue collar jobs including on oil rigs, and in mechanical areas and machine shops, warehouses and factories. It is thought that intimidation and fear of retribution cause decreased incident reports, which, in the socioeconomic and cultural milieu of such industries, would likely lead to a vicious circle. This is often used in combination with manipulation and coercion of facts to gain favour among higher ranking administrators. For example, an investigation conducted following a hazing incident at Portland Bureau of Transportation within the city government of Portland, Oregon, found ritual hazing kept hidden for years under the guise of "no snitching", where whistleblowing was punished and loyalty was praised. Two-thirds of the interviewed employees in this investigation declared they deemed the best way they found to deal with the workplace's bad behaviors was "not to get involved", as they "feared retaliation if they did intervene or report the problems."
Information technology
A culture of bullying is common in information technology (IT), leading to high sickness rates, low morale, poor productivity and high staff turnover. Deadline-driven project work and stressed-out managers take their toll on IT workers.
Legal profession
Bullying in the legal profession is believed to be more common than in some other professions. It is believed that its adversarial, hierarchical tradition contributes towards this. Women, trainees and solicitors who have been qualified for five years or less are more impacted, as are ethnic minority lawyers and lesbian, gay and bisexual lawyers.
Medicine
Bullying in the medical profession is common, particularly of student or trainee doctors. In a study on the violence that occurs in healthcare, it was found that from 2002 to 2013 alone, the occurrence of abuse became four times as likely. It is thought that this is at least in part an outcome of conservative traditional hierarchical structures and teaching methods in the medical profession which may result in a bullying cycle.
Military
Bullying exists to varying degrees in the military of some countries, often involving various forms of hazing or abuse by higher members of the military hierarchy.
Nursing
Bullying has been identified as being particularly prevalent in the nursing profession although the reasons are not clear. It is thought that relational aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossiping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied amongst girls but not so much amongst adult women. A lot of bullying directed towards nurses is inflicted by patients, and nurses are at such higher risk because the most patient exposure out of any healthcare professional. Especially today with the shortage of nurses, nurses are seeing more patients for longer amounts of time which can lead to increased stress levels if they are a victim of bullying.
Teaching
School teachers are commonly the subject of bullying but they are also sometimes the originators of bullying within a school environment.
Volunteering
Bullying can be common in volunteering settings. For example, one study found bullying to be the most significant factor of complaints amongst volunteers. Volunteers often do not have access to protections available to paid employees, so while laws may indicate that bullying is a violation of rights, volunteers may have no means to address it.
Forms
Tim Field suggested that workplace bullying takes these forms:
Serial bullying – the source of all dysfunction can be traced to one individual, who picks on one employee after another and destroys them, then moves on. Probably the most common type of bullying.
Secondary bullying – the pressure of having to deal with a serial bully causes the general behaviour to decline and sink to the lowest level.
Pair bullying – this takes place with two people, one active and verbal, the other often watching and listening.
Gang bullying or group bullying – is a serial bully with colleagues. Gangs can occur anywhere, but flourish in corporate bullying climates. It is often called mobbing and usually involves scapegoating and victimisation.
Vicarious bullying – two parties are encouraged to fight. This is the typical "triangulation" where the aggression gets passed around.
Regulation bullying – where a serial bully forces their target to comply with rules, regulations, procedures or laws regardless of their appropriateness, applicability or necessity.
Residual bullying – after the serial bully has left or been fired, the behaviour continues. It can go on for years.
Legal bullying – the bringing of a vexatious legal action to control and punish a person.
Pressure bullying or unwitting bullying – having to work to unrealistic time scales or inadequate resources.
Corporate bullying – where an employer abuses an employee with impunity, knowing the law is weak and the job market is soft.
Organizational bullying – a combination of pressure bullying and corporate bullying. Occurs when an organization struggles to adapt to changing markets, reduced income, cuts in budgets, imposed expectations and other extreme pressures.
Institutional bullying – entrenched and is accepted as part of the culture.
Client bullying – an employee is bullied by those they serve, for instance subway attendants or public servants.
Cyberbullying – the use of information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behaviour by an individual or group, that is intended to harm others.
Adult bullying can come in an assortment of forms. There are about five distinctive types of adult bullies. A narcissistic bully is described as a self-centred person whose egotism is frail and possesses the need to put others down. An impulsive bully is someone who acts on bullying based on stress or being upset at the moment. A physical bully uses physical injury and the threat of harm to abuse their victims, while a verbal bully uses demeaning language and cynicism to debase their victims. Lastly, a secondary adult bully is portrayed as a person that did not start the initial bullying but participates in afterwards to avoid being bullied themselves ("Adult Bullying").
Emotional intelligence
Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought. For some reason, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80% of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying. Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the organizational structure and in pursuing goals. The emotional consequences of bullying put an organization at risk of losing victimized employees. Bullying also contributes to a negative work environment, is not conducive to necessary cooperation and can lessen productivity at various levels.
Bullying in the workplace is associated with negative responses to stress. The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional stress, seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. The workplace in general can be a stressful environment, so a negative way of coping with stress or an inability to do so can be particularly damning. Workplace bullies may have high social intelligence and low emotional intelligence (EI). In this context, bullies tend to rank high on the social ladder and are adept at influencing others. The combination of high social intelligence and low empathy is conducive to manipulative behaviour, such that Hutchinson (2013) describes workplace bullying to be. In working groups where employees have low EI, workers can be persuaded to engage in unethical behaviour. With the bullies' persuasion, the work group is socialized in a way that rationalizes the behaviour, and makes the group tolerant or supportive of the bullying.
Hutchinson & Hurley (2013) make the case that EI and leadership skills are both necessary to bullying intervention in the workplace, and illustrates the relationship between EI, leadership and reductions in bullying. EI and ethical behaviour among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behaviour of nursing teams. Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace. The self-awareness and self-management dimensions of EI have both been illustrated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and the specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments and work culture.
Related concepts
Abusive supervision
Abusive supervision overlaps with workplace bullying in the workplace context. Research suggests that 75% of workplace bullying incidents are perpetrated by hierarchically superior agents. Abusive supervision differs from related constructs such as supervisor bullying and undermining in that it does not describe the intentions or objectives of the supervisor.
Power and control
A power and control model has been developed for the workplace, divided into the following categories:
Workplace mobbing
Workplace mobbing overlaps with workplace bullying. The concept originated from the study of animal behaviour. It concentrates on bullying by a group.
Workplace incivility
Workplace bullying overlaps to some degree with workplace incivility but tends to encompass more intense and typically repeated acts of disregard and rudeness. Negative spirals of increasing incivility between organizational members can result in bullying, but isolated acts of incivility are not conceptually bullying despite the apparent similarity in their form and content. In bullying, the intent of harm is less ambiguous, an unequal balance of power (both formal and informal) is more salient, and the target of bullying feels threatened, vulnerable and unable to defend themself against negative recurring actions.
Lateral/Vertical Violence
Terms often used within nursing and healthcare. Lateral violence (also known as horizontal violence) refers to bullying behaviours exhibited by colleagues. Vertical violence refers to bullying behaviours exhibited by supervisors to employees below them hierarchically. Despite the use of the term violence, these terms often do not encompass physically aggressive behaviours.
Personality disorders and dysfunctional personality characteristics
Executives
In 2005, psychologists Belinda Board and Katarina Fritzon at the University of Surrey, UK, interviewed and gave personality tests to high-level British executives and compared their profiles with those of criminal psychiatric patients at Broadmoor Hospital in the UK. They found that three out of eleven personality disorders were actually more common in executives than in the disturbed criminals. They were:
Histrionic personality disorder: including superficial charm, insincerity, egocentricity and manipulation
Narcissistic personality disorder: including grandiosity, self-focused lack of empathy for others, exploitativeness and independence.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: including perfectionism, excessive devotion to work, rigidity, stubbornness and dictatorial tendencies.
They described these business people as successful psychopaths and the criminals as unsuccessful psychopaths.
According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it seems almost inevitable these days that there will be some personality disorders in a senior management team.
Industrial/organizational psychology research has also examined the types of bullying that exist among business professionals and the prevalence of this form of bullying in the workplace as well as ways to measure bullying empirically.
Psychopathy
Narcissism, lack of self-regulation, lack of remorse and lack of conscience have been identified as traits displayed by bullies. These traits are shared with psychopaths, indicating that there is some theoretical
cross-over between bullies and psychopaths. Bullying is used by corporate psychopaths as a tactic to humiliate subordinates. Bullying is also used as a tactic to scare, confuse and disorient those who may be a threat to the activities of the corporate psychopath Using meta data analysis on hundreds of UK research papers, Boddy concluded that 36% of bullying incidents were caused by the presence of corporate psychopaths. According to Boddy there are two types of bullying:
Predatory bullying – the bully just enjoys bullying and tormenting vulnerable people for the sake of it.
Instrumental bullying – the bullying is for a purpose, helping the bully achieve their goals.
A corporate psychopath uses instrumental bullying to further their goals of promotion and power as the result of causing confusion and divide and rule.
People with high scores on a psychopathy rating scale are more likely to engage in bullying, crime and drug use than other people. Hare and Babiak noted that about 29% of corporate psychopaths are also bullies. Other research has also shown that people with high scores on a psychopathy rating scale were more likely to engage in bullying, again indicating that psychopaths tend to be bullies in the workplace.
A workplace bully or abuser will often have issues with social functioning. These types of people often have psychopathic traits that are difficult to identify in the hiring and promotion process. These individuals often lack anger management skills and have a distorted sense of reality. Consequently, when confronted with the accusation of abuse, the abuser is not aware that any harm was done.
Narcissism
In 2007, researchers Catherine Mattice and Brian Spitzberg at San Diego State University, USA, found that narcissism revealed a positive relationship with bullying. Narcissists were found to prefer indirect bullying tactics (such as withholding information that affects others' performance, ignoring others, spreading gossip, constantly reminding others of mistakes, ordering others to do work below their competence level, and excessively monitoring others' work) rather than direct tactics (such as making threats, shouting, persistently criticizing, or making false allegations). The research also revealed that narcissists are highly motivated to bully, and that to some extent, they are left with feelings of satisfaction after a bullying incident occurs.
Machiavellianism
According to Namie, Machiavellians manipulate and exploit others to advance their perceived personal agendas. In his view, Machiavellianism represents one of the core components of workplace bullying.
Health effects
According to Gary and Ruth Namie, as well as Tracy, et al., workplace bullying can harm the health of the targets of bullying. Organizations are beginning to take note of workplace bullying because of the costs to the organization in terms of the health of their employees.
According to scholars at The Project for Wellness and Work-Life at Arizona State University, "workplace bullying is linked to a host of physical, psychological, organizational, and social costs." Stress is the most predominant health effect associated with bullying in the workplace. Research indicates that workplace stress has significant negative effects that are correlated to poor mental health and poor physical health, resulting in an increase in the use of "sick days" or time off from work (Farrell & Geist-Martin, 2005).
The negative effects of bullying are so severe that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and even suicide are not uncommon. Tehrani found that 1 in 10 targets experience PTSD, and that 44% of her respondents experienced PTSD similar to that of battered women and victims of child abuse. Matthiesen and Einarsen found that up to 77% of targets experience PTSD.
In addition, co-workers who witness workplace bullying can also have negative effects, such as fear, stress, and emotional exhaustion. Those who witness repetitive workplace abuse often choose to leave the place of employment where the abuse took place. Workplace bullying can also hinder the organizational dynamics such as group cohesion, peer communication, and overall performance.
According to the 2012 survey conducted by Workplace Bullying Institute (516 respondents), Anticipation of next negative event is the most common psychological symptom of workplace bullying reported by 80%. Panic attacks afflict 52%. Half (49%) of targets reported being diagnosed with clinical depression. Sleep disruption, loss of concentration, mood swings, and pervasive sadness and insomnia were more common (ranging from 77% to 50%). Nearly three-quarters (71%) of targets sought treatment from a physician. Over half (63%) saw a mental health professional for their work-related symptoms. Respondents reported other symptoms that can be exacerbated by stress: migraine headaches (48%), irritable bowel disorder (37%), chronic fatigue syndrome (33%) and sexual dysfunction (27%).
Depression
Workplace depression can occur in many companies of various size and profession, and can have negative effects on positive profit growth. Stress factors that are unique to one's working environment, such as bullying from co-workers or superiors and poor social support for high pressure occupations, can build over time and create inefficient work behavior in depressed individuals. In addition, inadequate or negative communication techniques can further drive an employee to become disconnected from the company's mission and goals. One way that companies can combat the destructive consequences associated with employee depression is to offer more support for counseling and consider bringing in experts to educate staff on the consequences of bullying. Ignoring the problem of depression and decreased workplace performance creates intergroup conflict and lasting feelings of disillusionment.
Financial costs to employers
Several studies have attempted to quantify the cost of bullying to an organization.
According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), mental illness among the workforce leads to a loss in employment amounting to $19 billion and a drop in productivity of $3 billion.
In a report commissioned by the ILO, Hoel, Sparks, & Cooper did a comprehensive analysis of the costs involved in bullying. They estimated a cost 1.88 billion pounds plus the cost of lost productivity.
Based on the replacement cost of those who leave as a result of being bullied or witnessing bullying, Rayner and Keashly (2004) estimated that for an organization of 1,000 people, the cost would be $1.2 million US. This estimate did not include the cost of litigation should victims bring suit against the organization.
A recent Finnish study of more than 5,000 hospital staff found that those who had been bullied had 26% more certified sickness absence than those who were not bullied, when figures were adjusted for base-line measures one year prior to the survey (Kivimäki et al., 2000). According to the researchers these figures are probably an underestimation as many of the targets are likely to have been bullied already at the time the base-line measures were obtained.
The city government of Portland, Oregon, was sued by a former employee for hazing abuse on the job. The victim sought damages of $250,000 and named the city, as well as the perpetrator Jerry Munson, a "lead worker" for the organization who was in a position of authority. The suit stated a supervisor was aware of the issue, but "failed to take any form of immediate appropriate and corrective action to stop it". After an investigation, the municipal government settled for US$80,000 after it believed that "there is risk the city may be found liable."
Researcher Tamara Parris discusses how employers need to be more attentive in managing various discordant behaviors such as bullying in the workplace, as they not only create a financial cost to the organization, but also erode the company's human resource assets. In an effort to bring about change in the workplace, Flynn discusses how employers need to not only support regulations set in place but also need to support their staff when such instances occur.
By country
Workplace bullying is known in some Asian countries as:
Japan: power harassment
South Korea: gapjil
Singapore: In an informal survey among 50 employees in Singapore, 82% said they had experienced toxicity from their direct superior or colleagues in their careers, with some 33.3% experiencing it on a daily basis. Some of the other reports was failing to agree with the boss was considered being a trouble maker, always having to give praise to the superior, the senior colleague has a tendency to shout at people. Many respondents reported that they had to quit because of the toxic environment. In other surveys, it is clear that the company is aware but does nothing. A Kantar survey in 2019 suggested that employees in Singapore were the most likely to be made to "feel uncomfortable" by their employers, compared with those in the other countries that the company polled.
History
Research into workplace bullying stems from the initial Scandinavian investigations into school bullying in the late 1970s.
Legal aspects
See also
Academic journals
Aglietta M, Reberioux A, Babiak P. "Psychopathic manipulation in organizations: pawns, patrons and patsies", in Cooke A, Forth A, Newman J, Hare R (Eds), International Perspectives and Psychopathy, British Psychological Society, Leicester, pp. 12–17. (1996)
Aglietta, M.; Reberioux, A.; Babiak, P. "Psychopathic manipulation at work", in Gacono, C.B. (Ed), The Clinical and Forensic Assessment of Psychopathy: A Practitioner's Guide, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 287–311. (2000)
References
Business ethics
Organizational behavior
Abuse
Ethically disputed working conditions
Deviance (sociology)
1990s neologisms |
4083182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Jamaica | LGBT rights in Jamaica | Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Jamaica face legal and social issues not experienced by non-LGBT people. Consensual sexual intercourse between same-sex partners is legally punishable by imprisonment.
Jamaica has long held strongly conservative views towards homosexuality, with recent polls stating that the majority of Jamaicans are against the acceptance of homosexuality. Most of the population is affiliated with Christianity and the Rastafari movement, which have both encouraged negative feelings towards homosexuality. Discrimination and violence against LGBT persons are very common and LGBT people in Jamaica often remain closeted to avoid discrimination or harassment. In 2006, Time magazine labelled Jamaica "the most homophobic place on Earth", and in 2013 the majority of LGBT people said they were subject to homophobic violence in public.
The government of Jamaica said in 2012 that it "is committed to the equal and fair treatment of its citizens and affirms that any individual whose rights are alleged to have been infringed has a right to seek redress." The government also claimed that "there is no legal discrimination against persons on the grounds of their sexual orientation" though there is widespread homophobia and a sodomy law (The Offenses Against the Person Act of 1864) that is still in effect.
Laws, policies, and the Jamaican constitution
History of the criminalisation of LGBT individuals
Islands in the Commonwealth Caribbean adopted British buggery laws; however these laws were not as strictly regulated in the Caribbean as they were in the United Kingdom up until the Victorian era. Prior to this era, recounts were made of the island's British occupants engaging in sodomy, which may correlate with the fact that the first colonists were mostly men. The slave communities in Jamaica and the rest of the British Caribbean were made up of men and women from West Africa, the men being more sought after by slave owners.
In England, the Buggery Law of 1861 was liberalized in 1967. By this point, Jamaica had already gained its independence in 1962, and thus its buggery law adopted from the British constitution, remained intact and is still in force to this day.
Laws against same-sex sexual activity: The Offences Against the Person Act (1864)
Jamaica's laws do not criminalise the status of being LGBT but instead outlaw associated conduct, including anal sex and any sex between men. The Offences Against the Person Act (OAPA) provides as follows:
Section 76. Unnatural Offences. Whosoever shall be convicted of the abominable crime of buggery, committed either with mankind or with any animal, shall be liable to be imprisoned and kept to hard labour for a term not exceeding ten years.
Section 77. Attempt. Whosoever shall attempt to commit the said abominable crime, or shall be guilty of any assault with intent to commit the same, or of any indecent assault upon any male person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding seven years, with or without hard labour.
Section 79. Outrages on decency. Any male person who, in public or private, commits, or is a party to the commission of, or procures or attempts to procure the commission by any male person of, any act of gross indecency with another male person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and being convicted thereof shall be liable at the discretion of the court to be imprisoned for a term not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour.
"Gross indecency" is not defined by the OAPA but has been interpreted as "referring to any kind of physical intimacy", including merely holding hands.
According to Human Rights Watch, regardless of how often persons are convicted of buggery or gross indecency, "the arrests themselves send a message." The Jamaican press publishes the names of men arrested for those crimes, "shaming them and putting them at risk of physical injury." The gross indecency law in Section 79 made LGBT persons "vulnerable to extortion from neighbours who threatened to report them to the police as part of blackmailing schemes."
Section 80. Other matters. Any constable may take into custody, without a warrant, any person whom he shall find lying or loitering in any highway, yard, or other place during the night, that is to say the interval between 7 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the morning of the next succeeding day, and whom he shall have good cause to suspect of having committed, or being about to commit any felony in this Act mentioned, and shall take such person, as soon as reasonably may be, before a Justice, to be dealt with according to law.
Police have great discretion in detaining individuals under Section 80. This and other laws are used by police to detain LGBT men who are engaged in sodomy or other sexual acts or forms of intimacy with another man, or who are abusing animals.
Decriminalisation efforts
The European Parliament in 2005 passed a resolution calling on Jamaica to repeal its "antiquated and discriminatory sodomy laws and to actively combat widespread homophobia".
Following Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson's pledge that "no one should be discriminated against because of their sexual orientation", and that the government will seek a review of the buggery law (which did not happen), LGBT rights campaigner Maurice Tomlinson filed a case against Jamaica at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in February 2012. He had fled the country because of death threats after news about his marriage to his partner Tom Decker in Canada reached the local media.
In February 2013, AIDS-Free World filed a legal complaint with the Jamaica Supreme Court on behalf of Javed Jaghai, who said his landlord kicked him out of his home because of his sexual orientation. In June 2013, the court began hearing the case. In August 2014, he was forced to withdraw his lawsuit, citing death threats and concerns for his personal safety and that of his family.
In November 2015, LGBT activist Tomlinson filed another lawsuit with the Jamaican Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality of Jamaica's laws criminalizing consensual sex between men, saying that the colonial-era statute violates several provisions of the Jamaican constitution, including the right to privacy. He also argues the sodomy law violates “the right to protection from inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment.” The legal challenge is being supported by the Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network and AIDS-Free World. In February 2016, the court held a first hearing of the constitutional challenge. The Public Defender (PD) Arlene Harrison Henry applied to be joined as interested parties. It was adjourned to 26 April 2016 when the applications by the various parties were heard. In July 2016, the court blocked Henry from participating in the suit, and as a result, she sought leave to appeal the denial of participation to the court of appeal. The Supreme Court suspended the hearing of the case pending the decision of the Appeal Court. After a two-year delay, the Court of Appeal upheld the Supreme Court ruling barring Henry from joining Tomlinson in the lawsuit, leaving him alone in the case. A preliminary hearing was held attempting to block Tomlinson from making a Charter of Rights argument. The judge determined in 2022 that the issues could not be separated. There is no date set for the main hearing.
In 2012, a gay man named Gareth Henry and a lesbian woman, Simone Edwards, filed complaints at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. The two members of Jamaica's LGBT community have put themselves forward as petitioners in the case. Both claim they fled Jamaica because of those laws. Gareth Henry sought asylum in Canada in 2008 after enduring repeated attacks by homophobic gangs and police brutality, and said he was forced to flee Jamaica in fear of his life. Simone Edwards fled Jamaica and was granted asylum in the Netherlands in 2008 after two men in a homophobic gang fired shots at her house. They also tried to kill her two brothers, one of whom is gay. Six years later, in July 2018, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights announced it would review whether it could make a case to challenge Jamaica's anti-buggery laws. The IACHR in its report setting out the decision, acknowledged the victims' concerns about "violence and discrimination against LGBT people and the impact of buggery laws,” and noted that, “if proved, the alleged facts relating to threats to life, personal integrity, interference with private and family life, obstacles to the right of residence and movement, unequal treatment, lack of access to justice and judicial protection, and interference in access to health care, could establish possible violations of (…) the American Convention [on Human Rights]”. The Government of Jamaica has objected to the admissibility of the Petition and defended its anti-gay laws. The case remains pending, as of 2023.
In December 2018, a Jamaican parliamentary committee recommended holding a national referendum on repealing the country's anti-sodomy law. The recommendation was criticised by LGBT activists, who felt a referendum was not needed and that people should "stay out of gays' bedrooms".
Efforts to increase criminal penalties
In 2009, Ernest Smith, a Labour Party member of Parliament, stated during a parliamentary debate that "homosexual activities seem to have taken over" Jamaica, described homosexuals as "abusive" and "violent", and called for a stricter law outlawing homosexual conduct between men that would impose sentences of up to life in prison.
Absence of laws protecting LGBT people from discrimination
The Civil Service Staff Orders of 2004 (which have the force of law) protect Jamaican civil servants from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation.
According to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Jamaica has "no law which prevents discrimination against an individual on the basis of his or her or their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. There is no legislation addressing hate crimes in Jamaica."
Jamaican Charter Of Rights
In 2011, a national Bill of Rights was formally added to the Jamaican Constitution (Chapter 3). While it does guarantee all citizens numerous civil and political rights, it pointedly stipulates that the charter does not invalidate laws dealing with sexual offenses, pornography, or "the traditional definition of marriage".
Recognition of same-sex relationships
In 2011, the Parliament passed The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (Constitutional Amendment) Act, 2011 which explicitly banned same-sex marriage and any other kind of union to be recognized in Jamaica.
In 2019, both Prime Minister Andrew Holness of the Jamaica Labour Party and the Leader of the Opposition Peter Phillips of the People's National Party announced their opposition to the legalisation of same-sex marriage.
In July 2019, after previously speaking out and filing several lawsuits against Jamaica's homophobic laws, Maurice Tomlinson petitioned the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), requesting that it rule that Section 18 (2) of the Constitution of Jamaica, which does not recognise same-sex marriages, contravenes various articles of the American Convention on Human Rights ratified by Jamaica. He argues that because the Jamaican constitution does not recognise same-sex marriage, he and his husband Tom Decker are unable to enjoy the benefits and protections afforded to them. Tomlinson wants to return to Jamaica, with his Canadian husband in order to work and look after his ageing parents, who are in rapidly declining health. The petition also says that by virtue of this constitutional ban against non-heterosexual unions, there is neither an adequate nor effective domestic remedy available to him and/or his same-sex husband under Jamaican law. It also outlined several instances in which persons believed to be members of the LGBT community had been killed. He is asking the IACHR to require Jamaica to fulfil its human-rights obligations under the convention and to recommend that the government repeal Section 18 (2) of the Constitution of Jamaica in order to comply with the country's obligations under the convention. Further, he wants the IACHR to recommend that the government allow the naturalisation of same-sex spouses of Jamaican citizens on the same conditions as heterosexual spouses of Jamaican citizens. He also wants the Jamaican government to condemn and monitor serious human-rights violations, including discrimination and hate speech, as well as incitement to violence and hatred. A letter dated July 18, 2019, has subsequently been sent to Ambassador Audrey Marks, permanent representative of Jamaica to the Organisation of American States, requesting a government response to the petition in three months.
Jamaican political parties
Neither one of the two major political parties in Jamaica has expressed any official support for legal rights for its LGBT citizens. However, at a televised debate in late December 2011 between opposition leader (and former prime minister) Portia Simpson-Miller of the People's National Party (PNP) and then-Prime Minister Andrew Holness, Simpson-Miller said she would consider appointing anyone she felt was most qualified for her cabinet, regardless of sexual orientation, and added that she wanted to see conscience votes allowed by the major parties on LGBT rights issues in parliament. Although Simpson-Miller was criticised by some social conservatives for her stance, it did not affect the PNP's sweeping election victory days later.
During the 2001 elections, the Jamaican Labour Party adopted "Chi Chi Man" by T.O.K., controversial for its lyrics which promote the murder of gays, as its theme song. In April 2006, then-opposition leader and future prime minister Bruce Golding vowed that "homosexuals would find no solace in any cabinet formed by him". Two years later, when asked if LGBT people could be in the cabinet, he said, "Sure they can be in the cabinet - but not mine."
The conservative National Democratic Movement opposes LGBT rights on religious grounds, alongside the more leftist economic parties such as the People's National Party and the New Nation Coalition.
LGBT rights movement in Jamaica
Organisations
J-FLAG
J-FLAG, the Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays, was founded in December 1998, and operates underground and anonymously. It is the first LGBT human rights organisation in Jamaican history, and its primary efforts include legal reform and advocacy, public education, crisis intervention, and support programs.
Quality of Citizenship Jamaica
Quality of Citizenship Jamaica (QCJ), founded by Jalna Broderick and Angeline Jackson in 2013, was an organisation that works toward creating safe spaces to empower the LGBT community. Its primary goal was to improve the lives of lesbian and bisexual women as well as transgender individuals, and part of the organisation's vision was to enhance the healthcare opportunities for LGBT women and youth, specifically regarding mental health and HIV/AIDS awareness. In his visit to the University of the West Indies in Kingston, United States president Barack Obama stated about Jackson, Instead of remaining silent, she chose to speak out and started her own organisation to advocate for women like her, and get them treatment and get them justice, and push back against stereotypes, and give them some sense of their own power.
QCJ ended operations in 2018.
Important people
Brian Williamson
One of the best-known Jamaican gay rights activities and co-founder of J-FLAG. He was one of the first publicly out gay figures in Jamaica, while the rest of J-FLAG was still operating as an underground organization.
In June 2004, he was brutally murdered. He was set to have an interview with a researcher from Human Rights Watch the same day. The researcher witnessed a crowd outside his home celebrating the murder and chanting slurs.
Maurice Tomlinson
Maurice Tomlinson is a Jamaican lawyer, law professor, and gay rights activist currently living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. In 2011, the Jamaica Observer, a local newspaper published an article with a photograph of him with his Canadian husband during their wedding ceremony. After the article was published, Tomlinson began receiving death threats and moved to Toronto. On 27 November 2015, he filed a Jamaican Supreme Court case challenging the nation's sodomy law. He stated in the court filings, "the laws of Jamaica that criminalise consensual sexual intimacy between men essentially render me an un-apprehended criminal." He says that the 1864 law was worsened when the requirement of the convicted to carry offender identification was added in 2011, punishable by an additional twelve months in prison and a one million dollar fine. He argues that the law as a whole encourages violence, and in a blogpost for Human Rights First in January, 2016, he stated the following:I filed a constitutional challenge against Jamaica’s sodomy law, citing the law’s violation of the protections outlined in Jamaica’s Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. These include the rights to liberty and freedom of the person, freedom of expression, privacy and family life, and freedom from inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment, among others.Since then, Tomlison has continued to speak out against homophobia in Jamaica.
Dr. J. Carolyn Gomes
Carolyn Gomes is currently the executive director of the Caribbean Vulnerable Communities Coalition (CVC), which works with Caribbean populations who are particularly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS and have social and financial barriers barring them from treatment and aid. Prior to assuming this role in January 2014, Gomes served as executive director of Jamaicans for Justice (JFJ), which she founded in Kingston in 1999 in order to fill the gap needed in Jamaica for a citizens' rights action group that works towards eradicating corruption in the judicial system and the public sphere as well as imbalances in the socio-economic system. She resigned from JFJ in 2013 after nationwide pushback on the sexual education leaflets the organisation produced for adolescents, due to their mentioning of anal sex. She speaks out on LGBT issues as they relate to her organisation and in part due to the fact that her sister is a homosexual woman.
Nicolette Bryan
Nicolette Bryan is a queer Jamaican woman who is a co-founder of Women's Empowerment for Change (WE-Change) and has been serving as the Executive Director since November 2017, upon her return from the United Kingdom as a Chevening Scholar. She is one of the more notable young women's rights activists in the country and can be credited with being an instrumental in the abortion reform movement currently ongoing in Jamaica.
International opinion
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in 2012 said that "discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression is widespread throughout Jamaica, and ... discrimination against those in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and intersex ... communities is entrenched in Jamaican State institutions. Those who are not heterosexual or cisgender face political and legal stigmatisation, police violence, an inability to access the justice system, as well as intimidation, violence, and pressure in their homes and communities."
Human Rights Watch said in 2012 that because of homophobia, "human rights defenders advocating the rights of LGBT people are not safe in Jamaica".
United Nations
A Universal Periodic Review (UPR) of Jamaica was completed in 2011 under the auspices of the United Nations Human Rights Council. In its report,
Jamaica stressed that, although consensual sex between adult males remained proscribed by law, there was no legal discrimination against persons on the grounds of their sexual orientation. Jamaica pointed out that Jamaican law did not criminalise lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender orientation, nor did the Government condone discrimination or violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons. It added that there had been no credible cases of arbitrary detention and/or harassment of such persons by the police, nor was there any such official policy. Likewise, there was no evidence of any mob-related killing of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender persons. Jamaica stressed that the issue of male homosexuality was one of great sensitivity in Jamaican society, in which cultural norms, values, religious and moral standards underlay a rejection of male homosexual behaviour by a large majority of Jamaicans; and that the Government was committed to ensuring that all citizens were protected from violence.
During the UPR working group meeting, Australia encouraged Jamaica to repeal its laws against same-sex activities and condemn homophobic statements made by public figures. The Netherlands expressed concern about harassment of LGBT persons and stated that legislation criminalising consensual same-sex activities might contribute to the problem. The United States "remained concerned about continuing discrimination, violence and exploitation, especially against the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community."
Slovenia stated that the abuse and harassment of LGBT persons by law enforcement officials were "highly worrisome". The United Kingdom encouraged Jamaica to promote tolerance and end discrimination against LGBT persons. Sweden expressed concern about the criminalisation of consensual sex between men and inquired about whether there were initiatives to decriminalise it.
Jamaica refused to support the recommendations made about LGBT rights. "In response to questions regarding sexual orientation, Jamaica ... noted that sexual orientation was not criminalised, only a specific act. Jamaica stated that it was aware of existing concerns and observed that this was a sensitive issue." In addition, "Jamaica explained that the government has raised public awareness" about sexual orientation and discrimination and "will continue to do so, but that this needed resources."
Living conditions
Anti-LGBT violence
Human rights non-governmental organisations and governmental entities have agreed that violence against LGBT people, primarily by private citizens, was widespread in 2012. The Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG) in 2012 "continued to report serious human rights abuses, including assault with deadly weapons, 'corrective rape' of women accused of being lesbians, arbitrary detention, mob attacks, stabbings, harassment of gay and lesbian patients by hospital and prison staff, and targeted shootings of such persons."
According to the Bureau of Democracy for Human Rights and Labor at the U.S. Department of State, "Police often did not investigate such incidents. During 2012, J-FLAG received 68 reports of sexually motivated harassment or abuse, which included 53 cases of attempted or actual assault, including at least two killings, and 15 reports of displacements. J-FLAG data showed that young people, ages 18 to 29, continued to bear the brunt of violence based on sexual orientation." In Jamaican prisons, there were numerous reports in 2012 of violence against gay inmates, perpetrated by wardens and other inmates, but few inmates sought recourse through the prison system.
Amnesty International has "received many reports of vigilante action against gay people by members of the community, and of ill-treatment or torture by the police. Gay men and lesbian women have been beaten, cut, burned, raped and shot on account of their sexuality. ... We are concerned that these reports are just the tip of the iceberg. Many gay men and women in Jamaica are too afraid to go to the authorities and seek help." This violence has prompted many gay persons to emigrate and hundreds of LGBT Jamaicans to seek asylum in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.
Violence against HIV positive people is commonplace, but legal repercussions for the aggressor are rare. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS representatives for Jamaica have described the blind-eye towards homophobic violence as "legalised discrimination" and have claimed that the violence has driven the HIV epidemic further underground, making access to treatment and outreach more difficult.
In January 2018, Jamaica banned Steven Anderson, from the Faithful Word Baptist Church in Tempe, Arizona, a Holocaust-denying anti-gay pastor, after an outcry from activists on the island. The pastor said he was about to board a flight to Kingston when he was informed he would not be allowed into Jamaica.
In January 2019, Director of Tourism Donovan White said that gay tourists are welcome, and that Jamaicans harboured no open hostility towards gay visitors during a press conference at the Caribbean Travel Marketplace in Montego Bay.
In September 2019, Mayor Omar Davis of Montego Bay, and Councillor Charles Sinclair (both elected officials) blocked the use of the local cultural center by the local LGBT group in a bid to protect the "sacredness" of the building. The government's actions forced the cancellation of the pride events; no other venues would rent their premises to the LGBT group, following the actions of Davis and Sinclair. Other venues cancelled their reservations made by the LGBT group owing to fear of a backlash. Furthermore, the policed advised that because of the mayor and councillor's actions, and the homophobic hysteria that had been whipped up, they could not provide any kind of protection to LGBT Jamaicans. These circumstances forced the cancellation of the scheduled Pride events that were to be held in October 2019.
Media
In 2012, in what was called "an unprecedented constitutional legal challenge "a case was filed by LGBT activist Maurice Tomlinson in the Supreme Court of Jamaica against Jamaican television stations for refusing to air a 30-second advertisement “Love and Respect.” The ad, which promotes recognition of the humanity of LGBT people, was rejected by Television Jamaica (TVJ), Public Broadcasting Corporation (PBCJ) and CVM Television (CVM TV). in May 2013, the lawsuit was heard. In November 2013, the case Maurice Tomlinson v TVJ, CVM and PBCJ the Constitutional Court ruled against Tomlinson. The case was appealed. in February 2016, the Jamaican Court of Appeal heard the appeal, after it was originally scheduled in July 2015. The TV station Public Broadcasting Corporation (PBCJ) was not included in the appeal, and CVM withdrew from the case saying that they would accept any decision from the court. The court reserved its judgement, and the decision is pending.
Particular incidents
In June 2004, founding member and the public face of the Jamaican Forum for Lesbians, All-Sexuals and Gays (J-FLAG), and Jamaica's leading gay-rights activist, Brian Williamson, was stabbed to death in his home. Police ruled that the murder was the result of a robbery, but J-FLAG believes his murder was a hate crime. Human Rights Watch (HRW) researcher Rebecca Schleifer had a meeting with Williamson that day, and arrived at his home not long after his body had been discovered:
She found a small crowd singing and dancing. One man called out, "Battyman he get killed." Others were celebrating, laughing and shouting "Let's get them one at a time", "That's what you get for sin". Others sang "Boom bye bye", a line from a well-known dancehall song by Jamaican star Buju Banton about shooting and burning gay men. "It was like a parade", says Schleifer. "They were basically partying."
HRW also reported that police helped a suspect evade identification, and consistently refused to consider the possibility of a homophobic motive for the killing, with the senior officer responsible for the investigation claiming "most of the violence against homosexuals is internal. We never have cases of gay men being beaten up [by heterosexuals]."
A friend of Williamson's, Lenford "Steve" Harvey, who worked in Targeted Interventions at Jamaica AIDS Support for Life, was shot to death on the eve of World AIDS Day the following year. Gunmen reportedly burst into his home and demanded money, demanding to know: "Are you battymen?" "I think his silence, his refusal to answer that question sealed it," said Yvonne McCalla Sobers, the head of Families Against State Terrorism. "Then they opened his laptop and saw a photograph of him with his partner in some kind of embrace that showed they were together. So they took him out and killed him." Six people were charged with the killing. Their trial began, and was then postponed, in 2007. It was resumed in 2012; in 2014, one of the accused was set free.
In April 2006, students at the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies rioted as police attempted to protect a man who had been chased across the campus because another student had claimed the man had propositioned him in a bathroom. The mob demanded that the man be turned over to them. It only dispersed when riot police were called in and an officer fired a shot in the air.
In November 2012, two campus security guards beat a reportedly gay university student when he sought refuge from a mob of fellow students who were chasing him. The security company fired the two guards, and their action was condemned by the University of Technology, as well as the security company. The university established a working group to develop a sensitisation and education program to deal with intolerance and bullying, and to recommend corrective measures.
In July, a mob in St. James stabbed to death a gender-nonconforming 16-year-old, Dwayne Jones. The murder attracted international attention and outrage, especially in North America, resulting in condemnation of the killing by human rights groups. Police investigated the murder, however, no one has been arrested or charged, and the crime is still considered unsolved, as of 2022.
In August 2013, Dean Moriah, a gay businessman in Montego Bay, was stabbed to death in his home. His house was then set on fire and his car was stolen in the same incident. Following the murder, an investigation was launched to determine whether Moriah had been targeted due to his sexuality and both local and international gay rights activists argued that the murder was a homophobic hate crime. In 2014, a nineteen-year-old man was formally charged with the murder.
Also in August 2013, two men who were perceived by angry residents to be gay were forced to take refuge in a police station after a minor car accident.
In August 2017, Dexter Pottinger, a Jamaican gay activist, fashion designer, and face of Jamaica Pride 2016 and 2017, was robbed and found murdered with 25 knife stab wounds at his home in St. Andrew. In April 2019, in what has been described as a gay panic defense case, Romario Brown, who was initially charged with the murder of Pottinger, pleaded guilty to the lesser offence of manslaughter after his caution statement revealed that his actions were caused by provocation by the deceased. In May 2019, he was sentenced to 12 years for manslaughter. Pottinger's relatives said that the sentence was too short. His sister, Tashan Adams, said that the family was not satisfied and questioned the claims of the murderer.
Public attitudes toward LGBT people
A poll in 2001 showed that 96 percent of Jamaicans were opposed to any move that would seek to legalise homosexual relations.
Results from the "National Survey of Attitudes and Perceptions of Jamaicans Towards Same Sex Relationships" were published in 2011. Based on a random survey in late 2010 of 1,007 Jamaicans, aged 18–84, 85.2 percent were opposed to legalising homosexuality among consenting adults. In addition, 82.2 percent said that male homosexuality was immoral, 75.2 percent believed that female homosexuality was immoral, and 75.3 percent believed that bisexual relationships were immoral.
In 2008, a poll of 1,008 Jamaicans was conducted that read, "Whether or not you agree with their lifestyle, do you think homosexuals are entitled to the same basic rights and privileges as other people in Jamaica?" 26 percent said "yes", 70 percent said "no", and 4 percent did not know.
In 2012, a poll revealed that about a third of the population—over 900,000 Jamaicans—believe the government is not doing enough to protect LGBT people from violence and discrimination.
A 2016 poll from J-Flag shows that 88 percent of those polled disapprove of homosexuality.
Gender
Homophobia based on masculine idealization
Jamaica has a heavily male-dominated social structure. Consequently, heterosexual relations are praised as signs of male virility in the lyrics of popular songs, particularly in Jamaican dancehall. Homosexual intercourse in this context is seen as a potential affront to the male "ideal". Popular music similarly reproduces and enforces heteronormativity and aggressive homophobia in Jamaican culture. The chorus of Jamaican dancehall hit "Boom Bye Bye" by Buju Banton repeats: "Boom bye bye Inna batty bwoy head, Rude boy no promote no nasty man Dem haffi ded". The song, commonly played in Jamaica for over ten years after it released, explicitly calls for the murder of men who have sex with men. This trope is rather common in dancehall music and reflects the "remarkably ubiquitous" homophobia in Jamaica. Aggressive homophobic attitudes in Jamaica are mostly attributable to the norms of hypermasculinity, which is roughly equivalent to the machismo found in Central and South America.
Homophobia in Jamaica is bolstered by the contemporary association of homosexuality with colonization, and by extension, of homophobia with anti-colonialism. Scholar Wayne Marshall describes that, in Jamaica, acts of homosexuality are believed to be "decadent products of the West" and "are thus to be resisted alongside other forms of colonization, cultural or political." This sentiment is easily demonstrated in the Jamaican dancehall hit "Dem Bow" by Shabba Ranks, in which homosexuality is violently condemned alongside a call for the "freedom for Black people."
Jamaican male sexual identity has long been defined in opposition to homosexuality. According to Dr. Kingsley Ragashanti Stewart, a professor of anthropology at the University of the West Indies, "A lot of Jamaican men, if you call them a homosexual, ... will immediately get violent. It's the worst insult you could give to a Jamaican man." Dr. Stewart believes that homophobia influences almost every aspect of life and shapes the everyday language of ghetto youth. "It's like if you say, 'Come back here,' they will say, 'No, no, no don't say 'come back'.' You have to say 'come forward,' because come back is implying that you're 'coming in the back,' which is how gay men have sex."
Attitudes about lesbians
Jamaica Gleaner columnist Morris Cargill, who supported the "nurture" view with respect to environment and sexual orientation, opinionated in 1999:
There seems to be a certain logic in female homosexuality. For if it is true, broadly speaking, we acquire our first sexual proclivities in infancy, girl children who are petted and fondled by their mothers, nurses and female relatives acquire what might be said to be a "normal" sexual affection for their own sex. But this is not true of male children, so it seems to me that there is a very fundamental difference between male and female homosexuality.
Amnesty International, however, has received reports of violence against lesbians, including rape and other forms of sexual violence. Lesbians reportedly have been attacked on the grounds of "mannish" physical appearance or other visible "signs" of sexuality. Some reports of abduction and rape come from inner-city communities, where local non-governmental organisations have expressed concerns about high incidences of violence against women.
Although lesbian civil ceremonies have taken place, Jamaica does not recognise any legal basis for partnerships between women. In 2012, American couple Jamaican-born Nicole Y. Dennis-Benn and Emma Benn held the first lesbian wedding in Jamaica, although their marriage was not legally recognised in Jamaica, they were by law, legally married in New York State (which legalised same-sex marriage in 2012) where they reside. The couple had their celebration ceremony in Jamaica after being lawfully married in the United States.
Transgender individuals
What makes the lives of transgender individuals in Jamaica different from those in other countries is the fact that Jamaican society has an exceptionally low tolerance for LGBTQ individuals, especially male-to-female transgender women, according to a case study done by the University of West Indies’ Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social Economic Studies. The stigmas placed upon these individuals influence their perception of the world, and upon internalising these stigmas, the treatment process becomes more difficult. The viewpoint arises that doctors will stigmatise patients or treat them badly because of the unconventionality of the treatment being carried out. Ultimately, low tolerance leads patients to obtain less treatment overall.
Religion
Homophobia based on religion
Many Jamaicans identify as devoutly Christian and claim that their anti-gay stance is based on religious grounds.
In June 2013, Jamaican church pastors rallied nearly 1,500 people in Kingston to support the country's buggery laws. Pastor Leslie Buckland of the Church of Christ argued that LGBT activists were trying to "take over the world" with their challenge of the laws. Buckland said that if the laws were repealed, activists would "go back to the court to make it a criminal offense to speak against the homosexual lifestyle."
In February 2006, a coalition of church leaders and members of the Lawyers' Christian Fellowship declared their opposition to the privacy provisions of a proposed Charter of Rights that would form the basis of an amended Jamaican Constitution. Chief among the concerns was that homosexuality could be made legal, although Justice Minister A. J. Nicholson and the leader of the opposition, Bruce Golding, denied this and opposed decriminalising buggery.
Cecil Gutzmore at the University of the West Indies has written that religious fundamentalists believe that the Bible variously declares homosexuality to be an "abomination", a "vile affection", "unseemly", "not natural", or a "form of ungodliness".
Those who commit this great sin are thus unequivocally construed ... as legitimate subjects to be punished by terminal violence, a fate not only dealt out directly by God Himself but, presumably, also by those regarding themselves as His faithful servants and the possible agents of His will. These persons feel a kind of righteous justification for ... acting violently on God's behalf against perceived homosexuals and homosexuality. ... In Jamaica metaphorical stones enthusiastically and destructively cast take the form of homophobic song lyrics, passionate sermons, and parliamentary and party conference speeches that voice a refusal to liberalize anti-homosexuality laws.
Local LGBT-rights group J-FLAG acknowledges that anti-LGBT sentiment is influenced by certain passages from the Bible, but counters that,
the appropriation by legislatures of the Christian condemnation of homosexuals is a purely arbitrary process, guided largely by individual biases and collective prejudices. In the case of adultery, of which much more mention is made in Biblical text, Jamaica has no law pertaining to its condemnation or prosecution. The same applies to the act of fornication.
Attitudes of Rastafari from Jamaica
There are some homophobic attitudes in the Rastafari movement, according to an anonymous, well-educated Rasta elder in 2007:
The real reason why the average "Jah D" in Jamaica has this extreme, rational aversion to male homosexuality is not ... because of "fear of the other", it is not because of Biblical injunction; it is not because of its supposed "un-Africanness" nor the fact that Jamaica is nominally a "Christian country". It is simply that he cannot condone the abandonment of the clean "nip and tuck" of normal heterosexual relations for the unhygienic foray amid waste matter, unfriendly bacteria and toxic germs.
Senior Rastafari Ras Iyah V opposes the repeal of Jamaica's buggery laws. "I would have to stand with those who oppose homosexuality because that is not our way. From a moral and traditional African point of view, homosexuality is not acceptable."
Some Rastafari from Jamaica, however, have supported gay rights. British-born writer Benjamin Zephaniah said in 2005, "[I]t hurts when I see that [Jamaica] ... is now associated with the persecution of people because of their sexual orientation. I believe it is my duty to call upon all the progressive people of Jamaica ... to take a stand against homophobia." Mista Mahaj P, a Jamaican-born Rastafari based in the United States, released in 2011 reggae's first pro-gay album entitled Tolerance. King B-Fine, a Rastafari Reggae artist born in Jamaica, openly supports gay rights. He clarified this after some controversy about his song "Jah Nah Dead".
Pop culture
Portrayal of LGBT people in popular Jamaican music
Jamaica's popular culture has a strong tradition of music, including reggae and dancehall. As a consequence, performers are high profile, both influencing popular opinion and reflecting it. The United States Department of State said that in 2012 "through the songs and the behavior of some musicians, the country's dancehall culture helped perpetuate homophobia." In its 2011 review of Jamaica for compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed regret over "virulent lyrics by musicians and entertainers that incite violence against homosexuals" and recommended that Jamaica investigate, prosecute, and sanction persons who do so.
Artists such as Buju Banton, Bounty Killer, Beenie Man, Mavado, Sizzla, Elephant Man, Capleton, T.O.K., Vybz Kartel and Shabba Ranks have during their careers written or performed, or both, songs that advocate attacking or killing gays and lesbians.
Buju Banton, according to Time Magazine, "is an avowed homophobe whose [1992] song Boom Bye-Bye decrees that gays 'haffi dead' ('have to die')." The song also "boasts of shooting gays with Uzis and burning their skin with acid 'like an old tire wheel'." Buju Banton's manager, Donovan Germain, has insisted that "Buju's lyrics are part of a metaphorical tradition. They're not a literal call to kill gay men."
One of Beenie Man's songs contains the lyrics: "I'm a dreaming of a new Jamaica, come to execute all the gays." Bounty Killer has urged his listeners to burn "Mister Fagoty" and make him "wince in agony." Elephant Man said in one of his songs, "When you hear a lesbian getting raped / It's not our fault ... Two women in bed / That's two Sodomites who should be dead." Lyrics from Sizzla's songs include: "Shot battybwoy, my big gun boom." (Shoot queers, my big gun goes boom.)
Some Rastafari have advocated for violence and discrimination against LGBT people. When singing about gay males, those advocates have used terms like "MAUMA MAN (Maama Man), FASSY HOLE (or simply FASSY), MR. BURN, PUSSYHOLE, FAGGOT, FISHMAN, FUNNY MAN, BUJU MAN, FREAKY MAN, POOP MAN, BUGGER MAN and the most commonly used, BATTY MAN (butt man) and CHI CHI MAN (chi chi, in Jamaica, is the slang for vermin)."
When singing about gay women, they have used terms like "SODOMITE, CHI CHI GAL or simply LESBIAN." The Bobo Ashanti, including dancehall singers Sizzla, Capleton, and Anthony B, condemn everything in conflict with their beliefs: "Fire pon politicians, Fire pon Vatican, Fire pon chi chi man..." Some singers have defended themselves by saying that it is "a 'spiritual fire.'"
An international campaign against homophobia by reggae singers was headed by OutRage!, the UK-based gay activism group, and the UK-based Stop Murder Music Coalition. An agreement to stop anti-gay lyrics during live performances and not to produce any new anti-gay material or re-release offending songs was reached in February 2005 between dancehall record labels and organisations opposed to anti-gay murder lyrics.
According to a 2005 published report, the Canadian High Commission in Jamaica was also requiring performers who wished to tour in Canada to sign an Entertainer Declaration that stated that they had read and fully understood excerpts from the Criminal Code, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and the Canadian Human Rights Act and would not "engage in or advocate hatred against persons because of their ... sexual orientation." Calls for a boycott of Jamaica and its music in Canada had provoked a debate over censorship and free expression in both Jamaica and Canada.
In August 2013, Queen Ifrica made anti-gay comments at the Grand Gala independence celebrations in Kingston, which were promptly criticised and labelled as inappropriate by the government's Ministry of Youth and Culture. The promoters of Rastafest in Toronto, held later the same month, then dropped her from the concert lineup after various persons and groups protested her inclusion.
A 2010 random survey of Jamaican adults showed that among those who most listened to reggae music, 65.0 percent expressed repulsion (the most negative emotion among the Riddle scale's eight possibilities) about persons in same-sex relationships. The percentages for dancehall music were 62.8 percent, 47.5 percent for rhythm and blues, 45.4 percent for those with no music preference, 42.9 percent for old hits and gospel, 35.3 percent for rock/alternative, and 30.8 percent for hip hop/rap.
In 2022, during Pride Month, Jamaican Canadian singer Mark Clennon released a music video for his song "Kingston", which featured a romantic storyline between Clennon and male model Jean-Julien Hazoumi. The music video, filmed in Kingston and co-directed by Clennon and Canadian filmmaker M. H. Murray, became the first music video shot in Jamaica to feature an on-screen romance between two men.
Portrayal of LGBT people in literature
LGBT individuals are represented in the work of Jamaican authors such as Claude McKay, who left Jamaica in 1912 to pursue his writing career in Harlem. McKay is among the first Jamaican fiction authors to write about homosexuality; however, he refrained from being open about his own sexuality. In his novels Home to Harlem and Banjo, he creates "homosocial" worlds in which men engage sexually exclusively with other men. McKay is more widely known and accepted among the black community as a powerful figure in the Harlem Renaissance than as a pivotal figure in the queer community.
LGBT Pride events in Jamaica
In 2015, Jamaica held its first LGBT Pride celebrations, known as PRIDEJA, a week-long event used to highlight the island's efforts to tackle discrimination and hate against the LGBT community. However, there was no parade, as it would have been risky for the marchers, according to J-FLAG. The Mayor of Kingston, Angela Brown-Burke, attended and spoke at the event, voicing her support by saying: "I come from the point of view that I, as mayor, have a responsibility to all the individuals of Kingston. There are individuals who are minorities who have been struggling in terms of their identity and finding their own space. It is important for us to provide safe spaces for them." Then Minister of Justice Mark Golding issued a statement in support of the gay Pride celebration, saying "I support the right of all Jamaicans, including members of the LGBT community, to express their opinions through any lawful means. As the LGBT community embarks on a week of activities to build awareness of the rights and needs of their members, I urge all Jamaicans to respect their right to do so in peace." Hollywood actor Elliot Page also attended the event. At the 2018 event, the cocktail reception was jointly hosted by the Charge d’ Affaires of the US Embassy, Eric Khant; British High Commissioner to Jamaica, Asif Ahmad and Canadian High Commissioner to Jamaica, Laurie Peters. It has been yearly celebrated ever since.
In October 2015, another pride event, Montego Bay Pride, was held for the first time, and has been yearly celebrated ever since. Growing from about 150 participants in 2015, it expanded to over 300 persons in 2016, to over 850 in 2017, and to over 900 in 2018. The 2017 pride saw Jamaica's first ever LGBT film festival, with four nights of documentaries highlighting the work for LGBT human rights in Canada, the United States, Uganda, and India. The 2018 pride saw a walk for acceptance and equality despite fear of attacks. Venues of pride events are not disclosed for security reasons.
Health and wellness
Mental health
In a study by the International Journal of Sexual Health in 2007, in which LGBT individuals were selected from groups for sexual minority support, human rights, and HIV/AIDS care and prevention, 13% of individuals interviewed were diagnosed with depression, and 11% met the criteria for substance abuse. 76% of the participants reported that they were victims of abusive experiences up to twelve months prior to the interview, of whom 19% reported physical violence. There are several human rights and sexual minority support groups and HIV/AIDS programs already existing in Jamaica that provide social support, information services, counselling, legal representation, and education, but many argue that these programs lack organisation and do not have enough mental health counsellors.
HIV/AIDS
Established and underlying determinants
According to a study conducted in 2015, adverse life events and low literacy have an effect on the prevalence of HIV among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Jamaica. Through the survey method, the researchers in this experiment found that these two factors are underlying determinants of the infection, and HIV was found most prevalent in MSM who were sex workers and had been raped. These men had lower self-esteem, which often leads to a reduction in ability to practice safe sex. Risk factors of HIV that have already been classified as established determinants such as receptive anal intercourse and casual sex partners tended to be more common among those MSM who had dealt with the issues formerly stated. Other underlying determinants of HIV include employment as sex workers, which made up 41.1% of those surveyed, and identifying as transgender, as did 52.9% of the survey participants. Overall, 31.4% of the MSM surveyed were HIV positive.
Prevention efforts
There are many efforts to combat HIV/AIDS in Jamaica and the broader Caribbean today. In 2001, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Heads of Government declared AIDS as a regional priority of the Caribbean, and the Pan Caribbean AIDS Partnership (PANCAP) was formed in order to initiate the region's response to HIV.
In Jamaica itself, there is a National Human Immunodeficiency Virus program based in the Jamaican Ministry of Health designed to slow the epidemic and decrease its impact. It has been a national plan in Jamaica to respond to HIV since 1988 when the National AIDS Committee was established to lead the island's multi-sectoral response to HIV/AIDS. To prevent the epidemic, information, education, and communication campaigns have been formed to promote condom use, control sexually transmitted infections (STI), and form workplace programs, HIV testing, and counselling.
There have also been efforts to minimize the stigma and discrimination surrounding issues relating to HIV and AIDS in Jamaica. In 2001, antiretroviral therapy was introduced in order to prevent vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child. In 2004, a public access treatment program was introduced, and in 2005 parliament unanimously adopted a national HIV/AIDS policy. The 2007-2012 National Strategic Plan included in it Jamaica's efforts toward aims to achieve access to HIV prevention worldwide.
Homophobia and HIV/AIDS in Jamaica
An estimated 1.8 percent of the age 18–49 population of Jamaica was HIV positive in 2011. The rate for men who have sex with men was 32.8 percent. The highest rates of infection were in the most urbanised parishes and in tourist areas. The HIV epidemic has been closely tied to poverty and developmental and socio-cultural issues, including slow economic growth, high levels of unemployment, early sexual debut, the culture of multiple partnerships, and the informal drug and commercial sex sectors.
In 2004, Human Rights Watch issued a report on the status of LGBT people in Jamaica. The report documented widespread homophobia and argued that the high level of intolerance was harming public efforts to combat violence and the AIDS-HIV pandemic.
The way Jamaicans associate HIV with homosexual anal sex has been partly shaped by the international media coverage at the beginning of the epidemic. Dr. Robert Carr, widely recognised as one of the world's leading researchers on cultural forces and the unfolding of the HIV pandemic, said:
AIDS was seen as a disease of gay, White, North American men. And people were really afraid of it. There were no treatments available in the Caribbean at the time, so AIDS really was a death sentence. You had people with Kaposi's sarcoma, people with violent diarrhoea, who were just wasting away and then dying in really horrible and traumatic ways. To call what was going on here "stigma and discrimination" was really an understatement. In the ghettos[,] they were putting tires around people who had AIDS and lighting the tires on fire. They were killing gay people because they thought AIDS was contagious. It was a very extreme environment, and really horrible things were happening.
Stigma has been associated with HIV in Jamaica since the beginning of the epidemic, partly because of its association with male homosexuality. Jamaican men, in particular, are so concerned about being associated with homosexuality that they are hesitant to seek HIV treatment and prevention services. Poor men living with HIV are assumed to have participated in same-sex sexual acts, and poor men who participate in those acts are assumed to be HIV positive. Some people in Jamaica become suicidal when they first receive their HIV diagnosis, rooted in the fear of isolation and discrimination that will result from others finding out and not from the potential of death associated with it. HIV is a reportable disease, resulting in a visit by a contact investigator who asks for the names of sexual partners.
The spread of HIV also encourages a cycle of blame and violence, which marginalises and encourages violence against a gay lifestyle. This cycle takes on further meaning under Jamaican law, which criminalises all anal sex and often turns a blind eye to violence against homosexuals. Few are willing to take up the language of human rights against what is happening to homosexuals and HIV positive individuals because they are considered responsible for the spread of HIV.
A study conducted by AIDS researchers found that half of surveyed university students in Jamaica felt sympathetic towards heterosexual men and non-sex workers who were HIV positive, but did not feel the same for homosexual men and female sex workers. Essentially this study showed that less blame is attached to people who became positive through "less controllable" acts such as voluntary heterosexual intercourse or drug use. Many Jamaicans felt that sex workers and homosexuals are not to be pitied for contracting HIV because they were acting in a way that knowingly put themselves at higher risk.
The secretive nature of gay culture in Jamaica makes outreach nearly impossible. Fear of being identified as gay has forced many men into early marriages in the hopes of avoiding future accusations. Miriam Maluwa, the UNAIDS country representative for Jamaica, said, "[Gay men] marry fairly rapidly, they have children fairly rapidly to regularise themselves, and that is really a ticking bomb". Gay men forced into heterosexual marriage are thus likely to have extramarital affairs, putting their wives at high risk for infection too.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Jamaica
LGBT rights in the Americas
LGBT rights in the Commonwealth of Nations
References
Further reading
External links
Persecution of LGBT people |
4083283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell%20Night | Hell Night | Hell Night is a 1981 American slasher film directed by Tom DeSimone, and starring Linda Blair, Vincent Van Patten, Kevin Brophy, and Peter Barton. The film depicts a night of fraternity hazing set in an old manor—the site of a familial mass murder—during which a deformed killer terrorizes and murders many of the college students. The plot blends elements of slasher films and Gothic haunted house films. Filmmaker Chuck Russell served as an executive producer, while his long-time collaborator Frank Darabont served as a production assistant.
Hell Night was written by Randy Feldman, then a recent college graduate who shopped the spec script to several film studios, among them Irwin Yablans's Compass International Pictures. Producer Bruce Cohn Curtis subsequently became involved with the project and secured the lead role for Blair, with whom he had collaborated on several films, among them Roller Boogie (1979), another Compass International release. It marked the first horror film role for Blair in several years, following her performances in The Exorcist (1973) and Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977). Principal location photography of Hell Night took place in Redlands, California at the Kimberly Crest Mansion in late 1980, with interior photography subsequently occurring in Los Angeles. The film was shot by Swedish cinematographer Mac Ahlberg. The production's shooting schedule was considerably tight, and required the cast and crew to shoot throughout the holiday season.
The film opened theatrically in August 1981, and was the final film released by Compass International Pictures. It was a minor box office success, grossing $2.3 million against a $1.4 million budget. Critical reception was generally mixed, with some critiquing it for its similarity to other slasher films as well as for Blair's performance, while others praised it for its art direction and found the film frightening. In the years since its release, the film has gone on to develop a cult following. Some critics and film scholars have noted the film for its subtext regarding social class, as well as for its depiction of Blair's character as a resourceful and intelligent final girl.
Plot
During a college costume party, Peter prepares to initiate four new pledges into Alpha Sigma Rho. The four consist of Jeff, a boy from an opulent upbringing; Marti, an intelligent girl from a poor background; Denise, a promiscuous party girl from England; and Seth, a surfer from Southern California. As part of the initation, the group are forced to spend the night in Garth Manor, an abandoned mansion once owned by Raymond Garth, who murdered his wife and three deformed children Morris, Margaret, and Suzanne. Garth then hanged himself. While he had a fourth deformed child, Andrew, his body was never found nor the body of Morris. Folklore states that Morris and Andrew still lurk within the mansion.
Peter and the students lock the pledges on the grounds behind the estate's large iron gates. Jeff and Marti bond by discussing their contrasting social classes while Seth and Denise hook up. The group endures several scares that Peter, along with two students, May and Scott, have set up around the mansion to frighten them. May and Scott are murdered by an unseen assailant. Peter discovers Scott's body strung up on the roof and flees into the hedge maze, where a second assailant murders him with a scythe.
Meanwhile, Seth goes to use the restroom, only to return and discover Denise missing and May's severed head on the bed. Panicked, he alerts Marti and Jeff and scales the gates to escape and get the police. Jeff investigates a light in the maze that he discovers is Peter's flashlight near his body. Back at the house, a figure attacks them in the bedroom and Jeff uses a pitchfork to wound the assailant, who disappears. They remove the rug, discovering a trapdoor through which the assailant fled. The couple descends into the tunnels, where they discover Denise's corpse set at a table with the preserved remains of Garth's family members.
Seth arrives at the local police station, begging for help, but the police believe him to be playing a fraternity prank. Seth steals a shotgun from the station and carjacks a vehicle. Meanwhile, Jeff and Marti escape the deformed Garth brothers. Seth returns to the mansion, where he shoots and kills Morris Garth. Jeff and Marti meet him in the foyer but Andrew kills Seth before pursuing the couple back to the bedroom. Jeff urges Marti to escape out a window. Before he can follow suit, Andrew hurls him out the window, killing him.
Marti enters the hedge maze, where she finds Peter's corpse and pries the gate keys from his fingers. She unlocks the gates and escapes in Seth's stolen vehicle, knocking over one of the iron gates in her attempt. Ambushed by Andrew, she drives the car into the fallen gate, impaling Andrew on its spikes. She awakes as the sun rises over the mansion, and emerges from the car, stoically walking away.
Cast
Themes
James Tucker of Rue Morgue magazine notes that Hell Night contains a subtext regarding social class in both the central characters (the working-class Marti and wealthy Jeff discuss at length the differences between their respective low and high-class backgrounds) as well as the villains of Andrew and Morris Garth, deformed brothers who were neglected by their wealthy father and concealed in the family's sprawling mansion.
Literary critic and film scholar John Kenneth Muir cites the character of Marti as emblematic of the working class, writing: "She's a smart young woman who fixes cars (her father is a garage mechanic), is resolutely blue collar, in contrast to the other pledges, and shares an interesting conversation regarding capitalism and the division between the rich and poor with the ill-fated Jeff."
Production
Development
Randy Feldman, then a recent graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, wrote the screenplay for Hell Night over an approximate five-week period. Feldman was loosely inspired by the plot of Black Christmas (1974), which centers on a killer preying on sorority sisters in their sorority house. Feldman stated in a 2018 interview that he approached the writing of the screenplay in a literary manner, owing to his background as a college English major, and admitted the original draft was excessively detailed.
Feldman shopped the spec script to several film studios, among them Irwin Yablans's Compass International Pictures, who had distributed John Carpenter's Halloween (1978). Producer Bruce Cohn Curtis, a colleague of Yablans, subsequently contacted Feldman, and expressed interest in purchasing the film rights. Mark L. Lester had also read the screenplay, but passed on directing the project. Curtis and his brother helped finance the film, which Curtis pitched to director Tom DeSimone, with whom he had worked on Chatterbox (1977). Several of the film's financiers were businesspeople in Washington, D.C., who were friends of Curtis's brother.
Feldman's screenplay was slightly altered after it was purchased by Curtis, mainly in its implementation of an additional villain; the original draft had only featured one of the Garth brothers as a killer instead of two. Chuck Russell, who would later direct A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987), served as executive producer on the film.
Casting
Actress Linda Blair was the first to become attached to the project through her working relationship with producer Curtis, who had produced several of her previous films, including Born Innocent (1974) and Roller Boogie (1979). The film marked her first horror film in several years, following The Exorcist (1973) and Exorcist II: The Heretic (1977).
Johanna Ray served as the film's casting director, and it was her first feature film credit. Curtis sought Peter Barton for the role of Jeff. Barton, a model, was hesitant to take the role and was considering abandoning his acting career at the time, but Curtis convinced him to star in the film. Vincent Van Patten was subsequently cast Seth, while Suki Goodwin, an English actress, was cast in the role of Denise.
Filming
Principal photography for Hell Night took 40 days in the fall and winter of 1980, between November 1980 and January 1981 with Swedish cinematographer Mac Ahlberg. Frank Darabont, a collaborator of the film's executive producer, Chuck Russell, served as a production assistant.
The original filming budget for Hell Night was $1 million, but the shoot's duration through the holidays extended the budget an additional $400,000. The film's shooting schedule reportedly consisted of six-day weeks and was described as grueling. Star Linda Blair recalled the daily shoots lasting from 5:00a.m. to 11:00p.m., and that the tight schedule demanded the cast and crew spend Thanksgiving working on the film, with the production renting a double-decker bus used to serve them a Thanksgiving meal.
The majority of the film was shot in three locations: The exterior of Garth Manor was shot at the Kimberly Crest Mansion in Redlands, California. The hedge maze was brought in as there was no actual garden maze on the mansion property. The inside of Garth Manor was filmed in a residential home in Pasadena, California. The frat party was filmed in an apartment lobby in Los Angeles, with the exteriors of the party filmed at the University of Redlands. The seemingly many tunnels in the movie were actually only two corridors through which the director had the actors repeatedly running from different angles. Additional interior photography took place at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood.
Director De Simone stated he wanted a "classic Gothic look" for the film: "I don't like these horror films where people are walking around haunted houses wearing jeans and T-shirts. So we threw our heads together and I said I wanted Linda in a Gothic kind of wardrobe. And we came up with the idea to make the hell night party a costume party. And that way we were able to have everyone in those kinds of costumes that suited their personality." During filming, producer Curtis urged DeSimone to implement an extended chase sequence for Linda Blair's character after seeing Jamie Lee Curtis's chase sequence in Terror Train (1980); this was the basis of the chase sequence that takes place in the tunnels under the mansion.
The two actors who portrayed the Garth killers are not listed anywhere in the credits, although their real names are believed to be Valentino Richardson and Chad Butler. However, on the film's DVD commentary, it was noted that they are both German nationals who spoke little or no English, and that one of them (the middle-aged bearded man) died shortly after the release of the film.
Release
Box office
Hell Night was given a regional limited theatrical release in the United States beginning August 7, 1981 by Compass International Pictures, opening in cities such as Detroit and Miami. During its opening week in Detroit, the film was the highest-grossing release in the city, out-earning Raiders of the Lost Ark, with box office receipts totaling $187,000.
Three weeks later, on August 28, 1981, the film expanded to a wide theatrical release before having its Los Angeles and New York City openings on September 4, 1981. During the September 4 weekend, the film ranked at number eleven at the U.S. box office, with earnings of $832,000. The film grossed a total of USD$2,300,000 in the United States by the end of its theatrical run.
Critical response
Hell Night received mixed-to-negative reviews at the time of its release. John Corry of The New York Times gave the film a middling review, concluding that, "Hell Night does make one original contribution to the genre. One college student, played by Linda Blair of Exorcist fame, does escape from that terrible house. Miss Blair is throaty and rather vacant, but the character she plays is a child of the working class. Her father runs a gas station. Get it? Those nasty privileged children are only getting what they deserve. Maybe the new film makers are only sentimental liberals, after all."
Time Out wrote "Amazing [...] what a competent director, cameraman and cast can do to help out a soggy plot", calling the film "tolerably watchable by comparison with the average Halloween rip-off." The Washington Posts Tom Shales criticized Blair's performance, and summarized: "Director Tom De Simone handles the shocks competently but not imaginatively, and most people will be able to guess from which side of the frame the beastie will leap... Cinematographer Mac Ahlberg (I, a Woman) fails to make the most of the handsome 16-room mansion in Redlands, Calif., where most of the picture was filmed, perhaps in one night."
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a one-star review, writing: "You know a movie is in trouble when what is happening on the screen inspires daydreams. I had lasted through the first reel, and nothing had happened. Now I was somewhere in the middle of the third reel, and still nothing had happened. By "nothing," by the way, I mean nothing original, unexpected, well-crafted, interestingly acted, or even excitingly violent." A review published by TV Guide noted the film contained "a few effective moments," adding: "Although the actual gore content is low, the titillation content is high, an avenue DeSimone would continue to explore in his future exploitation movies."
Critic Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote of the film favorably, praising Blair's performance, and remarking that its art direction and costume design "contribute substantially to Hell Nights overall superior craftsmanship... It's the kind of picture that just might give adults as well as youngsters nightmares." Thomas Fox of The Commercial Appeal similarly felt the film was frightening, writing: "Hell Night is scary. Silly, predictable and sometimes unintentionally funny. But scary." The Evansville Courier & Presss Patrice Smith felt the screenplay was "penned with a moderate dose of intelligence" and praised the film's cinematography and performances, adding that it "reverts to classical directorial approaches to suspense... That method alone is praiseworthy."
Linda Blair was nominated for a Razzie Award in the category of Worst Actress for her performance, losing to Faye Dunaway for Mommie Dearest and Bo Derek for Tarzan, the Ape Man, who were tied.
, 57% of 14 critics on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a favorable review, with an average weighted rating of 5/10. On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on 4 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".
Home media
The film was released on VHS by Media Home Entertainment in 1982. It was later released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment on August 31, 1999. This release featured an audio commentary with Linda Blair, producers Bruce Cohn Curtis and Irwin Yablans, and director Tom DeSimone; it also included television spots and the original theatrical trailer as bonus material.
On January 2, 2018, Scream Factory released the film for the first time on Blu-ray in a Collector's Edition set, which features four hours of new interviews, as well as the bonus materials contained on the 1999 Anchor Bay DVD. The British distributor 101 Films issued a limited edition Blu-ray on July 26, 2021.
Legacy
Hell Night has attained a cult following in the years since its release. Critic Robin Wood retrospectively praised the film for portraying a strong lead character, Marti, calling her "an active and resourceful heroine capable of doing more than screaming and falling over." Anton Bitel, writing for Little White Lies in 2021, similarly observes that the film "reconfigures the slasher as social struggle, with Marti not just its final girl, but also its working-class heroine. And while she may continue to embrace liberty and equality, Marti learns to turn her back on fraternity. Literary scholar John Kenneth Muir similarly notes that the character of Marti has been cited as one of several female heroines of slasher films that bear a unisex name, adding that, "whether or not that's significant, Blair crafts a unique and interesting character."
In his book The Gorehound’s Guide to Splatter Films of the 1980s (2003), film scholar Scott Stine wrote of the film: "Hell Night is one of those early '80s stalk 'n' slash quickies that—although almost universally despised at the time, despite the fact they made money—is actually quite endearing in retrospect.
In 2013, Ray Fulk, a Lincoln, Illinois resident, bequeathed his $1 million estate—including a farm—to the film's two stars, Peter Barton and Kevin Brophy, of whom he was a fan. In his will, Fulk described Barton and Brophy as friends, though neither of the actors had ever met him.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1981 films
1981 horror films
1980s horror thriller films
1981 independent films
1980s mystery films
1980s serial killer films
1980s slasher films
1980s teen horror films
American teen horror films
American haunted house films
American independent films
American monster movies
American slasher films
Films about brothers
Films about fraternities and sororities
Films about fratricide and sororicide
Films about pranks
Films about social class
Films produced by Irwin Yablans
Films set in abandoned houses
Films set in country houses
Films shot in California
Films directed by Tom DeSimone
Gothic horror films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films |
4083547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet%20review | Fleet review | A fleet review or naval review is an event where a gathering of ships from a particular navy is paraded and reviewed by an incumbent head of state and/or other official civilian and military dignitaries. A number of national navies continue to hold fleet reviews. Fleet reviews may also include participants and warships from multiple navies.
Commonwealth realms
Fleet reviews in the Commonwealth realms are typically observed by the reigning monarch or their representative, a practice allegedly dating back to the 15th century. Such an event is not held at regular intervals and originally only occurred when the fleet was mobilised for war or for a show of strength to discourage potential enemies, or during periods of commemorations. Since the 19th century, they have often been held for the coronation or for special royal jubilees and increasingly included delegates from other national navies.
Traditionally, a fleet review will have participating ships dressed in flags and pennants of their respective countries, and anchored in two or more lines with an open passage between them. The crew of participating anchored ships are positioned on the upper decks, while their officers and captains are at the bridge. As the reviewing vessel sails passes the anchored ships, their crew will give three cheers and wave their caps to the reviewing officials, while their officers and captain will render a salute.
Australia
Australia has a history of Fleet Reviews, the last Fleet Review took place in Australia in October 2013.
Port Phillip royal review, 1921 - Reviewed by Edward, Prince of Wales.
Royal Australian Navy 25th birthday review, 1936
50th Year Review, 1961
The 75th fleet review, 1986 - Led by , the fleet was reviewed by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
Bicentennial naval salute, 1988 - Led by
Centennial naval review 2001 - Cancelled due to terrorist attacks in the United States.
Sydney freedom of entry review, 14 March 2009 - The fleet review also consisted of a freedom of entry parade in Sydney; the fleet was reviewed by Marie Bashir, Governor of New South Wales, and the parade by Quentin Bryce, Governor-General of Australia.
International Fleet Review, 4–5 October 2013 - to commemorate the centenary of the Royal Australian Navy's fleet arrival in Sydney Harbour; led by , the fleet was reviewed by Governor-General Quentin Bryce and Prince Harry, who took the royal salute on board HMAS Leeuwin. Approximately 20 foreign nations participated, activities including a tall ships parade, naval gun salutes, aerial flypasts, fireworks and lightshow spectacular, ships open to visitors, and a combined Naval march.
