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Blue_Jay
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue Jay</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blue Jay</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1843.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cyanocitta-cristata-004.jpg" src="../../images/18/1843.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Corvidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Cyanocitta</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. cristata</b></i></span><br />
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<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Cyanocitta cristata</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1844.jpg.htm" title="Blue Jay range"><img alt="Blue Jay range" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cyanocitta_cristata_map.jpg" src="../../images/18/1844.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Blue Jay range</small></div>
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<p>The <b>Blue Jay</b> (<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>) is a North American <!--del_lnk--> jay, a handsome bird with predominantly lavender-blue to mid-blue feathering from the top of the head to midway down the back. There is a pronounced crest on the head. The colour changes to black, sky-blue and white barring on the wing primaries and the tail. The bird has an off-white underside, with a black collar around the neck and sides of the head and a white face.<p>Blue Jays reside over a very large area of the eastern side of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> from <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland in the northeast to <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> in the southeast and westward to <!--del_lnk--> Texas and the mid-west and eastern <!--del_lnk--> Colorado in the north. It is mainly a bird of mixed woodland, including American <!--del_lnk--> beech and various <!--del_lnk--> oak species, but also of parks and gardens in some towns and cities. West of the <a href="../../wp/r/Rocky_Mountains.htm" title="Rocky Mountains">Rockies</a>, it is replaced by the closely related <!--del_lnk--> Steller's Jay.<p>Its food is sought both on the ground and in trees and includes virtually all known types of plant and animal sources, such as acorns and beech mast, weed seeds, grain, fruits and other berries, <a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, bread, meat, eggs and nestlings, small invertebrates of many types, scraps in town parks and bird-table food.<p>Its occasionally aggressive behaviour at feeding stations, plus a reputation for occasionally destroying the nests and eggs of other birds, has made the Blue Jay unwelcome at some bird feeders. However, these are clever and adaptable birds who are good survivors and have adapted well to human presence. They are particularly fond of peanuts and sunflower seeds.<p>Any suitable tree or large bush may be used for nesting and both sexes build the nest and rear the young, though only the female broods them. There are usually 4–5 eggs laid and incubated over 16–18 days. The young are fledged usually between 17–21 days. Blue Jays typically form <!--del_lnk--> monogamous pair bonds for life.<p>Although this bird is generally found year round through most of its range, some northern birds do move into the southern parts of the range. These birds <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migrate</a> in the daytime.<p>The voice is typical of most jays in being varied, but the most commonly recognized sound is the alarm call, which is a loud, almost <a href="../../wp/g/Gull.htm" title="Gull">gull</a>-like scream. There is also a high-pitched <i>jayer-jayer</i> call that increases in speed as the bird becomes more agitated. Blue Jays will use these calls to band together to drive a predator such as a <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">hawk</a> away from their nest.<p>Blue Jays also have a quiet, almost subliminal call which they use among themselves in close proximity. In fact, they can make a large variety of sounds, and individuals may vary perceptibly in their calling style.<p>As with other blue-hued birds, the Blue Jay's coloration is not derived by <a href="../../wp/p/Pigment.htm" title="Pigment">pigments</a>, but is the result of light <!--del_lnk--> refraction due to the internal structure of the <a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" title="Feather">feathers</a>; if a Blue Jay feather is crushed, the blue disappears as the structure is destroyed. This is referred to as <!--del_lnk--> structural coloration.<p>The Blue Jay is the <!--del_lnk--> provincial bird of <!--del_lnk--> Prince Edward Island and gave its name to the <!--del_lnk--> Toronto Blue Jays baseball team.<p>Blue Jays in captivity are generally aggressive toward other birds. They tend to bond to one or two people and attack all others.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Jay"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'North America', 'Florida', 'Rocky Mountains', 'Peanut', 'Bird migration', 'Gull', 'Hawk', 'Pigment', 'Feather']
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Blue_Peter
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue Peter</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Television.htm">Television</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 120%; background: #C6C9FF; text-align: center;"><i>Blue Peter</i></th>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Image:Bp logo.gif" height="62" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bp_logo.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="185" /><br /><small>The current version of the <i><b>Blue Peter</b></i> logo, a stylised galleon based on an original design by <!--del_lnk--> Tony Hart.</small></td>
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<th>Genre</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Children's<br /><!--del_lnk--> Entertainment</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Created by</th>
<td>John Hunter Blair</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Presented by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Konnie Huq<br /><!--del_lnk--> Zoe Salmon<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gethin Jones<br /><!--del_lnk--> Andy Akinwolere</td>
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<tr>
<th>Country of origin</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
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<tr>
<th>No. of episodes</th>
<td>Over 4000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%; background: #C6C9FF; text-align: center;">Production</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Running time</th>
<td>25 min.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%; background: #C6C9FF; text-align: center;">Broadcast</th>
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<tr>
<th>Original channel</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BBC One<br /><!--del_lnk--> BBC Two<br /><!--del_lnk--> CBBC Channel</td>
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<tr>
<th>Original run</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 1958 –</td>
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<p><i><b>Blue Peter</b></i> is a popular, long-running <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> programme for children, and airs on Children's BBC (<!--del_lnk--> CBBC).<p>It is named after the blue-and-white <!--del_lnk--> flag hoisted by ships in port when they are ready to sail. The reasoning behind the choice of title is that the programme is intended to be a voyage of adventure and discovery for the viewers, constantly covering new topics.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> signature tune, in recognition of the origin of the title, is a <!--del_lnk--> sea shanty called "Barnacle Bill", and the programme's motif is a stylised <!--del_lnk--> sailing ship designed by <!--del_lnk--> Tony Hart. Hart's original design was never successfully used in a totally uniform fashion, with several different reproductions used in studio, on badges, the <i>Blue Peter</i> books and on-screen graphics. This was until the show's redesign in 1999, when the ship's rigging and hull detail was removed, and in 2000, the flags were subtly reshaped. This version is still in use today, and now appears across all media (although the revised badges retain the old-style flags).<p>On Thursday <!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 2008, <i>Blue Peter</i> will celebrate its 50th birthday.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The programme, devised by <!--del_lnk--> John Hunter Blair and edited for many years by <!--del_lnk--> Biddy Baxter, was first shown on <!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 1958 with presenters <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Trace and <!--del_lnk--> Leila Williams. The initial format was mainly the two presenters demonstrating dolls and model railways, with the male presenter concentrating on traditional "boys' toys" such as model aeroplanes, and the female restricting herself to domestic tasks, such as cookery.<p>Over the years, the programme changed to reflect the times. Originally, it was a 15-minute weekly programme; now, it is 25 minutes, and shown three times a week on <!--del_lnk--> BBC One and repeated later on the <!--del_lnk--> CBBC Channel. The 4000th edition was broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> 14 March <!--del_lnk--> 2005. Most episodes are still broadcast live.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19229.jpg.htm" title="The specially painted Blue Peter British Airways Boeing 757 landing at London Heathrow Airport"><img alt="The specially painted Blue Peter British Airways Boeing 757 landing at London Heathrow Airport" class="thumbimage" height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue.peter.ba.b757.london.arp.jpg" src="../../images/192/19229.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19229.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The specially painted <i>Blue Peter</i> <!--del_lnk--> British Airways <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 757 landing at <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow Airport</div>
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<p>Almost every episode from <!--del_lnk--> 1964 onwards still exists in the BBC archives. This is extremely unusual for programmes of that era, and stands as testament to Baxter's foresight and initiative, as she personally ensured that <!--del_lnk--> telerecordings and, from <!--del_lnk--> 1970, <!--del_lnk--> video copies were kept of the episodes. Among the benefits of this policy is that one <!--del_lnk--> 1973 episode contains the only known broadcast quality footage of the lost final episode of the <i><a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a></i> serial "<!--del_lnk--> The Tenth Planet", which depicts <!--del_lnk--> The Doctor's first <!--del_lnk--> regeneration.<p><i>Blue Peter</i> has had a longstanding relationship with <i>Doctor Who</i>, often running features on the show with appearances by actors and behind-the-scenes personnel. One notable contest in <!--del_lnk--> 1967 had viewers design a monster in the style of those featured on <i>Doctor Who</i>. A similar competition was held in 2005 to help design a new monster for one of the episodes, which became the <!--del_lnk--> Abzorbaloff in "<!--del_lnk--> Love & Monsters".<p>In addition, long-time host <!--del_lnk--> Peter Purves was himself a former co-star on the series. One programme asked viewers to help recover the lost footage of <i>Doctor Who</i>.<p>Many items from <i>Blue Peter'</i>s history have passed into television legend, especially moments when things have gone wrong, such as the much-repeated clip of Lulu the elephant (from a <!--del_lnk--> 1969 edition) who defecated on the studio floor, trod on presenter <!--del_lnk--> John Noakes' foot and then proceeded to attempt an exit, dragging her keeper along the ground behind her. Other well-remembered and much-repeated items include the <!--del_lnk--> Girl Guides' bonfire that got out of hand on the <!--del_lnk--> 1970 <!--del_lnk--> Christmas edition, John Noakes' report on the cleaning of <!--del_lnk--> Nelson's Column, and Simon Groom referring to a previous item on door-knockers with the words 'What a beautiful pair of knockers', which has usually been explained as an accidental turn of phrase, but which Groom later admitted was a deliberate joke. Additionally, Groom is remembered for inappropriately reciting, while wearing a suit of armour, 'Once a king always a king, but once a (k)night is enough', while Peter Duncan's cookery instructions to 'finely chop one raw egg' will also go into the annals.<p>There have also been times when the show has broadcast breaking news in the days before 24-hour news channels. Possibly the most famous is showing the first colour images on British television of the sinking of the <!--del_lnk--> RMS <i>Queen Elizabeth</i> in 1972.<p><a id="Airtime" name="Airtime"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Airtime</span></h2>
<p>When the show first started it was shown once a week.<p>From the 1960s until <!--del_lnk--> 1995 it was shown twice a week from 5:10 to 5:35pm on Mondays and Thursdays.<p>Between <!--del_lnk--> 1995 and <!--del_lnk--> 2001: Monday, Wednesday and Friday on <!--del_lnk--> BBC One from 5:10 to 5:35pm.<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 2002, it was aired at 5:00pm, because Newsround was moved to a later slot.<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 2007, still at 5pm but on on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursdays.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon tennis season the show moves temporarily to <!--del_lnk--> BBC Two.<p><a id="Content" name="Content"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Content</span></h2>
<p><i>Blue Peter</i>'s remit is very wide-ranging. Most programmes include a filmed report. There will also often be a demonstration of an activity in the studio, and/or a music or dance performance. The programme is made at <!--del_lnk--> BBC Television Centre, and often comes from Studio 1, which is the second largest TV studio in Britain and among the largest in Europe. This enables <i>Blue Peter</i> to include large-scale demonstrations and performances within the live programme. The show is also famous for its "makes", which are demonstrations of how to construct a useful object or prepare food. These have given rise to the oft-used phrase "Here's one I made earlier", as presenters bring out a perfect and completed version of the object they are making. Time is also often given over to reading letters and showing pictures sent in by viewers.<p><a id="Appeals" name="Appeals"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Appeals</span></h3>
<p>Enduring features of the programme include the annual charity appeal, which involves young viewers by asking them to collect items that can be recycled or sold to raise money for the chosen cause. This is always a charity project in the UK in odd-numbered years, and abroad in even-numbered. The appeal is usually launched in late November and runs through to February or March of the following year. One of the most popular forms of raising appeal money has been through encouraging viewers to hold "Blue Peter Bring And Buy Sales" at which buyers are also encouraged to bring their own bric-a-brac or produce to sell. The Great Bring And Buy Sale was used every few years or so as a means of adding variety to the collecting theme during other years.<p>Between 2001 and 2003 a series of "Bring And Buy Appeals" led many viewers and the media to voice their concern that the traditional method of collecting scrap items to recycle was being abandoned in favour of the "easier revenue" generated by the sales. This led to an on-air explanation by presenter <!--del_lnk--> Konnie Huq during the 2003 Get Together Appeal that this particular appeal required the sort of funding that only Bring And Buy Sales could raise. The 2004 and 2005 appeals saw a return to the collecting theme: the first being to collect old clothes that Oxfam could sell in its stores to raise funds for a family-searching service in third world countries ravaged by war, and the second being the collection of old mobile telephones and coins that could be recycled to raise money for ChildLine. Continuing the return to collecting unwanted items, Blue Peter launched its Shoe Biz Appeal campaign in 2006. In partneship with <!--del_lnk--> Unicef, its aim was to collect unwanted pairs of shoes or other footwear in order to raise money for children orphaned by AIDS and HIV in Malawi.<p><a id="The_Totaliser" name="The_Totaliser"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">The Totaliser</span></h4>
<p>During appeals, a running total of the sum of money or objects collected is presented on the <i>Totaliser</i> - a life-sized contraption which lights up sums of money at various intervals up to the target figure for the appeal at the top. A new Totaliser is constructed for each appeal and takes pride of place on the studio floor throughout the programme. During appeals, the Totaliser is presented during the programme, with new steps lighting up when each landmark flashing as it is reached. With recent appeals, a second Totaliser has often been introduced immediately after the original target has been met, with the aim of providing an incentive to keep on donating.<p><a id="Pets" name="Pets"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Pets</span></h3>
<p>The team of presenters keep pets and bring them onto the show. The original idea of this was to show viewers lucky enough to own animals how to care for them, and for the creatures to act as surrogate pets for children without them. The first pet was a dog named <!--del_lnk--> Petra in 1962. Other canines have included <!--del_lnk--> Patch, <!--del_lnk--> Shep the <!--del_lnk--> Border Collie, <!--del_lnk--> Meg, and golden retrievers <!--del_lnk--> Goldie and her daughter <!--del_lnk--> Bonnie. There also have been tortoises, including <!--del_lnk--> Freda (originally misidentified as a male and called Fred), Maggie, Jim and <!--del_lnk--> George, and cats, such as <!--del_lnk--> Jason, <!--del_lnk--> Jack and <!--del_lnk--> Jill, <!--del_lnk--> Willow, <!--del_lnk--> Kari and Oke and the late <!--del_lnk--> Smudge. The current animal line-up comprises: dogs <!--del_lnk--> Lucy and <!--del_lnk--> Mabel; <!--del_lnk--> Socks the cat; <!--del_lnk--> Shelly the tortoise, Magic (puppy) and the rarely seen <i>Blue Peter</i> Riding for the Disabled horse, Jet, who replaced Rags.<p>The programme has had a long association with <!--del_lnk--> Guide Dogs, which stretches back to 1964 – captivating millions of viewers and helping to transform the lives of thousands of visually impaired people. The first Blue Peter guide dog puppy was Honey, whose training was charted by <!--del_lnk--> Valerie Singleton on the programme in 1964. Since then there has been Cindy who was puppy walked by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Purves in 1968; Prince, whose training was followed by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Duncan in 1981 and most recently a second pup called Honey – named in honour of her predecessor – who was trained by presenter <!--del_lnk--> John Leslie during 1991. In 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Andy Akinwolere began puppy walking a new <i>Blue Peter</i> guide dog puppy, named by viewers as Magic.<p><a id="Blue_Peter_Garden" name="Blue_Peter_Garden"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Blue Peter Garden</span></h3>
<p>The presenters also maintain the famous <i>Blue Peter</i> Garden, adjacent to Television Centre, which was designed by <!--del_lnk--> Percy Thrower. Its features include an Italian sunken garden with a pond, which contains <a href="../../wp/g/Goldfish.htm" title="Goldfish">goldfish</a>, a vegetable patch, greenhouse and viewing platform. The 2000 <i>Blue Peter</i> time capsule, which is due to be dug up in 2029, is buried there. George the Tortoise was interred in the garden following his death in <!--del_lnk--> 2004, and there is also a bust of Petra, sculptures of Mabel and the <i>Blue Peter</i> ship, and a plaque in honour of Percy Thrower. The garden is also available to other programmes for outside broadcasts, and is often used for the links between children's programmes during the summer months and for BBC One's <!--del_lnk--> Breakfast weather broadcasts. In <!--del_lnk--> 1984, the garden was vandalised, leading to an on-air appeal for viewers to come forward with information — which now often appears on clip shows. A rumour circulated in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1990s that the vandalism had been carried out by a gang including the footballers <!--del_lnk--> Dennis Wise and <!--del_lnk--> Les Ferdinand when they were teenagers. Both men have denied direct involvement in the actual vandalism, although Ferdinand did later confess to "helping a few people over the wall."<p><a id="Annual_events" name="Annual_events"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Annual events</span></h3>
<p>The programme also marks annual events, including <!--del_lnk--> Chinese New Year, <!--del_lnk--> St David's Day, <!--del_lnk--> Shrove Tuesday, <!--del_lnk--> Mothering Sunday, <!--del_lnk--> Guy Fawkes Night and <!--del_lnk--> Christmas. The latter, in particular, is a special occasion with a traditional format repeated year on year, featuring the story of the Nativity, a last-minute Christmas make, a filmed clip and the grand finale, the <!--del_lnk--> Chalk Farm Salvation Army Band and children from local schools marching "up the hill" and into the studio from the cold outside (lanterns in hand!) singing a Christmas carol (usually either "<!--del_lnk--> Hark the Herald Angels Sing" or "<!--del_lnk--> O Come All Ye Faithful") around the <i>Blue Peter</i> Christmas tree.<p><a id="Blue_Peter_Book_Awards" name="Blue_Peter_Book_Awards"></a><h5><span class="mw-headline"><i>Blue Peter</i> Book Awards</span></h5>
<p><i>Blue Peter</i> promotes the <!--del_lnk--> Blue Peter Book Awards, a series of <!--del_lnk--> literary prizes for <!--del_lnk--> children's literature awarded annually, and inaugurated in 2000.<p><a id="Blue_Peter_traditions" name="Blue_Peter_traditions"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Blue Peter traditions</span></h3>
<p>The programme maintains its long-standing practice of avoiding using commercial names on air. Most famously, this policy led to the invention of the phrase "sticky-backed plastic" back in the 1970s for the product marketed under the trade name <!--del_lnk--> Fablon. Similarly, many makes called for the use of a <!--del_lnk--> Velcro type material, which was referred to as "self sticking material". In today's climate of negativity surrounding <!--del_lnk--> product placement, the programme's policy of disguising any brand names visible on "make necessities" like glue sticks or cereal boxes has never been so important. An extreme example of avoiding criticism occurred in February <!--del_lnk--> 2005, when the show ran a feature on how <!--del_lnk--> Nestlé Smarties are made, without once mentioning the name of the product.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Summer Expedition is another long-running tradition. These visits focus on a single country and are filmed while the programme is off the air from June to September.<p>During the 1950s and 1960s, the programme sometimes included a cartoon series as "light relief" from some of the more informative articles. One such was <i><!--del_lnk--> Bleep and Booster</i>, which started in <!--del_lnk--> 1963 and continued in the <i>Blue Peter</i> books until <!--del_lnk--> 1977.<p>In the early 1960s the "Advent Crown" was introduced. It consists of two wire coathangers tied together with garden twine and decorated with fireproof tinsel with candles placed at each of the four corners. (Most years this appears on-screen as one of the programme's "makes"). Unlike a religious advent crown, with one candle lit for each Sunday before Christmas, Blue Peter presenters traditionally took it in turns to light one candle for each of the last four programmes before Christmas, though the last few years have seen a change to a more Christian process of lighting one candle on the four Monday programmes during Advent. Presumably this will change for 2007 as the programme is no longer shown live on Mondays.<p>Many of these long-standing traditions were started during the 1960s and 1970s by the show's editor, <!--del_lnk--> Biddy Baxter, along with producers Edward Barnes and Rosemary Gill, and most of them still feature on the programme.<p><a id="The_Blue_Peter_badge" name="The_Blue_Peter_badge"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The <i>Blue Peter</i> badge</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Children (and occasionally adults) who appear on the show or achieve something notable may be awarded the coveted <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> badge. The <i>Blue Peter</i> badge allows holders free entry into a number of visitor attractions across the UK. In March 2006, this privilege was temporarily suspended after a number of badges were discovered for sale on the auction site <!--del_lnk--> eBay by a number of people. This suspension was lifted in June 2006, when a new 'Blue Peter Badge Card' was introduced to combat the problem. Each badge winner is now issued with an ID card to prove that they are the rightful owners. The original badge was slightly smaller in size than the current version, but still featured a blue coloured ship logo printed on a white plastic shield. This remained unchanged until the 1990s when a revised badge featuring a raised moulding of the ship design by <!--del_lnk--> Tony Hart was introduced (more detailed and neat than the previous printed reproduction). This version disappeared in 1997 when the old-style badge returned. It was not until 2004, coinciding with the show's September revamp, that a new badge was introduced. Slightly larger in dimension and with a much bolder printing of the new-style traditional ship without its rigging detail (though the pre-2000 style flags remain). In October 2003, to celebrate the 45th birthday of the programme, a new, limited edition, badge was introduced, to last only a year. This moulding was made of rubber and larger than the traditional badge. It consisted of a white shield with a raised 'bubble ship' applique.<p>The presenters almost always wear their badge; the only exception being when their apparel is incompatible (for example, a life jacket), in which case a sticker with the ship emblem is normally used instead. In addition, large prints or stickers of the ship are attached to vehicles driven by the presenters during filming assignments. Other badges exist, and are awarded for various achievements:<ul>
<li><b>Blue Badges</b> (a white shield with a blue ship print) are given to viewers who have stories, poems, pictures etc.<li><b>Silver badges</b> (a blue shield with silver ship print) are given to viewers or participants who have already won a blue badge.<li><b>Green badges</b> (green shield with white ship print) and a <i>Blue Peter</i> pedometer are awarded for any correspondence from viewers with a conservation, nature or environmental theme (in addition, the presenters often wear this badge when their reports deal with such issues, or when in the garden).<li><b>Gold badges</b> (a gold-plated ship-shaped pin brooch) are very rarely awarded and are usually given only to people who have performed acts of extreme bravery, represented their country in a major event and so on. Bizarrely, and perhaps disappointingly, the gold badge has been awarded on several occasions to famous film actors or sportspeople - slightly at odds with the youth ethos of the programme. When presenter Simon Thomas left in 2005, he was awarded a gold badge on his last programme which has started a trend in which Liz Barker and Matt Baker were also given them when they departed. Valerie Singleton was awarded a gold badge during a studio interview recorded for the 1990 video release "The Best of Blue Peter, the 60's and 70's". Her her fellow presenters John Noakes and Peter Purves were given gold badges on the first programme in 2000 when the box for the year 2000 was dug up. The most recent former presenter to be given a gold badge was Peter Duncan in February 2007, whilst appearing on the programme as a guest.<li>The <b>Competition</b> badge was previously a round metal disc in white, with the blue ship, printed with the words 'Blue Peter Competition Winner'. However, after more than 40 years, it has recently been redesigned to look similar to the other badges, and is now an orange shield with a white ship. These badges are awarded to all winners and runners-up of <i>Blue Peter</i> competitions - with the new look badges being introduced in September 2006.<li>The new <b>Team Player's</b> badge (a purple shield with white ship print), which was introduced in September 2006, will be given to 12 children every month, who have ideas for the show; these children will also win the chance to spend a day working with the <i>Blue Peter</i> team. This was the first new badge to be introduced since 1988.<li>The limited edition <b>Birthday Badge</b> (very similar to blue badge but has a raised moulding of the Millennium bubble ship used between 1999-2004, and is made out of rubber) was awarded in the year of the 45th Birthday, in place, or with a blue badge. It is a rare edition.<li><i>Blue Peter</i> Badges are only awarded one at a time.</ul>