Canada
In Canada, fleet reviews may take place on either the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, typically in Halifax Harbour for the former and Victoria Harbour for the latter.
July 1958 - To mark the 100th anniversary of British Columbia's entry into Canadian Confederation; the Royal Canadian Navy review was conducted by Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon.
June 1959 - Held at Montreal to mark the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway; attended by ships from the Royal Canadian Navy and United States Navy; the former was reviewed by Queen Elizabeth II.
July 1959 - Held at Halifax Harbour; reviewed by Queen Elizabeth II.
12 June 2010 - The Pacific Canadian Naval Centennial International Fleet Review was held to mark the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Canadian Navy and held at Esquimalt Harbour. Ships from the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Australian Navy, Marine nationale, Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, Royal New Zealand Navy, and United States Navy were reviewed by Governor General Michaëlle Jean.
29 June 2010 - A International Fleet Review was held to mark the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Canadian Navy and held at the Bedford Basin. Ships of the Royal Canadian Navy, Brazilian Navy, Royal Danish Navy, French Navy, German Navy, Royal Netherlands Navy, Royal Navy, and United States Navy were reviewed by Queen Elizabeth II.
New Zealand
There have been several Fleet Reviews hosted by the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN). These include the following:
International Fleet Review, 5 October 1991, to mark the 50th anniversary of the RNZN.
International Naval Review, 18 November 2016, to mark the Royal New Zealand Navy's 75th birthday. In a break with tradition the RNZN mistakenly described the Review as a "Naval Review" rather than as the customary "Fleet Review".
United Kingdom
Because of the need for a natural large, sheltered and deep anchorage, UK fleet reviews have usually been held in the Solent off Spithead, although Southend, Torbay, the Firth of Clyde and some overseas ports have also hosted reviews. In the examples below, the venue is Spithead unless otherwise noted.
A list follows of fleet reviews in England, Great Britain, and later the UK since the 14th century.
Pre-1700
June 1346 - Edward III, before sailing to war with France
1415 - Generally acknowledged as the first fleet review on record, by Henry V, at Southampton, before sailing for his first French campaign that ended in the Battle of Agincourt
May 1662, Charles II on the occasion of his wife Catherine of Braganza's arrival in Portsmouth
February 1693, William III and Mary II, after the Battles of Barfleur and La Hougue
1700–1837
March 1700, on Peter the Great's visit to England, a show of strength
23–27 June 1773, King George III set out from Kew, in a Royal coach with scarlet outriders, for what some call the first formal Royal Review. On his arrival he was saluted by a "triple discharge of cannon", and proceeded to the dockyard where admirals and captains were assembled, each with his barge, to escort the King to Spithead. They had dressed their crews in fancy colours, each to his own taste (at that time the crews were not issued uniforms), whilst they themselves were resplendent in the full dress designed for them by George II in 1748. The ships on show were those that had fought the French in the Seven Years' War and were soon to join the War of American Independence, and were led by , of 90 guns, built only 5 years before.
May 1778, George III, before France joined American War of Independence
1781
June 1794, after the Glorious First of June
25 June 1814, the last to consist solely of sailing ships. It was to celebrate the Treaty of Paris (1814), and to show the Allied Sovereigns, including the Czar of Russia and the King of Prussia, "the tremendous naval armaments which has swept from the ocean the fleets of France and Spain and secured to Britain the domain of the sea." 15 ships of the line and 31 frigates were present, all of them veterans of the Napoleonic Wars. It was reviewed not by George III, but by the Prince Regent
September 1820, George IV, first Coronation Review. One ship in attendance was , later made famous by Charles Darwin.
Queen Victoria
17 occurred during her reign, the most for any monarch.
March 1842, her first, held by herself and Prince Albert as a "Grand Naval Review."
1844, May - visit of the King of Saxony; and October, on the visit of Emperor Nicholas I, King Louis-Philippe of France and Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, both were a show of strength
19 June 1845, inspecting the experimental squadron, from the new . The Board of Admiralty attended in their steam yacht, Black Eagle. Some place this not 1814 as the last time that a Royal Review consisted only of sailing ships, and nearly the last time that the Queen could watch 's men run aloft and set the sails "with feline agility and astonishing celerity."
11 August 1853, two reviews that year, firstly on 15 July 1853, the fleet mobilisation for the Crimean War, and a full Review on 11 August including for the first time steam screw ships of the line.
10 March 1854. Wary of a Russian break out into the North Sea, due to the numbers of their ships in the Baltic Sea, the British Admiralty brought together a force to contain them. This first division of the Baltic fleet was commanded by Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Napier. Napier's task was to find naval recruits and train them as quickly as possible. From the screw yacht-tender, , and two months before her 35th birthday (which it was perhaps also intended to commemorate), Queen Victoria reviewed Napier's fleet at Spithead, shortly before it set sail, including (on 10 March 1854) a review of the first part of the fleet to set sail only eighteen days before Britain declared war on Russia. According to reports in the London Illustrated News (which printed a special edition for the occasion, with drawings of various scenes from the day of the Review), Fairy reviewed the fleet as it steamed up a path created by the ships anchored on each side, then a day later led the fleet out of Spithead as it began its journey to the Baltic.
23 April 1856, of the Baltic fleet on its return. First recorded example of the evening illumination of the fleet. Showed lessons learnt from the Crimean War, with the first of the ironclad ships present in the form of 4 1,500-ton floating batteries. Over 100 gunboats were present, "puffing about like locomotive engines with wisps of white steam trailing from their funnels."
August 1865, on visit of the French fleet
17 July 1867, held for Abdulaziz, and his Khedive of Egypt, Ismail of Egypt. For the first time every ship flew the White Ensign, after the dissolution of the old Red, White and Blue Squadrons. New designs were the five-masted with her powerful broadside, and the graceful 14-knot ironclad sister-ships and .
23 June 1873, for the visit of Nasser-al-Din Shah (1848–1896), the Shah of Persia
August 1878, of the reserve squadron
25 July 1887, Golden Jubilee. Notable for the appearance of a Nordenfelt submarine (though the first RN submarine would be 20 years later)
4 August 1889, on the visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II and his Admiral von Tirpitz, a show of strength
August 1891, on visit of the French fleet
August 1896, on visit of MPs and Li Hung Chang
26 June 1897, Diamond Jubilee, notable for being presided over by the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) since she was too frail to attend in person. The ships formed two lines seven miles long; the 170 British ships included 50 battleships. Parsons made an unscheduled and dramatic appearance with his Turbinia showing power of steam turbine.
August 1899, her last, notable for being presided over by the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) since she was too frail to attend in person, and for the visit of a squadron from the German Navy.
Edward VII
16 August 1902, Coronation Review, the first time in the modern era that a review was used to mark the coronation
9 August 1905, review of the British and French fleets by King Edward VII at Spithead
August 1907, review of the reconstituted Home Fleet
12 June 1909, review of Home Fleet and Atlantic Fleet, including
16 July 1909, Home and Atlantic fleets assemble off Southend prior to display Southend, including HMS Invincible
17–24 July 1909, Home and Atlantic Fleets on display from Westminster to the Nore.
George V
24 June 1911, Coronation Fleet Review. sailed 4 June from America and appeared at the review from 19 June to 28 June.
The cruiser Hai Chi of the Imperial Chinese Navy appeared to participate in the fleet review.
9 May 1912, for Houses of Parliament, at Weymouth, featured the first take-off of a plane from a ship which was underway - on 4 May Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway. He did this in a Short S.27 biplane whilst steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h).
18–20 July 1914, fleet mobilisation for World War I. No fewer than 59 warships and 17 seaplanes
21–22 July 1919, at Southend, to mark the end of World War I
Saturday 26 July 1924, including
16 July 1935, Silver Jubilee. 160 warships including . Dudley Davenport, at the time a young cadet serving on board (he later went on to a successful naval career, eventually reaching the rank of rear admiral), noted his impressions of this event in his diary:
"Turned out at 0545 and scrubbed focsle…after breakfast we gave all the brightwork a final polish and generally cleaned up… after lunch we fell in on deck ... All the ships with saluting guns fired a royal salute of 21 guns the noise was not as bad as we were led to expect. But the smoke screened most of the ships for some minutes… After tea ‘Clean Lower Deck’ was sounded and we had to fall in for manning ship my position on Y Turret grid on the Quarter Deck was an excellent one as we could see the yacht approaching… as the V&A approached the band played ‘God Save the King’ and the guard presented arms in the Royal Salute. When the King was halfway past we gave 3 cheers. You could just see the King on the Bridge, Saluting …About ½ hour later we fell in again as he passed the other side.
After supper we watched the illuminations… after half hour all the lights were turned off and red flares were lit on deck, each held by a sailor at the guardrail. These did not look very good except for the first few seconds… the ships remained illuminated for the rest of the time until midnight... We turned in about 2345 very tired."
George VI
Thursday 20 May 1937 - Coronation Fleet Review. The largest assembly of warships since the coronation review of 1911, it has been described by military historian Hedley Paul Willmott as "the last parade of the Royal Navy as the world's greatest and most prodigious navy". Ten British battleships and battlecruisers were present, and for the first time at a coronation review, four aircraft carriers. Altogether, there were 101 surface warships, 22 submarines and 11 auxiliaries drawn from the Home, Mediterranean and Reserve Fleets.
The Review Procession included the royal yacht, HMY Victoria and Albert, two minesweepers and a survey ship. The Commonwealth and Empire were represented by two warships from Canada and one each from New Zealand and India. A large complement of British merchant ships ranging from ocean liners to paddle steamers were also present.
By tradition, foreign navies were invited to send a single warship each to the review and seventeen were present. Notable among them were USS New York, which had brought Admiral Hugh Rodman, the President's personal representative for the coronation, across the Atlantic; the new French battleship Dunkerque; and the elderly Soviet Marat. Also present were the formidable looking German "pocket battleship", Admiral Graf Spee, the Greek cruiser, Georgios Averof and the Japanese heavy cruiser, Ashigara.
Described by one naval officer in a letter to a friend -
"The day was quite as bad as I feared but my sisters are insistent that they enjoyed it all"
It was also the occasion of the infamous "Woodrooffe Incident" in the BBC Radio coverage (known by the phrase 'The Fleet's Lit Up!')
HMY Victoria and Albert III took part in this review, her second and last before being scrapped in 1939.
9 August 1939, including
May 1944, in secret, of the D-Day invasion fleet - the largest review to date (800 vessels, ranging from capital vessels to small minesweeper and landing craft).
Elizabeth II
15 June 1953, Coronation Fleet Review, Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. The first post-war review, with all the ongoing technical innovations the war had produced on display (). Present were 197 Royal Navy warships, together with 13 from the Commonwealth and 16 from foreign navies, as well as representative vessels from the British Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets.
27–28 May 1957, review of the fleet off Invergordon, Scotland.
7–11 August 1965, partial review at the Tail of the Bank on Firth of Clyde. First RN nuclear submarine appeared.
16 May 1969 Elizabeth II - NATO review (NATO's 20th anniversary), Spithead - 64 ships from the 11 NATO countries participated: British contingent included and ; United States - .
July 1969 - Fleet Review: Ships of the Western Fleet (14 ships) and Queen's Colour presentation aboard in Torbay
28 June 1977, Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II. and both appeared.
1993 - Commemoration of Battle of the Atlantic anniversary, as flagship of the event (off North Wales).
1994 - D-Day 50th anniversary, including .
1999 - Battle of the Atlantic commemoration.
28 June 2005, International Fleet Review for Trafalgar 200, also held in lieu of the 2002 Golden Jubilee Review, the latter of which was cancelled on cost grounds.
India
There have been 12 President's fleet reviews, of which 2 were International fleet reviews - IFR 2001 and IFR 2016.
Japan
Since 1956, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force has hosted a fleet review approximately every three years in Sagami Bay. The Imperial Japanese Navy had historically held fleet reviews from 1869 to 1940.
The Japan Coast Guard last held a fleet review in 2018 in honor of the JCG's 70th anniversary.
South Korea
In October 1998, the Republic of Korea Navy hosted its first international fleet review in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Korea off the coast of Busan. They have since reconvened every 10 years on the 60th and 70th anniversaries in 2008 and 2018.
21 ships from 11 countries (Australia, Bangladesh, France, India, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, United Kingdom, United States) participated in the first fleet review together with 34 ships and 15 aircraft from South Korea.
United States
The United States Navy has hosted several naval reviews, with ships paraded by the navy reviewed by the president of the United States or the United States Secretary of the Navy.
See also
Customs and traditions of the Royal Navy
Naval tradition
References
External links
Past Reviews
Royal Australian Navy-IFR
Maritime culture
Military traditions
Traditions
Royal Navy traditions |
4083551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna%20kingdom | Jaffna kingdom | The Jaffna kingdom (, ; 1215–1619 CE), also known as Kingdom of Aryachakravarti, was a historical kingdom of what today is northern Sri Lanka. It came into existence around the town of Jaffna on the Jaffna peninsula and was traditionally thought to have been established after the invasion of Kalinga Magha from Kalinga in India. Established as a powerful force in the north, northeast and west of the island, it eventually became a tribute-paying feudatory of the Pandyan Empire in modern South India in 1258, gaining independence when the last Pandyan ruler of Madurai was defeated and expelled in 1323 by Malik Kafur, the army general of the Delhi Sultanate. For a brief period in the early to mid-14th century it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka, to which all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was overpowered by the rival Kotte kingdom around 1450 when it was invaded by Prince Sapumal under the orders of Parakramabahu VI.
It gained independence from Kingdom of Kotte control in 1467, and its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from pearls, elephant exports and land revenue. It was less feudal than most of the other regional kingdoms on the island of Sri Lanka of the period. During this period, important local Tamil literature was produced and Hindu temples were built, including an academy for language advancement. The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Jaffna Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattanama (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattanama.
The arrival of the Portuguese on the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in the Palk Strait connecting all interior Sinhalese kingdoms to South India, created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese. In 1617, Cankili II, a usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom's independent existence to an end in 1619. Although rebels like Migapulle Arachchi—with the help of the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom—tried to recover the kingdom, they were eventually defeated. Nallur, a suburb of modern Jaffna town, was its capital.
History
Founding
The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians. Among mainstream historians, such as K. M. de Silva, S. Pathmanathan and Karthigesu Indrapala, the widely accepted view is that the kingdom of the Aryacakravarti dynasty in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called Magha, who claimed to be from Kalinga in modern India. He deposed the ruling Parakrama Pandyan II, a foreigner from the Pandyan Dynasty who was ruling the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern Kerala and Damila (Tamil Nadu) regions in India.
After the conquest of Rajarata, he moved the capital to the Jaffna peninsula which was more secured by heavy Vanni forest and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the Chola empire of Tanjavur, in modern Tamil Nadu, India. During this period (1247), a Malay chieftain from Tambralinga in modern Thailand named Chandrabhanu invaded the politically fragmented island. Although King Parakramabahu II (1236–1270) from Dambadeniya was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha. Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I invaded Sri Lanka in the 13th century and defeated Chandrabhanu the usurper of the Jaffna kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I forced Chandrabhanu to submit to the Pandyan rule and to pay tributes to the Pandyan Dynasty. But later on when Chandrabhanu became powerful enough he again invaded the Singhalese kingdom but he was defeated by the brother of Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I called Veera Pandyan I and Chandrabhanu lost his life. Sri Lanka was invaded for the 3rd time by the Pandyan Dynasty under the leadership of Arya Cakravarti who established the Jaffna kingdom.
Aryacakravarti dynasty
When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed Aryacakravarti, a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king. When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to Muslim invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka. All subsequent kings of the Jaffna kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name.
Politically, the dynasty was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it. However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the Vijayanagar empire that ruled from Vijayanagara, southern India, and a rebounding Kingdom of Kotte from the south of Sri Lanka. This led to the kingdom becoming a vassal of the Vijayanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467. The kingdom was re-established with the disintegration of Kotte kingdom and the fragmentation of Vijayanagar Empire. It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the Kandyan and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.
Kotte conquest and restoration
The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna kingdom was led by king Parakramabahu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna kingdom in the Vanni area, namely the Vanniar chieftains of the Vannimai were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful. Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modern South India, occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden with cinnamon. The Tenkasi inscription of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya of Tinnevelly who saw the backs of kings at Singai, Anurai, and elsewhere, may refer to these wars; it is dated between 1449–50 and 1453–54. Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. After the departure of Sapumal Kumaraya to Kotte, Kanakasooriya Cinkaiarian re-took the kingdom in 1467.
Decline & dissolution
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in spices that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese. The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in Roman Catholic missionary activities, (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from Sittawaka. The Jaffna kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the Kandyan kingdom, located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypot for military aid arriving from South India. Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the Dutch landings. It was king Cankili I who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600–700 Parava Catholics in the island of Mannar. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.
Client state
The first expedition led by Viceroy Dom Constantino de Bragança in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrestedMannar Island from it. Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash. In 1591, during the second expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça, king Puvirasa Pandaram was killed and his son Ethirimanna Cinkam was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and a monopoly in elephant exports to the Portuguese, which the incumbent king however resisted. He helped the Kandyan kingdom under kings Vimaladharmasuriya I and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.
Cankili II the usurper
With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, his 3-year-old son was the proclaimed king with the late king's brother Arasakesari as regent. Cankili II, a usurper, and nephew of the late king killed all the princes of royal blood including Arasakesari and the powerful chief Periya Pillai Arachchi. His cruel actions made him unpopular leading to a revolt by the nominal Christian Mudaliyars Dom Pedro and Dom Luis (also known as Migapulle Arachchi, the son of Periya Pillai Arachchi) and drove Cankili to hide in Kayts in August–September 1618. Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship and to suppress the revolt, Cankili II invited military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks who sent a troop of 5000 men under the military commander Varunakulattan.
Cankili II was supported by the Kandy rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala. Cankili II expectably received military aid from the Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom. On his part, Raghunatha Nayak of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom for his protege, the Prince of Rameshwaram. However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure.
By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the Karaiyars and another expedition by Filipe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II. Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to Goa, where he was hanged. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne. In 1620 Migapulle Arachchi, with a troop of Thanjavur soldiers, revolted against the Portuguese and was defeated. A second rebellion was led by a chieftain called Varunakulattan with the support of Raghunatha Nayak.
Administration
According to Ibn Batuta, a traveling Moroccan historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one in Nallur in the north and the other in Puttalam in the west during the pearling season. The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula, was divided into various provinces with subdivisions of parrus meaning property or larger territorial units and ur or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis. At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood the adikaris who were the provincial administrators. Then came the mudaliyars who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land. It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. The title was bestowed on the Karaiyar generals who commanded the navy and also on Vellalar chiefs. Administrators of revenues called kankanis or superintendents and kanakkappillais or accountants came next in line. These were also known as pandarapillai. They had to keep records and maintain accounts. The royal heralds whose duty was to convey messages or proclamations came from the Paraiyar community.
Maniyam was the chief of the parrus. He was assisted by mudaliyars who were in turn assisted by udaiyars, persons of authority over a village or a group of villages. They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control. The village headman was called talaiyari, pattankaddi or adappanar and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit. The Adappanar were the headmen of the ports. The Pattankaddi and Adappanar were from the maritime Karaiyar and Paravar communities. In addition, each caste had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties.
Relationship with feudatories
Vannimais were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselves Vanniar. Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern Trincomalee district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes. The tribute was in cash, grains, honey, elephants, and ivory. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna. During the early and middle part of the 14th century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years. Around the early 17th century, the kingdom also administered an exclave in Southern India called Madalacotta.
Economy
The economy of the kingdom was almost exclusively based on subsistence agriculture until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expanding Indian Ocean.
Ibn Batuta, during his visit in 1344, observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts, who described that the kingdom had a "considerable forces by the sea", testifying to their strong reputed navy. The kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritime South India, with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, drawn mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen—carpenters, stonemasons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths—resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established.
Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy. Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash. The king's officials, namely Mudaliayars, were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep. Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditures. Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the Elephants from the Vanni feudatories. At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700 pardaos of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax called arretane.
Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as Garden tax from compounds where, among others, plantain, coconut and arecanut palms were grown and irrigated by water from the well. Tree tax on trees such as palmyrah, margosa and iluppai and Poll tax equivalent to a personal tax from each. Professional tax was collected from members of each caste or guild and commercial taxes consisting of, among others, stamp duty on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp), Taraku or levy on items of food, and Port and customs duties. Columbuthurai, which connected the Peninsula with the mainland at Poonakari with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes of Pachilaippalai. Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now called Kayts—a shortened form of Portuguese Caes dos elephantess (Bay of Elephants). Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for the cremation of the dead.
Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice, bananas, milk, dried fish, game meat and curd persisted. Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services called uliyam.
The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized as Sethu Bull coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the Nandi (bull) symbol, the legend Setu in Tamil with a crescent moon above.
Culture
Religion
Saivism (a denomination of Hinduism) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of the Buddhist religious practices. During the Chola period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom. Kalinga Magha, whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period.
As the state religion, Hinduism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Hinduism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to the Rameswaram temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings was Setukavalan or protector of Setu another name for Rameswaram. Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty.
Sapumal Kumaraya (also known as Chempaha Perumal in Tamil), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating the Nallur Kandaswamy temple. Singai Pararasasegaram is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from the Yamuna river of North India, which is considered holy by Hindus. He was a frequent the visitor of the Koneswaram temple, as was his son and successor King Cankili I. King Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan had the traditional history of the temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, entitled Dakshina Kailasa Puranam, known today as the Sthala Puranam of Koneshwaram Temple. Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue.
Most accepted Lord Shiva as the primary deity and the lingam, the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such as Murugan, Pillaiyar, Kali were also worshipped. At the village level, village deities were popular along with the worship of Kannaki whose veneration was common amongst the Sinhalese in the south as well. Belief in charm and evil spirits existed, just as in the rest of South Asia.
There were many Hindu temples within the kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as the Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee, Ketheeswaram temple in Mannar, Naguleswaram temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region. The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modern South India, with some slight changes in emphasis. The Tamil devotional literature of Saiva saints was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling on the middle of April was more elaborately celebrated and festivals, such as Navarattiri, Deepavali, Sivarattiri, and Thaiponkal, along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life.
Until ca. 1550, when Cankili I expelled the Buddhists of Jaffna, who were all Sinhalese, and destroyed their many places of worship, Buddhism prevailed in the Jaffna kingdom, among the Sinhalese who had remained in the territory. Some important places of Buddhist worship in the Jaffna kingdom, which are mentioned in the Nampota are: Naga-divayina (Nagadipa, modern Nainativu), Telipola, Mallagama, Minuvangomu-viharaya and Kadurugoda (modern Kantharodai), of these only the Buddhist temple at Nagadipa survive today.
Society
Caste structure
The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on a caste system and a matrilineal kudi (clan) system similar to the caste structure of South India. The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimed Brahma-Kshatriya status, meaning Brahmins who took to martial life. The Madapalli were the palace stewards and cooks, the Akampadayar's formed the palace servants, the Paraiyar were the royal heralds and the Siviyar were the royal palanquin bearers. The army and navy generals were from the Karaiyar caste, who also controlled the pearl trade and whose chiefs were known as Mudaliyar, Paddankatti and Adapannar. The Mukkuvar and Thimilar were also engaged in the pearl fishery. The Udayars or village headmen and landlords of agriculture societies were mostly drawn from the Vellalar caste. The service providing communities were known as Kudimakkal and consisted of various groups such as the Ambattar, Vannar, Kadaiyar, Pallar, Nalavar, Paraiyar, Koviyar and Brahmin. The Kudimakkal had ritual importance in the temples and at funerals and weddings. The Chettys were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and the Pallar and Nalavar castes composed of the agriculturist labours who tilled the land. The weavers were the Paraiyars and Sengunthar who gave importance to the textile trade. The artisans also known as Kammalar were formed by the Kollar, Thattar, Tatchar, Kaltatchar and the Kannar.
Foreign mercenaries & traders
Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as the Telugus (known locally as Vadugas) and Malayalees from the Kerala region were also employed by the king as soldiers. Muslim traders and sea pirates of Mapilla and Moor ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the Kingdom. The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna, Vaiyaapaadal, datable to 14th–15th century, in verse 77 lists the community of Papparavar (Berbers specifically and Africans in general) along with Kuchchiliyar (Gujaratis) and Choanar (Arabs) and places them under the caste category of Pa’l’luvili who are believed to be cavalrymen of Muslim faith . The caste of Pa’l’luvili or Pa’l’livili is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession existed until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census.
Laws
During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between a matriarchal system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with a patriarchal system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the local Mudaliars. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity to Marumakattayam law of present-day Kerala and Aliyasanatana of modern Tulunadu was noted by later scholars. Further Islamic jurisprudence and Hindu laws of neighboring India also seemed to have affected the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during the Dutch colonial rule as Thesavalamai in 1707. The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution of muthusam (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of the chidenam (dowry or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one's brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers being agnates, when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates.
Literature
The kings of the dynasty provided patronage to literature and education. Temple schools and traditional gurukulam classes in verandahs (known as Thinnai Pallikoodam in Tamil language) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language and Sanskrit and religion to the upper classes. During the reign of Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan rule, a work on medical science (Segarajasekaram), on astrology (Segarajasekaramalai) and on mathematics (Kanakathikaram) were authored by Karivaiya. During the rule of Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan, a work on medical sciences, known as Pararajasekaram, was completed. During Singai Pararasasegaram's rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancient Tamil Sangams was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works in manuscripts form in a library called Saraswathy Mahal. Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin Arasakesari was credited with translating the Sanskrit classic Raghuvamsa into Tamil. Pararasasekaran's brother Segarajasekaran and Arasakesari collected manuscripts from Madurai and other regions for the Saraswathy Mahal library. Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, Vaiyapatal, written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.
Architecture
There were periodic waves of South Indian influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century. Temples built by the Tamils of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to the Madurai variant of Vijayanagar period. A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower or gopuram over the entrance of temple. None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese.
Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates. There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways. The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese. The center of the city was Muthirai Santhai (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it. There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers. The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls. In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according to Hindu traditions.
See also
Jaffna Palace ruins
Sangiliyan Statue
List of Jaffna monarchs
Sri Lankan Tamil people
Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka
Notes
References
1624 disestablishments in Asia
17th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka
States and territories established in 1215
Medieval Hindu kingdoms
Indianized kingdoms
Former countries in South Asia
Former monarchies of South Asia
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Kingdoms of Sri Lanka
1215 establishments in Asia
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Hindu states |
4084422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobermore | Tobermore | Tobermore (), ) is a small village in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland named after the townland of Tobermore. The village, which has a predominantly Protestant population, lies south-south-west of Maghera and north-west of Magherafelt. Tobermore is within the civil parish of Kilcronaghan and is part of Mid-Ulster District. It was also part of the former barony of Loughinsholin.
Tobermore has won the Best Kept Small Village award four times and the Best Kept Large Village award in 1986. In September 2011, Tobermore won the Translink Ulster in Bloom village category for the third year in a row.
Etymology
Tobermore is named after the townland of Tobermore which is an anglicisation of the Irish words tobar meaning "well" and mór meaning "big/great", thus Tobermore means "big/great well". During the seventeenth century, Tobermore was also known as Tobarmore and Tubbermore, with Tubbermore being the preferred usage of the Masonic Order even to this day.
Topography
Tobermore lies on the descending slope of Slieve Gallion. Prominent hills are: Calmore Hill (in Calmore), ; and Fortwilliam (in Tobermore), high.
A large oak tree called the Royal Oak grew near Calmore Castle in Tobermore. Until it was destroyed in a heavy storm, the Royal Oak was said to have been so large that horsemen on horseback could not touch one another with their whips across it. From this vague description, it is conjectured that the Royal Oak was about in diameter or in circumference. Another oak tree that once grew near Tobermore was so tall and straight that it was known as the Fishing Rod. Tradition is that all of the townlands were once covered with magnificent oak trees.
The Moyola River runs from west to east half a mile to the north of Tobermore village, heading through the townlands of Ballynahone Beg and Ballynahone More. In these two townlands lies Ballynahone Bog, one of the largest lowland raised bogs in Northern Ireland.
History
Origins
The earliest reference to the actual settlement of Tobermore is in the mid-18th century of a house built in 1727 that belonged to a James Moore. At some point in the 18th century, the fair that was held at the Gort of the parish church was relocated to Tobermore, which is described as consisting of only Moore's house and a few mud huts. The development and growth of the village can be traced back to this period.
Pre-modern history
Fortwilliam Hill
Fortwilliam Hill is situated between the Fortwilliam, Lisnamuck, and Maghera roads in Tobermore, overlooking the River Moyola. Upon it lies Fortwilliam rath, which was built c. 700–1000 AD, and Fortwilliam House, a listed building, built in 1795 by John Stevenson Esq of "The Stevensons the Linen People". The rath was historically known under variations of Donnagrenan, which is most likely derived from the Irish Dún na Grianán, meaning "fort of the eminent place". Its modern name like that of the adjacent house were bestowed upon them by Mr. Jackson, who named it after Fort William, Scotland, which was named in honour of King William III in 1690. A contradictory reason mentioned by John O'Donovan is that the O'Hagans of Ballynascreen claimed it was built and named for Sir William O'Hagan, however, O'Donovan discounts their claims due to other claims they make that are contrary to reality.
Fortwilliam rath is presently described as a well-preserved semi-defensive high status monument, built to withstand passing raids, being relatively large at 30 meters in diameter. It is also declared a monument of regional importance giving it statutory protective status. Fortwilliam House was described by John MacCloskey in 1821 as having a commanding position and being amongst the most pleasing of buildings and the most prominent in the district.
Kilcronaghan parish church
Presbyterian congregation
The first Presbyterian congregation that serviced Tobermore and the general Loughinsholin barony area was founded in Knockloughrim in 1696.
In 1736, an application was made to the Presbyterian Synod of Ulster to create a congregation in Tobermore. This initial request was denied as it would have depleted the congregation in neighbouring Maghera. In 1737 a renewed application was made with "such a strong case" put forward it was accepted by the Synod.
It was requested that some of the people who would fall under the new congregation be at least eight miles from Maghera.
The boundaries between the congregations of Maghera and Tobermore were to be the Moyola River, from Newforge Bridge to Corrin Bridge. In 1743 however, nineteen families from Ballynahone, which straddles the Moyola River, were transferred from Maghera into the Tobermore congregation. The fourth minister of the Tobermore congregation, the Reverend William Brown, saw the need for the formation of a new congregation in Draperstown and facilitated its development in 1835 despite meaning losing around 70 families from his Tobermore congregation.
Volunteers and yeomanry
In November 1780, a meeting was convened of the Tobermore Volunteer company, commanded by John Stevenson, at which the Reverend James Whiteside preached.
At several points during the 19th century, the British parliament commissioned reports listing the Yeomanry officers of Ireland. For Tobermore the following are listed:
1804 report - Kilcronaghan division of the Loughinsholin Battalion: Captain James Stephenson, commissioned 5 November 1803; Lieutenant Robert Bryan, commissioned 13 March 1804; and Samuel M'Gown (McGowan), also commissioned on 13 March 1804.
1825 report - Tobermore corps: Captain James Stevenson, commissioned 18 November 1808. No lieutenants are listed.
1834 report - "Tobbermore" corps: Captain James Stevenson, commissioned 18 November 1808; Lieutenant John Stevenson, commissioned 5 March 1831; and Lieutenant H. Stevenson.
Non-payment of rents
During the early nineteenth century, the inhabitants of Tobermore are recorded as having displayed a very unruly disposition towards the payment of their rents towards their landlord Mr. Miller of Moneymore. It is stated that the inhabitants resisted the "pounding of their cattle, executed by him, with pitchforks and sundry other primitive implements of warfare". When they found that resistance was useless they employed Mr. Costello, one of the orators of the Corn Exchange to litigate their cause at the Magherafelt sessions, but here they were also unsuccessful.
A chancery lawsuit going on between Ball and Co. of Dublin and Sir George Hill operated as an obstruction to the improvement of the village as it stood upon the estate disputed with non-payment of rents. The main reason for the non-payment was that the tenants didn't believe they had sufficient security in their rent receipts to prevent repetition for the same year's rent.
During the same period, it is noted that there was no illicit distillation of alcohol and no outrages for many years in the village except for a few assaults in the street on those who came to collect the rent. After the repayment of rents resumed it was remarked that "they were so long free of rent, none of them became in the end, the least degree richer", this may have been because as it was also remarked "their rent money which if saved every year would have secured some of them a comfortable competence found its way to the whiskey shops of the village and neighbourhood".
Orange and Temperance Hall
Tobermore Orange and Temperance Hall was built in 1888 by Andrew Johnston of Aghagaskin, Magherafelt. It is used for band practices and also by several organisations: Orange Order lodges 131 and 684; Royal Black Preceptory lodge 390; the Tobermore Walker Club of the Apprentice Boys of Derry; and Tobermore Masonic Lodge.
Modern history
Home Rule
The major issue in Ireland at the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth century was Irish Home Rule. In 1893 Viscount Templeton formed the first Unionist Clubs to coordinate opposition against Home Rule. Hiram Parkes Wilkinson the son of Sir Hiram Shaw Wilkinson would found the Tobermore Unionist Club.
The Rev. J. Walker Brown in 1912 released an anti-Home Rule pamphlet titled The Siege of Tobermore, where he details how best to defend Tobermore should "the enemy" march upon the village in a manner similar to that of the Siege of Derry.
Tobermore also receives a mention in the third verse of the anti-Home Rule ballad titled The Union Cruiser.
World War I
During World War I, 121 inhabitants of Tobermore, out of a population of around 350, enlisted with the Ulster Division, with the Mid Ulster Mail reporting that "This loyal little village has a war record that is perhaps unique". Of those who enlisted, 24 were killed and 33 were wounded.
The names of those who volunteered are preserved on a Roll of Honour painted by local man, Samuel Nelson, and was unveiled by Denis Henry, MP for South Londonderry. This Roll of Honour resides in Tobermore Orange & Temperance Hall.
In Tobermore's Presbyterian graveyard lies the headstone of Bobbie Wisner, who died of natural causes at home in 1915. As he had trained and drilled with his adult comrades in the 36th Ulster Division, and was held in such high esteem, he was buried with full military honours.
Victory Day
In 1946, Tobermore held a World War II Victory Fete. The Constitution newspaper states: "It was the first venture of its kind held in South Derry, and it was also among the first organised 'Victory Day' celebrations to take place in the Province. Not only that, but Tobermore's 'Victory Salute' to that great achievement which crowned the Allied arms so magnificently little over a year ago, was availed of to give practical expression to the pride which the people of South Derry generally take..." The Constitution also states: "In the preparatory arrangements nothing was left undone to ensure that it would prove a resounding success and certainly Tobermore's Victory Fete will long be regarded as one of the most memorable ventures in the district."
The Victory Fete was attended by Sir Ronald Ross, MP for the City and County of Londonderry, the band of the 1st Battalion Royal Ulster Rifles and the local units of the Maghera and Tobermore Army Cadet Force.
The Troubles
Before the modern Troubles, during the period of the Belfast Troubles (1920–1922), there was an attempt on Wednesday, 2 April 1921, to blow up the bridge over the Moyola River outside Tobermore.
During the modern Troubles, Tobermore came under an area known by some as the Murder triangle. All of the people killed in the Tobermore area were Protestant:
Samuel Porter (30), killed 22 November 1972 by the IRA, Nelson was a member of the Ulster Defence Regiment, and was shot dead outside his home in Ballynahone while off-duty.
Noel Davis (22), killed 24 May 1975 by the INLA. Davis was a member of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. He was murdered by a booby trapped bomb in an abandoned car in Ballynahone, outside Tobermore.
Alexander Watters (62), killed 16 March 1977 - A civilian, Watters was shot dead whilst cycling along the road between Tobermore and Draperstown. It is not known what group killed him or for what reason.
On 7 September 1968, divisions of the Ulster Protestant Volunteers, paraded through Tobermore. It consisted of eight bands and around 450 people, most of whom wore Ulster Constitution Defence Committee sashes. Ian Paisley and Free Presbyterian ministers featured prominently in the parade.
In October 1972, an Ulster Vanguard political rally was held in Tobermore, where Ulster Unionist Party deputy leader, John Taylor, made a speech on the use of violence stating: "We should make it clear that force means death and fighting, and whoever gets in our way, whether republicans or those sent by the British government, there would be killings".
There were four bomb hoaxes in Tobermore during 2010 the most recent on 29 July 2010 and 19 August 2010, both found in the centre of the village causing a lot of traffic disruption and resulting in people being evacuated from their homes.
21st century
On 29 July 2006, Ronald Mackie, who was visiting from Scotland to attend a loyalist band parade in nearby Maghera, was kicked and beaten before being run over and killed after a row flared during a disco held at Tobermore United Football Club. Four men were charged and two; John Richard Stewart, from Maghera, and Paul Johnston, from Castledawson, were later convicted of manslaughter.
On 16 August 2008, over twelve hours of torrential rain caused the Moyola River to burst its banks and saw the flooding of the main Tobermore-Maghera road, the neighbouring football club buildings and pitch of Tobermore United F.C. and Tobermore Golf Driving Range.
Local culture
Every seven years the 12 July Orange Order parade for the region is held in Tobermore, the most recent being 2022. In 2005, The Twelfth in Tobermore saw the participation of the Birmingham Sons of William LOL 1003 from Birmingham, Alabama. As with many other settlements in Northern Ireland, Tobermore has what is known as the Eleventh night, the night before the 12 July Orange Order celebrations. The traditional activities of the Eleventh Night include the playing of Lambeg drums, the parading of the town by the local blood and thunder band and the lighting of a bonfire.
Local bands
Tobermore also contains two flute bands; Tobermore Loyal F.B. and Blackhill F.B., both of which partake in the Unionist Marching Season. Previous bands include Tobermore Flute Band which was founded shortly after 1855 and was in existence until 1914 when it disbanded due to World War I. It reformed after the war in 1918 and played until 1934. In 1934 the Duke of York Accordion Band was formed. In 1981 an 85-year-old ticket for "A Grand Ball" in connection with Tobermore Flute Band was sent to the Mid-Ulster Mail for publication. This ball was held on Friday evening, 23 October 1896.
Millrow Flute Band was a former Tobermore blood and thunder band, founded in the early 1970s, disbanding in 2000. It was during the 70s that the blood and thunder style became popular with loyalist bands. Millrow used the style to quickly become one of the biggest and most famous loyalist bands of the 1970s/80s. In 1977, Millrow F.B. released an LP and also featured on a CD titled Ulster's Greatest Bands Meet, featuring three other flute bands, where Millrow contributed more tunes to the CD than any of the other three bands did on their own.
Parades
According to the Parades Commission there were nine parades or processions in Tobermore in 2011, twelve in 2012, which included the regional Twelfth celebrations, and eight in 2013. They range from the local flute band Tobermore Loyal, the Tobermore branch of the Walker Club of the Apprentice Boys of Derry, the Royal British Legion, the Royal Black Institution, the Boy's Brigade, and the local Orange Order lodge.
Masonic order
Tobermore has its own Masonic Order lodge with the lodge name of Eureka and lodge number 309. At the time of its founding, Tobermore was commonly referred to as Tubbermore and lodge 309 is still referred to by the Masonic Order as being situated in Tubbermore.
In 1747, a warrant was issued for the creation of a Dublin Masonic Lodge, lodge number 169. On 5 September 1765, this warrant was cancelled, however by 7 March 1811, the 169 lodge had resurfaced in Magherafelt. On 1 December 1825, the 169 lodge was removed from Magherafelt to Tobermore where, by 1838, it had moved onto Moneymore. The 169 lodge since 1895 has been situated in Belfast.
Politics
Tobermore lies within the Tobermore electoral ward of Magherafelt District Council's Sperrin electoral region. Tobermore ward being the only ward in Sperrin with a Protestant majority is regarded as the main base of support for the sole Unionist councillor elected for Sperrin since its inception (except in 1977 when two Unionist councillors were elected). Between 1985 and 2005, the sole Unionist councillor elected for Sperrin was a Tobermore resident; 1985–1989 W. Richardson (Ulster Unionist Party); 1989–2005 R. Montgomery (UUP, Independent).
Tobermore has belonged to the following constituencies:
UK Parliament constituencies
Londonderry - 1801–85 (abolished and divided into North and South Londonderry)
South Londonderry - 1885–1922 (abolished and merged with North Londonderry)
Londonderry - 1922–85
(abolished and divided into Foyle and East Londonderry)
East Londonderry - 1985–95 (boundary change)
Mid Ulster - 1995–present
Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies
Londonderry - 1921–29 (abolished)
South Londonderry - 1929–73 (abolished)
Northern Ireland Assembly constituencies
Mid-Ulster - 1998–present
Northern Ireland local government
Magherafelt Poor Law Union - 1838–98
Magherafelt Rural Sanitary District - 1878–98
Magherafelt Rural District (Ireland) - 1898–1921
Magherafelt Rural District (Northern Ireland) - 1921–73
Magherafelt District Council - 1973–2015
Mid-Ulster District Council - 2015
Demography
As of the 2011 census, Tobermore had a population of 827 people. 5.1% were from a Catholic background and 90.5% were from a Protestant background.
Notable people
Dr. Adam Clarke (1762–1832) – British Methodist theologian and Biblical scholar born in the townland of Moybeg north of Tobermore village.
Alexander Carson (1776–1844) – Irish Baptist pastor and author of Baptism, Its Mode and Subjects. In dedication to Alexander Carson, his church in Tobermore, founded in 1814, was named the Carson Memorial, and a housing estate opposite it named Carson Court.
Harry Gregg MBE (1932-2020) – Former Manchester United and Northern Ireland goalkeeper. Gregg was born in Tobermore though grew up in Coleraine.
Hiram Parkes Wilkinson, BCL, KC (1866–1935) – Son of Sir Hiram Shaw Wilkinson (see below), who served as Crown Advocate in Shanghai from 1897 to 1925 and as a Judge of the High Court of Weihaiwei from 1916 to 1925. Upon his retirement in 1925, Wilkinson moved to Moneyshanere. He founded the Tobermore Unionist Club, which later became a branch of the Ulster Volunteers. He returned to China in 1932 and died in Shanghai in 1935.
Sir Hiram Shaw Wilkinson, JP, DL (1840–1926) – British judge and diplomat, who served as Crown Advocate in Shanghai from 1881 to 1897. He was appointed Judge of the British Court for Japan in 1897 and, in 1900, became Chief Justice of the British Supreme Court for China and Corea. After retirement, he moved to the townland of Moneyshanere, outside Tobermore, where he died in 1926.
Education
Before the establishment of national primary schools, education lay mainly in the hands of the church. In Tobermore the Church of Ireland parish of Kilcronaghan has records of its school masters going as far back as Mr. Alex Trotter in 1686. The Parish School was originally built in the townland of Granny on the leading road between Tobermore and Draperstown. Despite being a Church of Ireland Parish School, it was open to children of all denominations. In 1836, there were 70 children recorded on the roll with 28 being described as Church of Ireland, 20 Presbyterian, 2 Roman Catholic, and 20 "other denominations". Secular education such as arithmetic was taught as well as English. The local Presbyterian Church would also found its own school held in the Session House at the rear of the Presbyterian meeting house. Private session classes for adults would also be held twice a week in the Presbyterian Session House.
Tobermore's first public school was established in 1817 in a room that was formerly a public house. It received an income from the London Hibernian Society as well as books published by them such as Thompson and Gough's Arithmetic and Murray's English Grammar. This school is now the present-day Tobermore Primary School. In 1826, Killytoney National School was established. It was built on the old leading road between Tobermore and Desertmartin and has been connected to the National Board since 1833. During this time, there were also another seven schools in Kilcronaghan Parish; four female schools, one of which in the townland of Brackagh Rowley (sic) was an Irish speaking school; an Irish male school; and two national schools. By 1967, Kilcronaghan Parish School had closed and was amalgamated with Black Hill School and Sixtowns School to become the present-day Kilross Primary School.
There are two schools in the Tobermore area, both within the North Eastern Education and Library Board area. These include Tobermore Primary School and Kilross Primary School.
For secondary education, students from the Tobermore electoral ward mainly attend schools in Magherafelt and to a lesser degree Draperstown. Tobermore ward also has the highest education performance of any ward within Magherafelt District Council, with 88.8% of students achieving 5 or more GCSEs at grades of C+ or higher in 2008. This is compared to averages of: 71.8% for Magherafelt District Council; 70.1% for Mid-Ulster parliamentary constituency; and 66.9% for Northern Ireland.
Sport
Tobermore United F.C. is the local association football club. As of 2022, the club were playing in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League. Tobermore United are known as the only club George Best played competitively for in Northern Ireland. The match, in which he played, took place in February 1984.
The village has a dart team, the Diamond Bar Dart Team. In the 2004/05 season they won the South Derry Darts 2nd Division League and South Derry 2nd Division League Cup.
The Tobermore Golf Driving Range, which opened in 1995, is a two-tier structure containing 34 bays.
See also
List of villages in Northern Ireland
List of towns in Northern Ireland
References
Villages in County Londonderry
Civil parish of Kilcronaghan
Mid-Ulster District |
4084470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hips%20Don%27t%20Lie | Hips Don't Lie | "Hips Don't Lie" is a song by Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira featuring Haitian rapper Wyclef Jean, released by Epic Records in 2006 as the second single from Shakira's seventh studio album, Oral Fixation, Vol. 2 (2005). Shakira and Jean wrote the lyrics and jointly composed the music with additional co-writing by Shakira's percussionist Archie Pena. The song was produced by Shakira and Jean with additional co-production by Jerry Duplessis. "Hips Don't Lie" is a reworking of Jean's earlier single "Dance Like This", therefore it features additional composing credits by Omar Alfanno, Duplessis, Luis Días, and LaTavia Parker. The song incorporates samples from "Amores Como el Nuestro" written by Alfanno, and "Carnaval (Baile En La Calle)" written by Días.
Upon its release, "Hips Don't Lie" received generally favorable reviews from music critics. It received several accolades, including a People's Choice Award, an MTV Latin America Video Music Award, and an MTV Video Music Award. "Hips Don't Lie" became a global success, reaching number one in seventeen countries, including the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, becoming Shakira's first and only number one hit to date in the United States. It also broke the record for the most radio plays in a single week and the fastest-selling digital download song in the United States. The song was eventually certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), where it has sold over 4 million digital copies and 2 million ringtones. It also topped the charts in Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, among other countries. The song had amassed an estimated 13 million downloads by 2017, making it one of the best-selling singles of all time.
In 2018, the song was selected as one of the greatest songs by 21st-century women, by National Public Radio, ranked at 65.
Background and release
After attaining international success with her fifth studio effort, Laundry Service, in 2001, Shakira opted to create a two-part follow-up record. Having co-written nearly sixty tracks for Laundry Service, she put herself "on the mission of selecting [her] favorite ones" to record for Oral Fixation, Vol. 2 and its predecessor, the Spanish-language Fijación Oral, Vol. 1. While recording the project, Shakira worked with previous collaborators, and newer partners including Jerry Duplessis and Wyclef Jean.
After the moderate success of "Don't Bother" and of the album, her label Epic Records asked Wyclef Jean, in early 2006, to remake his song "Dance Like This" with Shakira, attempting to revive sales of the album. After that, "Hips Don't Lie" was released as the second single from the album (the first from the reissue) on 28 March 2006. The song debuted on the Los Angeles-based radio station KIIS-FM (on the Ryan Seacrest Morning Show) on 14 February 2006. A Spanish version of the same name was also released. Shakira also sang another version (produced by RedOne) titled "Hips Don't Lie - Bamboo" at the closing ceremony of the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Berlin, Germany. Two versions of the "Hips Don't Lie - Bamboo" remix were officially released, one in English and one in Spanish.
Recording
"Hips Don't Lie" was initially written and recorded by Wyclef Jean, Lauryn Hill and Pras for the Fugees reunion. The song was titled "Lips Don't Lie" at that point, but was never completed due to Hill's dissatisfaction with it. Charlie Walk, who at the time was the President of Epic Records, called Pras to state he wanted to do a remix of the song with Shakira. Following the call, Hill left the group and the Fugee's reunion was over. The song was then given to Shakira and along with Jean and long-time partner Jerry 'Wonder' Duplessis, they produced "Hips Don't Lie". According to another version of events, Jean was asked by Shakira's label to record a remix of "La Tortura" but refused stating he already had a record that Shakira would be perfect for. The record was Jean's own song "Dance Like This", which he recorded with Claudette Ortiz for the Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights soundtrack.
Shakira co-wrote the song with Wyclef Jean, Jerry Duplessis, Omar Alfanno and LaTavia Parker, whilst production was handled by Shakira, Jean and Duplessis. Jean also served as the song's guitarist and programmer alongside Ramón Stagnaro (who also provided guitar), Hermides Benitez, Richard Bravo, Archie Pena and Roberto Cuao who all contributed the song's percussion, whilst Gustavo Celis and Jerry Duplessis added further programming. The song's recording took place at various studios including Hit Factory Criteria, Miami, FL; La Marimonda Studios, Nassau, Bahamas; Olympic Studios, London, England; Platinum Sound Recording Studio, New York, NY; Sonido Azulado, Bogota, Colombia and The Warehouse, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Composition
"Hips Don't Lie" reimagines Wyclef Jean's 2004 song "Dance Like This" as a Latin pop song with a reggaeton beat. This song, like "Dance Like This" before it, uses a sampled salsa trumpet line from Jerry Rivera's 1992 Omar Alfanno-written song "Amores Como el Nuestro", a song previously sampled on "Deja Vu (Uptown Baby)" by Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz. The use of the opening trumpets caused a small controversy, when Rivera openly accused Shakira of plagiarizing the opening trumpets without his knowing, unaware that rights had already been obtained from his former label Sony Discos.
According to EMI Music Publishing's digital sheet music for the song, "Hips Don't Lie" is set in common time signature, is in the key of B♭ minor, and has a moderate Latin groove of 100 beats per minute. Shakira's vocals span from the low note of A♭3 to the note of B♭4.
During an interview, Shakira explained that the song's lyrics were inspired by her ability to determine the release-readiness of a song by whether or not it motivates her to dance. She states that she used to tell her musicians, "My hips don't lie! Are they moving? They're not moving! So this is not ready."
Commercial performance
Since it has been digitally available in June 2006, the song has sold 4,100,000 downloads, and 685 million streams and two million ringtones in the US alone. The song had at least twice the weekly Hot 100 points of the runner-up title, "Ridin'" by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone.
The song debuted at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in the United States, based on airplay alone. For its 11th week in the chart, "Hips Don't Lie" reached number 9 based on heavy airplay rotation on American radio and received the "airplay gainer" title. On the chart issue dated 17 June 2006, "Hips Don't Lie" reached number one on the chart, becoming Shakira's first and to date, only number-one hit in the U.S. and aided by 267,000 digital copies sold in its first week of availability in the digital stores. That sum also marks the biggest opening-week digital sales for a single in 2006, as well as the highest-selling song in its first week for a female artist in 2006. "Hips Don't Lie" spent two consecutive weeks in the chart, and was the 5th most successful song of 2006, the second highest ranked song for a female artist behind Nelly Furtado's "Promiscuous". To date, it is Shakira's most successful single in the United States.
In the UK, it spent a total of five weeks at number one. After its initial one-week reign at number one, it returned to the top in its 8th week preventing Christina Aguilera's "Ain't No Other Man", Rihanna's "Unfaithful", as well as Cascada's "Everytime We Touch" and Chamillionaire's "Ridin' from going to No. 1 until it was replaced by Beyoncé's "Déjà Vu". "Hips Don't Lie" broke the record for the most weeks for a song in a second run, staying four weeks during its second reign at number one, a record it now shares with "Somebody That I Used to Know" by Belgian-Australian singer Gotye. The song remained in the top 10 for 16 weeks and then stayed within the top 75 for an additional 38 weeks. "Hips Don't Lie" finished the 2000s decade as the 11th best selling single by a female artist in the 21st century in the UK, and also the 10th best-selling collaboration. It is also the 46th best-selling single of the 2000s decade in the UK.
In Australia, the song debuted at No. 1 and remained at the top of the chart for 9 weeks. The song has been certified as six times platinum in the country, becoming one of the best selling 2000s singles. In Ireland, the single remained at the number one spot for a total of nine weeks throughout the summer. "Hips Don't Lie" was the most successful song of 2006 worldwide and it reached No. 1 in the majority of charting countries and territories around the world. It also reached number one on the US Billboard Pop 100 and Hot Latin Tracks charts, in Colombia, the Czech Republic, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latin America, Lebanon, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Switzerland. The song peaked inside the top ten in Austria, Canada (on the Canadian Airplay Chart), Finland, Norway, Denmark and Russia. Furthermore, it reached the 94 position on the Japan International Singles chart. In Sweden, it peaked at number forty-five. "Hips Don't Lie" was the number-two-year-end song in the Netherlands; it also finished number three in Germany and the UK, and in the US it was number five. In Germany, it is the fourth best-selling pop duet ever. It was the best selling song of 2006 in Europe.
Music video
The music video was directed by British director Sophie Muller and filmed in Los Angeles. The video begins with Shakira against a black background dancing while Wyclef and a couple of other men are watching her. When Wyclef raps his first rap verse, it shows him following Shakira with pink curtains everywhere. It also shows them on the street along with different people. When the second verse begins, she is seen sitting in a chair while singing. It then cuts to an arena-like environment, where Shakira is dancing with other people. It ends with Shakira against the black background. The majority of the costumes and outfits featured in the video belong to the Carnaval de Barranquilla, some of which include the white dress Shakira dances in, and the colorful flags.
"Hips Don't Lie" proved successful on LAUNCHcast's top-hundred most-watched videos of the week, where it spent four months at number one. Yahoo! had fans submit videos of themselves dancing to the song, which were edited into a "fans only" version, which has also proved to be one of the most popular videos on LAUNCH. The video for "Hips Don't Lie" ran in the number-one spot on iTunes (along with the single) for several weeks. As of 27 July 2022, it has received over 1.1 billion views on YouTube. The video won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Choreography on 31 August 2006, and the MTV Latin Award for Song of the Year on 19 October 2006. The video also placed at number two on VH1's "Top 40 Videos of 2006".
Live performances
On 9 June 2006, Shakira and Wyclef Jean performed "Hips Don't Lie" at the opening ceremony of the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Munich, and also a month later at the short ceremony preceding the final game in Berlin, to worldwide TV audiences of over 500 million and 700 million people, respectively. On 31 August 2006, it was performed by the duo on the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. Shakira was given dancing lessons for the performance of the song by Indian choreographer Farah Khan. They also performed the song on the 49th Grammy Awards in 2007.
On 2 February 2020, Shakira performed the song, along with a medley of her other hits, during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show which she headlined with Jennifer Lopez.
On 12 September 2023, Shakira performed a medley of her hits which includes "Hips Don't Lie" at 2023 MTV Video Music Awards, which she is the recipient of Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award.
Critical reception and legacy
When it was released in 2006, according to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, "Hips Don't Lie" was the most-played pop song in a single week in American radio history. It was played 9,637 times in one week. Shakira became the first artist in the history of the Billboard charts to earn the coveted number one spots on both the Top 40 Mainstream and Latin Chart in the same week doing so with "Hips Don't Lie". Additionally, she is the only artist from South America to reach the number-one spot on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, the Australian ARIA chart, and the UK Singles Chart.
According to Billboard, "Hips Don't Lie" is one of the 23 most dominant Billboard Hot 100 number ones of the last 30 years, since it occupied the top spot with 2x the points of the weekly No. 2 song on 17 June 2006 chart.
In 2006, fan-made videos directed into one became the second most streamed song on Yahoo only after Shakira's own video of it. Los Angeles Times credits the song for starting a shock wave, and called the action the "Hips Don't Lie Impact" starting a new era of fan-artist interactions. Furthermore, the song became the most streamed video of the year reported by Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems tripling the views of the video in second place, which was Beyoncé's "Check on It".
The song also appeared in the 2016 video game Just Dance 2017.
In 2017, the song ranked 93rd on Billboards Greatest Pop Songs of All Time list.
In 2018, "Hips Don't Lie" was selected as one of the greatest songs by 21st-century women, by National Public Radio, ranking at 65.
In 2021, Time Out New York picked "Hips Don't Lie" as the 11th best pop song of all time.
Track listings
CD single:
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) [Jean, Duplessis, Shakira, Parker, Alfanno] – 3:41
"Dreams for Plans" [Shakira, Buckley] – 4:02
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) (Wyclef's Mixshow Mix) – 4:09
Maxi CD single:
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:41
"Hips Don't Lie" (Wyclef Remix) (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:59
"Hips Don't Lie" (Wyclef Mix Show Mix) (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 4:09
"Hips Don't Lie" (Wyclef Remix Instrumental) (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:57
"Hips Don't Lie/Bamboo" (2006 FIFA World Cup Version) – 3:24
"Será Será (Las Caderas No Mienten)" (Spanish version) – 3:35
2-tracks maxi single:
"Hips Don't Lie"
"Dreams for Plans"
Japanese release:
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:41
"Hips Don't Lie/Bamboo" (2006 FIFA World Cup Mix) (featuring Wyclef Jean)
"Será Será (Las Caderas No Mienten)" (Spanish version) (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:41
"Hips Don't Lie" (DJ Kazzanova Remix) (featuring Wyclef Jean)
Ringle:
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:41
"Hips Don't Lie" (featuring Wyclef Jean) (Wyclef's Show Mix) – 4:09
"Será Será (Las Caderas No Mienten)" (Spanish Version) (featuring Wyclef Jean) – 3:41
Awards and nominations
"Hips Don't Lie" was a critical success and was nominated for various awards; the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) awarded the song the accolades of Ascap Latin Award – Pop/Ballad Winning Song and Ascap Pop Music Award – Most Performed Songs. At the Billboard Music Awards the song was nominated for three awards; Pop Single of the Year, Top Hot 100 Single and Top Pop 100 Airplay Track. In 2007, the song won at the Best Latin/Reggaeton Track at the International Dance Music Awards.
|-
| rowspan="18"|2006
| rowspan="3" |Billboard Music Awards
| Pop Single of the Year
|
|-
| Top Pop 100 Airplay Track
|
|-
| Top Hot 100 Single
|
|-
| BMI Awards
| BMI Urban Award – Billboard No. 1s
|
|-
| Echo Awards
| Best International Single
|
|-
| Grammy Awards
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
| Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica
| Song of the Year
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |Latin Billboard Music Awards
| Hot Latin Song of the Year-Vocal Duet or Collaboration
|
|-
| Latin Pop Airplay Song of the Year – Duo or Group
|
|-
| Hot Latin Songs of the Year
|
|-
| MTV Europe Music Awards
| Best Song
|
|-
| MTV Video Music Awards
| Best Female Video
|
|-
| rowspan="6"|MTV Video Music Awards
| Best Pop Video
|
|-
| Best Dance Video
|
|-
| Video of the Year
|
|-
| Viewer's Choice Awards
|
|-
| Best Choreography in a Video
|
|-
| Best Art Direction in a Video
|
|-
| 2007
| International Dance Music Awards
| Best Latin/Reggaeton Track
|
|-
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
All-time charts
Certifications and sales
|-
Release history
See also
List of Romanian Top 100 number ones of the 2000s
List of best-selling singles in Australia
List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom
List of best-selling singles of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
2005 songs
2006 singles
Shakira songs
Wyclef Jean songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Number-one singles in Australia
European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles
SNEP Top Singles number-one singles
Number-one singles in Germany
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Number-one singles in Italy
Dutch Top 40 number-one singles
Number-one singles in the Netherlands
Number-one singles in New Zealand
Number-one singles in Romania
Number-one singles in Scotland
Number-one singles in Switzerland
Record Report Pop Rock General number-one singles
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles
Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles
Epic Records singles
Sony Music singles
Music videos directed by Sophie Muller
Songs written by Shakira
Songs written by Wyclef Jean
Song recordings produced by Jerry Duplessis
Song recordings produced by Wyclef Jean
FIFA World Cup songs
Reggaeton songs
Songs about dancing
Spanglish songs
Songs involved in plagiarism controversies
Salsa songs
Sampling controversies |
4084677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone%20numbers%20in%20Brazil | Telephone numbers in Brazil | The Brazilian telephone numbering plan uses a two-digit area code plus eight-digit local phone numbers for landlines and nine digits for mobile lines. Public utility services use short phone numbers (usually three digits), always starting with 1.
Local dialing
As established by ANATEL, the Brazilian federal telecommunications regulatory agency, the format for a local phone number is nnnn-nnnn (eight digits) for landlines, and nnnnn-nnnn (nine digits) for mobile lines. The first digits of the local number identify the service associated with the phone number:
1: special short public utility numbers (see below)
2 to 5: landlines
6 to 8: Unused (iDEN was disestablished in 2018)
91000 to 99999: mobile phones
0 is reserved for long-distance calls and cannot be used as a local initial digit (see below). 901 to 909 have been reserved for automated system of national collect calls (see below) since 1982 and cannot be used a local initial digits. 900 was used to premium-rate telephone numbers in the 1990s, but is not in use now.
Until the 1990s, there were also certain regions in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul with three-digit area codes and five (n-nnnn) or six-digit (nn-nnnn) phone numbers. In the city of São Paulo, although the area code has two digits, there were still six-digit telephone in use; 3X-nnnn phone numbers (with X=4 to 7) changed to 60X-nnnn and then to 310X-nnnn, 9X-nnnn phone numbers (with X=2 or 3) changed to 69X-nnnn and then to 669X-nnnn (today 269X-nnnn), and 6n-nnnn phone numbers which were changed directly to the eight-digit format (nnnn-nnnn) at that time. Even shorter numbers used to exist in previous decades, especially in small towns and before direct distance dialing became universal.
In the late 1990s, the 7-digit landline numbers beginning with 9 in the area of DDD 11 also had their prefixes changed, and their numbers were replaced in most cases by prefixes beginning with 69 (now 29) or 64 (now 24) in the cities of São Paulo and Guarulhos respectively.
Landlines using prefixes beginning with 8 and 7 had their prefixes changed up to 2000 and 2001 respectively for 8-digit numbers, and new area codes 22, 28, 64, 66, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 97 and 99 are included at this time.
Until 2005, some localities still used seven-digit local numbers (nnn-nnnn), such numbers being changed to eight digits (nnnn-nnnn).
Except in the case of the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, the numbers of 7-digit landlines were given the number 3 preceding the old number, and the numbers of 7-digit mobile phones were given the number 9 preceding old number between late 90's until the inclusion of the ninth digit.
In the state of Rio de Janeiro, only the 7-digit numbers beginning with 3 and 8 received the 3 preceding the old number, while the other numbers received the number 2 preceding the old number.
In the interior and litoral of the state of São Paulo, in many cases the old prefix of 7-digit numbers have been completely changed, but this numbers standardized with an 8-digit number starting at 3 in landlines and 9 in mobiles until the inclusion of the ninth digit.
In the Greater São Paulo and neighborhood cities using DDD 11, the cities today uses numbers initializing with 2, 3, 4 or 5, with the prefixes started in 2 are used mainly in São Paulo and Guarulhos, started in 3 mainly in São Paulo and Osasco, started in 4 used mainly in the metropolitan region and started in 5 used exclusively in numbers allocated to the city of São Paulo except 57 numbers, allocated for rural landline numbers.
Numbers beginning with 8 are reserved for mobile phones and numbers beginning with 7 after change of prefixes started for this number in 2001 were initially reserved for trunking, however they were later also intended for mobile phones.
Until 2008, the initial digit 6 was used for landlines in some parts of São Paulo and neighbouring cities in area code 11, but Anatel required that 6 be released for mobile use. Fixed-line numbers starting with 6 in that area were gradually changed during 2008 to new prefixes starting with 2. In other areas of Brazil, the initial digit 6 was not in use at that time, so no change was necessary because at this time landlines used prefixes beginning with 2, 3 or 4 outside the Greater São Paulo region.
Exceptionally, at the beginning of the 2010s, cell phones with a prefix starting at 5 were enabled in Greater São Paulo, and in this transition period, which anticipated the inclusion of the ninth digit (9) preceding the old cell phone numbers, the telephony used intercept messages to indicate that calls to such numbers were being directed to mobile phone numbers.
Today, landline numbers usually use the number 3 at the beginning of the number. The use of the initial digit 2 is occasional except in Greater São Paulo and the state of Rio de Janeiro. The use of initial digit 4 is also occasional except in Greater São Paulo and digit 5 is only used in São Paulo and rural landlines using 57 prefix.
Numbers in the 300n and 400n format are commonly used by companies to provide customer service using local numbers. (see below)
Numbers starting with 1500 and 1700 are used by some Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to provide dial-up Internet access. Those ISPs have special pricing agreements with local landline operators and customers are charged less than the price of regular local calls when calling such dial-up access numbers.
Local directory assistance can be obtained by dialing 102, but the service is charged as a regular local call in most instances except from payphones. However, all local landline telephone companies offer on-line directory inquiries on their Web sites. Mobile lines are not available for inquiry, for privacy and security reasons.
Mobile telephony
Mobile phone numbers in Brazil are assigned the same geographic area codes as fixed lines, according to the subscriber's place of residence or most frequent use. Until the inclusion of the ninth digit, mobile phone numbers start with the digits 6, 7, 8 or 9. These initial digits are known to the public, so one always knows beforehand if one is calling a fixed or a mobile line.
After replacing the landline numbers that started in 7 in 2001 (with 7 or 8-digits in Greater São Paulo and 7-digits in other regions), these numbers were initially reserved exclusively for radiophone use (iDEN technology), but soaring demand for new mobile numbers eventually forced unused number ranges starting with 7 to be released for general mobile use.
Historically, at the time mobile numbers had seven or eight digits, the higher ranges of the 9 initial digit (96-99) were originally assigned to the old state monopolies before the privatization of Brazil's telephony system, and later to their privatized direct successors. In order to create a competitive market, later the Brazilian government auctioned further mobile service licenses, filling the available number ranges backwards - first with the lower ranges of 9 (91-95), then 8, and so on.
As a consequence, in the beginning 9 (today 99) was more commonly assigned to mobile operators that used older technologies such as AMPS (analog), TDMA and CDMA, while for some time 8 (today 98) was specifically reserved for all new GSM licenses. Now GSM is universally adopted by Brazilian mobile operators and, combined with number portability and the inclusion of a ninth digit to the left (see below), this distinction is no longer observed or meaningful.
Ninth digit for mobile numbers
Brazilian mobile phone numbers always have nine digits now, but seven digits were usual in the first years, then eight digits became the standard for several years. The last area code to convert fully from seven to eight digits was 61 (comprising the national capital city, Brasília, and neighbouring areas), in 2005.
However, the popularity of multiple-SIM mobile phones in Brazil makes the country have more active mobile lines than inhabitants (as of November 2016, 248 million vs. 206 million), and by 2010 the country's most populous and economically important area code, 11 of metropolitan São Paulo (an area where over 20 million people live), was getting close to exhausting its available mobile numbers. Overlays and extra area codes were considered, but deemed confusing and impractical for local conditions.
So, on 10 December 2010, ANATEL announced the inclusion of a ninth digit (in the format 9nnnn-nnnn) to mobile phone numbers used in the São Paulo metropolitan region (area code 11). This change was meant to increase the numbering capacity in metropolitan São Paulo from 44 million to 370 million, thereby eliminating the perennial shortage of available numbers in that area.
Telecom providers would have 24 months to implement the ability to dial a new digit to the left of all cell phone numbers of area code 11, but the measure ended up being implemented a few months ahead of that initial schedule, on 29 July 2012. On that date, the digit 9 was added to the left of all existing mobile numbers in the 11 area code, regardless of their former initial digits. So, for example, mobile number (11) 6010-2030 became (11) 96010-2030.
In order to standardize the mobile numbering plan in Brazil, ANATEL started gradually rolling out the change to nine digits in other area codes and states as well. The last three states to implement the ninth digit in mobile numbers (the Southern states of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, corresponding to area codes 41 through 55) did so on 6 November 2016. Initial digits 6 through 8 remain reserved for mobile lines, but as of September 2020 all mobile numbers in Brazil still start with 9 after the ninth digit was added, and it was not yet necessary to use the other reserved initial digits.
Landline numbers (starting with 2, 3, 4 or 5) and trunked radio mobile telephony (iDEN) numbers were not changed and remained with eight digits. As iDEN numbers had the same format as the former 8-digit regular mobile numbers, and some old 8-digit standard mobile numbers also used the initial digit 7 of iDEN numbers, some confusion happened for some time, with people adding an initial 9 when calling iDEN numbers, which would not allow the call to be placed. This is no longer a problem, as iDEN service was discontinued on 31 May 2018. On that date, users who still had iDEN phones had to replace them with standard phones with GSM/3G/4G network support, and the number with one in 9-digit format.
Despite this fact, mobile phones registered outside the 11-19 (São Paulo), 21, 22, 24 (Rio de Janeiro) and 27-28 (Espírito Santo) areas are usually displayed on WhatsApp (widely used by Brazilians to send text, voice and video messages due to the privileged access granted by mobile operators, in contrast to the assumption of network neutrality present in the Marco Civil da Internet) with the old 8-digit number.
Public utility
The format for public utility service phone numbers is 1nn. It includes all emergency (as well as some non-emergency) services, such as:
100: Human Rights Secretariat
112: universal emergency number for all GSM phones (redirects to 190)
128: standard emergency number in Mercosul (in Brazil, redirects to 190)
136: Ministry of Health hotline
147: Digital television transition hotline (2010–2023)
153: Municipal Guards
181: anonymous crime reporting (some areas only, others may use different, more miscellaneous numbers)
188: Centro de Valorização da Vida (Suicide prevention helpline)
190: Military Police
191: Federal Highway Police
192: ambulance
193: firefighters
194: Federal Police Department
197: Civil Police
198: state Highway Patrol
199: Civil Defense
911: emergency number in the United States (redirects to 190)
Most citizens only know the 190 (Military Police) number for emergencies, but 192 (ambulance), 193 (firefighters) and 199 (civil defense) are also commonly known. Usually a call to 190 (military police) describing an emergency with a non-criminal nature will be redirected to the proper number or provide assistance if they are qualified to (as in cases of choking children).
By law, 136 is printed on the packaging of all tobacco products sold in Brazil, so it is usually thought to be just a smoking cessation help hotline. That hotline does exist and can be accessed by this number, but 136 is actually a more comprehensive contact channel between citizens and the Ministry of Health.
In 2013, a law was approved that added two new numbers, 112 and 911, to mimic the emergency numbers from European countries and United States, respectively. A call to those numbers is redirected to the same lines as 190. The law was made because of the large number of foreign tourists expected for the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, so the redirecting numbers were initially reachable only from the 12 World Cup host cities, but later the change was extended to the entire country.
Some states and municipalities may have additional short 1nn public utility numbers for other services. For example, in many cities, such as São Paulo, one can get information, make requests and complaints about most services and issues with the municipal administration by dialing 156. Regional utilities for services such as electricity and water supply may also have short access numbers starting with 1. In contrast to emergency numbers, which are always toll-free, calls to such services may or may not be charged.
Landline telephone companies' customer service numbers have been normalized as 103, followed by a two-digit code. For example, Embratel customers contact the company's customer service dialing 103-21. For most mobile carriers, the number is 105, followed by a one-digit code (e.g., 105-2 for Claro).
For cable and satellite television operators, the number is 106, followed by a two-digit code (e.g., 106-21 for Net and 106-11 for SKY Brasil).
Long-distance dialing
The Brazilian system for long-distance dialing is relatively unusual and somewhat confusing, insofar as the choice of long-distance carrier determines the actual digit sequence to be dialed.
The standard format for writing down — but not for calling since 1999 — a long-distance phone number in Brazil is (aa) nnnn-nnnn, where aa is the area code and nnnn-nnnn is the local phone number. Due to persistence of old habits from the time when carrier codes were not used (see below), the format (0aa) nnnn-nnnn is still commonly seen, but this usage is discouraged, since it may confuse customers when actually calling, despite the mobile carriers give the option to complete the call with the old dialing (0aa) nnnn-nnnn with their own code in the configuration of the GSM/UMTS/HSPA/LTE SIM cards sold in the country. Area codes are distributed geographically. See the list of Brazilian area codes for a full list.
For billing purposes, calls from mobile telephones are considered local when destined to a number belonging to the area where the cell phone is operating, while in the case of fixed telephones, such area is divided into a series of subdivisions into local areas, where only calls destined to the same city or metropolitan area are billed as local.
For other calls from landlines and mobiles, it is necessary to use the provider selection code, known as CSP, a two-digit number where none of the digits can be zero and is generally limited to one number per provider.
In such cases, it is usually necessary to dial a 0 followed by the CSP and area code before the phone number.
The need for carrier code placement began in 1999 for landlines and around 2004 for older TDMA/CDMA networks. In GSM networks, the use of the CSP was mandatory from the beginning and in the old iDEN networks and in some VOIP networks, the CSP is not used.
iDEN is discontinued, but in exceptional cases of VOIP networks that do not work with the CSP, dialing in the old mode (0 followed by the area code before the phone number) or in the international mode (+55 followed by the area code before the phone number) is the applicable mode.
Carrier selection
To dial a long-distance number within Brazil, one needs to use a carrier selection code, in order to choose which long-distance carrier will be used. The carrier selection code is specified before the area code; so, to actually place a call, one should dial 0-xx-aa-nnnn-nnnn, where xx is the two-digit carrier selection code. Because of that, sometimes long-distance phone numbers are written down as (0xxaa) nnnn-nnnn, with two actual letters x as placeholders, which the caller will replace by a carrier code.
For example, to call the number 2345-6789 in Rio de Janeiro (area code 21) using the long-distance carrier TIM (selection code 41), one would dial 0 41 21 2345 6789.
The use of carrier selection codes can be very confusing, because of the obvious added complexity, the different rates charged by different carriers, and even which long-distance carriers can be used to place the call, since not all of them service the entire Brazilian territory, and some are only available from mobile or from VoIP lines. For example, Claro (selection code 21) is available from any telephone line in all of Brazil, but Sercomtel (code 43) only in Londrina and some neighbouring cities.
Some examples of carrier selection codes are:
12 Algar Telecom
14 Oi (formerly Brasil Telecom)
15 Vivo
21 Claro (formerly Embratel)
23 Intelig Telecom
25 GVT
31 Oi (formerly Telemar)
41 TIM
43 Sercomtel
65 CGB Voip Informática e Comunicação
Area codes in Brazil are popularly known as "DDD codes" (códigos DDD) or simply "DDD", from the initials of "direct distance dialing" (discagem direta à distância in Portuguese). This was how the service was first advertised when it first appeared in the late 1960s, and the name stuck.
As of January 2009, Embratel is the only carrier offering operator-assisted long-distance calls, by dialing 0800-703-2110. Long-distance directory inquiries can be made dialing 0800-703-2100. However, subscriber numbers can also be obtained by a search at the destination telephone company's website. See the "External links" section below for a useful site with links to Brazilian directory assistance pages.
Collect calls
In Brazil, collect calls are automated. The phone number to be called is prefixed with a special code. Then, as the person being called answers the telephone, they listen to a short standard recording informing them that it is a collect call. Next, the call is established and the caller is supposed to say their name and location within the next six seconds. If the person being called hangs up within those six initial seconds, nothing is charged. Otherwise, the remaining time of the call is charged to the recipient's phone line.
This used to cause problems with answering machines and faxes, but the switch to digital voice mailboxes operated by the telephone companies largely eliminated that problem. Also, the widespread use of caller ID combined with the easily recognizable electronic tune played before the collect-call warning makes many people hang up immediately if they hear the tune and the number has not been recognized.
Local collect calls are dialed with the 9090 prefix; so, to call nnnn-nnnn collect, one would dial 9090-nnnn-nnnn.