<p>Another <i>Blue Peter</i> custom is that new presenters first appear on the programme with no badge on before it is clarified to the audience that they are the new presenter, for example, Zoe Salmon appeared as a customer on the show before one week later being introduced as a presenter. Simon Groom first appeared during a filming assignment at a disco where he was a DJ.<p><a id="Tributes_and_honours" name="Tributes_and_honours"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Tributes and honours</span></h2>
<p>In a list of the <!--del_lnk--> 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the <!--del_lnk--> British Film Institute in <!--del_lnk--> 2000, voted for by industry professionals, <i>Blue Peter</i> was placed 6th.<p><a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" title="Asteroid">Asteroid</a> <!--del_lnk--> 16197 Bluepeter is named in its honour. The asteroid was discovered on <!--del_lnk--> 7 January <!--del_lnk--> 2000, the day that the <i>Blue Peter</i> <!--del_lnk--> time capsules from <!--del_lnk--> 1971 and <!--del_lnk--> 1984 were unearthed.<p><a id="The_signature_tune" name="The_signature_tune"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The signature tune</span></h2>
<p>The <i>Blue Peter</i> opening theme was composed by Ashworth Hope (1880-1962), who was a successful solicitor as well as a composer.<p>The following is a list of all the musicians who have recorded a version of the <i>Blue Peter</i> signature tune:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sidney Torch & The New Century Orchestra: October <!--del_lnk--> 1958 to January <!--del_lnk--> 1979 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme Tune from 1958<li><!--del_lnk--> Mike Oldfield: January <!--del_lnk--> 1979 to June <!--del_lnk--> 1989 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 1979<li><!--del_lnk--> Simon Brint: September <!--del_lnk--> 1989 to September <!--del_lnk--> 1992 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 1990<li><!--del_lnk--> Simon Brint: September <!--del_lnk--> 1992 to Septemer <!--del_lnk--> 1994 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 1992<li><!--del_lnk--> The Yes/No People: September <!--del_lnk--> 1994 to August <!--del_lnk--> 1999 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 1996<li><!--del_lnk--> David Arnold and the <!--del_lnk--> BBC Philharmonic Orchestra: September <!--del_lnk--> 1999 to June <!--del_lnk--> 2004 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 2002<li><!--del_lnk--> Nial Brown: September <!--del_lnk--> 2004 to December <!--del_lnk--> 2006 — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Blue Peter</i> Theme from 2005<li><!--del_lnk--> Murray Gold: <!--del_lnk--> 2006 unused — <!--del_lnk--> <i>Video of the Blue Peter Theme being recorded from 2006</i><li>Dave Cooke re-arrangement of <!--del_lnk--> Murray Gold: <!--del_lnk--> 2007</ul>
<p>Traditionally, the debut of a new version of the famous theme tune "Barnacle Bill" is accompanied with an introduction by the presenters at the time explaining the reasons behind the new rendition. Mike Oldfield appeared on the programme in the late 1970s, and his version of the theme tune was so popular with viewers that the producers decided to record it for use as a permanent theme.<p>Despite a new rendition of the theme music being introduced in 2004, a new version was arranged by <!--del_lnk--> Murray Gold and recorded in <!--del_lnk--> 2006, as part of a viewers' competition, with prize winners taking part in the final orchestral recording. Viewers were told that this new version of the theme would be used when the series returned from its summer break in September 2006; however, for unknown reasons, this was not the case, save for excerpts being used as incidental music. Instead, when the September 2006 series began, a slightly shortened version of the 2004 arrangement was used, with the opening bars removed. In January 2007, Dave Cooke, husband of former presenter <!--del_lnk--> Tina Heath, re-arranged Murray Gold's version of the signature tune, once again omitting the opening bars, and this has been broadcast regularly since, although the Nial Brown arrangement is still heard during promotional trailers on <!--del_lnk--> Children's BBC. Both Nial Brown and Dave Cooke's version of the opening signature tune have introduced a ship's whistle and used a slightly quieter drum roll to precede the theme. The Blue Peter website in a frequently answered questions section, states that "Q. Why aren't you using the new theme tune from Blue Peter Music Makers yet? A. We share your frustrations, but unfortunately Murray Gold has been insanely busy. He is so busy on Dr Who and working on a film in America that we need time to get it exactly right. Bear with us, we hope to get it ready for you to hear soon. "<p>Nearly as famous as the opening music is the closing theme, which has been re-arranged in line with the various versions of the opening signature tune. However during the period 1999–2004, a shorter version of the opening tune was used to close the programme. The editor at the time, Steve Hocking, said that he was happy for the same tune to be used at the beginning and end of each broadcast, but in recent years the traditional finale tune has returned, with Nial Brown rearranging the closing tune from 2004 to 2006, and Dave Cooke doing so as of January 2007.<p><a id="Opening_Titles" name="Opening_Titles"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Opening Titles</span></h2>
<p><b>1958-1989:</b> Traditionally, Blue Peter's titles sequence consisted of little more than film footage of the day's filming assignment or introductory studio setting footage of that day's edition accompanied by the theme music and the superimposing of the "Blue Peter" name and presenter credits. The theme music would either play out in full, or fade out appropriately depending on the programme's content.<p><b>1989-1997:</b> From 1989, a 2D animation of the Blue Peter ship had been developed and used alongside the 1985-introduced word-logo and was used as a method of displaying both the ship and Blue Peter name to precede any film or episode footage as before. From 1992 a 3D animation was used and further replaced by another graphical sequence in 1994. Once again, these animations preceded any film, studio or episode footage. Occasionally, from the 1994 series onwards, the 3D animation of the Blue Peter ship would be followed by a preview of certain items on the day's programme with a "coming up" caption and a presenter commentary. Again, the theme music would either play in full or fade out at an appropriate time.<p><b>1997-1999:</b> From 1997, a more generic title sequence was used with the 1994 ship and title animation remaining, but was followed by clips of different action shots from a variety of the past years’ filming assignments intermixed with specially filmed "posing" footage of the presenters. The traditional format of episode-specific film or studio setting scenes were still used, occasionally on their own, or mixed into the generic footage to varying degrees depending on the day's edition. The theme music tended to play out in full, and on days when a totally generic version of the titles were used, the opening was often <i>followed</i> by a "coming up" sequence narrated by the presenters.<p><b>1999-2004:</b> By 1999, a new "bubble ship" symbol and titles sequence had been developed to be used alongside the traditional ship emblem. These bubble ships was seen floating around the presenters who were displayed in specially posed shots, and appeared to be floating above a graphical ocean on their own blue coloured ships. This footage was also mixed in with episode-specific film, introductory studio setting or more predominantly from the 2003 series onwards a preview of many items on the day's programme with a return to a "coming up" caption and presenter commentary.<p><b>2004-2006:</b> In 2004, a similar approach was adopted with each presenter posing with "ship's rigging" in their hands, appearing as though they were hoisting the sails of the Blue Peter ship. This sequence, designed by BBC Broadcast (now <!--del_lnk--> Red Bee Media) saw a return to the sole use of the original Blue Peter ship logo and also featured the Blue Peter pets in their own poses. Predominantly these titles would be preceded by a “coming up” sequence or occasionally clips of the edition’s filming assignment. The original version used from 2004-2005 opened with the ship logo and featured silhouettes of unidentified children also hoisting sails along with the presenters. This was discarded in 2005 for the last year of the sequences' run and opened with the ship and Blue Peter name for the first time in six years - allowing more flexibility for when the titles would merge into that day's edition without being completed in full, as in the 1950-1990s era - before flowing into the rest of the titles (minus children) as before.<p><b>2006-present:</b> From September 2006 a new title sequence was introduced, opening with the traditional Blue Peter ship logo, followed by the presenters surrounded by "fact file boxes" displaying statistics and information about them and also pictures of the pets and snippets of previous assignment films. This also marked the end of the traditional format of the presenter credits being credited in order of seniority (although this is likely to be down to the stylistic dictation of the titles in their "girl boy girl boy" arrangement - the only irregularity being Gethin Jones appearing before Zoe Salmon who debuted on the show five months before him). As in previous years, this new graphical sequence precedes a “coming up” sequence or, alternatively, footage of that edition’s filming assignment.<p><b>General notes:</b> Traditionally, the opening titles of every programme feature the list of the presenters in order of their first appearance on Blue Peter, regardless of whether they actually appear in the edition in question (since 1995 and the introduction of the fourth presenter it is unusual to have all four presenters in the studio at the same time, save for special programmes). The only time this rule is not adopted is when the programme is a special pre-recorded assignment - for example a visit to a foreign country by two of the presenters, in which case the usual practice is just to credit the presenters appearing. Until 2004, the presenters were always credited by their full names. Since September 2004, the opening titles have only featured their first names, perhaps in a move to make the presenters appear more accessible to the audience.<p><a id="Closing_credits" name="Closing_credits"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Closing credits</span></h2>
<p><b>1958-1989:</b> Traditionally, the Blue Peter closing credits were always flashed up on screen over the final moments of the programme to the sound of the closing theme tune. Alternatively, once the programme had officially ended (i.e. the presenters had said their 'goodbyes') the camera would focus on shots of the pets or aspects of the studio as a calmer backdrop against which to flash up the credits. The sequence would always end with a rather plain shot of the Blue Peter ship, the editor's name (who for the majority of this period was Biddy Baxter) and the BBC copyright blurb.<p><b>1989-2003:</b> Once again during this period the credits maintained the practice of appearing during the final seconds of the programme's presentation or once the script had finished. The major difference being that the text was now scrolled along the bottom third of the screen from right to left, usually overlaid on a graphical bar themed around the style of the opening titles of the time. The exception to this rule was when the programme was on permanent Outside Broadcast for the whole show. During these occasions the same "theme" of credits would be used - i.e. same graphics and background etc. but the typeface would always change to the same completely different font and colour, regardless of the regular typeface used at the time. Also, the credits would flash up on screen one by one, as opposed to scrolling. It is unknown why these anomalies occurred, but it is likely to be related to the reduced technical abilities whilst transmitting a live O.B. The final frame of the credits was always the Blue Peter ship as displayed in the opening titles of the time and the editor's credit, along with BBC branding.<p><b>2004-present:</b> Early in 2004, the producers experimented with flashing up the credits over a background of "on the next Blue Peter" type footage. This was discarded later in 2004 when the new arrangement of signature tune and titles were introduced and a revised format was adopted that has remained in use since. This adaptation shows the same flashed up credits along the bottom third of the screen, whilst a photo of a recent Blue Peter badge winner, with or without the project that won them their badge, is shown above. One of the presenters' voices is also heard introducing the winner and explaining what they did to win their badge. Occasionally on certain programmes, for example the launch of an appeal, special guests in the studio or when out on location, the credits will run as pre-2004, over the closing moments of the programme with the music fading in. Again, the credits end with the Blue Peter ship, editor and BBC credit.<p><b>General notes:</b> The exceptions to the above are during the annual Christmas programme, when the credits still scroll from right to left, often with Christmassy themed drawings separating each crew member. The Christmas programme traditionally ends on a view of the children carol singers in the studio in the background, the Nativity scene in the foreground, studio lights dimmed, a star of Bethlehem glowing on the cyclorama and a sparkling silver Blue Peter ship overlaid on the screen.<p>When a "make" is featured in the programme, the creator of the item (invariably the retired Margaret Parnell or Gillian Shearing) is credited first. An example of this would be "<i>Dolls House make by Margaret Parnell</i>".<p><a id="Blue_Peter_Books" name="Blue_Peter_Books"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Blue Peter Books</span></h2>
<p>In 1964, the very first <i>Blue Peter</i> Book was published. Although an annual in all but name, the books are rarely referred to as such. Each book (published in time for Christmas) features highlights from the previous twelve months of <i>Blue Peter</i> features, and chronicles major guests who visit the studio, the Summer Expedition, the annual appeal, and the pets. The style of the books' contents has changed very little over the years, with the only noticeable difference between a 1960s book and the current formula being the increase in colour photography and digital artwork; otherwise, the principle is the same. There has, at a point in the mid-1980s and between 1992-1998, been a break in the publication of the books, and the publisher has, in recent years, appeared to change almost annually! However, since Pedigree took over the books in 2004, there has been a noticeable step up in quality. The books are now bigger than ever before, with a far greater number of pages, a testament to their enduring popularity and viability. Traditionally, the <i>Blue Peter</i> editor and members of the production team write the book, and choose its content, though the book is written from the presenters' point of view. As for the 'book' or 'annual' debate, it is interesting to note that, as of Book 34 in 2004, the cover makes reference to it as 'Annual XXXX' and the spine marking it as 'Book XX'.<p>A lucrative collectors' market has developed, as a result of the <i>Blue Peter</i> Books, with 'Book One' being especially rare and commanding triple figures on online auction websites. Books from the late 1960s and 1970s are more common, and often turn up for less than a pound in second hand bookshops or charity stores. Books from the '80s and later '90s tend to be more expensive and rarer, as people realised the value of keeping hold of them.<p><a id="Blue_Peter_presenters" name="Blue_Peter_presenters"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline"><i>Blue Peter</i> presenters</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>
</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Started</th>
<th>Ended</th>
<th>Tenure</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Trace</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 1958</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 July <!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td>8 years, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Leila Williams</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 1958</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 8 January <!--del_lnk--> 1962</td>
<td>3 years, 3 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anita West</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 7 May <!--del_lnk--> 1962</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 3 September <!--del_lnk--> 1962</td>
<td>0 years, 4 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Valerie Singleton</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 3 September <!--del_lnk--> 1962</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 3 July <!--del_lnk--> 1972</td>
<td>9 years, 10 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>5.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Noakes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 30 December <!--del_lnk--> 1965</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 26 June <!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td>12 years, 6 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>6.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Peter Purves</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 November <!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 March <!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td>10 years, 4 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lesley Judd</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 5 May <!--del_lnk--> 1972</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 12 April <!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td>6 years, 11 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>8.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Simon Groom</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15 May <!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td>8 years, 1 month</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Wenner</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14 September <!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>1 year, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tina Heath</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 5 April <!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>1 year, 2 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>11.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sarah Greene</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 19 May <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 June <!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
<td>3 years, 1 month</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>12.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Peter Duncan</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 11 September <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 June <!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
<td>3 years, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 9 September <!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 November <!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td>1 year, 2 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>13.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Janet Ellis</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 28 April <!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 29 June <!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td>4 years, 2 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>14.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael Sundin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 13 September <!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 June <!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td>0 years, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>15.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mark Curry</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 26 June <!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td>3 years, 0 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>16.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Caron Keating</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 13 November <!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 22 January <!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td>3 years, 2 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>17.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yvette Fielding</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 29 June <!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 29 June <!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
<td>5 years, 0 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>18.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Leslie</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 April <!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 January <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td>4 years, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>19.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Diane-Louise Jordan</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 January <!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 26 February <!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td>6 years, 1 month</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>20.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anthea Turner</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14 September <!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 June <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td>1 year, 9 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>21.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tim Vincent</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 16 December <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 January <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
<td>3 years, 1 month</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>22.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stuart Miles</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 June <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 June <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td>5 years, 0 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>23.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Katy Hill</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1995</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 19 June <!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td>5 years, 0 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>24.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Romana D'Annunzio</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1 March <!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 February <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td>1 year, 11 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>25.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Bacon</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 February <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 19 October <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td>1 year, 8 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>26.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Konnie Huq</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1 December <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>9 years, 4 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>27.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Simon Thomas</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 8 January <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 April <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td>6 years, 3 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>28.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Matt Baker</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 June <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 26 June <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>7 years, 0 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>29.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liz Barker</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>5 years, 10 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>30.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zöe Salmon</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 23 December <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>2 years, 3 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>31.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gethin Jones</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 April <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>1 years, 11 months</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>32.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Andy Akinwolere</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 28 June <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>0 years, 9 months</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>For many years, <!--del_lnk--> Anita West was not officially recognised as a <i>Blue Peter</i> presenter, having stood in for several months between Leila Williams leaving the show and a full-time replacement being found. West was finally added to the official list of presenters at the time of the show's 40th anniversary celebrations in <!--del_lnk--> 1998.<p>Of the 32 presenters who have fronted the programme during its lifetime, one or two have failed to live up to the 'squeaky-clean' image required of them. The most infamous scandal involving a presenter occurred in <!--del_lnk--> 1998, when <!--del_lnk--> Richard Bacon had his contract terminated, after publicly confessing to having taken <!--del_lnk--> cocaine; the BBC's Head of Children's Programming, <!--del_lnk--> Lorraine Heggessey, addressed viewers on-air before the first edition of the programme following his sacking to explain to the audience why he had been asked to leave and to apologise for his actions (Heggessey explained to viewers that Bacon had admitting to "taking an illegal drug"). Ironically, Bacon became a successful broadcaster because of the scandal, rather than despite it. It was a common conception that, due to such disgrace, Bacon would never work for the BBC again, yet a number of his subsequent appearances have been with the corporation.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>The programme maintains friendly links with most of its former presenters, many of whom have made further appearances on the show after leaving, particularly in the show's Christmas specials.<p>Other people who have played roles on the show include the zoologist <!--del_lnk--> George Cansdale, who was the programme's first on-screen vet, and <!--del_lnk--> Percy Thrower who was the show's resident gardening expert from the 1960s until shortly before his death in 1988. He was followed briefly by <!--del_lnk--> Chris Crowder, and then <!--del_lnk--> Clare Bradley, who was replaced by the current incumbent, <!--del_lnk--> Chris Collins.<p>Another contributor, though rarely seen on screen, was <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Parnell, who created almost all of the show's 'makes' from the early 1960s until her retirement in 2001. Her role is now filled by <!--del_lnk--> Gillian Shearing, though Parnell's name still appears in the credits from time to time when a classic 'make' is re-used.<p><a id="Controversy" name="Controversy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Controversy</span></h2>
<p>It was revealed by the BBC that a phone-in competition supporting the <!--del_lnk--> Unicef "Shoe Biz Appeal", held in November 2006, was rigged. The caller, <!--del_lnk--> Ali Zahoor who appeared to be calling in the competition, was actually a child who was visiting that day. The visitor pretended to be a caller from an outside line who had won the phone-in and the chance to select a prize. The competition was rigged due to a technical error with receiving the calls.<p>Former editor Biddy Baxter, described as still being influential with the programme today, described the problem as an issue with a member of the production team on the studio floor and the Editor being oblivious to the situation in the studio gallery. She also went on to say that the programme would not feature premium rate telephone competitions in the future.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The programme is often broadcast live. Former editor <!--del_lnk--> Biddy Baxter did not encourage presenters' ad-libs, and <!--del_lnk--> Simon Groom would infuriate her and test his fellow presenters by making ad-libbed <i>double-entendres</i> with a straight face.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The two most famous phrases associated with <i>Blue Peter</i> — 'And now for something completely different' (later made synonymous with <a href="../../wp/m/Monty_Python.htm" title="Monty Python">Monty Python</a>) and 'Here's one I made earlier' — were both coined by one of its first presenters, <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Trace.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Tony Hart originally asked for his design fee for the <i>Blue Peter</i> badges to be paid as a royalty of 1p for each badge made, but was offered a flat fee of £100 (equivalent to around £1,600 at 2006 rates).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Petra, the first <i>Blue Peter</i> pet, was a mongrel dog introduced in 1962. She gave birth to eight puppies in 1965, one of which, Patch, became John Noakes' pet when he began presenting in 1965.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Petra was not actually who she seemed: the first dog, Petra, died after the first programme, and was secretly replaced by an identical dog, also named Petra, so as not to upset the viewers. The facts surrounding Petra II were not revealed until after her death in 1977.</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Queen Elizabeth II">Queen Elizabeth II</a> visited the studio as part of her <!--del_lnk--> Golden Jubilee. There she was presented with a Gold badge, which, somewhat ironically, allowed her free entrance into places such as the <a href="../../wp/t/Tower_of_London.htm" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> and the public sections of her own house, <a href="../../wp/b/Buckingham_Palace.htm" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Blue Peter is referenced in the Half Man-Half Biscuit song "99% of Gargoyles Look Like Bob Todd" in the following manner: "They've been cooking on Blue Peter, now they're sampling the dishes/'I don't normally like tomatoes, John, but this is delicious!'"</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Yvette Fielding was the youngest presenter on Blue Peter, starting at the age of 18.</ul>