To collect calls for long-distance numbers, one should dial 9 before 0-xx-aa-nnnn-nnnn, but not all numbers receipt this calls.
For example, to call the mobile number 98999-6666 registered in Ribeirão Preto region (area code 16) outside of this area using the long-distance carrier Vivo (selection code 15), one would dial 9 0 15 16 98999 6666.
International collect calls, for countries for which it is available, are not automated and must be placed through Embratel's international operator, dialing 0800-703-2111. One can also call an English-speaking AT&T operator directly by dialing 0800-890-0288.
Non-geographic numbers
Non-geographic numbers usually have a three-digit prefix and a 7-digit number, preceded by the number 0 used for long distance calls. The second digit of non-geographic number prefixes is the number 0, and the number is usually disclosed for national calls in the form 0a0b-nnn-nnnn and is occasionally disclosed in the international format for whatsapp contacts in the form +55 a0b-nnn-nnnn.
Some 0800 numbers are 6-digit only, being that such lines generally have high user traffic. Because of this fact, despite having activated a new 7-digit number, it still keeps the 6-digit number initially assigned active. For example, Ministry of Education has 0800-61-6161/0800-061-6161.
The currently allocated prefixes are:
0300: premium-rate telephone numbers initially with higher rates than local calls, but with lower rates than the long distance calls of the basic plan, charged separately from the call package.
0303: Initially used for televoting, it had a fee similar to 0300. Today it is used for identifying telemarketing calls.
0304: Telephone numbers intended to identify collection centers.
0500: premium-rate telephone numbers for charity donations, with a maximum of R$ 30.00 per donation (the telephone number is assigned to a donation value) + R$ 0.50 for call costs.
0800: toll-free telephone numbers.
0801: Telecard - Call service where the charge for a call from a payphone was charged to the account of a landline subscriber traveling. Service commonly used in the 90s, but discontinued, although when dialing from payphones, the four digits of the password related to the telecard still appear hidden in the device after dialing the prefix and the two digits assigned to the operator with which the Telecard was related.
0900: premium-rate telephone numbers at rates much higher than those charged on national calls. After problems due to charges considered abusive by consumers in the 90s and early 2000s, the service is rarely used today.
"3/400n-nnnn" numbers
A special case of non-geographic numbers are eight-digit numbers in the form 3/400n-nnnn. They are dialed as local numbers, without any trunk, carrier or area codes, and calls to them are always charged as local, regardless of where the answering call center physically is. In spite of this, there are some 300x/400x prefixes that direct calls as locations only in a specific geographic area within the area of operation of the company operating the service, or may even be used as typical local numbers.
Such numbers differ from 0300 numbers in that the latter in the past were not charged as local calls and had their own rates (not always really flat and sometimes more like premium-rate numbers), which by law must be informed when advertising the number. 0300 numbers are often used, for example, by low-cost airlines' reservation systems, whereas 400n-nnnn numbers are used by large but cost-conscious companies that do not wish to bear the full cost of a nationwide toll-free system, yet still do not want their customers to be put away by having to pay long-distance rates, and the "national" number system in these cases is based on the same number being contracted in all DDD areas of the country or eventually only in the areas where the company has the focus of its activity.. 3/400n-nnnn numbers are also often used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for standard dial-up access.
As of January 2009, 3/400n-nnnn numbers are not yet available for access from all area codes or localities due to the division of the cities in the DDD areas into local subareas generally limited to the municipality or the conurbated metropolitan area, requiring the typing of 0-xx-aa to call the number from landlines in the municipalities outside the local subarea to which the number special is associated. As a result, these numbers are associated with state capitals and their metropolitan regions or the largest city in the area. The company (especially in the case of ISPs) may also specify localities where the service will or will not be available, providing an alternative long-distance or toll-free number for such cases. For example, the country's largest bank, Banco do Brasil, offers the number 4004-0001 for its clients to access its home banking services in major cities (where most clients are) paying local rates, and the toll-free number 0800-729-0001 for clients elsewhere in the country.
Example: In area 19 the prefix 4001 was located to Metropolitan Region of Campinas, therefore:
To call the number (19) 4001-2234 from a landline in Vinhedo (part of the Metropolitan Region of Campinas): 4001 2234
To call the number (19) 4001-3579 from a payphone in Piracicaba (within area 19, but outside the metropolitan region of Campinas): 0 XX 19 4001 3579
To call the number (19) 4001-3456 from a cell phone working in Rio Claro (also outside the Metropolitan Region of Campinas, but also in area 19): 4001 3456
As explained, it is not necessary to dial the prefix 0-XX-AA from cell phones in the same area with which the destination number is associated, but it may be necessary to dial such prefix from landlines and payphones.
International calls
Outbound
Outbound international calls use a 00 trunk prefix, followed by the carrier selection code (same as in domestic long-distance calls) and the international telephone number. So, to call the international telephone number +cc-aa-nnnn-nnnn (where cc is the country code and aa the area code), one would dial 00-xx-cc-aa-nnnn-nnnn, where xx is the carrier selection code. Since international telephone numbers can have up to 15 digits, the maximum number of digits to be dialed is 19.
For example, to call the number 555-0123 in Washington, D.C. (area code 202), United States (country code 1), using TIM as the chosen carrier (selection code 41), one would dial 00 41 1 202 555 0123.
Again, selecting a carrier can be tricky, since they charge different rates, not all of them operate in all of Brazil, not all forward international calls, and some do not put calls through to some remote or rarely called countries.
There is a special exception for foreign visitors who are using international roaming in Brazil. They can use the standard dialing format to call abroad from Brazil (+cc-aa-nnnn-nnnn).
As of August 2016, Embratel was the only carrier offering operator-assisted international calls, by dialing 0800-703-2111. International telephone number inquiries can be made dialing 0800-703-2100 (same number as for domestic directory inquiries). Embratel also offers radio calls to sea vessels in Brazilian waters by dialing 0800-701-2141, in addition to INMARSAT service, which works like any regular international call and can be placed through any major long-distance carrier.
Inbound
Inbound international calls use +55 aa nnnn nnnn as the international telephone number, where aa is the two-digit Brazilian area code and nnnn nnnn is the 8-digit local number (9 digits for mobile numbers). This must be preceded by an international call prefix specific to the country where the call is being placed from (e.g., 011 from the U.S. and Canada, 00 from most other countries, or the actual "+" sign from many mobile networks). If the number in Brazil was supplied with an initial 0 and/or carrier selection codes, those must be omitted.
For example, to call the number 3210-9876 in São Paulo (area code 11) from the United States, one would dial 011 55 11 3210 9876.
Number portability
In September 2008, ANATEL started the use of number portability in Brazilian territory, but the existing rules of the numbering plan were kept. Fixed-line customers can keep their numbers when moving their address and/or when switching telephone companies within the same municipality, and mobile lines customers can keep their numbers provided they stay within the same local area (i.e., the portion of the area code where calls are charged as local).
See also
List of dialling codes in Brazil
References
ITU allocations list
External links
Anatel - Brazilian National Telecommunications Agency (in Portuguese)
List of all area codes (DDD codes) in Brazil (in Portuguese)
Brazil
Brazil communications-related lists |
4085676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health%20care%20prices%20in%20the%20United%20States | Health care prices in the United States | Health care prices in the United States of America describe market and non-market factors that determine pricing, along with possible causes as to why prices are higher than in other countries.
Compared to other OECD countries, U.S. healthcare costs are one-third higher or more relative to the size of the economy (GDP). According to the CDC, during 2015, health expenditures per-person were nearly $10,000 on average, with total expenditures of $3.2 trillion or 17.8% of GDP. Proximate reasons for the differences with other countries include higher prices for the same services (i.e., a higher price per unit) and greater use of healthcare (i.e., more units consumed). Higher administrative costs, higher per-capita income, and less government intervention to drive down prices are deeper causes. While the annual inflation rate in healthcare costs has declined in recent decades, it still remains above the rate of economic growth, resulting in a steady increase in healthcare expenditures relative to GDP from 6% in 1970 to nearly 18% in 2015.
Nature of the healthcare markets
Coverage
Health insurance coverage is provided by several public and private sources in the United States. During 2016, the U.S. population overall was approximately 325 million, with 53 million persons 65 years of age and older covered by the federal Medicare program. The 272 million non-institutional persons under age 65 either obtained their coverage from employer-based (155 million) or non-employer based (90 million) sources or were uninsured (27 million). Approximately 15 million military personnel received coverage through the Veteran's Administration. During the year 2016, 91.2% of Americans had health insurance coverage. An estimated 27 million people under the age of 65 were uninsured.
Price transparency issues
Unlike most markets for consumer services in the United States, the healthcare market generally lacks transparent market-based pricing. Patients are typically not able to comparison shop for medical services based on price, as medical service providers do not typically disclose prices prior to service. Government mandated critical care and government insurance programs like Medicare also impact the market pricing of U.S. health care. According to the New York Times in 2011, "the United States is far and away the world leader in medical spending, even though numerous studies have concluded that Americans do not get better care" and prices are the highest in the world.
In the U.S. medical industry, patients generally do not have access to pricing information until after medical services have been rendered. A study conducted by the California Healthcare Foundation found that only 25% of visitors asking for pricing information were able to obtain it in a single visit to a hospital. This has led to a phenomenon known as "surprise medical bills", where patients receive large bills for service long after the service was rendered.
Since the majority (85%) of Americans have health insurance, they do not directly pay for medical services. Insurance companies, as payors, negotiate health care pricing with providers on behalf of the insured. Hospitals, doctors, and other medical providers have traditionally disclosed their fee schedules only to insurance companies and other institutional payors, and not to individual patients. Uninsured individuals are expected to pay directly for services, but since they lack access to pricing information, price-based competition may be reduced. The introduction of high-deductible insurance has increased demand for pricing information among consumers. As high-deductible health plans rise across the country, with many individuals having deductibles of $2500 or more, their ability to pay for costly procedures diminishes, and hospitals end up covering the cost of patients care. Many health systems are putting in place price transparency initiatives and payments plans for their patients so that the patients better understand what the estimated cost of their care is, and how they can afford to pay for their care over time.
Organizations such as the American Medical Association (AMA) and AARP support a "fair and accurate valuation for all physician services". Very few resources exist, however, that allow consumers to compare physician prices. The AMA sponsors the Specialty Society Relative Value Scale Update Committee, a private group of physicians which largely determine how to value physician labor in Medicare prices. Among politicians, former House Speaker Newt Gingrich has called for transparency in the prices of medical devices, noting it is one of the few aspects or U.S. health care where consumers and federal health officials are "barred from comparing the quality, medical outcomes or price".
Recently, some insurance companies have announced their intention to begin disclosing provider pricing as a way to encourage cost reduction. Other services exist to assist physicians and their patients, such as Healthcare Out Of Pocket, Accuro Healthcare Solutions, with its CarePricer software. Similarly, medical tourists take advantage of price transparency on websites such as MEDIGO and Purchasing Health, which offer hospital price comparison and appointment booking services.
According to the estimation of the US government, hundreds of thousands of Americans (Californians ) traveled to Mexico annually to get healthcare services.
Government-mandated critical care
In the United States and most other industrialized nations, emergency medical providers are required to treat any patient that has a life-threatening condition, irrespective of the patient's financial resources. In the U.S., the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act requires that hospitals treat all patients in need of emergency medical care without considering patients' ability to pay for service.
This government mandated care places a cost burden on medical providers, as critically ill patients lacking financial resources must be treated. Medical providers compensate for this cost by passing costs on to other parts of the medical system by increasing prices for other patients and through collection of government subsidies.
Healthcare is not a typical market
Harvard economist N. Gregory Mankiw explained in July 2017 that "the magic of the free market sometimes fails us when it comes to healthcare." This is due to:
Important positive externalities or situations where the actions of one person or company positively impact the health of others, such as vaccinations and medical research. The free market will result in too little of both (i.e., the benefit is under-estimated by individuals), so government intervention such as subsidies is required to optimize the market outcome.
Consumers don't know what to buy, as the technical nature of the product requires expert physician advice. The inability to monitor product quality leads to regulation (e.g., licensing of medical professionals and the safety of pharmaceutical products).
Healthcare spending is unpredictable and expensive. This results in insurance to pool risks and reduce uncertainty. However, this creates a side-effect, the decreased visibility of spending and a tendency to over-consume medical care.
Adverse selection, where insurers can choose to avoid sick patients. This can lead to a "death spiral" in which the healthiest people drop out of insurance coverage perceiving it too expensive, leading to higher prices for the remainder, repeating the cycle. The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank in Washington, D.C., advocated individual mandates in the late 1980s to overcome adverse selection by requiring all persons to obtain insurance or pay penalties, an idea ultimately included in the Affordable Care Act.
Medicare and Medicaid
Medicare was established in 1965 under President Lyndon Johnson, as a form of medical insurance for the elderly (age 65 and above) and the disabled. Medicaid was established at the same time to provide medical insurance primarily to children, pregnant women, and certain other medically needy groups.
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported in October 2017 that adjusted for timing differences, Medicare spending rose by $22 billion (4%) in fiscal year 2017, reflecting growth in both the number of beneficiaries and in the average benefit payment. Medicaid spending rose by $7 billion (2%) in part because of more persons enrolled due to the Affordable Care Act. Unadjusted for timing shifts, in 2017 Medicare spending was $595 billion and Medicaid spending was $375 billion. Medicare covered 57 million people as of September 2016. While on the other hand, Medicaid covered 68.4 million people as of July 2017, 74.3 million including the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP).
Medicare and Medicaid are managed at the Federal level by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). CMS sets fee schedules for medical services through Prospective Payment Systems (PPS) for inpatient care, outpatient care, and other services. As the largest single purchaser of medical services in the U.S., Medicare's fixed pricing schedules have a significant impact on the market. These prices are set based on CMS' analysis of labor and resource input costs for different medical services based on recommendations by the American Medical Association.
As part of Medicare's pricing system, relative value units (RVUs) are assigned to every medical procedure. One RVU translates into a dollar value that varies by region and by year; in 2005 the base (not location adjusted) RVU equaled roughly $37.90. Major insurers use Medicare's RVU calculations when negotiating payment schedules with providers, and many insurers simply adopt Medicare's payment schedule. The AMA-sponsored committee in charge of determining RVUs of medical procedures that inform Medicare's payment to physicians has been shown to grossly inflate their figures.
Employer-based market
An estimated 155 million persons under the age 65 were covered under health insurance plans provided by their employers in 2016. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated that the health insurance premium for single coverage would be $6,400 and family coverage would be $15,500 in 2016. The annual rate of increase in premiums has generally slowed after 2000, as part of the trend of lower annual healthcare cost increases.
The Federal Government subsidizes the employer-based market by an estimated $250 billion per year (about $1,612 per person covered in the employer market), by excluding health insurance premiums from employee income. This subsidy encourages people to buy more extensive coverage (which places upward pressure on average premiums), while also encouraging more young, healthy people to enroll (which places downward pressure on premium prices). CBO estimates the net effect is to increase premiums 10-15% over an un-subsidized level.
The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated that family insurance premiums averaged $18,142 in 2016, up 3% from 2015, with workers paying $5,277 towards that cost and employers covering the remainder. Single coverage premiums were essentially unchanged from 2015 to 2016 at $6,435, with workers contributing $1,129 and employers covering the remainder.
The President's Council of Economic Advisors (CEA) described how annual cost increases have fallen in the employer market since 2000. Premiums for family coverage grew 5.6% from 2000-2010, but 3.1% from 2010-2016. The total premium plus estimated out-of-pocket costs (i.e., deductibles and co-payments) increased 5.1% from 2000-2010 but 2.4% from 2010-2016.
Affordable Care Act (ACA) marketplaces
Separate from the employer market are the ACA marketplaces, which covered an estimated 12 million persons in 2017 who individually obtain insurance (e.g., not as part of a business). The law is designed to pay subsidies in the form of premium tax credits to the individuals or families purchasing the insurance, based on income levels. Higher income consumers receive lower subsidies. While pre-subsidy prices rose considerably from 2016 to 2017, so did the subsidies, to reduce the after-subsidy cost to the consumer.
For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40-year-old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all of these costs are offset by subsidies, paid as tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Foundation reported that for the second-lowest cost "Silver plan" (a plan often selected and used as the benchmark for determining financial assistance), a 40-year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208/month) after the subsidy/tax credit, despite large increases in the pre-subsidy price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the pre-subsidy price, fully offsetting the price increases.
This premium tax credit subsidy is separate from the cost sharing reductions subsidy discontinued in 2017 by President Donald Trump, an action which raised premiums in the ACA marketplaces by an estimated 20 percentage points above what otherwise would have occurred, for the 2018 plan year.
Deductibles
While health insurance premium cost increases have moderated in the employer market, some of this is because of insurance policies that have a higher deductible, co-payments and out-of-pocket maximums that shift costs from insurers to patients. In addition, many employees are choosing to combine a health savings account with higher deductible plans, making the impact of the ACA difficult to determine precisely.
For those who obtain their insurance through their employer ("group market"), a 2016 survey found that:
Deductibles grew by 63% from 2011 to 2016, while premiums increased 19% and worker earnings grew by 11%.
In 2016, 4 in 5 workers had an insurance deductible, which averaged $1,478. For firms with less than 200 employees, the deductible averaged $2,069.
The percentage of workers with a deductible of at least $1,000 grew from 10% in 2006 to 51% in 2016. The 2016 figure drops to 38% after taking employer contributions into account.
For the "non-group" market, of which two-thirds are covered by the ACA exchanges, a survey of 2015 data found that:
49% had individual deductibles of at least $1,500 ($3,000 for family), up from 36% in 2014.
Many marketplace enrollees qualify for cost-sharing subsidies that reduce their net deductible.
While about 75% of enrollees were "very satisfied" or "somewhat satisfied" with their choice of doctors and hospitals, only 50% had such satisfaction with their annual deductible.
While 52% of those covered by the ACA exchanges felt "well protected" by their insurance, in the group market 63% felt that way.
Prescription drugs
According to the OECD, U.S. prescription drug spending in 2015 was $1,162 per person on average, versus $807 for Canada, $766 for Germany, $668 for France, and is capped in the UK at £105.90($132)
Reasons for higher costs
The reasons for higher U.S. healthcare costs relative to other countries and over time are debated by experts.
Relative to other countries
U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP according to the OECD, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country. With U.S. GDP of $19 trillion, healthcare costs were about $3.2 trillion, or about $10,000 per person in a country of 320 million people. A gap of 5% GDP represents $1 trillion, about $3,000 per person relative to the next most expensive country. In other words, the U.S. would have to cut healthcare costs by roughly one-third ($1 trillion or $3,000 per person on average) to be competitive with the next most expensive country. Healthcare spending in the U.S. was distributed as follows in 2014: Hospital care 32%; physician and clinical services 20%; prescription drugs 10%; and all other, including many categories individually making up less than 5% of spending. These first three categories accounted for 62% of spending. A 2022 study revealed that the United States is one of the most expensive countries for a 15 minute private doctors visit. The average cost of a visit in the U.S. is $104, while the global average is $40, ranking the U.S. as the #8 most expensive country.
Important differences include:
Administrative costs. About 25% of U.S. healthcare costs relate to administrative costs (e.g., billing and payment, as opposed to direct provision of services, supplies and medicine) versus 10-15% in other countries. For example, Duke University Hospital had 900 hospital beds but 1,300 billing clerks. Assuming $3.2 trillion is spent on healthcare per year, a 10% savings would be $320 billion per year and a 15% savings would be nearly $500 billion per year. For scale, cutting administrative costs to peer country levels would represent roughly one-third to half the gap. A 2009 study from Price Waterhouse Coopers estimated $210 billion in savings from unnecessary billing and administrative costs, a figure that would be considerably higher in 2015 dollars.
Cost variation across hospital regions. Harvard economist David Cutler reported in 2013 that roughly 33% of healthcare spending, or about $1 trillion per year, is not associated with improved outcomes. Medicare reimbursements per enrollee vary significantly across the country. In 2012, average Medicare reimbursements per enrollee ranged from an adjusted (for health status, income, and ethnicity) $6,724 in the lowest spending region to $13,596 in the highest.
The U.S. spends more than other countries for the same things. Drugs are more expensive, doctors are paid more, and suppliers charge more for medical equipment than other countries. Journalist Todd Hixon reported on a study that U.S. spending on physicians per person is about five times higher than peer countries, $1,600 versus $310, as much as 37% of the gap with other countries. This was driven by a greater use of specialist doctors, who charge 3-6 times more in the U.S. than in peer countries.
Higher level of per-capita income, which is correlated with higher healthcare spending in the U.S. and other countries. Hixon reported a study by Princeton Professor Uwe Reinhardt that concluded about $1,200 per person (in 2008 dollars) or about a third of the gap with peer countries in healthcare spending was due to higher levels of per-capita income. Higher income per-capita is correlated with using more units of healthcare.
Americans receive more medical care than people in other countries. The U.S. consumes 3 times as many mammograms, 2.5x the number of MRI scans, and 31% more C-sections per-capita than peer countries. This is a blend of higher per-capita income and higher use of specialists, among other factors.
The U.S. government intervenes less actively to force down prices in the United States than in other countries. Stanford economist Victor Fuchs wrote in 2014: "If we turn the question around and ask why healthcare costs so much less in other high-income countries, the answer nearly always points to a larger, stronger role for government. Governments usually eliminate much of the high administrative costs of insurance, obtain lower prices for inputs, and influence the mix of healthcare outputs by arranging for large supplies of primary-care physicians and hospital beds while keeping tight control on the number of specialist physicians and expensive technology. In the United States, the political system creates many “choke points” for diverse interest groups to block or modify government’s role in these areas."
Relative to prior years
The Congressional Budget Office analyzed the reasons for healthcare cost inflation over time, reporting in 2008 that: "Although many factors contributed to the growth, most analysts have concluded that the bulk of the long-term rise resulted from the health care system's use of new medical services that were made possible by technological advances..." In summarizing several studies, CBO reported the following drove the indicated share (shown as a range across three studies) of the increase from 1940 to 1990:
Technology changes: 38-65%. CBO defined this as "any changes in clinical practice that enhance the ability of providers to diagnose, treat, or prevent health problems."
Personal income growth: 5-23%. Persons with more income tend to spend a greater share of it on healthcare.
Administrative costs: 3-13%.
Aging of the population: 2%. As the country ages, more persons require more expensive treatments, as the aged tend to be sicker.
According to Federal Reserve data, healthcare annual inflation rates have declined in recent decades:
1970-1979: 7.8%
1980-1989: 8.3%
1990-1999: 5.3%
2000-2009: 4.1%
2010-2016: 3.0%
While this inflation rate has declined, it has generally remained above the rate of economic growth, resulting in a steady increase of health expenditures relative to GDP from 6% in 1970 to nearly 18% in 2015.
See also
Financial toxicity
Medical debt
Medical debt in the United States
Charge description master
Health care finance in the United States
Healthcare reform debate in the United States
American Health Care Act of 2017
Healthcare rationing in the United States
Health system
References
External links
Dept. of HHS Report on Govt. Payments for Indigent Care
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
AMA Description of RBRVS
Price Check: The Mystery of Hospital Pricing (California HealthCare Foundation study, December 2005)
Medical Costs Vary Wildly Around The Country (state-by-state and intrastate charts)
Medical Prices may be much higher with health insurance than without? (The New York Times, August 22, 2021)
Health economics
Social problems in medicine
Waste of resources |
4085836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20San%20Diego | History of San Diego | The written (as opposed to oral) history of the San Diego, California, region began in the present state of California when Europeans first began inhabiting the San Diego Bay region. As the first area of California in which Europeans settled, San Diego has been described as "the birthplace of California."
Explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo claims to have discovered San Diego Bay in 1542, roughly 200 years before other Europeans settled the area; in truth, Native Americans such as the Kumeyaay people had been living in the area for as long as 12,000 years prior to any European presence.
A fort and mission were established in 1769, which gradually expanded into a settlement under first Spanish and then Mexican rule. San Diego officially became part of the U.S. in 1848, and the town was named the county seat of San Diego County when California was granted statehood in 1850. It remained a very small town for several decades, but grew rapidly after 1880 due to development and the establishment of multiple military facilities. Growth was especially rapid during and immediately after World War II. Entrepreneurs and boosters laid the basis for an economy based today on the military, defense industries, biotech, tourism, international trade, and manufacturing. San Diego is now the eighth largest city in the country and forms the heart of the larger San Diego metropolitan area.
Kumeyaay and Colonial Spanish period (Prehistory–1821)
Pre-European Contact
La Jolla complex (~8000 BCE – 1000CE)
The first inhabitants of the region were the people of the La Jolla complex, also known as the Shell Midden people, who lived in the region between 8000 BCE and 1000 CE.
Kumeyaay Period (1000 CE – 1770s)
Yuman groups began migrating from the east and settling the area, who became known as the Kumeyaay. The Kumeyaay scattered villages across the region, including the village of Cosoy (Kosa'aay) which was the Kumeyaay village that the future settlement of San Diego would stem from in today's Old Town. Other villages include Nipaquay (Mission Valley), Choyas (Barrio Logan), Utay (Otay Mesa), Jamo (Pacific Beach), Onap (San Clemente Canyon), Ystagua (Sorrento Valley), and Melijo (Tijuana River Valley).
The Kumeyaay, in what is known as San Diego, spoke two different dialects of the Kumeyaay language. North of the San Diego river, the Kumeyaay spoke the Ipai dialect, which included the villages of Nipaquay, Jamo, Onap, Ystagua, and Ahmukatlatl. South of the San Diego river, the Kumeyaay spoke the Tiipai dialect, which was spoken in the villages of Kosa'aay, Choyas, Utay, and Melijo.
Spanish exploration and colonial period
The first European to visit the region was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. His landing is re-enacted every year at the Cabrillo Festival sponsored by Cabrillo National Monument, but it did not lead to settlement.
The bay and the area of present-day San Diego were given their current name sixty years later by Sebastián Vizcaíno when he was mapping the coastline of Alta California for Spain in 1602. Vizcaino was a merchant who hoped to establish prosperous colonies. After holding the first Catholic service conducted on California soil on the feast day of San Diego de Alcala, (also the patron saint of his flagship), he renamed the bay. He left after 10 days and was enthusiastic about its safe harbor, friendly natives, and promising potential as a successful colony. Despite his enthusiasm, the Spanish were unconvinced; it would be another 167 years before colonization began.
In 1769, Gaspar de Portolà and his expedition founded the Presidio of San Diego (military post) above the village of Cosoy, and on July 16, Franciscan friars Junípero Serra, Juan Viscaino and Fernando Parron raised and 'blessed a cross', establishing the first mission in upper Las Californias, Mission San Diego de Alcala. Colonists began arriving in 1774. In the following year the Kumeyaay indigenous people rebelled against the Spanish, which resulted in the deaths of a priest and two others, and burned the mission. Serra organized the rebuilding, and a fire-proof adobe and tile-roofed structure was completed in 1780. By 1797 the mission had become the largest in California, with a population of more than 1,400 presumably converted Native American "Mission Indians" relocated to and associated with it. The tile-roofed adobe structure was destroyed by an 1803 earthquake but replaced by a third church in 1813.
In 1804, the Province of Las Californias split between the provinces of Alta California and Baja California, with San Diego being governed by Alta California from the regional capital in Monterey.
Mexican period (1821–1848)
First Mexican Empire and First Mexican Republic (1821–1835): Pueblo de San Diego
In 1821, Mexico ousted the Spanish in the Mexican War of Independence and created the Province of Alta California. The San Diego Mission was secularized and shut down in 1834 and the land was sold off. 432 residents petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde ("municipal magistrate"), defeating Pío Pico in the vote. Beyond town Mexican land grants expanded the number of California ranchos that modestly added to the local economy.
The original town of San Diego, Pueblo de San Diego, was located at the foot of Presidio Hill, in the area which is now Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. The location was not ideal, being several miles away from navigable water. Imported goods and exports (primarily tallow and hides) had to be carried over the La Playa Trail to the anchorages in Point Loma. This arrangement was suitable only for a very small town. In 1830 the population was about 600. In 1834 the presidio was described as "in a most ruinous state, apart from one side, in which the commandant lived, with his family. There were only two guns, one of which was spiked, and the other had no carriage. Twelve half-clothed and half-starved-looking fellows composed the garrison, and they, it was said, had not a musket apiece." The settlement composed about forty brown huts and three or four larger, whitewashed ones belonging to the gentry.
Centralist Republic of Mexico (1835–1846): Decline of San Diego
In 1836, the Alta California and Baja California territories merged as the Department of Las Californias as part of the reforms made under Las Siete Leyes formalized under then President Antonio López de Santa Anna.
Kumeyaay raids on San Diego
In 1838 the town lost its pueblo status because of its dwindling population, estimated as 100 to 150 residents, and became a sub-prefecture of the Pueblo de Los Ángeles. This was due to souring relations between the Mexican regime and the Kumeyaay, which threatened the stability and the security of the town. Between 1836 and 1842, ranchos were abandoned as the Kumeyaay pillaged the countryside, with an initial attack on El Cajon in 1836 and Tijuana falling into Kumeyaay hands in 1839.
San Diego was first attacked circa 1836–1837 when a Mexican expedition to rescue two hostages failed and a large force of Kumeyaay launched an attack on the town, but were caught off guard when an armed merchant vessel, Alert, docked on the bay fired upon the Kumeyaay warriors forcing the Kumeyaay to retreat. Sir Edward Belcher of the British Navy on board HMS Sulphur on its way to fight in the First Opium War in Qing China, docked in the San Diego Bay in October of 1839, and noted that it would appear that San Diego would soon be taken by the "Indians" or another nation.
In June 1842, it culminated in a Kumeyaay raid on San Diego in an attempt to expel the Mexican settlers, after doing so to the Californios in the surrounding rancho countryside. While the pueblo was able to defend against the attack, the Kumeyaay managed to control much of the south, east, and most of the north of the settlement, with the town becoming dependent on sea access to maintain connections to the rest of Mexico. Joining with the existing Quechan resistance in the east, the Kumeyaay and the Quechan cut off Alta California from all land routes to the rest of the Mexican republic between the Colorado River and the Pacific Ocean (around the modern US-Mexican border) up until the Mexican-American War, further threatening Mexican control of the southern Alta California coast.
Mexican–American War
During the Mexican–American War the control of the city was exchanged three times: once in July 1846 when the USS Cyane and the California Battalion took control, in October 1846 when Californio forces took control, and again in October 1846 when the American flag was raised again over the pueblo. By November 1846, American control was secured with the arrival of reinforcements from the USS Congress. The Americans met the Mexican and Californio armies in the Battle of San Pasqual in December, and were defeated, making it the only American defeat in the war. Following events near San Gabriel in early January 1847, peace returned to California.
An American town (1847–1900)
Alta California became part of the United States in 1848 following the U.S. victory in the Mexican–American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, with the US-Mexican border established just south of the town. The resident "Californios" became American citizens with full voting rights. California was admitted to the Union as a state in 1850. San Diego, still little more than a village, was incorporated on March 27 as a city and was named the county seat of the newly established San Diego County. The United States Census reported the population of the town as 650 in 1850 and 731 in 1860.
San Diego promptly got into financial trouble due to overspending on a poorly designed jail. In 1852 the state repealed the city charter, in effect declaring the city bankrupt, and installed a state-controlled three-member board of trustees to manage San Diego. The trustees stayed in control until 1887, when a mayor-council form of government was installed under a new city charter.
San Diego Tax Rebellion of 1851
San Diego was still far from secure after the Mexican-American war, as the American administration inherited the Kumeyaay still controlled the inland regions near the town. In 1851, the American-led San Diego County imposed property taxes on Native American tribes in the county and threatened to confiscate land and property should they fail to pay up the $600 tax. This led to a revolt by Cupeño and Kumeyaay, who were asked to pay in a currency they never encountered. The revolt led by Cupeño leader, Antonio Garra, who went on to attack Warner's Ranch and opening up the western theatre of the Yuma War to secure indigenous control of the Laguna Mountains and Imperial Valley. This attack shocked the residents of San Diego, as many many residents began to prepare for another attack by the Kumeyaay. While the conflict ended in America's favor, San Diego would remain of military interest as the US sought to secure its position in the Pacific and the new San Antonio–San Diego Mail Line route which operated between 1857 and 1861.
Davis Era – Founder of New Town San Diego
In 1850, with California being admitted into the Union, William Heath Davis, an American-Hawaiian pioneer, envisioned a thriving city on the bay and spent $60,000 to develop a 160 acre subdivision which included the city's streets, Pantoja Park, a warehouse, a wharf at the foot of today's Market Street, and ten New England saltbox houses shipped in from Maine. It was completed by August 1851, but was seldom used. In 1853, the steamer Los Angeles collided with the wharf. The damage was never repaired. Unused and poorly built, the damage was not worth fixing. Davis tried unsuccessfully to sell it. Finally, in 1862, the Army destroyed it, using timbers for firewood.
The failure of the wharf was only one indication of depressed times. Houses were dismantled and shipped to more promising settlements. By 1860, many of the enterprises that had been established during the early 1850s had closed. The few businesses that survived suffered from water shortages, high costs of shipping, and a declining population. Davis, however, kept trying. He continued to speculate in land in the business district, and constructed hotels and stores. Unfortunately, in 1851, a year after he created New Town, fire destroyed his San Francisco warehouse, costing him a fortune and he soon ran out of money. Leadership in boosterism passed to Alonzo Horton.
In 1851, the first newspaper of San Diego, the San Diego Herald, was published by John Judson Ames. He continued to publish the Herald until April 1860.
Horton Era – Successor of New Town San Diego
The town seemed rundown in 1867 when Horton arrived, but he could only see glittering opportunity: "I have been nearly all over the world and it seemed to me to be the best spot for building a city I ever saw." He was convinced that the town needed a location nearer the water to improve trade. Within a month of his arrival, he had purchased more than 900 acres of today's downtown for a total of $265, an average of 27.5 cents an acre. He began promoting San Diego by enticing entrepreneurs and residents. He built a wharf and began to promote development there. The area was referred to as New Town or the Horton Addition. Despite opposition from the residents of the original settlement, which became known as "Old Town", businesses and residents flocked to New Town, and San Diego experienced the first of its many real estate booms. In 1871, government records were moved to a new county courthouse in New Town, and by the 1880s New Town (or downtown) had totally eclipsed Old Town as the heart of the growing city. Horton also called for city land set aside for a new central park, which eventually came to fruition as Balboa Park.
In 1878, San Diego was predicted to become a rival of San Francisco's trading ports. To prevent that, the manager of Central Pacific Railroad Charles Crocker, decided not to build an extension to San Diego, fearing that it would take too much trade from San Francisco. In 1885, a transcontinental railroad route came to San Diego, and the population boomed, reaching 16,159 by 1890. In 1906 the San Diego and Arizona Railway of John D. Spreckels was built to provide San Diego with a direct transcontinental rail link to the east by connecting with the Southern Pacific Railroad lines in El Centro, California. It became the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway. In 1933 the Spreckels heirs sold it to the Southern Pacific Railroad.
Emergence of a regional city (1900–1941)
The city grew in bursts, especially in the 1880s and again from 1900 to 1930, when it reached 148,000.
The Gibraltar of the Pacific
In the 1890–1914 period the nation became greatly interested in Pacific naval affairs, as seen in the Spanish–American War of 1898; the U.S. acquisition of Guam, the Philippines, and Hawaii; and the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. San Diego was in a strategic location and sought to become "the Gibraltar of the Pacific." Civic leaders such as real-estate developer D. C. Collier and other leaders of the Chamber of Commerce, assisted by Congressman William Kettner actively lobbied the Navy and the federal government to make San Diego a major location for naval, marine, and air bases. During World War I the U.S. greatly expanded the Navy, and the city was eager to help. By the time the Marine Base and Naval Training Center opened in the early 1920s, the Navy had built seven bases in San Diego at a cost of $20 million, with another $17 million in the pipeline. The city's 'culture of accommodation' determined the way the city would grow for the next several decades, and created a military-urban complex rather than a tourist and health resort. With the reduction in naval spending after 1990, the Chamber turned its focus to tourism and conventions.
San Diego had the great harbor and the weather; it seemed poised to become a world-class metropolis. But it was overshadowed by both San Francisco and Los Angeles. Businessman John D. Spreckels expressed the enthusiasm of San Diego's boosters in 1923, as well as the disappointment that it had not fully developed.:
"Why did I come to San Diego? Why did any of you come? We came because we thought we saw an unusual opportunity here. We believed that everything pointed to this as the logical site for a great city and seaport. In short, we had faith in San Diego's future. We gave of our time and our strength and our means...to help develop our city, and naturally, our own fortunes. ... What is the matter with San Diego? Why is it not the metropolis and seaport that its geographical and other unique advantages entitle it to be? Why does San Diego always just miss the train, somehow?"
Military installations
The southern portion of the Point Loma peninsula was set aside for military purposes as early as 1852. Over the next several decades the Army set up a series of coastal artillery batteries and named the area Fort Rosecrans. After World War II the former site of Fort Rosecrans in Point Loma was used for multiple Navy commands, including a submarine base and a Naval Electronics Laboratory; they were eventually consolidated into Naval Base Point Loma. Other portions of Fort Rosecrans became Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery and Cabrillo National Monument.
Significant U.S. Navy presence began in 1901, with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma, and expanded greatly during the 1920s. Camp Kearny was established in 1917, closed in 1920, and later reopened; since 1996 it has been the site of Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. In the interim it was in whole or part Camp Elliot (during World War II), the Sycamore Canyon Test Facility, and Naval Air Station Miramar (with its "Top Gun" fighter school). The Marine base Camp Matthews, which was joined by Camp Callan from 1941 to 1945, occupied a mesa near La Jolla from 1917 until 1964; the site is now the campus of University of California, San Diego. Naval Base San Diego was established in 1922, as was the San Diego Naval Hospital. The Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego was commissioned in 1921 and the San Diego Naval Training Center in 1923; the Naval Training Center was closed in 1997.
In 1942 the Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton was set up 45 miles north of the city on 250,000 acres. It remains one of the main Marine Corps training facilities. It became the home of the 1st Marine Division in 1946 and later the I Marine Expeditionary Force as well as several training commands. In 1975 the Marine Corps opened the Camp Pendleton Refugee Camp to care for some of the hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese and Cambodians refugees who fled after the Vietnam War was lost.
In the early 1990s, twenty percent of the San Diego region's economy was dependent on defense spending.
Progressive reform
San Diego gave strong support to the Progressive Movement that swept California in the early 20th century in order to purify the state from oppressive bossism and corporate rule. Progressive Republicans resented the political power of the Southern Pacific Railroad and the role of "Boss" Charles Hardy. Reformers organized and fought back beginning with the 1905 municipal election. In 1906, they formed the Roosevelt Republican Club, and in 1907 reformers backed a Nonpartisan League. Led by Edgar Luce, George Marston and Ed Fletcher, the Roosevelt Republican Club became the Lincoln-Roosevelt Republican League. The mayoralty election of 1909 marked a sweeping victory for the League, as did the 1910 election of Hiram Johnson as governor.
In 1912, City Council restrictions on soapbox oratories led to the San Diego free speech fight, a confrontation between the Industrial Workers of the World on the one side and law enforcement and vigilantes on the other.
Marston was defeated for mayor in 1913 (against Charles F. O'Neall) and again in 1917 (against Louis J. Wilde). The 1917 race in particular was a classic growth-vs.-beautification debate. Marston argued for better city planning with more open space and grand boulevards; Wilde argued for more business development. Wilde called his opponent "Geranium George", painting Marston as unfriendly to business. Wilde's campaign slogan was "More Smokestacks", and during the campaign he drew a great smokestack belching smoke on a truck through the city streets. The phrase "smokestacks vs. geraniums" is still used in San Diego to characterize this type of debate between environmentalists and growth advocates.
World's fairs
San Diego hosted two World's fairs, the Panama-California Exposition in 1915–1916, and the California Pacific International Exposition in 1935–1936. The expositions left a lasting legacy in the form of Balboa Park and the San Diego Zoo, and by popularizing Mission Revival Style and Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture locally and in Southern California as a regional aesthetic and nationwide design influence. The Spanish Colonial Revival architecture used in the design of the 1915 Fair was designed by architect Bertram Goodhue of the firm Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson in Boston, Massachusetts. He was inspired by his studies of the architecture of Mexico. The Federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) helped fund the 1935 fair, which was designed by architect Richard S. Requa.
Tuna industry
From the 1910s through the 1970s, the American tuna fishing fleet and tuna canning industry were based in San Diego, acclaimed by boosters as the "tuna capital of the world." San Diego's first large tuna cannery, the Pacific Tuna Canning Company, was founded in 1911. Others such as Van Camp Seafood, Bumble Bee and StarKist followed. A large fishing fleet supported the canneries, mostly staffed by immigrant fishermen. Portuguese began arriving to San Diego in the 1860s, and began immigrating in large numbers in the early 20th century, becoming the largest population of foreign-born fishermen in San Diego. Japanese owners and fishermen were an important part of the industry, making up half of the workforce; at the height of their involvement they caught more than eighty percent of the albacore catch. Later the workforce was dominated by immigrants from the Portuguese Azores and Italy.
By 1920, there were about 700 boats in Southern California engaged in the tuna industry, and ten canneries in San Diego. In 1922, Van Camp Seafood Company consolidated their canning facilities to San Diego, closing a facility in San Pedro. By the mid-1930s housewives in the Great Depression appreciated the cheap, easy-to-serve food. By 1939 the fleet's tuna catch exceeded 100 million pounds. By the 1930s, legislation was passed that attempted to limit Japanese fishermen, and due to World War II the boats owned by Japanese Americans were confiscated by the U.S. Navy.
During World War II when fishing was not possible, 53 tuna boats and about 600 crew members served the U.S. Navy as the "yippie fleet" (so called because of service numbers beginning with YP, for Yard Patrol), also called the "pork chop express", delivering food, fuel and supplies to military installations all over the Pacific. Twenty-one of the vessels were lost and dozens of crew members were killed on these hazardous missions. Yippie ships won more than a dozen battle stars and several Presidential Unit Citations.
In the 1950s tuna fishing and canning was the third largest industry in San Diego, after the Navy and aviation. In 1951 there were over eight hundred fishing boats and almost three thousand fisherman homeported in San Diego. The San Diego tuna fleet reached a peak of 160 vessels, and in 1962 employed around forty thousand San Diegans. Banker C. Arnholt Smith, a top civic leader, was a major investor. With Japan offering cheaper tuna after 1950, Smith worked to break the union using new technology and Peruvian canneries.
The industry suffered due to rising costs and foreign competition. In 1980, Mexico seized American tuna ships, and confiscated those ships fishing equipment (particularly their fishing nets), after declaring an exclusive economic zone; this led to an embargo which heavily impacted the tuna fleet, and also led to increased importation of frozen tuna. Severely impacting the American tuna fleet, many ships moved to Mexico, or were sold to operators in other countries. The last cannery closed in 1984, with a loss of thousands of jobs.
The legacy of the tuna fleet is still felt in Little Italy, where most of the Italian fishermen settled, and in the Point Loma neighborhood of Roseville, still sometimes referred to as "Tunaville," where many Portuguese fishermen and boat owners settled. There is a sculpture dedicated to the cannery workers in Barrio Logan and a "Tunaman's Memorial" statue representing the fishermen on Shelter Island. The tuna industry is also commemorated by Tuna Harbor Park on San Diego Bay. The Bumble Bee Foods company is still headquartered in San Diego.
Philanthropy
Philanthropy was an important part of San Diego's expansion. For example, wealthy heiress Ellen Browning Scripps underwrote many public facilities in La Jolla, was a key supporter of the fledgling San Diego Zoo, and together with her brother E. W. Scripps established the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Another notable philanthropist of this era was George Marston, businessman and owner of Marston's Department Store. Wanting to see Balboa Park become a grand city park like those in other cities, he hired architect John Nolen on two occasions, 1908 and 1926, to develop a master plan for the park. In 1907 he bought Presidio Hill, site of the original Presidio of San Diego, which had fallen into ruins. Recognizing its importance as the site of the first European settlement in California, he developed it into a park (planned by Nolen) with his own funds, and built the Serra Museum (designed by architect William Templeton Johnson). In 1929 he donated the park to the city, which still owns and operates it; it is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Great Depression
San Diego met the challenge of the Great Depression better than most parts of the country. The population of San Diego County grew 38%, from 210,000 to 290,000, from 1930 to 1940, while the city itself went from 148,000 to 203,000—a much better rate than the state as a whole. There was money enough to build a new municipal golf course and tennis courts, to improve the water system, and open a new Spanish-style campus for San Diego State College (now San Diego State University). The New Deal used PWA relief money to expand the fleet, bringing more money into the city. In 1935 the entire Pacific Fleet assembled with 48 warships, 400 naval aircraft, 55,000 sailors and 3000 officers to demonstrate the importance of sea power to the city, and to exhibit to Japan and the rest of the world America's interest in the Pacific. The expansion of naval and army aviation led Consolidated Aircraft Corporation of Buffalo New York to bring all its 800 employees to San Diego, opening a major assembly plant, Convair, which built Navy flying boats. Ryan Aeronautical Company, which built the Spirit of St. Louis for the famous 1927 flight of Charles Lindbergh, also flourished. The 7.2 million visitors to the California-Pacific International Exposition in 1935–36 were impressed with the city's prosperity, as well as the 400 exhibits from 23 nations.
War and postwar period (1941–present)
Since World War I, the military has played a leading role in the local economy. World War II brought prosperity and gave millions of soldiers, sailors and airmen en route to the Pacific a view of the opportunities in California. The aircraft factories grew from small handcraft shops to gigantic factories. The city's population soared from 200,000 to 340,000, as the Navy and Marines opened training facilities and the aircraft factories doubled their employment rosters every few months. With 40,000 to 50,000 sailors off duty every weekend, the downtown entertainment districts soon became saturated. The red-light district was officially shut down, but opportunities were easily available a few miles south in Tijuana, Mexico. Workers poured in from the towns and from across the country, creating a severe housing shortage. Public transportation (trolleys and buses) could barely keep up with the demand, and automobiles were rationed to only 3 gallons a week. Many wives who relocated while their husbands were training stayed in the city when their men shipped out and took high-paying jobs in the defense industries. The dramatic increase in the need for fresh water led the Navy in 1944 to build the San Diego Aqueduct to import water from the Colorado River; the city financed the second pipeline in 1952. By 1990, San Diego was the sixth largest city in the United States.
Industrial change
After World War I, and through World War II, San Diego County was home to multiple parachute manufacturers. During World War II one of those manufactures, Pacific Parachute Company, was owned by two African Americans: Eddie Rochester Anderson of the Jack Benny Show, who funded the project, and Howard "Skippy" Smith". They hired a diverse workforce, and was awarded in 1943 the National Negro Business League's Spaulding Award. After the end of war, with the drop in demand, these parachute manufacturers closed down in San Diego. However, the building still stands today at 627 Eighth Avenue.
Convair was the largest employer in San Diego, with 32,000 well-paid workers in the mid-1950s. In 1954 it was bought out and became the Convair Division of General Dynamics, a large aerospace conglomerate based in Texas. Convair had been highly successful in the 1950s with the B-36, a very long-range bomber that became the workhorse of the Strategic Air Command. General Dynamics refocused Convair on commercial aviation as the Convair 240, a two-engine passenger plane, proved highly successful in the world market. Convair decided to move up to the very rapidly growing world market for medium-range jet passenger planes with the Convair 880. It was designed to rival Boeing's proposed 707, and Douglas's proposed DC-8. Financial and technical delays left Convair lagging far behind. After heavy losses, General Dynamics moved all the airplane elements to Texas, and left the San Diego factory with small-scale space and missile projects. Convair's employment fell to 3300 in San Diego.
As the Cold War ended, the military shrunk and so did defense spending. San Diego has since become a center of the emerging biotech industry and is home to telecommunications giant Qualcomm. Starting in the 1990s the city and county developed a nationally known craft beer industry; the area is sometimes referred to as "America's Craft Beer capital". As of the end of 2021 there are over 150 microbreweries and brewpubs in the county.
Tourism Industry
Not long after the Panama-California Exposition in Balboa Park, John D. Spreckels opened the Belmont Park amusement park in 1925. San Diego's tourism offerings beyond beaches and Balboa Park began to develop a tourism industry supporting animal theme parks. The first aquatic theme park franchise, SeaWorld, began in San Diego when SeaWorld San Diego was completed in 1964. The San Diego Zoo opened the San Diego Zoo Safari Park as the San Diego Wild Animal Park in 1972.
Historical buildings reflecting the city's Spanish and Mexican heritage, such as Old Town San Diego State Historic Park and Mission San Diego de Alcalá were designated as historical landmarks by local and federal agencies in the 1970s. San Diego also received the decommissioned USS Midway, as a museum ship which opened as the USS Midway Museum in 2004.
The region also welcomed Legoland California in Carlsbad in 1999, the first Legoland park outside of Europe. Cedar Fair opened a Knott's Soak City park in Chula Vista in 1997, which was sold to SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment and rebranded as Aquatica San Diego in 2013. The water park was rebranded for a third time as Sesame Place in 2022, themed on the Sesame Street children's television series.
Universities
After acquiring the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1912, the University of California (UC) built up a presence, with an emphasis on scientific research and cultural opportunities. For years UC operated an extension program in San Diego. In 1960, following wartime and postwar increases in population and economic growth in San Diego, UC broke ground for a new campus there, and classes at UCSD began in 1964. Under Richard C. Atkinson, chancellor from 1980 to 1995, UCSD strengthened its ties with the city of San Diego by encouraging technology transfer with developing companies, transforming San Diego into a world leader in technology-based industries. Private giving rose from $15 million to nearly $50 million annually, faculty expanded by nearly 50%, and enrollment doubled to about 18,000 students during his chancellorship.
San Diego State University (SDSU) is the largest and oldest higher education facility in San Diego County. It was founded in 1897 as San Diego Normal School, a state school for the preparation of teachers, located on Park Avenue in University Heights. In 1931 it moved to a larger location on Aztec Mesa, overlooking Mission Valley, at what was then the eastern edge of San Diego. In 1935 it expanded its offerings beyond teacher education and became San Diego State College. In 1970 it became San Diego State University, part of the California State University system. SDSU has grown to a student body of more than 30,000 and an alumni base of more than 260,000.
The University of San Diego, a private Catholic school, began as the San Diego College for Women in 1952, sponsored by the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. In 1957 the campus on a hilltop site called Alcala Park also became home to the Immaculate Heart Major Seminary and St. Francis Minor Seminary. The landmark Immaculata Chapel also opened that year. In 1972 the San Diego College for Women merged with the nearby San Diego College for Men and the School of Law to become the University of San Diego.
Point Loma Nazarene University, formerly Pasadena College, relocated to San Diego's Point Loma neighborhood in 1973 after purchasing the campus of the former California Western University. PLNU is a private Protestant university known for its academics, scenic coastal campus and annual Writer's Symposium by the Sea conference which has included the likes of Cornel West, Alice Walker, Ray Bradbury and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Its campus features the only Greek theater on the West Coast and its baseball field has been named 'America's Most Scenic Ballpark' by MLB.
Downtown
In the 1930s and early 1940s, the area around Fifth and Island had a concentration of Asian American businesses, specifically of the Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino American communities. These businesses, particularly the Chinese American businesses, had a place in downtown as early as the 1860s. In the late 20th century, the area was designated the Asian Pacific Thematic Historic District.
During World War II, the internment of Japanese Americans impacted the make up of Downtown San Diego, as their businesses had to close. The efforts to remove Japanese Americans were supported by local elected officials. In early April 1942, the Japanese Americans who lived in San Diego, were transported by train to Santa Anita Park. Personal belongings were taken to a Buddhist temple for storage during the internment, but were lost following a fire in 1943.
Up through the 1950s the downtown area was a focus of civic and cultural life, featuring elegant hotels like the U.S. Grant and the El Cortez, as well as Marston's, an upscale department store. During the 1970s that focus shifted to Mission Valley with its modern shopping centers. The hotels fell into disrepair, Marston's closed, and the downtown area developed a seedy reputation. The transformation of the downtown areas from a zone of poverty and poor housing to a major tourist attraction with large numbers of jobs began in 1968 with the creation of the Centre City Development Corporation. Its urban renewal project focused on the Gaslamp Quarter beginning in 1968, with the goal of making the area a national historic district and bringing upper- and middle-class tourists and suburban residents to downtown San Diego. Since the 1980s the city has seen the opening of the former Horton Plaza shopping center, the revival of the Gaslamp Quarter, and the construction of the San Diego Convention Center.
Gentrification
A recent boom on the construction of condos and skyscrapers (especially focusing on mixed-use facilities), a gentrification trend especially in Little Italy, and the inauguration of Petco Park in the once blighted East Village highlight the continuing development of downtown. Center city population is expected to rise to 77,000 residents by 2030; 30,000 people currently reside in downtown San Diego.
A successful renewal by 'gentrification' is the Hillcrest neighborhood, known for its historic architecture, tolerance, diversity, and locally owned businesses, including restaurants, cafés, bars, clubs, trendy thrift-stores, and other independent specialty stores. Hillcrest has a high population density, compared to many other neighborhoods in San Diego, and it has a large and active lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community.
This renewal extended to the surrounding neighborhoods in the 1990s, especially in older urban neighborhoods immediately north of Balboa Park such as North Park and City Heights.
Annexations and Suburban expansion
Prior to WWII, San Diego annexed East San Diego in 1923. After the war, development sprawled into University City, Clairemont Mesa, Linda Vista, and Mira Mesa, and the city of San Diego began rapidly expanding its city limits.
In 1957, San Diego annexed San Ysidro as well as parts of Otay Mesa, the rest of Otay Mesa would be annexed in 1985.
In the north, there were many large-scale annexations made by the City of San Diego. In 1962, Rancho Bernardo was annexed by the city with plans to annex further up north. By the end of 1964, San Diego annexed most of what makes up the northern city-limits of San Diego, which included the current neighborhoods such as Rancho Peñasquitos, Carmel Valley, Pacific Highlands Ranch, Black Mountain Ranch, and San Pasqual Valley. San Diego's efforts to annex Poway failed, which incorporated into a city in 1980.
'City of Villages'
In 1979, the City of San Diego adopted a tiered growth management categorization system as a component of the 'Progress Guide and General Plan', which classified the entire city as either "Urbanized, Planned Urbanizing, or Future Urbanizing". This policy set the pace for the suburban sprawl north towards North County, as well as south bay sprawl in Otay Mesa from San Ysidro. This framework phased the development of the Torrey Highlands, Pacific Highlands Ranch, Black Mountain Ranch, and Del Mar Mesa under the North City Future Urbanizing Area Framework Plan, as well as Torrey Hills, Torrey Pines, and Rancho Encantada on separate circumstances. Rapid suburban growth after the 1980s replaced rural communities for large master planned suburban development as other small scale development fell out of favor, and new freeways were constructed to serve these new developments.
In 2006, the city of San Diego set its planning policy to be centered on the "city of villages" strategy, which would promote modest density and mixed-use development within 'village centers' as San Diego runs out of land to be developed.
Conventions
In July 1971 the Republican National Committee chose San Diego to be the site of the 1972 Republican National Convention, despite initial opposition from the city's mayor, Frank Curran, and despite the fact that the city did not initially bid for the opportunity. It was widely believed that San Diego was selected because it was the preferred choice of President Richard Nixon. The city and the party were making preparations for the convention when in March 1972 a $400,000 donation to the event by ITT Corporation was publicized and became a national scandal. In addition, there were ongoing problems with the proposed venue (the San Diego Sports Arena) and concerns about adequate hotel space. In May 1972 the Republican National Committee voted to move the convention to Miami, Florida. In response, Mayor Pete Wilson proclaimed the week of the convention as "America's Finest City Week", giving rise to the city's current unofficial slogan "America's Finest City".
The 1996 Republican National Convention was held in San Diego in August 1996, headquartered at the San Diego Convention Center.
The largest annual convention held in San Diego is San Diego Comic-Con International, founded as the Golden State Comic Book Convention in 1970. According to Forbes, it is the "largest convention of its kind in the world".
Scandals
The United States National Bank, headquartered in San Diego and owned by C. Arnholt Smith, grew during the 1960s to become the 86th largest bank in the country with $1.2 billion in total assets. It failed in 1973 in the largest bank failure to date. The cause was bad loans to Smith-controlled companies, which exceeded the bank's legal lending limit. Smith had used the bank's money for his private business and bribed bank inspectors to cover it up. He was convicted of embezzlement and tax fraud and served seven months in federal prison in 1984.
During the 1980s the city was rocked by the disclosure that J. David & Co., an investment company run by the well-connected J. David "Jerry" Dominelli, was in reality a Ponzi scheme which had bilked hundreds of investors for an estimated $80 million. Dominelli was convicted in 1984 and served 10 years in prison. His affiliation with then-mayor Roger Hedgecock led to a pair of sensational trials in which Hedgecock was convicted of conspiracy and perjury in connection with contributions he received from Dominelli. Hedgecock was forced to resign from office; his convictions were eventually overturned, except for one which was reduced to a misdemeanor.
A civic scandal exploded in 2003 with the discovery that city finances had been manipulated with massive losses in the pension fund scandal. It left the city with an estimated $1.4 billion pension fund gap. One result was replacing the council-manager form of government with a mayor-council system in 2004. Although not charged with any wrongdoing, Mayor Dick Murphy resigned effective July 2005. Deputy Mayor Michael Zucchet took over as acting mayor but had to resign three days later, when he and fellow city councilmember Ralph Inzunza were convicted in federal court for taking bribes in a scheme to overturn the city's "no touch" law at strip clubs. Their felony conviction required them to resign from the city council. A third accused councilmember had died before trial. Zucchet's conviction was later overturned. Inzunza was sentenced to 21 months in prison.
In July 2013, Mayor Bob Filner was accused by multiple women of repeated sexual harassment, and many individuals and groups, including former supporters, called for him to resign. On August 19 Filner and city representatives entered a mediation process, as a result of which Filner agreed to resign, effective August 30, 2013, while the city agreed to limit his legal and financial exposure. Filner subsequently pleaded guilty to one felony count of false imprisonment and two misdemeanor battery charges, and was sentenced to house arrest and probation.
Beyond the issues regarding the city government, San Diego has experienced scandal on the Federal level as well. On November 28, 2005, Congressman Randy "Duke" Cunningham resigned after pleading guilty to bribery charges; he was sentenced to 8 years in prison.
Ethnic and cultural groups history
Californios and Chicano/Hispanic
In 1830, San Diego had 520 residents, land was owned by the government, with only seven ranchos awarded to retired soldiers. In 1835, Mission San Diego was secularized, and more ranchos were authorized, however due to increasing attacks by Native Americans on Californios the ranchos were evacuated and abandoned. Thirty-One Californios, joined the American forces to retake Los Angeles. Californios were automatically conferred United States Citizenship when the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo was signed. After 1848 the Californios comprised a numerical majority and owned most of the property; they secured cultural and social recognition, but they failed to control the political system. During the 1850s most ranchero owners were "beleaguered and penniless landowners". By 1860, most had left the area and the remainder were on the decline economically.
In World War II Hispanics made major breakthroughs in employment San Diego and in nearby farm districts. They profited from the new skills, contacts, and experiences provided by the military, filled many newly opened unskilled labor jobs, gained some high-paying jobs in the military installations and aircraft factories, and were welcomed by the labor unions, especially the Cannery Workers Union.
In recent decades advertisers have recognized the purchasing power of the local Latino community. They have invested in Spanish language television, especially Univisión and Telemundo. The older generations watch Spanish broadcasts. The younger generations of Hispanics in San Diego (and other ethnic groups as well) seldom can read Spanish and rapidly abandon the spoken form except in dealing with their elders. Rumbaut et al. conclude, "Mexican immigrants arriving today can expect only 5 of every 100 of their great grandchildren to speak fluent Spanish."
African Americans
The African American population was small before the great naval expansion of World War II. Starting in 1953, the Urban League brought together black and white professionals and businessmen and encouraged white business owners to hire blacks. Unlike other Urban League chapters, it built coalitions with San Diego's Mexican American community. According to the 2010 United States Census, African Americans are only 6.6% of San Diego's total population.
For over 100 years San Diego's second oldest neighborhood, Logan Heights, was home to African Americans. This neighborhood, together with Downtown and Sherman Heights, was one of only a few areas where blacks were allowed to buy and live in homes. After the 1960s and the Civil Rights Act, blacks started to move out of Logan Heights into area like Emerald Hills, Encanto and Oak Park. Logan Heights is still home to a great many black churches, some as old as 100 years old. On any given Sunday, hundreds of blacks return to Logan Heights to attend the churches they grew up in. Old Victorian homes still dot the Logan Heights area.
The founding fathers of the black community are all buried in the Logan Heights/Mountain View area in the Mount Hope Cemetery and Greenwood Cemetery. There are streets named after some of the founding fathers in Logan Heights, including Julian, Irving, and Logan. For more than 70 years the population of Logan Heights was 90% black, but starting in the 1980s its demographic shifted to predominantly Hispanic. The neighborhood has complained that it does not get suitable respect or attention from city leaders because of its minority status.
The history of the African American community in San Diego from the 1940s to the 1980s is documented in the Baynard Collection, an exhibit of 120 selected photographs by Norman Baynard, who ran a photography studio in Logan Heights for 46 years. The collection is on display at the Jacobs Center for Neighborhood Innovation.
East African
Somalis began arriving in San Diego in the 1980s, as Somalis fled the Horn of Africa during the Ogaden War and the subsequent Somali Civil War. San Diego became a destination as Somali military personnel were already stationed with US troops in Camp Pendleton when the war broke out, who would then provide logistics and language assistance for local refugee resettlement. The refugee community concentrated around City Heights, among other war refugee groups. An estimated 10,000 Somalis lived in San Diego in the 2010s. Refugees from Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea were also resettled in San Diego, making the city the largest East African community in California and is informally known as "Little Mogadishu".
Asian/Pacific Islanders
Chinese
Immigrants from China began arriving in the 1860s and settled in two waterfront fishing villages, one in Point Loma, the other in the New Town area where the San Diego Convention Center now stands. Chinese were harshly discriminated against in California and forced into Chinatowns. In San Diego there was much more freedom; there were no attacks on the 50 or so Chinese fishermen based there. Indeed, they were pioneers in the industry in the 1860s; their peak came in the 1880s. They specialized in abalone for export to Chinese communities up and down the Pacific coast. One journalist reported, "Even the fins of the shark are eaten by Chinamen, and are by them esteemed to be a great delicacy—as much of a delicacy as a Chinaman would be to a shark." By the 1890s the fishermen had gone; some returned to China, others took jobs on land.
The Chinese continued to settle in San Diego and found work in the fishing industry, railroad construction, service industry, general construction work, food industry, and merchandising. They were forced into a closed Chinatown but otherwise received less violent attention than suffered by Chinese elsewhere in the West.
They soon formed district associations, family and clan associations, secret societies, and business guilds, including the Chee Kung Tong (est. 1885), the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (est. 1907), the Bing Kung Tong (est. 1922), and the Ying On Tong (est. 1945). In the 1870s and 1880s, two Chinese Christian missions were organized to help the Chinese with housing, employment, recreational activities, and English language instruction. The Chinese population increased dramatically, especially after the 1965 Immigration Act allowed large numbers of businessmen and professionals to migrate from Hong Kong, Taiwan and China. During this period, San Diego elected its first nonwhite councilmember, Tom Hom of Chinese descent, to the San Diego City Council in 1963, and state assemblyman in 1968.
The late-20th-century San Diego Chinese community is made up of a heterogeneous population that includes Cantonese-speaking, Mandarin-speaking, and Hokkien-speaking members, as well as those from a variety of places of origin, including Southeast Asia. The center of San Diego's Chinese community slowly moved away from what is now Asian Pacific Thematic Historic District, and moved north with suburbanization and upper-middle class Chinese immigration to areas north of Interstate 8 and around Kearny Mesa, as well as areas north of MCAS Miramar in the I-15 Corridor and Carmel Valley. The main concentration of Chinese business in the region is centered in the Convoy District, which was dedicated as a Pan-Asian cultural district.
Filipinos
San Diego has historically been a popular destination for Filipino immigrants, and has contributed to the growth of its population. The first documentation of Filipinos arriving in San Diego, while part of the United States, occurred in 1903 when Filipino students arrived at State Normal School; they were followed as early as 1908 by Filipino Sailors serving in the United States Navy. Due to discriminatory housing policies of the time, the majority of Filipinos in San Diego lived downtown, around Market. Multiple businesses which catered to the Filipino community, both those who permanently lived in San Diego or who were migratory, existed in the area forming a hub to the Filipino American community, which lasted until at least the 1960s. Prior to World War II, due to anti-miscegenation laws, multi-racial marriages with Hispanic and Latino women were common, particularly with Mexicans.
After World War II, the majority of Filipino Americans in San Diego were associated with the U.S. Navy in one form or another, even in the late 1970s and early 1980's more than half of Filipino babies born in the greater San Diego area were born at Balboa Naval Hospital. In 1949, the first Filipino American building was opened in San Diego by the Filipino American Veteran's Association. In the 1970s, the typical Filipino family consisted of a husband whose employment was connected to the military, and a wife who was a nurse; this continued into the 1990s. Many Filipino American veterans, after completing active duty, would move out of San Diego, to the suburbs of Chula Vista and National City. Filipinos concentrated in the South Bay; more affluent Filipino Americans moved into the suburbs of North County, particularly Mira Mesa (sometimes referred to as "Manila Mesa"). Beginning in the late 1980s, the community experienced growth of gang activity, especially in South San Diego. A portion of California State Route 54 in San Diego is officially named the "Filipino-American Highway", in honor of the Filipino American Community.
Vietnamese
When the "first wave" of Vietnamese immigrants started to arrive in 1981, many settled in the communities adjacent to San Diego State University, such as City Heights and Talmadge, better known as East San Diego. As families and individuals became more affluent however, many relocated to other communities in the city: Linda Vista, Clairemont, Serra Mesa, etc. (Central San Diego) and what was then brand-new tract communities such as Mira Mesa, Rancho Penasquitos, Rancho Bernardo, etc.
In 2013, the Little Saigon Cultural and Commercial District was formed in City Heights on a six-block section of El Cajon Boulevard.
Middle Eastern
The region had an early Middle Eastern presence prior to contemporary US wars in the Middle East. Chaldeans, in particular, built a community in El Cajon in the mid 20th century, with the parish of the St. Peter Chaldean Catholic Cathedral established in 1973.
The first wave of migration from the Middle East to the San Diego region began during the Iraq War, as many Iraqis sought refuge from war-torn Iraq. Many found refuge in El Cajon, where the city has become the center of the region's Middle Eastern community and business, establishing a community informally known as "Little Baghdad". A large proportion of the community is made up of Chaldeans, largely Christian Iraqis, as well as Afghan immigrants escaping from Afghanistan War, and other Arab and Persian groups. The region also received another influx of Syrian refugees escaping from the Syrian civil war throughout the 2010s. Members of this community have become business owners, civic leaders, and city council members in the region.
Another wave of migration came in the mid-2010s, after the Syrian civil war spilled over to Iraq when ISIS stormed into northern Iraq, which brought many more Chaldeans to East County San Diego with most being middle-class Chaldeans hailing from Nineveh Governorate, Iraq. This propelled the region to have the highest concentration of Chaldeans in the United States.
LGBT
As a port city San Diego always had a gay and lesbian community, but it was largely closeted. Beginning in the 1960s the neighborhood of Hillcrest began to attract large numbers of gay and lesbian residents, drawn by low rents, high density, and the possibility of an urban dynamic. In the 1970s gay men founded a Center for Social Services in Hillcrest which became a social and political focus for the gay community. In June 1974 they launched the first Gay Pride Parade, which has been held every year since, and Hillcrest is well recognized as the focal point of the LGBT community. Also in the 1970s several churches, especially the independent Metropolitan Community Church, as well as movements within established denominations like Dignity (Roman Catholic), Integrity (Episcopalian), and Lutherans Concerned, formed a coalition that helped gays reinterpret biblical passages condemning homosexuality, and reconcile their sexual orientation with their religious faith. All of this helped to promote public understanding.
Many LGBT politicians have successfully run for office in San Diego city and county, including Christine Kehoe, former state senator, state assembly member, and city councilmember; Bonnie Dumanis, county district attorney; Toni Atkins, state assemblymember, former city councilmember; Carl DeMaio, former city councilmember; Todd Gloria, city council president, former interim mayor, and current mayor; and Dave Roberts, county supervisor.
In 2011 San Diego was the first city in the country in which active and retired military service members marched openly in a gay pride parade, in anticipation of the imminent removal of the "Don't ask, don't tell" rule for U.S. military personnel. They did not wear military uniforms, but rather T-shirts with the name of their branch of service. The following year, 2012, San Diego again made history when the U.S. Department of Defense granted permission for military personnel to wear their uniforms while participating the San Diego Pride Parade. This was the first time that United States military personnel were permitted to wear their service uniforms in such a parade. Also in 2012, the parade started from Harvey Milk Street, the first street in the nation to be named after gay civil rights icon Harvey Milk, and proceeded past a huge new rainbow flag, which was raised for the first time on July 20, 2012, to kick off the Pride festival.
See also
Timeline of San Diego
Bibliography of California history
References
Further reading
Colvin, Richard Lee. Tilting at Windmills: School Reform, San Diego, and America's Race to Renew Public Education (Harvard Education Press; 2013) 248 pages; Examines the reforms of former prosecutor Alan Bersin as superintendent of the San Diego Unified School District between 1998 and 2005.
Engstrand, Iris H. W. San Diego: California's Cornerstone (1980), excerpt and text search, history by a leading scholar
Garcia, Mario T. "A Chicano Perspective on San Diego History," Journal of San Diego History (1972) 18#4 pp 14–21 online
Linder, Bruce. San Diego's Navy: An Illustrated History (2001)
Lotchin, Roger. The Bad City in the Good War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego (2003) excerpt and text search
Lotchin, Roger. Fortress California, 1910-1961 (2002) excerpt and text search, covers military and industrial roles
Mills, James R. San Diego: Where California Began (San Diego: San Diego Historical Society, 1960), revised edition online
Pourade, Richard. The Explorers (1960); Time of the Bells (1961); The Silver Dons (1963); The Glory Years (1964); Gold in the Sun (1965); The Rising Tide (1967); and City of the Dream (1977), a lavishly illustrated seven volume history by the editor of the San Diego Union newspaper
Pryde, Philip R. San Diego: An Introduction to the Region (4th ed. 2004), a historical geography
Shragge, Abraham. "'A new federal city': San Diego during World War II," Pacific Historical Review (1994) 63#3 pp 333–61 in JSTOR
Starr, Kevin. "Gibraltar of the Pacific: San Diego Joins the Navy," in Starr, The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (1997) pp 90–114, covers 1880s-1940
Starr, Kevin. "Urban Expectations: San Diego Leverages Itself into Big-City Status," in Starr, Golden Dreams: California in an Age of Abundance, 1950-1963 (2011) pp 57–87
Starr, Kevin. "Play Ball: San Diego in the Major Leagues," in Starr, Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003 (2004) 372-81
External links
San Diego History Center
San Diego |
4085963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coade%20stone | Coade stone | Coade stone or Lithodipyra or Lithodipra () is stoneware that was often described as an artificial stone in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was used for moulding neoclassical statues, architectural decorations and garden ornaments of the highest quality that remain virtually weatherproof today.
Coade stone features were produced by appointment to George III and the Prince Regent for St George's Chapel, Windsor; The Royal Pavilion, Brighton; Carlton House, London; the Royal Naval College, Greenwich; and refurbishment of Buckingham Palace in the 1820s.
Coade stone was prized by the most important architects such as: John Nash-Buckingham Palace; Sir John Soane-Bank of England; Robert Adam-Kenwood House ; and James Wyatt-Radcliffe Observatory.
The product (originally known as Lithodipyra) was created around 1770 by Eleanor Coade, who ran Coade's Artificial Stone Manufactory, Coade and Sealy, and Coade in Lambeth, London, from 1769 until her death in 1821. It continued to be manufactured by her last business partner, William Croggon, until 1833.
History
In 1769, Mrs Coade bought Daniel Pincot's struggling artificial stone business at Kings Arms Stairs, Narrow Wall, Lambeth, a site now under the Royal Festival Hall. This business developed into Coade's Artificial Stone Manufactory with Coade in charge, such that within two years (1771) she fired Pincot for "representing himself as the chief proprietor".
Coade did not invent artificial stone. Various lesser-quality ceramic precursors to Lithodipyra had been both patented and manufactured over the forty (or sixty) years prior to the introduction of her product. She was, however, probably responsible for perfecting both the clay recipe and the firing process. It is possible that Pincot's business was a continuation of that run nearby by Richard Holt, who had taken out two patents in 1722 for a kind of liquid metal or stone and another for making china without the use of clay, but there were many start-up artificial stone businesses in the early 18th century of which only Coade's succeeded.
The company did well and boasted an illustrious list of customers such as George III and members of the English nobility. In 1799, Coade appointed her cousin John Sealy (son of her mother's sister, Mary), already working as a modeller, as a partner in her business. The business then traded as Coade and Sealy until his death in 1813, when it reverted to Coade.
In 1799, she opened a showroom, Coade and Sealy's Gallery of Sculpture, on Pedlar's Acre at the Surrey end of Westminster Bridge Road, to display her products.(See adjacent "Coade and Sealy gallery" image)
In 1813, Coade took on William Croggan from Grampound in Cornwall, a sculptor and distant relative by marriage (second cousin once removed). He managed the factory until her death eight years later in 1821 whereupon he bought the factory from the executors for c. £4000. Croggan supplied a lot of Coade stone for Buckingham Palace; however, he went bankrupt in 1833 and died two years later. Trade declined, and production came to an end in the early 1840s.
Material
Description
Coade stone is a type of stoneware. Mrs Coade's own name for her products was Lithodipyra, a name constructed from ancient Greek words meaning 'stone-twice-fire' (), or 'twice-fired stone'. Its colours varied from light grey to light yellow (or even beige) and its surface is best described as having a matte finish.
The ease with which the product could be moulded into complex shapes made it ideal for large statues, sculptures and sculptural façades. One-off commissions were expensive to produce, as they had to carry the entire cost of creating a mould. Whenever possible moulds were kept for many years of repeated use.
Formula
The recipe for Coade stone is claimed to be used today by Coade Ltd.
Its manufacture required extremely careful control and skill in kiln firing over a period of days, difficult to achieve with its era's fuels and technology. Coade's factory was the only really successful manufacturer.
The formula used was:
10% grog
5–10% crushed flint
5–10% fine quartz
10% crushed soda lime glass
60–70% ball clay from Dorset and Devon
This mixture was also referred to as "fortified clay", which was kneaded before insertion into a kiln for firing over four days – a production technique very similar to brick manufacture.
Depending on the size and fineness of detail in the work, a different size and proportion of Coade grog was used. In many pieces a combination of grogs was used, with fine grogged clay applied to the surface for detail, backed up by a more heavily grogged mixture for strength.
Durability
One of the more striking features of Coade stone is its high resistance to weathering, with the material often faring better than most types of natural stone in London's harsh environment. Prominent examples listed below have survived without apparent wear and tear for 150 years. There were, however, notable exceptions. A few works produced by Coade, mainly dating from the later period, have shown poor resistance to weathering due to a bad firing in the kiln where the material was not brought up to a sufficient temperature.
Demise
Coade stone was only superseded after Mrs Coade's death in 1821, by products using naturally exothermic Portland cement as a binder. It appears to have been largely phased out by the 1840s.
Examples
Over 650 pieces are still in existence worldwide.