<ul>
<li>On <!--del_lnk--> 3 December <!--del_lnk--> 2007, <!--del_lnk--> Konnie Huq will overtake <!--del_lnk--> Valerie Singleton as the longest-serving female (third longest overall) presenter of all time, and would also become the first female (third overall) presenter to serve for a full ten years.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Peter"</div>
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Blue_Tit
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue Tit</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blue Tit</b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1846.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_Tit_aka.jpg" src="../../images/18/1846.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Paridae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Cyanistes</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. caeruleus</b></i></span><br />
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<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Cyanistes caeruleus</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758)</small></td>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Synonyms</center>
</th>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p>'<b>Parus caeruleus'</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Blue Tit</b>, <i>Cyanistes caeruleus</i> (often still <i>Parus caeruleus</i>), is a 10.5 to 12 cm long <!--del_lnk--> passerine <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> tit <!--del_lnk--> family Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder throughout temperate and subarctic <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and western <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> in deciduous or mixed woodlands. It is a <!--del_lnk--> resident bird, i.e., most birds do not <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migrate</a>.<p>The azure blue crown and dark blue line passing through the eye and encircling the white cheeks to the chin, give the Blue Tit a very distinctive appearance. The forehead, eyestreak, and a bar on the wing are also white. The nape, wings and tail are blue; the back is yellowish green; the under parts mostly sulphur-yellow with a dark line down the abdomen. The bill is black, the legs bluish grey, and the irides dark brown. The young are much yellower than the old birds.<p>This is a common and popular European garden bird, due to its perky acrobatic performances when feeding on nuts or suet. It swings beneath the holder, calling <i>tee, tee, tee</i> or a scolding <i>churr</i>.<p>The song period lasts almost all the year round, but is most often heard during February to June.<p>It will nest in any suitable hole in a tree, wall, or stump, or an artificial nest box, often competing with <a href="../../wp/h/House_Sparrow.htm" title="House Sparrow">House Sparrows</a> or <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Tit.htm" title="Great Tit">Great Tits</a> for the site. Few birds more readily accept the shelter of a nesting box; the same hole is returned to year after year, and when one pair dies another takes possession.<p>The bird is a close sitter, hissing and biting at an intruding finger. When protecting its eggs it raises its crest, but this is a sign of excitement rather than anger, for it is also elevated during nuptial display. The nesting material is usually moss, wool, hair and feathers, and the eggs are laid in April or May. The number in the clutch is often very large, but seven or eight are normal, and bigger clutches are usually laid by two or even more hens.<p>Blue and Great Tits form mixed winter flocks, and the former are perhaps the better gymnasts in the slender twigs. A Blue Tit will often ascend a trunk in short jerky hops, imitating a <a href="../../wp/t/Treecreeper.htm" title="Treecreeper">Treecreeper</a>. As a rule the bird roosts in <!--del_lnk--> ivy or <!--del_lnk--> evergreens, but in hard weather will shelter in a hole.<p>The Blue Tit is a valuable destroyer of pests, though it has not an entirely clean sheet as a beneficial species. It is fond of young buds of various trees, and may pull them to bits in the hope of finding insects. No species, however, destroys more coccids and <a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" title="Aphid">aphids</a>, the worst foes of many plants. It takes leaf miner grubs and green tortrix moths. Seeds are eaten, as with all this family.<p>An interesting example of culturally transmitted learning in birds was the phenomenon dating from the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s of Blue Tits teaching one another how to open traditional British <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> bottles with foil tops to get at the cream underneath. This behaviour has declined recently because of the trend toward buying low-fat (skimmed) milk, and the replacement of doorstep delivery by supermarket purchases of milk.<p>
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</script><a id="Taxonomic_notes" name="Taxonomic_notes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue Whale</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blue Whale</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1857.jpg.htm" title="A drawing of a Blue Whale seen on a Faroese stamp"><img alt="A drawing of a Blue Whale seen on a Faroese stamp" height="285" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Faroe_stamp_402_blue_whale_%28Balaenoptera_musculus%29_crop.jpg" src="../../images/18/1857.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>A drawing of a Blue Whale seen on a <a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" title="Faroe Islands">Faroese</a> stamp</small></div><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1858.png.htm" title="Size comparison against an average human"><img alt="Size comparison against an average human" height="96" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_whale_size.png" src="../../images/18/1858.png" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Size comparison against an average human</small></div>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1859.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_EN.svg" src="../../images/18/1859.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Endangered (EN)<small></small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cetacea<br />
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<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mysticeti<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Balaenopteridae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Balaenoptera</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>B. musculus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Balaenoptera musculus</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758)</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1860.png.htm" title="Blue Whale range"><img alt="Blue Whale range" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cetacea_range_map_Blue_Whale.PNG" src="../../images/18/1860.png" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Blue Whale range</small></div>
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<p>The <b>Blue Whale</b> (<i>Balaenoptera musculus</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> marine mammal belonging to the suborder of <!--del_lnk--> baleen whales. At up to 30 <!--del_lnk--> metres (98 <!--del_lnk--> feet) in length and 177 metric <!--del_lnk--> tonnes (196 <!--del_lnk--> short tons) or more in weight, it is believed to be the <!--del_lnk--> largest animal to have ever lived on Earth.<p>Blue Whales were abundant in most oceans around the world until the beginning of the twentieth century. For the first 40 years of that century they were hunted by <!--del_lnk--> whalers almost to <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a>. Hunting of the species was outlawed by the international community in 1966. A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 Blue Whales worldwide located in at least five groups. More recent research into the Pygmy subspecies suggest this may be an under-estimate. Before whaling the largest population (202,000 to 311,000) was in the Antarctic but now there remain only much smaller (around 2,000) concentrations in each of the North-East <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a>, the Antarctic, and the Indian Ocean. There are two more groups in the North <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere.<p>
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</script><a id="Taxonomy_and_evolution" name="Taxonomy_and_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy and evolution</span></h2>
<p>Blue Whales are <!--del_lnk--> rorquals (family <!--del_lnk--> Balaenopteridae), a family that includes the <a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">Humpback Whale</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Fin Whale, the <!--del_lnk--> Bryde's Whale, the <!--del_lnk--> Sei Whale and the <!--del_lnk--> Minke Whale. The family <!--del_lnk--> Balaenopteridae is believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle <a href="../../wp/o/Oligocene.htm" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>. However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.<p>The Blue Whale is usually classified as one of seven species of whale in the genus <i>Balaenoptera</i>; however, DNA sequencing analysis indicates that Blue Whales are phylogenetically closer to the <a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">Humpback</a> (<i>Megaptera</i>) and the <!--del_lnk--> Gray Whale (<i>Eschrichtius</i>) than to other <i>Balaenoptera</i> species; should further research corroborate these relationships, it will be necessary to recognize the separate genus <i>Sibbaldus</i> for the Blue Whale.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1861.png.htm" title="A phylogenetic tree of animals related to the Blue Whale"><img alt="A phylogenetic tree of animals related to the Blue Whale" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rorqual_phylogenetic_tree.PNG" src="../../images/18/1861.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1861.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic tree of animals related to the Blue Whale</div>
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<p>There have been at least 11 documented cases of Blue/<!--del_lnk--> Fin Whale hybrid adults in the wild. Aranson and Gullberg (1983) describe the genetic distance between a Blue and a Fin as about the same as that between a human and gorilla. Blue Whale/<a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">Humpback Whale</a> hybrids are also known.<p>The specific name <i>musculus</i> is <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and could mean "muscular", but it can also be interpreted as "little mouse". <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, who named the species in his seminal work of 1758, would have known this and, given his sense of humour, may have intended the ironic <!--del_lnk--> double meaning. Other common names for the Blue Whale have included the <b>Sulphur-bottom</b>, <b>Sibbald's Rorqual</b>, the <b>Great Blue Whale</b> and the <b>Great Northern Rorqual</b>. These names have fallen into disuse in recent decades.<p>Authorities classify the species into three subspecies: <i>B. m. musculus</i>, consisting of the north Atlantic and north Pacific populations, <i>B. m. intermedia</i>, the Southern Ocean population and <i>B. m. brevicauda</i> (also known as the <!--del_lnk--> Pygmy Blue Whale) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific. Some older authorities also list <i>B. m. indica</i> as a further separate subspecies in the Indian Ocean, but it is most likely that these blue whales are pygmy blue whales, and this designation does not therefore have a listing in the <!--del_lnk--> Red List of Threatened Species. Both subdivisions are still questioned by some scientists; genetic analysis may yet show there are just two true subspecies.<br style="clear:left;" />
<p><a id="Physical_description" name="Physical_description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical description</span></h2>
<p>The Blue Whale has a long tapering body that appears stretched in comparison with the much stockier appearance of other whales. The head is flat and U-shaped and has a very prominent ridge running from the blowhole to the top of the upper lips. The front part of the mouth is thick with <!--del_lnk--> baleen plates; around 300 plates (each one metre long) hang from the upper jaw, running half a metre back into the mouth. Between 60 and 90 grooves (called ventral pleats) run along the throat parallel to the body. These plates assist with evacuating water from the mouth after lunge feeding (see feeding below).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin is small, visible only briefly during the dive sequence. It varies in shape from one individual to another; some only have a barely perceptible lump, whilst other fins are quite prominent and falcate. It is located around three-quarters of the way along the length of the body. When surfacing to breathe, the Blue Whale raises its shoulder and blow hole region out of the water to a greater extent than other large whales (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Fin or <!--del_lnk--> Sei). This can often be a useful clue to identifying a species at sea. Whilst breathing, the whale emits a spectacular vertical single column blow (up to 12 m, typically 9 m) that can be seen from many kilometers on a calm day. Its <!--del_lnk--> lung capacity is 5,000 <!--del_lnk--> litres.<table style="float:right;">
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1862.jpg.htm" title="The blow of a Blue Whale"><img alt="The blow of a Blue Whale" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bluewhale_300.jpg" src="../../images/18/1862.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1862.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The blow of a Blue Whale</div>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1863.jpg.htm" title="The small dorsal fin of this Blue Whale is just visible"><img alt="The small dorsal fin of this Blue Whale is just visible" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bl-10_blue.jpg" src="../../images/18/1863.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1863.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The small <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin of this Blue Whale is just visible</div>
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<p>The flippers are three to four metres long. The upper side is grey with a thin white border. The lower side is white. The head and tail fluke are generally uniformly grey coloured whilst the back, and sometimes the flippers, are usually mottled. The degree of mottling varies substantially from individual to individual. Some may have a uniform grey colour all over, whilst others demonstrate a considerable variation of dark blues, greys and blacks all tightly mottled.<p>Blue Whales can reach speeds of 50 km/h (30 mph) over short bursts, usually when interacting with other whales, but 20 km/h (12 mph) is a more typical travelling speed. When feeding they slow down to 5 km/h (3 mph). Some Blues in the North Atlantic and North Pacific raise their tail fluke when diving. The majority, however, do not.<p>Blue Whales most commonly live alone or with one other individual. It is not known whether those that travel in pairs stay together over many years or form more loose relationships. In areas of very high food concentration, as many as 50 Blue Whales have been seen scattered over a small area. However, they do not form large close-knit groups as seen in other baleen species.<p><a id="Size" name="Size"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Size</span></h3>
<p>The Blue Whale is believed to be the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth. The largest known <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> Mesozoic era was the <i><!--del_lnk--> Argentinosaurus</i>, which is estimated to have weighed up to 90 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes (100 <!--del_lnk--> short tons). There is some uncertainty about the biggest Blue Whale ever found. Most data comes from Blue Whales killed in <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic waters during the first half of the twentieth century and was collected by whalers not well-versed in standard zoological measurement techniques. The longest whales ever recorded were two females measuring 33.6 m and 33.3 m (110 ft 3 in and 109 ft 3 in) respectively. However, there are some disputes over the reliability of these measurements. The longest whale measured by <!--del_lnk--> scientists at the American <!--del_lnk--> National Marine Mammal Laboratory (NMML) was 29.9 m long (98 ft) — about the same length as a <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 737 aeroplane or three <a href="../../wp/d/Double-decker_bus.htm" title="Double-decker bus">double-decker buses</a>.<p>A Blue Whale comes in first place when judging animal size. A Blue Whale's <!--del_lnk--> tongue is so big that it is about the size of an elephant and 50 humans could stand in its mouth. Its <!--del_lnk--> heart is close to the size of a small car and is the <!--del_lnk--> largest known in any animal. A human baby could squeeze into a Blue Whale's <!--del_lnk--> aorta, which is about 9 inches in diameter. During the first 7 months of its life, a Blue Whale calf drinks approximately 400 litres (100 US gallons) of milk every day. Blue Whale calves gain <!--del_lnk--> weight as quickly as 90 kg (200 pounds) every 24 hours. Even at birth, they weigh up to 2700 kg (6000 lb) – the same as a fully-grown <a href="../../wp/h/Hippopotamus.htm" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a>.<p>Blue Whales are very difficult to weigh because of their massive size. Most Blue Whales killed by whalers were not weighed as a whole, but cut up into manageable pieces before being weighed. This caused an underestimate of the total weight of the whale, due to loss of blood and other fluids. Nevertheless, measurements between 150 to 170 tonnes (160 and 190 short tons) were recorded of animals up to 27 m (88 ft 6 in) in length. The weight of a 30 m (98 ft) individual is believed by the NMML to be in excess of 180 tonnes (200 short tons). The largest Blue Whale accurately weighed by NMML scientists to date was a female that weighed 177 tonnes (196 short tons).<p><a id="Life_cycle" name="Life_cycle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Life cycle</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1864.jpg.htm" title="A juvenile Blue Whale with its mother"><img alt="A juvenile Blue Whale with its mother" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlueWhaleWithCalf.jpg" src="../../images/18/1864.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1864.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A juvenile Blue Whale with its mother</div>
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<p>Mating starts in late autumn, and continues to the end of winter. Little is known about mating behaviour or even breeding grounds. Females typically give birth at the start of the winter once every two to three years after a <!--del_lnk--> gestation period of ten to twelve months. The calf weighs about two and a half tonnes and is around 7 m in length. <!--del_lnk--> Weaning takes place for about six months, by which time the calf has doubled in length. Sexual maturity is typically reached at eight to ten years by which time males are at least 20 m long (or more in the southern hemisphere). Females are larger still, reaching sexual maturity around 21 m or around the age of five.<p>Scientists estimate that Blue Whales can live for at least eighty years; however, since individual records do not date back into the whaling era, this will not be known with certainty for many years yet. The longest recorded study of a single individual is thirty-four years, in the north-east Pacific (reported in Sears, 1998). The whales' only natural predator is the <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">Orca</a>. Calambokidis et al (1990) report that as many as 25% of mature Blue Whales have scars resulting from Orca attack. The rate of mortality due to such attacks is unknown.<p>Blue Whale strandings are extremely uncommon and, because of the species' social structure, mass strandings are unheard of. However when strandings do occur they can become quite a public event. In 1920, a Blue Whale washed up near <!--del_lnk--> Bragar on the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Lewis in the <a href="../../wp/o/Outer_Hebrides.htm" title="Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a> of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. It had been shot in the head by whalers, but the harpoon had failed to explode. As with other mammals, the fundamental instinct of the whale was to try to carry on breathing at all costs, even though this meant beaching to prevent itself from drowning. Two of the whale's bones were erected just off a main road on Lewis, and remain a tourist attraction.<p><a id="Vocalizations" name="Vocalizations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vocalizations</span></h3>
<table class="toccolours" style="float:right;margin-left: 1em;">
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<td><b>Multimedia relating to the Blue Whale</b><br />
<div class="small"><i>Note that the whale calls have been sped up 10x from their original speed.</i></div>
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<div class="medialist listenlist">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in the Atlantic (1)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in the Atlantic (2)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in the Atlantic (3)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in North Eastern Pacific</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in the South Pacific</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> A Blue Whale song — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li>Recorded in the West Pacific</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <b>Alternatively: Listen to a spoken version of this article</b>. — <span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> </span><ul>
<li><small>n.b. the audio file was created on 13th April 2006 and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article</small></ul>
<li><i>Problems playing the files? See <!--del_lnk--> media help.</i></ul>
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<p>The Blue Whale is the loudest animal in the world. Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) and Richardson et al (1995) suggest that source level of sounds made by Blue Whales are between 155 and 188 <!--del_lnk--> decibels when measured at a reference pressure of one <!--del_lnk--> micropascal at one <!--del_lnk--> metre. By comparison, a <!--del_lnk--> pneumatic drill is about 100 dB. A human, however, would likely not perceive the Blue Whale as the loudest of all animals. All Blue Whale groups make calls at a <!--del_lnk--> fundamental frequency of between 10 and 40 <!--del_lnk--> Hz, and the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20 Hz. Blue Whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Additionally Blue Whales off the coast of <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> have been recorded repeatedly making "songs" of four notes duration lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known <a href="../../wp/w/Whale_song.htm" title="Whale song">Humpback Whale songs</a>. Researchers believe that as this phenomenon has not been seen in any other populations, it may be unique to the <i>B. m. brevicauda</i> (Pygmy) subspecies.<p>Scientists do not know why Blue Whales vocalize. Richardson et al (1995) discuss six possible reasons:<ol>
<li>Maintenance of inter-individual distance<li>Species and individual recognition,<li>Contextual information transmission (e.g., feeding, alarm, courtship)<li>Maintenance of social organization (e.g., contact calls between females and males)<li>Location of topographic features<li>Location of prey resources</ol>
<p><a id="Population_and_whaling" name="Population_and_whaling"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population and whaling</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1865.jpg.htm" title="Blue whale skeleton, outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the University of California, Santa Cruz"><img alt="Blue whale skeleton, outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the University of California, Santa Cruz" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlueWhaleSkeleton.jpg" src="../../images/18/1865.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1865.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Blue whale skeleton, outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Santa Cruz</div>
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<p><a id="The_hunting_era" name="The_hunting_era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The hunting era</span></h3>
<p>Blue Whales are not easy to catch, kill, or retain. Their speed and power meant that they were often not the target of early whalers who instead targeted <!--del_lnk--> Sperm and <!--del_lnk--> Right Whales. As the populations of these other species declined, whalers increasingly hunted the largest baleen whales, including the Blue Whale. In 1864 Norwegian <!--del_lnk--> Svend Foyn equipped a <!--del_lnk--> steamboat with <!--del_lnk--> harpoons specifically designed for catching large whales. Although initially cumbersome and with a low success rate, the harpoon became the weapon of choice for whale hunting, and by the end of the nineteenth century, the population of Blue Whales in the North Atlantic had declined significantly.<p>Hunting of Blue Whales rapidly increased around the world, and by 1925, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> had joined <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> in chasing whales on 'catcher boats' that caught the whales and handed them onto huge 'factory ships' for processing. In 1930/1931, these ships killed 29,400 Blue Whales in the Antarctic alone. By the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> populations had been significantly depleted, and in 1946 the first quotas restricting international trade in whales were introduced. These were ineffective because of the lack of differentiation between species. Rare species could be hunted equally with those found in relative abundance. By the time Blue Whale hunting was finally banned in the 1960s and illegal USSR whaling halted in the 1970s by the <!--del_lnk--> International Whaling Commission, 330,000 Blue Whales had been killed in the Antarctic, 33,000 in the rest of the Southern Hemisphere, 8,200 in the North Pacific, and 7,000 in the North Atlantic and the world population had been reduced to less than 1% of its total one hundred years before.<p><a id="Population_and_distribution_today" name="Population_and_distribution_today"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Population and distribution today</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1866.jpg.htm" title="A Blue Whale set against the backdrop of the Azores"><img alt="A Blue Whale set against the backdrop of the Azores" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blauwal01.jpg" src="../../images/18/1866.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1866.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Blue Whale set against the backdrop of the Azores</div>