Apsley House, No. 1, London. Duke of Wellington's house. The 1819 renovations by architect Benjamin Dean Wyatt included Scagliola ornamentation (that resembles marble inlays) in Coade stone. ()
Athenry Abbey, Ireland, The last de Bermingham to be buried at Athenry was Lady Mathilda Bermingham (d. 1788). The tower collapsed around 1790. Lady Mathilda's tomb, a Coade stone monument, was broken into in 2002. ()
Banff, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Duff House Mausoleum, Wrack Woods. James Duff, 2nd Earl Fife built the mausoleum for his family in 1791, possibly on the site of a Carmelite friary. Built before the Gothic Revival, this is an example of "Gothick" architecture. Typically Georgian – the carvings, including the monument to the first Earl, are in Coade stone. ()
Bargate, a Grade I listed medieval gatehouse in the city centre of Southampton. In 1809 a Coade stone statue of George III in Roman dress was added the middle of the four windows of the southern side. It was a gift to the town from John Petty, 2nd Marquess of Lansdowne. ()
Bath, 8 Argyll Street – The Royal Arms of Queen Charlotte are above the entrance to A.H.Hale, (Pharmacy) established 1826.()
Battersea, St Mary's Church The church includes several important monuments from the earlier church. John Camden, (d. 1780), and his eldest daughter Elizabeth Neild, (d. 1791). 'Girl by a funeral urn with a poetic eulogy'. Signed by Coade of Lambeth (1792).()
Becconsall Old Church, Hesketh Bank, Lancashire. The baptismal font, dating from the 18th century, is the form of a vase, and is made from Coade stone.()
Birmingham Botanical Gardens, England. A Coade stone fountain lies west of the bandstand, which was presented in 1850 and was designed by the Birmingham architect, Charles Edge.()
Birmingham Library, displayed in the Library are two large Coade stone medallions, made in the 1770s and removed from the front of the city's Theatre Royal when it was demolished in 1956. These depict David Garrick and William Shakespeare.()
Brighton, Royal Pavilion of King George IV.()
Brighton and Hove Cemetery. Anna Maria Crouch, actress, singer and mistress of George IV, has an elaborate, Grade II-listed, Coade stone table tomb with a carved memorial tablet, friezes with foliage patterns and Vitruvian scrolls, putti and a Classical-style urn.()
Brighton, Stanmer Park, Sussex. Frankland Monument. A Coade stone statue of 1775 by Richard Hayward, erected to commemorate Frederick Meinhardt Frankland (c. 1694–1768), barrister-at-law, MP for Thirsk, son of Sir Thomas Frankland, 2nd Baronet). Listed at Grade II by English Heritage (NHLE Code 1380952). It was erected at the expense of Thomas Pelham, 1st Earl of Chichester, who owned Stanmer House and the estate, and his wife Ann, who was Frankland's daughter. The plinth has three stone tortoises and a Latin inscription. The triangular column above has concave sides with oval panels and a cornice with a frieze and some egg-and-dart moulding, all topped by an urn. The monument stands on top of a hill in Stanmer Park.()
Brogyntyn, near Oswestry, Shropshire. Benjamin Gummow designed a portico and other alterations for the Ormsby Gores, 1814–15. He used Coade stone ornamentation on the interior of the portico()
Broomhall House, Dunfermline, Scotland. A 1796 redesign by Thomas Harrison included a semi-circular bay on the south front decorated with three Coade stone panels depicting reclining figures.
Buckingham Palace London, (in a section not open to the public). A frieze with vegetative scrollwork of Coade stone, balconies accessible from the first floor, and an attic with figural sculptures based on the Elgin Marbles. The west front overlooking the main garden features large Classical urns made of Coade stone. ()
Burnham Thorpe – Nelson's Memorial.()
Burton Constable Hall in the East Riding of Yorkshire, displays 3 figures and a number of 'medallions' above the doors and windows of the Orangerie. In 1966 this was designated as Grade II*. ()
Capesthorne Hall, Cheshire. The Drawing Room features twin fireplaces made from Coade stone, dated to 1789, which originally belonged to the family's house in Belgravia, London. Both are carved, one depicting Faith, Hope and Charity, and the other the Aldobrandini Marriage.()
Carlton House, London.()
Castle Howard, North Yorkshire, ()
Charborough House, Dorset. The park wall, alongside the A31 is punctuated by Stag Gate at the northern extremity and Lion Lodge at the easternmost entrance, with heraldic symbols in Coade stone. These gateways are Grade II listed, as is a third one, East Almer Lodge, further to the west. A fourth gateway, Peacock Lodge, is inside the estate, is Grade II* listed.()
Chelmsford Cathedral, Essex. The nave partially collapsed in 1800, and was rebuilt by the County architect John Johnson, retaining the Perpendicular design, but using Coade stone piers and tracery, and a plaster ceiling.()
Chichester – The Buttermarket. Designed by John Nash (coat of arms engraved with "Coade & Sealey 1808")()
Chiswick High Road, London, Presbytery of brown brick with Coade stone details, three storeys with double-hung sash windows; Grade II listed.()
Chiswick House, London. A couple of large ornate urns in the Italian Garden.()
Clerkenwell, St James's Church Over the west door are the royal arms of George III. Made of Coade stone and dated 1792, they were formerly over the reredos.()
Cottesbrooke, Northamptonshire. 'All Saints Church' contains a free-standing monument to Sir William Langham, (d.1812) in the nave, moulded in Coade stone by Bacon Junior.()
Croome Court, Upton-upon-Severn in Worcestershire. The south face has a broad staircase, with Coade stone sphinxes on each side, leading to a south door topped with a cornice on consoles. ()
Culzean Castle, overlooking the Firth of Clyde, near Maybole, Scotland. The former home of the Marquess of Ailsa. "Cat Gates" – The original inner entrance with Coade stone cats (restored in 1995) surmounting the pillars. The lodge cottages were demolished in the 1950s.(), (See Gallery "Cat gates at Culzean Castle")
Daylesford House, Gloucestershire. The main front was originally to the west, at the centre of which is a projecting semicircular bay, with four Ionic pillars and French Neoclassical garland swags around the architrave, topped by a shallow dome with pointed Coade stone finial, and wings projecting to either side. ()
Doddington Hall, Cheshire, The country house was designed by Samuel Wyatt. An outer double staircase leads up to a doorway flanked by columns and under a blind arch containing a Coade stone medallion containing a sign of the Zodiac. There are similar medallions over the first floor windows in the outer bays.()
Edinburgh, Stockbridge The "Statue of Hygieia" in the St Bernard's Well building by the Water of Leith "is made of coade stone".(). (See additional image in Coade stone Gallery below.)
Edinburgh, Bonaly Tower. Statue of William Shakespeare in Coade stone. ()
Egyptian House, Penzance, Cornwall. There is some dispute over the architect and the date of build, but in 1973, it was acquired by the Landmark Trust, the elaborate mouldings were mainly Coade stone.()
Exeter, 'Palace Gate' – Coade stone doorways on the terrace in 'Palace Gate' between the cathedral and South Street. Several late 18th century houses near Exeter Cathedral have doorway surrounds decorated with a keystone face (chosen from a small range of moulds), and decorative blocks.()
Fenstanton, Cambridgeshire, Church of St Peter and St Paul, Memorial to Frances Brown, daughter in law of Lancelot "Capability" Brown in Coade stone. (). (See adjacent image on right)
Great Yarmouth, Britannia Monument Coade stone caryatids replaced by concrete copies.()
Greenwich, Royal Naval College – Admiral Lord Nelson's Pediment in the King William Courtyard of the Old Royal Naval College was regarded by the Coade workers as the finest of all their work. It was sculpted by Joseph Panzetta in 1813, as a public memorial after his death at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. It was based on a painting by Benjamin West depicting Nelson's body being offered to Britannia by a Winged Victory. It was cleaned in 2016. (), (See Nelson Pediment at Top of this article)
Grey Coat Hospital Westminster. The 1707 Acts of Union with Scotland arms of Queen Anne, with her 1702 motto semper eadem ("always the same"), executed in Coade stone. ()
Haberdashers' Hatcham College, Telegraph Hill, Lewisham. A Coade stone statue of Robert Aske stands in the forecourt of the college, formerly Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys' School, in Pepys Road. It dates from 1836 and shows him in the robes of the Haberdashers' Company, leaning on a plinth and holding in his hand the plans of the school built at that time in Hoxton, whence the statue was transferred in 1903.()
Ham House Richmond, on the River Thames near London, has a reclining statue of Father Thames, by John Bacon in the entrance courtyard.
Haldon Belvedere, Devon. Inside is a larger-than-life-size Coade stone statue of General Stringer Lawrence dressed as a Roman general; a copy of the marble statue of him by Peter Scheemakers (1691–1781).
Hammerwood Park, East Grinstead. Coade stone plaques of scenes derived from the Borghese Vase adorn both porticos.()
Harlow, Essex, The Gibberd Garden Coade stone urns originally from Coutts Bank, The Strand, now in the garden created by Sir Frederick Gibberd who died in 1984.()
Heaton Hall, A country house that was remodelled between 1772 and 1789 by James Wyatt. Further additions were made in 1823 by Lewis Wyatt. It is built in sandstone with dressings in Coade stone and is in Palladian style. ()
Herstmonceux Place East Sussex. Circa 1932 it ceased to be a private house and was divided into flats. The north front of the house was built in the late 17th century. The south and east fronts were designed by Samuel Wyatt in 1778. The white panels are made of Coade Stone. (), (See "Herstmonceux Place" in Gallery below)
Highclere Castle, Hampshire. 'London Lodge' (1793), Brick but Coade stone dressed, and wings (1840).(), (See "Highclere Castle, London Lodge" in Gallery below)
Horniman Museum, Forest Hill, London. The facade of the Pelican and British Empire Life Insurance Company at 70 Lombard Street in the City of London was rescued before demolition in 1915 and is now displayed in the museum. To adorn its building, Pelican added an allegorical sculptural group to the previously plain facade; the group was designed by Lady Diana Beauclerk and sculpted by John de Veere of the Coade factory. ()
Ifield, West Sussex - St Margaret's Church, There are several other large tombs from the 18th century in the churchyard—some of which are good examples of Coade stone. The George Hutchinson wall memorial in the chancel, designed by local sculptor Richard Joanes, includes Coade stone embellishments. ()
Imperial War Museum, London. Sculptural reliefs above the entrance.()
Kensington Palace, Kensington High Street, London. The lion and unicorn statues on pillars at the entrance to Kensington Palace.(), (See "Lion and Unicorn gate" images in Gallery)
Kew Gardens – The lion and unicorn statues over their respective gates into The Royal Botanical Gardens.(Lion Gate-)(Unicorn Gate-), (See "Kew Lion and Unicorn gates" images above)
Kew Gardens, The Medici Vase, from a pair ordered by George IV.
Lancaster Castle, Shire Hall and Crown Court were completed by 1798 by Thomas Harrison (architect). Six Gothic columns support a panelled vault covering the main part of the courtroom. Around the perimeter is an arcade, and the judge's bench has an elaborate canopy in Coade stone.()
Lancaster, Royal Lancaster Infirmary. The hospital by Paley, Austin and Paley is in free Renaissance style, and built in sandstone with slate roofs. It has an octagonal entrance tower that is flanked by wings. The tower has four stages, and above the entrance is a niche containing a Coade stone statue of the Good Samaritan. ()
Lawhitton, Cornwall. The parish church of St Michael includes two monuments, to R. Bennet (d. 1683) and in Coade stone to Richard Bennet-Coffin (d. 1796). ()
Lea Marston, Warwickshire. The Church Saint John the Baptist contains numerous monuments to members of the Adderley family, including one from 1784 made of Coade stone. ()
Lewes, Lewes Crown Court. Located at the highest point of the old town is the Portland stone and Coade stone facade of the Crown Court (1808–12, by John Johnson).()
Lincoln Castle, Coade stone bust of George III, relocated from atop the Dunston Pillar in 1940. ()
Liverpool. George Bullock (sculptor) statue of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson in Coade stone. (Location unclear) ()
LiverpoolTown Hall. 1802 statue by Charles Rossi - Britannia or Minerva atop Liverpool Town Hall. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, or Britannia. She is holding a spear, which is a common replacement for Britannia's trident, but that is usually in her right hand. Minerva is commonly depicted with an owl, but she is also the goddess of strategic warfare, so a spear makes sense. Both wear Corinthian helmets. Who is it? - Neither Rossi's own list of commissions, nor a (non-existent) Royal Academy contemporary list of his worksare available, so both Historic England and Pevsner hedge their bets saying "Britannia or Minerva".
Lurgan, Northern Ireland. 42-46 High Street. Decorative stonework with Coade stone keys and sculpted heads.() Provenance unclear.
Lyme Regis, Dorset – Eleanor Coade's country home at Belmont House decorated with Coade stone on its façade.(), (See image of Belmont House at Top of this article)
Metropolitan Museum of Art ("The Met") - New York City. Faith, statue in 'overpainted Coade stone', after a model by John Bacon the Elder. 1791.(), (See image at start of this list of 'Examples' above.)
Montreal – Nelson's Column, built 1809. Montreal's pillar is the second-oldest "Nelson's Column" in the world, after the Nelson Monument in Glasgow. The statue and ornaments were shipped in parts to Montreal, arriving in April 1808. William Gilmore, a local stonemason who had contributed £7 towards its construction, was hired to assemble its seventeen parts and the foundation base was laid on 17 August 1809.()
Bank of Montreal. A series of Relief panels based on designs by John Bacon (1740-1799), moulded in Coade stone by Joseph Panzetta and Thomas Dubbin in 1819.()
The Octagon House or the John Tayloe III House in Washington, DC, built 1800 by William Thornton. ()
North Ockendon, Church of St Mary Magdalene, (Havering). A Grade I listed building, The baptismal font and royal arms (made of Coade stone) were both made in 1842. ()
Paço de São Cristóvão, (Palace of Saint Christopher) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In front of the palace is a decorative Coade stone portico, a gift sent by Hugh Percy, 2nd Duke of Northumberland, inspired by Robert Adams' porch for "Sion House". ()
Pitzhanger Manor House, Ealing, was owned from 1800 to 1810 by the architect Sir John Soane, who radically rebuilt it. It features four Coade stone caryatids atop the columns of the east front, modelled after those that enclose the sanctuary of Pandrosus in Athens. (), (See Caryatid, Pitzhanger Manor in Gallery below)
Plympton, Devon - St Mary's church, monument to W. Seymour (died 1801) in Coade stone. ()
Portman Square, London. About a third of the north side is in the statutory category scheme, Grade I. No.s 11–15 built in 1773–1776 by architect James Wyatt in cooperation with his brother Samuel Wyatt. First houses in which Coade stone was used. (), (See Portman Square in Gallery below)
Portmeirion, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson,(See "Portmeirion, Lord Nelson section")
Portobello, Edinburgh, Portobello Beach, three Coade Stone columns erected in a community garden, with Heritage Lottery funds in 2006 at 70 Promenade (John Street), Portobello; rescued from the garden of Argyle House, Hope Lane, off Portobello High Street when taken into Council storage in 1989 as a new extension was built onto the house. ()
Preston Hall, Midlothian, Significant features of the interior include four life-size female figures in the stairway, which are made from Coade stone, a type of ceramic used as an artificial stone. ()
Putney Old Burial Ground. The grave of 18th century novelist Harriet Thomson (c. 1719–1787) made of coade stone. ()
Reading, Berkshire. St Mary's Church, Castle Street. The frontage is rendered in stucco while the capitals of the portico are probably formed of Coade stone. ()
Radcliffe Observatory, Tower of the Winds (Oxford). The reliefs of the signs of the zodiac above the windows on the first floor are made of Coade stone by J. C. F. Rossi. () (See Tower of the Winds in Gallery)
Richmond upon Thames. Two examples of the River God, one outside Ham House, the other in Terrace Gardens. (Ham House-) (Terrace Gardens-), (See image in Coade stone Gallery below.)
Rio de Janeiro Zoo entrance. ()
Roscommon, Ireland, Entrance gate to former Mote Park demesne, The Lion Gate, built 1787, consisting of a Doric triumphal arch surmounted by a lion with screen walls linking it to a pair of identical lodges. ()
Saxham Hall, Suffolk has an Umbrello (shelter) constructed of Coade stone in the grounds (), (See "Saxham Hall, Umbrelllo" in Gallery below)
Schomberg House at 81–83 Pall Mall, London, was built for Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg in the late 17th-century. The porch, framed by two Coade stone figures, was added in the late 18th century. Note – The figures that framed the doorway of the original Coade's Gallery, on Pedlar's Acre at the Surrey end of Westminster Bridge Road were made from the same moulds. () (See "Schomberg House" in Gallery below)
Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Lord Hill's Column commemorates General Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill, with a tall statue on a pillar. The statue was modelled in Lithodipyra (Coade stone) by Joseph Panzetta who worked for Eleanor Coade. ()
South Bank Lion at the south end of Westminster Bridge in central London originally stood atop the old Lion Brewery, on the Lambeth bank of the River Thames. The brewery was demolished in 1950, to make way for the South Bank Site of the 1951 Festival of Britain. Just before the demolition King George VI ordered that both lions should be preserved:
- The lion which originally stood over one of the brewery gates is now painted gold and located at the west-gate entrance of Twickenham Stadium, the home of English rugby. (See Twickenham Stadium Lion section below)
- The lion from the roof of the brewery, now known as the "South Bank Lion", was moved to Station Approach Waterloo, placed on a high plinth, and painted red as the symbol of British Rail. When removed, the initials of the sculptor William F. Woodington and the date, 24 May 1837, were discovered under one of its paws. In 1966, it was moved from outside Waterloo station to the south end of Westminster bridge. (), (See South Bank Lion image at Top of article)
Southwark – Statue of King Alfred the Great, Trinity Church Square. The statue of a king on the stone plinth in the square is Grade II-listed. The provenance is unknown, but it may be either one of eight medieval statues from the north end towers of Westminster Hall (c. late 14th century) or, alternatively, one of a pair representing Alfred the Great and Edward, the Black Prince made for the garden of Carlton House in the 18th century. Analysis in 2021 showed that the top part was of Coade stone but the legs were Roman and of Bath stone.(), (See King Alfred the Great image in Gallery)
St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate Church Hall, London, pair of statues of schoolchildren on the front of this former School House, replicas outside, listed originals now inside the Hall.()
St Mary-at-Lambeth, Garden Museum, London – Captain Bligh's tomb in the churchyard of St Mary's Lambeth.()
Shugborough Hall, Staffordshire. A large country house, between 1760 and 1770 the house was remodelled by "Athenian" Stuart, the giant portico was added to the front in 1794 by Samuel Wyatt. In front of the house is the portico, which has eight columns in wood faced with slate, and capitals in Coade stone. On the south front is another bowed bay.()
St Mary Magdalene's Church, Stapleford, Leicestershire. In the west wall of the gallery is a Coade stone fireplace, above which are the Royal arms on a roundel.()
Stourhead Gardens The 'Temple of Flora' contains a replica of the Borghese Vase modelled in Coade stone dating from 1770 to 1771.
Stowe Gardens, a grade I listed landscape garden in Stowe, Buckinghamshire.()
- 'The Oxford Gates'. The central piers were designed by William Kent in 1731 Pavilions at either end were added in the 1780s to the design of the architect Vincenzo Valdrè. The piers have coats of arms in Coade stone.
- 'The Gothic Cross' erected in 1814 from Coade stone on the path linking the Doric Arch to the Temple of Ancient Virtue. It was erected by the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos as a memorial to his mother Lady Mary Nugent. It was demolished in the 1980s by a falling elm tree. The National Trust rebuilt the cross in 2017 using several of the surviving pieces of the monument.
- 'The Cobham Monument' is the tallest structure in the gardens. It incorporates a square plinth with corner buttresses surmounted by Coade stone lions holding shields added in 1778.
- 'The Gothic Umbrello' also called the Conduit House a small octagonal pavilion dating from the 1790s. The coat of arms of the Marquess of Buckingham, dated 1793, made from Coade stone are placed over the entrance door.
Teigngrace Devon. James Templer (1748–1813), the builder of the Stover Canal, is commemorated by a Coade stone monument in Teigngrace church.()
Tong, Shropshire - St Bartholomew's Church. The church's north door served as the "Door of Excommunication". A stoneworked version of the Royal Arms of George III, is located above the north door which is made of Coade stone. The monument cost £60 in 1814, and was a present from George Jellicoe to celebrate the Peace of Paris and Napoleon's exile to Elba.()
Towcester Racecourse on the Easton Neston estate – Main Entrance Gate decorated with an array of dogs, urns and vases surmounted by the Fermor arms, signed by William Croggon.(), (See "Towcester racecourse / Easton Neston House" images in Gallery)
Tremadog, Gwynedd, Wales. St Mary's Church Lychgate. Tremadog was founded, planned, named for and built by William Madocks between 1798 and 1811. The Lychgate to the churchyard is spanned by a decorative arch of Coade stone, containing boars, dragons, frogs, grimacing cherubs, owls, shrouded figures and squirrels, while the tops of the towers are surrounded by elephant heads.()
Twickenham Stadium Lion gate. (R.F.U.) The lion was sculpted in Coade stone by William F. Woodington in 1837 and paired with the "South Bank Lion" at the Lion Brewery on the Lambeth bank of the River Thames. It is now located above the central pillar of the Rowland Hill Memorial Gate (Gate 3) at Twickenham Stadium. It was covered with gold leaf prior to the 1991 Rugby World Cup held in England. The Lion brewery was damaged by fire and closed in 1931, and then demolished in 1949 to make way for the Royal Festival Hall. () (See "Twickenham Stadium Lion" image at top of this article)
Twinings' first ever (and still operating) shop's frontispiece, in the Strand, London opposite the Royal Courts of Justice, rediscovered under soot after a century.()
University of Maryland, College Park, United States – The keystone, featuring a carving of the head of Silenus, above the entry to The Rossborough Inn.()
University of East London, Stratford Campus. Statue of William Shakespeare. (See Shakespeare, University of East London image in Gallery)
Weymouth, Dorset. King's Statue, (Weymouth) is a tribute to George III on the seafront.()
Weston Park, in Weston-under-Lizard, Staffordshire.
- Sundial, 1825. The sundial in the grounds of the hall is in Coade stone, and is high. It has a triangular plan with concave sides. At the bottom is a plinth with meander decoration on a circular base, the sides are moulded with festoons at the top, in the angles are caryatids, and at the top is a fluted frieze and an egg-and-dart cornice. ()
- Two urns and planting basin, 1825. The urns and planting basin are in Coade stone, and are to the southwest of the 'Temple of Diana'. The basin has a diameter of , with a cabled rim to the kerb. The urns are on a base, and each has a short stem, and a wide body with guilloché decoration and carvings of lions' heads. ()
Whiteford House, Cornwall. The stables and a garden folly (called Whiteford Temple) survive. The Temple is owned by the Landmark Trust and let as a holiday cottage. There are Coade stone plaques on the exterior.()
Windsor Castle, St George's Chapel. Mrs Coade was commissioned by King George III to make the Gothic screen designed by Henry Emlyn, and possibly also replace part of the ceiling of St George's Chapel. ()
Woodeaton Manor, Oxford. In 1775 John and Elizabeth Weyland had the old manor house demolished and the present Woodeaton Manor built. In 1791 the architect Sir John Soane enhanced its main rooms with marble chimneypieces, added an Ionic porch of Coade stone, a service wing and an ornate main hall.()
Woodhall Park is a Grade I listed country house, Watton-at-Stone, Hertfordshire. Limited use of Coade stone in the park.()
Woolverstone Hall, Ipswich, The house, now a school, is built of Woolpit brick, with Coade stone ornamentation. ()
Park Crescent, Worthing, A triumphal arch. The main archway, designed for carriages, contains the busts of four bearded men as atlantes. The two side arches, designed for pedestrians, each contain the busts of four young ladies as caryatids. The Coade stone busts were supplied by William Croggan, successor to Eleanor Coade.()
Birkbeck Image library
In 2020, the library of Birkbeck, University of London, launched the Coade Stone image collection online, consisting of digitised slides of examples of Coade stone bequeathed by Alison Kelly, whose book Coade Stone was described by Caroline Stanford as "the most authoritative treatment on the subject".
Gallery
Modern replication claims
The recipe and techniques for producing Coade stone are claimed to have been rediscovered by Coade Ltd. from its workshops in Wilton, Wiltshire. In 2000, Coade ltd started producing statues, sculptures and architectural ornaments.
See also
Anthropic rock
Baluster
Cast stone
Pulhamite
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
In 2021 Historic England launched a crowd sourced Enrich the List map of Coade stone in England.
Google - My Maps
Historic England. Eleanor Coade and Interactive map of Coade stone sites
Anna Keay of the Landmark Trust discussing Mrs Coade and Coade stone
Birkbeck College Collections - Coade Stone
Gallery of images.
Plate 48: A view of Westminster Bridge, 1791. shows King's Arms Stairs in the foreground (possibly) with a sign advertising Coade's factory.
Imagee of Coade's factory, circa 1800
Plate 38a: Coade's Artificial Stone Manufactory 1801
Plate 39a: The entrance to Coade and Sealy's Gallery of Sculpture, Westminster Bridge, 1802
Coade stone factory, Narrow Wall, Lambeth, London, c1800.
Coade and Sealey's Artificial Stone Factory, by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd
Thomason Cudworth, restorers of Coade stone.
Coade Ltd, current makers and restorers of Coade stone.
Artificial stone
Stoneware
Ceramic materials |
4086177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merzbox | Merzbox | Merzbox is a box set compilation by the Japanese noise musician Merzbow. It consists of 50 CDs spanning Merzbow's career from 1979 to 1997. 30 discs are taken from long out of print releases, while 20 are composed mainly of unreleased material. The box also contains two CD-ROMs, six CD-sized round cards, six round stickers, a poster, a black long-sleeve T-shirt, a medallion, and the Merzbook, all packaged together in a "fetish" black rubber box. It is limited to 1000 numbered copies. A Merzbox Sampler was released in 1997.
The Merzbook, subtitled The Pleasuredome of Noise, is a 132-page hardcover book written by Brett Woodward with over 100 images. It contains an extensive biography, culled from previous interviews and articles, a new interview, and essays by Achim Wollscheid, Jim O'Rourke, Damion Romero, Eugene Thacker, and Jonathan Walker. Masami Akita provides extensive liner notes for each disc. The book was also released separately with the Merzrom included.
The Merzrom is an interactive multimedia CD-ROM, designed by Troy Innocent. A second CD-ROM contains various Extreme press and a catalog. The "Merzdallion" medallion was designed by Marcus Davidson. Art direction and design were by Doriana Corda. Audio mastering was by François Tétaz.
History
Extreme's original plan was to reissue Collaborative, their only vinyl release, for the label's tenth anniversary. There was then discussion of reissuing other early releases, with talk of a ten disc box, the number was finally set at 50 discs. The Merzbox was originally scheduled for release in late 1997, and available for pre-order, but kept getting delayed until it was finally released in 2000. It was officially launched on June 16, 2000 at Sónar, Barcelona, where Merzbow also performed.
Those who had pre-ordered received a two CD album called Decomposition with remixes of Eugene Thacker and Shane Fahey followed by the original tracks, the Merzbox Sampler, and two posters. These were then made available with purchase of the Merzbox for extra money.
The Merzbox was exhibited at Kunsthalle Wien, Vienna from April 4 to April 7, 2002. Merzbow performed opening and closing concerts. All 60 hours were webcast live.
In December 2002, Georgia Tech's student-run radio station WREK broadcast the entire 50-disc Merzbox without interruption. An article in Creative Loafing described the Merzbow Marathon as "what may be the most obscure and counterintuitive move in the history of radio."
Between the final recordings of the set and its release, Merzbow switched to using a laptop, having first acquired a Macintosh to work on the artwork for the set.
Masami Akita has stated in a 2009 interview that he has enough unreleased material for another 50 CD box. Between 2010 and 2013, he released four 10 box sets of unreleased raw material recorded from 1987 to 1997; Merzbient, Merzphysics, Merzmorphosis, and Duo. 2012 also saw the release of Lowest Music & Arts 1980–1983, a 10 LP box set that included some full-length albums only partially released in the Merzbox. Since 2018, further archival recordings have been released through Japanese label Slowdown Records, including the 60 CD boxset 10×6=60 in 2021.
Album listing
OM Electrique
The first noise recordings of Merzbow. Previously unreleased.
Personnel
Masami Akita – tape recorder, percussion, meditation, guitar, Merztronics, taped drums, voice, water
Metal Acoustic Music
Earliest Merzbow recording available until the release of the Merzbox.
Notes
Side one of the Metal Acoustic Music cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Personnel
Masami Akita – Merztronics, tape recorder, recorded percussion
Remblandt Assemblage
First work using tape manipulation. Only a few copies distributed.
Notes
Mixed at Lowest Music & Arts, 1980
All tracks from Remblandt Assemblage cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, prepared acoustic guitar, noise, tabla, percussion, microphone, voice, radio, concret sounds, egg cutter
Collection Era Vol. 1
The three Collection Era discs are compiled from the ten volume Collection series. The first five volumes were recorded for Ylem and consist of studio sessions with Kiyoshi Mizutani. However, Ylem went out of business before they could be released. Masami Akita then released them himself and recorded five more at home using previous Collection session recordings mixed with new material and effects.
Notes
Mixed at Ylem/Gap Works, Tokyo, 3 June 1981
Tracks 1–2 from Collection 001 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Track 3 from Collection 002 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, ring modulator, violin, tabla, voice, guitar, percussion, drums, radio
Kiyoshi Mizutani – drums on track 1, percussion on track 2, organ on track 3
Collection Era Vol. 2
Note: The contents of CD 5 and CD 6 were switched (5 has eight tracks and 6 has seven), the info below is as it appears in the Merzbook.
Notes
Mixed at Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Tracks 1–4 from Collection 007 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Track 5 from Collection 009 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Tracks 6–7 from Collection 010 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Merztronics tape used on tracks 6–7
Personnel
Masami Akita – taped drums, tabla, guitar, tapes, Synare 3, percussion, ring modulated recorders, voice, endless tape, noise, rhythm box
Kiyoshi Mizutani – wood bass on track 6
Collection Era Vol. 3
Notes
Tracks 1–7 from Collection 008 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Track 8 from Tridal Production cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Personnel
Masami Akita – guitar, tape, damaged tape recorder, bass guitar, Dr. Rhythm, ring modulator, percussion, rubber guitar, violin, tape loops, Synare 3, tabla, drums, synthesizer
Kiyoshi Mizutani – guitar on track 1, piano on track 4, violin on tracks 7–8
Paradoxa Paradoxa
The first Merzbow live performance.
Notes
Mastered from original live recording
Track 1 from Paradoxa Paradoxa cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Track 2 previously unreleased
Personnel
Masami Akita – Merztronix, tape, solar organ on track 2, violin, Dr. Rhythm, alto saxophone, radio, feedback
Kiyoshi Mizutani – solar organ on track 1, violin, tape, piano
Masahiro Kurose – live recording
Material Action for 2 Microphones
"Material Action" was a term for using household objects to make quiet sounds, which were then amplified, inspired by John Cage's "Cartridge Music". The term itself was taken from Otto Muehl. This recording was used as raw material for other works such as Material Action 2 N.A.M.
Notes
Mixed at Lowest Music & Arts Studio, 1981
Tracks 1–2 from Material Action for 2 Microphones cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1981
Personnel
Masami Akita – condenser microphone, environmental percussion, scratched sound, tapes, turntable, radio
Kiyoshi Mizutani – condenser microphone, percussion, additional synthesizer
Yantra Material Action
Originally intended to be the first Merzbow LP, but it went unreleased. Six months later the label then asked again to release the LP, but Akita decided to record new material – which became Material Action 2 N.A.M. Includes reworks of past recordings with added effects and new instrumentation. The liner notes were to have been written by Fred Frith, who heard the tape and liked it.
Notes
Mixed at Junktion Music Works, 1981
All tracks from Yantra Material Action cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, junks, noise, percussion, radio, drums, guitar
Kiyoshi Mizutani – percussion, guitar, keyboards, synthesizer, tapes
H. Kawagishi – sound engineering
Solonoise
Solonoise means "Solar-Noise", inspired by Georges Bataille's The Solar Anus.
Notes
Tracks 1–2 from Solonoise 1 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Track 3 from Solonoise 2 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Personnel
Masami Akita – electronics, ring modulator, violin, voice, treated tapes, acoustic guitar, Nil Vagina tape loop, treated percussion, Synare 3, TV, styrofoam
Kiyoshi Mizutani – violin, electric piano on track 1
Expanded Music
Conceptual works manipulating various inputs using feedback processed audio mixer. Inspired by Stan Brakhage's scratched films.
Notes
Tracks 1-8 from Expanded Music 2 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Track 9 from Musick from Simulation World cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – TV test signal, feedback mixer, damaged tape recorder, Dr. Rhythm, tapes, percussion, synthesizer
Nil Vagina Tape Loops
Featuring a four track tape recorder found in the street. A different sound was recorded on each track, and then played back randomly.
Personnel
Masami Akita – Sony 464 tape recorder, Nil Vagina tape loop, treated tapes, percussion, Synare 3, Dr. Rhythm
Notes
Track 1 from Solonoise 2 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Tracks 2–3 from Lowest Music 2 cassette, Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Material Action 2 N.A.M
The first Merzbow LP. The 2 in the title refers to Yantra Material Action, which was meant to be the first LP. Sounds include styrofoam and a typesetting machine (Kiyoshi Mizutani worked at a typesetting company at the time). Includes raw material from Material Action for 2 Microphones.
Notes
All tracks from Material Action 2 N.A.M. LP, Chaos, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, junk percussion, electro-acoustical noise, organ, tape collage, recording, mixing
Kiyoshi Mizutani – tapes, synthesizer, violin, machine noise
H. Kawagishi – engineering
Mechanization Takes Command
First release on ZSF Produkt. Akita changed the name of his label since he wanted to release other artists. Featuring the Synare 3, which was later destroyed by Bara on stage in the late 90s.
Notes
Mixed at ZSF Produkt Studio, Asagaya March 1983
All tracks from Mechanization Takes Command cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – Pearl drum kit, various percussion, tapes, TV, Synare 3, voice, tabla, Dr. Rhythm, ring modulator, guitar, feedback, synthesizer, recorder, scrap metals, devices
Dying Mapa Tapes 1-2
Title inspired by the Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism. Made with different equipment and instruments than other recordings of the same period. Featuring instruments recorded on tape, then slowed down or played backwards.
Notes
Produced by Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Tracks 1–4 from Dying Mapa I cassette, Aeon, 1983
Track 5 from Dying Mapa II cassette, Aeon, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, radio, ring modulator, percussion, noise, rhythm box, guitar
Kiyoshi Mizutani – violin, percussion
Dying Mapa Tapes 2-3
Notes
Produced by Lowest Music & Arts, 1982
Track 1 from Dying Mapa II cassette, Aeon, 1983
Tracks 2–3 from Dying Mapa III cassette, Aeon, 1983
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, radio, ring modulator, percussion, noise, rhythm, junk electronics, TV, guitar, bass
Kiyoshi Mizutani – violin, percussion
Agni Hotra
Originally intended to be the second Merzbow LP, but it went unreleased. Includes outtakes from Ushi-tra, which is from the same period. Loops were included on Loop Panic Limited.
Notes
Tracks 1–4 from first Agni Hotra master
Track 5 from second Agni Hotra master
Track 6 appeared with different mix on Ushi-tra cassette, Cause & Effect, 1985
Track 7 from Ushi-tra recording session
Personnel
Masami Akita – distorted tape loops, metals, recorder, tapes, tape reel, percussion, shakujo, bells, noise
Pornoise 1kg Vol. 1
In the 80s Masami Akita had a mail art project called Pornoise, in which he made collages using discarded magazines – in particular pornographic magazines – taken from the trash. These were then sent along with his cassettes, the idea being that his art was like cheap mail order pornography. Pornoise/1kg was released as part of these activities; the 1 kg refers to the total weight of the original package. The voice on "Night Noise White" is taken from the "Halt Tape".
Notes
All tracks from Pornoise/1kg cassette box, ZSF Produkt, 1984
Personnel
Masami Akita – distorted Sony 464, feedback mixer, radio, loop tapes, Synare 3, rhythm box, ring modulator, devices
Kiyoshi Mizutani – taped typesetting machine noise and taped synthesizer on tracks 2–4 with distorted process
Pornoise 1kg Vol. 2
Field recordings on "Dynamite Don Don" include street sounds recorded from a moving bicycle, and a house being demolished across from Akita's apartment.
Notes
All tracks from Pornoise/1kg cassette box, ZSF Produkt, 1984
Personnel
Masami Akita – distorted Sony 464, feedback mixer, loop tapes, Synare 3, ring modulator, field recording tapes, devices
Pornoise 1kg Vol. 3
The voice on "UFO vs British Army" is taken from the "Halt Tape". Some other samples are from horror films.
Notes
All tracks from Pornoise/1kg cassette box, ZSF Produkt, 1984
Personnel
Masami Akita – distorted Sony 464, feedback mixer, loop tapes, Synare 3, ring modulator, devices
Pornoise Extra
Additional tracks from the Pornoise 1kg sessions. Original release had different track titles.
Notes
All tracks from Pornoise/Extra cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1985
Personnel
Masami Akita – feedback mixer, radio, loop tapes, Synare 3, rhythm box, ring modulator, distorted Sony 464, devices
Kiyoshi Mizutani – sampled electric piano
Sadomasochismo / Lampinak
Includes unused tracks for Batztoutai with Memorial Gadgets
Notes
Tracks 1–3 from Sadomasochismo cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1985
Tracks 4–6 from The Lampinak cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1985
Personnel
Masami Akita – various metal percussion, chain, loops, noise electronics, Synare 3, tapes
Mortegage / Batztoutai Extra
Original recordings for the Batztoutai with Memorial Gadgets album. Includes samples from François Bayle, Conlon Nancarrow, Ivo Malec, Luc Ferrari.
Notes
Track 1 appeared edited on Batztoutai with Memorial Gadgets LP, RRRecords, 1986
Track 2 previously unreleased
Track 3 appeared in different order on Batztoutai with Memorial Gadgets LP
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, voice, electronics, scrap metals, percussion, field recordings
Enclosure / Libido Economy
First of two cassettes made with raw material from Ecobondage, Vratya Southward being the second.
Notes
Tracks 1–3 from Enclosure cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1987
Track 5 from Enkele Gemotiveerde Produktiemedewerkers compilation, Midas Music, 1990
Track 6 from Network 77 compilation, Network 77, 1990
Personnel
Masami Akita – bowed instruments with piano wires, ring modulator, tapes, feedback mixer, effects, percussion, turntable
Vratya Southward
Second cassette made with raw material from Ecobondage. "Electric Red Desart" includes a field recording of the festival at the Goryō shrine in Kamakura. Masami Akita posted photos of the procession on his blog in 2010.
Notes
Tracks 1–2 from Vratya Southward cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1987
Track 3 previously unreleased
Personnel
Masami Akita – cymbals, various percussion, electronics, paper pipe, tapes, plastic, voice, flute, toy marimba, scratch records, electric violin on tracks 1–2; feedback mixer, piano strings on metal box on track 3
Live in Khabarovsk, CCCP – I'm Proud by Rank of the Workers
First two of three performances. First performance was stopped for being "too wild", so they then played more conventionally. Includes Batztoutai material on backing tape, and Russian radio.
Notes
Recorded live at Jazz-on-Amur '88, Khabarovsk, Russia
Live PA recordings by Russian staff
Remastered from original live recording
Different versions appeared on Live in Khabarovsk, CCCP LP, ZSF Produkt, 1988
Personnel
Masami Akita – electric bowed instruments, tape, radio on track 1; drums, tape on track 2
Kiyoshi Mizutani – piano, low feedback US MP guitar on track 1; piano, guitar on track 2
Storage
Due to issues with sound quality, the recording was edited for the LP release. The full-length recording is released here for the first time. The working title for the album was War Storage, which is now used for the track titles.
Notes
All tracks from Storage LP, ZSF Produkt, 1988
Personnel
Masami Akita – bowed instruments with piano wires, percussion, tapes, effects, guitar
Kiyoshi Mizutani – submitted raw material on track 2
Fission Dialogue
Unreleased tracks from Ecobondage and Storage period.
Personnel
Masami Akita – cymbals, various percussion, electronics, voice, byan, bowed instruments, paper pipe on tracks 1–2; noise electronics, turntable, scrap metals on track 3
Collaborative
Essay by Jonathan Walker from the original LP is reprinted in the Merzbook.
Notes
Track 1 recorded at ZSF Produkt on 8 March 1988
Track 2 produced 1988
Track 3 recorded at ZSF Produkt (live) on 1 May 1988
All tracks from Collaborative LP+7″, Extreme, 1988 [Note: The S.B.O.T.H.I. solo track from the 7″ is not included in the Merzbox]
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, metals, scratch, guitar, mixing on track 3
Kiyoshi Mizutani – samples, guitar, balalaika, byan on track 3
Achim Wollscheid – raw materials on track 1, production on track 2
Crocidura Dsi Nezumi
"Unplugged noise" made using household objects; violin sound is violin bow on plastic cassette case or wood, acoustic guitar is a rubber band, Tibetan trumpet is a toilet paper tube, electrical sounds are made with metal. "Environmental drums" are the floor, gas stove, the spring of a table lamp.
Names are taken from the Latin names of the Dsinezumi shrew, Japanese stoat, and Japanese least weasel. Other titles were inspired by Frank Zappa's song "The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet" and Sun Ra's album Strange Strings.
Notes
Tracks 1-2 from Crocidura Dsi Nezumi cassette, ZSF Produkt and Banned Production, 1988
Track 3 previously unreleased
Personnel
Masami Akita – environmental drums, bowed instruments, paper pipe, plastic, woods, flute, insects, effects on tracks 1–2; bowed instruments, motor, noise electronics on track 3
KIR Transformation
From a concert with Achim Wollscheid: first Merzbow played, then Wollscheid played using a recording of Merzbow's set, then Merzbow and Wollscheid played together.
Notes
Edited by Achim Wollscheid, 1997
SCUM Vol. 1
SCUM was project to create new works out of previous Merzbow sessions using cut-ups, effects, and mixing. Name taken from the SCUM Manifesto. The track titles influenced by American post-war art. This was last LP record on ZSF Produkt.
Notes
Order of this CD is same as the original master tapes
Tracks 2–5 previously unreleased
All others from Scissors for Cutting Merzbow LP, ZSF Produkt, 1989
Personnel
Masami Akita – electronics, tapes, bowed instruments, percussion, metal junks, motor, piano wires, noise generator, drums, guitar, radio
Kiyoshi Mizutani – junks, effects on raw materials
SCUM Vol. 2
Notes
Order of this CD is same as the original master tapes
Track 4 previously unreleased
All others from Scissors for Cutting Merzbow LP, ZSF Produkt, 1989
Personnel
Masami Akita – electronics, tapes, bowed instruments, percussion, metal junks, motor, piano wires, noise generator, guitar, electric shaver, radio, effects
Kiyoshi Mizutani – guitar, junks, effects on raw materials
Severances
Includes two covers, "Deaf Forever" by Motörhead and the Jimi Hendrix version of "Wild Thing".
Notes
Drum track of "Rap the Khabarovsk" was recorded live in Russia
All tracks from Severances cassette, Discordia/Concordia, 1989
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, turntables, electronix, drum kit, percussion, voice, metal percussion, bowed instruments, electro-shaver, motor, self-made junk
Kiyoshi Mizutani – tape materials: guitar on tracks 1 and 3; keyboard, computer rhythm on track 2
Steel CUM
The EP on Vertical Records was remixed and released without permission, with the cover made using one of Masami Akita's collages. "But a result of EP was fine. So, I'm agreed. But EP is still bootleg."
Notes
Mixed at ZSF Produkt Studio 1989
All tracks from Steel Cum cassette, ZSF Produkt, 1990
Some parts appeared on Steel Cum 7″, Vertical, 1992
Personnel
Masami Akita – guitar, drums, tapes, electronics, metal bowed instruments, feedback mixer, turntable
Kiyoshi Mizutani – drums, guitar on some parts
Cloud Cock OO Grand
During the European tour in 1989, Masami Akita could only bring simple equipment, and created a new live electronics style, different from his acoustical and tape based studio work, leading to the harsh noise Merzbow became known for in the 1990s. Cloud Cock OO Grand was the first example of this style, Merzbow's first digital recording, and the only CD on ZSF Produkt.
Notes
Mixed at ZSF Produkt Studio 17 April 1990
Track 4 includes live recordings at V2, 's-Hertogenbosch, and Diogenes, Nijmegen, September 1989
All tracks from Cloud Cock OO Grand CD, ZSF Produkt, 1990 [Note: "Modular" is about five minutes longer here than on the original CD]
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, noise electronics, metals, distorted DBX, turntable, loops, bowed instruments, metal harp, short wave
Reiko Azuma – bowed instruments on track 4
Peter Duimelinks – original live recordings
Newark Hellfire, Live at WFMU, USA
Radio session from Merzbow's first American tour.
Notes
Live recording by WFMU
Remastered from original recording at ZSF Produkt Studio
An excerpt appeared on Great American Nude / Crash for Hi-Fi CD, Alchemy, 1991
Personnel
Masami Akita – feedback audio mixer, metals, electronics, electric shaver
Reiko Azuma – metals, bowed instruments
Hannover Cloud
Features outtakes from Hannover Interruption and Cloud Cock OO Grand. "Rocket Bomber" uses raw materials from Sadomasochismo.
Notes
Tracks 1–2 outtakes from Hannover Interruption LP, Dradomel, 1990
Track 3 outtake from Cloud Cock OO Grand CD, ZSF Produkt, 1990
Track 4 different mix appeared on Cloud Cock OO Grand
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, metals, tapes
Stacy Q, Hi-Fi Sweet Leaf
Originally made as raw material for "Crash for Hi-Fi", "Wing Over", and "Another Crash for High Tide". Includes the use of a scratched Cloud Cock OO Grand CD.
Notes
All tracks no editing
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, tapes, scratched CD, radio, sound effect records, guitar
Music for True Romance Vol. 1
Backing tracks made for True Romance, a performance art project with Seido and Bara.
Notes
Tracks 1–4 made for Blood Orgy of the She Dolls soundtrack, 1992
Track 5 made for "Isis and Secret Army Hyper Vivisection" performance at MOMA, Kyoto, 1993
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, electronics, disks
Brain Ticket Death
Track 4 samples Brainticket's self-titled song from their album Cottonwoodhill. It's also a reference to Nurse with Wound, who used the same bit on Brained by Falling Masonry.
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, metals, turntable, bass, guitar
Sons of Slash Noise Metal
Tracks 1 and 3 were made as raw material for recordings of the same period. Track 2 is a remix of a fragment.
Notes
All tracks remastered from original mother tape, no editing
Personnel
Masami Akita – metals, noise electronics, scratched CD, radio, tapes
Exotic Apple
Includes Arthur Lyman samples. Yuuri Sunohara is a director, producer, model etc. for Kinbiken/Right Brain. "Apple Rock" includes unused material originally made for Flying Testicle.
Notes
Track 1 from Melt compilation, Work In Progress, 1992
Track 2 from Land of the Rising Noise compilation, Charnel House, 1993
Personnel
Masami Akita – tapes, noise electronix, metals, guitar, EMS Synthi A, Roland TR-606
Liquid City
Originally intended to be part of a CD+CD-ROM called Scatologic Baroque, but it was canceled. The material for the CD-ROM was use for the book Anal Baroque. Part of the "World Trilogy" with Magnesia Nova and Green Wheels. "Liquid City 17-1-95" was recorded on the same day as the Great Hanshin earthquake. "Tiabguls" is a Throbbing Gristle tribute.
Notes
Track 3 from Entertainment Through Pain compilation, RRRecords, 1995
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, metals, EMS, voice
Red Magnesia Pink
Outtakes from Red 2 Eyes, Magnesia Nova, and Pinkream.
Personnel
Masami Akita – EMS Synthi 'A', noise electronics, metal, filters, voice
Marfan Syndrome
"Marfan Syndrome for Blue" is Akita's first track to use the EMS synthesiser. Track 2 is a reference to Claes Oldenburg, who creates oversized sculptures of everyday objects, including soft sculptures.
Notes
Track 1 appeared with different mix on Eternal Blue Extreme compilation, Somnus, 1994
Track 4 appeared edited on Coruscanto by Reiko Azuma, Nekoisis, 1995
All others previously unreleased
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, EMS, Synare 3, metals, rubber bass guitar, telephone signal, tape, voice
Reiko Azuma – voice on tracks 1 and 5
Rhinogradentia
Named after a fictitious order of mammals. Masami Akita performed solo twice as Zecken, playing this style.
Notes
Remixed in 1997
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, EMS, audio generator, filters
Space Mix Travelling Band
Tracks 1–2 are based on four channel tape: two channels recorded in 1994 and used on tracks of the same period, and two channels of EMS recorded in 1996. Additional EMS and Moog overdub and final mix in 1997.
Notes
Raw materials of tracks recorded during 1994–1996
Track 3 different mix used as raw material for Brisbane–Tokyo Interlace with John Watermann, Cold Spring, 1996
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, EMS, Moog, metals, voice, tapes
Motorond
Track 1 was the most recent live performance when the Merzbox was compiled.
Notes
All remixed at ZSF Produkt Studio, April 1997
Track 2 last 10 minutes appeared on Non Stop Noise Party, Hond in de Goot, 2000
Personnel
Masami Akita – noise electronics, Novation Bass Station, metals, pressure pedal
Bara – voice
Annihiloscillator
Selection of recent tracks when the Merzbox was compiled. Track 3 is a reference to Marguerite Yourcenar's Dark Brain of Piranesi, an essay about Giovanni Battista Piranesi's Carceri prints.
Notes
Raw material for track 2 recorded live in California, 1995
Track 4 appeared on Merzbow/Kadef split 10″, Dreizehn, 1997
Personnel
Masami Akita – metal, noise electronix, EMS on tracks 1–2, Theremin on tracks 1–4, Moog on track 4
Reiko Azuma – noise on track 2
Bara – voice on track 2
References
Merzbow compilation albums
2000 compilation albums |
4086290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398%20in%20English%20football | 1997–98 in English football | The 1997–98 season was the 118th season of competitive football in England.
Overview
Premier League
Arsenal overhauled Manchester United's lead during the final weeks of the season to win the Premiership title. They added the FA Cup two weeks later to become only the second English club to repeat the double.
All three newly promoted teams – Bolton Wanderers, Barnsley and Crystal Palace – were relegated after just one season in the Premiership.
Everton endured their most difficult season for some 50 years. They finished 17th in the Premiership and only avoided relegation because they had a stronger goal difference than 18th-placed Bolton, although Bolton had a goal wrongfully disallowed against Everton in the first ever match played at The Reebok Stadium. Manager Howard Kendall's third reign at the helm came to an end soon afterwards and he was replaced by Walter Smith.
Leeds United and Blackburn Rovers made good progress in the Premiership and achieved UEFA Cup qualification.
Division One
Champions Nottingham Forest and runners-up Middlesbrough won promotion back to the Premiership at the first time of asking. Charlton Athletic won the playoffs to end an eight-year absence from the top flight.
Reading were relegated in bottom place. They were joined on the last day of the season by Manchester City and Stoke City. The blue half of Manchester endured relegation to the third tier of the English league for the first time in its history, despite beating also doomed Stoke 5–2 away on the last day of the season, but neither fans took lightly to relegation, as mass football violence outside outshone the match. Portsmouth and Port Vale won their games to avoid the drop.
Division Two
Graham Taylor's second spell as manager brought instant success as Watford won the Division Two championship. They were joined by runners-up Bristol City and playoff winners Grimsby Town.
Going down to Division Three were Brentford, Plymouth Argyle, Carlisle United and Southend United. Brentford had been losing playoff finalists just 12 months earlier, Plymouth had been promoted to Division Two just two seasons earlier, Carlisle were newly promoted and Southend had endured their second successive relegation.
Division Three
In their first season as a Football League club, Macclesfield Town finished runners-up in Division Three to gain their second successive promotion, a year after winning the Conference. They were joined by champions Notts County, who won the title by 17 points and became the first team since World War II to secure promotion in March, third-placed Lincoln City and playoff winners Colchester United.
Doncaster Rovers suffered an English league record of 34 defeats and won just four games to lose their league status. They were replaced by Conference champions Halifax Town, who regained their league status five years after losing it.
FA Cup
Arsenal became only the second club to have won two doubles after they beat Newcastle United 2–0 and added the FA Cup to their Premiership title triumph.
League Cup
Chelsea beat Middlesbrough 2–0 to give new manager Gianluca Vialli his first major trophy just weeks after being appointed.
Award winners and statistical leaders
Dennis Bergkamp played in Arsenal's double-winning team and was voted both PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year.
Liverpool's 18-year-old striker Michael Owen scored 18 Premiership goals and became the youngest England player of the 20th century. He was voted PFA Young Player of the Year. Owen shared the Premier League Golden Boot with Chris Sutton of Blackburn Rovers and Coventry City's Dion Dublin.
Owen's Liverpool teammate Steve McManaman had 12 assists in the league, placing him behind Manchester United's David Beckham, who was the top goal assists maker in the league.
Successful managers
Arsène Wenger won his first major trophy as Arsenal manager by guiding them to Premiership and FA Cup glory.
Gianluca Vialli, 33, kicked off his management career by winning the League Cup and Cup Winners' Cup with Chelsea.
Alan Curbishley finally succeeded in getting Charlton promoted to the Premiership after seven seasons of trying on limited resources.
Dave Bassett succeeded in getting Nottingham Forest promoted back to the Premiership at the first time of asking.
Bryan Robson returned Middlesbrough to the Premiership as Division One runners-up, as well as taking them to runners-up spot in the League Cup.
Graham Taylor began his second spell as Watford manager by winning the Division Two championship and giving his club their first successful season since they were league runners-up back in 1983.
Sammy McIlroy achieved a second successive promotion for Macclesfield Town in their first season of league football.
Alan Buckley achieved promotion for Grimsby Town after their relegation from Division One. Also took the team to Wembley for the first time in its history to win the Associate Members Cup against AFC Bournemouth.
Sam Allardyce took Notts County to the Division Three title with 99 points, the highest tally in any division this season.
Shane Westley won promotion to Division Two just weeks after taking over as manager of Lincoln City.
George Mulhall, 62, returned Halifax Town to the Football League as Conference champions five years after they had been demoted.
Events
Double glory for Arsenal and Chelsea
Arsenal equalled Manchester United's record of two league championship and FA Cup doubles when they overhauled Alex Ferguson's men in the Premiership title race and beat Kenny Dalglish's Newcastle United in the FA Cup final in Arsène Wenger's second season at Highbury.
Chelsea completed the other half of the London double by beating Middlesbrough in the League Cup final and VFB Stuttgart in the Cup Winners Cup final, within three months of 33-year-old striker Gianluca Vialli taking over as player-manager after Ruud Gullit was sacked for arguing about transfer funds with chairman Ken Bates.
Grief for the red and white part of Stoke, and the blue half of Manchester
Although the red half of Manchester reeled in disappointment at being beaten to the Premiership title by Arsenal, the blue half of Manchester had to come to terms with the agony of relegation to the third tier for the first time in their history. City had started the Division One campaign badly and manager Frank Clark (footballer) was sacked in March, with former Everton manager Joe Royle being appointed as his successor.
City went into their final game of the season at Stoke, with both sides knowing that they had to win to stand any chance of avoiding relegation. In the end City won 5–2, but both teams were relegated because Portsmouth and Port Vale won their games.
To the dismay of the Stoke fans, Stoke were relegated in the first season of their new stadium. Many fans did not take to moving to the Britannia Stadium from their sacred old Victoria Ground, which saw its last top flight season with the Potteries club in the 1984/85 season.
Argentina end England's World Cup hopes
England took on Argentina in the Second Round of the World Cup in France, with a classic goal by 18-year-old striker Michael Owen giving them an early lead. The score was 2–2 with 45 minutes played, and early in the second half Diego Simeone fouled David Beckham and sent the 23-year-old midfielder falling to the ground. Beckham, still lying on the ground, reacted by kicking Simeone in the shins and was sent off. The game finished 2-2, and England lost the resultant penalty shoot-out after David Batty and Paul Ince's shots were saved. The trophy was finally won by hosts France.
Famous debutants
8 August 1997: Robbie Keane, 17-year-old striker, scores on his debut for Wolverhampton Wanderers against Norwich City in Division One. On the same day, defender Paul Konchesky makes his debut for Charlton Athletic and becomes their youngest ever player in a competitive match, just 93 days after his 16th birthday.
10 January 1998: Aaron Hughes, 17-year-old defender, makes his debut for Newcastle United their 2–1 away defeat to Sheffield Wednesday in the Premier League.
2 May 1998: Wes Brown, 18-year-old central defender, made his debut for Manchester United as a substitute against Leeds United in the penultimate game of the Premier League season.
2 May 1998: Gareth Barry, 17-year-old Central defender, made his debut for Aston Villa against Sheffield Wednesday in the Premier League
Honours
Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour (First Division & Premier League). Number after slash is Premier League only. * indicates new record for competition
League tables
FA Premier League
Arsène Wenger became the first foreign manager to win an English top division title when his Arsenal side went on a storming run in the second half of the season to overhaul a Manchester United side who had looked uncatchable until well into March. Liverpool, inspired by brilliant teenager striker Michael Owen, managed a third-place finish, while fourth place went to a Chelsea side who enjoyed their first top-five finish since 1990 and also added the League Cup and European Cup Winners' Cup to their honours list soon after Ruud Gullit was suddenly sacked in favour of Gianluca Vialli. Leeds United finished fifth to earn a return to European competition after two difficult seasons, while Blackburn Rovers also qualified for the UEFA Cup with a sixth-place finish, as did seventh placed Aston Villa whose new manager John Gregory had taken them from the fringe of a relegation battle in the space of three months.
Newcastle United, handicapped by the pre-season departures of Les Ferdinand and David Ginola, as well as the injury-enforced absence of Alan Shearer in the first half of the season, endured a disappointing season in the league as they finished 13th. Ferdinand and Ginola's new club Tottenham could only manage a 14th-place finish.
Going down were all three newly promoted clubs; Crystal Palace, Barnsley and Bolton Wanderers. It was the first occasion when all three newly promoted clubs were relegated from any division. Barnsley remains the most recent of six clubs that so far have only completed one season in the top flight.
Everton, who had been in the top flight since 1954, only survived relegation on goal difference.
Leading goalscorers: Dion Dublin (Coventry City), Michael Owen (Liverpool), and Chris Sutton (Blackburn Rovers) – 18
First Division
The three sides that had been relegated from the Premier League the previous year would (in reverse order) make up the top three teams in Division One this season, resulting in Nottingham Forest being promoted as champions and Middlesbrough as runners-up. The play-offs were won by Charlton Athletic, who beat Sunderland (the third side that were relegated from the previous season's Premier League) in one of the most exciting play-off finals to date, in order to avoid the first-ever feat of a carbon copy of the same teams competing in the Premier League.
FA Cup semi-finalists Wolves missed out on the playoffs, while their local rivals Birmingham only missed out by a single goal – the closest the St Andrew's side had come to reclaiming their top flight place since losing it in 1986. Stockport County finished an impressive eighth in their first season at this level for decades, while Crewe Alexandra finished eleventh in their first second tier campaign since 1895–96.
Reading and Stoke City made up the bottom two; both clubs been in mid-table for most of the campaign, but they totally fell apart later in season and were relegated in bottom place. By far the biggest shock was Manchester City's relegation to Division Two; they had improved in the final weeks of the season, but in a cruel twist all of the clubs above them went on similarly good runs as the season drew to a close, consigning City to the third tier for the first time ever.
Leading goalscorers: Kevin Phillips (Sunderland) and Pierre van Hooijdonk (Nottingham Forest) – 29
Second Division
Watford were promoted as champions under returning manager Graham Taylor, who reversed a decline that the club had been in ever since he previously left the club in 1987. Bristol City were promoted in the runners-up spot, while Grimsby won the play-offs, making an immediate return to Division One after being relegated the previous year.
Southend suffered their second successive relegation, while Carlisle suffered an immediate relegation back to Division Three after the previous year's promotion. Plymouth Argyle were unable to pull off the survival act they had achieved the year before, and went down. Brentford were the final relegated club, as an awful start to the season counted against them in the end, just one season after they had been defeated in the Division Two playoff final – a carbon copy of what had happened to Notts County a year earlier.
Burnley managed to escape relegation at Brentford's expense but this did not save the job of player-manager Chris Waddle, who was replaced with Bury's Stan Ternent. Millwall sacked manager Billy Bonds after just one season, where a late slump had seen them finish 18th (their lowest position for 15 years) and only decent form earlier in the season prevented them from dropping into Division Three.
With Preston failing to mount a promotion challenge, Gary Peters was sacked as manager in early 1998 and replaced with David Moyes, who was appointed manager on a permanent basis at the season's end.
Leading goalscorer: Barry Hayles (Bristol Rovers) – 23
Third Division
Notts County earned a record-breaking promotion, setting a new record for the earliest in the season that any club had earned promotion. Macclesfield Town's first season in the Football League was a huge success, and they were promoted as runners-up. The third and final automatic promotion spot was taken by Lincoln City, who managed promotion despite management and financial problems during the season. Colchester United narrowly missed out on an automatic promotion spot, but made up for this by winning the play-offs.
Doncaster Rovers fell into the Football Conference with a league record 34 defeats, and were replaced by a returning Halifax Town. Brighton were second from bottom once again, but at least their league status was never under any realistic threat due to Doncaster's hopeless form. Similarly, Hull City recorded their lowest-ever finish with a points total that would have seen them finish bottom in most years, but they were kept out of danger by the even worse performances of the two sides below them.
Both Hartlepool and Cardiff managed 23 draws, equalling the record for draws in a season. Both clubs finished in the bottom half of the table, their league status never under any real danger, but the failure to convert draws into victories meant that a promotion challenge was never realistically on the cards for either side.
Leading goalscorer: Gary Jones (Notts County) – 28
Diary of the season
7 July 1997 – Middlesbrough pay £4.5million (a record for a club outside the top flight) for Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson.
10 July 1997 – After two years with Inter Milan, Paul Ince returns to England in a £4.2million move to Liverpool.
15 July 1997 – Liverpool sign Crewe Alexandra midfielder Danny Murphy for £3million and Tottenham Hotspur sign Newcastle United winger David Ginola for £2million.
21 July 1997 – David Hopkin, the player who scored the goal that got Crystal Palace promoted to the Premier League in this year's Division One playoff final, joins Leeds United for £3.25million.
29 July 1997 – Newcastle United sell striker Les Ferdinand to Tottenham Hotspur for £6million.
1 August 1997 – Crystal Palace sign Italy midfielder Attilio Lombardo from Juventus for £1.6million.
7 August 1997 – Footballers Bruce Grobbelaar, Hans Segers and John Fashanu, along with a Thai businessman, are cleared of match-fixing at Winchester Crown Court.
8 August 1997 – Graeme Le Saux returns to Chelsea after more than four years at Blackburn Rovers in a £5million deal – a national record for a defender.
9 August 1997 – Barnsley's first top flight game ends in a 2–1 home defeat by West Ham United. Coventry City, who narrowly survived last season, pulled off a major surprise by defeating FA Cup holders Chelsea 3–2 at Highfield Road. Despite Alan Shearer's absence, Newcastle United beat Sheffield Wednesday 2–1 at home as Kenny Dalglish continues his quest to try to become the first manager to win the English top division title at three different clubs.
11 August 1997 – Manchester United match the new national record for a defender when they sign Henning Berg from Blackburn Rovers for £5million.
13 August 1997 – Leicester City shock Liverpool with a 2–1 league win at Anfield.
16 August 1997 – Arsenal announce plans to relocate from Highbury due to its sub-40,000 capacity and difficulties for expansion.
18 August 1997 – 36-year-old Peter Beardsley leaves Newcastle United in a £450,000 move to Bolton Wanderers.
24 August 1997 – Chelsea record one of the biggest ever away league wins in the Premier League with a 6–0 victory over Barnsley at Oakwell.
25 August 1997 – Blackburn Rovers beat Sheffield Wednesday 7–2 in the league at Ewood Park.
31 August 1997 – The Liverpool-Newcastle United FA Premier League fixture is cancelled as a mark of respect for the late Diana, Princess of Wales, who died earlier in the day in a Paris car crash. The month-end Premier League table shows Blackburn Rovers on a hot run of form under their new manager Roy Hodgson, topping the league on goal difference ahead of defending champions Manchester United, while West Ham United, Chelsea and Arsenal provide the nearest competition. Wimbledon, Aston Villa and Southampton occupy the relegation zone, while newly promoted Bolton Wanderers, Barnsley (playing top division football for the first time) at Crystal Palace have all had a decent first month of the season. Nottingham Forest head the race for a Premier League place as Division One leaders, while Bradford City occupy second place in a division they had been expected to struggle in. West Bromwich Albion, Swindon Town, Sheffield United and Portsmouth complete the top six.
1 September 1997 – Bolton Wanderers move into their new 27,500-seat Reebok Stadium after 102 years at Burnden Park, and draw 0–0 with Everton in the league in their first game there. This result would be pivotal in the end of season positions. Everton survived on goal difference to Bolton Wanderers, who had a clear goal disallowed as the officials failed to see the ball cross the goal-line.
6 September 1997 – There are no major football matches as the entire Football League programme is moved to the previous Friday or the following Sunday on the day of the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales (there were no Premier League matches scheduled because of international fixtures).
13 September 1997 – Wimbledon continue their tradition of surprise wins over big clubs by defeating Newcastle United 3–1 on Tyneside.
14 September 1997 – Two resurgent sides, Blackburn Rovers and Leeds United, battle it out in a thrilling Premier League at Ewood Park in which the visitors triumph 4–3.
25 September 1997 – Kevin Keegan returns to football as Fulham FC's "Chief Operating Officer", working in conjunction with new Head Coach Ray Wilkins.
27 September 1997 – Manchester United captain Roy Keane suffers knee ligament damage against Leeds United in a FA Premier League 1–0 defeat at Elland Road and is ruled out for the rest of the season.
30 September 1997 – September ends with Arsenal as Premier League leaders, with Manchester United second. The previous month-end leaders Blackburn Rovers have slipped into fifth place, while Leicester City (without a top division league title to their name) currently occupy third place and are just a single point off the top spot, and Chelsea occupy fourth place. A terrible run of form has pushed Southampton into bottom place, while Barnsley's reasonable start to their first top division season has given way to a series of heavy defeats and they now occupy the next lowest position in the league. The final place in the relegation zone is occupied by Sheffield Wednesday. Nottingham Forest continue to lead the way in Division One, with surprise promotion contenders West Bromwich Albion now second. QPR have crept into the playoff zone at the expense of Portsmouth (who have slumped to 19th). Bradford City, Sheffield United and Swindon Town complete the top six.
2 October 1997 – Bolton Wanderers pay a club record £3.5million for Wimbledon striker Dean Holdsworth.
4 October 1997 – Barnsley's leaky defence continues to show its frailty as they lose 5–0 to league leaders Arsenal at Highbury.
11 October 1997 – England achieve automatic qualification for the 1998 World Cup after drawing 0–0 in Rome with Italy, who must navigate a two-leg playoff.
18 October 1997 – Referee David Ellery changes into a blue top for the second half of the Premier League game between Leeds United and Newcastle United, after his original green shirt clashed with Newcastle's away kit.
24 October 1997 – Paul Peschisolido becomes the first player to join a third-tier club for a seven-figure sum when he joins Fulham for £1.1million from West Bromwich Albion.
25 October 1997 – Barnsley are on the receiving end of yet another heavy defeat, this time a 7–0 hammering by Manchester United at Old Trafford which sends the hosts to the top of the table.
31 October 1997 – Manchester United finish October as Premier League leaders, leapfrogging Arsenal into second place, while Blackburn Rovers have got their title challenge back on track by climbing into third place. Chelsea and Liverpool complete the top five, with the unfashionable Leicester City, Derby County and Wimbledon putting immense pressure on them. A dismal run of form has pushed Bolton Wanderers into bottom place, while Barnsley occupying the next lowest position and Sheffield Wednesday completing the bottom three. Nottingham Forest remain top of Division One, while Swindon Town's surprise challenge for a second promotion in three seasons continues as they now occupy second place. Middlesbrough, West Bromwich Albion, Bradford City and Charlton Athletic complete the top six.
1 November 1997 – Manchester United boost their own lead of the Premier League with a 6–1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, which pushes the visitors further into relegation trouble just one season after they narrowly missed out on a UEFA Cup place.
9 November 1997 – Arsenal cut Manchester United's advantage in the Premier League title race by beating them 3–2 at Highbury. Teddy Sheringjam scores twice for United, while Nicolas Anelka scores his first Gunners goal.
12 November 1997 – Michele Padovano, Juventus striker, joins Crystal Palace for £1.7million.
18 November 1997 – Premier League officials express their desire for a two-up, two-down system to operate between the top two divisions in English football, which would spell at end to the traditional three-up and three-down system which has been in use since 1974 (with an exception to four seasons between 1986 and 1995 when the league was being restructured). It also wants to give member clubs the option to withdraw from the Football League Cup.
22 November 1997 – Manchester United bounce back from their Arsenal defeat by returning to London and achieving a 5–2 away win over Wimbledon. Arsenal, meanwhile, suffer a shock 2–0 defeat at struggling Sheffield Wednesday.
29 November 1997 – Iran qualify for the 1998 World Cup at the expense of Australia, whose national coach Terry Venables steps down after one year in charge.
30 November 1997 – November draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the Premier League, with Chelsea, Blackburn Rovers and Leeds United putting up a strong challenge, while Arsenal's title bid appears to be fading away as they now occupy fifth place and are seven points off the top. Everton are now bottom of the top division where they have so far played for 44 seasons in succession, with Barnsley and Bolton Wanderers completing the bottom three. Nottingham Forest are still top of Division One and Middlesbrough are second. The playoff zone is occupied by West Bromwich Albion, Sheffield United, Swindon Town and Charlton Athletic, while Stockport County are on the edge of the playoff zone as surprise contenders for a second successive promotion.
1 December 1997 – Fulham break the Division Two transfer record once again when they pay Blackburn Rovers £2million for defender Chris Coleman.
6 December 1997 –
Former Leeds United and Scotland midfielder Billy Bremner dies aged 54 after suffering a heart attack.
Tottenham's relegation worries are deepened by a 6–1 home defeat at the hands of Chelsea, while Manchester United's title hopes are boosted by a 3–1 away win over Liverpool.
9 December 1997 – Aston Villa overcome FC Steaua București in the UEFA Cup third round with goals from Savo Milošević and Ian Taylor.
19 December 1997 – Liverpool sign USA goalkeeper Brad Friedel from Columbus Crew for £1million.
27 December 1997 – Manchester United agree to sell Czech winger Karel Poborský to Benfica after an unsuccessful 18 months at Old Trafford.
29 December 1997 – The English FA continue investigations into an Asian Betting Syndicate's links with English hooligans and mobsters to continuously shut off floodlights in Premiership stadia to get matches with "unfavourable" results postponed and cancelled. Affected clubs like West Ham, Derby County, Arsenal and Bolton Wanderers all filed official inquiries.
31 December 1997 – 1997 draws to a close with Manchester United now leading by a five-point margin over their nearest contenders Blackburn Rovers. Chelsea, Liverpool and Leeds United complete the top five, but Arsenal are now sixth and now need something little short of a miracle to bring the Premier League trophy to Highbury. Meanwhile, Barnsley prop up the top flight, while Everton and Tottenham Hotspur complete the bottom three. Middlesbrough and Nottingham Forest are level on points at the top of Division One, with the playoff zone being occupied by Sheffield United, Charlton Athletic, Sunderland and Wolverhampton Wanderers.
3 January 1998 – Holders Chelsea suffer a first hurdle defeat in the FA Cup when they lost 5–3 to Manchester United, while Conference club Stevenage Borough achieve a shock 2–1 away win over Division One Swindon Town.
10 January 1998 – Barnsley's defensive frailties show no sign of easing as they lose 6–0 to West Ham United at Upton Park.
17 January 1998 – Barnsley boost their survival hopes with a 1–0 home win over Crystal Palace, whose own recent downturn in form is threatening to cost them their Premier League status.
24 January 1998 – Walsall FC's hopes of pulling off a giant-killing feat in the FA Cup fourth round are ended when Manchester United crush them 5–1 at Old Trafford.
25 January 1998 – Stevenage Borough's FA Cup adventure continues when they hold Premier League club Newcastle United to a 1–1 draw at Broadhall Way, though a controversial refereeing decision saw them denied a goal which clearly went over the line and would have made them the first non-league time since Sutton United in 1989 to beat a top division club in the FA Cup.
27 January 1998 – Newcastle United sign Swedish striker Andreas Andersson from AC Milan.
31 January 1998 – Manchester United remain top of the Premier League as January draws to a close, despite losing 1–0 at home to Leicester City. They now lead their nearest rivals Chelsea, Blackburn Rovers and Liverpool by a four-point margin. Arsenal are beginning to rescue their season as they are now fifth in the league and just eight points off the top, with a game in hand. Barnsley remain bottom and Tottenham Hotspur have yet to climb clear of the bottom three, but Everton have jumped clear of the drop zone at the expense of Bolton Wanderers. Nottingham Forest and Middlesbrough continue to lead the way in Division One. Charlton Athletic, Sunderland, Sheffield United and Wolverhampton Wanderers complete the top six.
4 February 1998 – Stevenage Borough's FA Cup dream ends in the fourth round replay when Newcastle United beat them 2–1 at St James's Park.
9 February 1998 – Michael Owen becomes the youngest-ever England international when he plays in the nation's 2–0 defeat against Chile.
12 February 1998 – The football world is stunned by the dismissal of Chelsea manager Ruud Gullit, who was sacked after a dispute with chairman Ken Bates. 33-year-old striker Gianluca Vialli is installed as player-manager.
14 February 1998 – Five days after his England début, Michael Owen scores his first professional hat-trick, as Liverpool draw 3–3 with Sheffield Wednesday in the top-flight, and Ipswich Town were the high scorers of the day with their five against Huddersfield Town in Division One. Meanwhile, on FA Cup fifth round day, wins for Coventry City, Leeds United and Newcastle United saw them eliminate Aston Villa, Birmingham City and Tranmere Rovers, while Wimbledon and second-tier Wolverhampton Wanderers drew at Selhurst Park, and West Ham United face a replay at Ewood Park after they failed to beat a Blackburn Rovers side who had Kevin Gallacher sent off for an elbow on Eyal Berkovic.
23 February 1998 – Tottenham Hotspur sign Algerian midfielder Moussa Saib from Valencia CF of Spain for £2.3million.
25 February 1998 – Manchester United's FA Cup quest ends with a shock 3–2 defeat by Barnsley in the fifth round replay at Oakwell.
28 February 1998 – February draws to a close with Manchester United still top of the Premier League. They are 11 points ahead of second placed Blackburn Rovers, but third placed Arsenal have played three games less than Manchester United who they trail by 12 points. Liverpool, Chelsea and Derby County are the clubs giving the top three a run for their money. Crystal Palace, yet to win at home this season, are now bottom of the Premier League in a drop zone with includes the other two newly promoted clubs Bolton Wanderers and Barnsley. Everton and Tottenham Hotspur remain under the most direct threat from the bottom three. Middlesbrough are top of Division One with Nottingham Forest in second place. Sunderland, Charlton Athletic, Sheffield United and Stockport County complete the top six.
1 March 1998 – Manchester United enter March eleven points ahead at the top of the FA Premier League, with their nearest contenders Arsenal having 3 games in hand.
8 March 1998 – Barnsley's dreams of marking their first top division season with FA Cup glory are ended when they lost 3–1 at Newcastle United in the quarter-final.