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<p>Since the whaling ban, it is not well known whether the global Blue Whale population is increasing or remaining stable. In the Antarctic, best estimates show a significant increase since the end of illegal Soviet Union whaling, but numbers remain at under 1% of their original levels. It has also been suggested that Icelandic and California populations are increasing but these increases are not statistically significant. The total world population was estimated to be between 5,000 and 12,000 in 2002 although there is great uncertainty in available estimates for many areas. The Blue Whale remains listed as "endangered" on the <!--del_lnk--> IUCN Red List of threatened species as it has been since the list's inception. The largest known concentration, consisting of about 2,000 individuals, is the North-East Pacific population that ranges from <!--del_lnk--> Alaska to <a href="../../wp/c/Costa_Rica.htm" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> but is most commonly seen from California in summer. This group represents the best hope for a long-term recovery in Blue Whale population. Sometimes this population strays over to the North-West Pacific; infrequent sightings between <!--del_lnk--> Kamchatka and the northern tip of Japan have been recorded.<p>In the Southern Hemisphere, there appear to be two distinct subspecies, the Antarctic blue whale and the poorly-understood Pygmy blue whale, found in Indian Ocean waters. Recent abundance estimates for the Antarctic subspecies range from 1100 to 1700. Research into the number of Pygmy Blues is on-going - the most recent reports suggest that there may be as many as 10,000 animals. If this is confirmed it will lead to a substantial upward revision in the global numbers.<p>Migratory patterns of these subspecies are not well known. For example, pygmy blue whales have been recorded in the northern Indian Ocean (Oman, Maldives, Sri Lanka) where they may form a distinct resident population. In addition, the population of Blue Whales occurring off Chile and Peru may also be a distinct population. Some Antarctic blue whales approach the eastern South Atlantic coast in winter, and occasionally their sounds are heard off Peru, Western Australia, and in the northern Indian Ocean. In Chile, the <!--del_lnk--> Cetacean Conservation Centre, with support from the <!--del_lnk--> Chilean Navy, is undertaking extensive research and conservation work on a recently discovered feeding aggregation of the species off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Chiloe Island.<p>In the North Atlantic, two stocks are recognized. The first is found off <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland, <!--del_lnk--> Nova Scotia and the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Saint Lawrence. This group is estimated to total about 500. The second, more eastern group is spotted from the <!--del_lnk--> Açores in Spring to Iceland in July and August; it is presumed that the whales follow the <!--del_lnk--> Mid-Atlantic Ridge between the two volcanic islands. Beyond Iceland, Blue Whales have been spotted as far north as <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen and <a href="../../wp/j/Jan_Mayen.htm" title="Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a> though such sightings are rare. Scientists do not know where these whales spend their winters. The total North Atlantic population is between 600 and 1500.<p>Human threats to the potential recovery of Blue Whale populations include the accumulation of <!--del_lnk--> polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) chemicals within the whale's blood, causing poisoning and premature death, and the ever-increasing amount of noise created by ocean traffic. This noise drowns out the noises produced by whales (<i>see <a href="../../wp/w/Whale_song.htm" title="Whale song">whale song</a></i>), which may make it harder for whales to find a mate.<p>Efforts to calculate the Blue Whale population more accurately are supported by marine mammologists at <!--del_lnk--> Duke University who maintain the <i>OBIS-SEAMAP</i> (Ocean Biogeographic Information System - Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations), a collation of marine mammal sighting data from around 130 sources.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Whale"</div>
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['Faroe Islands', 'Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Extinction', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Humpback Whale', 'Oligocene', 'Humpback Whale', 'Humpback Whale', 'Latin', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Dinosaur', 'Double-decker bus', 'Hippopotamus', 'Orca', 'Outer Hebrides', 'Scotland', 'Sri Lanka', 'Whale song', 'United States', 'United Kingdom', 'Japan', 'Norway', 'World War II', 'Costa Rica', 'Greenland', 'Jan Mayen', 'Whale song']
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Blue_Wildebeest
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue Wildebeest</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blue Wildebeest</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/146/14643.jpg.htm" title="Blue Wildebeest"><img alt="Blue Wildebeest" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black-wildebeest-aka-gnu.jpg" src="../../images/146/14643.jpg" width="260" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Blue Wildebeest</small></div>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center">Lower risk</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Subphylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Connochaetes</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. taurinus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Connochaetes taurinus</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Burchell, 1823)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Blue Wildebeest</b> is a large <!--del_lnk--> ungulate mammal of the <!--del_lnk--> genus <i>Connochaetes</i> which grows to 1.4 meters <!--del_lnk--> shoulder height and attains a body mass of up to 270 <!--del_lnk--> kilograms. They range the open <!--del_lnk--> plains, <!--del_lnk--> bushveld and dry woodlands of <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" title="Southern Africa">Southern</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, realizing a life span in excess of twenty years. This <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivore</a> is a <!--del_lnk--> grazing animal that is often sighted in open grasslands or clearings in a <!--del_lnk--> savanna. The male is highly <!--del_lnk--> territorial using <!--del_lnk--> scent markings and other devices to protect his domain. The largest population is in the <!--del_lnk--> Serengeti, numbering over one million animals.<p>Even though it has a beefy <!--del_lnk--> muscular front-heavy appearance with a distinctive robust <!--del_lnk--> muzzle, it strides with relatively slender legs and moves gracefully and quietly most of the time, belying the reputation for stampeding in herds; however the <!--del_lnk--> stampeding characteristic may sometimes be observed. The name “Blue Wildebeest” derives from a conspicuous silvery blue sheen to his short haired hide, differentiating this species from the plainer black genus member <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Wildebeest.htm" title="Black Wildebeest">Black Wildebeest</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
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<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17061.jpg.htm" title="Blue Wildebeest from rear angle showing stripes that look like wrinkles"><img alt="Blue Wildebeest from rear angle showing stripes that look like wrinkles" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_wildebeest_frm_rear.jpg" src="../../images/170/17061.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17061.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Blue Wildebeest from rear angle showing stripes that look like wrinkles</div>
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<p>Probably the most conspicuous feature of the Blue Wildebeest are the large <!--del_lnk--> horns shaped like <!--del_lnk--> parentheses, extending outward to the side and then curving up and inward . In the <!--del_lnk--> male the horns can attain a total span of almost 90 centimeters, while the <!--del_lnk--> female's horn width is about half the size of the male. These cow-like horns of both sexes are somewhat broad at the base and are without ridges. However, as further <!--del_lnk--> sexual dimorphism, the male horns have a boss-like structure joining the two horns. The male is larger than the female with a total body length of up to 2.5 meters.<p>Young Blue Wildebeest arrive in the world tawny brown, and begin to take on their adult colouration at age nine weeks. The adult's hue actually varies from a deep slate or bluish gray all the way to light gray or even grayish-brown. The <!--del_lnk--> dorsal coat and flanks are slightly lighter in hue than the <!--del_lnk--> ventral hide and underparts. Dark brown vertical bands of slightly longer hair mark the neck and forequarters, and from a distance lend a perception of <!--del_lnk--> skin wrinkling. The <!--del_lnk--> manes of both sexes appear long, stiff, thick and jet black, a colour assumed by the tail and face as well. <!--del_lnk--> Sexual dichromism is exhibited by the males displaying decidedly darker <a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Colour">colouration</a> than the females. All features and markings of this species are bilaterally <a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetric</a> for both sexes.<p><a id="Range_and__habitat" name="Range_and__habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Range and habitat</span></h2>
<p>Blue Wildebeest are found in open and brush-covered savanna in south and east Africa, thriving. in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid. They can be found in places that vary from overgrazed areas with dense bush to open woodland floodplains. Wildebeests prefer the bushveld and grasslands of the southern savanna The terrestrial <!--del_lnk--> biome designations for these preferred habitats are savanna, <!--del_lnk--> grassland, open forest and <!--del_lnk--> scrub forest .<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:362px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17062.jpg.htm" title="Blue Wildebeests, Lapalala Wilderness, Waterberg, South Africa"><img alt="Blue Wildebeests, Lapalala Wilderness, Waterberg, South Africa" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_wildebeest_lapalala.jpg" src="../../images/170/17062.jpg" width="360" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17062.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Blue Wildebeests, Lapalala Wilderness, <!--del_lnk--> Waterberg, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div>
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<p>Large herds numbering into the thousands may be observed on the <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> <!--del_lnk--> Serengeti <!--del_lnk--> equatorial plain, in annual <!--del_lnk--> migration. Smaller <!--del_lnk--> herds of about thirty are found in northern <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South African</a> locations of <!--del_lnk--> Waterberg, <!--del_lnk--> Kruger National Park and <!--del_lnk--> Mala Mala. Some herds can be found almost to the southern tip of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<p><a id="Behaviour" name="Behaviour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
<p>Blue Wildebeests can tolerate arid regions, as long as a potable water supply is available. Since all Wildebeests require a long drink every day or two, they must have water within about 15 or 25 kilometers distance. Their blunt muzzles are best equipped for biting short green grasses, since a wide <!--del_lnk--> incisor row prevents more selective feeding. Short grasses of these type are usually only found on <!--del_lnk--> alkaline or <!--del_lnk--> volcanic soils.<p>The Serengeti herds are purely migratory and abandon the usual plains after the rainy season has ended, in order to seek higher grasses in wetter areas. Grasslands bordering alkaline <!--del_lnk--> lakes or pans are particularly choice dry season (winter) habitats. Herds may be mixed gender with a dominant male, female only or bachelor only. Sometimes Blue Wildebeest graze together with other species such as <!--del_lnk--> Burchells zebra for purposes of mutual protection. Blue Wildebeests can attain a speed of up to 80 kilometers per hour.<p><a id="Territoriality" name="Territoriality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Territoriality</span></h3>
<p>Blue Wildebeest are unusually territorial, adult males occupying their territories for a month or for the entire year. The physical size of territories ranges from one to two hectares. The bucks mark territory boundaries with dung heaps, preorbital <!--del_lnk--> gland secretions, <!--del_lnk--> hoof <!--del_lnk--> scent glands and pawing of the earth. When competing over territory, males grunt quite loudly, make a thrusting motion with their horns and perform other displays of aggression.<p>Territories are advertised by actions of the bull as well as scent marking. <!--del_lnk--> Body language used by the territorial male include standing at an erect posture, profuse ground pawing and horning, frequent defecation, rolling on his back and bellowing the sound "ga-noo", viz. origin of the word "gnu". To attract the opposite sex at the beginning of <!--del_lnk--> courtship the male (and less frequently the female) will rub its preorbital gland on a tree and then proceed with a destructive horning of said tree. This behaviour is not only effective in enticing a mate, but serves the function of providing more grassland for future Wildebeest generations by promoting grassland extent.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h3>
<p>Males exhibit rivalry when staking out territory and when competing for females. In the actual clashes between males, they face off resting on bent front <!--del_lnk--> knees, exchanging horn thrusts for brief periods. Elaborate individual displays are made in the rivalry and <!--del_lnk--> courtship process, where males bellow, snort and protrude their horns into the soil. The mating process is thought to begin at the first <a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" title="Full moon">full moon</a> at the end of the rainy season. Once territory is established, the male attempts to lure or corral the female into his domain. A female may <!--del_lnk--> copulate with several different males, visiting several different territories. Most mating occurs during a three to four week period at the end of the rainy season (March to April), when this species is at its maximum vigour.<p>The female reaches <!--del_lnk--> sexual maturity at age three, and the male at age four; however, it is more typically age five when the male has developed sufficient strength and experience to defend territory. Generally fewer than half of the adult males create territories in a given year. In the Serengeti, population densities are so high that there may be 270 territorial bulls within one square kilometer. Estes terms the total volume of noise created during the Serengeti rutting season as “indescribable” in its amplitude and variety of snorting, bellowing and fighting. When the dry season is well underway about August, territories cease to exist.<p>The gestation period is approximately 8.5 months, with calves able to stand within seven minutes and run with the herd in less than two hours from birth. These <!--del_lnk--> precocial features are warranted since the Blue Wildebeest is a staple of the <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lion</a>'s diet; however the spotted <a href="../../wp/h/Hyena.htm" title="Hyena">hyena</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cheetah.htm" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a>, <!--del_lnk--> leopard, and the <!--del_lnk--> Nile crocodile also take Wildebeest as prey. To escape <!--del_lnk--> predation calves remain close to the mother for a significant time, and in fact may suckle for up to one year. In large herds 80 percent of Wildebeest <!--del_lnk--> offspring survive the first month, compared to a 50 percent survival rate within small <!--del_lnk--> herds.<p><a id="Nomenclature_and_classification" name="Nomenclature_and_classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nomenclature and classification</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17063.jpg.htm" title="A Blue Wildebeest grazing in Etosha National Park, Namibia"><img alt="A Blue Wildebeest grazing in Etosha National Park, Namibia" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_wildebeest.jpg" src="../../images/170/17063.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17063.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Blue Wildebeest grazing in Etosha National Park, Namibia</div>