10 March 1998 – Newcastle United sign Greek defender Nikos Dabizas from Olympiakos for £2million.
14 March 1998 – A solitary Marc Overmars goal sees Arsenal beat Manchester United 1–0 at Old Trafford to decrease United's lead to 6 points, plus they have the advantage of 3 games in hand.
28 March 1998 – Notts County, Division Three leaders, become the first English team to win promotion in March. In the Premier League, Manchester United bounce back from their Arsenal disappointment with a 2–0 home win over Wimbledon, while Arsenal keep the pressure intense with a 1–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday. Liverpool keep their slim title hopes alive with a 3–2 win over a Barnsley side battling against relegation.
31 March 1998 – Manchester United remain top of the league by a six-point margin as March ends, but their nearest contenders Arsenal have three games in hand. Liverpool in third place are nine points off the top with a game in hand, and meet United at Old Trafford in 10 days for what could be a decisive game in the title race. Chelsea occupy fourth place and if they finish in the top five then a sixth placed team will automatically qualify for the UEFA Cup for the first time as Chelsea have won the League Cup and new rules regarding European competitions mean that lower-placed teams can qualify for Europe. An unlikely bid for a UEFA Cup place is coming from West Ham United and Coventry City, two means who narrowly avoided relegation last season. Meanwhile, Barnsley, Bolton Wanderers and Crystal Palace continue to occupy the relegation zone. Nottingham Forest remain top of Division One, two points ahead of second placed Middlesbrough and four points ahead of third placed Sunderland. Charlton Athletic, Sheffield United and a resurgent Ipswich Town complete the top six.
5 April 1998 – Arsenal move closer to their second double by beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 1–0 in the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park.
6 April 1998 – Newcastle United, who have had a dismal season in the Premier League, are given the hope of FA Cup glory after a semi-final win over Sheffield United at Old Trafford sends them into the FA Cup final for the first time since 1974.
26 April 1998 – Nottingham Forest go six points clear of third-placed Sunderland in the First Division with a win at home to Reading. Sunderland have two matches remaining.
28 April 1998 – Sunderland are beaten, confirming Nottingham Forest's promotion back to the Premier League.
29 April 1998 – An incident in a 0–0 draw between Leicester City and Newcastle United lead to Alan Shearer being investigated by the Football Association, after he appeared to deliberately kick Neil Lennon in the head.
30 April 1998 – April draws to a close with Arsenal now leading by a point ahead of Manchester United and having two games in hand, as United manager Alex Ferguson concedes the title despite his team's 3–0 win over Crystal Palace, whose relegation is confirmed. Meanwhile, Aston Villa have emerged as surprise contenders for a UEFA Cup place after spending most of the season battling relegation, and there will also be a UEFA Cup place for the seventh-placed club if Arsenal beat Newcastle United in the FA Cup final next month. At the other end of the table, Barnsley and Bolton Wanderers remain in the bottom three, but there is still a threat of relegation for Tottenham Hotspur and Everton as well as a Newcastle United side who came close to winning the title last season and the season before. Wimbledon, who only need two points from their final three games to achieve safety, are the only other team under threat of relegation. Nottingham Forest have sealed an immediate return to the top flight as Division One champions, while Middlesbrough, Sunderland and Charlton Athletic are still fighting it out for second place. Sheffield United and Birmingham City are challenging each other for the final playoff place.
3 May 1998 – Arsenal clinch the FA Premier League title with a 4–0 home win over Everton. Manchester City are relegated to Division Two, despite winning 5–2 at also-doomed Stoke City. It is the first time in their history that they will be playing in the third tier of the English league. They are also the first former winners of a European trophy to be relegated to the third tier of their domestic league.
6 May 1998 – In their first game at the title triumph, Arsenal hit relegation form when Liverpool beat them 4–0 at Anfield.
10 May 1998 – The FA Premier League season ends with Arsenal as champions and Manchester United as runners-up one point behind them, with both teams qualifying for the European Cup. The UEFA Cup places go to Liverpool, Chelsea, Leeds United, Blackburn Rovers and Aston Villa. Bolton Wanderers, Barnsley and Crystal Palace are relegated. Bolton were the last team to go down – their 2–0 defeat at Chelsea meaning that a 1–1 draw with Coventry City at Goodison Park was enough to achieve survival on goal difference for Everton.
16 May 1998 – Arsenal become the second English team (though with an entirely different set of players) to complete the 'double' when they beat Newcastle United 2–0 in the FA Cup final. Marc Overmars opens the scoring after 23 minutes, followed by 19-year-old Nicolas Anelka's goal in the 69th minute.
23 May 1998 – Derby County pay a club record £2.7million for Argentine defender Horacio Carbonari from Rosario.
25 May 1998 – Charlton Athletic win promotion to the FA Premier League after beating Sunderland 7–6 on penalties following a 4–4 draw in the Division One playoff final.
1 June 1998 – Blackburn Rovers pay a club record £7.5million for Southampton striker Kevin Davies, 21.
5 June 1998 – Aston Villa sign winger Alan Thompson from Bolton Wanderers for £4.5million.
30 June 1998 – David Beckham is sent off for kicking Diego Simeone after he was fouled by him in England's World Cup second round clash with Argentina, and England lose on penalties after a 2–2 draw.
Deaths
10 July 1997: Ivor Allchurch, 67, was capped 68 times and scored 23 goals for Wales between 1950 and 1966, both national records at the time, also helping them qualify for their only World Cup to date in 1958. He scored a total of 249 league goals for Swansea City (then Swansea Town), Newcastle United and Cardiff City.
28 August 1997: Peter Springett, 51, was a goalkeeper for QPR and Sheffield Wednesday during the 1960s and 1970s, keeping goal for QPR in their 1967 League Cup triumph. He served as a policeman in South Yorkshire after retiring as a player, and died after a four-year battle against cancer.
7 December 1997: Billy Bremner, 54, midfielder for Leeds United during the Don Revie era, died after suffering a heart attack two days before his 55th birthday. He helped them win several trophies and managed the club from 1985 to 1988. He also had two spells in charge of Doncaster Rovers. He finished his playing career with Hull City.
24 December 1997: Andy Kerr, 66, played 10 league games at centre-forward for Manchester City in the late 1950s and then scored five goals from 18 games in the 1963-64 season for Sunderland during a career which was mostly spent in his native Scotland.
13 January 1998: Ian Moores, 43, who died of cancer, played as a forward for Stoke City, Tottenham Hotspur, Orient and Barnsley between 1974 and 1983 before beginning a successful five-year spell with APOEL in Cyprus. He finished his playing career with Tamworth, helping them win the FA Vase in 1989.
22 January 1998: George Marks, 82, played twice for Arsenal in the late 1930s and then kept goal a total of 194 times in postwar league football for Blackburn Rovers, Bristol City and Reading. He kept goal eight times for the England wartime international side.
18 February 1998: Robbie James, 40, played nearly 800 English league games between 1973 and 1994 for clubs including QPR, Leicester City, Swansea City and Cardiff City, and was a Welsh international midfielder. He was with Llanelli as player-manager when he collapsed in a Welsh Football League game against Porthcawl and was certified dead on his arrival at hospital.
26 February 1998: Jimmy Hagan, 80, who played 361 league matches for Sheffield United between 1938 and 1958, and once for England. As a manager he led S.L. Benfica to three successive Portuguese championships between 1970 and 1973.
13 March 1998: Peter Sillett, 65, was a right back for Chelsea when whey won the league championship in 1955. He was capped three times for England and was the older brother of John Sillett, who managed Coventry City to FA Cup glory in 1987. Sir Stanley Matthews rated Sillett as the best defender he had ever played against.
19 March 1998: Jimmy Scoular, 73, was born in Scotland but spent his whole playing career in England, playing 602 league games at wing-half between 1946 and 1964 for Portsmouth, Newcastle United and Bradford Park Avenue, and being capped nine times for Scotland in the early 1950s. He was player-manager of Bradford Park Avenue before managing Cardiff City for nine years and finally spending a year at Newport County before quitting management in 1977 and working for various clubs as a scout.
2 April 1998: Ronnie Dix, 85, was the Football League's youngest goalscorer when he netted for Bristol Rovers in 1928 at the age of 15. He played his last senior game in 1939 for Derby County, by which time he had scored 98 league goals and scored on his only England appearance in 1938.
2 May 1998: Justin Fashanu, 37, the first English footballer to disclose his homosexuality, was found dead in a lock-up garage in East London. He played for Norwich City in the early 1980s and became England's first £1million black footballer when he was sold to Nottingham Forest in 1981. He also had spells at other clubs, including Edmonton, Manchester City, West Ham United, Newcastle United, Torquay United, Airdrieonians and Heart of Midlothian. He was the older brother of striker John Fashanu. Justin Fashanu had fled the US after being arrested in Maryland on suspicion of sexually assaulting a 17-year-old boy. Four months after his death, a coroner recorded a verdict of suicide.
31 May 1998: Sammy Collins, 75, scored a club record 204 goals for Torquay United (all in the Third Division South) between 1948 and 1958.
15 June 1998: Keith Newton, 56, was a full-back for Everton, Blackburn Rovers and Burnley. He was selected in England squad for the 1970 World Cup.
27 June 1998: Jack Rowley, 78, was a high scoring centre forward for Manchester United who helped them win their first two trophies under Matt Busby – the FA Cup in 1948 and league championship in 1952. He was the older brother of another goalscoring legend, Arthur Rowley, who played for Leicester City and Shrewsbury Town.
Notes
References |
4086309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Wesleyan%20University%20people | List of Wesleyan University people | This is a partial list of notable people affiliated with Wesleyan University. It includes alumni and faculty of the institution.
Administration and faculty
Academia, past and present
Debby Applegate – former faculty, American history, 2007 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography
Hannah Arendt – fellow 1961–1963, Center for Advanced Studies (now the Center for the Humanities), political theorist
Wilbur Olin Atwater (1865 Wesleyan B.S.) – first professor of chemistry; first to quantify the calorie; pioneer, utilization of respiration calorimeter
Reginald Bartholomew – former professor of government; former U.S. Ambassador to Italy, to Spain, to Lebanon
Edgar S. Brightman – faculty 1915–19, philosopher, promulgated the philosophy known as Boston personalism
Nathan Brody – emeritus professor of psychology; known for his work on intelligence and personality
Norman O. Brown – faculty 1946-196?; professor of classics; wrote "Love's Body" and Life Against Death
Judith Butler – faculty 1984–86; philosopher and gender theorist
Walter Guyton Cady – faculty 1902–46; professor of physics; Duddell Medal and Prize
Erica Chenoweth – faculty 2008–12; political scientist, expert on civil resistance movements, Grawemeyer Award winner
Joanne V. Creighton – faculty 1990–94; professor of English; interim president, Wesleyan; 17th president, Mount Holyoke College; interim president, Haverford College
Raymond Dodge – former professor of psychology; experimental psychologist
Henry Duckworth – faculty 1946–51; professor of physics; president, Royal Society of Canada (1971–72)
John Price Durbin - professor of natural science; Chaplain of the Senate, president of Dickinson College
Luigi R. Einaudi – former faculty; professor of government; acting Secretary General of the Organization of American States (2004–05)
Max Farrand – former professor of history
Stephen O. Garrison – founder of the Vineland Training School
Leslie H. Gelb – faculty 1964–67, department of history; Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Reporting; director of project that produced the Pentagon Papers
Richard N. Goodwin – fellow 1965–67, Center for Advanced Studies; advisor, speech writer to U.S. Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Senator Robert F. Kennedy
Lori Gruen – current faculty, professor of philosophy, working at the intersections of ethical theory and ethical practice
Philip Hallie – faculty for 32 years, philosopher; developed the model of institutional cruelty
Gustav Hedlund – mathematician, one of the founders of symbolic and topological dynamics; visiting professor of mathematics
Masami Imai – current faculty, economist
Karl William Kapp – faculty 1945–50; professor of economics; one of the leading 20th-century institutional economists
Eugene Marion Klaaren – emeritus professor, historian and professor of religion
Stanley Lebergott – emeritus professor, American-government economist and professor of economics; noted for historical unemployment statistics
Charles Lemert – emeritus professor, social theorist and sociologist
Clarence D. Long – former professor of economics; former member, U.S. Council of Economic Advisers, under President Dwight Eisenhower (1953–54, 1956–57)
Andrei Markovits – professor of comparative politics and German studies (1977–83)
David McClelland (1938 Wesleyan B.S.) – professor of psychology in the early 1950s
David McCullough – scholar-in-residence 1982, 1983; two National Book Awards (1978, 1982); two Pulitzer Prizes for Biography or Autobiography (1993, 2002); Presidential Medal of Freedom
Louis Mink – faculty 1952–1983; philosopher of history; responsible for what would later be called the linguistic turn in philosophy of history
Daniel Patrick Moynihan – fellow 1964–67, Center for Advanced Studies; later U.S. Senator, New York
Lawrence Olson – faculty 1966–1988; historian specializing in Japan; developed the Asian-studies program at Wesleyan
Satoshi Omura – visiting faculty in the early 1970s, honorary Max Tishler Professor of Chemistry, 2005; awarded honorary Doctor of Science, 1994; 2015 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Scott Plous – current faculty, professor of psychology
Nelson W. Polsby – former faculty, political scientist; known for study of U.S. presidency and U.S. Congress
Nathan Pusey – former faculty, department of classics; later president of Lawrence University and 24th President of Harvard University
William North Rice (1865 Wesleyan graduate) – professor of geology
Francisco Rodríguez – former professor of economics and Latin American studies
Dana Royer – current faculty, professor of earth & environmental sciences
Walter Warwick Sawyer – faculty 1958–65, professor of mathematics
Hon. Barry R. Schaller – current faculty, teaches bioethics and public-health law, ethics and policy; associate justice, Connecticut Supreme Court
Elmer Eric Schattschneider – faculty, 1930–60, political scientist, namesake for award for best dissertation in U. S. in field of American politics
Carl E. Schorske – professor of history in the 1950s; Pulitzer Prize for History and MacArthur Fellowship
Frederick Slocum – first professor of astronomy, director of the Van Vleck Observatory (1915–44)
Richard Slotkin (MAAE Wesleyan graduate) – Olin Professor of English and American Studies, emeritus; American Academy of Arts and Sciences
William L. Storrs – faculty 1841–46, professor of law; also Congressman from Connecticut; Chief Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court
Max Tishler – faculty 1970–89, professor, chemistry; National Medal of Science, Priestley Medal, National Inventors Hall of Fame
Hing Tong – former chairman, mathematics department; known for providing the original proof of the Katětov–Tong insertion theorem
Charles Kittredge True – faculty 1849–60, professor of intellectual and moral science
Jennifer Tucker, historian and biologist
John Monroe Van Vleck (1850 Wesleyan graduate) – faculty 1853–1904, emeritus 1904–12, professor of mathematics and astronomy
Clarence E. Walker - associate professor of history
Jan Willis – emeritus professor of religion and East Asian Studies
Woodrow Wilson – faculty 1888–90; professor, chair, history and political economy; 13th president, Princeton University; 28th President, United States; Nobel Peace Prize
Robert Coldwell Wood – former faculty, political scientist; former 1st Undersecretary and 2nd United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (1963–69)
John Wrench – former professor of mathematics, pioneer in using computers for mathematical calculations; National Academy of Sciences
Gary Yohe – current faculty, professor of economics; senior member, coordinating lead author, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; co-recipient, 2007 Nobel Peace Prize
Elisabeth Young-Bruehl – faculty 1974–c. 1995; biographer and psychotherapist
Arts and letters, past and present
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie – visiting writer 2008; MacArthur Fellowship (2008)
John Ashbery – Millet Writing Fellow 2010; MacArthur Fellowship; 1976 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry; National Book Award, National Book Critics Circle Award
Jeanine Basinger – current faculty, c. 1970–present, film scholar
Anselm Berrigan – current faculty, poet, Best American Poetry of 2002, 2004
Ed Blackwell – artist in residence, late 1970s; recorded extensively with Ornette Coleman
Anthony Braxton – John Spencer Camp Professor of Music, retired 2013; MacArthur Fellowship; 2014 National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master
Robert E. Brown – faculty 1962–1979, professor of music, founded ethnomusicology program at Wesleyan
Neely Bruce – current faculty, professor of music; composer, conductor, pianist, scholar of American music
John Cage – faculty 1961, 1968, composer; affiliated with Wesleyan and collaborated with members of its Music Department from 1950s until his death in 1992
Tony Connor – current faculty, British poet and playwright, Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature
Junot Díaz – Millet Writing Fellow 2009; 2008 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, National Book Critics Circle Award; MacArthur Fellowship (2012)
Annie Dillard – English faculty for 21 years; 1975 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction
Eiko & Koma – MacArthur Fellowship; Japanese performance duo; Eiko is current faculty
T. S. Eliot – Nobel Prize in Literature (1948), Presidential Medal of Freedom (1964); in the 1960s, special editorial consultant to Wesleyan University Press
Jimmy Garrison – artist in residence, ?–1976, bassist; long association with John Coltrane
Angel Gil-Ordoñez – former professor of music and Director of Orchestra Studies; Spanish conductor
Dana Gioia – visiting writer 1986–1989, American Book Award; Chairman, National Endowment for the Arts (2003–2009)
Roger Mathew Grant – current faculty, expert in music theory
Donald Hall – 14th United States Poet Laureate, 2006–07; National Book Critics Circle Award, 1955; member, editorial board for poetry, Wesleyan University Press (1958–64)
Jon B. Higgins (Wesleyan B.A., M.A., PhD) – faculty 1978–84, scholar and performer of Carnatic Music, Fulbright Scholar
Jay Hoggard (Wesleyan B.A. 1976) – current faculty, vibraphonist
Ana Paula Höfling – professor of dance
Paul Horgan – adjunct professor of English, 1961–71; professor emeritus and permanent author-in-residence, 1971–95; twice winner, Pulitzer Prize for History (1955 and 1976); Bancroft Prize for History
Susan Howe – distinguished visiting writer and faculty 2010–11, 2011 Bollingen Prize
Quiara Alegría Hudes – Shapiro Distinguished Professor of Writing and Theater 2014–2016, visiting writer 2011–12; 2012 Pulitzer Prize for Drama
Paul LaFarge – writer, English faculty as of 2010; taught writing at the university on and off since 2002
Alvin Lucier – John Spencer Camp Professor of Music 1970–2010; pioneering experimental composer
William Manchester – faculty 1955–2004; former emeritus professor of history; 2001 National Humanities Medal; The Death of a President, American Caesar
David P. McAllester – faculty 1947–86; professor, anthropology and music; co-founded Society for Ethnomusicology
Makanda Ken McIntyre – former professor of music
Lisa Moore – current faculty, international classical and jazz pianist
V. S. Naipaul – former visiting professor; Nobel Prize in Literature in fiction (2001); Man Booker Prize (1971)
Palghat Kollengode Viswanatha Narayanaswamy – artist in residence; considered to be among the finest Carnatic vocalists of the 20th century
Ramnad Raghavan – faculty for many years, South Indian virtuoso of the mridangam
S. Ramanathan (Wesleyan PhD, ethnomusicology) – faculty, singer (Carnatic music), and musicologist
T. Ranganathan – first artist in residence, beginning in 1963; Carnatic virtuoso of the mridangam
Jean Redpath – artist in residence, 1972–76
Kit Reed – science- and speculative-fiction writer, resident writer and creative writing faculty, 2008-2017
F.D. Reeve – faculty 1962–2002 (English and Russian literature), emeritus professor of letters (2002–2013); poet, translator
Phyllis Rose – faculty 1969–2005, professor of English; literary critic, essayist, biographer
George Saunders – visiting writer, MacArthur Fellowship (2006)
Jonathan Schell – journalist, author, visiting professor in writing 2000–02
Dani Shapiro – current faculty, professor of creative writing
Paula Sharp – former writer in residence in the College of Letters (2003–12)
Joseph Siry – current faculty, leading architectural historian, professor of art and art history
Mark Slobin – current faculty, professor of music
Charles Wilbert Snow – faculty 1921–1952; poet, professor of English; coach, debate team; founder, The Cardinal (literary magazine); Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Connecticut
Mark Strand – former visiting professor; fourth United States Poet Laureate, 1990–91; MacArthur Fellowship; 1999 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
Sumarsam (Wesleyan M.A. 1976) – current faculty, former artist in residence; Javanese virtuoso, scholar of the gamelan
Marcus Thompson – former faculty, violist and viola d'amore player, recording artist and educator
Clifford Thornton – faculty 1969–75, jazz composer and musician, UNESCO counsellor on African-American education 1976–87, Black Panther Minister of Art
Deb Olin Unferth – former professor of English and creative writing; nominee, 2012 National Book Critics Circle Award; Pushcart Prizes 2005, 2011
T. Viswanathan (Wesleyan PhD, ethnomusicology 1975) – former professor of music, Carnatic flute virtuoso, 1992 National Heritage Fellowship recipient
Richard Wilbur – faculty c. 1950–80; professor of English; second United States Poet Laureate; twice winner, Pulitzer Prize (1957, 1989); Bollingen Prize
Elizabeth Willis – current faculty, poet; teaches creative writing and literature
Michiyo Yagi – visiting professor in late 1980s; Japanese musician, koto virtuoso
Gorō Yamaguchi – artist in residence, Japanese shakuhachi (vertical bamboo flute) virtuoso
Anuradha Sriram, India playback singer
Alumni
Balzan Prize winners
Charles Coulston Gillispie (1940) – 1997 Balzan Prize; George Sarton Medal; Pfizer Award; professor, history of science, Emeritus, Princeton University
Russell J. Hemley (1977) – physicist; 2005 Balzan Prize (with Ho-Kwang Mao); Director, Carnegie Institution for Science; National Academy of Sciences
Pulitzer prizes
Ethan Bronner (1976) – Pulitzer Prize (Explanatory Journalism, 2001); Battle for Justice (The New York Public Library, one of the 25 best books of 1989)
Lisa Chedekel (1982) – Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting (1999); finalist, Pulitzer (2007); George Polk Award; Selden Ring Award for Investigative Reporting; Worth Bingham Prize
Seth Faison (1981) – journalist, Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Reporting (1994); former Bureau Chief, New York Times (1995–2000); author
Sue Fox (B.A. high honors 1993?) – Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting (2004)
David Garrow (1975) – Pulitzer Prize for Biography (1987); Fellow, Homerton College, Cambridge University
Alan C. Miller (1976) – Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting (2003), Goldsmith Prize for Investigative Reporting (1997), George Polk Award (1996)
Lin-Manuel Miranda (2002) – playwright, winner of Pulitzer Prize in Drama (2016) for Hamilton
Lucille Renwick (1987) – 2 Pulitzers: Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting (1998); Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Reporting (1995)
Barbara Roessner (1975) – Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting (1999); finalist, Pulitzer (2007, 2003, 2001); Executive Editor, Hearst Connecticut Newspapers (2012–), Managing Editor (2006–09)
Leland Stowe (1921) – Pulitzer Prize (Correspondence, 1930); runner-up for second Pulitzer (Correspondence, 1940)
Lawrence Rogers Thompson (B.A.) – Pulitzer Prize for Biography of Robert Frost (1971); professor of English, Princeton University
Stephen Schiff (1972) – journalist; finalist, Pulitzer Prize for Criticism (1983)
Wadada Leo Smith composer, musician; finalist, Pulitzer Prize for music (2013)
MacArthur Fellows
The following alumni are fellows of the MacArthur Fellows Program (known as the "genius grant") from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. As this is an interdisciplinary award, recipients are listed here in addition to their listing in their field of accomplishment.
Ruth Behar 1977–88 (first Latin woman named a) MacArthur Fellow; professor, anthropology, University of Michigan; poet, writer
Majora Carter 1984–2005 MacArthur Fellow; environmental justice advocate; urban revitalization strategist; public radio host; 2011 Peabody award
Mary Halvorson 2019 MacArthur Fellow; avant-garde jazz composer and guitarist
James Longley 1994–2009 MacArthur Fellow; documentarian, including Gaza Strip, Iraq in Fragments, Sari's Mother
Lin-Manuel Miranda 2015 MacArthur Fellow; Broadway actor, composer, playwright, and lyricist (In the Heights, Hamilton); 2008 Tony Award winner for Best Musical and Best Original Score, 2008 Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album, 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Drama winner.
Academy, Emmy, Tony, and Grammy awards
Academy awards and nominations
Miguel Arteta (1989) – Student Academy Award, Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award; film director (Chuck & Buck, The Good Girl, Youth in Revolt, Cedar Rapids)
Shari Springer Berman (1985) – Academy Award-nominated screenwriter, director, American Splendor (Best Adapted Screenplay); The Extra Man, Cinema Verite
Akiva Goldsman (1983) – Academy Award-winning screenwriter, A Beautiful Mind (2001, Best Adapted Screenplay); Golden Globe Award; The Client, A Time to Kill
Michael Gottwald (2006) – producer; 2012 nomination, Academy Award for Best Picture
Dan Janvey (2006) – director, producer; 2012 nomination, Academy Award for Best Picture
Sebastian Junger (1984) – documentarian; Restrepo; 2011 Academy Award nomination; Grand Jury Prize, Best Documentary, 2010 Sundance Film Festival
Kenneth Lonergan – playwright, screenwriter, director; nominated for two Academy Awards (2002, Gangs of New York; 2000, You Can Count on Me) and Pulitzer Prize (2001, The Waverley Gallery); Grand Jury Prize, Best Drama, 2000 Sundance Film Festival (You Can Count on Me)
James Longley (1994) – documentarian; Student Academy Award (1994); Academy Award-nominated Iraq in Fragments (2007), Academy Award-nominated Sari's Mother (2008); three jury awards, 2006 Sundance Film Festival
Laurence Mark (1971) – producer, nominated for three Academy Awards: Jerry Maguire, As Good as It Gets, Working Girl; Dreamgirls (won Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy); Independent Spirit Award; Julie & Julia
Roger Weisberg (1975) – documentarian; nominated for two Academy Awards (2000, Sound and Fury; 2002, Why Can't We Be a Family Again) 1994 Peabody Award (Road Scholar); 100 other awards
Paul Weitz (1988) – Academy Award-nominated director, American Pie; About a Boy, Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant, Little Fockers
Joss Whedon (1987) – Academy Award-nominated screenwriter, Toy Story; Speed; director, screenwriter, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Serenity, The Cabin in the Woods, The Avengers
Allie Wrubel – Academy Award-winning composer, songwriter, Song of the South, song, "Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah" (1947, Best Original Song); Songwriters Hall of Fame
Benh Zeitlin (2004) – filmmaker, composer, director; his Beasts of the Southern Wild garnered four 2012 Academy Award nominations; 2012 Caméra d'Or award, Cannes Film Festival; 2012 Grand Jury Prize, Dramatic, Sundance Film Festival
Emmy awards
Emmy awards in journalism
David Brancaccio (1982) – Emmy Award-winning newscaster and host, NOW on PBS; DuPont-Columbia Award; Peabody Award
Dina Kaplan (1993) – 2007 Emmy Award for Spot News
Randall Pinkston (1972) – three-time Emmy Award-winning television journalist; RTNDA Edward R. Murrow Award
Stephen Talbot (1970) – television reporter, writer, producer for PBS "Frontline"; two Emmy Awards, two Peabody Awards; Edward Murrow Award; DuPont-Columbia Award; Edgar Allan Poe Award
Emmy awards in film and television
Phil Abraham – Emmy Award-winning film and television cinematographer, director
Dana Delany (1978) – two Emmy Awards; actress; television shows China Beach, Presidio Med, Desperate Housewives, Body of Proof; films Tombstone, Fly Away Home
Janet Grillo (1980) – Emmy Award-winning producer; writer and director
Evan Katz – Emmy Award-winning writer, executive producer of television series 24
David Kohan (1986) – Emmy Award-winning co-creator, executive producer, Will & Grace and Good Morning, Miami
Diane Kolyer – Emmy Award winner for Outstanding Children's Program (2004); director, writer, producer
Michael E. Knight (1980) – three Emmy Awards; actor, best known for his role as Tad Martin on All My Children
Jeffrey Lane – five Emmy Awards, Golden Globe, two Peabody Awards, three Writers Guild of America Awards; author, television scriptwriter, film producer
Alan Levin (1946) – three Emmy Awards; maker of documentaries
Marc Levin (1973) – three Emmy Awards (1988, 1989, 1999), documentary filmmaker; 1998 Caméra d'Or award, Cannes Film Festival; 1998 Grand Jury Prize, Sundance Film Festival; 1997 DuPont-Columbia Award; founder Blowback Productions (1988)
Bruce McKenna (1984) – Emmy Award-winning television and movie producer, writer; Writers Guild Award; The Pacific
Jim Margolis – six Emmy Awards (2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007), writer, producer, co-executive producer, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart
Mary McDonagh Murphy – six Emmy Awards; independent documentary film director, writer and producer
Owen Renfroe – three Emmy Awards; three Directors Guild of America Awards, television soap opera director; former film editor
Matthew Senreich (1996) – Emmy Award-winning screenwriter, director; producer, Robot Chicken
Bill Sherman (2002) – Emmy Award-winning composer (2011); currently Musical Director of Sesame Street
Matthew Weiner (1987) – 2011 Time's "100 Most Influential People in the World"; The Atlantic, one of 21 Brave Thinkers 2011; nine Emmy Awards, three Golden Globes; creator, executive producer, writer, Mad Men; screenwriter, supervising producer, The Sopranos
Roger Weisberg (1975) – documentarian; Emmy Award–winning series Help Yourself; Dupont-Columbia Award
Joss Whedon (1987) – Emmy Award, Nebula Award, two Hugo Awards; writer, creator, producer, director, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, Firefly, Dollhouse, Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog
Bradley Whitford (1981) – Emmy Award-winning actor; television dramas, The West Wing, Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip; films, Billy Madison, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants
Bill Wrubel (1985) – three Emmy Awards (2010, 2011, 2012); co-executive producer, writer Modern Family, Ugly Betty, Will & Grace
Tony and Grammy awards
Bill Cunliffe (1978) – jazz pianist, composer, arranger; 2009 Grammy Award; won 1989 Thelonious Monk International Jazz Piano Award; won several Down Beat Awards; 2 Emmy nominations; 4 Grammy nominations
Thomas Kail (1999) – director; Tony Award winner for Hamilton and nominee for In the Heights
Jorge Arevalo Mateus (PhD) – 2008 Grammy Award (Best Historical Recording); Curator/Archivist, Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives (1996–)
Lin-Manuel Miranda (2002) – creator, composer, lyricist, actor: In the Heights (two Tony Awards, 2008, Best Musical and Best Original Score; Grammy Award, 2009) and Hamilton (three Tony Awards, 2016, Best Musical, Best Book of A Musical, Best Original Score; Grammy Award, 2016)
Jeffrey Richards (producer) (1969) – producer; six Tony Awards; including 2012 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical, 2011 The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (Paulus adaptation); August: Osage County (Pulitzer Prize, five Tony Awards); co-producer, Spring Awakening (three Tony Awards, Grammy Award)
L. Shankar (PhD) – Tamil Indian virtuoso violinist, composer; professor of music; 1994 Grammy Award; 1996 Grammy nomination
Bill Sherman (2002) – orchestrator, arranger; 2008 Tony Award, Best Orchestration (In the Heights), 2009 Grammy Award
Frank Wood (1984) – Tony Award-winning actor (Side Man); Angels in America
Academia
Presidents, chancellors, founders
Samuel Rogers Adams (B.A. 1851, M.A. 1856) – president, predecessor of the University of Evansville (1856–61)
David Allison (B.A. 1859, M.A. 1862) – president, Mount Allison University, Canada (1891–1911); 2nd president, Mount Allison College, Canada (1869–78)
John W. Beach (1845) – 7th president, Wesleyan University (1880–87)
Joseph Beech (1899) – co-founder, 1st president, West China Union University in Chengtu, West China
Douglas J. Bennet (1959) – 15th president, Wesleyan (1995–07)
Katherine Bergeron (1980) – 11th president, Connecticut College (2014–)
Anthony S. Caprio (1967) – 5th president, Western New England College (since 1996)
Hiram Chodosh (1985) – 5th president elect of Claremont McKenna College (2013–)
Charles Collins (1837) – 1st president Emory and Henry College (1832–52); 11th president, Dickinson College (1852–60)
Edward Cooke (1838) – 1st president, Lawrence University (1853–59); 2nd President, Claflin Universityb (HBCU) (1872–84); Board of Examiners, Harvard University
Joseph Cummings (1840) – 5th president, Wesleyan (1857–75); 5th president, Northwestern University (1881–90); president, predecessor of Syracuse University (Genesee College)
W. H. Daniels – interim president, Pentecostal Collegiate Institute, antecedent of Eastern Nazarene College
Joseph Denison (1840) – co-founder, 1st president, Kansas State University (1863–73); president, Baker University (1874–79); 1st president, Blue Mont Central College
Nicholas Dirks (1972) – 10th chancellor-designate, University of California, Berkeley (effective June 1, 2013); professor, anthropology, history, and dean, faculty of arts and sciences, Columbia University
Paul Douglass – 6th president, American University (1941–52)
Gordon P. Eaton (1951) – 12th president, Iowa State University (1986–90)
Ignatius Alphonso Few (1838) – co-founder and first president, Emory University
Cyrus David Foss (1854) – 6th president, Wesleyan (1875–80)
E. K. Fretwell (1944) – president, University at Buffalo (1967–78); 2nd chancellor, University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1979–89); interim president, University of Massachusetts (1991–92); interim president, University of Florida (1998)
Charles Wesley Gallagher (A.B. 1870, A.M. 1873) – 6th president, Lawrence University (1889–93)
Bishop John W. Gowdy (1897) – president, Anglo-Chinese College, in Fuzhou, China (1904–23); president, Fukien Christian University (1923–27)
A. LeRoy Greason (1944) – 12th president, Bowdoin College (1981–90)
William R. Greiner (1955) – 13th president, University at Buffalo (1991–03); also professor, dean, and provost of the University at Buffalo Law School
Burton Crosby Hallowell – 9th president, Tufts University (1967–76)
Abram W. Harris – 14th president, Northwestern University (1906–16); 1st president, University of Maine (1896–06); president, Maine State College (1893–96)
Bishop Erastus Otis Haven (1842) – 2nd president, University of Michigan (1863–69); 6th president, Northwestern University; 2nd Chancellor, Syracuse University; overseer, Harvard University
Clark T. Hinman – 1st president, Northwestern University (1853–54 (death)); president, Albion College (1846–53)
Francis S. Hoyt (1844) – 1st president, Willamette University (1853–60)
Harry Burns Hutchins (1870) – 4th president, University of Michigan (1910–20), twice acting president; dean, University of Michigan Law School; organized law department, Cornell University
Isaac J. Lansing (B.A. 1872, graduate student 1872–73, M.A. 1875) – president, predecessor, Clark Atlanta University (HBCU) (1874–76)
Gregory Mandel - Dean at Temple University Beasley School of Law
Oliver Marcy (1846) – twice acting president, Northwestern University (1876–81, 1890); established the Northwestern University Museum of Natural History, served as its curator
Anthony Marx (1981, attended 1977–79) – 18th president, Amherst College (2003–11); president, New York Public Library (2011–)
Russell Zelotes Mason (B.A. 1844, M.A. 1847) – 2nd president, Lawrence University (1861–65); acting president, (1859–61); mayor, Appleton, Wisconsin
William Williams Mather (A.M. 1834) – acting president, Ohio University (1845)
Bishop Samuel Sobieski Nelles (1846) – 1st chancellor, president, Victoria University in the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1884–87); president, Victoria College
John McClintock (1834) – 1st president, Drew Theological Seminary (later, Drew University)
Frank L. McVey (B.A.) – 4th president, University of North Dakota (1909–17); 3rd president, University of Kentucky (1917–40); economist
John W. North – co-founder, University of Minnesota; founding member of its board of regents (1851–60); wrote university's charter
Henry S. Noyes (1848) – twice interim president, Northwestern University (1854–56, 1860–67)
Brother John R. Paige (M.A.) – president, Holy Cross College (2010–); prior vicar general, the Congregation of Holy Cross in Rome
Bishop Charles Henry Payne (A.B. 1856, A.M. 1859) – 3rd president, Ohio Wesleyan University (1876–88)
Humphrey Pickard (B.A. 1839) – 1st president, Mount Allison Wesleyan College, Canada (later known as Mount Allison University) (1862–1869)
Matias Perez y Ponce (B.A.) – founder and first president, Cagayan Teachers College (Philippine Islands) (1948–1968)
John A. Randall (1881) – 4th president, Rochester Institute of Technology (1922–36)
George Edward Reed (1869) – 15th president, Dickinson College (1889–1911); with William Tickett, re-established Dickinson School of Law in 1890
David Rhodes (1968) – 2nd president, School of Visual Arts (incumbent as of 2010)
Edward Loranus Rice (A.B. 1892, Sc.D. 1927) – acting president, Ohio Wesleyan University (1938–39); biologist; scientific consultant to Clarence Darrow before Scopes Trial
William North Rice (1865) – thrice acting president, Wesleyan University (1907, 1908–09, 1918); geologist, earned first PhD. in geology granted by Yale University
B. T. Roberts – founder, predecessor of Roberts Wesleyan College (named in his honor)
Michael S. Roth (1978) – 16th president, Wesleyan University (since 2007); 8th president, California College of the Arts (2000–07)
Richard S. Rust (1841) – co-founder, 1st president, Wilberforce University (HBCU); co-founder, Rust College (HBCU) (named in his honor)
Richard W. Schneider (M.A. 1973) – 23rd president, Norwich University (since 1992)
Edwin O. Smith (1893) – acting president, Connecticut Agricultural College (now the University of Connecticut) (1908)
George Mckendree Steele (B.A. 1850, M.A. 1853) 3rd president Lawrence University (1865–79)
Samuel Nowell Stevens (1921) – 9th president, Grinnell College (1940–54)
Harold Syrett (1935) – President of Brooklyn College
Beverly Daniel Tatum (1975) – 9th president, Spelman College (HBCU) (2002–); acting president, Mount Holyoke College (2002)
John Hanson Twombly (1843) – 5th president, University of Wisconsin–Madison (1871–74); co-founder, Boston University; overseer, Harvard University
Joseph Urgo (M.A.) – president, St. Mary's College of Maryland (since 2010); former acting president, Hamilton College (2009)
Daniel C. Van Norman (1838) — educator, clergyman, and school founder
John Monroe Van Vleck (1850) – twice acting president, Wesleyan (1872–73, 1887–89); astronomer, mathematician
Francis Voigt (1962) – co-founder, president, New England Culinary Institute (incumbent as of 2010)
Clarence Abiathar Waldo (A.B. 1875, A.M. 1878) – twice acting president, Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology (1885–86, 1888–89); mathematician
Henry White Warren (1853) – co-founder, Iliff School of Theology
William Fairfield Warren (1853) – co-founder, Wellesley College in 1870; 1st President, Boston University (1873–03); acting president, Boston University School of Theology (1866–73)
Robert Weisbuch (1968) – 11th president, Drew University (since 2005); former president, Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation
Herbert George Welch (B.A. 1887, M.A. 1890) – 5th president, Ohio Wesleyan University (1905–16)
Bishop Erastus Wentworth (B.A. 1837) – 7th president, McKendree College (1846–50)
Georg Whitaker (1861) – 4th president, Wiley College (1888–91) (HBCU); 7th president, Willamette University (1891–93); president, Portland University
Alexander Winchell (B.A. 1847, M.A. 1850) – 1st chancellor, Syracuse University (1872–74)
Elizabeth C. Wright (1897) – principal co-counder and secretary, registrar, and later 1st bursar, Connecticut College
Henry Merritt Wriston (B.A. 1911, M.A.) – 11th president, Brown University (1937–55); 8th president, Lawrence University (1925–37); father of Walter B. Wriston (see below)
Kennedy Odede (2012); founder; Shining Hope for Communities, Nairobi, Kenya
Professors and scholars
David Abram (1980) – philosopher, cultural ecologist
Kenneth R. Andrews (M.A. 1932) – academic credited with foundational role (at Harvard Business School) in introducing, popularizing concept of business strategy
Elliot Aronson (M.A. 1956) – among 100 most eminent psychologist of 20th century
John William Atkinson (1947) – psychologist, pioneered the scientific study of human motivation, achievement, and behavior
Wilbur Olin Atwater (1865) – chemist, leader in development of agricultural chemistry
Adam J. Berinsky (1992) – professor of political science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Albert Francis Blakeslee (1896) – botanist, director of the Carnegie Institution for Science; professor, Smith College
George Hubbard Blakeslee (A.B. 1893, A.M. 1897) – professor of history, Clark University; founded the first American journal devoted to international relations
Jennifer Finney Boylan (1980) – author, professor of English, Colby College (1988–)
Lael Brainard – former professor of applied economics, MIT Sloan School of Management
Kenneth Bruffee – emeritus professor of English; wrote first peer tutoring handbook
Leonard Burman (1975) – economist, tax-policy expert; Professor of public affairs, Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University
Leslie Cannold (1987) – academic ethicist; Australian public intellectual
John Bissell Carroll (1937) – psychologist; known for his contributions to psychology, educational linguistics and psychometrics
John C. Cavadini (B.A. 1975) – professor and chair, Theology Department, University of Notre Dame; Vatican adviser; Order of St. Gregory the Great
KC Chan – former professor of finance and dean, business management, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology; Hong Kong Secretary for Financial Services and the Treasury (since 2007);
Arthur W. Chickering (1950) – educational researcher; known for contributions to student development theories
John H. Coatsworth (1963) – historian of Latin America; provost, Columbia University; dean, Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs (2007–12)
Marion Cohen (PhD in mathematics (distribution theory)) – mathematician and poet
Kate Cooper – Professor of Ancient History at the University of Manchester, England
Jeffrey N. Cox (1975) – professor of English literature; leading scholar of late-18th to early-19th-century theater and drama
Norman Daniels (1964) – philosopher, ethicist, and bioethicist, Harvard University
Ram Dass (M.A.) – former professor of psychology, Harvard University; spiritual teacher; wrote book Be Here Now
Marc Davis (1989) – founding director, Yahoo! Research Berkeley
Walter Dearborn (B.A. 1900, M.A.) – pioneering educator, experimental psychologist; helped establish field of reading education; longtime professor, Harvard University
Daniel Dennett (attended) – professor of philosophy, Tufts University; Jean Nicod Prize
Henrik Dohlman (1982) – professor and chair of pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Raymond D. Fogelson – anthropologist; a founder of the subdiscipline of ethnohistory; professor, University of Chicago
Virginia Page Fortna (1990) – professor of political science at Columbia University
Michael Foster – professor of Japanese literature, culture, and folklore; author
Daniel Z. Freedman – physicist, professor of physics and applied mathematics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; co-discovered supergravity
David Garrow (1975) – Pulitzer Prize for Biography; fellow, Homerton College, Cambridge University
Mark H. Gelber (1972) – American-Israeli scholar of comparative literature and German-Jewish literature and culture
Gayatri Gopinath (1994) – scholar of social and cultural analysis; director, Asian/Pacific/American Studies, New York University
Adolf Grünbaum (1943) – philosopher of science and critic of psychoanalysis and Karl Popper
Saidiya Hartman – professor of African-American literature and history, Columbia University (as of 2010)
Robert H. Hayes (1958) – Philip Caldwell Professor of Business Administration (1966–2000), Emeritus (since 2001), Harvard Business School
Ole Holsti (MAT 1956) – political scientist, Duke University (1974–1998), emeritus chair (since 1998); creator, inherent bad faith model
Gerald Holton (1941) – emeritus professor of physics and professor of the History of Physics, Harvard University
William G. Howell (1993) – Sydney Stein Professor in American Politics at Chicago Harris and a professor in the Department of Political Science and the College at the University of Chicago
Shelly Kagan – Clark Professor of Philosophy, Yale University; former Henry R. Luce Professor of Social Thought and Ethics, Yale University
Douglas Kahn (M.A. 1987) – Professor of Media and Innovation, National Institute for Experimental Arts, University of New South Wales; Professor Emeritus in Science and Technology Studies, University of California, Davis; 2006 Guggenheim Fellowship
Edwin W. Kemmerer – economist; economic adviser to foreign governments worldwide; professor, Princeton University
William L. Lane – New Testament theologian and professor of biblical studies
Seth Lerer (1976) – professor of English and comparative literature, Stanford University
Peter Lipton (1976) – Hans Rausing professor and head of the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge
Richard M. Locke (1981)- Provost, Schreiber Family Professor of Political Science and International and Public Affairs at Brown University; former deputy dean, MIT Sloan School of Management
Silas Laurence Loomis (1844) – professor of chemistry, physiology, and toxicology, Georgetown University
Delmar R. Lowell – historian and genealogist
Saree Makdisi (1987) – professor of English and comparative literature, University of California, Los Angeles; also literary critic
Harold Marcuse (physics, 1979) – professor of modern and contemporary German history
Harold Marks – British educator
David McClelland (1938) – noted for his work on achievement motivation; co-creator of scoring system for Thematic Apperception Test; professor, Harvard University
Lee C. McIntyre – philosopher of science
Elmer Truesdell Merrill (1881) – Latin scholar; professor of Latin, University of Chicago
Joseph C. Miller (1961) – professor of history, University of Virginia (since 1972)
Indiana Neidell (1989) – historian, host and lead writer of The Great War YouTube channel
Eugene Allen Noble (1891) – president of Centenary University 1902–1908, 3rd president of Goucher College from 1908–1911, 16th president of Dickinson College from 1911–1914
Tavia Nyong'o (B.A.) – historian, Kenyan-American cultural critic; professor, New York University; Marshall Scholarship
Thomas Pickard – Canadian professor of mathematics, Mount Allison University (1848–1869)
Edward Bennett Rosa (1886) – Elliott Cresson Medal, Franklin Institute; professor of physics (1891–1901)
Horace Jacobs Rice (1905) – lawyer, Associate Dean, Northeastern University School of Law, Dean of the College of Western New England School of Law from
Paul North Rice (1910) – librarian, Director of Reference at the New York Public Library, Director of NYU libraries, Director of the Wesleyan University Library 1953-56
Juliet Schor – professor, sociology, Boston College; professor, economics (for 17 years), Harvard University
Sanford L. Segal (1958) mathematician, professor of mathematics, historian of science and mathematics
Ira Sharkansky (1960) professor emeritus, political science, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; fellow National Academy of Public Administration
Steven M. Sheffrin (1972) economist and expert on property tax limitations in the U.S.
Horst Siebert – German economist; chair, economic theory, University of Kiel (1989–2003), University of Konstanz (1984–89), University of Mannheim (1969–84)
Neil Asher Silberman – archaeologist and historian
Richard Slotkin (MAEE) – professor of American studies (appears above), published by Wesleyan University Press
Charles H. Smith (1972) – historian of science
Stephen M. Engel, political scientist, professor at Bates College (1998)
Robert Stalnaker – Laurance S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; delivered the 2006–2007 John Locke Lectures at Oxford University
H. Eugene Stanley (1962) – recipient, 2004 Boltzmann Medal; professor of physics, Boston University
John Stauffer (MALS 1991) historian, 2002 Frederick Douglass Prize; chair, History of American Civilization and professor of English, Harvard
Leland Stowe (1921) – 1930 Pulitzer Prize for Correspondence; recipient, Légion d'honneur; professor and journalist, University of Michigan in Ann Arbor (1955–1970), emeritus (1970)
Mark C. Taylor (1968) – philosopher of religion, professor and chair of religion, Columbia University
Lawrence Rogers Thompson (B.A.) – 1971 Pulitzer Prize for Biography; professor of English, Princeton University
Edward Thorndike (1895) – psychologist; work led to theory of connectionism in artificial intelligence, neuroscience, philosophy of mind
Lynn Thorndike (1902) – George Sarton Medal; historian; former professor, Columbia University
Robert L. Thorndike (1941) – psychometrician and educational psychologist
Robert M. Thorndike (1965) – professor of psychology known for several definitive textbooks on research procedures and psychometrics
Charles Tiebout (1950) – economist; known for his development of Tiebout model; free rider problem; feet voting
Aaron Louis Treadwell (B.S. 1888, M.S. 1890) – professor, biology and zoology, Vassar College
Albert E. Van Dusen (MA, PhD) – historian, professor of history, University of Connecticut (1949–1983); Connecticut State Historian (1952–1985)
Edward Burr Van Vleck (1884) – mathematician; professor, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Christian K. Wedemeyer (1991) – history of religions faculty, University of Chicago Divinity School
William Stone Weedon (M.S.) – University Professor, University of Virginia (philosophy, mathematics, logic, linguistic analysis)
Kenneth D. West (1973) – professor of economics, University of Wisconsin–Madison; developed (with Whitney K. Newey) the Newey-West estimator
Alexander Winchell (1847) – professor of physics and civil engineering, professor of geology and paleontology at University of Michigan
Caleb Thomas Winchester (1869) – scholar of English literature
Art and architecture
Natalia Alonso (economics 2000) – professional dancer, Complexions Contemporary Ballet; former dancer, Ballet Hispanico
Steven Badanes (1967) – architect; known for his practice, teaching of design/build
I Made Bandem (PhD, ethnomusicology) – Balinese dancer, author; rector, Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta
Meredith Bergmann (1976) – sculptor, Women's Memorial (Boston)
Lisa Brown (1993) – illustrator, author
Momodou Ceesay (1970) – African fine artist and writer
George Fisk Comfort – founder, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Everson Museum of Art
Bradshaw Crandell – artist and illustrator; known as the "artist of the stars"
Jeffrey Deitch (1974) – art dealer, curator, and, since 2010, director of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA)
Vincent Fecteau (1992) – sculptor; work in permanent collections, Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Ralph Carlin Flewelling – architect
Ellen Forney (1989) – cartoonist; nomination, 2007 Eisner Award; illustrated winner, 2007 National Book Award
Danny Forster (1999) – architect; host, Extreme Engineering and Build It Bigger
Renée Green – artist, sculptor; professor, MIT School of Architecture and Planning
Lyle Ashton Harris (1988) – artist; collage, installation art, performance art
Rachel Harrison (1989) – contemporary sculptor; multimedia artist; Calder Prize
Morrison Heckscher (1962) – art historian and retired curator of the American Wing at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Dana Hoey (1989) – visual artist working with photography
Jonathan Horowitz (1987) – multimedia artist; sculptor, sound installations
Wayne Howard (1971) – graphic artist; created Midnight Tales
Bruce Eric Kaplan – cartoonist (The New Yorker); television writer, (Six Feet Under; Seinfeld)
Stephan Koplowitz (1979) – choreographer, director; 2004 Alpert Award in the Arts
Abigail Levine – choreographer, dancer
C. Stanley Lewis – artist, professor of art
Paul Lewis 1998 – Rome Prize; director, Graduate Studies, Princeton University School of Architecture; principal, LTL Architects
Glenn Ligon – contemporary conceptual artist; work in collection of the White House
Nava Lubelski (1990) – contemporary artist
Thomas McKnight (artist) – artist; work commissioned by then-U.S. President Bill Clinton and in the permanent collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art and Smithsonian Institution
Alix Olson (1997) – performance artist, award-winning slam poet
Jill Snyder (1979) – executive director, Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland
John Spike (1973) – art historian of Italian Renaissance; contemporary art critic
Thomas Bangs Thorpe (1834–1837) – antebellum humorist, painter, illustrator, author
Lori Verderame (MLS) – best known as "Dr. Lor"; appraiser, American TV show Auction Kings
Robert Vickrey – artist and author; collections in Metropolitan Museum of Art, Whitney Museum of American Art, Brooklyn Museum, Corcoran Gallery of Art
Ben Weiner (2003) – contemporary artist; oil painting, video
Chris Wink – co-founder, Blue Man Group and Blue Man Creativity Center
Business
Robert Allbritton (1992) – chairman, chief executive officer (CEO), Allbritton Communications; publisher, Politico
Kenneth R. Andrews (M.A. 1932) – credited with foundational role (at Harvard Business School) in introducing, popularizing concept of business strategy
Douglas J. Bennet – former CEO, National Public Radio (1983–93)
William Bissell – sole managing director, Fabindia (1993–)
Jonathan S. Bush – co-founder, president, CEO, athenahealth (as of 2012)
KC Chan – ex-officio chairman, Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation (2007–11); former director, Hong Kong Futures Exchange
Tos Chirathivat (1985) – CEO, Central Retail
Robert Crispin (1968) – former president, CEO, ING Group Investment Management Americas (2001–07)
D. Ronald Daniel (1952) – managing partner (1976–88), McKinsey & Company; developed concept, critical success factors
Charles E. Exley, Jr. (1951) – president (1976–91), chairman (1984–91), CEO (1983–91), NCR Corporation
Mallory Factor – merchant banker
John B. Frank (B.A.) – managing principal (since 2007), general counsel (2001–06), Oaktree Capital Management
Mansfield Freeman (1916) – one of original founders, AIG; philanthropist
Jim Friedlich – media executive, Dow Jones & Company (1990–00); founding partner, ZelnickMedia (2001–11); founding partner, Empirical Media Advisors (since 2011)
Pete Ganbarg (1988) – President of A&R, Atlantic Records (as of 2017)
John Hagel III (1972) – co-chairman, Deloitte Center for Edge Innovation (as of 2012); coined the term "infomediary"
Henry I. Harriman – co-founder, New England Power Company
Charles James (1976) – vice president and general counsel, ChevronTexaco
Herb Kelleher (1953) – founder, chairman, president, CEO, Southwest Airlines; chair, board of governors, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas (2011–13)
Edward M. Kennedy, Jr. (1983) – co-founder, president (as of 2012), Marwood Group (Wall Street investment firm); attorney (disability law)
George M. La Monte (1884) – chairman, Prudential Insurance Company
Gary Loveman (1982) – president of the Aetna Inc. subsidiary Healthagen (since 2015); former chairman and former CEO of Caesars Entertainment Corporation; former professor, Harvard School of Business
John Macy – president, Corporation for Public Broadcasting (1969–72); ran the Council of Better Business Bureau (1972–1979)
Tom Matlack (1986) – entrepreneur, venture capitalist, and author
Nick Meyer – president, Paramount Vantage (until December 2008); former president, Lionsgate International, a division of Lionsgate Studios
Candace Nelson – founder, Sprinkles Cupcakes (2005); pastry chef; judge, television series Cupcake Wars (since 2010)
Chuck Pagano (MALS) – chief technology officer, executive vice president of technology, ESPN; Sporting News "Power 100" list (2003 and 2006)
Tom Rogers (1976) – president, CEO, TiVo (since 2005); former chairman, CEO, Primedia; former president, NBC Cable; founded CNBC, established MSNBC
Jonathan I. Schwartz (1987) – president (2004–10), CEO (2006–10), Sun Microsystems; founder, CEO, Lighthouse Design (1989–96)
Marc Shmuger (1980) – chairman, Universal Pictures (until October 2009)
Jonathan Soros (1992) – hedge fund manager and political donor; son of George Soros.
Gideon Stein – founder, former CEO, Omnipod, Inc. (now a division of Symantec)
Steve Spinner – business executive, known for his work as an angel investor and advisor to Silicon Valley startups
Gerald Tsai (1947–48) – founder, CEO, Primerica; pioneered use of performance funds
Laura Ruth Walker (1979) – president, CEO, WNYC Public Radio Station, largest public-radio station in nation; named one of NYC's Most Powerful Women by Crain's New York Business (2009)
Dan Wolf (1979) – founder, president, CEO, Cape Air (since 1988)
Luke Wood (1991) – president, chief operating officer, Beats Electronics
Walter B. Wriston (1941) – commercial banker; former chairman (1979–84), CEO (1967–84), Citibank and Citicorp
Strauss Zelnick (1979) – CEO (2011–), chairman (2007–), Take-Two Interactive; founder, managing partner, ZelnickMedia (2001–); president, chief operating officer (1989–93), 20th Century Fox; CEO, BMG Entertainment (1998–2000)
Film, television, acting
Writers
Carter Bays (1997) – writer, creator, executive producer, How I Met Your Mother
Mark Bomback – screenwriter
Jennifer Crittenden (1992) – writer, producer; two Humanitas Prizes, Seinfeld, Everybody Loves Raymond, The New Adventures of Old Christine
Ed Decter (1979) – screenwriter, There's Something About Mary, The Santa Clause 2, The Santa Clause 3
Jennifer Flackett (1986) – screen/television writer, film director; Madeline, Wimbledon, Little Manhattan, Nim's Island and Journey to the Center of the Earth
Liz Friedman – writer, producer; Xena: Warrior Princess, Hack, The O.C., Numb3rs, House; co-creator, writer, executive producer, Young Hercules
Liz W. Garcia (1999) – writer and producer; Dawson's Creek, Wonderfalls, Cold Case; co-created TNT series Memphis Beat
David H. Goodman (1995) – television writer and producer, Fringe, Without a Trace
Willy Holtzman – screenwriter, playwright; Humanitas Prize, Writers Guild Award, Peabody Award
Alex Kurtzman – film, television screenwriter, producer; film: The Legend of Zorro, Mission: Impossible III, Transformers, Cowboys & Aliens, Star Trek, Star Trek Into Darkness; television: Fringe
Catie Lazarus – writer, storyteller and talk show host
Brett Matthews (1999) – writer, TV shows and comics
Craig Thomas (1997) – writer, creator, executive producer How I Met Your Mother
Joss Whedon (1987) – creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Firefly and screenwriter & director The Avengers
Zack Whedon (2002) – screenwriter
Mike White (1992) – two Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Awards; co-creator, screenwriter, Enlightened; The Good Girl, Orange County, Chuck & Buck, and the HBO satire comedy miniseries The White Lotus.
Kate Purdy (2001) - Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Animation; writer, producer, Cougar Town, Enlisted, The McCarthys, Bojack Horseman; co-creator, writer, executive producer, Undone
Directors
Phil Abraham – television director, cinematographer (The Sopranos, Mad Men, Orange is the New Black)
Michael Arias (attended from age 16 to 18) – film director, producer, visual effects artist; filmmaker active primarily in Japan
Miguel Arteta (1989) – film director (The Good Girl, Cedar Rapids)
Michael Bay (1986) – film director (The Rock, Armageddon, Pearl Harbor, Bad Boys Series, Transformers film series)
Eric Byler (1994) – film director (Charlotte Sometimes, My Life Disoriented, Americanese, TRE)
Jan Eliasberg (1974) – director (television, theatre, and film)
Michael Fields – director
Ruben Fleischer (1997) – director; Zombieland, 30 Minutes or Less
Thomas Kail (1999) – film and theatre director
David Kendall – television and film director, producer, and writer; Growing Pains, Boy Meets World, Smart Guy, Hannah Montana, Dirty Deeds, The New Guy
Daisy von Scherler Mayer (1988) – film director (Party Girl, Madeline, The Guru, Woo)
Matthew Penn (1980) – director and producer of television and theatre; NYPD Blue, Law & Order, The Sopranos, House, Damages, The Closer, and Royal Pains
Ray Tintori (2006) – director (film and music videos)
Jon Turteltaub (1985) – film director (Cool Runnings, Phenomenon, While You Were Sleeping, National Treasure, 3 Ninjas)
Matt Tyrnauer – director and journalist; Valentino: The Last Emperor (2009), short listed for an Academy Award nomination (2010)
Alex Horwitz (2002) – director; "Hamilton's America"
Benh Zeitlin (2004) – film director (Beasts of the Southern Wild)
Actors and others
Bradley Whitford (1981) – actor, The West Wing, Get Out
Edoardo Ballerini – actor, writer, director
Jordan Belfi (2000) – actor
Rob Belushi (2004) - actor, comedian and host of Get a Clue on Game Show Network.
Amy Bloom (1975) – creator, State of Mind
Peter Cambor (2001) – film and television actor; NCIS: Los Angeles
Rob Campbell – actor (film, television, and stage)
Hunter Carson (1998) – actor, screenwriter, producer, director
Philip Casnoff (1971) – Golden Globe-nominated Broadway, television, and film actor (Chess, Shogun: The Musical, North and South, Sinatra)
Lynn Chen (1998) – actress, Saving Face
William Christopher (1954) – actor, Father John Patrick Francis Mulcahy, M*A*S*H
Jem Cohen (1984) – Independent Spirit Award, feature filmmaker and video artist
Sarah Elmaleh (2007) - voice actor
Toby Emmerich – producer, film executive, screenwriter; head, New Line Cinema (as of 2008)
Halley Feiffer (2007) – actress, playwright
Beanie Feldstein (2015) – actress
Jo Firestone (2009) actress and comedian
Sam Fleischner (2006) – filmmaker
Bradley Fuller – producer, co-owner of Platinum Dunes
Bobbito García (1988) – hip hop DJ, writer
William "Willie" Garson – actor, White Collar; most known for his portrayal of Stanford on Sex and the City
Max Goldblatt (2005) – actor, writer, director
Matthew Greenfield – Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award, producer of independent films
Adam Hann-Byrd (2004) – actor, Little Man Tate, The Ice Storm, Jumanji
Elisabeth Harnois (2001) – actress, Young Artist Award (1993); Adventures in Wonderland, Pretty Persuasion
Jack Johnson (2009) – actor, best known for performance in Lost in Space
Warren Keith – stage and film actor, director
Chrishaunda Lee – television host, actress
Jieho Lee (1995) – filmmaker
Tembi Locke – actress, has appeared on more than 40 television shows
Lauren LoGiudice – actress and writer
Monica Louwerens (1995) – actress, beauty queen from Canada, competed in 1996 Miss America Pageant
Barton MacLane – actor, playwright, screenwriter; appeared in many classic films from the 1930s through the 1960s
Lin-Manuel Miranda (2002)-Tony-Award-winning Broadway actor, librettist, and composer
Becky Mode – playwright, actress, television producer
William R. Moses (attended) – television and film actor
Indy Neidell – documentarian, historian, and actor
Julius Onah – filmmaker of Nigerian descent
Amanda Palmer (1998) – director Hotel Blanc (2002); playwright, actress, The Onion Cellar (2006); producer, actress in ART's Cabaret (2010)
Benjamin Parrillo (1992) – actor, Cold Case, 24, NCIS, Boston Legal
Leszek Pawlowicz (1979) – Ultimate Tournament of Champions, 2005; won Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, 1992; won Ben Stein's Money, 1999
Zak Penn (1990) – screenwriter (Fantastic Four, X-Men: The Last Stand, PCU, The Incredible Hulk); director (Incident at Loch Ness, The Grand); co-creator, Alphas
John Rothman (1971) – film, stage, and television actor
Stefan Schaefer (1994) – director, screenwriter, producer, independent films; Confess and Arranged; Fulbright Scholar
Sarah Schaub (2006) – two Young Artist Awards, actress (Promised Land)
Paul Schiff (1981) – film producer (My Cousin Vinny, Rushmore, Mona Lisa Smile, Solitary Man)
Lawrence Sher (1992) – cinematographer and producer, The Dukes of Hazzard, Garden State
Wendy Spero – actress, comedian, writer
Kim Stolz (2005) – America's Next Top Model Cycle 5 finalist
Stephen Talbot (1970) – former TV child actor of the 1950s, 1960s; portrayed Gilbert Bates on Leave it to Beaver
Kim Wayans – actress; member of the Wayans family
Henry Willson – Hollywood talent agent; clients included Rock Hudson, Tab Hunter, Robert Wagner, Clint Walker; discovered Lana Turner; a large role in popularizing the beefcake craze of the 1950s
Scott Wiper (1992) – director, screenwriter, actor
Angela Yee (1997) – radio personality
Alexander Yellen (2003) – cinematographer
Law
Non-U.S. government judicial figures
George Edwin King (B.A. 1859, M.A. 1861) – 10th Puisne Justice, Supreme Court of Canada (1893–01); Attorney General of New Brunswick (1870–78); Premier of New Brunswick (1870-1871 & 1872-1878); Supreme Court of New Brunswick (1880–93)
Supreme Court of the United States
David Josiah Brewer (1851–54) – 51st Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1890–1910); major contributor to doctrine of substantive due process and to minority rights; U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit (1884–90); U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas (1865–69); Kansas Supreme Court (1870–1884)
U.S. Federal appellate and trial courts
Frank R. Alley, III – judge, United States Bankruptcy Court, District of Oregon (as of 2011).
John Baker (A.M. 1879) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Indiana
John D. Bates (1968) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Columbia (2001–); judge, United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (2006–)
Edward G. Biester, Jr. (1952) – judge, United States Court of Military Commission Review (2004–07); Attorney General for Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1979–80)
Denise Jefferson Casper (B.A. 1990) – judge, U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2010–); 1st black, female judge to serve on federal bench in Massachusetts
Alonzo J. Edgerton (1850) – judge, United States District Court for the District of South Dakota (1889–96); Chief Justice of Supreme Court of Dakota Territory
Katherine B. Forrest (1986) – judge, United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (2011–)
Frederick E. Fuller – federal judge for interior Alaska; appointed in 1912; early champion for the credibility of Alaska natives as witnesses in federal court
Steven Gold (1977) – chief United States magistrate judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York (1993–)
Terry J. Hatter (1954) – judge, United States District Court for the Central District of California, Los Angeles (as of 2011); chief judge, 1998; senior status, 2005
Andrew Kleinfeld (1966) – judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (1991–); judge, United States District Court for the District of Alaska (1986–91)
Martin A. Knapp (1868) – judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit (1916–23); judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (1910–16); judge, United States Commerce Court (1910–13)
Mark R. Kravitz (1972) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Connecticut (2003–2012)
Arthur MacArthur Sr. – judge, predecessor, United States District Court for the District of Columbia (1870–87)
James Rogers Miller Jr. (1953) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Maryland (1970–86)
Patricia Head Minaldi (1980) – judge, United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana (2003–2018)
J. Frederick Motz (1964) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Maryland (1985–), chief judge (1994–01); United States Attorney for the District of Maryland
Michael S. Nachmanoff, Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia (2021–present), magistrate judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia (2015-2021)
John Wesley North – judge, by Presidential appointment, predecessor, United States District Court for the District of Nevada; founder, Northfield, Minnesota and Riverside, California
Lyle L. Richmond (1952) – associate justice, High Court of American Samoa (in American Samoa, the highest appellate court below U.S. Supreme Court) (1991–); attorney general, American Samoa.
Rachel A. Ruane (1997) – judge, United States Los Angeles Immigration Court (2010–)
Anthony Scirica (1962) – chief judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (Philadelphia) (1987–); judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (1984–87)
Dominic J. Squatrito (1961) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Connecticut (1994–2021); Fulbright scholar
Stephen S. Trott (1962) – judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (1988–); United States Attorney for the Central District of California
Ronald M. Whyte (mathematics 1964) – judge, United States District Court for the Northern District of California (1992–)
John Simson Woolson (A.B. 1860, A.M. 1863) – judge, United States District Court for the District of Iowa
U.S. State courts
Raymond E. Baldwin – Chief Justice (1959–63), associate justice (1949–59), Connecticut Supreme Court
Richard C. Bosson (1966) – Chief Justice (2002–06), associate justice (2002–), New Mexico Supreme Court; chief judge, New Mexico Court of Appeals (01–02)
John Moore Currey – eighth Chief Justice (1866–68), associate justice (1864–66), Supreme Court of California
Charles Douglas III (1960–62) – associate justice, New Hampshire Supreme Court (1977–85)
Miles T. Granger (1842) – associate justice, Connecticut Supreme Court
Ernest A. Inglis (1908) – Chief Justice (1853–57), associate justice (1850–53), Connecticut Supreme Court (1950–57)
Fred C. Norton (1950) – associate judge, Minnesota Court of Appeals
James McMillan Shafter – judge, California Superior Court and state legislator in California, Vermont, and Wisconsin
Oscar L. Shafter (1834) – associate justice, Supreme Court of California (1864–1867)
David M. Shea (1944) – associate justice, Connecticut Supreme Court (1981–1992)
David K. Thomson, Associate Justice of the New Mexico Supreme Court (2019–present)
Arthur T. Vanderbilt – Chief Justice, New Jersey Supreme Court; twice declined nomination, United States Supreme Court
Josiah O. Wolcott – Chancellor, Delaware Court of Chancery; Attorney General of Delaware
Government and other lawyers
Gerald L. Baliles (1963) – Attorney General of Virginia (1982–1985) and Governor of Virginia (1986-1990).
Tristram Coffin (1985) – U.S. Attorney for the District of Vermont (2009–2015)
George C. Conway (1923) – Connecticut Attorney General (1951–1953)
Edmund Pearson Dole (1874) – first Attorney General of Hawaii, Territory of Hawaii
Brian E. Frosh (1968) – Attorney General of Maryland (2015-present) Maryland State Senator (1995-2015); Maryland House of Delegates (1987–1995)
Theodore E. Hancock (1871) – New York State Attorney General (1894–1898)
Rusty Hardin (1965) – trial attorney, efforts resulted in U.S. Supreme Court unanimously overturning Arthur Andersen's conviction of obstruction of justice
Eddie Jordan (1974) – United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Louisiana (1994–2001); District Attorney of Orléans Parish (2003–2007)
Edward J. C. Kewen (1843) – first Attorney General of California; also Los Angeles County District Attorney (1859–1861)
Theodore I. Koskoff (1913–89) A.B. – trial lawyer
John Gage Marvin (1815–55) A.B. – lawyer; legal bibliographer (Marvin's Legal Bibliography, or A thesaurus of American, English, Irish, and Scotch law books); figure in history of California; first California State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Charles Phelps (B.A. 1875, M.A.) – first Connecticut Attorney General (1899–1903); Secretary of the State of Connecticut (1897–1899)
Michele A. Roberts (1977) – trial lawyer; named "one of Washington's 100 Most Powerful Women"; partner, Skadden, Arps (2011–)
Abner W. Sibal (1943) – General Counsel, United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (1975–1978)
Legal academia
Gabriel J. Chin (1985) – UC Davis School of Law (2011–); "Most Cited Law Professors by Specialty, 00–07", "50 Most Cited Law Profs Who entered Teaching Since 92"
Hiram Chodosh (1985) – dean, S.J. Quinney College of Law (2006–)
Ward Farnsworth (1989) – dean, University of Texas School of Law at Austin (2012–); former law clerk, Anthony Kennedy, Associate Justice, U.S. Supreme Court
Shad Saleem Faruqi (B.A., age 19) – Professor of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA (1971–); constitutional consultant to Maldives, Fiji, Timor Leste, Afghanistan, Iraq
Stephen C. Ferruolo (CSS 1971) – dean, University of San Diego School of Law (2011–); Rhodes Scholar; former faculty, Stanford University
John C.P. Goldberg (CSS 1983) – Eli Goldston Professorship, Harvard Law School (2008–); former law clerk, Byron White, Associate Justice, U.S. Supreme Court; expert in tort law and theory, political theory, jurisprudence
Robert J. Harris – attorney and professor, University of Michigan Law School (1959–1974; adjunct faculty member, 1974–2005); Rhodes Scholar
Naomi Mezey (1987) – professor, Georgetown University Law Center (civil procedure, legislation, nationalism and cultural identity) (1997–); Watson Fellow
William Callyhan Robinson (1850–1852) – academician, jurist; professor, Yale Law (1869–95); dean, Columbus School of Law (1898–1911)
Theodore Shaw (1979) – professor, Columbia Law (2011–); 5th President and Director-Counsel, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (2004–08)
Raymond L. Solomon (1968) – dean, Rutgers Law School-Camden (since 1998); professor, University of Chicago Law School, Northwestern University Law School
Barbara A. Spellman (1979) – professor, University of Virginia Law School (2008–); professor of psychology, University of Virginia (since 2007); editor-in-chief of Perspectives on Psychological Science
Arthur T. Vanderbilt (1910) – dean, New York University Law School (1943–48); professor, NYU Law (1914–43)
Charles Alan Wright (1947) – long-time professor, University of Texas School of Law at Austin; was foremost authority in U.S. on constitutional law and federal procedure
Literature
Becky Albertalli (2004) – writer, Simon vs. the Homo Sapiens Agenda and other best-selling works
Steve Almond (1988) – writer, The Best American Short Stories 2010
Stephen Alter – author
Suzanne Berne – novelist, winner of Great Britain's prestigious Orange Prize; professor of English
Kate Bernheimer – author, scholar, editor
Nicholas Birns (1987, attended but did not graduate); literary critic and editor.
Peter Blauner – novelist; Edgar Award, The New York Times Best Seller list,
Amy Bloom (1975) – author, Away (The New York Times Best Seller list, 2007); National Magazine Award, The Best American Short Stories, O. Henry Prize Stories
John Briggs (1968) – author, scholar, editor
Andrew Bridge – author, Hope's Boy, New York Times Bestseller, Washington Post Best Book of the Year
Ethan Bronner – his novel Battle for Justice was selected by New York Public Library as one of the "Best Books of 1989"
Alexander Chee – writer, 2003 Whiting Writers' Award; former Visiting Writer at Amherst College
James Wm. Chichetto – poet, novelist, critic, lecturer, Catholic priest
Mei Chin – fiction writer, food critic
Kate Colby (1996) – poet, editor, Norma Farber First Book Award
Robin Cook, MD (1962) – medical mystery writer; books have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, including Coma, Critical, Outbreak, and 29 others
Michelle Regalado Deatrick – author, poet
Anna Dewdney (1987) – children’s author and illustrator
Paul Dickson (1961) – writer, American English language and popular culture
Melvin Dixon (1971) – author, poet, translator
Beverly Donofrio (1978) – author, Riding in Cars with Boys
Steve Englehart (1969) – comic book writer
Edward B. Fiske (1959) – educational writer; creator of The Fiske Guide to Colleges; former education editor for The New York Times
Laura Jane Fraser (1982) – journalist, essayist, memoirist, and travel writer
Glen David Gold (1966) – author of Carter Beats the Devil, Sunnyside
Amanda Davis (1993) – writer; author of "Wonder When You'll Miss Me"
Elizabeth Graver (1986) – writer; Drue Heinz Literature Prize, O. Henry Award, Pushcart Prize (2001), Best American Essays, Cohen Awards
Daniel Handler (1992) – author (under the pseudonym Lemony Snicket) of A Series of Unfortunate Events (children's book series)
Rust Hills (B.A. 1948, M.A. 1949) – author and fiction editor
Adina Hoffman (B.A. 1989) – essayist, critic, literary biographer; 2013 Windham–Campbell Literature Prize; 2010 Wingate Prize
Albert Harrison Hoyt (1850) – editor and author
Christianne Meneses Jacobs – writer, editor, and teacher
Kaylie Jones – novelist
Sebastian Junger (1984) – author of The Perfect Storm, War; DuPont-Columbia Award; Time magazine Top Ten Non-fiction Books of 2010; National Magazine Award
James Kaplan – novelist, biographer, journalist; 1999 The New York Times Notable Book of the Year; NYT Top 10 Books of 2010; Best American Short Stories
Pagan Kennedy (1984) – author, short listed for Orange Prize; pioneer of the 1990s Zine Movement
Brad Kessler (1986) – novelist, Whiting Writers' Award (fiction, 2007), Dayton Literary Peace Prize; 2008 Rome Prize
Gerard Koeppel (1979) - writer, historian
Christopher Krovatin (2007) – author, musician
Alisa Kwitney – novelist, Destiny: A Chronicle of Deaths Foretold
Brett Laidlaw (1983) – author, Trout Caviar and Blue Bel Air
Seth Lerer (1976) –medievalist and literary critic; 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award (for criticism); 2010 Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism
Ariel Levy – author of Female Chauvinist Pigs, anthologized in The Best American Essays of 2008 and New York Stories
James Lord – author, including biographies of Alberto Giacometti and Pablo Picasso
Robert Ludlum (1951) – The Bourne Identity, The Osterman Weekend, The Holcroft Covenant, 24 others; 9 of his books have made The New York Times Best Seller list; 290–500 million copies of his books in print
Joanie Mackowski – 2009, 2007 Best American Poetry, 2008 Writer Magazine/Emily Dickinson Award, 2003 Kate Tufts Discovery Award
John Buffalo Mailer – author, playwright, and journalist
William J. Mann (M.A.) – novelist, biographer; Kate: The Woman Who Was Hepburn, named one of the 100 Notable Books of 2006 by The New York Times
Lew McCreary – editor, author, Senior Editor of the Harvard Business Review
Jack McDevitt – science fiction author; 2006 Nebula Award for Best Novel (fifteen-time nominee), 2004 Campbell Award
Leslie McGrath (M.A.) – poet
John P. McKay (1961) – author, Herbert Baxter Adams Prize, professor of history
Scott Mebus – novelist, playwright, composer
Melody Moezzi (2001) – author of War on Error: Real Stories of American Muslims
Gorham Munson (1917) – literary critic
Blake Nelson (1984) – author; Grinzane Cavour Prize; novels Girl, Paranoid Park
Charles Olson (B.A. 1932, M.A.) – modernist poet, crucial link between such poets as Ezra Pound and the New American poets, one of thinkers who coined the term postmodernism
Michael Palmer, MD (1964) – medical mystery writer, Side Effects, Extreme Measures; all of his 16 books have made The New York Times Best Seller list
Carolyn Parkhurst (1992) – author of The Dogs of Babel (a New York Times Notable Book) and Lost and Found (both on the New York Times Bestseller List)
Peter Pezzelli – author, including Francesca's Kitchen, Italian Lessons
Daniel Pinchbeck – author
Jason Pinter – novelist and thriller writer
Craig Pospisil – playwright
Michael Prescott (1981) – crime writer, many of whose novels have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list
Kevin Prufer (1992) – poet, essayist, editor; winner of four Pushcart Prizes, Best American Poetry 2003, 2010
Delphine Red Shirt (MALS) – Oglala Lakota writer, adjunct professor at Yale University and Connecticut College
Spencer Reece – writer and poet, 2009 Pushcart Prize, 2005 Whiting Writers' Award for poetry
Jean Rikhoff – writer and editor
Mary Roach – New York Times Best Selling author; New York Times Notable Books pick (2005); New York Times Book Review Editor's Choice (2008)
Carlo Rotella (1986) – writer, Whiting Writers' Award (nonfiction, 2007), L. L. Winship/PEN New England Award
Ruth L. Schwartz – poet
Sadia Shepard – author, Fulbright Scholar (2001)
Joyce Sidman (B.A. German) – children's writer; 2011 Newbery Honor Award
Maya Sonenberg (1982) – short story writer, 1989 Drue Heinz Literature Prize
Tristan Taormino (1993) – author and sex educator
Jonathan Thirkield – poet, 2008 Walt Whitman Award
Wells Tower (1996) – writer, two Pushcart Prizes, Best American Short Stories 2010
Ayelet Waldman (1986) – author of Love and Other Impossible Pursuits, Daughter's Keeper, and the Mommy-Track Mysteries
David Rains Wallace – author of The Monkey's Bridge (a 1997 New York Times Notable Book) and The Klamath Knot (1984 John Burroughs Medal)
Austin Warren (1929) – literary critic, author, and professor of English
Sam Wasson (2003) – author, film historian, publisher
D.B. Weiss – author and screenwriter
Michael Wolfe – author, poet
Paul Yoon (2002) – writer; 2009 John C. Zacharis First Book Award; O. Henry Award; Best American Short Stories 2006
Lizabeth Zindel – author, working primarily in the young adult (teen) genre
Medicine
Malcolm Bagshaw, MD (B.A. 1946) – 1996 Kettering Prize; "one of the world's foremost experts in radiation therapy"
Andrea Barthwell, MD (B.A.) – named one of "Best Doctors in America" in 1997; Betty Ford Award in 2003
Herbert Benson, MD (1957) – cardiologist; founding president, Mind-Body Medical Institute; professor, Harvard Medical School (as of 2012)
John Benson, Jr., MD (B.A.) – fellow, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences (1991); IOM named Fellowship in his honor ('10); Abraham Flexner Award ('10)
Charles Brenner (B.A. 1983) – professor, head of biochemistry, University of Iowa (as of 2012); leader, fields of tumor suppressor gene function and metabolism
Thomas Broker (B.A. 1966) – expert, human papilloma viruses; professor, University of Alabama at Birmingham (as of 2012); played central role, discovery of RNA splicing
William H. Dietz, MD (B.A. 1996) – Director, Division of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997–); fellow, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences
Joseph Fins, MD (B.A. 1982) – chief, Division of Medical Ethics, Weill Cornell Medical College (as of 2012); fellow, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences
Michael Fossel, MD (B.A., M.A.) – professor, clinical medicine (as of 2012), known for his views on telomerase therapy
Laman Gray, Jr., MD (1963) – cardiologist; leader, field of cardiovascular surgery; redesigned, implanted world's 1st self-contained AbioCor artificial heart
Scott Gottlieb, MD (1994) – Commissioner of Foods and Drugs (2017-2019), Food and Drug Administration, United States Department of Health and Human Services
Michael E. Greenberg (B.A. 1976) – neuroscientist; National Academy of Sciences; chair of the Department of Neurology at Harvard Medical School (2008-2012)
Allan Hobson, MD (B.A. 1955) – psychiatrist, dream researcher; professor, psychiatry, Emeritus, Harvard Medical School (as of 2012)
Alex L. Kolodkin (B.A. 1980) – neuroscientist; professor, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator (2005–)
Jay A. Levy, MD (B.A. 1960) – co-discoverer, AIDS virus (1983); professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco (as of 2012); editor-in-chief, AIDS journal
Joseph L. Melnick (B.A.) – epidemiologist, known as "a founder of modern virology"; Albert B. Sabin Gold Medal
Anne L. Peters, MD (B.A. 1979) – physician, diabetes expert, and professor of clinical medicine at the Keck School of Medicine of USC
Ralph Pomeroy, MD (B.A.) – gynecologist, famous for creation of "Pomeroy" tubal ligation; co-founder, the Williamsburg Hospital in Brooklyn, New York
David J. Sencer, MD (B.A. 1946) – Director, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1966–77); Head, New York City Department of Health ('81–85)
Theodore Shapiro, MD (B.A. 1936) – psychiatrist
Harry Tiebout, MD (B.A. 1917) – psychiatrist, promoted Alcoholics Anonymous approach to patients, fellow professionals, and the public
Peter Tontonoz, MD (B.A. 1989) – professor of pathology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator (2000–)
Military
Brigadier General Allen Fraser Clark, Jr. (1910–90) (B.A.) – United States Army (in the 1960s)
Admiral Thomas H. Collins (four-star rank) (M.A.) – Retired 22nd Commandant, United States Coast Guard (2002–08) (guided Coast Guard after 9/11)
Major General Myron C. Cramer (two-star rank) (B.A. 1904) – 20th Judge Advocate General of the United States Army (1941–45); judge, The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Tokyo, Japan (1946–49)
Rear Admiral Marshall E. Cusic Jr. MD (two-star rank) (B.A. 1965) – Medical Corps U.S. Naval Reserve; Chief, Medical Reserve Corps, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Brigadier General Alonzo Jay Edgerton (B.A. 1850) – American Civil War, Union Army, 67th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops (Bvt. March 13, 1865)
Lieutenant General William H. Ginn Jr. (three-star rank) (1946–48) – United States Air Force; Commander, U.S. Forces Japan and U.S. Fifth Air Force
Brigadier General John E. Hutton MD (B.A. 1953) – U.S. Army; Director, White House Medical Unit; Physician to President Ronald Reagan
Brigadier General Levin Major Lewis (class of 1852) – Confederate States Army, American Civil War; assigned to duty as Brig. General; president of several colleges
Admiral James Loy (four-star rank) (M.A.) – Retired 21st Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard (1998–2002); Acting United States Secretary of Homeland Security (2005)
Brigadier General Robert Shuter Macrum (B.A. 1927) – U.S. Air Force
Brigadier General Samuel Mather Mansfield (1858–60, B.A. 1911) – U.S. Army; engineer
Rear Admiral (Ret.) Dr. Richard W. Schneider (two-star rank) (M.A. 1973) – U.S. Coast Guard; significant role in the transformation of the Coast Guard
Lieutenant General Adolph G. Schwenk (three-star rank) (B.A. 1963) – United States Marine Corps; Commanding Gen., U.S.FMF (Atl.) and U.S. FMF (Eur.)
Rear Admiral (Ret.) R. Dennis Sirois (two-star rank) (M.A. physics) – U.S. Coast Guard; Assistant Commander for Operations
Rear Admiral (Ret.) Patrick M. Stillman (two-star rank) (M.A.) – U.S. Coast Guard, founding father of the Integrated Deepwater System Program
Tuskegee Airman Chuck Stone (B.A. 1948) – Congressional Gold Medal (March 29, 2007); United States Army Air Forces
Brigadier General John B. Van Petten (B.A. 1850, M.A. '53) – Union Army; his Civil War reminiscences became basis for The Red Badge of Courage
Music
Adolovni Acosta – graduate student; classical and concert pianist
Bill Anschell (1982) – pianist, composer; recorded with Lionel Hampton, Ron Carter
John Perry Barlow (1969) – lyricist for the Grateful Dead
Robert Becker – composer and percussionist
Paul Berliner (PhD) – professor of music, Duke University
Marion Brown (M.A. ethnomusicology) – alto saxophonist, composer
Darius Brubeck (1969) – pianist, composer, band leader, professor of music
Kit Clayton – musician and programmer
Tim Cohen (B.A.) – San Francisco-based musician and visual artist
Bill Cole (PhD) – musician; professor of music, Dartmouth College, Amherst College, professor of African-American Studies, Syracuse University
Nicolas Collins (B.A., M.A.) – composer, mostly electronic music; Watson Fellow
Amy Crawford (B.A. 2005) – songwriter, vocalist, keyboardist and producer
Douglas J. Cuomo (attended) – composer
Nathan Davis (PhD) – musician; professor of music, University of Pittsburgh
Stanton Davis (M.A.) – trumpeter, educator
Santi Debriano (M.A.) – double bassist, bandleader
Frank Denyer (PhD) – professor of composition, Dartington College of Arts, South West England
Khalif "Le1f" Diouf (2011) – musician; rapper
Arnold Dreyblatt (M.A. 1982) – composer, based in Berlin, Germany; elected to German Academy of Art
Judy Dunaway (M.A.) – avant-garde composer; creator, sound installations
S. A. K. Durga (PhD) – musicologist, ethnomusicologist, professor of music
Tim Eriksen (M.A. 1993, PhD) – multi-instrumentalist; musicologist; performer, consultant for soundtrack of film Cold Mountain
James Fei (M.A. 1999) – composer and performer, contemporary classical music
Dave Fisher (1962) – lead singer, arranger, The Highwaymen; composer
William Galison – multi-instrumentalist, most famous as harmonica player, composer
Kiff Gallagher (1991) – musician, songwriter, helped create AmeriCorps
Alexis Gideon – composer, multi-media artist
Ben Goldwasser – founding member of Grammy Award-nominated MGMT
Adam Goren (1996) – sole member of synth-punk band Atom and His Package
Mary Halvorson (2002) – guitarist
Jon B. Higgins (B.A., M.A., PhD) – musician; scholar, Carnatic music
Jay Hoggard (1976) – current faculty, Wesleyan; vibraphonist; recorded often
Ashenafi Kebede (1969 M.A., 1971 PhD) – Ethiopian ethnomusicologist
Ron Kuivila (1977) – current faculty, Wesleyan; co-creator, software language Formula
Steve Lehman (2000 B.A.; 2002 M.A.) – composer, saxophonist; Fulbright scholar
David Leisner – classical guitarist, composer; teacher, Manhattan School of Music
Charlie Looker (2003) – musician
MC Frontalot (Damian Hess) (1996) – rapper; innovator of phrase nerdcore
Mladen Milicevic (M.A. 1988) – composer, experimental music, film music
Justin Moyer (1998) – musician and journalist
Dennis Murphy (PhD) – composer, one of the fathers of the American gamelan
Hankus Netsky (PhD) – Klezmer musician, composer
Amanda Palmer (1998) – composer/singer/pianist, The Dresden Dolls
Hewitt Pantaleoni (PhD) – 20th-century ethnomusicologist; known for work in African music
Sriram Parasuram (PhD) – Hindustani classical vocalist; also a violinist
Brandon Patton (1995) – songwriter, bassplayer
Andrew Pergiovanni (B.A.) – composer of "modern classical" and "popular" idioms
Chris Pureka – singer-songwriter
John Rapson (PhD) – jazz trombonist and music educator
Gregory Rogove (2002) – songwriter, indie-music drummer
Steve Roslonek – children's music performer and composer
Santigold (Santi White) – electropop/hip-hop artist
Sarah Kirkland Snider – composer of instrumental music and art songs; co-founder, co-director, New Amsterdam Records
Tyshawn Sorey – musician and composer
Anuradha Sriram (M.A.) – Indian carnatic singer; also, as playback singer, in more than 90 Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, and Hindi films
Carl Sturken (1978 B.A.) – musician, Rhythm Syndicate; songwriter and record producer with Evan Rogers, Syndicated Rhythm Productions
Sumarsam (1976 M.A.) – current faculty, Wesleyan; Javanese musician; virtuoso and scholar of Gamelan
Himanshu Suri (2007 B.A.) – rapper; writer; alternative hip hop group Das Racist
Tierney Sutton (1986) – thrice Grammy Award nominated jazz singer; Jazzweek 2005 Vocalist of the Year
Laxmi Ganesh Tewari (PhD) – Hindustani virtuoso vocalist, professor of music
Stephen Trask (1989) – composer (stage, screen); Obie Award; Grammy nomination
Stephen S. Trott (1962) – early member, The Highwaymen, which originated at Wesleyan; #1 single ("Michael Row the Boat Ashore" 1961)
Andrew VanWyngarden – founding member of Grammy Award nominated MGMT
Victor Vazquez (2006) – musician; rapper; alternative hip hop group Das Racist
T. Viswanathan (1975 PhD) – Carnatic flute virtuoso, professor of music
Dennis Waring (1982 PhD) – ethnomusicologist and Estay Organ historian
Dar Williams (1989) – folksinger
Daniel James Wolf (M.A., PhD) – composer of modern classical music
Peter Zummo (1970, B.A.; 1975, M.A., PhD) – composer, musician (postminimalist)
Karaikudi S. Subramanian – (1985, M.A., PhD) – musician; educationist, Carnatic music
News
Eric Asimov (1979) – restaurant columnist, editor, The New York Times (nephew of Isaac Asimov)
Doug Berman (1984) – Peabody Award-winning producer, launched NPR's Car Talk; creator, other news radio shows
Robert A. Bertsche – two-time winner, National Magazine Award; journalist, editor, media lawyer;
William Blakemore (1965) – correspondent, ABC News, DuPont-Columbia Award
Dominique Browning (1977) – former editor-in-chief, House & Garden
Katy Butler (1971) – journalist, Best American Essays, Best American Science Writing, finalist for 2004 National Magazine Award
Marysol Castro (1996) – weather forecaster, CBS The Early Show (2011); weather anchor, contributing writer, ABC Good Morning America Weekend Edition (2004–10)
Jonathan Dube – pioneer, online journalism; print journalist
E.V. Durling – nationally syndicated newspaper columnist and one of the first Hollywood reporters
Jane Eisner (1977) – editor, The Forward, paper's first female editor; former editor, reporter, columnist, The Philadelphia Inquirer
Smokey Fontaine (1993) – editor-in-chief, writer, music critic, Giant (2006–); Chief Content Officer, Interactive One (2007–)
Steven Greenhouse (1973) – reporter, The New York Times; 2010 New York Press Club Awards For Journalism; 2009 Hillman Prize
Ferris Greenslet (1897) – editor, writer; associate editor, Atlantic Monthly; director, literary adviser, Houghton Mifflin Co.
Vanessa Grigoriadis (1995) – National Magazine Award; writer
Peter Gutmann (1971) – journalist, attorney
William Henry Huntington – journalist
Alberto Ibargüen (1966) – CEO, John S. and James L. Knight Foundation; former publisher, The Miami Herald
David Karp – pomologist, culinary journalist
Alex Kotlowitz (1977) – George Polk Award; Peabody Award, There Are No Children Here: The Story of Two Boys Growing Up in the Other America
Jake Lahut (2017) — campaign reporter, The Daily Beast
Dave Lindorff (1972) – Project Censored Award (2004); investigative reporter, columnist
Stephen Metcalf – critic-at-large and columnist, Slate magazine
Kyrie O'Connor (1976) – journalist, writer, editor
Gail O'Neill – television journalist; former elite African-American fashion model
Charles Bennett Ray – journalist; owner, editor, The Colored American, first black student at Wesleyan in 1832
Jake Silverstein – 4th editor-in-chief (2008–), Texas Monthly, ten-time winner, National Magazine Award; 2007 Pen/Journalism Award; Fulbright Scholar;
Chuck Stone (1948) – journalist; professor of journalism, University of North Carolina; former editor, Philadelphia Daily News
Laura Ruth Walker (1979) – 2008 Edward R. Murrow Award; Peabody Award
Ulrich Wickert (Fulbright Scholar at Wesleyan in 1962) – broadcast journalist in Germany
Michael Yamashita (1971) – award-winning photographer, photojournalist, National Geographic
John Yang (1980) – Peabody Award-winning journalist; two-time winner, DuPont-Columbia Award; NBC News correspondent, commentator (2007–)
Politics and government
Religion
Edward Gayer Andrews (BA 1847) – president, Cazenovia Seminary; later bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church
Osman Cleander Baker (1830–33) – bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church; biblical scholar; namesake of Baker University, Baldwin City, Kansas
Lawrence Aloysius Burke (MALS 1970) – 4th archbishop, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kingston in Jamaica; 1st archbishop, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nassau
James Wm. Chichetto – Catholic priest, Congregation of Holy Cross, poet, critic
Davis Wasgatt Clark (1836) – 1st president, Freedman's Aid Society; predecessor, namesake of Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia; bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church
Shira Koch Epstein (1998) – rabbi, Congregation Beth Elohim, Brooklyn, New York
James Midwinter Freeman – clergyman, writer
William Henry Giler – founder of a seminary and a college; chaplain during the American Civil War
Debra W. Haffner (1985) – Unitarian Universalist minister; director, The Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and Healing
Gilbert Haven (1846) – 2nd president, Freedman's Aid Society; early proponent of equality of the sexes; bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church
Robert T. Hoshibata (1973) – Hawaiian bishop, United Methodist Church
Jesse Lyman Hurlbut (1864) – clergyman, author
John Christian Keener (1835) – bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church
Daniel Parish Kidder (1836) – theologian, missionary to Brazil
Isaac J. Lansing (B.A. 1872, M.A. 1875) – Methodist Episcopal minister of Park Street Church; college president, author
Delmar R. Lowell (1873) – minister, American Civil War veteran, historian, genealogist
Willard Francis Mallalieu – bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church
James Mudge (1865) – clergyman, author, missionary to India
Thomas H. Mudge (1840) – clergyman
Zachariah Atwell Mudge (1813–88) – pastor, author
Frederick Buckley Newell (AB 1913) – bishop, The Methodist Church (elected 1952)
William Xavier Ninde (A.B. 1855, D.D. 1874) – bishop, Methodist Episcopal Church (now the United Methodist Church); president, Garrett–Evangelical Theological Seminary, Evanston, Illinois
Spencer Reece (1985) – Episcopal priest; chaplain to the Bishop of Spain for the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (Iglesia Española Reformada Episcopal)
Charles Francis Rice (B.A. 1872, M.A. 1875, D.D. 1893) – Methodist minister
William Rice (M.A. 1853, D.D. 1876) – Methodist Minister and librarian
Matthew Richey (M.A. 1836, D.D. 1847) – Canadian minister, educator, and leader in Nova Scotia, Canada
B. T. Roberts (university honors) – co-founder, Free Methodist Church of North America
A. James Rudin (1955) – rabbi, Senior Interreligious Adviser, The American Jewish Committee
James Strong (A.B. 1844, D.D. 1856, LL.D 1881) – creator of Strong's Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (1890); acting president Troy University, Troy, New York; mayor
Conrad Tillard (born 1964) - politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and civil rights activist
Moses Clark White (1845) – pioneering missionary in China and physician; first linguistic study of Fuzhou dialect
Royalty
Prince Carlos, Prince of Piacenza, Duke of Parma (B.A. government) – Head of Royal and Ducal House of Bourbon-Parma; member, Dutch Royal Family
Science, technology, engineering, mathematics
David P. Anderson (1977) – mathematician, computer scientist (as of 2012); Space Sciences Laboratory; Presidential Young Investigator Award
Taft Armandroff (1982) – astronomer; director, W. M. Keck Observatory, Mauna Kea (July 1, 2006–)
Harold DeForest Arnold (Ph.B. 1906, M.S. 1907) – physicist; research led to development of transcontinental telephony
Wilbur Olin Atwater (1865) – chemist, agricultural chemistry; known for his studies of human nutrition and metabolism
Oliver L. Austin – ornithologist; wrote the definitive study Birds of the World
Susan R. Barry (1976) – neurobiologist, specializing in neuronal plasticity (as of 2012)
Albert Francis Blakeslee (1896) – botanist; leading figure in the genetics; known for research on jimsonweed and fungi
Everitt P. Blizard (1938) – Canadian-born American nuclear physicist, nuclear engineer; known for his work on nuclear reactor physics and shielding; 1966 Elliott Cresson Medal
Byron Alden Brooks (1871) – inventor; author of Earth Revisited
Samuel Botsford Buckley (1836) – botanist, geologist, naturalist
Henry Smith Carhart (1869) – physicist, specializing in electricity; devised a voltaic cell, the Carhart-Clark cell, among other inventions
Kenneth G. Carpenter (1976, M.A. 1977) – astrophysicist (as of 2012); Project Scientist and Principal Investigator, NASA, Hubble Space Telescope Operations
David Carroll (PhD 1993) – physicist, nanotechnologist (as of 2012); director, Center for Nanotechnology and Molecular Materials, Wake Forest University
Jennifer Tour Chayes (1979) – mathematician, mathematical physicist (as of 2012); National Academy of Sciences; Head, Microsoft Research New England
Charles Manning Child (A.B. 1890, M.S. 1892) – zoologist; National Academy of Sciences; noted for his work on regeneration at the University of Chicago
John M. Coffin (1966) – virologist, geneticist, molecular microbiologist (as of 2012); National Academy of Sciences; Director, HIV Program, National Cancer Institute
Richard Dansky – software developer of computer games and designer of role-playing games (as of 2012)
Henrik Dohlman (1982) – pharmacologist, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Russell Doolittle (1951) – biochemist (as of 2012); co-developed the hydropathy index; National Academy of Sciences; 2006 John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science; 1989 Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize
Clay Dreslough (1993) – software developer (as of 2012); creator, Baseball Mogul and Football Mogul computer sports games; co-founder, president, Sports Mogul
Gordon P. Eaton (1951) – geologist (as of 2012); 12th Director, United States Geological Service; Director, Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University (1990–94)
Charles Alton Ellis – mathematician, structural engineer; chiefly responsible for the design of the Golden Gate Bridge
John Wells Foster (1834) – geologist, paleontologist
Daniel Z. Freedman – physicist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (as of 2012); co-discovered supergravity; (2006) Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics; 1993 Dirac Prize
George Brown Goode – ichthyologist; National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Lee Graham (postdoc study, research) – artificial intelligence, machine learning, evolutionary computation, artificial life; created 3D Virtual Creature Evolution, an artificial evolution simulation program
Leslie Greengard (B.A. 1979) – physician, mathematician, computer scientist; co-inventor, fast multipole method, one of top-ten algorithms of 20th century; Leroy P. Steele Prize; Presidential Young Investigator Award; National Academy of Sciences; National Academy of Engineering
Frederick Grover (1901) – physicist, National Bureau of Standards, precision measurements; electrical engineer
Henry I. Harriman (B.A. 1898) – inventor, patents for many automatic looms; builder, hydroelectric dams
Gerald Holton (1941) – physicist, Emeritus, Harvard University (as of 2012); 10th Jefferson Lecture; George Sarton Medal; Abraham Pais Prize; Andrew Gemant Award
Orange Judd (1847) – agricultural chemist
George Kellogg (1837) – inventor, patent expert; improved surgical instruments
Jim Kurose – computer scientist (as of 2012); 2001 Taylor L. Booth Education Award of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Oscar Lanford (B.S.) – mathematician, mathematical physicist, dynamical systems theory (as of 2012); Dobrushin-Lanford-Ruelle equations
Albert L. Lehninger (B.A. 1939) – pioneering research in bioenergetics; National Academy of Sciences
Silas Laurence Loomis, MD (1844) – mathematician, physiologist, inventor; astronomer, United States Coast Survey (1857); dean, Howard University
Emilie Marcus (1982) – Executive Editor, Cell Press; editor-in-chief, the scientific journal Cell; CEO, Neuron (each as of 2012)
Julia L. Marcus (A.M. 2003) – epidemiologist, science communicator, Harvard Medical School
William Williams Mather (A.M. 1834) – geologist, inventor; acting president, Ohio University (1845)
Jerry M. Melillo (B.A. 1965, M.A.T. 1968) – biogeochemist; Associate Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy (1996–2000)
George Perkins Merrill (post-graduate study and research) – geologist; National Academy of Sciences (1922)
Benjamin Franklin Mudge (1840) – geologist, paleontologist; discovered at least 80 new species of extinct plants and animals
Frank W. Putnam (B.A. 1939, M.A. 1940) – biochemist; National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fremont Rider (M.A. 1937) – inventor, librarian, genealogist; named one of the 100 Most Important Leaders of Library Science and the Library Profession in the twentieth century
William Robinson (B.A. 1865, M.A. 1868) – inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer; invented first track circuit used in railway signaling, among other inventions
Edward Bennett Rosa (1886) – physicist; specialising in measurement science; National Academy of Sciences (1913); Elliott Cresson Medal
Richard Alfred Rossiter (1914) – astronomer, known for the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect
H. Eugene Stanley (1962) – physicist, statistical physics (as of 2012); National Academy of Sciences; 2008 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize; 2004 Boltzmann Medal
Carl Leo Stearns (B.A. 1917) – astronomer; namesake of asteroid (2035) Stearns and crater Stearns (far side of the Moon)
John Stephenson – invented, patented the first street car to run on rails; remembered as the creator of the tramway
Charles Wardell Stiles (attended) – parasitologist; groundbreaking work, trichinosis, hookworm; 1921 Public Welfare Medal by National Academy of Sciences
Lewis B. Stillwell (1882–1884) – electrical engineer; 1933 AIEE Lamme Medal, 1935 IEEE Edison Medal; IEEE's Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame
Alfred Charles True (1873) – agriculturalist; director, Office of Agricultural Experiment Station, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Mark Trueblood (candidate for PhD in physics) – engineer and astronomer (as of 2012); noted for early pioneering work in development of robotic telescopes; 15522 Trueblood
George Tucker (PhD) – Puerto Rican physicist (as of 2012); former Olympic luger
Nicholas Turro (1960) – chemist, Columbia University (as of 2012); National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences; 2011 Arthur C. Cope Award; Willard Gibbs Award
John Monroe Van Vleck (1850) – astronomer, mathematician; namesake of Van Vleck crater on the Moon
Jesse Vincent (1998) – software developer (as of 2012); developed Request Tracker while a student at Wesleyan; author, Request Tracker for Incident Response
Christopher Weaver (dual MAs and CAS) – software developer; founder, Bethesda Softworks; spearheaded creation, John Madden Football physics engine; visiting scholar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Henry Seely White (1882) – mathematician; National Academy of Sciences; geometry of curves and surfaces, algebraic twisted curves
Activists
Cliff Arnebeck – chair, Legal Affairs Committee, Common Cause Ohio; national co-chair and attorney, Alliance for Democracy
Mansoor Alam – humanitarian
John Emory Andrus (1862) – founder, SURDNA Foundation (1917)
Gerald L. Baliles (1987) – director, Miller Center of Public Affairs (since 2005)
Jeannie Baliles (M.A.T.) – founder and chair, Virginia Literacy Foundation (since 1987); First Lady of Virginia (1986–90)
John Perry Barlow (1969) – co-founder, Electronic Frontier Foundation; Fellow, Harvard University's Berkman Center for Internet and Society (since 1998)
Andrew Bridge (1984) – advocate for foster children; New York Times best-selling author; Fulbright Scholar
Ted Brown (attended) – libertarian politician, speaker
Eric Byler (1994) – political activist; co-founder, Coffee Party USA
Sasha Chanoff (1994) – founder, Executive Director, RefugePoint (2005–)
Jaclyn Friedman (1993) – feminist writer and activist
Jon Grepstad – Norwegian peace activist, photographer and journalist
Amir Alexander Hasson (1998) – social entrepreneur; 2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Technology Review'''s TR35 award; founder, United Villages
David Jay – asexual activist and founder of the Asexual Visibility and Education Network
Marc Kasky – consumer activist; co-director, Green Center Institute
Matt Kelley (2002) – founder, Mavin Foundation
Harry W. Laidler (1907) – socialist, writer and politician
Melody Moezzi (2001) – founder, Hooping for Peace, a human-rights organization
Sandy Newman (1974) – non-profit executive, founder of three successful non-profit organizations
Robert Carter Pitman (1845) – temperance advocate
Jessica Posner – 2010 Do Something Award; co-founded Shining Hope to combat gender inequality and poverty in Kibera, Nairobi Area, Kenya
Charles Bennett Ray – first black student, Wesleyan in 1832; abolitionist; promoter, the Underground Railroad
Richard S. Rust (1841) – abolitionist; co-founder, Freedman's Aid Society
Juliet Schor – 2005 Leontief Prize (Wassily Leontief) by the Global Development and Environment Institute
Ted Smith (1967) – environmental activist; founder and former executive director, Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition
Chuck Stone – associated with the civil-rights and Black Power movements; first president, National Association of Black Journalists
Conrad Tillard (born 1964) - politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and civil rights activist
Arthur T. Vanderbilt – proponent of U.S. court modernization and reform
Evan Weber – Co-founder, Sunrise Movement
Sports
Tobin Anderson (1995) - head coach of the Iona Gaels men's basketball team (2023–present), Fairleigh Dickinson Knights men's basketball team (2022-2023); coached Fairleigh Dickinson when they became the first No. 16 seed out of the First Four to defeat a No. 1 seed in the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
Everett Bacon (1913) – football quarterback, pioneer of the forward pass, College Football Hall of Fame
Bill Belichick (1975) – head coach of the New England Patriots; 2004 Time's "100 Most Influential People in the World"; Nine-time Super Bowl participant as head coach, won in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016, and 2018 (lost in Super Bowl XLII (2007), Super Bowl XLVI (2011), and Super Bowl LII (2017)); first NFL coach to win three Super Bowls in four years; NFL Coach of the Year three times (2003, 2007, 2010)
Ambrose Burfoot (1968) – first collegian to win the Boston Marathon; won Manchester Road Race nine times; executive editor, Runner's World Magazine
Mike Carlson (1972) – National Football League and NFL Europe pundit (for Channel 4 in the United Kingdom)
Eudice Chong (2016) - professional tennis player, reached #366 in the WTA singles rankings and #153 in the WTA singles rankings
Logan Cunningham (1907–09) – football player and coach
Wink Davenport (1964) – former volleyball Olympic player, coach, and official; father, tennis champion Lindsay Davenport
Richard E. Eustis (1914) – football player and coach
Jeff Galloway (1967) – former American Olympian, runner and author of Galloway's Book on Running''
Frank Hauser (1979) – football coach
Jed Hoyer (1996) – executive vice president and general manager, Chicago Cubs; former general manager (2009–11), San Diego Padres; former assistant general manager (2003–09), interim co-manager (2005–06), Boston Red Sox
Kathy Keeler (1978) – Olympic gold medalist, rowing (member of the women's eight) in the 1984 Olympics; Olympics coach in 1996
Dan Kenan (1915) – football player and coach
Red Lanning – Major League Baseball pitcher and outfielder; played for Philadelphia Athletics
Amos Magee (1993) – professional soccer player, coach; former head coach, Minnesota Thunder, and is Thunder's all-time scoring leader, United Soccer Leagues Hall of Fame
Jeffrey Maier (2006) – college baseball player; notable for an instance of spectator interference at age 12; Wesleyan's all-time leader in hits
Eric Mangini (1994) – former head coach, Cleveland Browns, New York Jets; NFL analyst
Vince Pazzetti (1908–10) – elected to the College Football Hall of Fame
Bill Rodgers (1970) – winner, four New York City Marathons, four Boston Marathons, one Fukuoka Marathon; only runner to hold championship of all three major marathons at same time
Henri Salaun (1949) – squash player; four-time winner, U.S. Squash National Championships (1955, 1957, 1958 and 1961); won, inaugural U.S. Open (1954)
Harry Van Surdam (1905) – elected to the College Football Hall of Fame
Mike Whalen (1983) – athlete and coach
James Wendell (1913) – Olympic silver medalist, 110-meter hurdles, 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm; one of teammates, General George S. Patton
Jeff Wilner (1994) – National Football League player
Bert Wilson (1897) – football player and coach
Field Yates (2009) - sportswriter and analyst for ESPN
Fictional characters
Notes
Wesleyan University people |
4086368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Amherst%20College%20people | List of Amherst College people | This is a list of some notable people affiliated with Amherst College.
Notable alumni
College founders and presidents
Edward Jones 1826, Principal of forerunner of Fourah Bay College, Africa (the predecessor of the University of Sierra Leone)
Patrick Hues Mell 1833, Chancellor of the University of Georgia
Edward Duffield Neill 1842, first Chancellor, University of Minnesota, 1858–1861; founder, first president, and professor, Macalester College
William S. Clark 1848, second president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College (now the University of Massachusetts Amherst), co-founder of Sapporo Agricultural College (now Hokkaido University) in Japan
Julius Hawley Seelye 1849, fifth president of Amherst College (implemented the Latin honors system)
Reverend Daniel Bliss 1852, founder and president of American University of Beirut (1866–1902)
James Griswold Merrill, president of Fisk University (1901–1908)
Francis Amasa Walker 1860, third president of MIT (1881–1897)
George Harris 1866, seventh president of Amherst College
William Jacob Holland 1869, fifth Chancellor, University of Pittsburgh
Joseph Hardy Neesima 1870, founder of Doshisha University in Japan
Frank Johnson Goodnow 1879, third president of Johns Hopkins University
Benjamin Rush Rhees 1883, third president of the University of Rochester (1900–1935)
James Hayden Tufts 1884, acting president, vice-president, dean, and professor, University of Chicago
Frederic B. Pratt 1887, president of Pratt Institute (1893–1937)
Bertrand Snell 1894, president of Clarkson University (1920–1945)
Ernest Hatch Wilkins 1900, president of Oberlin College (1927–1946)
Stanley King 1903, eleventh president of Amherst College
J. Seelye Bixler 1916, 16th president of Colby College
Lewis Williams Douglas 1916, ninth Principal of McGill University
Dexter Keezer 1918, president of Reed College
Charles W. Cole 1927, twelfth president of Amherst College
Richard Glenn Gettell 1933, thirteenth president of Mount Holyoke College
David Truman 1935, fifteenth president of Mount Holyoke College
John W. Atherton 1939, founding president of Pitzer College
Calvin Plimpton 1939, thirteenth president of Amherst College; president of Downstate Medical Center and American University of Beirut
Julian Gibbs 1947, fifteenth president of Amherst College
Charles R. Longsworth 1951, president of Hampshire College, founding vice-president
Ralph Z. Sorenson 1955, seventh president of Babson College (1974–1981), one of co-founders of the Asian Institute of Management (AIM) in the Philippines
Richard M. Freeland 1963, president of Northeastern University (1996–2006)
David K. Lewis 1964, interim president, provost and dean of faculty, professor, Connecticut College
Colin Diver 1965, current president of Reed College
Richard L. McCormick 1969, former president of Rutgers University; former president of the University of Washington, 1995–2002; vice-chancellor and provost of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
William S. Pfeiffer 1969, current president of Warren Wilson College
Peter Dorman 1970, 15th president of American University of Beirut
Alan Townsend 1988, current interim president of Colorado College
Academics
Philologist and lexicographer Francis Andrew March 1845, principal founder of modern comparative linguistics in Anglo-Saxon
Geologist Benjamin Kendall Emerson 1865, geologist, author, and professor
Political Scientist John Burgess 1867, one of the founders of modern political science
Historian Herbert Baxter Adams 1872, writings introduced scientific methods of investigation, credited with bringing study of politics into realm of social sciences
Librarian Melvil Dewey 1874, of the Dewey Decimal System, founder of American Library Association
Economist John Bates Clark 1875, namesake of the John Bates Clark Medal
Statistician Richmond Mayo-Smith 1875, at the time one of the foremost authorities on the subject
Astronomer David Peck Todd 1875, noted astronomer, leader of significant astronomical expeditions
Political Scientist Frank Johnson Goodnow 1879, scholar of public administration and administrative law, advisor in drafting Chinese constitution in 1913–14 (appears above)
Librarian Ernest Cushing Richardson 1880, noted librarian, theologian and scholar
Historian, author, librarian Frederic Bancroft 1882, namesake of the Bancroft Prize
Philosopher James Hayden Tufts 1884, co-founder of University of Chicago School of Pragmatism
Psychologist Edmund B. Delabarre 1886, pioneer in shape perception, among other fields
Astronomer Raymond Smith Dugan 1899, discovered 16 Asteroids (including 516 Amherstia), wrote standard two volume textbook
Historian Preserved Smith 1901, historian of Protestant Reformation; Prof. at Amherst, Harvard
Economist John Maurice Clark 1905, best known forerunner of American school of pragmatic economics
Educator Claude Fuess 1905, a noted author and historian, 10th Headmaster of Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts
Educator and philosopher Scott Buchanan 1916, founder of Great Books program at St. John's College
E. Merrill Root 1917, writer, educator, and opponent of communism and liberal intrusion into the educational system
Robert Percy Barnes, 1921, American chemist and professor at Howard University; was the first African American faculty member at Amherst College and the first African American person to receive a PhD in chemistry from Harvard University
Gerald Warner Brace 1922, writer, educator, sailor and boat builder
Sociologist Talcott Parsons 1924, one of the most influential sociologists during much of the 20th century; Professor at Harvard from 1927 to 1973.
Chemist Paul Doughty Bartlett 1928, revolutionized the way organic chemistry is taught and practiced in the world
Mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene 1930, helped lay foundations for theoretical computer science
Chemist William Summer Johnson 1936, among the world's leading synthetic organic chemists
American historian, professor, and activist H. Stuart Hughes 1937
Historian John Whitney Hall 1939, pioneer in field of Japanese studies, authority on pre-war Japan
Poet and professor Richard P. Wilbur 1942, second U.S. Poet Laureate; Amherst College professor Robert Frost was Wilbur's teacher and mentor
Linguist and professor Eric P. Hamp 1942, LHD (hon.)'72, The University of Chicago, known for expertise in lesser-known Indo-European languages and dialects.
Poet and translator David Ferry 1946, recipient of the Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry
Chemist Julian Howard Gibbs 1947, former President of Amherst College (won the High Polymer Prize of the American Physical Society, 1967)
Neuroscientist James Olds 1947, one of the foremost psychologists of the twentieth century
Political Scientist Richard Fenno 1948, namesake of Fenno's paradox and Richard F. Fenno Jr. Prize
Physicist Henry Way Kendall 1950, experimental work provided first evidence of quarks and quark model
Microbiologist Carl R. Woese 1950, redrew taxonomic tree, originator of RNA world hypothesis
Political Scientist Andrew Hacker 1951, novel interdisciplinary work on questions of race, class, and gender
Physical chemist Peter Toennies 1952, former director of the Max Planck Institute for Flow Research; recipient, inter alia, of Physics Award of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences, Stern-Geriach Gold Medal (experimental physics), Kolos Medal (chemistry) (2005), and Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics (2006)
Translator and poet Robert Fagles 1955, known for translations of ancient Greek classics, particularly translations of epic poems of Homer
Economist Edmund Phelps 1955, seminal work, natural rate of unemployment, Golden Rule savings rate
Political Scientist Alan Schechter 1957
Scientist David Suzuki 1958, internationally honoured Canadian environmental scientist and activist
Historian John W. Dower 1959, scholar of modern Japanese history, Bancroft Prize
Economist David Bradford 1960, economist, professor at Princeton University
Planetary scientist Andrew Ingersoll 1960, recipient of Kuiper Prize (2007)
Philosopher and law professor James Boyd White 1960, founder of "Law and Literature" movement
MIT Institute Professor John M. Deutch 1961, chairman of Chemistry Dept., Dean of Science, Provost
Musicologist and musician Philip Gossett 1963, one of the world's leading authorities on 19th century Italian music; Prof., Univ. of Chicago and Univ. of Rome
Psychologist Roger Tarpy 1963, author of numerous textbooks on learning and memory
Economist Joseph E. Stiglitz 1964, John Bates Clark Medal; former professor at Oxford, Yale, Stanford, and Princeton; work in the theory of markets with asymmetric information and efficiency wages
Sterling Professor of French R. Howard Bloch 1965, Bibliotheque National, Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Physical Chemist Robert W. Field 1965, recipient, inter alia, of the Broida Prize, Plyler Prize, Lippincott Award, and Nobel Laureate Signature Award
Physicist Davison E. Soper 1965, recipient of the 2009 Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
Philosopher William Lycan 1966, contributions to philosophy of language, mind, epistemology, linguistics
Historian Theodore Rosengarten 1966, scholar of U.S. Southern history
Computer scientist David S. Johnson 1967, computer scientist, head of Algorithms and Optimization Department (research) at AT&T Labs (former Bell Labs)
Bestselling author Daniel Goleman 1968
Anthropologist Loring Danforth 1971, award-winning scholar; pre-eminent expert, Macedonia naming dispute
Ecologist Peter Vitousek 1971, professor of biology at Stanford University; member of the National Academy of Sciences (1992)
Astronomer David Helfand 1973, chair of the department of Astronomy at Columbia University, co-director of Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, professor in physics department
Ethnomusicologist Theodore Levin 1973
Geophysicist, earth and planetary scientist, and astronomer Raymond Jeanloz 1975
Historian Peter Jelavich 1975, professor of history, Johns Hopkins University, specializing in the cultural history of modern Germany
Historian Walter Johnson 1988, Winthrop Professor of History, Harvard University
Economist Gilbert E. Metcalf 1975, John DiBiaggio Professor of Citizenship and Public Service and professor of economics, Tufts University, specializing in taxation, energy, and climate policy
Mathematician and political scientist Joshua M. Epstein 1976, pioneer in agent based models; modeling of social, economic, and biological systems; groundbreaking work on epidemics and bioterrorism
Historian, author of books on the Vietnam War Christian Appy 1977
Historian Andrew R. Heinze 1977
Bioethicist Ezekiel J. Emanuel 1979, leading medical ethicist
Timothy Luehrman 1979, finance academic (corporate finance and real options)
Rajiv Ratan 1981, scientist
Andrew Kuchins 1981, political scientist and former President of American University of Central Asia
Chemist Amy Rosenzweig 1988, leader in advancing synchrotron-based protein crystallography
Joseph M. Hall, Jr., 1991, Professor of American History, Bates College
Political Scientist Sumantra Bose 1992, professor of Internatl. & Comp. Pol., London School of Economics
Law professor and television correspondent Stephen Vladeck 2001
Art historian Charles C. Eldredge, 1966, Hall Distinguished Professor of American Art and Culture Emeritus, University of Kansas
Professional athletes and coaches
Steve Partenheimer 1913, third baseman, Detroit Tigers, 1913
Howard Groskloss 1930, infielder, Pittsburgh Pirates, 1930–1932
Harry Dalton 1950, general manager Baltimore Orioles 1965–1971, Los Angeles Angels 1971–1977, Milwaukee Brewers 1977–1991
Doug Swift 1970, linebacker, Miami Dolphins, 1970–1975
Jean Fugett 1972, tight end, Dallas Cowboys 1972–1975, and Washington Redskins, 1976–1979
Freddie Scott 1974, wide receiver, Baltimore Colts, 1974–77, and Detroit Lions 1978–1983
Richard N. Thompson 1980, pitcher, Cleveland Indians, 1985, and Montreal Expos, 1989–1990
John J. Cerutti 1982, pitcher, Toronto Blue Jays, 1985–1990, and Detroit Tigers, 1991
Dave Jauss 1980, bench coach, New York Mets, 2009–present
Dan Duquette, 1980, general manager, Montreal Expos 1991–1994, Boston Red Sox 1994–2002, Baltimore Orioles 2011–2018
Neal Huntington 1991, general manager, Pittsburgh Pirates, 2007–2019
Ben Cherington 1996, general manager, Boston Red Sox, 2011–2015
Alex Bernstein 1997, offensive lineman, Baltimore Ravens, New York Jets, Cleveland Browns, Atlanta Falcons, 1997–2000
Willy Workman (born 1990), American-Israeli basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Clergy and Biblical scholars
Missionary and linguist Isaac Grout Bliss 1844, translator of the Bible into Kurdish
Missionary and linguist David Oliver Allen 1823, first American Protestant missionary appointed to Bombay, India; first translation of the Bible in the Mahratta language
Biblical scholar Bela Bates Edwards 1824, also editor-in-chief of Bibliotheca Sacra, the oldest continuous theological journal in the United States
Missionary and scholar Elijah Coleman Bridgman 1826, the first American Protestant missionary appointed to China, America's first "China expert"
John H. Burt, Episcopal priest and Eighth bishop of the Episcopal Dicese of Ohio (1967–1983)
Missionary and linguist Justin Perkins 1829, first American Protestant missionary appointed to Iran
Biblical scholar Horatio Balch Hackett 1830
Preacher Henry Ward Beecher 1834
Archbishop James Roosevelt Bayley ex 1835, eighth Archbishop of Baltimore
Roswell Dwight Hitchcock 1836, president of Union Theological Seminary (1880–87)
Preacher Benjamin M. Palmer ex 1836, acclaimed orator, Bible-based theologian; confederate preacher
Bishop Frederic Dan Huntington 1839, first Episcopal bishop of Episcopal Diocese of Central New York
Biblical scholar Henry Preserved Smith 1869, professor at Amherst College (1897–1906)
William Greenough Thayer 1885, Episcopal minister and headmaster of headmaster of St. Mark's School
Christian thinker Uchimura Kanzo 1887, founder of Nonchurch Movement of Christianity in Japan
Theologian Robert McAfee Brown 1943, Presbyterian minister, theologian, international leader and activist in social justice, civil rights, and ecumenical causes
Canadian Anglican priest Roland de Corneille 1947, human rights activist
Farzam Arbab 1964, member of the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing body of the Baháʼí Faith
Clark Lowenfield 1980, bishop of the Anglican Diocese of the Western Gulf Coast
Buddhist scholar, teacher, and practitioner B. Alan Wallace 1987, translator for dozens of Tibetan lamas in India, Europe, and North America, including the Dalai Lama
Presidents, prime ministers, and other heads of national government
Calvin Coolidge 1895, 30th President of the United States (1923–1929)
George Papandreou 1975, former Prime Minister of Greece (2009–11) and Minister for Foreign Affairs (1999–2004, 2009–10)
Antonis Samaras 1974, former Prime Minister of Greece (2012–2015) and leader of New Democracy (2009–2015); Minister for Foreign Affairs (1989–92)
Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta 1985, 4th President of Kenya (2013–2022).
Francisco Flores Pérez 1981, 39th President of El Salvador (1999–2004).
Royalty
Albert II 1981, Sovereign Prince of Monaco (2005–)
Cabinet members
Horace Maynard 1838, Postmaster General, cabinet of Rutherford Hayes (prior to 1972, a cabinet office)
Charles H. Allen 1869, Assistant Secretary of the Navy replacing Theodore Roosevelt in McKinley administration
Robert Lansing 1886, United States Secretary of State 1915–1920; nominal head, US Commission to the Paris Peace Conference
William Henry Lewis 1892, first African-American appointed to a sub-cabinet position, Assistant United States Attorney General
Harlan Fiske Stone 1894, United States Attorney General
Calvin Coolidge 1895, twenty-ninth Vice-President of the United States (1921–1923) (appears above)
William F. Whiting 1896, Secretary of Commerce (1928–1929)
Lewis W. Douglas 1916, Director of the Budget, now Office of Management and Budget
John J. McCloy 1919, Assistant United States Secretary of War (1941–1945)
Amon Nikoi 1953, Senior Principal Secretary of the Ministry of Finance; Minister of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana)
David Bradford 1960, former member of President's Council of Economic Advisors
John M. Deutch 1960, U.S. Director of Central Intelligence in Bill Clinton administration; United States Deputy Secretary of Defense
Joseph E. Stiglitz 1964, former member and Chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisors
Antonis Samaras 1974, Greek Leader of the Opposition and President of New Democracy; Minister for Foreign Affairs (1989–92)
Francisco G. Flores 1981, former Secretary of Information; President of Congress (El Salvador) (appears above)
Stavros Lambrinidis 1984, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Greece (2011)
Kevin McAleenan 1994, Acting Secretary of Homeland Security (2019)
United States Supreme Court
Harlan Fiske Stone 1894, Associate Justice (1925–1941) and twelfth Chief Justice (1941–1946); the only justice physically to have filled all nine seats on the bench of the United States Supreme Court, having moved by seniority from the most junior Associate Justice to the most senior Associate Justice to the Chief Justice; principal role in upholding President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal programs
Diplomats and government officials
John Elliot Ward ex 1835, U.S. Minister to China, elected acting Lieut. Gov. of Georgia, U.S. Attorney (GA)
Horace Maynard 1838, Minister to Turkey in Administration of Ulysses S. Grant (appears above)
Edward Duffield Neill 1842, consul to Dublin (appears above)
John C. Caldwell 1855, Min. to Uruguay and Paraguay; con. to Valparaiso, Chile, and San José, Costa Rica
Francis Amasa Walker 1860, Chief of U.S. Bureau of Statistics, Director of both 9th and 10th U.S. census
Arthur Sherburne Hardy ex 1869, Minister Plenipotentiary (Ambassador) to Persia, Greece, Romania, Serbia, Switzerland, and Spain
Walter Wyman 1870, third Surgeon General of the United States
Frank C. Partridge 1882, Solicitor of the Department of State; Min. to Venezuela; con. general to Tangier, Morocco
Sir Herbert Ames 1885, financial director, Secretariat of the League of Nations (Member of Parliament, Canada)
Sir Chentung Liang-Cheng 1885, Ambassador of China to the United States
Dwight Morrow 1895, Ambassador to Mexico, chairman of the Morrow Board
Joseph Bartlett Eastman 1904, Interstate Commerce Commissioner (1919–1944); Federal Coordinator of Railroads
Dr.Warren Fales Draper 1906, Deputy Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service (see Physicians)
Leland Olds 1912, Chairman of the Federal Power Commission under President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Lewis W. Douglas 1916, head, War Shipping Administration; Ambassador to the United Kingdom
John J. McCloy 1919, second president of the World Bank, member of the Warren Commission and Draper Committee (appears above)
Robert H. Thayer 1922, Minister to Romania, Asst. Secretary of State for Ed. and Cultural Affairs
George Yeh 1925, Ambassador to the U.S. from the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Charles W. Cole 1927, ambassador to Chile, director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, president of Amherst College
Toshikazu Kase 1927, Japan's first Ambassador to the United Nations
Philip Hall Coombs 1937, first Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs
Robert G. Neumann 1940 MA, Ambassador to Afghanistan, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia
Talcott Williams Seelye 1944, Ambassador to Syria, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia; U.S. Presidential Envoy to Lebanon
Edward Ney 1946, Ambassador to Canada
Harry G. Barnes, Jr. 1949, Ambassador to Chile, India, and Romania
Ulric Haynes 1952, Ambassador to Algeria, staff member of the National Security Council
Amon Nikoi 1953, Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations; Executive Director of the International Monetary Fund; Chairman and Governor of the Board of Directors of the Bank of Ghana
Hiroaki Fujii 1958, Ambassador of Japan to Thailand, Great Britain (current president of the Japan Foundation)
David Bradford 1960, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Tax Policy, U.S. Department of the Treasury (appears above)
Harold E. Varmus 1961, Director of the National Institutes of Health (1993–2000)
Joseph E. Stiglitz 1964, Senior Vice-President and Chief Economist of the World Bank (appears above)
Kenneth Bacon 1966, Department of Defense spokesman who later served as president of Refugees International
David Kessler 1973, head of Food and Drug Administration (1990–1997)
Jeff Bleich 1983, Ambassador to Australia
Sarah Bloom Raskin 1983, Deputy Secretary of the Treasury (2014–)
Stavros Lambrinidis 1984, European Union Special Representative for Human Rights (2011–)
Catherine Lhamon 1993, Chair, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights; Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education
Senators, Representatives, and other politicians
Representative Edward Dickinson 1823, father of Emily
Representative Lincoln Clark 1825 (Iowa) (Attorney General of Alabama and circuit judge)
Representative James Humphrey 1831 (New York)
Robert Purvis 1831(?), antebellum African-American abolitionist, supporter of Underground Railroad
Representative Nathan Belcher 1832 (Connecticut) (state legislator and lawyer)
Representative Lucien Barbour 1837 (Indiana) (U.S. Attorney)
State Representative Edward Ralph May 1837 (did not graduate), sole delegate to the Indiana Constitutional Convention of 1850 to support African American suffrage.
Representative David Stuart 1838 (Michigan) (President Abraham Lincoln appointed him brigadier general in Civil War)
Representative Horace Maynard (Tennessee) 1838 (Attorney General of Tennessee) (appears above)
Senator Samuel Clarke Pomeroy ex (1836–38) (Kansas) (mayor; railroad president)
John P. Sanderson 1839, member of Provisional Confederate Congress (Florida)
Representative Martin R. Thayer ex 1840 (Pennsylvania) (state judge)
Representative Charles Delano 1840 (Massachusetts)
Representative Waldo Hutchins 1842 (New York)
Speaker of the House Galusha A. Grow 1844 (Pennsylvania) (24th Speaker) (railroad president)
Representative Julius H. Seelye 1849 (Massachusetts) (president of Amherst College) (appears above)
Representative Charles P. Thompson 1846 (Massachusetts) (U.S. Assistant D. A. and judge)
Representative Samuel M. Arnell 1844(?) (Tennessee)
Representative William Whiting II 1862 (Massachusetts) (state legislator and mayor)
Representative William Shadrach Knox 1865 (Massachusetts)
Representative Francis W. Rockwell 1868 (Massachusetts) (state legislator and judge)
Representative Charles H. Allen 1869 (Massachusetts) (appears above)
Representative Caleb R. Layton 1873 (Delaware) (Delaware Secretary of State and physician)
Representative Lewis Sperry 1873 (Connecticut) (state legislator and lawyer)
Senator and "Speaker of the House" Frederick H. Gillett 1874 (Massachusetts) (37th Speaker)
Representative Henry Stockbridge, Jr. 1877 (Maryland) (Regent of the University of Maryland)
Representative George H. Utter 1877 (Rhode Island)
Representative George P. Lawrence 1880 (Massachusetts) (state legislator and judge)
Senator Frank C. Partridge 1882 (Vermont) (appears above)
Speaker of the House Henry T. Rainey 1883 (Illinois) (40th Speaker)
Representative Edward Bassett 1884 (New York) (a founding father of modern-day urban planning)
Member of Parliament in Canada Sir Herbert Ames 1885 (appears above)
Representative Allen T. Treadway 1886 (Massachusetts) (in office sixteen consecutive terms)
William Estabrook Chancellor 1889, nemesis of Warren G. Harding
Representative George B. Churchill 1889 (Massachusetts) (professor at Amherst College)
Representative and "House minority leader" Bertrand Snell 1894 (New York) (appears above)
Representative Charles B. Law 1895 (New York)
Senator Dwight Morrow 1895 (New Jersey) (appears above)
Representative Albert E. Austin 1899 (Connecticut) (physician and stepfather of Clare Boothe Luce)
Representative Foster Waterman Stearns 1903 (New Hampshire) (regent of the Smithsonian Institution)
Representative Bruce Fairchild Barton 1907 (New York)
Representative Lewis W. Douglas 1916 (Arizona) (appears above) (Council on Foreign Relations)
Representative Augustus W. Bennet 1918 (New York)
Senator Kingsley A. Taft 1925 (Ohio) (judge and chief justice of Ohio Supreme Court)
Representative John Michael Murphy ex 1943 (New York)
Representative Thomas Ballenger 1948 (Ohio) (served consecutive terms, 1986–2005)
Member of Parliament in Canada Roland de Corneille 1947 (appears above)
Senator Thomas F. Eagleton 1950 (Missouri) (1969–1987), one-time running mate of George McGovern (Missouri Attorney General and Lieutenant Governor)
Richard W. DeKorte 1957 New Jersey, Energy Czar and former member and majority leader of the New Jersey General Assembly
Representative Robert H. Steele 1960 (Connecticut, 1970–1975)
Paul Offner 1964 Wisconsin State Legislature, and educator
Stephen Hartgen 1966, Idaho House of Representatives (2008–current) and former editor and publisher of the Times-News
Representative Thomas M. Davis III 1971 (Virginia)
Eric Kriss 1971, former Massachusetts Secretary for Finance and Administration
Samuel I. Rosenberg 1972, member of the Maryland House of Delegates; law professor
Peter Franchot 1973, Maryland Comptroller and former member of the Maryland House of Delegates
Representative Martin Hoke 1973 (Ohio) (1993–1997)
Antonis Samaras 1974, member of the European Parliament; former member of the Greek Parliament (appears above)
George Papandreou 1975, member of the Greek Parliament; leader of PASOK, opposition party (appears above)
Eric T. Schneiderman 1977, New York Attorney General, former deputy minority leader
Bradley Campbell 1983, New Jersey Commissioner, Department of Environmental Protection
Stavros Lambrinidis 1984, member and Vice-President of European Parliament (2004–2011) from Greece (appears above)
Senator Chris Coons 1985 (Delaware)
Craig M. Johnson 1993, member of New York State Senate
Rob Witwer 1993, member of Colorado House of Representatives
Paul Rieckhoff 1998, Executive Director of Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America
John Buchanan Robinson, U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania's 6th Congressional district (1891–1897)
Erastus G. Smith, Wisconsin State Assembly and educator
Alan Webber 1970, Mayor of Santa Fe, New Mexico (appears below)
Governors and Premiers, elected and appointed
Alexander H. Bullock 1836, Governor of Massachusetts (state legislator, judge, and mayor)
Charles L. Robinson 1839 (?), first Governor of Kansas (1861–1863), first elected "territorial Governor" of Kansas (physician, abolitionist, and regent of the University of Kansas)
Charles Bartlett Andrews 1858, Governor of Connecticut
Dave Freudenthal 1973, twice Governor of Wyoming, former U.S. attorney
Lucius F. C. Garvin 1862, twice Governor of Rhode Island
Charles H. Allen 1869, first civil Governor of Puerto Rico (appears above)
George H. Utter 1877, Rhode Island Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and Secretary of State
Calvin Coolidge 1895, Governor, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (mayor) (appears above)
John J. McCloy 1919, U.S. military Governor and High Commissioner of Germany (appears above)
William Henry Hastie 1925, first African-American civil Governor of the U.S. Virgin Islands
Adélard Godbout, Premier of Québec (1936; 1939–1944), majored in agronomy from the Amherst Agricultural College
Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta (1985–1989), studied economics, political science and government at Amherst
Lawyers and judges
Henry M. Spofford 1845, Justice, Louisiana Supreme Court
Addison Brown ex 1852, U.S. District Court judge (New York) (one of the founders of N.Y. Botanical Gardens)
Charles Bartlett Andrews 1858, Chief Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court (appears above)
Henry Stockbridge, Jr. 1877, Judge, Maryland Court of Appeals (1911–1926) (appears above)
Albert S. Bard 1888, Lawyer and Civic Activist in New York City, Albert S. Bard Award is named after him
William H. Lewis 1888, lawyer, Assistant US Attorney General; first college football player and All-American
Luther Ely Smith 1894, lawyer and founder of Gateway Arch National Park
Harlan Fiske Stone 1894, professor and Dean of Columbia Law School (appears above)
John Teele Pratt 1896, lawyer, philanthropist, music impresario and financier
Charles Hamilton Houston 1915, legal architect of school desegregation strategy; first African-American editor of the Harvard Law Review and first to receive SJD; Spingarn Medal
John J. McCloy 1919, name partner in Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy; adviser of nine presidents
James Focht McClure, Jr. 1913, U.S. District Court Judge (Pennsylvania)
Leonard Page Moore 1919, Federal appellate judge (Second Circuit), 1957–1971; senior status, 1971; U.S. Attorney, 1953–1957
Robert H. Thayer 1922, lawyer, naval officer and diplomat
William Henry Hastie 1925, first African-American U.S. District Court judge (Virgin Islands); first black Federal appellate judge and Chief Judge (Third Circuit); dean of Howard University Law School; editor of the Harvard Law Review; Spingarn Medal
Benjamin J. Davis Jr. 1925, African-American graduate of Harvard Law School, radical lawyer, member of New York City Council, and a communist who was jailed for his beliefs
Kingsley A. Taft 1925, Chief Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court (appears above)
Donald G. Murray 1934, plaintiff in Murray v. Pearson
Nauman Scott 1934, U.S. District Court judge (Louisiana) (1970–2001)
Robert M. Morgenthau 1941, District Attorney of New York County and former U.S. Attorney
William H. Webster 1947, U.S. District Court judge (Missouri) and Federal Appellate judge (Eighth Circuit) (also U.S. Attorney, 1960–1961; awarded National Security Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom)
Alexander M. Keith 1950, former Chief Justice of the Minnesota State Supreme Court; Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota
James J. White 1956, leading scholar of commercial law, Professor of Law at Michigan University
Philip H. Lilienthal 1962, humanitarian and AIDS activist; founder of WorldCamps
Peter Messitte 1963, U.S. District Court judge (Maryland)
James T. Giles 1964, U.S. District Court judge (Pennsylvania), Chief Judge (1999–2006)
Colin Diver 1965, former professor and Dean, University of Pennsylvania Law School (appears above)
John C. Coffee 1966, professor, Columbia Law School
William P. Alford 1970, Professor and Director of East Asian Legal Studies at Harvard Law School
Samuel H. Mays 1970, U.S. District Court judge (Tennessee)
William W. Fisher 1976, professor, Harvard Law School
William J. Kayatta Jr. 1976, U.S. Court of Appeals judge
Paul M. Smith 1976, winning attorney of Lawrence v. Texas (Supreme Court practitioner)
Eric T. Schneiderman 1977, New York Attorney General
William Z. Stuart 1811-1876, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court
Patrick Fitzgerald 1982, U.S. Attorney; U.S. Dept. of Justice Special Counsel in charge of investigating the Valerie Plame affair
Karin Immergut 1982, U.S. Attorney
Scott Kafker 1981, Justice, Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
Michael P. Shea 1989, U.S. District Court judge (Connecticut)
Businesspeople
John Abele 1959, founder and director of Boston Scientific
Frank Lusk Babbott 1878, jute merchant, art collector, patron, and philanthropist
Bruce Fairchild Barton 1907, co-founder of precursor to BBDO, head of BBDO until 1961 (appears above)
Clarence Birdseye ex 1910, food preservationist, founder of Birds Eye Foods, National Inventors Hall of Fame
Charles R. Blyth 1905, investment banker, partner at Blyth, Eastman Dillon & Co.
Charles Brewer 1981, entrepreneur and founder of Mindspring Enterprises, an internet service provider
Benjamin P. Cherington 1996, vice president of player personnel for the Boston Red Sox
Wei Christianson 1985 (BA political science), co-CEO Asia of Morgan Stanley
Daniel Collamore Heath 1868, publisher, founder of D.C. Heath and Company, now part of Houghton Mifflin
Harry Dalton 1950, executive of American Major League Baseball; general manager of three major league baseball teams
Arthur Vining Davis 1888, president and chairman of Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa); founder of Arthur Vining Davis Foundations
Daniel F. Duquette 1980, baseball executive; general manager of two major league baseball teams
Henry Clay Folger 1879, Standard Oil president, Folger Shakespeare Library founder
William E. Ford 1983, CEO of General Atlantic
Martin S. Fox (1924–2020), publisher
George N. Gillett, Jr. ex-chairman of Booth Creek Management Corp., owns interests in food industry and sports teams
H. Irving Grousbeck 1956, current managing partner of the Boston Celtics, co-founder of Continental Cablevision, professor at Stanford Business School
Amos Hostetter, Jr. 1958, former chief executive officer of MediaOne
Neal Huntington 1991, general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates
Daniel Willis James 1863, head of Phelps, Dodge, and Company, philanthropist
Jeff Jordan 1981, venture capitalist; partner at Andreessen Horowitz
Eric Kriss 1971, co-founder of Bain Capital, former CEO of MediQual Systems (appears above)
Thai Lee 1980, founder and CEO of SHI International, billionaire
Richard LeFrak 1967, chairman and CEO of LeFrak
Glen Lewy 1971, member, Council on Foreign Relations; National Chair of the Anti-Defamation League; lawyer and venture capitalist
Dave MacLennan 1981, CEO of Cargill
John J. McCloy 1919, chairman of Chase Manhattan Bank, Council on Foreign Relations, and Ford Foundation
Charles E. Merrill ex 1908, founder of Merrill Lynch
John S. Middleton 1977, former owner of the John Middleton Co. and part owner of the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball (MLB)
Dwight Morrow 1895, partner at J.P. Morgan & Co.
Edward N. Ney 1946, CEO of Young & Rubicam
Frits van Paasschen 1983, former CEO of Starwood Hotels & Resorts, Worldwide, Inc.; former CEO of Coors Brewing Company
Charles Millard Pratt 1879, company secretary of Standard Oil
George Dupont Pratt 1893, conservationist and philanthropist
Harold I. Pratt 1899, oil industrialist
Herbert L. Pratt 1895, head of Standard Oil
Hugh B. Price 1963, former President of the National Urban League
Lloyd Schermer 1950, CEO of Lee Enterprises; chairman of predecessor of the Newspaper Association of America
Martin S. Schwartz 1967, Wall Street trader, author, profiled in national bestseller "Market Wizards"
Gary Shilling, financial analyst and commentator
Winthrop H. Smith, Jr. 1971, entrepreneur; CEO of Summit Ventures; former executive vice president of Merrill Lynch; member, Council on Foreign Relations
Sung-Joo Kim 1981, chairman and CEO of MCM Group; founder and former director of Sung Joo International in South Korea
John Tarnoff 1973, senior executive at DreamWorks Animation, head of Show Development
Sigourney Thayer 1918, American theatrical producer, World War I aviator, and poet
Alan Webber 1970, former managing editor of the Harvard Business Review, co-founder of Fast Company
Robert W. Wilson (philanthropist) 1946, hedge fund manager and philanthropist
Sarah Meeker Jensen, 1977, FAIA, architect and medical planner
Jide Zeitlin, 1985, former CEO of Tapestry, Inc., former Chair of Amherst College Board of Trustees
Directors of Central Intelligence (DCI), CIA, and the FBI
John M. Deutch 1960 (1995–96)
Stansfield Turner ex 1945 (1977–81) (president of U.S. Naval War College, 1972–74)
William H. Webster 1947 (1987–91) (FBI Director, 1978–87)
Nobel Prize winners
Henry W. Kendall 1950 (1990, Physics)
Edmund Phelps 1955 (2006, Economics)
Harold E. Varmus 1961 (1989, Physiology or Medicine)
Joseph E. Stiglitz 1964 (2001, Economics)
Jeffrey C. Hall 1967 (2017, Physiology or Medicine)
Crafoord Prize winner
Carl R. Woese 1950 (2003, Microbiology)
Pulitzer Prize winners
Alfred Friendly 1933 (1968, International Reporting)
Richard P. Wilbur 1942 (1957, Poetry; 1989, Poetry) (U.S. Poet Laureate; National Book Award; Bollingen Prize; Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize; Edna St. Vincent Millay award; Frost Medal) (appears above)
James I. Merrill 1947 (1977, Poetry) (twice named recipient of National Book Award, 1967 and 1979; National Book Critics Circle Award; Bollingen Prize; Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry)
Tad Mosel 1947 (1961, Drama)
William S. McFeely 1952 (1982, Biography) (Lincoln Prize)
John W. Dower 1959 (2000, General Non-Fiction) (National Book Award) (appears above)
Walter Allen McDougall 1968 (1986, General Non-Fiction)
Blair Kamin 1979 (1999, Criticism)
Richard Read 1980 (1999, Explanatory; 2001, Public Service (team))
Debby Applegate 1989 (2007, Biography)
MacArthur Fellowship winners
Carl R. Woese 1950, microbiologist
Theodore Rosengarten 1966, historian; National Book Award; National Book Critics Circle Award
Raymond Jeanloz 1975, geophysicist, earth and planetary scientist, and astronomer
Kellie Jones 1981, art historian and curator
Rosanne Haggerty 1982, leading creator of solutions to homelessness
David Foster Wallace 1985, novelist
Thomas W. Mitchell 1987, law professor
Amy Rosenzweig 1988, chemist
Andrea Dutton 1995, paleoclimatologist
National Medal of Science winners
Paul Doughty Bartlett 1928, chemist
Stephen Cole Kleene 1930, mathematician
William Summer Johnson 1936, chemist
Carl R. Woese 1950, microbiologist
Harold E. Varmus 1961, physician
Astronauts
Robert A. R. Parker 1958 (B.A., astronomy and physics; PhD, Caltech (Astronomy)); physicist
Jeffrey A. Hoffman 1966 (B.A., astronomy; PhD, Harvard University (Astrophysics)); astrophysicist; mem. Spanish Academy of Engineering
Engineers, inventors, and scientists
Alvan Wentworth Chapman 1830, botanist and physician, wrote the first comprehensive description of U.S flora beyond the northeast
Amiel Weeks Whipple ex 1840, military engineer, surveyor of the First transcontinental railroad
William Rutherford Mead 1867, engineer
Arthur Sherburne Hardy ex 1869, engineer, professor of civil engineering and mathematics
John Mason Clarke 1877, New York state paleontologist and geologist
L. Hamilton McCormick 1881, inventor, scientist, and author
Frank Lewis Nason 1882 A.B., 1885 M.A., mining engineer and writer; the mineral nasonite is named after him
Hubert Lyman Clark 1892, zoologist, curator of echinoderms at Harvard, awarded Clark Medal
Robert Stanley Breed 1898, biologist
Clarence Birdseye ex 1910, father of frozen food, businessperson, National Inventors Hall of Fame
Preston Bassett 1913, charter member of NASA; pioneer in instruments for aviation; inventor, engineer
Alfred Romer 1917, paleontologist, a key figure in evolutionary research, Prof. at Chicago and Harvard
Charles Drew 1926, M.D., developed system of separating liquid blood cells from solid plasma and storing and reconstituting them
Melvin Kranzberg 1938, creator of Kranzberg's laws of technology; co-founder of Society for the History of Technology
Lloyd Conover 1947, chemist and inventor of tetracycline; National Inventors Hall of Fame
Craig Call Black 1954, paleontologist
Lewis Joel Greene 1955, American-Brazilian biochemist, Brazilian Order of Scientific Merit
Steve Baer ex 1960 (studied physics and mathematics at Amherst), inventor of the postgeodesic system called the zome
Jonathan Borden 1984, application of computer science to neurobiology; professor of neurosurgery
Julie Segre 1987, epithelial biologist, Chief of the Human Genome Research Institute
Kellyn LaCour-Conant, biologist and restoration ecologist
Physicians
Dr. Walter Wyman 1870, Surgeon General of the United States from 1891 to 1911 (appears above)
Dr. James Ewing 1888, namesake of Ewing sarcoma; eminent experimental oncologist; helped found progenitor of the American Cancer Society; responsible for the creation of present-day Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York City
Dr. Walter Childs Wood, 1886, chief surgeon at Brooklyn Hospital and professor of surgery at Long Island University; later a Connecticut state legislator
Dr. Warren Fales Draper 1906, Deputy Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service and member of General Dwight Eisenhower's staff in Europe during World War II; his medical care program for miners won the Lasker Group Award in 1956
Dr. Charles R. Drew 1926, inventor of blood plasma preservation system, established first Red Cross blood bank, Spingarn Medal
Dr. Lloyd Saxon Graham 1943, epidemiologist
Dr. Harold E. Varmus 1961, Nobel Prize for his studies of the nature and control of oncogenes; former Director of the National Institutes of Health
Dr. David D. Burns 1964, influential psychotherapist, central role in the development of Cognitive Therapy
Dr. James Kocsis 1964, professor of psychiatry at Weill Cornell Medical College and Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic
Dr. Robert Yarchoan 1971, played a significant role in discovering and developing the first effective drugs for the treatment of AIDS
Dr. David Kessler 1973 former Head of the Food and Drug Administration, former Dean of Yale School of Medicine, and former Dean and Vice Chancellor University of California, San Francisco
Dr. Bruce D. Perry 1977, psychiatrist, internationally recognized authority on children in crisis
Dr. Ezekiel J. Emanuel 1979, Diane and Robert Levy University Professor at the University of Pennsylvania; former Chair of the Department of Bioethics at NIH
Dr. D. Drew Pinsky 1980, talk-show host
Entertainers
Playwright Clyde Fitch 1886, distinguished dramatist, wrote over 60 plays
Actor Emery B. Pottle 1899 (actor in 88 silent films and motion pictures)
Actor Burgess Meredith 1931, Academy Award–nominated
Actor Douglas Kennedy 1936, television and film actor, star of Steve Donovan, Western Marshal (1955–1956)
Playwright Tad Mosel 1947 (New York Drama Critics Award) (appears above)
Theater critic, director, playwright, author Robert Brustein 1947, founding director of Yale Repertory Theatre and American Repertory Theater; The New Republic, drama critic; Polk Award (1964)
Oscar and Emmy Award–winning composer Fred Karlin 1958
Musician and Grammy Award–winning music producer Jim Rooney 1960
Actor Ken Howard 1966, a Tony Award– and Emmy Award–winning actor
Actor Stephen Collins 1969, award-winning theater, television, and film actor
Composer Jim Steinman 1969, songwriter and producer for Meat Loaf, Bonnie Tyler, and Celine Dion
Magician Raymond J. Teller 1969, of Penn and Teller
Writer and director Henry Bromell 1970, wrote, produced Chicago Hope, Northern Exposure
Writer Robert Stuart Nathan 1970, wrote, produced ER, Law & Order
Composer Mason Daring 1971
Comedian and actor Lawrence J. Miller 1975, Max Keeble's Big Move, The Nutty Professor, 10 Things I Hate About You
Writer and director Caroline Thompson 1978, screenplays for Edward Scissorhands, The Addams Family, The Secret Garden
Director David O. Russell 1981E
John Cerutti 1982, major-league baseball pitcher and broadcaster
Writer and director Susannah Grant 1984, screenplays, Pocahontas, Ever After, Erin Brockovich
Actor John Michael Higgins 1985
Musician Jonatha Brooke Mallet 1985, singer-songwriter
Musician Jennifer Kimball 1986, singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist
Composer Harold Meltzer 1988, 2004 Rome Prize, 2004 Charles Ives Fellowship
Actor Jeffrey Wright 1987, Tony Award–, Emmy Award–, and Golden Globe Award–winning actor
Actor/Comedian Matt Besser 1989, founder of the Upright Citizens Brigade
Actor John Cariani 1991, on Law & Order and in the musicals Something Rotten! and The Band's Visit
Actress Sarah Goldberg 1996, on 7th Heaven and Judging Amy
Composer Harris Wulfson 1996
Actor Hamish Linklater 1998, on The New Adventures of Old Christine and American Dreams
Actor Rob Brown 2006, on Coach Carter and Finding Forrester; lead role of Ernie Davis in The Express: The Ernie Davis Story
Comedian, actress, and writer Aparna Nancherla 2005, on Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell
Podcaster David Chen, 2006, host and producer of /Film and The Tobolowsky Files
Musician Tim Eriksen of folk-punk band Cordelia's Dad
Actor and playwright Everett Glass
Radio and TV show host Dr. Drew Pinsky
Musician Chelsea Cutler, singer-songwriter, producer
Artisans
Printer Ronald Gordon 1965, established the Oliphant Press, New York City
Authors and artists
* Jerome Allen 1851, author
William J. C. Amend III 1984, FoxTrot cartoonist
Edward Deming Andrews 1916, historian and leading authority on the Shakers
Calvin Baker 1994, novelist, author of Naming the New World, Once Two Heroes, and Dominion
Chris Bohjalian 1982, novelist; his novel Midwives was a Publishers Weekly best book and an Oprah Winfrey book club selection
Thomas Boswell 1969, sports columnist
Dan Brown 1986, author of The Da Vinci Code, novelist
Rafael Campo 1987, poet, practising physician; professor of medicine, Harvard Medical School
Dan Chiasson 1993, poet, recipient of the Pushcart Prize and a Whiting Writer's Award
Sonya Clark 1989, artist and professor, United States Artists Fellow 2011, Pollock-Krasner Foundation Award 2006
Harlan F. Coben 1984, novelist; first writer to receive an Edgar, a Shamus, and an Anthony Award
Ted Conover 1983, journalist and author, National Book Critics Circle Award in Nonfiction (2000)
Thomas Cornell 1959, painter and printmaker; Professor of Art at Bowdoin College
Darby N. Conley 1994, Get Fuzzy cartoonist
Walter Alden Dyer 1900, author and journalist
Andre du Bouchet ex 1945, French poet, won "Prix national de poesie" (National Poetry Prize – France)
Philip D. Eastman 1933, Children's author
Thomas Flanagan 1945, writer, National Book Critics Circle Award (1979)
Amy Fox 1997, playwright
Jared French 1925, painter, master of magic realism
Alfred Friendly 1933, journalist, managing editor of the Washington Post (appears above)
Lauren Groff 2001, author, recipient of the Pushcart Prize and author of The Monsters of Templeton and Delicate Edible Birds
Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor 1897, journalist, father of photojournalism; first full-time editor of National Geographic Magazine
John S. Hagmann 1959, architect
Charles Hallock 1854, author
Jonathon Keats 1994, artist and author
Jonathan Landman 1974, journalist, deputy managing editor of the New York Times
Alan Lelchuk, novelist, Visiting Writer 1982–1984
Michael Light 1986, photographer, creator of the books Full Moon and 100 Suns
Tracye McQuirter, 1988, cookbook author and vegan activist
George B. Mallon 1887, journalist; an editor and writer for The Sun
Joseph Moncure March 1920, Poet and essayist, The Wild Party and The Set-Up
William Rutherford Mead 1867, architect of McKim, Mead, and White (appears above)
Stephen Mitchell 1964, Translator, anthologist, poet, and author
Cullen Murphy 1974, editor of the Atlantic Monthly and writer, Prince Valiant comic strip
Andrew Nagorski 1969, journalist, senior editor at Newsweek
Catherine Newman, memoirist and novelist
Warren Olney 1959, journalist, host, executive producer of PRI program To the Point; Emmy Award
Graydon Parrish 1999, artist and realist painter
Charles Patterson 1958, Author and historian
Fred Pfeil 1971, literary critic and novelist, O. Henry Award, New York Times "Notable Book of the Year"
Edward C. Potter ex 1882, sculptor of the New York Public Library Main Branch lions
Julie Powell 1995, author
Stephen Rodefer 1963, poet and painter, one of founders of the Language Poetry Movement
Terry Rodgers 1969, painter
John Ross 1979, novelist, Unintended Consequences, also the designer of a version of the Smith & Wesson .500 Magnum revolver
J. G. Sandom 1978, novelist, writer of thrillers, mysteries; also founded first interactive advertising agency
Kate Seelye 1984, journalist
Walt Simonson 1968, comic book artist and writer, winner of multiple Shazam awards and 2010 Hero Initiative Lifetime Achievement Award
Benjamin Eli Smith 1877, editor
Margaret Stohl 1989, author of thirteen novels including Beautiful Creatures and many Marvel comics
Wylie Sypher 1927, writer
Aatish Taseer 2001, writer and journalist
Scott F. Turow 1970, novelist, The Burden of Proof, Presumed Innocent; also a practising lawyer
Carl Vigeland, author; Associate Secretary for Public Affairs 1978-1983
David Foster Wallace 1985 (appears above), novelist
Herbert Dickinson Ward 1884, author and journalist
William Hayes Ward 1856, editor-in-chief of the New York Independent
Bill Wasik 1996, author and editor at Wired, inventor of the flash mob
Richard Wilbur 1942, poet, won two Pulitzer Prizes and was Poet Laureate of the United States (appears above)
Military
Amiel Weeks Whipple ex 1840, Brigadier General, Brevet Major General, Civil War
Edward Duffield Neill 1842, army and hospital chaplain in Union Army, Civil War; private secretary of presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson
Francis Amasa Walker 1860, brevet brigadier general (II Corps, Army of the Potomac), Civil War
Dwight W. Morrow 1895, chief civilian aide to General John J. Pershing, World War I
Albert E. Austin 1899, regimental surgeon, World War I
John J. McCloy 1919, U.S. Distinguished Service Medal; Legion of Honor (France); Sylvanus Thayer Award
John Michael Murphy ex 1943, U.S. Distinguished Service Cross, Korean War
Robert McAfee Brown 1943, United States Navy chaplain
Admiral Stansfield Turner (ret) ex 1945, former commander-in-chief Allied Forces Southern Europe within NATO; commander U.S. forces in Japan and Korea; commander of U.S. Second Fleet
Paul Rieckhoff 1998, served in the U.S. Army in Iraq War, nationally recognized authority on war in Iraq issues pertaining to troops, military families, and veterans; founder and executive director of IAVA; author of Chasing Ghosts
Other notables
John Henry Boalt 1857, engineer, lawyer, and judge; namesake of the school of law (Boalt Hall) at the University of California, Berkeley
Robert Billingham 1979, Olympic silver medalist in sailing (1988, Soling Class)
Eric Britton 1960, political scientist and sustainability activist
Don Cohan 1951, Olympic bronze medalist in sailing (1972, Dragon Class)
Joseph Gallup Cochran 1842, American Presbyterian missionary to Qajar Iran
Kelly Close 1990, diabetes patient advocate
Ruth Davidon 1987, gold and silver medalist, 1994 Goodwill Games
Orson Squire Fowler 1834, Phrenologist
Sylvester Graham ex 1827, American reformer, temperance minister, and father of Graham crackers
Jim Guest 1962, President, Consumers Union
J. Franklin Jameson 1879, received first doctorate in history at Johns Hopkins University, instrumental in founding National Archives
James Jordan 1952, best known for his work at BBDO advertising agency
Theodore Levin 1973, ethnomusicologist
Asa Lovejoy 1830 (?), Oregon pioneer; co-founder, city of Portland; mayor, Oregon City; speaker of house of Oregon Territorial Legislature
Richmond Mayo-Smith 1875 Economist
Augustus Post 1895, founder of the American Automobile Association (AAA), early aviator, and American adventurer
Jonathan D. Torrance, Amherst student who died in a class hazing accident in 1847
William James Rolfe 1849, Shakespearean scholar
Kimmie Weeks 2005, global activist and humanitarian who founded Youth Action International
Walter Zanger 1956, Rabbi, tour guide and television personality
Notable faculty
Wande Abimbola, Scholar in Residence (Comparative Religious Ethics), in the early 1980s and 1990s
Charles Baker Adams 1834, Prof. of Astronomy, Zoology, and Natural Sciences, 1847–1853
Hadley Arkes, Prof. of Political Science since 1966
Clarence Edwin Ayres, Prof. of Economics, 1920–1923, principal thinker of the Texas school of institutional economics
Theodore Baird, Prof. of English, 1927–1969
Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn, Prof. of Paleobotany and Paleontology, 1941–1946
Amrita Basu, Prof. of Political Science (South Asian politics, Women's Studies), 1981–1987, 1989–present
David W. Blight, Prof. of History, 1990–2003, winner of Bancroft Prize, Lincoln Prize
George B. Churchill 1889, Prof. of English Literature, 1898–1925
Henry Steele Commager, Prof. of History, 1956–1992
Constance Congdon, Playwright-in-Residence, 1993–2018
Benjamin DeMott, Prof. of Humanities, 1950–1990, 1990–2005 (Emeritus)
Lawrence Douglas, Prof. of Law, Jurisprudence and Social Thought since 1991, Andrew Carnegie Fellow
Benjamin Kendall Emerson 1865, Prof. of Geology, 1872–1917 (appears above)
Robert Frost, Prof. of English, 1916–1938, winner of four Pulitzer Prizes and the Bollingen Prize
Norton Garfinkle, Prof. of Economics and Economic History, c. 1957–1967
Alexander George, Prof. of Philosophy
Edward Hitchcock, noted geologist and the third President of Amherst College (1845–1854)
George Kateb, Prof. of Political Science, 1957–1987
Nicholas Kurti, former Distinguished Visiting Prof. of Physics, a leading experimental physicist in his era
Anthony Lake, Prof. of International Relations, 1981–1984, former National Security Advisor
Henry Littlefield, dean of students, football and wrestling coach, 1968–1976, known for his political interpretation of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
Archibald MacLeish, Prof. of English, 1963–1967, winner of three Pulitzer Prizes; the National Book Award; the Bollingen Prize; an Academy Award (screenplay); Librarian of Congress; Presidential Medal of Freedom
Jen Manion, Prof. of History and Sexuality, Women's and Gender Studies, historian, author
Jim Mauldon, Walker Professor of Mathematics (retired 1990)
Hermann J. Muller, Prof. of Biology, 1940–1945, winner of the 1946 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Roland Merullo, Prof. of Creative Writing 2002–2003, novelist and memoirist
Austin Sarat, Prof. of Political Science and Law, Jurisprudence and Social Thought since 1974
Eric Sawyer, Prof. of Music (composition and theory) since 2002, award-winning composer
John Servos, Prof. of Science, past president of the History of Science Society
Anita Shreve, Prof. of Creative Writing in the 1990s, award-winning author of fiction and non-fiction
Henry Preserved Smith 1869, Prof. of Religion, 1897–1906
Lewis Spratlan, Prof. of Music, 1970–2006, 2006 (Emeritus), winner of the 2000 Pulitzer Prize in music
Ilan Stavans, Prof. of Spanish since 1993
William Taubman, Prof. of Political Science; winner of the 2004 Pulitzer Prize in biography and the 2003 National Book Critics Circle Award in biography
Rowland Abiodun, Prof. of Art, the History of Art, and Black Studies,1997 - present, distinguished author and historian of African Art
Robert Thurman, Prof. of Religion, 1973–1988, selected by Time magazine as one of the 25 most influential Americans
Ronald Tiersky, Prof. of Political Science since 1973
Jim Ostendarp, head football coach 1959–1991, president of the American Football Coaches Association 1982
David Peck Todd 1875, Prof. of Astronomy, 1881–1917, 1917 (Emeritus) (appears above)
William Seymour Tyler, 1830, Prof. of Latin, Greek, and Greek literature, 1836–1893
Stark Young, Prof. of English, 1915–1921, Order of the Crown of Italy
Colston Warne, Prof. of Economics, 1930–1969, co-founder of Consumers Union, and president of its board of directors 1936–1979
Perez Zagorin, Prof. of History, 1947–1949
References
External links
Amherst College people
Amherst College |
4086742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispensation%20%28Catholic%20canon%20law%29 | Dispensation (Catholic canon law) | In the jurisprudence of the canon law of the Catholic Church, a dispensation is the exemption from the immediate obligation of law in certain cases. Its object is to modify the hardship often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation in such cases.
Concept
Since laws aimed at the good of the entire community may not be suitable for certain cases or persons, the legislator has the right (sometimes even the duty) to dispense from the law.
Dispensation is not a permanent power or a special right, as in privilege. If the reason for the dispensation ceases entirely, then the dispensation also ceases entirely. If the immediate basis for the right is withdrawn, then the right ceases.
Validity, legality, "just and reasonable cause"
There must be a "just and reasonable cause" for granting a dispensation. The judgement regarding what is "just and reasonable" is based upon the particular situation and the importance of the law to be dispensed from. If the cause is not "just and reasonable", then the dispensation is illegal and, if issued by someone other than the lawgiver of the law in question or his superior, it is also invalid. If it is uncertain whether a sufficiently "just and reasonable cause" exists, the dispensation is both legal and valid.
History
In canonical legal theory, the dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative. The dispensing power, like the legislative, was formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial synods. But in the West, with the gradual centralisation of authority in the Roman curia, it became ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Catholic Church.
Despite frequent crises in the diplomatic relations between the Holy See and temporal governments in the later Middle Ages, the authority of the papacy as the dispenser of grace and spiritual licences remained largely unchallenged. In the early thirteenth century, Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) fostered the extension of papal political power. He emphasised, "as had no pope before him, the pope's plenitudo potestatis ("fullness of power") within the Church." Since the Church comprised the whole of mankind, medieval jurists were accustomed to what we might call shared sovereignty, and freely accepted that the pope had a concurrent jurisdiction with temporal sovereigns. The temporal princes could administer their own laws, but the princes of the Church, and especially the pope, administered the canon law (so far as it was subject to merely human control).
In the decretal Proposuit, Innocent III proclaimed that the pope could, if circumstances demanded, dispense from canon law, de jure, with his plenitude of power. He based his view on princeps legibus solutus est ("the prince is not bound by the laws"). Because the pope was above the law, time or precedent did not limit his power, and he could dispense with any law.
Such a dispensation was not, strictly speaking, legislative, but rather a judicial, quasi-judicial, or executive act. It was also, of course, subject to the proviso that his jurisdiction to dispense with laws was limited to those laws which were within his jurisdiction or competence. "[T]his principle would have been a commonplace to anyone who had studied in Bologna."
By this power of dispensation, the pope could release clergy and laity from the obligations of the canon law in all cases that were not contrary to ius divinum and even in a few cases that were. This power was most frequently invoked to enable laity to marry notwithstanding impediments of affinity or kinship, and to enable persons labouring under an irregularity (such as of bastardy, servitude, or lack of age) to take orders or become regulars.
Dispensations awarded were classified into three categories:
The first two categories, rules concerning the procedure of taking Holy Orders, and dispensations concerning tenure of benefices, applied only to clergy, and of release from religious vows for members of Catholic religious orders.
The third category, matrimonial dispensations, i.e. regarding marriage, concerned only the laity since the clergy is celibate.
Beside the three main classes of dispensation, the Roman Curia was ready to grant miscellaneous positive concessions to applicants, from individuals to larger organisations, although the former is rare. This host of dispensations, faculties, and indults included permission to eat flesh during Lent, the celebration of offices in chapels of ease and private oratories, and the granting of academic degrees. Those dispensations relating to academic degrees were mostly issued under the sanction of the canon law, as stated in the constitution of Pope Boniface VIII beginning Cum ex eo.
Contemporary use
As of the early part of the twentieth century, the actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the decisions of the Council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed “saving the authority of the Holy See” (Sess. xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all cases gratis. The payment of money for a dispensation was ipso facto to make the dispensation void (Sess. xxv. cap. 18, de ref.).
There are several levels of authority in the Church that are competent to dispense the various demands of Canon Law. Local ordinaries, for example, are competent to dispense the various canonical impediments to the sacrament of marriage. Pastors may grant individuals dispensation from the Sunday obligation (to attend the Mass, or from the obligation of Sunday rest from servile labour) upon request, for good cause, whereas diocesan bishops may grant blanket dispensations for everybody in their territory, as all the bishops of the United States did in late March 2020 in response to a coronavirus pandemic. Some dispensations are reserved to the Holy See, for example, from the impediment to ordination of apostasy.
The power of dispensing lies with the original lawgiver, with his successors or with his superiors, and with those persons to whom they have delegated this right. Since there is no superior above the pope, he can therefore dispense from all canonical laws: universal laws introduced by himself, his predecessors or general councils, and particular laws enacted by plenary and provincial councils, bishops and similar prelates. As a general rule the pope delegates his powers to the various congregations of the Roman Curia, which are charged with granting dispensations in matters within the sphere of their competence.
Papal dispensation
Papal dispensation is a reserved right of the pope that allows for individuals to be exempted from a specific Canon law. Dispensations are divided into two categories: general, and matrimonial. Matrimonial dispensations can be either to allow a marriage in the first place, or to dissolve one. The authority for the pope to exempt an individual or situation from a law stems from his position as the Vicar of Christ, which implies divine authority and knowledge as well as jurisdiction.
The first marriage of Henry VIII of England to Catherine of Aragon required a papal dispensation as it breached canon law on Affinity because she was the widow of Henry's elder brother Arthur, Prince of Wales. This was obtained successfully, but when he later wished to divorce her, he was unable to get another one, causing his break with Rome. Their daughter Mary Tudor, a fervent Catholic, would later apply for a secret dispensation absolving her of submitting to the basic rules of Protestant religion when pressured under the threat of death by her father.
In the earlier Middle Ages, especially the 11th to 12th centuries, the church had developed canon law on affinity and consanguinity (the first denoting a connection by marriage only, the second a genetic one) to cover very remote relationships, so that a very high proportion of marriages between the small and inter-related European elites needed expensive dispensations from either the Pope or a bishop. This was recognised as an abuse, and later the relationships covered were reduced. In 1059, the eleventh canon of the Council of Rome recognized the impediment of affinity as well as of consanguinity to extend to the seventh degree, the high point of the restrictions. Innocent III in the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) limited both affinity and consanguinity needing dispensation to the fourth degree, and the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, c. iv, De Ref.) in the 16th century limited the juridical effect of extra-matrimonial intercourse to the second degree of affinity.
Matrimonial dispensation
A matrimonial dispensation is the relaxation in a particular case of an impediment prohibiting or annulling a marriage. It may be granted: (a) in favour of a contemplated marriage or to legitimize one already contracted; (b) in secret cases, or in public cases, or in both; (c) in foro interno only, or in foro externo (the latter includes also the former). Power of dispensing in foro interno is not always restricted to secret cases (casus occulti).
These expressions are by no means identical.
The information in this section concerns Roman Catholic canon law in the early 20th century. The canon law in question was considerably changed by the 1917 Code of Canon Law and the 1983 Code of Canon Law and should not be considered to reflect the present situation.
General powers of dispensation
Pope and his Curia
The Pope cannot dispense from impediments founded on Divine law — except, as above described, in the case of vows, espousals and non-consummated marriages, or valid and consummated marriage of neophytes before baptism. In doubtful cases, however, he may decide authoritatively as to the objective value of the doubt. In respect of impediments arising from ecclesiastical law the pope has full dispensing power. Every such dispensation granted by him is valid, and when he acts from a sufficient motive it is also licit.
He is not, however, out of consideration for the public welfare, to exercise this power personally, unless in very exceptional cases, where certain specific impediments are in question. Such cases are error, violence, Holy orders, disparity of worship, public conjugicide, consanguinity in the direct line or in the first degree (equal) of the collateral Line and the first degree of affinity (from lawful intercourse) in the direct line. As a rule the pope exercises his power of dispensation through the Roman Congregations and Tribunals.
Until around the 1900s, the Dataria was the most important channel for matrimonial dispensations when the impediment was public or about to become public within a short time. The Holy Office, however, had exclusive control in foro externo over all impediments connected with or juridically bearing on matters of faith, e. g. disparity of worship, mixta religio, Holy orders, etc. The dispensing power in foro interno lay with the Penitentiaria, and in the case of pauperes or quasi-pauperes this same Congregation had dispensing power over public impediments in foro externo. The Penitentiaria held as pauperes for all countries outside of Italy those whose united capital, productive of a fixed revenue, did not exceed 5370 lire (about 1050 dollars); and as quasi-pauperes, those whose capital did not exceed 9396 lire (about 1850 dollars). It likewise had the power of promulgating general indults affecting public impediments, as for instance the indult of 15 November 1907. Propaganda Fide was charged with all dispensations, both in foro inferno and in foro externo, for countries under its jurisdiction, as was the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs for all countries depending on it, e. g. Russia, Latin America and certain apostolic vicariates and prefectures Apostolic.
On 3 November 1908, the duties of these various Congregations received important modifications in consequence of the Apostolic Constitution "Sapienti", in which Pope Pius X reorganized the Roman Curia. Dispensing power from public impediments in the case of pauperes or quasi-pauperes was transferred from the Dataria and the Penitentiaria to a newly established Roman Congregation known as the Congregatio de Disciplinâ Sacramentorum, the Penitentiaria retaining dispensing power over occult impediments in foro interno only. The Holy Office retained its faculties, but restricted expressly under three heads: (1) disparity of worship; (2) mixta religio; (3) the Pauline privilege.
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide remained the channel for securing dispensations for all countries under its jurisdiction, but being required for the sake of executive unity, to defer, in all matters concerning matrimony, to the various Congregations competent to act thereon, its function became that of intermediary. In America, the United States, Canada and Newfoundland, and in Europe, the British Isles were withdrawn from Propaganda, and placed under the common law of countries with a hierarchy. The Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs lost all its powers; consequently the countries hitherto subject to it must address themselves either to the Holy Office or to the Congregatio de Disciplinâ Sacramentorum according to the nature of the impediment.
The powers of any Congregation are suspended during the vacancy of the Holy See, except those of the Apostolic Penitentiary in the internal forum (in foro interno), which, during that time, are even increased. Though suspended, the powers of a Congregation may be used in cases of urgent necessity.
Diocesan bishops
We shall treat first of their fixed perpetual faculties, whether ordinary or delegated, afterwards of their habitual and temporary faculties. By virtue of their ordinary power (Jurisdiction) bishops can dispense from those prohibent impediments of ecclesiastical law which are not reserved to the pope. The reserved impediments of this kind are espousals, the vow of perpetual chastity, and vows taken in diocesan religious institutes, mixta religio, public display and solemn blessing at marriages within forbidden times, the vetitum, or interdict laid on a marriage by the pope, or by the metropolitan in a case of appeal. The bishop may also dispense from diriment impediments after the following manner:
By tacit consent of the Holy See he can dispense in foro interno from secret impediments from which the pope is wont to exercise his power of dispensing, in three cases: (a) in marriages already contracted and consummated, when urgent necessity arises (i. e. when the interested parties cannot be separated without scandal or endangering their souls, and there is no time to have recourse to the Holy See or to its delegate) — it is, however, necessary that such marriage shall have taken place in lawful form before the Church, and that one of the contracting parties at least shall have been ignorant of the impediment; (b) in marriages about to be contracted and which are called embarrassing (perplexi) cases, i. e. where everything being ready a delay would be defamatory or would cause scandal; (c) when there is a serious doubt of fact as to the existence of an impediment; in this case the dispensation seems to hold good, even though in course of time the impediment becomes certain, and even public. In cases where the law is doubtful no dispensation is necessary; but the bishop may, if he thinks proper, declare authentically the existence and sufficiency of such doubt.
By virtue of a decree of the Congregation of the Inquisition or Holy Office (20 February 1888) diocesan bishops and other ordinaries (especially a Vicar Apostolic, administrator Apostolic and Prefect Apostolic, having jurisdiction over an allocated territory, also vicar-general in spiritualibus and a vicar capitular) may dispense in very urgent (gravissimum) danger of death from all diriment impediments (secret or public) of ecclesiastical law, except priesthood and affinity (from lawful intercourse) in the direct line. However, they can use this privilege only in favour of persons actually living in real concubinage or united by a merely civil marriage, and only when there is no time for recourse to the Holy See. They may also legitimize the children of such unions, except those born of adultery or sacrilege. In the decree of 1888 is also included the impediment of clandestinity. This decree permits therefore (at least until the Holy See shall have issued other instructions) to dispense, in the case of concubinage or civil marriage, with the presence of the priest and of the two witnesses required by the Decree "Ne temere" in urgent cases of marriage in extremis. Canonists do not agree as to whether bishops hold these faculties by virtue of their ordinary power or by general delegation of the law. It seems to us more probable that those just described under #1 belong to them as ordinaries, while those under #2 are delegated. They are, therefore, empowered to delegate the former; in order to subdelegate the latter they must be guided by the limits fixed by the decree of 1888 and its interpretation dated 9 June 1889. That is, if it is a question of habitual delegation parish priests only should receive it, and only for cases where there is no time for recourse to the bishop.
Besides the fixed perpetual faculties, bishops also receive from the Holy See habitual temporary indults for a certain period of time or for a limited number of cases. These faculties are granted by fixed "formulæ", in which the Holy See from time to time, or as occasion requires it, makes some slight modifications. These faculties call for a broad interpretation. Nevertheless, it is well to bear in mind, when interpreting them, the actual legislation of the Congregation whence they issue, so as not to extend their use beyond the places, persons, number of cases and impediments laid down in a given indult. Faculties thus delegated to a bishop do not in any way restrict his ordinary faculties; nor (in se) do the faculties issued by one Congregation affect those granted by another. When several specifically different impediments occur in the same case, and one of them exceeds the bishop's powers, he may not dispense from any of them.
Even when the bishop has faculties for each impediment taken separately he cannot (unless he possesses the faculty known as de cumulo) use his various faculties simultaneously in a case where, all the impediments being public, one of them exceeds his ordinary faculties, it is not necessary for a bishop to delegate his faculties to his vicars-general; since 1897 they were always granted to the bishop as ordinary, therefore to the vicar-general also. With regard to other priests a decree of the holy Office (14 December 1898) declared that for the future temporary faculties may be always subdelegated unless the indult expressly states the contrary. These faculties are valid from the date when they were granted in the Roman Curia. In actual practice they do not expire, as a rule, at the death of the pope nor of the bishop to whom they were given, but pass on to those who take his place (the vicar capitular, the administrator or succeeding bishop). Faculties granted for a fixed period of time, or a limited number of cases, cease when the period or number has been reached; but while awaiting their renewal the bishop, unless culpably negligent, may continue to use them provisionally. A bishop can use his habitual faculties only in favour of his own subjects. The matrimonial discipline of the Decree Ne temere (2 August 1907) contemplates as such all persons having a true canonical domicile, or continuously resident for one month within his territory, also vagi, or persons who have no domicile anywhere and can claim no continuous stay of one month. When a matrimonial impediment is common to both parties the bishop, in dispensing his own subject, dispenses also the other.
Vicars capitular and vicars-general
A vicar capitular, or in his place a lawful administrator, enjoys all the dispensing powers possessed by the bishop in virtue of his ordinary jurisdiction or of delegation of the law; according to the actual discipline he enjoys even the habitual powers which had been granted the deceased bishop for a fixed period of time or for a limited number of cases, even if the indult should have been made out in the name of the Bishop of N. Considering the actual praxis of the Holy See, the same is true of particular indults (see below). The vicar-general has by virtue of his appointment all the ordinary powers of the bishop over prohibent impediments, but requires a special mandate to give him common-law faculties for diriment impediments. As for habitual temporary faculties, since they are now addressed to the ordinary, they belong also ipso facto to the vicar-general while he holds that office. He can also use particular indults when they are addressed to the ordinary, and when they are not so addressed the bishop can always subdelegate him, unless the contrary be expressly stated in the indult.
Parish priests and other ecclesiastics
A parish priest by common law can dispense only from an interdict laid on a marriage by him or by his predecessor. Some canonists of note accord him authority to dispense from secret impediments in what are called embarrassing (perplexi) cases, i. e. when there is no time for recourse to the bishop, but with the obligation of subsequent recourse ad cautelam, i. e. for greater security; a similar authority is attributed by them to confessors. This opinion seems yet gravely probable, though the Penitentiaria continues to grant among its habitual faculties a special authority for such cases and restricts somewhat its use.
Particular indults of dispensation
When there is occasion to procure a dispensation that exceeds the powers of the ordinary, or when there are special reasons for direct recourse to the Holy See, procedure is by way of supplica (petition) and private rescript. The supplica need not necessarily be drawn up by the petitioner, nor even at his instance; it does not, however, become valid until he accepts it. Although, since the Constitution "Sapienti", all the faithful may have direct recourse to the Roman Congregations, the supplica is usually forwarded through the ordinary (of the person's birthplace or domicile, or since the Decree "Ne temere" the residence of one of the petitioners), who transmits it to the proper Congregation either by letter or through his accredited agent; but if there is question of sacramental secrecy, it is sent directly to the Penitentiaria, or handed to the bishop's agent under a sealed cover for transmission to the Penitentiaria. The supplica ought to give the names (family and Christian) of the petitioners (except in secret cases forwarded to the Penitentiaria), the name of the Ordinary forwarding it, or the name of the priest to whom, in secret cases, the rescript must be sent; the age of the parties, especially in dispensations affecting consanguinity and affinity; their religion, at least when one of them is not a Catholic; the nature, degree and number of all impediments (if recourse is had to the Congregatio de Disciplinâ Sacramentorum or to the Holy Office in a public impediment, and to the Penitentiaria at the same time in a secret one, it is necessary that the latter should know of the public impediment and that recourse has been had to the competent Congregation). The supplica must also contain the causes set forth for granting the dispensation and other circumstances specified in the Propaganda Fide Instruction of 9 May 1877 (it is no longer necessary, either for the validity or liceity of the dispensation, to observe the paragraph relating to incestuous intercourse, even when probably this very thing had been alleged as the only reason for granting the dispensation). When there is question of consanguinity in the second degree bordering on the first, the supplica ought to be written by the bishop's own hand. He ought also to sign the declaration of poverty made by the petitioners when the dispensation is sought from the Penitentiaria in formâ pauperum; when he is in any way hindered from so doing he is bound to commission a priest to sign it in his name. A false declaration of poverty henceforth does not invalidate a dispensation in any case; but the authors of the false statement are bound in conscience to reimburse any amount unduly withheld (regulation for the Roman Curia of 12 June 1908). For further information on the many points already briefly described see the special canonical works, wherein are found all necessary directions as to what must be expressed so as to avoid nullity. When a supplica is affected (in a material point) by obreption or subreption it becomes necessary to ask for a so-called "reformatory decree" in case the favour asked has not yet been granted by the Curia, or for the letters known as "Perinde ac valere" if the favour has already been granted. If after all this a further material error is discovered, letters known as "Perinde ac valere super perinde ac valere" must be applied for.
Dispensation rescripts are generally drawn up in formâ commissâ mixtâ, i. e. they are entrusted to an executor who is thereby obliged to proceed to their execution, if he finds that the reasons are as alleged (si vera sint exposita). Canonists are divided as to whether rescripts in formâ commissâ mixtâ contain a favour granted from the moment of their being sent off, or to be granted when the execution actually takes place. Gasparri holds it as received practice that it suffices if the reasons alleged be actually true at the moment when the petition is presented. It is certain, however, that the executor required by Penitentiaria rescripts may safely fulfil his mission even if the pope should die before he had begun to execute it. The executor named for public impediments is usually the ordinary who forwards the supplica and for secret impediments an approved confessor chosen by the petitioner. Except when specially authorized, the person delegated cannot validly execute a dispensation before he has seen the original of the rescript. Therein it is usually prescribed that the reasons given by the petitioners must be verified. This verification, usually no longer a condition for valid execution, can be made, in the case of public impediments, extrajudicially or by subdelegation. In foro interno it can be made by the confessor in the very act of hearing the confessions of the parties. Should the inquiry disclose no substantial error, the executor proclaims the dispensation, i. e. he makes known, usually in writing, especially if he acts in foro externo, the decree which dispenses the petitioners; if the rescript authorizes him, he also legitimizes the children. Although the executor may subdelegate the preparatory acts, he may not, unless the rescript expressly says so, subdelegate the actual execution of the decree, unless he subdelegates to another ordinary. When the impediment is common to, and known to, both parties, execution ought to be made for both; wherefore, in a case in foro interno, the confessor of one of the parties hands over the rescript, after he has executed it, to the confessor of the other. The executor ought to observe with care the clauses enumerated in the decree, as some of them constitute conditions sine quâ non for the validity of the dispensation. As a rule, these clauses affecting validity may be recognized by the conditional conjunction or adverb of exclusion with which they begin (e. g. dummodo, "provided that"; et non aliter, "not otherwise"), or by an ablative absolute. When, however, a clause only prescribes a thing already of obligation by law it has merely the force of a reminder. In this matter also it is well to pay attention to the stylus curiœ, i. e. the legal diction of the Roman Congregations and Tribunals, and to consult authors of repute.
Causes for granting dispensations
Following the principles laid down for dispensations in general, a matrimonial dispensation granted without sufficient cause, even by the pope himself, would be illicit; the more difficult and numerous the impediments the more serious must be the motives for removing them. An unjustified dispensation, even if granted by the pope, is null and void, in a case affecting the Divine law; and if granted by other bishops or superiors in cases affecting ordinary ecclesiastical law. Moreover, as it is not supposable that the pope wishes to act illicitly, it follows that if he has been moved by false allegations to grant a dispensation, even in a matter of ordinary ecclesiastical law, such dispensation is invalid. Hence the necessity of distinguishing in dispensations between motive or determining causes (causœ motivœ) and impulsive or merely influencing causes (causœ impulsivœ). Except when the information given is false, still more when he acts spontaneously (motu proprio) and "with certain knowledge", the presumption always is that a superior is acting from just motives. It may be remarked that if the pope refuses to grant a dispensation on a certain ground, an inferior prelate, properly authorized to dispense, may grant the dispensation in the same case on other grounds which in his judgment are sufficient. Canonists do not agree as to whether he can grant it on the identical ground by reason of his divergent appreciation of the latter's force.
Among the sufficient causes for matrimonial dispensations we may distinguish canonical causes, i. e. classified and held as sufficient by the common law and canonical jurisprudence, and reasonable causes, i. e. not provided for nominally in the law, but deserving of equitable consideration in view of circumstances or particular cases. An Instruction issued by Propaganda Fide (9 May 1877) enumerated sixteen canonical causes. The "Formulary of the Dataria" (Rome, 1901) gave twenty-eight, which suffice, either alone or concurrently with others, and act as a norm for all sufficient causes; they are: smallness of place or places; smallness of place coupled with the fact that outside it a sufficient dowry cannot be had; lack of dowry; insufficiency of dowry for the bride; a larger dowry; an increase of dowry by one-third; cessation of family feuds; preservation of peace; conclusion of peace between princes or states; avoidance of lawsuits over an inheritance, a dowry or some important business transaction; the fact that a fiancée is an orphan or has the care of a family; the age of the fiancée over twenty-four; the difficulty of finding another partner, owing to the fewness of male acquaintance, or the difficulty the latter experience in coming to her home; the hope of safeguarding the faith of a Catholic relation; the danger of a denominationally mixed marriage; the hope of converting a non-Catholic party; the keeping of property in a family; the preservation of an illustrious or honourable family; the excellence and merits of the parties; defamation to be avoided, or scandal prevented; intercourse already having taken place between the petitioners, or rape; the danger of a civil marriage; of marriage before a Protestant minister revalidation of a marriage that was null and void; finally, all reasonable causes judged such in the opinion of the pope (e. g. the public good), or special reasonable causes actuating the petitioners and made known to the pope, i. e. motives which, owing to the social status of the petitioners, it is opportune should remain unexplained out of respect for their reputation. These various causes have been stated in their briefest terms. To reach their exact force, some acquaintance is necessary with the stylus curiœ and the pertinent works of reputable authors, always avoiding exaggerated formalism. This list of causes is by no means exhaustive; the Holy See, in granting a dispensation, will consider any weighty circumstances that render the dispensation really justifiable.
Costs of dispensations
The Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, cap. v, De ref. matrim.) decreed that dispensations should be free of all charges. Diocesan chanceries are bound to conform to this law (many pontifical documents, and at times clauses in indults, remind them of it) and neither to exact nor accept anything but the modest contribution to the chancery expenses sanctioned by an Instruction approved by Innocent XI on 8 October 1678, and known as the Innocentian Tax (Taxa Innocentiana). Rosset holds that it is also lawful, when the diocese is poor, to demand payment of the expenses it incurs for dispensations. Sometimes the Holy See grants ampler freedom in this matter, but nearly always with the monition that all revenues from this source shall be employed for some good work, and not go to the diocesan curia as such. Henceforth every rescript requiring execution will state the sum which the diocesan curia is authorized to collect for its execution.
In the Roman Curia the expenses incurred by petitioners fall under four heads:
expenses (expensœ) of carriage (postage, etc.), also a fee to the accredited agent, when one has been employed. This fee is fixed by the Congregation in question;
a tax (taxa) to be used in defraying the expenses incurred by the Holy See in the organized administration of dispensations;
the componendum, or eleemosynary (alms) fine to be paid to the Congregation and applied by it to pious uses;
an alms imposed on the petitioners and to be distributed by themselves in good works.
The moneys paid under the first two heads do not affect, strictly speaking, the gratuity of the dispensation. They constitute a just compensation for the expenses the petitioners occasion the Curia. As for the alms and the componendum, besides the fact that they do not profit the pope nor the members of the Curia personally, but are employed in pious uses, they are justifiable, either as a fine for the faults which, as a rule, give occasion for the dispensation, or as a check to restrain a too great frequency of petitions often based on frivolous grounds. And if the Tridentine prohibition be still urged, it may be truly said that the pope has the right to abrogate the decrees of councils, and is the best judge of the reasons that legitimize such abrogation. The custom of tax and componendum is neither uniform nor universal in the Roman Curia.
Secular law equivalent
Dispensation is the canonical equivalent of license which, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is the authorisation to do something which would normally be illegal if the competent authority had not granted permission.
See also
Canon law of the Catholic Church
Casuistry
Derogation
Indulgence
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
David Chamber, Faculty Office Registers, 1534–1549: A Calendar of the First Two Registers of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Faculty Office (Clarendon Press 1966)
Sir Edward Coke, 4th Institutes of the Laws of England 337 (Garland Publg. 1979)
Wilfrid Hooper, "The Court of Faculties", 25 English Historical Rev. 670 (1910)
Noel Cox, Dispensations, "Privileges, and the Conferment of Graduate Status: With Special Reference to Lambeth Degrees", Journal of Law and Religion, 18(1), 249–274 (2002–2003)
Gabriel Le Bras, Charles Lefebvre & Jacqueline Rambaud, "L’âge classique, 1140–1378: sources et théorie du droit" vol. 7, 487–532 (Sirey 1965)
Francis Oakley, "Jacobean Political Theology: The Absolute and Ordinary Powers of the King", 29 Journal of History of Ideas, 323 (1968)
Kenneth Pennington, The Prince and the Law, 1200–1600: Sovereignty and Rights in the Western Legal Tradition (U. Cal. Press 1993)
Bibliography
Black, Henry Campbell Black (and editors). Black's Law Dictionary (With Pronunciations), Fifth Edition (St. Paul Minn: West Publishing Co., 1979).
Häring, Bernard, C.SS.R. The Law of Christ, Volume I: General Moral Theology (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1961) tr. by Edwin G. Kaiser, C.PP.S.
Metz, René. The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Vol. 80: What is Canon Law? (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1960) tr. by Michael Derrick.
1983 Code of Canon Law. The IntraText Digital Library
Catholic Encyclopedia. NewAdvent.org
. I. Dispensations in General: SUAREZ, De legibus (Naples, 1882), Bk. VI, x sqq., and Opera Omnia (Paris, 1856), VI; PYRRHUS CORRADIUS, Praxis dispensationum apostolicarum (Venice, 1699); KONINGS-PUTZER, Commentarium in facultates apostolicas (New York, 1898), pt. I; the commentators on the Decretals, especially SCHMALZGRUEBER, Jus ecclesiasticum universale (Rome, 1843), Bk. I. tit. ii; WERNZ, Jus decretalium (Rome, 1905), I, tit. iv, 138; VON SCHERER, Handbuch des Kirchenrechts (Graz, 1898), I, 172; HINSCHIUS. System d. kath. Kirchenr. (Berlin, 1869), I. 744, 789; the moral theologies, under the treatise De legibus, particularly ST. ALPHONSUS LIGUORI, Theologia Moralis (Rome, 1905), I, iv, Dub. 4; D'ANNIBALE, Summula Theologiœ Moralis (Rome, 1908), I, tr. iii, 220; BALLERINI, Opus Morale (Prato, 1889), I, 363; OJETTI, Synopsis rerum moralium et juris pontificii (Rome, 1904), s. v. Dispensatio; THOMASSIN, Ancienne et nouvelle discipline de l'Eglise touchant les bénéfices (Paris, 1725), II, p. II, 1, 3, xxiv-xxix; STIEGLER, Dispensation, Dispensationwesen, und Dispensationsrecht in his Kirchenrecht (Mainz, 1901). I, and in Archiv f. kath. Kirchenr., LXXVII, 3; FIEBAG, De indole ac virtute dispensationum secundum principia jur. canonici (Breslau, 1867).II. Matrimonial Dispensations: PYRRHUS CORRADIUS, op. cit.; DE JUSTIS, De dispens. matrim. (Venice, 1769); GIOVINE, De dispens. matrim. (Naples, 1863); PLANCHARD, Dispenses matrim. (Angoulème, 1882); FEIJE, De imped. et dispens. matrim. (Louvain, 1885); ZITELLI, De dispens. matrim. (Rome, 1887); VAN DE BURGT, De dispens. matrim. (Bois-le-Duc, 1865); POMPEN, De dispens. et revalidatione matrim. (Amsterdam, 1897); ROUSSET, De sacramento matrimonii (Saint-Jean de Maurienne, 1895), IV, 231; KONINGS-PUTZER, Op. cit., 174 sqq., 376 sqq.; SANCHEZ, De s. matrimonii sacramento (Viterbo, 1739), Bk. VIII; GASPARRI, Tract. canonicus de matrimonio (Paris, 1892), I, iv, 186; MANSELLA, De imped. matrim. (Rome, 1881), 162; LEITNER, Lehrb. des kath. Eherechts (Paderborn, 1902), 401; SCHNITZER, Kath. Eherecht (Freiburg, 1898), 496; SANTILEITNER, Prœlectiones juris canonici (Ratisbon, 1899), IV, appendix I; WERNZ, Jus Decretalium (Rome, 1908), IV, tit. xxix FREISEN Geschichte des kanon. Eherechts bis zum Verfall der Glossenlitteratur (Tübingen, 1888), and in Archiv für kath. Kirchenr., LXXVII, 3 sqq., and LXXVIII, 91; ESMEIN, Le mariage en droit canonique (Paris, 1891), II, 315; ZHISMAN, Das Eherecht der orient. Kirche (Vienna, 1864), 190, 712.
Jurisprudence of Catholic canon law
Holy See
Catholic matrimonial canon law
Catholic Church legal terminology |
4087208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Marks%20%28psychologist%29 | David Marks (psychologist) | David Francis Marks (born 1945) is a psychologist, author and editor of numerous articles and books largely concerned with five areas of psychological research – judgement, health psychology, consciousness, parapsychology and intelligence. Marks is also the originator of the General Theory of Behaviour, and has curated exhibitions and books about artists and their works.
Biography
Marks was born 12 February 1945 in Liphook, Hampshire, England to Victor W.F. Marks and Mary Dorothy (née Goodman) Marks.
Marks earned a BSc at University of Reading in 1966 and a PhD at University of Sheffield in 1970. From there, he moved to New Zealand where he taught at the University of Otago as lecturer then senior lecturer in psychology. He returned to the UK as Head of the School of Psychology at Middlesex University before working at City University London from 2000 to 2010. He founded the Journal of Health Psychology and Health Psychology Open, an open access journal.
His late brother Jon Marks was a jazz musician. He has two children. His daughter, Jessica Marks, is a chef working in New Zealand. His son, Michael Marks, is a teacher of business studies in Ware, Hertfordshire, England. David Marks retired from his university post in 2010 and lives in Arles, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur, France.
Memberships
British Psychological Society (Fellow)
Committee for the Scientific Investigation of the Paranormal (now the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry)(Fellow)
Judgement
For his doctoral research at the University of Sheffield Marks carried out laboratory studies on subjective probability judgements. He found that subjects typically used a simplifying strategy or heuristic to manage probability revision in a Bayesian decision task (Marks and Clarkson, 1972). In 1968 Marks had contacted Amos Tversky about his findings. A paper reporting the same representativeness heuristic was published by Kahneman and Tversky in 1972.
Switching to another aspect of judgement, Marks then ran an experiment on relative subjective probability judgements demonstrating that relative judgements of the more probable of two statements are quicker if the statements are both probable rather than improbable. For judgements of the less probable, the reverse result is obtained. Marks proposed a theory that judgement involves a relation between a stimulus and a word acting as a reference point and he followed Louis Leon Thurstone's suggestion that stimuli differ in their discriminal dispersions; see Law of comparative judgment. Marks' (1972) reference point theory of relative judgement is found to be consistent with results in psycholinguistics. Four decades later, Dawn Chen, Hongjing Lu and Keith Holyoak (2014) confirmed Marks' theory in a computational realization by demonstrating that: "Reference points cued by the form of comparative questions systematically modulate the precision of magnitudes represented in working memory, yielding the semantic congruity effect" (Chen, Lu and Holyoak, 2014, p. 46).
Health psychology
In his work on health psychology Marks advocated a greater understanding of the socio-political context affecting individual behaviour (Marks et al., 2005). With Michael Murray and colleagues he actively promoted a critical-theoretical approach, including the foundation of the International Society of Critical Health Psychology. This organisation has included the consideration of social justice, community approaches, and arts projects for the reduction of health inequalities. Marks has also been interested in new research methods for clinical psychology and health psychology (Marks & Yardley, 2004).
David Marks' first project in the health psychology area was concerned with the effects of cannabis use which, in the 1970s, was an illegal substance in the majority of Western countries and a subject of social concern, especially when mixed with alcohol and driving. With Professor Peter McKellar at the University of Otago, Marks obtained funding from the Medical, now Health Research Council of New Zealand, to carry out double-blind randomised controlled trials to investigate the acute effects of cannabis intoxication, e.g. "Cannabis and Temporal Disintegration in Experienced and Naive Subjects", subsequently published in Science. A series of masters and doctoral students including Sally Casswell and Annette Beautrais submitted this research for their PhD or MSc dissertations.
His second project in health psychology concerned designing psychological therapy for smoking cessation. This research began with another doctoral student, Paul Sulzberger, at the University of Otago where they developed the Isis Smoking Cessation Programme (Sulzberger & Marks, 1977). After returning to England in 1986 Marks developed a UK version of the programme which was originally published by the British Psychological Society in 1993 as The QUIT FOR LIFE Programme (Marks 1993, 2005). The approach was developed further and re-published in the 'Overcoming' series by Robinson as "Overcoming Your Smoking Habit" (Marks 2005).
Conceptualizing methods for the design, description and evaluation of interventions has been a complex challenge for the discipline of Psychology. Marks (2009) published a Taxonomic System for psychological interventions.
In 2015, Marks published a new theoretical explanation of obesity based on the concept of homeostasis, a property of all living things (Marks, 2015). Physiological homeostasis maintains equilibrium at set-points using feedback loops for optimum functioning of the organism. Long-term imbalances in homeostasis arise though genetic, environmental or biopsychosocial mechanisms causing illness and/or loss of well-being. Psychological homeostasis works in a similar fashion to maintain stability in emotion and behaviour. However, rapid environmental and economic changes generate challenging conditions for the human organism. Over-consumption of high-caloric, low-nutrient foods, combined with stressful living and working conditions, have caused imbalances in homeostasis, overweight and obesity in more than two billion people.
Annunziato and Grossman (2016) explain that Marks' homeostasis theory attributes the obesity imbalance to a “Circle of Discontent”, a system of feedback loops linking weight gain, body dissatisfaction, negative affect, and overconsumption. These authors state that the theory is consistent with an extensive evidence base. Annunziato and Grossman (2016) indicate that the homeostasis theory focuses on five feedback loops that form an insidious and vicious "Circle of Discontent". If for any reason high levels of dissatisfaction, negative affect, consumption, or increased body weight should arise, then interactivity through feedback loops a vicious circle is created, a disturbance to the stability of the system that controls weight gain. When it becomes activated, the system drifts away from equilibrium toward a dysfunctional state of non-control. The authors explain that Marks (2015) proposes a four-armed strategy to halt the obesity epidemic consists of (1) putting a stop to victim-blaming, stigma, and discrimination; (2) devalorizing the thin-ideal; (3) reducing consumption of energy-dense, low-nutrient foods, and drinks; and (4) improving access to plant-based diets. Annunziato and Grossman (2016) concluded: "If fully implemented, interventions designed to restore homeostasis have the potential to halt the obesity epidemic".
The Homeostasis Theory of Obesity was further elaborated in his 2016 book, Obesity. Comfort vs. Discontent (Marks, 2016). The book's dedication states: "To the two-point-one billion people who are overweight or living with obesity. Please take note. It is not your fault. You are not to blame. You are the victims. Be informed, be empowered, and, above all else, resist. This book is for you." (Marks, 2016).
Marks further elaborated the theory of Psychological Homeostasis in a General Theory of Behaviour, which he published as a book in 2018.
Consciousness research
Marks' research into consciousness and mental imagery led to the development of the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, a tool for the assessment of individual differences in visual imagery. Marks (1973) reported that high vividness scores correlate with the accuracy of recall of coloured photographs. In 1995 he published a new version of the VVIQ, the VVIQ2. This questionnaire consists of twice the number of items and reverses the rating scale so that higher scores reflect higher vividness. The VVIQ has been validated in about 2000 studies using perceptual and cognitive tasks.
Rodway, Gillies and Schepman (2006) found that high vividness participants were significantly more accurate at detecting salient changes to pictures compared to low vividness participants, replicating an earlier study by Gur and Hilgard (1975). Recently Cui et al. (2007) found that reported image vividness correlates with increased activity in the visual cortex. This study shows that the subjective experience of forming a mental image is reflected by increased visual cortical activity. Logie, Pernet, Buonocore and Della Sala (2011) used behavioural and fMRI data for mental rotation from individuals reporting vivid and poor imagery on the VVIQ. Groups differed in brain activation patterns suggesting that the groups performed the same tasks in different ways. These findings help to explain the lack of association previously reported between VVIQ scores and mental rotation performance. Lee, Kravitz and Baker (2012) used fMRI and multi-voxel pattern analysis to investigate the specificity, distribution, and similarity of information for individual seen and imagined objects. Participants either viewed or imagined individual named object images on which they had been trained prior to the scan. Correlation between fMRI and VVIQ scores showed that, in both object-selective and early visual cortex, Lee et al.'s (2012) measure of discrimination across imagery and perception correlated with the vividness of imagery.
Parapsychology, skepticism and zeteticism
In his work on parapsychology, Marks initially adopted a skeptical analysis of paranormal claims. He and his colleague Richard Kammann became associated with the committee of professional skeptics now called Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Marks visited the University of Oregon on a six-month sabbatical in 1976 to carry out research with Ray Hyman. While in the US Marks also visited two researchers at the Stanford Research Institute Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff who had carried out multiple studies of remote viewing which they had published in Nature. After Puthoff and Targ refused to give David Marks access to their remote viewing data, Marks approached the judge of the transcripts, Arthur Hastings, who allowed him full access. In his analysis Marks found multiple clues in the unedited transcripts that allowed the target descriptions to be correctly matched to the listing of target sites showing these sites in the actual order in which they had been visited. Marks subsequently published an article in Nature demonstrating that the original claims of remote viewing experiments were based on flawed experimental procedures.
Marks also published evidence in The Psychology of the Psychic (1980, 2nd edn. 2000; co-authored with the late Richard Kammann; forewords to both editions by Martin Gardner) that Uri Geller was able to hoodwink scientists, journalists and the many members of the public with a series of simple but audacious sleights of hand. In that book, which investigates anomalistic psychology and describes case studies of paranormal claims together with a set of principles for explaining how people may come to believe so strongly in the paranormal claims. This includes the concept of subjective validation, a process through which people find a correspondence between randomly paired events, including coincidences (Marks, 2000). In 1986, while working in New Zealand with the late Denis Dutton, Marks co-founded the NZ Skeptics. He is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI).
His habitual attitude of open skepticism was later applied to the self-proclaimed 'skeptics' themselves. Marks became convinced that the leading members of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry such as Ray Hyman, Paul Kurtz and James Randi were actually "pseudoskeptics", i.e. disbelievers, who were never open to the possibility of the paranormal in the first place. Their disbelief would be as susceptible to subjective validation as the positive beliefs of non-skeptics. Thus Marks came to adopt a position similar to that of Marcello Truzzi in advocating "zeteticism". Marks' 2020 book "Psychology and the Paranormal: Exploring Anomalous Experience" presents a new theory holding that, if they occur at all, paranormal experiences such as telepathy and clairvoyance are never under conscious control and only occur spontaneously. The theory explains why self-proclaimed psychics such as Uri Geller cannot produce paranormal effects in the laboratory and why laboratory experiments in Parapsychology normally fail.
Regarding Marks' book, Adrian Parker ('Informal Psi Tests', Paranormal Review 96, 16), President of the Society for Psychical Research, commented:
"The veteran psi-critic David Marks has recently published a book Psychology and the Paranormal in which he has taken a softer position concerning the paranormal. He argues that the phenomena may occur, but that they are inherently spontaneous and elusive, and because of this they cannot be captured in the lab. According to Marks, parapsychologists and their critics should resolve their differences and accept this. Such a challenge obviously goes against all the ethos and efforts of academic parapsychology at UK Universities, such as Northampton, which follow the basic belief of Joseph Banks Rhine that by piecing together numerous factors and personality- traits, a degree of control over psi can eventually be achieved. This is the successful working model used throughout applied psychology where psvchological testing predicts job performance and is used even to some extent for diagnostics in clinical psychology. Marks's challenge also goes against my own efforts to show that altered states of consciousness are the royal road to reliably reproducing lifting psi-in-the-wild to psi-in- the-lab. In particular, we developed a version of the ganzfeld using real-time recordings that could actually catch the sender's experiences of target film clips in the form of the receiver's imagery, since these ganzfeld images are often shown to follow in real time the changing scenes being watched in the target clip.
Nevertheless, there may be some truth in Marks's assertion. Some of the best cases of ESP seem to occur before controls can be brought in, only to disappear when they are brought in".
Intelligence – Literacy theory of IQ test score variations across time and space
In 2010, David Marks systematically analysed the association between literacy skills and intelligence quotient(IQ) across time, nationality, and race. Marks (2010) published a sceptical theory of IQ score variations explaining both the Flynn effect and the alleged racial variations in IQ as an artefact (error) stemming from uncontrolled literacy differences. Marks (2010) hypothesized that IQ differences across time, race and nationality are all caused by differences in literacy because intelligence test performance requires literacy skills not present in all people to the same extent. In eight different analyses mean full scale IQ and literacy scores yielded correlations ranging from .79 to .99.
Kaufmann (2010) explained the significance of Marks' study as follows. If increasing literacy were really explaining a number of seemingly different IQ trends, then you would expect to see a few different phenomena. First, within a population you should expect increased education of literacy skills to be associated with an increase in the average IQ of that population. Second, IQ gains should be most pronounced in the lower half of the IQ bell curve since this is the section of the population that prior to the education would have obtained relatively lower scores due to their inability to comprehend the intelligence test's instructions. With increased literacy, you should expect to see a change in the skewness of the IQ distribution from positive to negative as a result of higher rates of literacy in the lower half of the IQ distribution (but very little change in the top half of the distribution). You should also expect to see differences on the particular intelligence test subscales, with increased literacy showing the strongest effects on verbal tests of intelligence and minimal differences on other tests of intelligence. If all these predictions hold up, there would be support for the notion that secular IQ gains and race differences are not different phenomena but have a common origin in literacy.
Kaufman described how Marks tested these predictions by looking at samples representative of whole populations (rather than individuals), and used ecological methods to compute statistical associations between IQ and literacy rates across different countries. Kaufman's (2010) review suggested that Marks' findings were completely consistent with the predictions: (i) The higher the literacy rate of a population, the higher that population's mean IQ, and the higher that population's mean IQ, the higher the literacy rate of that population. (ii) When literacy rates declined, mean IQ also declined, a reversed Flynn Effect. (iii) Unequal improvements occurred across the entire IQ spectrum with the greatest increases in the lower half of the IQ distribution. Kaufman pointed out that the evidence suggested that both the Flynn Effect and racial/national IQ differences showed the largest effects of literacy on verbal tests of intelligence, with the perceptual tests of intelligence showing no consistent pattern.
The alleged association between race and intelligence and also the Flynn effect both have a similar explanation: literacy differences across race and across time are, Marks believes, the cause of both. Racial IQ differences are converging as the literacy skills within two populations become more equal. Thus racial differences have an environmental cause, just like the Flynn effect. Essentially, both the Flynn effect and racial differences in measured IQ are artefacts of literacy differences. As the literacy of Western populations declines, as appears to be the case currently, then Marks' literacy theory of IQ scores predicts that average IQ test scores is expected to decline, and the Flynn effect will go into reverse, which is exactly what recent studies have found.
A General Theory of Behaviour
All sciences are founded on general theories: Biology has the theory of evolution; Physics, the theory of relativity; Chemistry, the theory of molecular quantum mechanics; and Geology, the theory of plate tectonics. Psychology has no general theory. In his 2018 monograph, 'A General Theory of Behaviour' (GTB), David Marks (2018) attempts to fill that gap with a central theory covering all areas of the discipline.
Many psychological theories are species-specific, situation-specific, or sub-area specific so cannot be general theories. 'A General Theory of Behaviour' applies to all sub-areas, situations, species, ages, stages, genders, and cultures. The only proviso for the GTB is that the organism must have consciousness.
The theory consists of 20 principles and 80 propositions, in total, 100 empirically falsifiable propositions. These 100 propositions make the GTB transparent and capable of falsification.
In embracing intentionality, purpose and desire, the GTB is non-reductive while, at the same time, drawing upon principles from other sciences, in particular, Biology and Physiology. Following Claude Bernard, Walter B. Cannon and others, David Marks advocates the usefulness of the concept of 'Psychological Homeostasis' and explains the implications for the Science of Behaviour.
The GTB asserts that organisms are not adapted to each other and the environment because natural selection made them that way, but they are made that way owing to an inbuilt striving towards stability and equilibrium. The GTB has the potential to advance understanding of human nature and to integrate the discipline of Psychology. The next steps involve rigorous testing of the principles and hypotheses of the General Theory.
Selected books
A General Theory of Behaviour
Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice with Michael Murray and Emee Vida Estacio (Sixth Edition, 2020)
Reussir a surmonter le Reflex cigarette (French Edition)(2009)
Overcoming Your Smoking Habit: A Self-Help Guide Using Cognitive Behavioral Techniques (2005)
Research Methods for Clinical and Health Psychology with Lucy Yardley (2004)
The Health Psychology Reader (2002)
Dealing with Dementia: Recent European Research with Catherine Marie Sykes (2000)
Improving the Health of the Nation: The Failure of the Government's Health Reforms with Colin Francome (1996)
The Quit for Life Programme: An Easier Way to Quit Smoking and Not Start Again (Stuart MacGregor, Illustrator)(1993)
Theories of Image Formation (editor) (1986)
Imagery One (editor with David G. Russell) (1985)
The Psychology of the Psychic with Richard Kammann (1980 and 2000)
The Isis Smoking Cessation Programme with Paul Sulzberger (1977)
Selected articles
Homeostatic theory of obesity (2015)
IQ variations across time, race, and nationality: an artifact of differences in literacy skills (2010)
Investigating the paranormal (1986)
Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures (1973)
New Directions for Mental Imagery Research (1995)
On the review of The Psychology of the Psychic: A reply to Dr. Morris" (1981)
Cannabis and Temporal Disintegration in Experienced and Naive Subjects with Sally Casswell (1973)
References
Further reading
Morris, Robert L. (1980). "Some comments on the assessment of parapsychological studies" [review of the book The Psychology of the psychic] Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research The Society for Psychical Research (SPR), 74, 425–443.
External links
Standing against racism | The Psychologist
ISCHP2011: 7th Biennial ISCHP Conference, Adelaide (South Australia)
Review of The Psychology of the Psychic
Review of The Health Psychology Reader
PDF of controlled trial of the QUIT FOR LIFE Programme
1945 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Reading
Alumni of the University of Sheffield
Academics of City, University of London
Anomalistic psychology
British psychologists
Critics of parapsychology
Academic staff of the University of Otago
English sceptics
People from Liphook |
4087576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%20culture | Arab culture | Arab culture is the culture of the Arabs, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, in a region of the Middle East and North Africa known as the Arab world. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout their history and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabian civilization have contributed to the ethnogenesis and formation of modern Arab culture. Language, literature, gastronomy, art, architecture, music, spirituality, philosophy and mysticism are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.
The countries of the Arab world, from Morocco to Iraq, share a common culture, traditions, language and history that give the region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of the Muslim world. The Arab world is sometimes divided into separate regions depending on different cultures, dialects and traditions, such as the Arabian Peninsula (Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen and the United Arab Emirates), Egypt, the Levant (Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Jordan), the Maghreb (Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Mauritania), Mesopotamia (Iraq), and Sudan.
Literature
Arabic literature is the writing produced, both prose and poetry, by speakers of the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is adab which is derived from a word meaning "to invite someone for a meal" and implies politeness, culture and enrichment. Arabic literature emerged in the 6th century, with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The Qur'an, from the 7th century, had the greatest and longest-lasting effect on Arabic culture and literature. Al-Khansa, a female contemporary of Muhammad, was an acclaimed Arab poet.
Mu'allaqat
The Mu'allaqat (Arabic: المعلقات, ) is the name given to a series of seven Arabic poems or qasida that originated before the time of Islam. Each poem in the set has a different author, and is considered to be their best work. Mu'allaqat means "The Suspended Odes" or "The Hanging Poems," and comes from the poems being hung on the wall in the Kaaba at Mecca.
The seven authors, who span a period of around 100 years, are Imru' al-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhayr, Labīd, 'Antara Ibn Shaddad, 'Amr ibn Kulthum, and Harith ibn Hilliza. All of the Mu’allaqats contain stories from the authors’ lives and tribe politics. This is because poetry was used in pre-Islamic time to advertise the strength of a tribe's king, wealth and people.
The One Thousand and One Nights ( ʾAlf layla wa-layla), is a medieval folk tale collection which tells the story of Scheherazade, a Sassanid queen who must relate a series of stories to her malevolent husband, King Shahryar (Šahryār), to delay her execution. The stories are told over a period of one thousand and one nights, and every night she ends the story with a suspenseful situation, forcing the King to keep her alive for another day. The individual stories were created over several centuries, by many people from a number of different lands.
During the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the 8th century, Baghdad had become an important cosmopolitan city. Merchants from Persia, China, India, Africa, and Europe were all found in Baghdad. During this time, many of the stories that were originally folk stories are thought to have been collected orally over many years and later compiled into a single book. The compiler and ninth-century translator into Arabic is reputedly the storyteller Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad el-Gahshigar. The frame story of Shahrzad seems to have been added in the 14th century.
Music
Arabic music is the music of Arab people, especially those centered around the Arabian Peninsula. The world of Arab music has long been dominated by Cairo, a cultural center, though musical innovation and regional styles abound from Tunisia to Saudi Arabia. Beirut has, in recent years, also become a major center of Arabic music. Classical Arab music is extremely popular across the population, especially a small number of superstars known throughout the Arab world. Regional styles of popular music include Iraqi el Maqaam, Algerian raï, Kuwaiti sawt and Egyptian el gil.
"The common style that developed is usually called 'Islamic' or 'Arab', though in fact it transcends religious, ethnic, geographical, and linguistic boundaries" and it is suggested that it be called the Near East (from Morocco to Afghanistan) style (van der Merwe, Peter 1989, p. 9).
Habib Hassan Touma (1996, p.xix-xx) lists "five components" which "characterize the music of the Arabs:
The Arab tone system (a musical tuning system) with specific interval structures, invented by al-Farabi in the 10th century (p. 170).
Rhythmic-temporal structures that produce a rich variety of rhythmic patterns, awzan, used to accompany the metered vocal and instrumental genres and give them form.
Musical instruments that are found throughout the Arabian world and that represent a standardized tone system, are played with standardized performance techniques, and exhibit similar details in construction and design.
Specific social contexts for the making of music, whereby musical genres can be classified as urban (music of the city inhabitants), rural (music of the country inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of the desert inhabitants).
A musical mentality that is responsible for the aesthetic homogeneity of the tonal-spatial and rhythmic-temporal structures in Arabian music, whether composed or improvised, instrumental or vocal, secular or sacred. The Arab's musical mentality is defined by:
The maqām phenomenon.
The predominance of vocal music.
The predilection for small instrumental ensembles.
The mosaiclike stringing together of musical form elements, that is, the arrangement in a sequence of small and smallest melodic elements, and their repetition, combination, and permutation within the framework of the tonal-spatial model.
The absence of polyphony, polyrhythm, and motivic development. Arabian music is, however, very familiar with the ostinato, as well as with a more instinctive heterophonic way of making music.
The alternation between a free rhythmic-temporal and fixed tonal-spatial organization on the one hand and a fixed rhythmic-temporal and free tonal-spatial structure on the other. This alternation... results in exciting contrasts."
Much Arab music is characterized by an emphasis on melody and rhythm rather than harmony. Thus much Arabic music is homophonic in nature. Some genres of Arab music are polyphonic—as the instrument Kanoun is based upon the idea of playing two-note chords—but quintessentially, Arabic music is melodic.
It would be incorrect though to call it modal, for the Arabic system is more complex than that of the Greek modes. The basis of the Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which looks like the mode, but is not quite the same. The maqam has a "tonal" note on which the piece must end (unless modulation occurs).
The maqam consists of at least two jins, or scale segments. "Jins" in Arabic comes from the ancient Greek word "genus," meaning type. In practice, a jins (pl. ajnas) is either a trichord, a tetrachord, or a pentachord. The trichord is three notes, the tetrachord four, and the pentachord five. The maqam usually covers only one octave (two jins), but sometimes it covers more than one octave. Like the melodic minor scale and Indian ragas, some maqamat have different ajnas, and thus notes, while descending or ascending. Because of the continuous innovation of jins and because most music scholars don't agree on the existing number anyway, it's hard to give an accurate number of the jins. Nonetheless, in practice most musicians would agree on the 8 most frequently used ajnas: Rast, Bayat, Sikah, Hijaz, Saba, Kurd, Nahawand, and Ajam — and a few of the most commonly used variants of those: Nakriz, Athar Kurd, Sikah Beladi, Saba Zamzama. Mukhalif is a rare jins used exclusively in Iraq, and it does not occur in combination with other ajnas.
The main difference between the western chromatic scale and the Arabic scales is the existence of many in-between notes, which are sometimes referred to as quarter tones for the sake of practicality. However, while in some treatments of theory the quarter tone scale or all twenty four tones should exist, according to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969) in practice there are many fewer tones (Touma 1996, p. 170).
In fact, the situation is much more complicated than that. In 1932, at International Convention on Arabic music held in Cairo, Egypt (attended by such Western luminaries as Béla Bartók and Henry George Farmer), experiments were done which determined conclusively that the notes in actual use differ substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale, and furthermore that the intonation of many of those notes differ slightly from region to region (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq). The commission's recommendation is as follows: "The tempered scale and the natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyptian scale is to be kept with the values, which were measured with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian, and Iraqi scales should remain what they are..." (translated in Maalouf 2002, p. 220). Both in modern practice, and based on the evidence from recorded music over the course of the last century, there are several differently tuned "E"s in between the E-flat and E-natural of the Western Chromatic scale, depending on the maqam or jins in use, and depending on the region.
Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notes as "quarter-tones" ("half-flat" or "half-sharp") for ease of nomenclature, but perform and teach the exact values of intonation in each jins or maqam by ear. It should also be added, in reference to Touma's comment above, that these "quarter-tones" are not used everywhere in the maqamat: in practice, Arabic music does not modulate to 12 different tonic areas like the Well-Tempered Klavier, and so the most commonly used "quarter tones" are on E (between E-flat and E-natural), A, B, D, F (between F-natural and F-sharp) and C.
The prototypical Arab ensemble in Egypt and Syria is known as the takht, which includes, (or included at different time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qanún, rabab, nay, violin (which was introduced in the 1840s or 50s), riq and dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional ensemble, known as the chalghi, includes only two melodic instruments—the jowza (similar to the rabab but with four strings) and santur—with riq and dumbek.
Dance
Arab folk dances also referred to as Oriental dance, Middle-Eastern dance and Eastern dance, refers to the traditional folk dances of the Arabs in Arab world (Middle East and North Africa). The term "Arabic dance" is often associated with the belly dance. However, there are many styles of traditional Arab dance, and many of them have a long history. These may be folk dances, or dances that were once performed as rituals or as entertainment spectacle, and some may have been performed in the imperial court. Coalescence of oral storytelling, poetry recital, and performative music and dance as long-standing traditions in Arab history. Among the best-known of the Arab traditional dances are the belly dance and the Dabke.
Belly dance also referred to as Arabic dance ( is an Arab expressive dance, which emphasizes complex movements of the torso. Many boys and girls in countries where belly dancing is popular will learn how to do it when they are young. The dance involves movement of many different parts of the body; usually in a circular way.
Media
Prior to the Islamic Era, poetry was regarded as the main means of communication on the Arabian Peninsula. It related the achievements of tribes and defeats of enemies and also served as a tool for propaganda. After the arrival of Islam, Imams (preachers) played a role in disseminating information and relating news from the authorities to the people. The suq or marketplace gossip and interpersonal relationships played an important role in the spreading of news, and this form of communication among Arabs continues today. Before the introduction of the printing press Muslims obtained most of their news from the imams at the mosque, friends or in the marketplace. Colonial powers and Christian Missionaries in Lebanon were responsible for the introduction of the printing press. It was not until the 19th century that the first newspapers began to appear, mainly in Egypt and Lebanon, which had the most newspapers per capita.
During French rule in Egypt in the time of Napoleon Bonaparte the first newspaper was published, in French. There is debate over when the first Arabic language newspaper was published; according to Arab scholar Abu Bakr, it was Al Tanbeeh (1800), published in Egypt, or it was Junral Al Iraq (1816), published in Iraq, according to other researchers. In the mid-19th century the Turkish Empire dominated the first newspapers.
The first newspapers were limited to official content and included accounts of relations with other countries and civil trials. In the following decades Arab media blossomed due to journalists mainly from Syria and Lebanon, who were intellectuals and published their newspapers without the intention of making a profit. Because of the restrictions by most governments, these intellectuals were forced to flee their respective countries but had gained a following and because of their popularity in this field of work other intellectuals began to take interest in the field.
The first émigré Arab newspaper, Mar’at al Ahwal, was published in Turkey in 1855 by Rizqallah Hassoun Al Halabi. It was criticized by the Ottoman Empire and shut down after only one year. Intellectuals in the Arab world soon realized the power of the press. Some countries' newspapers were government-run and had political agendas in mind. Independent newspapers began to spring up which expressed opinions and were a place for the public to out their views on the state. Illiteracy rates in the Arab world played a role in the formation of media, and due to the low reader rates newspapers were forced to get political parties to subsidize their publications, giving them input to editorial policy.
Freedoms that have branched through the introduction of the Internet in Middle East are creating a stir politically, culturally, and socially. There is an increasing divide between the generations. The Arab world is in conflict internally. The internet has brought economic prosperity and development, but bloggers have been incarcerated all around in the Middle East for their opinions and views on their regimes, the same consequence which was once given to those who publicly expressed themselves without anonymity. But the power of the internet has provided also a public shield for these bloggers since they have the ability to engage public sympathy on such a large scale. This is creating a dilemma that shakes the foundation of Arab culture, government, religious interpretation, economic prosperity, and personal integrity.
Each country or region in the Arab world has varying colloquial languages which are used for everyday speech, yet its presence in the media world is discouraged. Prior to the establishment of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), during the 19th century, the language of the media was stylized and resembled literary language of the time, proving to be ineffective in relaying information. Currently MSA is used by Arab media, including newspapers, books and some television stations, in addition to all formal writing. Vernaculars are however present in certain forms of media including satires, dramas, music videos and other local programs.
Media values
Journalism ethics is a system of values that determines what constitutes "good" and "bad" journalism. A system of media values consists of and is constructed by journalists' and other actors' decisions about issues like what is "newsworthy," how to frame the news, and whether to observe topical "red lines." Such a system of values varies over space and time, and is embedded within the existing social, political, and economic structures in a society. William Rugh states, "There is an intimate, organic relationship between media institutions and society in the way that those institutions are organized and controlled. Neither the institution nor the society in which it functions can be understood properly without reference to the other. This is certainly true in the Arab world." Media values in the Arab world therefore vary between and within countries. In the words of Lawrence Pintak and Jeremy Ginges (2008), “The Arab media are not a monolith.”
Journalists in the Arab world hold many of the same values with their news generation as do journalists in the Western world. Journalists in the Arab world often aspire to Western norms of objectivity, impartiality, and balance. Kuldip Roy Rampal's study of journalist training programs in North Africa leads him to the conclusion that, "the most compelling dilemma faced by professional journalists, increasingly graduates of journalism degree programs, in the four Maghreb states is how to reconcile their preference for press freedom and objectivity with constraints imposed by political and legal factors that point to a pro-government journalism." Iyotika Ramaprasad and Naila Nabil Hamdy state, “A new trend toward objectivity and impartiality as a value in Arab journalism seems to be emerging, and the values of Arab and Western journalism in this field have started to converge.” Further, many journalists in the Arab world express their desires for the media to become a fourth estate akin to the media in the West. In a survey of 601 journalists in the Arab world, 40% of them viewed investigation of the government as part of their job.
Important differences between journalists in the Arab world and their Western counterparts are also apparent. Some journalists in the Arab world see no conflict between objectivity and support for political causes. Ramprasad and Hamdy's sample of 112 Egyptian journalists gave the highest importance to supporting Arabism and Arab values, which included injunctions such as “defend Islamic societies, traditions and values” and “support the cause of the Palestinians.” Sustaining democracy through “examining government policies and decisions critically,” ranked a close second.
Other journalists reject the notion of media ethics altogether because they see it as a mechanism of control. Kai Hafez states, “Many governments in the Arab world have tried to hijack the issue of media ethics and have used it as yet another controlling device, with the result that many Arab journalists, while they love to speak about the challenges of their profession, hate performing under the label of media ethics.”
Historically, news in the Arab world was used to inform, guide, and publicize the actions of political practitioners rather than being just a consumer product. The power of news as political tool was discovered in the early 19th century, with the purchase of shares from Le Temps a French newspaper by Ismail the grandson of Muhammad Ali. Doing so allowed Ismail to publicize his policies. Arab Media coming to modernity flourished and with it its responsibilities to the political figures that have governed its role. Ami Ayalon argues in his history of the press in the Arab Middle East that, “Private journalism began as an enterprise with very modest objectives, seeking not to defy authority but rather to serve it, to collaborate and coexist cordially with it. The demand for freedom of expression, as well as for individual political freedom, a true challenge to the existing order, came only later, and hesitantly at that, and was met by a public response that can best be described as faint."
Media researchers stress that the moral and social responsibility of newspeople dictates that they should not agitate public opinion, but rather should keep the status quo. It is also important to preserve national unity by not stirring up ethnic or religious conflict.
The values of media in the Arab world have started to change with the emergence of “new media." Examples of new media include news websites, blogs, and satellite television stations like Al Arabiya. The founding of the Qatari Al Jazeera network in 1996 especially affected media values. Some scholars believe that the network has blurred the line between private- and state- run news. Mohamed Zayani and Sofiane Sabraoui state, “Al Jazeera is owned by the government, but has an independent editorial policy; it is publicly funded, but independent minded.” The Al Jazeera media network espouses a clear mission and strategy, and was one of the first news organizations in the Arab world to release a code of ethics. Despite its government ties, it seeks to “give no priority to commercial or political over professional consideration” and to “cooperate with Arab and international journalistic unions and associations to defend freedom of the press.” With a motto of “the view and the other view,” it purports to “present the diverse points of view and opinions without bias and partiality.” It has sought to fuse these ostensibly Western media norms with a wider “Arab orientation,” evocative of the social responsibility discussed by scholars such as Noha Mellor above.
Some more recent assessments of Al Jazeera have criticized it for a lack of credibility in the wake of the Arab Spring. Criticism has come from within the Arab Middle East, including from state governments. Independent commentators have criticized its neutrality vis-a-vis the Syrian Civil War.
Media values are not the only variable that affects news output in Arab society. Hafez states, “The interaction of political, economic, and social environments with individual and collective professional ethics is the driving force behind journalism.” In most Arab countries, newspapers cannot be published without a government-issued license. Most Arab countries also have press laws, which impose boundaries on what can and cannot be said in print.
Censorship plays a significant role in journalism in the Arab world. Censorship comes in a variety of forms: Self-censorship, Government Censorship (governments struggle to control through technological advances in ex. the internet), Ideology/Religious Censorship, and Tribal/Family/Alliances Censorship. Because Journalism in the Arab world comes with a range of dangers – journalists throughout the Arab world can be imprisoned, tortured, and even killed in their line of work – self-censorship is extremely important for many Arab journalists. A study conducted by the Center for Defending Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) in Jordan, for example, found that the majority of Jordanian journalists exercise self-censorship. CPJ found that 34 journalists were killed in the region in 2012, 72 were imprisoned on December 1, 2012, and 126 were in exile from 2007 to 2012.
A related point is that media owners and patrons have effects on the values of their outlets. Newspapers in the Arab world can be divided into three categories: government owned, partisan owned, and independently owned. Newspaper, radio, and television patronization in the Arab world has heretofore been primarily a function of governments. "Now, newspaper ownership has been consolidated in the hands of powerful chains and groups. Yet, profit is not the driving force behind the launching of newspapers; publishers may establish a newspaper to ensure a platform for their political opinions, although it is claimed that this doesn't necessarily influence the news content". In the Arab world, as far as content is concerned, news is politics. Arab states are intimately involved in the economic well-being of many Arab news organizations so they apply pressure in several ways, most notably through ownership or advertising.
Some analysts hold that cultural and societal pressures determine journalists' news output in the Arab world. For example, to the extent that family reputation and personal reputation are fundamental principles in Arabian civilization, exposes of corruption, examples of weak moral fiber in governors and policy makers, and investigative journalism may have massive consequences. In fact, some journalists and media trainers in the Arab world nevertheless actively promote the centrality of investigative journalism to the media's larger watchdog function. In Jordan, for example, where the degree of government and security service interference in the media is high, non-governmental organizations such as the Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) and Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ) train journalists to undertake investigative journalism projects.
Some Saudi journalists stress the importance of enhancing Islam through the media. The developmental role of media was acknowledged by an overwhelming majority of Saudi journalists, while giving the readers what they want was not regarded as a priority. However, journalism codes, as an important source for the study of media values, complicate this notion. Kai Hafez states, “The possible hypothesis that Islamic countries might not be interested in ‘truth’ and would rather propagate ‘Islam’ as the single truth cannot be verified completely because even a code that limits journalists’ freedom of expression to Islamic objectives and values, the Saudi Arabian code, demands that journalists present real facts.” In addition, Saudi journalists operate in an environment in which anti-religious talk is likely to be met with censorship.
Patterns of consumption also affect media values. People in the Arab world rely on newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet to differing degrees and to meet a variety of ends. For Rugh, the proportion of radio and television receivers to Arab populations relative to UNESCO minimum standards suggests that radio and television are the most widely consumed media. He estimates that television reaches well over 100 million people in the region, and this number has likely grown since 2004. By contrast, he supposes that Arab newspapers are designed more for elite-consumption on the basis of their low circulation. He states, "Only five Arab countries have daily newspapers which distribute over 60,000 copies and some have dailies only in the under-10,000 range. Only Egypt has dailies which distribute more than a half million copies." Estimating newspaper readership is complicated, however, by the fact that single newspapers can change hands many times in a day. Finally, the internet continues to be a fairly common denominator in Arab societies. A report by the Dubai School of Government and Bayt.com estimates that there are more than 125 million Internet users in the region, and that more than 53 million of them actively use social media. They caution, however, that while "the internet has wide-ranging benefits, these benefits do not reach large segments of societies in the Arab region. The digital divide remains a significant barrier for many people. In many parts of the Arab world levels of educational attainment, economic activity, standards of living and internet costs still determine a person's access to life-changing technology. Further, according to Leo Gher and Hussein Amin, the Internet and other modern telecommunication services may serve to counter the effects of private and public ownership and patronage of the press. They state, "Modern international telecommunications services now assist in the free flow of information, and neither inter-Arab conflicts nor differences among groups will affect the direct exchange of services provided by global cyberspace networks."
Magazines
In most Arabian countries, magazines cannot be published without a government-issued license. Magazines in the Arabian world, like many of the magazines in the Western world, are geared towards women. However, the number of magazines in the Arab world is significantly smaller than that of the Western world. The Arab world is not as advertisement driven as the Western world. Advertisers fuel the funding for most Western magazines to exist. Thus, a lesser emphasis on advertisement in the Arabian world plays into the low number of magazines.
Radio
There are 40 private radio stations throughout the Middle East (list of private radio stations in the Arab world)
Arab radio broadcasting began in the 1920s, but only a few Arab countries had their own broadcasting stations before World War II. After 1945, most Arab states began to create their own radio broadcasting systems, although it was not until 1970, when Oman opened its radio transmissions, that every one of them had its own radio station.
Among Arab countries, Egypt has been a leader in radio broadcasting from the beginning. Broadcasting began in Egypt in the 1920s with private commercial radio. In 1947, however, the Egyptian government declared radio a government monopoly and began investing in its expansion.
By the 1970s, Egyptian radio had fourteen different broadcast services with a total air time of 1,200 hours per week. Egypt is ranked third in the world among radio broadcasters. The programs were all government controlled, and much of the motivation for the government's investment in radio was due to the aspirations of President Gamal Abdel Nasser to be the recognized leader of the Arab world.
Egypt's "Voice of the Arabs" station, which targeted other Arab countries with a constant stream of news and political features and commentaries, became the most widely heard station in the region. Only after the June 1967 war, when it was revealed that this station had misinformed the public about what was happening, did it lose some credibility; nevertheless it retained a large listenership.
On the Arabian Peninsula, radio was slower to develop. In Saudi Arabia, radio broadcasts started in the Jidda-Mecca area in 1948, but they did not start in the central or eastern provinces until the 1960s. Neighboring Bahrain had radio by 1955, but Qatar, Abu Dhabi, and Oman did not start indigenous radio broadcasting until nearly a quarter century later.
Television
Almost all television channels in the Arab world were government-owned and strictly controlled prior to the 1990s. In the 1990s the spread of satellite television began changing television in Arab countries. Often noted as a pioneer, Al Jazeera represents a shift towards a more professional approach to news and current affairs. Financed by the Qatar government and established in 1996, Al Jazeera was the first Arabic channel to deliver extensive live news coverage, going so far as to send reporters to "unthinkable" places like Israel. Breaking the mold in more ways than one, Al Jazeera's discussion programs raised subjects that had long been prohibited. However, in 2008, Egypt and Saudi Arabia called for a meeting to approve a charter to regulate satellite broadcasting. The Arab League Satellite Broadcasting Charter (2008) lays out principles for regulating satellite broadcasting in the Arab world.
Other satellite channels:
Al Arabiya: established in 2003; based in Dubai; offshoot of MBC
Alhurra ("The Free One"): established in 2004 by the United States; counter-perceives biases in Arab news media
Al Manar: owned by Hezbollah; Lebanese-based; highly controversial
"Across the Middle East, new television stations, radio stations and websites are sprouting like incongruous electronic mushrooms in what was once a media desert. Meanwhile, newspapers are aggressively probing the red lines that have long contained them". Technology is playing a significant role in the changing Arab media. Pintak furthers, "Now, there are 263 free-to-air (FTA) satellite television stations in the region, according to Arab Advisors Group. That's double the figure as of just two years ago". Freedom of speech and money have little to do with why satellite television is sprouting up everywhere. Instead, "A desire for political influence is probably the biggest factor driving channel growth. But ego is a close second". The influence of the West is very apparent in Arab media, especially in television. Arab soap operas and the emerging popularity of reality TV are evidence of this notion.
"In the wake of controversy triggered by Super Star and Star Academy, some observers have hailed reality television as a harbinger of democracy in the Arab world." Star Academy in Lebanon is strikingly similar to American Idol mixed with The Real World. Star Academy began in 2003 in the Arab world. "Reality television entered Arab public discourse in the last five years at a time of significant turmoil in the region: escalating violence in Iraq, contested elections in Egypt, the struggle for women's political rights in Kuwait, political assassinations in Lebanon, and the protracted Arab–Israeli conflict. This geo-political crisis environment that currently frames Arab politics and Arab–Western relations is the backdrop to the controversy surrounding the social and political impact of Arab reality television, which assumes religious, cultural or moral manifestations."
Cinema
Most Arab countries did not produce films before independence. In Sudan, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, production is even now confined to short films or television. Bahrain witnessed the production of its first and only full-length feature film in 1989. In Jordan, national production has barely exceeded half a dozen feature films. Iraq has produced approximately 100 films and Syria some 150. Lebanon, owing to an increased production during the 1950s and 1960s, has made some 180 feature films. Only Egypt has far exceeded these countries, with a production of more than 2,500 feature films (all meant for cinema, not television). As with most aspects of Arab media, censorship plays a large art of creating and distributing films. "In most Arab countries, film projects must first pass a state committee, which grants or denies permission to shoot. Once this permission is obtained, another official license, a so-called visa, is necessary in order to exploit the film commercially. This is normally approved by a committee of the Ministry of Information or a special censorship authority". The most significant taboo topics under state supervision are consistent with those of other forms of media: religion, sex, and politics.
Internet
The Internet in the Arab world is powerful source of expression and information as it is in other places in the world. While some believe that it is the harbinger of freedom in media to the Middle East, others think that it is a new medium for censorship. Both are true. The Internet has created a new arena for discussion and the dissemination of information for the Arab world just as it has in the rest of the world. The youth in particular are accessing and utilizing the tools. People are encouraged and enabled to join in political discussion and critique in a manner that was not previously possible. Those same people are also discouraged and blocked from those debates as the differing regimes try to restrict access based on religious and state objections to certain material.
This was posted on a website operated by the Muslim Brotherhood:The internet in the Arab world has a snowball effect; now that the snowball is rolling, it can no longer be stopped. Getting bigger and stronger, it is bound to crush down all obstacles. In addition, to the stress caused by the Arab bloggers, a new forum was opened for Arab activists; Facebook. Arab activists have been using Facebook in the utmost creative way to support the democracy movement in the region, a region that has one of the highest rates of repression in the world. Unlike other regions where oppressive countries (like China, Iran and Burma) represent the exception, oppression can be found everywhere in the Arab world. The number of Arab internet users interested in political affairs does not exceed a few thousands, mainly represented by internet activists and bloggers, out of 58 million internet users in the Arab world. As few as they are, they have succeeded in shedding some light on the corruption and repression of the Arab governments and dictatorships.
Public Internet use began in the US in the 1980s. Internet access began in the early 1990s in the Arab world, with Tunisia being first in 1991 according to Dr. Deborah L. Wheeler. The years of the Internet's introduction in the various Arab countries are reported differently. Wheeler reports that Kuwait joined in 1992, and in 1993, Iraq and the UAE came online. In 1994 Jordan joined the Internet, and Saudi Arabia and Syria followed in the late 1990s. Financial considerations and the lack of widespread availability of services are factors in the slower growth in the Arab world, but taking into consideration the popularity of internet cafes, the numbers online are much larger than the subscription numbers would reveal.
The people most commonly utilizing the Internet in the Arab world are youths. The café users in particular tend to be under 30, single and have a variety of levels of education and language proficiency. Despite reports that use of the internet was curtailed by lack of English skills, Dr. Wheeler found that people were able to search with Arabic. Searching for jobs, the unemployed frequently fill cafes in Egypt and Jordan. They are men and women equally. Most of them chat and they have email. In a survey conducted by Dr. Deborah Wheeler, she found them to almost all to have been taught to use the Internet by a friend or family member. They all felt their lives to have been significantly changed by the use of the Internet. The use of the Internet in the Arab world is very political in the nature of the posts and of the sites read and visited. The Internet has brought a medium to Arabs that allows for a freedom of expression not allowed or accepted before. For those who can get online, there are blogs to read and write and access to worldwide outlets of information once unobtainable. With this access, regimes have attempted to curtail what people are able to read, but the Internet is a medium not as easily manipulated as telling a newspaper what it can or cannot publish. The Internet can be reached via proxy server, mirror, and other means. Those who are thwarted with one method will find 12 more methods around the blocked site. As journalists suffer and are imprisoned in traditional media, the Internet is no different with bloggers regularly being imprisoned for expressing their views for the world to read. The difference is that there is a worldwide audience witnessing this crackdown and watching as laws are created and recreated to attempt to control the vastness of the Internet.
Jihadists are using the Internet to reach a greater audience. Just as a simple citizen can now have a worldwide voice, so can a movement. Groups are using the Internet to share video, photos, programs and any kind of information imaginable. Standard media may not report what the Muslim Brotherhood would say on their site. However, for the interested, the Internet is a tool that is utilized with great skill by those who wish to be heard. A file uploaded to 100 sites and placed in multiple forums will reach millions instantly. Information on the Internet can be thwarted, slowed, even redirected, but it cannot be stopped if someone wants it out there on the Internet.
The efforts by the various regimes to control the information are all falling apart gradually. Those fighting crime online have devised methods of tracking and catching criminals. Unfortunately those same tools are being used to arrest bloggers and those who would just wish to be heard. The Internet is a vast and seemingly endless source of information. Arabs are using it more than perhaps the world is aware and it is changing the media.
Society
Social loyalty is of great importance in Arab culture. Family is one of the most important aspects of the Arab society. While self-reliance, individuality, and responsibility are taught by Arabic parents to their children, family loyalty is the greatest lesson taught in Arab families. "Unlike the extreme individualism we see in North America (every person for him or herself, individual rights, families living on their own away from relatives, and so on), Arab society emphasizes the importance of the group. Arab culture teaches that the needs of the group are more important than the needs of one person." In the Bedouin tribes of Saudi Arabia, "intense feelings of loyalty and dependence are fostered and preserved" by the family. Margaret Nydell, in her book Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times, writes "family loyalty and obligations take precedence over loyalty to friends or demands of a job." She goes on to state that "members of a family are expected to support each other in disputes with outsiders. Regardless of personal antipathy among relatives, they must defend each other's honor, counter criticism, and display group cohesion..." Of all members of the family, however, the most revered member is the mother.
Family honor is one of the most important characteristics in the Arab family. According to Margaret Nydell, social exchanges between men and women happen very seldom outside of the work place. Men and women refrain from being alone together. They have to be very careful in social situations because those interactions can be interpreted negatively and cause gossip, which can tarnish the reputation of women. Women are able to socialize freely with other women and male family members, but have to have family members present to socialize with men that are not part of the family. These conservative practices are put into place to protect the reputation of women. Bad behavior not only affects women but her family's honor. Practices differ between countries and families. Saudi Arabia has stricter practices when it comes to men and women and will even require marriage documents if a woman and man are seen together alone.
Arab values
One of the characteristics of Arabs is generosity and they usually show it by being courteous with each other. Some of the most important values for Arabs are honor and loyalty. Margaret Nydell, in her book Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times' says that Arabs can be defined as, humanitarian, loyal and polite. Tarek Mahfouz explains in the book "Arab Culture" that it is common for Arabs in dinner situations to insist on guests to eat the last piece of the meal or to fight over who will pay the bill at a restaurant for generosity.Sports
Pan Arab Games
The Pan Arab Games are a regional multi-sport event held between nations from the Arab world. The first Games were held in 1953 in Alexandria, Egypt. Intended to be held every four years since, political turmoil as well as financial difficulties has made the event an unstable one. Women were first allowed to compete in 1985. By the 11th Pan Arab Games, the number of countries participating reached all 22 members of the Arab League, with roughly over 8,000 Arab athletes participating, it was considered the largest in the Games' history, with the Doha Games in 2011 expected to exceed that number.
Cuisine
Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as leben (لبن) (yoghurt without butterfat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab world and incorporating Levantine, Egyptian, and others. It has also been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of India, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arab household in Eastern Arabia, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporating lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several other items on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well.
Tea culture
Tea is a very important drink in the Arab world, it is usually served with breakfast, after lunch, and with dinner. For Arabs tea is a hospitality drink that is served to guests. It is also common for Arabs to drink tea with dates.
Dress
Men
Arab dress for men ranges from the traditional flowing robes to blue jeans, T-shirts and business suits. The robes allow for maximum circulation of air around the body to help keep it cool, and the head dress provides protection from the sun. At times, Arabs mix the traditional garb with western clothes.
Thawb:
In the Arabian Peninsula men usually wear their national dress that is called "thawb" or "thobe" but can be also called "Dishdasha" in Kuwait or "Kandoura" (UAE). Thawbs differ slightly from state to state within the Gulf, but the basic ones are white. This is the traditional attire that Arabs wear in formal occasions.
Headdress:
The male headdress is known as a keffiyeh. In the Arabian Peninsula it is known as a guthra. It is usually worn with a black cord called an "agal", which keeps it on the wearer's head.
The Qatari guthra is heavily starched and it is known for its "cobra" shape.
The Saudi guthra is a square shaped cotton fabric. The traditional is white but the white and red (shemagh) is also very common in Saudi Arabia.
The Emirati guthra is usually white and can be used as a wrapped turban or traditionally with the black agal.
Headdress pattern might be an indicator of which tribe, clan, or family the wearer comes from. However, this is not always the case. While in one village, a tribe or clan might have a unique headdress, in the next town over an unrelated tribe or clan might wear the same headdress.
Checkered headdresses relate to type and government and participation in the Hajj, or a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Red and white checkered headdress – Generally of Jordanian origin. Wearer has made Hajj and comes from a country with a Monarch.
Black and white checkered headdress – The pattern is historically of Palestinian origin.
Black and grey represent Presidential rule and completion of the Hajj.
Women
Adherence to traditional dress varies across Arab societies. Saudi Arabia is more traditional, while Egypt is less so. Traditional Arab dress features the full length body cover (abaya, jilbāb, or chador) and veil (hijab). Women are only required to wear abayas'' in Saudi Arabia, although that restriction has been eased since 2015. The veil is not as prevalent in most countries outside the Arabian peninsula.
See also
References
Further reading
Arabic-language culture
Folklore by country
Folklore by region |
4087894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsai%20Ing-wen | Tsai Ing-wen | Tsai Ing-wen (; born 31 August 1956) is a Taiwanese politician who has been serving as the president of the Republic of China (Taiwan) since 2016. A member of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), Tsai is the first female president of Taiwan. She served as chair of the DPP from 2020 to 2022, and also previously from 2008 to 2012 and 2014 to 2018.
Tsai grew up in Taipei and studied law and international trade, and later became a law professor at Soochow University School of Law and National Chengchi University after earning an LLB from National Taiwan University and an LLM from Cornell Law School. She later studied law at the London School of Economics and Political Science, with her thesis titled "Unfair trade practices and safeguard actions", and was awarded a Ph.D. in law from the University of London. In 1993, as an independent (without party affiliation), she was appointed to a series of governmental positions, including trade negotiator for WTO affairs, by the then ruling party Kuomintang (KMT) and was one of the chief drafters of the special state-to-state relations doctrine under the President Lee Teng-hui.
During the first term of Chen Shui-bian's presidency, Tsai served as Minister of the Mainland Affairs Council. She joined the DPP in 2004 and served briefly as a DPP-nominated at-large member of the Legislative Yuan, and was then appointed as Vice Premier under Premier Su Tseng-chang until the cabinet's mass resignation in 2007. Following the DPP's defeat in the presidential election in 2008, she was elected as party chair of the DPP, but she resigned when the party lost the presidential election in 2012.
Tsai ran for New Taipei City mayorship in the 2010 municipal elections but was defeated by the KMT candidate, Eric Chu. In April 2011, Tsai became the first female nominated by a major party as a presidential candidate in the history of Taiwan after defeating her former superior, Su Tseng-chang, in the DPP's primary by a slight margin. In the fifth presidential election in 2012, she was defeated by the then-president Ma Ying-jeou, but she won her first term of presidency in the 2016 presidential election by a landslide in a rematch against Chu. In the 2020 election, she was re-elected as president with an increased share of the vote. Tsai is the second president from the Democratic Progressive Party, and the first popularly elected president to have never served as Mayor of Taipei.
Tsai was named one of Time's most influential people of 2020 and was #9 on Forbes's most powerful women and #2 female politician after Kamala Harris of 2021. Internationally, Tsai has been praised for her response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and for standing up to pressure from the Government of the People's Republic of China. Tsai resigned as head of the Democratic People's Party (DPP) in November 2022, citing her party's poor performance in local elections earlier that month.
Early life and career
Tsai was born at Mackay Memorial Hospital in Zhongshan District, Taipei City on 31 August 1956, the youngest of nine (or eleven) children. Her father, Tsai Chieh-sheng (1918–2006), was a businessman who ran an auto repair shop, and her mother Chang Chin-fong (1925–2018) was a housewife. Her given name, Ing-wen (英文), was chosen by genealogical naming practices. While these suggested the spelling 瀛文, her father felt that the character 瀛 had too many strokes and decided to replace it with the character 英. During her high school period, she studied at Taipei Municipal Zhongshan Girls High School. She studied law at the behest of her father. After graduating at the College of Law, National Taiwan University, in 1978, Tsai obtained a Master of Laws at Cornell University Law School in 1980. She then studied law at the London School of Economics and was awarded a Ph.D. in law from the University of London in 1984. Upon her return to Taiwan, she taught law at the School of Law of Soochow University and National Chengchi University, both in Taipei.
In the 1990s, Tsai was also appointed to the Fair Trade Commission and the Copyright Commission. She served as consultant for the Mainland Affairs Council and the National Security Council. She also led the drafting team on the Statute Governing Relations with Hong Kong and Macau ().
Rise in politics
In 2000, Tsai was given the high-profile appointment of chair of the Mainland Affairs Council. Confirming the widely held belief that she maintained Pan-Green sympathies, Tsai joined the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in 2004. She was subsequently nominated by the DPP to be a candidate in the 2004 legislative election and was elected as a legislator-at-large.
On 26 January 2006, Tsai was appointed to the post of vice president of the Executive Yuan, a position commonly referred to as vice premier. She concurrently served as chairwoman of the Consumer Protection Commission.
On 17 May 2007, Tsai, along with the rest of the cabinet of out-going Premier Su Tseng-chang, resigned to make way for incoming Premier Chang Chun-hsiung and his cabinet. Premier Chang named Chiou I-jen, the incumbent secretary-general of the Presidential Office to replace Tsai as vice premier. She then served as the chair of TaiMedBiologics, a biotechnology company based in Taiwan. The Kuomintang accused Tsai of contracting government work out to TaiMedBiologics during her term as vice premier, while planning to leave the government and lead the company afterward. She was later cleared of all alleged wrongdoing.
In Kuomintang candidate Ma Ying-jeou's search for his running mate for the 2008 ROC presidential election, Tsai, a DPP member, was surprisingly suggested. Ma stated that there were no set criteria for a running mate, that his search would not be defined by gender, occupation, or even political party affiliations.
On 19 May 2008, Tsai defeated Koo Kwang-ming in the election for DPP chair, and succeeded outgoing Frank Hsieh as the 12th-term chair of the party. She was the first woman to chair a major Taiwanese political party.
DPP chair
First term: 2008–2012
Tsai took office on 20 May 2008, the same day Ma Ying-jeou was inaugurated as president. She said that DPP would work to deepen the Taiwanese localization movement while defending social justice. She criticized Ma for mentioning closer Cross-Strait relations but nothing about Taiwan's sovereignty and national security.
Tsai questioned Ma's stance on Taiwan's sovereign status. Ma emphasized the importance of the so-called 1992 Consensus and called Tsai a Taiwan independence extremist. Tsai criticized Ma's government for not answering her question and labeling others.
After former President Chen Shui-bian's acknowledgment of transferring past campaign funds overseas, Tsai apologized to the public and also said that the DPP would not try to cover up for Chen's alleged misdeeds. The Clean Government Commission was set up to investigate corruption within the DPP.
On 25 April 2010, Tsai participated in a televised debate against President and Kuomintang chairman Ma Ying-jeou over a proposed trade agreement, the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA); while President Ma believed ECFA would increase Taiwanese exports to mainland China and lower unemployment rates, Tsai said it "will force Taiwan to open up for cheap Chinese exports eventually" and certain domestic industries will be harmed by the mainland trade invasion. Tsai also said that the pact "will make Taiwan lose its independence in cross-strait relations and become a Chinese parasite" and that Taiwan should negotiate with China under the multilateral-framework World Trade Organization, which would offer more trade protections and emphasize Taiwan's distinct status.
Under Tsai's leadership, along with some of KMT's unpopular policies, the DPP regained momentum in elections of 2009, after major defeats from 2006 to 2008. In 2010, she was re-elected as the chair of the DPP.
Tsai made a controversial statement in May 2010 claiming that the Republic of China was a "government-in-exile" non-native to Taiwan; however on 8 October 2011, two days prior to the 100-year anniversary celebrations of the Double Ten Day, Tsai changed her statement, stating that "The ROC is Taiwan, Taiwan is the ROC, and the current ROC government is no longer ruled by a non-native political power".
Tsai resigned as chair of the DPP after losing her 2012 presidential election bid to incumbent Ma Ying-jeou.
Second term: 2014–2018
On 15 March 2014, Tsai announced that she would once more run for party chief of the DPP against incumbent Su Tseng-chang and Frank Hsieh. However, both Su and Hsieh dropped out of the election in the aftermath of the Sunflower Student Movement. Tsai defeated Kaohsiung County deputy commissioner Kuo Tai-lin by 79,676 votes.
Tsai led the DPP to an historic victory in the local elections held on 29 November 2014, in which the party secured leadership of 13 of Taiwan's 22 municipalities and counties. The DPP's stunning victory in the elections strengthened Tsai's position within the party and placed her as the front-runner in the 2016 Presidential Elections; she announced her second bid for the Presidency on 15 February 2015. On 16 January 2016, she won the election by a landslide, winning 56.12% of votes, beating her opponent Eric Chu, who won 31.07% of the votes.
On 24 November 2018, she resigned as leader of the Democratic Progressive Party and refused Premier William Lai's resignation after a major defeat in local elections.
Third term: 2020–2022
Tsai resumed the Democratic Progressive Party leadership from Cho Jung-tai on 20 May 2020, when she was inaugurated for her second presidential term. She resigned as party leader following the 2022 Taiwanese local elections.
Presidential campaigns
2012
On 11 March 2011, Tsai Ing-wen officially announced her run for the presidential nomination of the Democratic Progressive Party. On 27 April 2011, Tsai became the first female presidential candidate in Taiwan after she defeated former Premier Su Tseng-chang by a small margin in a nationwide phone poll (of more than 15,000 samples) that served as the party's primary. Tsai ran against incumbent President Ma Ying-jeou of the Kuomintang and James Soong of the People First Party in the 5th direct presidential election, which was held on 14 January 2012. Garnering 45% of the vote, she conceded defeat to President Ma in an international press conference, resigning her seat as Chairman of the DPP.
2016
On 15 February 2015, Tsai officially registered for the Democratic Progressive Party's presidential nomination primary. Though William Lai and Su Tseng-chang were seen as likely opponents, Tsai was the only candidate to run in the primary and the DPP officially nominated her as the presidential candidate on 15 April.
During summer of 2015, Tsai embarked on a visit to the United States and met a number of US policy makers including Senators John McCain and Jack Reed. In her speech addressing Taiwanese diaspora on the east coast of the United States, Tsai signaled a willingness to cooperate with the rising Third Party coalition in Taiwan in the incoming general election. On 14 November, Tsai's campaign announced that she had chosen Chen Chien-jen as DPP vice presidential candidate. On 16 January 2016, Tsai won the presidential election, beating her opponent Eric Chu by a margin of 25.04%. Tsai was inaugurated as president on 20 May 2016.
After her election, Tsai was named one of "The 100 Most Influential People" in TIME magazine 2 May 2016 issue.
2020
Tsai announced on 19 February 2019 via an interview with CNN that she would run for reelection as president in 2020. She registered to run in the Democratic Progressive Party presidential primary on 21 March 2019. Tsai defeated William Lai in the primary, and the Democratic Progressive Party nominated her as its candidate for the 2020 presidential election on 19 June 2019. Tsai and Lai formed the Democratic Progressive Party ticket on 17 November 2019.
Political positions
United States
Tsai supports strong and stable relationships between Taiwan (ROC) and the United States. In early December 2016, Tsai held an unprecedented telephone call with President-elect Donald Trump. This was the first time that the President of ROC spoke with the president or president-elect of the United States since 1979. Afterwards, she indicated there had been no major "policy shift".
In January 2021, Tsai met with United States Ambassador to the UN Kelly Craft by video link. Craft said: "We discussed the many ways Taiwan is a model for the world, as demonstrated by its success in fighting Covid-19 and all that Taiwan has to offer in the fields of health, technology and cutting-edge science.... the U.S. stands with Taiwan and always will." Speaking in Beijing, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman Zhao Lijian said: "Certain U.S. politicians will pay a heavy price for their wrong words and deeds." On her last day in office later that month, Craft called Taiwan "a force for good on the global stage -- a vibrant democracy, a generous humanitarian actor, a responsible actor in the global health community, and a vigorous promoter and defender of human rights."
In March 2023, Tsai is set to travel to the United States on a 10-day tour of the Americas. The trip comes after Honduras severed ties with Taiwan in order to establish diplomatic relations with China. Tsai will stop in New York before visiting Guatemala and Belize, before heading to Los Angeles before heading back to Taiwan. During the trip, Tsai is expected to meet Kevin McCarthy during her stop in Los Angeles. Chinese diplomats threatened a strong response, if senior American politicians, including McCarthy, meet with Tsai. Despite China's threat, McCarthy confirmed that he will meet Tsai when she arrives in California. The meeting would also involve members of the Republican and Democratic parties at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.
Cross-strait relations
The DPP's traditional position on the issue of cross-strait relations is that the Republic of China, widely known as Taiwan, is already an independent state governing the territories of Kinmen, Matsu, Penghu Islands, and the island of Taiwan, thus rendering a formal declaration of independence unnecessary. While Tsai has never departed fundamentally from the party line, her personal approach to the issue is nuanced and evolving.
During the 2012 presidential election cycle, Tsai said that she disagreed with the 1992 Consensus as the basis for negotiations between Taiwan and mainland China, that such a consensus only served to buttress the "One China Principle", and that "no such consensus exists" because the majority of the Taiwanese public does not necessarily agree with this consensus. She believed that broad consultations should be held at all levels of Taiwanese society to decide the basis on which to advance negotiations with Beijing, dubbed the "Taiwan consensus". During the 2016 election cycle, Tsai was notably more moderate, making "maintaining the status quo" the centerpiece of party policy. She vowed to work within the Republic of China governing framework in addition to preserving the progress made in cross-strait relations by previous governments, while preserving "freedom and democracy" for the residents of Taiwan.
Tsai believes in the importance of economic and trade links with mainland China, but publicly spoke out against the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA), a preferential trade agreement that increased economic links between Taiwan and mainland China. She generally supports the diversification of Taiwan's economic partners.
In response to the death of Chinese Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo, who died of organ failure while in government custody, Tsai pleaded with the Communist government to "show confidence in engaging in political reform so that the Chinese can enjoy the God-given rights of freedom and democracy".
Tsai has accused the Communist Party of China's troll army of spreading fake news via social media to influence voters and support candidates more sympathetic to Beijing ahead of the 2018 Taiwanese local elections.
In January 2019, Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), had announced an open letter to Taiwan proposing a one country, two systems formula for eventual unification. Tsai responded to Xi in a January 2019 speech by stating that Taiwan rejects "one country, two systems" and that because Beijing equates the 1992 Consensus with "one country, two systems", Taiwan rejects the 1992 Consensus as well.
Tsai expressed her solidarity with Hong Kong protesters, remarking that Taiwan's democracy was hard-earned and had to be guarded and renewed. Pledging that as long as she was Taiwan's president, she would never accept "one country, two systems", Tsai cited what she considered to be the constant and rapid deterioration of Hong Kong's democracy over the course of 20 years.
Domestic policy
Tsai has traditionally been supportive of disadvantaged groups in society, including the poor, women and children, Taiwanese indigenous peoples, and LGBT groups. She favours government action to reduce unemployment, introducing incentives for entrepreneurship among youth, expanding public housing, and government-mandated childcare support. She supports government transparency and more prudent and disciplined fiscal management.
Tsai advocated for the non-partisanship of the president of the Legislative Yuan, the increase in the number of "at-large" seats in the legislature, the broadening of participation among all political parties and interest groups. She supports proactively repairing the damage done to Taiwanese aboriginal groups, as well as the government actions in the February 28 Incident and during the phase of White Terror. She has also called for the de-polarization of Taiwanese politics, and advocates for a more open and consensus-based approach to addressing issues and passing legislation.
LGBT rights
Tsai supports LGBT rights and has endorsed same-sex marriage to be legalised in Taiwan. On 21 August 2015, the day of the annual Qixi Festival, she released a campaign video in which three same-sex couples actors appeared. On 31 October 2015, when the biggest gay pride parade in Asia was held in Taipei, Tsai expressed her support for same-sex marriage. She posted a 15-second video on her Facebook page saying "I am Tsai Ing-wen, and I support marriage equality" and "Let everyone be able to freely love and pursue happiness". However during the presidency, Tsai delayed the process to legalize same-sex marriage due to opposition from conservative and religious groups. After the 2018 Taiwanese referendum, Tsai led the government to legalize same-sex marriage outside of the Civil Code.
Presidency
In the inauguration speech for her first term, Tsai stated policy goals such as pension reform, long-term care for the elderly, transitional justice, and judicial reform. She outlined an economic policy of diversification via the New Southbound Policy as well as prioritization of innovative industries. In terms of cross-strait policy, she acknowledged the 1992 Consensus without agreeing to it and called for continued cross-strait dialogue.
In her second inauguration speech, Tsai outlined her major goals in her second term, including instituting a lay judge system, lowering the voting age from 20 to 18, and establishing a human rights commission under the Control Yuan. She also outlined her economic policy, which included transitioning from manufacturing to high-tech industries, with a focus on existing semiconductor and information and communications technology industries, cybersecurity, biotechnology and healthcare, domestic production of military equipment, green energy and strategically-critical industries. She proposed goals for defense reform, including a focus on asymmetric warfare, maintenance of a military reserve force, and reform in management to reflect a democratic society. On cross-strait issues, she explicitly rejected the one country, two systems model proposed by Beijing and expressed a desire for both sides to coexist peacefully.
Defense policy and indigenous programs
Under the Tsai administration, military spending has risen in Taiwan relative to GDP. The defense budget was set to $327 billion NTD in 2018 and $346 billion in 2019. The defense budget in 2020 was set to $411 billion NTD, estimated to be 2.3% of GDP, representing an 8.3% increase in total spending over the previous year and a 0.2% increase in percentage of GDP. In 2021 it was set to $453 billion NTD, estimated to be 2.4% of GDP, and a 4.4% increase over the previous year.
The administration has also focused on defensive self-sufficiency and developing indigenous industries, such as in submarines and missiles. The AIDC T-5 Brave Eagle indigenous jet trainer, which started development in 2017, successfully conducted its first test flight in 2020. On 29 June 2020, Tsai announced measures to shore up Taiwan's military reserves, including assigning them the same combat gear as active servicemembers and synchronization of mobilization. The first domestically-produced rapid mine-laying ship was delivered on 4 August 2020, and construction on an indigenous diesel submarine began in November 2020. The navy's first indigenous amphibious transport dock was launched on April 13, 2021; named Yu Shan after the mountain with the same name and built by CSBC, it will replace the aging ROCN Hsu Hai (formerly the USS Pensacola).
On 11 March 2022, a special force soldier wrote to Tsai, reporting that insufficient basic logistic supply compelled combatants to purchase equipment from outsider suppliers at their own expense for two years, then being disqualified as non-standard upon inspection, in contrast of the reserve trainees receiving new sets; and appealed to abolish the mandatory diary writing for examination. The classified "2022006470" document was somehow illegally leaked from the presidential palace to the media with his identity exposed on 18 March, then Minister of National Defense, Chiu Kuo-cheng reacted: "I will not let him get away with it", "Fix the crying baby!"; but later clarified after being questioned by the parliament members in the Legislative Yuan, that he just disgusts the coward behavior behind his back, and the critique unfair to the preparatory staff. The case raised the society concern on the standard operating procedure practice on the data security breach to the presidential office.
Diplomatic relations
Under Tsai, several countries which had formally recognized the Republic of China (ROC) switched recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC): São Tomé and Príncipe in 2016, Panama in 2017, the Dominican Republic, Burkina Faso and El Salvador in 2018, and the Solomon Islands and Kiribati in 2019, and Nicaragua in 2021, and Honduras in 2023. This continued a trend that was temporarily halted under an unofficial "diplomatic truce" during the Ma Ying-jeou administration where the PRC ceased to court official diplomatic allies of the ROC.
At the same time, the Tsai administration saw breakthroughs in Taiwan's unofficial relations with the United States and the European Union. On 9 August 2020, the United States Health and Human Services Secretary Alex Azar of the Trump administration became the highest-level Cabinet member to visit Taiwan since the diplomatic break between the ROC and the United States in 1979. In April 2021, the United States ambassador to Palau made an official visit to Taiwan, the first time a US ambassador had done so since the US switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC in 1979. In the same month, the United States President Joe Biden also sent an official delegation including former senator Chris Dodd to Taiwan.
On November 3, 2021 the first official European Union delegation arrived in Taiwan led by French MEP Raphael Glucksmann, and consisting of Lithuanian MEPs Andrius Kubilius and Petras Auštrevičius, Czech MEP Markéta Gregorová, Austrian MEP Andreas Schieder, Greek MEP Georgios Kyrtsos and Italian MEP Marco Dreosto, with the purpose of conducting exchanges on disinformation and cyber attacks against democracies. The visit followed an official tour of Central Europe by foreign minister Joseph Wu which included an unofficial visit to Brussels.
On August 2, 2022, U.S. House speaker Nancy Pelosi visited Taiwan with a delegation of 6 Democratic representatives, the first since a visit by Newt Gingrich in 1997, and the highest-profile visit since. The PRC responded with several days of military exercises around Taiwan.
On March 25, 2023, an official delegation of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic, led by Markéta Pekarová Adamová, visited Taiwan to conduct exchanges on trade, cultural, and academic exchanges.
Cross-strait policy
During her first inauguration speech, Tsai acknowledged that the talks surrounding the 1992 Summit took place but does not agree that a "consensus" was ever reached by both sides. She credited the talks with spurring 20 years of dialogue and exchange between the two sides. She hoped that exchanges would continue on the basis of these historical facts, as well as the existence of the Republic of China constitutional system and democratic will of the Taiwanese people. In response, Beijing called Tsai's answer an "incomplete test paper" because Tsai did not agree to the content of the 1992 Consensus. On 25 June 2016, Beijing suspended official cross-strait communications, with any remaining cross-strait exchanges thereafter taking place through unofficial channels.
In January 2019, Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), wrote an open letter to Taiwan, proposing a one country, two systems formula for eventual unification. Tsai responded to Xi in a January 2019 speech by stating that Taiwan rejects "one country, two systems" and that because Beijing equates the 1992 Consensus with "one country, two systems", Taiwan rejects the 1992 Consensus as well. During her second inauguration speech, Tsai rejected one country, two systems explicitly again and reaffirmed her previous stance that cross-strait exchanges should be held on the basis of parity between the two sides. She further remarked that cross-strait relations had reached a "historical turning point."
On October 10, 2021 During her speech on the Double Tenth Day, President Tsai rejected the idea of "complete unification of Chinese motherland" through a peaceful unification under "One country, two systems" proposed by the Chinese leader Xi Jinping on the 72nd Anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China. She insisted "the two sides (The ROC and PRC) of the Taiwan Strait do not belong to each other" (海峽兩岸互不隸屬).
COVID-19 Pandemic
The Tsai administration oversaw Taiwan's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Central Epidemic Command Center was activated on January 20, 2022, and deactivated May 1, 2023.
Trade relations
On August 28, 2020, the Tsai administration lifted a ban on leaning agent ractopamine, clearing the way for U.S. pork imports and removing a major hurdle for bilateral trade talks between Taiwan and the United States. This move proved controversial domestically, and a referendum to reinstate the ban was defeated in 2021.
On June 1, 2022, Taiwan established a trade negotiation framework titled the U.S.-Taiwan Initiative on 21st-Century Trade. On June 1, 2023, an initial trade agreement was signed with the United States on June 1, 2023 under this framework, which streamlined customs regulations, established common regulatory practices, and introduced anti-corruption measures, with further measures still in discussion.
Energy policy
The Tsai administration has stated an electricity supply goal of 20% from renewables, 30% from coal and 50% from liquefied natural gas by 2025.
Green energy
Bills under the umbrella of the Forward-Looking Infrastructure initiative have been used to fund green energy initiatives. The administration plans to install 1,000 wind turbines on land and offshore and has contracted Ørsted of Denmark to install 900 MW of capacity and wpd of Germany to install 1 GW of capacity. Taiwan's first offshore wind farm, Formosa I, consisting of 22 wind turbines expected to produce 128 MW, is slated to begin operations at the end of 2019. The government also purchased 520 MW of solar capacity in 2017 and more than 1 GW in 2018; total capacity was 2.8 GW at the end of 2018, with the government planning to deploy an addition 1.5 GW of solar power in 2019 and 2.2 GW in 2020.
On May 30, 2023, the Renewable Energy Development Act was amended to require solar panels on all new buildings.
Break-up of Taipower
The government approved amendments to the Electricity Act on 20 October 2016 to break up the state-owned monopoly Taipower into subsidiaries and further liberalize the power sector by allowing companies to sell electricity to users directly rather than selling through Taipower. In particular, the generation and distribution divisions of Taipower are to be separated. Amongst the stated motivations for liberalisation was to allow for the direct purchase of green energy by consumers. The plan also included emissions controls, the creation of a regulatory agency, mandatory reserve margins (waived for start-up green energy companies), and measures for price stabilization. The plan was met with protests by Taipower employees.
Nuclear energy
Tsai campaigned on a promise to make Taiwan nuclear-free by 2025, which was codified into law on 11 January 2017 via amendments to the Electricity Act. An energy blackout due to an unrelated operational mistake have led some to question the nuclear phase-out. According to the results of the 2018 referendum, this provision was abolished on 7 May 2019. Nonetheless, the administration has maintained a goal of phasing out nuclear energy. The controversial nuclear waste site on Orchid Island and the dangers of nuclear power plants in a seismic activity area (Taiwan is in a region of the world very prone to large earthquakes and tsunamis) like what happened at Fukushima in Japan in 2011 influenced Tsai and her party to make Taiwan nuclear power-free by 2025. While the nuclear energy referendum guaranteed that nuclear energy would not be abolished in 2018 Tsai decided to not renew the three remaining nuclear power plants' licenses which would expire after 40 years. Of the three active nuclear power plants as of 2016, the Jinshan Nuclear Power Plant was shut down in July 2019, the Kuosheng Nuclear Power Plant will be decommissioned in March 2023, and the final nuclear power plant to shut down will be the Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant in May 2025.
Forward-looking infrastructure
On 5 July 2017, the first Forward-Looking Infrastructure Bill passed the Legislative Yuan. The bill provided $420 billion NTD in funds over a period of 4 years toward infrastructure projects in light-rail infrastructure, water supply infrastructure, flood control measures, and green energy, talent development, urban and rural infrastructure, digital infrastructure and food safety. Other projects include improving road safety and aesthetics, locally oriented industrial parks, recreation centers, bicycle paths, and public service centers for long-term care.
Judicial reform
The Tsai administration proposed a lay judge system modelled after Japan's over a jury system proposed by the New Power Party. The Citizen Judges Act was passed on 22 July 2020, instituting a lay judge system with three professional judges along with six lay judges. The law took effect on January 1, 2023.
Labour reform
On 1 January 2017, the amended Labour Standards Law (commonly referred to as 一例一休 ), which was passed on 6 December 2016 by the legislature, took effect. The amendments stipulated, with some exceptions, a 40-hour five-day work week with one compulsory rest day and one flexible rest day. On the flexible rest day, workers may work for overtime pay, and the compulsory rest day guaranteed that workers could not work more than six days in a row. The amendments also reduced the number of national holidays from 19 to 12, eliminating Youth Day, Teachers’ Day, Retrocession Day, Chiang Kai-shek's birthday, Sun Yat-sen's birthday, Constitution Day and the day following New Year's Day. Prior to the amendments, the Labor Standards Act stipulated a maximum of 84 hours of work in any given 14 day period. The amendments were met with protests from labor groups, who opposed the reduction of national holidays and demanded that work on flexible rest days should result in compensatory vacation days in addition to overtime pay.
After taking effect, the amendments were criticized for their lack of flexibility, resulting in a net decrease in total pay and an increase in cost of living, and for having an overly complicated scheme for calculating overtime pay, leading the administration to further revise the Labor Standards Act. On 1 March 2018, the second revision of the Labor Standards Act came into effect. The revisions relaxed the previous regulations by stipulating two compulsory rest days for each 14 day period rather than one compulsory rest day for each 7 day period, meaning that workers could work for 12 days in a row. The revisions also simplified the formula for overtime pay. The revisions were met with protests and hunger strikes by labor groups.
National languages
The Tsai administration took actions to preserve languages facing a crisis of inheritance and to put them on more equal footing to Mandarin. Previously, the only national language was Mandarin; during her administration, the national languages of Taiwan were eventually broadened to include Mandarin, Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, 16 indigenous Formosan languages, Taiwanese Sign Language and the Matsu dialect of Eastern Min spoken on the Matsu Islands.
The Indigenous Languages Development Act took effect on 14 June 2017, designating 16 indigenous Formosan languages as national languages. Hakka was made a national language via amendments to the Hakka Basic Act on 29 December 2017. On 25 December 2018, the sweeping National Languages Development Act passed the legislature, creating broadcast services for each national language of Taiwan, providing interpreters for all national languages in the legislature, guaranteeing access to public services in each language (including legislative, and introducing elective language classes in primary schools. The act also directed the government to work with civic groups to create standard orthographies for each national language, and to develop a plan for preserving and revitalizing threatened languages. It furthermore automatically designated, in Article 3, all languages of all ethnic groups in Taiwan as national languages, thus clearing the way for Taiwanese Hokkien, Taiwanese Sign Language, and the Matsu dialect to become national languages.
On 15 August 2019, the government amended the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act to allow for the use of romanizations of names in any national language (Hakka, Hoklo or indigenous languages) in passports.
On 27 September 2021, Legislator Chen Po-wei of the Taiwan Statebuilding Party spoke Taiwanese during a session questioning the Foreign and National Defense Committee. The Minister of National Defense Chiu Kuo-cheng responded by asking Chen to speak Mandarin to allow for easier communication, and would not lengthen the session to accommodate the interpretive service, after which the exchange became heated. Chen later apologized on Facebook, saying that the language barrier led to contextual errors. The parliamentary interpretation service stipulated by the National Languages Development Act were temporarily suspended pending improvements.
New Southbound Policy
The New Southbound Policy was launched on 5 September 2016 with the intent to make Taiwan less dependent on Mainland China and to improve Taiwan's cooperation with other countries. The 18 countries the New Southbound Policy targeted for increased cooperation are: Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Australia and New Zealand. The policy designated areas of cooperation in trade, technology, agriculture, medicine, education, and tourism. In mid-2019, the Taiwanese government announced that since the implementation of the policy, bilateral trade between Taiwan and the targeted countries increased by 22%, while investment by targeted countries increased by 60%. Further, the number of medical patients from targeted countries increased by 50%, the number of visitors increased by 58%, and the number of students increased by 52%. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Taiwan donated 1 million masks to countries targeted in the New Southbound Policy.
Pension reform
International observers have noted that Taiwan's pre-reform pension system was due to default by 2030 for civil servants and 2020 for the military. Pension reform was passed via two separate bills, one dealing with civil servants and schoolteachers on 27 June 2017 and another dealing with military veterans on 20 June 2018. On 1 July 2018, the pension reforms came into effect. Civil servants, upon retirement, have a choice between receiving pensions in monthly instalments subject to a preferential interest rate or via a lump sum. Under the reforms, the previous preferential interest rate for those who opted for monthly instalments would be gradually reduced from 18% to 0% over the span of 30 months. Civil servants who opted for a lump sum would see their interest rates decreased from 18% to 6% over a period of 6 years. The reforms were estimated to affect 63,000 military veterans, 130,000 public servants and 140,000 schoolteachers. The reforms simultaneously set minimum monthly pensions for schoolteachers and civil servants at $32,160 NTD and for military veterans at $38,990 NTD. The reforms also raised the minimum retirement age to 60 from 55, to increase by 1 per year until the retirement age reaches 65. Though the reforms were met with protests from government retirees and veterans, polls have shown that the majority of Taiwanese are satisfied with the outcome of the pension reforms. After a legal challenge by the KMT, the Constitutional Court found most of the pension reform constitutional, while striking down clauses regarding the suspension of pensions for retirees that took jobs later in the private sector.
Same-sex marriage
On 24 May 2017, the Constitutional Court ruled that the constitutional right to equality and freedom of marriage guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry under the Constitution of the Republic of China. The ruling (Judicial Yuan Interpretation No. 748) gave the Legislative Yuan two years to bring the marriage laws into compliance, after which registration of such marriages would come into force automatically. Following the ruling, progress on implementing a same-sex marriage law was slow due to government inaction and strong opposition from some conservative people and Christian groups. In November 2018, the Taiwanese electorate passed referendums to prevent recognition of same-sex marriages in the Civil Code and to restrict teaching about LGBT issues. The Government responded by confirming that the Court's ruling would be implemented and that the referendums could not support laws contrary to the Constitution.
On 20 February 2019, a draft bill entitled the Act for Implementation of J.Y. Interpretation No. 748 was released. The draft bill would grant same-sex married couples almost all the rights available to heterosexual married couples under the Civil Code, with the exception that it only allows adoption of a child genetically related to one of them. The Executive Yuan passed it the following day, sending it to the Legislative Yuan for fast-tracked review. The bill was passed on 17 May, signed by the President on 22 May and took effect on 24 May 2019 (the last day possible under the Court's ruling).
Transitional justice and ill-gotten assets
The Act on Promoting Transitional Justice () was passed by the Legislative Yuan on 5 December 2017. The act sought to rectify injustices committed by the authoritarian Kuomintang government of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and to this end established the Transitional Justice Commission to investigate actions taken from 15 August 1945, the date of the Hirohito surrender broadcast, to 6 November 1992, when president Lee Teng-hui lifted the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion for Fujian Province, Republic of China, ending the period of mobilization. This time period, in particular, includes the February 28 Incident as well as White Terror. The committee's main aims include: making political archives more readily available, removing authoritarian symbols, redressing judicial injustice, and producing a report on the history of the period which delineates steps to further promote transitional justice. Thus far, the commission has exonerated political criminals from the martial law era, made recommendations on the removal of authoritarian symbols, and declassified government documents from the martial law era.
The Act Governing the Handling of Ill-gotten Properties by Political Parties and Their Affiliate Organizations was passed in July and Wellington Koo, one of the main authors of the Act, was named as the committee chairman in August. The stated goal of the act is to investigate state assets which were illegally transferred to private political parties and affiliates during the martial law era, and therefore applies only to political parties officially formed before the end of martial law. This effectively limits its scope to the KMT, which has insisted that it has been illegally and unconstitutionally persecuted and that the investigation is a political witch hunt. However, the ruling Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) maintained that the means are necessary for achieving transitional justice and leveling the playing field for all political parties. Thus far, the committee has determined that the China Youth Corps, Central Motion Picture Corp., National Women's League, and the Broadcasting Corporation of China were KMT-affiliated organizations and either froze their assets or ordered them to forfeit them. The KMT had difficulty paying salaries as its assets were frozen during the investigation.
The KMT challenged the constitutionality of the Ill-gotten Properties Act, asserting that the law deprived the right of citizens to form political parties by depriving those parties of assets needed for their operation. In August 2020, the Constitutional Court ruled that the law was constitutional. In its interpretation, Judicial Yuan secretary-general Lin Hui-Huang wrote that the law was a form of transitional justice and viewed it as a corrective measure for actions during the martial law period which were legal in form but contrary to the principles of constitutional democracy.
Personal life and family
Tsai's paternal grandfather came from a prominent Hakka family in Fangshan, Pingtung. Her grandmother, from Shizi, Pingtung, was of aboriginal Paiwan descent. Tsai's father, Tsai Chieh-sheng () owned a car repair business. Tsai's mother is Chang Chin-fong (), the last of her father's four wives. Tsai is the youngest of her parents' four children. She also has seven elder half-siblings on her father's side and a half-brother on her mother's side. She is the first Taiwanese president of aboriginal descent, and the second of Hakka descent after Lee Teng-hui.
Tsai is unmarried and has no children, making her Taiwan’s first unmarried president. According to traditional Chinese genealogical naming practices, Tsai's name should have been , since her generation name is (), not (). However, Tsai's father believed the former to have too many strokes for her to learn, so she was instead named , which can be literally translated by its individual parts as "heroic" and "literature". The word 英文 is coincidentally also the Chinese name for the English language, as yīng is also used as a phonetic approximation of the first syllable of "England". Tsai also has an Paiwan name, Tjuku.
Tsai is known to be a cat lover, and her two cats, "Think Think" and "Ah Tsai", featured prominently in her election campaign. In October 2016, she adopted three retired guide dogs, named Bella, Bunny, and Maru.
Honors
She has received:
:
Order of Belize (2018)
:
Grand Cross with Gold Star of the National Order of Doctor José Matías Delgado (2017)
:
Collar of the Order of the Elephant (2018)
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Grand Collar of the Order of the Quetzal (2017)
Peace Ambassador
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Grand Cross of the National Order of Honour and Merit (2018)
:
Grand Cross with Gold Star of the Order of Francisco Morazán (2016)
:
Grand Collar of the National Order of Merit (2016)
Order of St Christopher and Nevis (2019)
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
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1956 births
Living people
Politicians of the Republic of China on Taiwan from Taipei
Politicians of the Republic of China on Taiwan from Pingtung County
Presidents of the Republic of China on Taiwan
Democratic Progressive Party chairpersons
Democratic Progressive Party Members of the Legislative Yuan
Democratic Progressive Party presidential nominees
Female heads of government
Members of the 6th Legislative Yuan
Party List Members of the Legislative Yuan
Taiwanese politicians of Hakka descent
Women presidents in Asia
Taiwanese legal scholars
Taiwanese politicians of indigenous descent
Taiwanese LGBT rights activists
Asian social liberals
National Taiwan University alumni
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Cornell Law School alumni
Cornell University alumni
Academic staff of the National Chengchi University
Academic staff of Soochow University (Taiwan)
Grand Crosses of the Order of José Matías Delgado
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Quetzal
20th-century Taiwanese women politicians
21st-century Taiwanese women politicians
Women government ministers of Taiwan
First women presidents |
4088688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raid%20on%20Los%20Ba%C3%B1os | Raid on Los Baños | The Raid on Los Baños (Filipino: Pagsalakay sa Los Baños) in the Philippines, early Friday morning on 23 February 1945, was executed by a combined United States Army Airborne and Filipino guerrilla task force, resulting in the liberation of 2,147 Allied civilian and military internees from an agricultural school campus turned Japanese internment camp. The 250 Japanese in the garrison were killed. It has been celebrated as one of the most successful rescue operations in modern military history. It was the second precisely-executed raid by combined U.S.-Filipino forces within a month, following on the heels of the Raid at Cabanatuan at Luzon on 30 January, in which 522 Allied military POWs had been rescued. The air/sea/land raid was the subject of a 2015 nonfiction book, Rescue at Los Baños: The Most Daring Prison Camp Raid of World War II, by New York Times bestselling author Bruce Henderson.
Background
Since the landings of the U.S. Sixth Army at Lingayen Gulf and the U.S. Eighth Army at Nasugbu, Batangas on 9 January 1945 and 31 January 1945 respectively, to retake Luzon, the Imperial Japanese Army was being repeatedly pushed back and was increasingly becoming desperate. Soon news was filtering down to Allied commanders that the Japanese were killing innocent civilians and prisoners of war while falling back.
General Douglas MacArthur was deeply alarmed about the plight of thousands of prisoners who had been interned in various camps on Luzon, since the early days of the Pacific War. There was concern that, with deliverance so near, they might be killed. Earlier, some daring raids were carried out to rescue POWs, including one at Cabanatuan and at the University of Santo Tomas Internment Camp and Bilibid Prison at the height of the Battle for Manila.
Los Baños Internment Camp
In Los Baños, Laguna, at the UP College of Agriculture and UP College of Forestry, now the University of the Philippines Los Baños, which was located on a site, was the POW and civilian concentration camp, wedged between the foothills of Mount Makiling and the northern shore of Los Baños facing Laguna de Bay. The camp was being constructed next to Baker Hall, by the first group of 800 men who arrived in May 1943. In December 1943, an additional 200 inmates arrived from the University of Santo Tomas Internment Camp, followed by 500 in April 1944, and 150 in December.
Surrounded by barbed wire fences in clusters of thatched huts were Americans, British, Australians, Dutch, Norwegians, Poles, Italians, and Canadians. Aside from eleven navy nurses under the command of Chief Nurse Laura M. Cobb and a few servicemen, almost all of the inmates were civilian businessmen, teachers, bankers, and missionaries caught by the Japanese during the course of the war and incarcerated in various POW camps in the country.
While incarcerated, the POWs had formed an Executive Committee to deal with the guards for self-governing purposes and to obtain whatever marginal freedom or concessions they could obtain from the Japanese prison authorities. Nonetheless, the internees were made to get by on dwindling rations, limited clothing, poor housing and non-existent sanitation and endure the sadistic tendencies of the camp guards. By early 1945, the conditions in the camp turned hellish, with enforced limited rations and mounting abuse, courtesy of the camp's second-in-command, Warrant Officer Sadaaki Konishi.
Mission
The U.S. 11th Airborne Division under Major general Joseph Swing arrived in the southwest Pacific in mid-1944. Prior to taking part in the invasion of Leyte in October, the division had undergone theater combat training in New Guinea. Together with the 503rd Parachute Regimental Combat Team, these were the only U.S. Army airborne forces in the Pacific theater of operations. After Leyte, the 188th Glider Infantry Regiment spearheaded the landings at Nasugbu with the U.S. Eighth Army on 31 January, while the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment parachuted into Tagaytay Ridge on 3 February.
That same day, 3 February 1945, Swing was tasked with a rescue mission to rescue the internees at the Los Baños camp, some behind the Japanese lines. However, with the 11th Airborne committed to a series of pitched battles south of Manila and the resolute Japanese defense at Nichols Field and Fort William McKinley, immediate deployment was out of the question. As an interim measure, Swing ordered his subordinates to develop a plan that could be implemented at the earliest possible moment, a task that was headed by his G-2 Colonel Henry Muller. Then on 18 February, the 1st Battalion, 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment, under Major Henry Burgess, the main unit assigned to carry out the mission, was pulled out from its battlefield position on the so-called Genko Line, a fortified system of interlocking pillboxes and anti-tank fortifications running along the southern Manila district of Las Piñas and proceeded to Parañaque district to rest and regroup.
By 20 February 1945, the conditions on Luzon turned favorable, such that the various elements could be withdrawn from combat and apprised of their mission. They were ordered to their staging posts and readied to go, with the raid scheduled for 07:00 on 23 February. For the jump phase of the assault plan, the 511th regimental commander, Lt. Col. Edward Lahti appointed Company B, 1st Battalion, 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 11th Airborne Division under 1st Lt. John Ringler together with the Headquarters Company Light Machine Gun Platoon of 2nd Lt. Walter Hettinger. The 188th Glider Infantry Regiment of Colonel Robert Soule had perhaps the most daunting task; trying to stave off a counterattack from the main highway. Bivouacked across the San Juan River were some 8,000–10,000 Japanese troops of the 8th "Tiger" Division, commanded by Lieutenant general Shizuo Yokoyama.
Guerrilla connection
The various Filipino guerrilla groups operating in the vicinity of Los Baños played a key role that led to the successful liberation of the camp. Earlier, in the partisan war against the Japanese, a combined guerrilla command was formed to bring some order to the effort by the defunct USAFFE command, which was in charge of unconventional forces in the Philippines, and renamed as the General Guerrilla Command (GGC) of Luzon under Major Jay D. Vanderpool of the U.S. Army whom the 11th Airborne soldiers affectionately called, "The Little Corporal".
Under the GGC, the Hunters ROTC (Reserve Officers Training Corps) guerrillas, made up originally of former cadets of the Philippine Military Academy along with some former ROTC and college students under the command of Colonel Frank Quesada were one of the most active groups. Other formations included President Quezon's Own Guerrillas (PQOG) under Colonel Fil Avanceña, Red Lion's Unit, the Filipino-Chinese 48th Squadron and the Villegas group of the Hukbalahaps were tasked by the GGC to coordinate operations related to Los Baños.
Among the members of Hunters-ROTC guerillas who participated in the raid was the future Filipino film star Mario Montenegro, then only sixteen years old.
Plan
Long before the arrival of the U.S. liberation forces, the guerrillas conducted intelligence operations that gathered precise inside information about the POWs in Los Baños and their guards. Many prisoners were long-time friends of partisan families before the war. With Lieutenant colonel Gustavo Inglés designated as overall guerrilla coordinator with the 11th Airborne Division, information was shared with Swing's Command Staff, including Colonel Henry Muller (G-2), and Colonel Douglas Quandt (G-3), as well as other top planners, who fine-tuned the final strategy.
On 12 February, Freddy Zervoulakos, a 19-year-old Greek-Filipino, slipped out of the camp and made contact with the guerrillas. He was sent back into the camp with the promise that the internees would be rescued. But the internee committee decided that it would be best for the prisoners to do nothing. A week later, another escapee from the camp, a civilian engineer named Pete Miles, gave further valuable information to the 11th A/B Division planners, including the daily routine in the camp, details of troop positions and the exact location of the internees. This proved a great asset to the planners and enabled them to finalize the four-phase plan that was timed to coincide with the guards' exercise period, which was conducted by the Japanese troops without clothing, equipment, or weapons, thereby minimizing the risk of harm to the internees during the rescue. Meanwhile, two lieutenants made a reconnaissance of the drop zone with the guerrillas and the two internees.
The Joint U.S. Army-Guerrilla Assault Plan was as follows:
Phase 1 would begin when the 11th Airborne's Provisional Reconnaissance Platoon, under the command of 1Lt. George Skau, together with some twenty Filipino guerrilla guides, would travel behind enemy lines by bancas (local fishing boats) across Laguna Lake two nights before the raid, where they would wait. Four assault teams under Sergeants Martin Squires, Terry Santos (4th class graduate of the Alamo Scouts Training Center), Cliff Town and Robert Angus would assault the camp gate from different angles. At 07:00 on 23 February they were charged with marking the Drop Zones, Landing Zones and for the neutralizing of the camp gate guards, simultaneous with an attack from the remaining directions by the guerrillas' 45th Hunter Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Inglés, who would also surround the entire camp perimeter prior to the signaled hour.
In Phase 2, B Company, 1st Battalion, 511th PIR led by Lieutenant John Ringler, with the support of Lieutenant Walter Hettinger's Machine Gun Platoon, would parachute into a small drop zone next to the camp, rendezvous with a Hukbalahap guerrilla unit, neutralize the remaining camp guards and secure the internees.
In Phase 3, the remainder of 1st Battalion would board 54 LVT(4) tracked amphibious assault vehicles of the 672nd Amphibian Tractor Battalion commanded by Lieutenant colonel Joseph W. Gibbs at 04:00 and slip into Laguna de Bay and head for Mayondon Point, near San Antonio, some two miles from the camp. A Recon Platoon squad under Sergeant Leonard Hahn would mark and guide them to their landing point. Here they would travel overland and make their way to the camp, scheduling to arrive shortly after 07:00. They would then carry the internees back to Mayondon Point and make good their escape to Mamatid village.
Phase 4 involved the 188th Glider Infantry Regiment (minus its 2nd Battalion) and Company C of the 637th Tank Destroyer Battalion together with elements of the 472nd and 675th Field Artillery Battalions, under Colonel Robert H. Soule. The force would move down Highway 1 to act as a diversionary force and to engage the Japanese 8th Division, if necessary, so as to protect the flank.
Other guerrilla units such as Marking's Fil-American troops and the 48th Chinese Squadron were to set up road blocks in the towns of Calauan, Bay and Pila to delay possible Japanese reinforcements. The Hunters-ROTC 47th Regiment under Lieutenant colonel Emmanuel de Ocampo would do the same in the Calamba-Pansol area.
The backup 11th A/B pack howitzers in Calamba, Laguna, area was to bombard the road towards Los Baños. All the surrounding approaches and to the main camp would be secured. The townspeople were briefed and asked to vacate Los Baños by the local PQOG home-guard units.
Raid
Under cover of darkness on 21 February 1945, Skau and his 31-man platoon left the west shore of Laguna de Bay and headed across the lake in three bancas. Skau and six men led the way while the separate assault team of 23 men followed soon after. Avoiding Japanese patrol craft on the lake, they landed near Nanhaya and met with local guerrillas and some camp escapees at the local schoolhouse. Included in the group were Freddy Zervoulakos and Benjamin Edwards, another young escapee, who sketched the layout of the camp on the schoolhouse blackboard. Skau decided to split his group into six teams, assigning a number of guerrillas to each team. Edwards and Zervoulakos each accompanied one team. On the night of 22 February, they journeyed through the jungle and rice paddies to their starting points.
At 04:00 on 23 February 1945 the 1st Battalion 511PIR (less B Company) boarded 54 LVT-4s, slipped into Laguna de Bay, and headed for Mayondon Point. They also managed to reach their destination without alerting any Japanese defenders and headed off for the remaining overland journey to the camp, aiming to arrive just after 07:00.
Meanwhile, Lieutenant Ringler's B Company, 511th PIR together with the Light Machine Gun Platoon, had spent the moonless night of 22 February waiting at Nichols Field where, in the early dawn, they donned their parachutes, put on their equipment, and loaded onto nine C-47s of the 65th Troop Carrier Squadron, under the command of Major Don Anderson, for the short flight. Flying unopposed by Japanese aircraft or antiaircraft fire, they soon arrived at their destination, which was clearly marked with green smoke by the Reconnaissance Platoon.
The Recon Platoon teams led by Skau and Sergeants. Angus, Call and Town took out the guard posts on the north and west side of the camp. The Hunters ROTC guerrillas chased after and killed the Japanese guards.
At 07:00, coming in at the planned jump altitude and in three "V"s of three aircraft, Ringler's paratroopers dropped from their aircraft. B Company charged the camp 15–20 minutes after the attack was launched, entering through openings cut by the scouts. The firefight was short and intense, and with the Japanese defeated, the internees freed.
The LVT-4s came ashore in nine columns of six vehicles after green smoke grenades were popped on San Antonio beach, by Sergeant Hahn and Marking's guerrillas, at 0658. Led by Burgess, the amtracs reached the camp, knocking out a pillbox and crashed through the camp gate.
Evacuation
Mindful of the need for speed, Ringler's men rounded up the internees as rapidly as they could. Some prisoners refused to leave, so Hettlinger's men burned the camp's remaining huts to encourage the internees to load into the LVTs. At first, the disabled, along with the women and children, were loaded onto the waiting vehicles, while the more able internees formed a walking column and headed for the beach and freedom.
In the distance, across the lake, intense fire was heard. That sound was from the Soule Task Force. Early that morning, the diversionary force of the 188th Glider Infantry Regiment and Company C of the 637th Tank Destroyer Battalion, together with elements of the 472nd and 675th Field Artillery Battalions under Soule, rolled out into Highway 1 and attacked across the San Juan River. They ran into Japanese opposition near the Lechería Hills where casualties were taken, but by mid-morning they had cleared the area and were marching towards Los Baños and cutting off the road between the Japanese 8th Tiger Division and Los Baños.
From an elevated position, Soule could see, in the distance, the Amtracs on the beach heading back to Mamatid, so he ordered his force to conduct a defensive withdrawal and to re-establish its bridgehead across the San Juan River.
Finally, after two trips, the last of the LVTs departed at 15:00 for Mamatid. The internees included a three-day-old baby girl, Lois Kathleen McCoy. Frank Buckles, who would become the last surviving American veteran of World War I, was also among the prisoners; he had been captured as a civilian in Manila.
Aftermath
Two of Sgt. Santos's Recon Platoon members and four Filipino guerrillas were wounded. Two 188th Glider Infantry Regiment soldiers, John T. Doiron and Vernal Ray McMurtrey, were killed at the Lecheria Hills engagement. The hand-to-hand skirmish was not without casualties. A handful of guards were able to muster a makeshift defense, killing two young Hunter guerrillas, Pfc. Atanacio Castillo and Pfc. Anselmo Soler. Their bodies were recovered and buried beside the College chapel.
Firsthand accounts include that of former internee, Lewis Thomas Watty, vice president of the POW committee, who said:
The ensuing fight went on for very long minutes without letup, enemy defenders caught by total surprise were pinned and cut down mercilessly by liberator's fire. The Hunter experience through the years in irregular warfare paid off handsomely. It was also true of the paratroopers who were veterans of the South Pacific before they landed in Luzon.
A few days after the rescue, the Japanese in full force, led by the escaped Sadaaki Konishi, returned to Los Baños. Upon seeing that there were no POWs in sight, the Japanese turned their wrath on the remaining civilians in town who had failed to heed the warning from the guerrillas to leave. With the help of the pro-Japanese Makapili, the Japanese massacred some 1,500 men, women and children, and burned their homes, as well as those in the adjacent towns suspected of collaborating with the liberators. Konishi was tried for his war crimes after the war and hanged.
Historical significance
The outstanding success of the Los Baños raid incorporated many facets that revolutionized generations of future special military operations. Thorough planning, reliable intelligence, stealth, speed and surprise, superior firepower, cooperation by friendly forces, and support of the populace gave the planners and forces implementing the raid an advantage that resulted in few casualties.
Historical commemoration
11th Airborne Division Association Commemoration
The regional chapters of the 11th Airborne Division Association celebrate the raid and rescue with a Los Baños Commemoration Dinner on or about 23 February every year. The Hunters-ROTC Filipino guerrillas and other partisan units, who supported the 11th Airborne Division also commemorate the freeing of the prison camp.
Los Baños Liberation Memorial Scholarship Foundation
To help keep the memory and meaning of the Los Baños rescue alive, a small group of civilian ex-prisoners of war established The Los Baños Liberation Memorial Scholarship Foundation, Inc., a non-profit, tax-exempt California corporation, organized and operated exclusively for educational purposes within the meaning of U.S. Internal Revenue Code Section 501(c)(3). Through tax-deductible contributions, the Foundation is creating a permanent endowment fund. The purpose of the Foundation is to grant scholarship awards to students of Filipino citizenship enrolled at The Rural High School of the University of the Philippines in Los Baños, to encourage and enable them to complete the Rural High School program. In 2010 twelve students from low-income families were receiving scholarships in the amount of $250 each per year, enabling them to pay required fees and stay in school until graduation if they perform well. As part of their curriculum, these scholars do historical research or creative arts on the subject of Los Banos during World War II, including the actions of the 11th Airborne Division and the Hunters ROTC Guerrillas and the murder of many of the citizens of Los Banos at the hands of the vengeful Japanese troops and the Makapili collaborators.
U.S. Congress Joint Resolution 18
On 16 February 2005, House Joint Resolution 18, sponsored by U.S. Representative Trent Franks was passed by the House. This resolution commemorated the raid and reaffirmed the nation's commitment to a full accounting of prisoners of war and those missing in action.
The truly heroic acts at Los Baños serve not only as examples of the humanitarian compassion of American servicemen and women, but also as an example of our nation’s long-standing commitment to leave no soldier, living or dead, in enemy hands. As we have military personnel spread throughout the world today, many of whom are daily risking capture and torture at the hands of brutal terrorists, it is more important than ever to recognize and honor the heroism and willing sacrifice of those soldiers who risk their own safety not to take a strategic objective, but simply to bring a comrade home.
Throughout history, American servicemen have made a habit of putting themselves squarely in evil’s way. They have done so secure in the knowledge that if they fall into the hands of the enemy, they will not be forgotten. Indeed, every effort possible will be undertaken to bring them home. In this, the 60th anniversary of the liberation of over 2,000 prisoners from the camp at Los Baños – and at a time when our military is deployed in harm’s way far around the globe, let us recognize those individuals who sacrificed to bring their brothers and sisters home. And let’s honor the heroic actions of the past by officially reaffirming our nation’s commitment to leave no fighting man or woman in enemy hands, at any time, now or in the future. (Remarks made on the floor of the House by Representative Franks.)
60th Anniversary Commemoration at Los Baños and Beyond
On 23 February 2005, the 60th anniversary of the raid was commemorated with the unveiling of a historical marker at the former internment camp (Baker Hall, University of the Philippines Los Baños). The ceremony was attended by several government officials from national, provincial and municipal levels, university officials as well as the U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines.
On 22 February 2016, the 71st anniversary of the raid of Los Baños was held at Baker Hall, University of the Philippines Los Baños. Part of the day's celebration included the film showing of the documentary "Unsurrendered 2" by Director Bani Logroño, Spyron-AV Manila.
See also
List of American guerrillas in the Philippines
Military History of the Philippines during World War II
Raid at Cabanatuan, Jan. 1945
References
Further reading
Arthur, Anthony. Deliverance at Los Baños (1985) Thomas Dunne/St. Martin's Press
Flanagan, Edward M. The Los Baños Raid: The 11th Airborne Jumps at Dawn (1986) Presidio Books
Henderson, Bruce. Rescue at Los Baños: The Most Daring Prison Camp Raid of World War II (2015) William Morrow
Holm, Jeremy C. When Angels Fall: From Toccoa to Tokyo, the 511th Parachute Infantry Regiment in World War II (2019)
Rottman, G.L. The Los Banos Prison Camp Raid (Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2010, )
S. Sandler. World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia (2000) Routledge
Onorato, Michael Paul. Forgotten Heroes: Japan's Imprisonment of American Civilians in the Philippines, 1942–1945: an Oral History (Meckler, 1990)
External links
The 511th Parachute Infantry - The Los Baños Raid Full Timeline
Rescue at Los Baños: The Most Daring Prison Camp Raid of World War II by Bruce Henderson
Deliverance It Has Come by: Herman Knight Beaber and John S. Beaber
Freedom At Dawn
HistoryNet.Com/World War II: Liberating Los Baños Internment Camp by Sam McGowan
Rescue at Dawn: The Los Banos Raid (2004) (TV) History Channel production, IMDb listing
Video clip: Historic footage of liberation and evacuation of internees from Los Baños by US and Filipino forces
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