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<p>The Blue Wildebeest and <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Wildebeest.htm" title="Black Wildebeest">Black Wildebeest</a> or White-tailed Gnu (<i>C. gnou</i>) are the two species of the genus <i>Connochaetes</i>, within the family <!--del_lnk--> Bovidae, which includes antelopes, cattle, goats, and other even-toed horned ungulates. The Blue Wildebeest is sometimes called <b>Brindled Gnu</b>. The (<!--del_lnk--> plural of Wildebeest is denoted either <b>Wildebeest</b> or <b>Wildebeests</b>). Another common term for the Wildebeest is <b>gnu</b> (<!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/nu/</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/nju/</span>).<p><i>C. taurinus</i> is comprised of five distinct subspecies. <i>C. t. taurinus</i> (Blue Wildebeest or Brindled Gnu; central to southern Africa) individuals are silvery slate gray in colour, the origin of the common name "blue" wildebeest. <i>C. t. johnstoni</i> (Nyassaland Wildebeest), occurring in southern <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>), is the largest subspecies. The Western white-bearded wildebeest (<i>C. t. mearnsi</i>) is the smallest and is found only in <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and western Tanzania. <i>C. t. mearnsi</i> is the darkest hued wildebeest while <i>C. t. albojubatus</i>(Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest) is the palest in colouration and found in Kenya and eastern Tanzania. The last subspecies, Cookson's Wildebeest (<i>C. t. cooksoni</i>), is restricted to the <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa Valley.<p><a id="Conservation_and_outlook" name="Conservation_and_outlook"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation and outlook</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17064.jpg.htm" title="Bushveld habitat in Waterberg, South Africa"><img alt="Bushveld habitat in Waterberg, South Africa" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Waterberg_bushveld.jpg" src="../../images/170/17064.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17064.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bushveld <!--del_lnk--> habitat in <!--del_lnk--> Waterberg, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Serengeti boasts over one million Blue Wildebeests, but Southern Africa's large herds have diminished over the last several centuries under pressure from hunting, cattle ranching and habitat intrusion stemming from <!--del_lnk--> overpopulation of humans. In southern Africa some efforts are being made to enhance grasslands and repair damage of cattle grazing and excessive fencing. These activities are particularly evident in the <!--del_lnk--> Waterberg Biosphere, where invasive brush (induced by excess cattle grazing) is being extirpated and many fences are coming down to promote <!--del_lnk--> wildlife migration. While the species status is considered secure as a whole, there is concern for smaller herds in the southern Africa habitats which have already become marginalized.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Wildebeest"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Vertebrate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Southern Africa', 'East Africa', 'Herbivore', 'Black Wildebeest', 'Colour', 'Symmetry', 'South Africa', 'Tanzania', 'Botswana', 'Zimbabwe', 'South Africa', 'South Africa', 'Full moon', 'Lion', 'Hyena', 'Cheetah', 'Black Wildebeest', 'Tanzania', 'Mozambique', 'Kenya', 'South Africa']
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Blue_shark
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blue shark</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blue shark</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1868.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_shark.jpg" src="../../images/18/1868.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
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<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1835.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_NT.svg" src="../../images/18/1835.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Near Threatened (LR/nt)</div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carcharhiniformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carcharhinidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Prionace</b></i><br /><small>Cantor, 1849</small></td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>P. glauca</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Prionace glauca</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758)</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1869.png.htm" title="Range of blue shark"><img alt="Range of blue shark" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prionace_glauca_dis.png" src="../../images/18/1869.png" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Range of blue shark</small></div>
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<p>The <b>blue shark</b>, <i>Prionace glauca</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> carcharhinid <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">shark</a> which is found in the deep waters of the world's <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <!--del_lnk--> tropical oceans. They prefer cooler waters and are not found, for example, in the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Adriatic or <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. Blue sharks are known to <!--del_lnk--> migrate long distances, from <!--del_lnk--> New England to <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> for example. Although generally <!--del_lnk--> lethargic, they are capable of moving very quickly if the need arises. Blue sharks are <!--del_lnk--> viviparous and are noted for their large litters of 25 to over 100 <!--del_lnk--> pups. They feed primarily on small <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> squid, although they are perfectly capable of taking larger prey should the opportunity present itself. They are often found in <!--del_lnk--> schools segregated by sex and size.<p>
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<p>The blue shark is an oceanic and <!--del_lnk--> epipelagic shark found worldwide in deep <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <!--del_lnk--> tropical waters from the surface to about 350 meters. In temperate seas it may come closer to shore where it can be observed by divers, while in tropical waters it occurs at greater depths. It is found from as far north as <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> to as far south as <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>. In the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific its greatest concentrations occur between 20° and 50° North but with strong seasonal fluctuations. In the tropics it is uniformly distributed between 20° N and 20° S. It prefers waters with a temperature range of 7–16° C but will tolerate temperatures of 21° C or above. It is highly migratory with records from the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic showing a regular clockwise migration within the prevailing currents.<p><a id="Anatomy_and_appearance" name="Anatomy_and_appearance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy and appearance</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1870.jpg.htm" title="Livery of Prionace glauca."><img alt="Livery of Prionace glauca." height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prionace_glauca.jpg" src="../../images/18/1870.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1870.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Livery of <i>Prionace glauca</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Blue sharks are light-bodied with long <!--del_lnk--> pectoral fins. The top of the body is deep blue and lighter on the sides. The underside of the shark is white. The animal grows to 3.8 <!--del_lnk--> meters or more, but the usual size is 1.8 to 2.4 m. The shark's typical weight is 60 to 80 <!--del_lnk--> kg. The largest recorded specimen weighed 205 kg. Blue sharks in the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> are generally smaller and do not exceed 2 m (6 ft). They are not typically confused with any other species.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Squid are an important prey item for blue sharks, but their diet also comprises other invertebrates such as <!--del_lnk--> cuttlefish and pelagic <!--del_lnk--> octopuses, as well as <!--del_lnk--> lobster, <!--del_lnk--> shrimp, <!--del_lnk--> crab, a large number of bony fishes, small sharks, mammalian carrion and occasional sea birds Whale and porpoise <!--del_lnk--> blubber and meat have been retrieved from the stomachs of captured specimens and they are known take <a href="../../wp/c/Cod.htm" title="Cod">cod</a> from trawl nets.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>They are vivaporous, with a yolk-sac placenta, delivering 4 to 135 pups per litter. The gestation period is between 9 and 12 months. Females mature at 5 to 6 years of age and males at 4 to 5. Courtship is believed to involve biting by the male, as mature specimens can be accurately sexed according to the presence or absence of bite scarring. Female blue sharks have adapted to the rigours of the mating ritual by developing skin 3 times as thick as that of the male.<p><a id="Importance_to_humans" name="Importance_to_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Importance to humans</span></h2>
<p>Blue sharks are the most heavily fished sharks in the world mainly as result of bycatch. It is estimated that 10 to 20 million individuals are killed each year as a result of fishing.. The flesh is edible, but not widely sought after; it is utilized fresh, dried, smoked and salted and for fishmeal. The skin is used for leather, the fins for <!--del_lnk--> shark-fin soup and the liver for oil. Blue sharks are occasionally sought as <!--del_lnk--> game fish and they are frequent accidental catches by commercial fisherman seeking <!--del_lnk--> swordfish or <a href="../../wp/t/Tuna.htm" title="Tuna">tuna</a>. Most interaction between blue sharks and humans takes place in deep water as they rarely venture close to shore. There are several documented attacks by blue sharks on people and boats.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_shark"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Shark', 'Temperate', 'Gulf of Mexico', 'Red Sea', 'South America', 'Fish', 'Temperate', 'Norway', 'Chile', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Cod', 'Tuna']
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Bluegrass_music
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bluegrass music</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_genres_styles_eras_and_events.htm">Musical genres, styles, eras and events</a></h3>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="brown" colspan="2"><font color="blue">Bluegrass</font></th>
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<th align="left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top">Stylistic origins:</th>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Country music, <!--del_lnk--> Scots-Irish Folk , English Folk <!--del_lnk--> Appalachian folk music, <!--del_lnk--> Blues, <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">Jazz</a></td>
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<th align="left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top">Cultural origins:</th>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top">Mid to late <!--del_lnk--> 1940s US</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top">Typical <a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">instruments</a>:</th>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Fiddle, <!--del_lnk--> banjo, acoustic <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> mandolin, <!--del_lnk--> dobro, and <!--del_lnk--> upright bass</td>
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<tr>
<th align="left" style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top">Mainstream popularity:</th>
<td style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" valign="top"><small>originally Southeast United States, but now pockets of popularity throughout U.S., and in locales as diverse as the Czech Republic and Japan</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="brown" colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> <font color="blue">Subgenres</font></th>
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<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="top"><small><!--del_lnk--> Progressive bluegrass - <!--del_lnk--> Traditional bluegrass</small></td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="brown" colspan="2" valign="top"><font color="blue">Fusion genres</font></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="top"><small><!--del_lnk--> Jam band</small></td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="brown" colspan="2" valign="top"><font color="blue">Regional scenes</font></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="top"><small><!--del_lnk--> Czech Republic</small></td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="brown" colspan="2" valign="top"><font color="blue">Other topics</font></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="top"><small><!--del_lnk--> Musicians - <!--del_lnk--> Hall of Honour</small></td>
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<p><b>Bluegrass music</b> is considered a form of <!--del_lnk--> American roots music with its own roots in <!--del_lnk--> English, <a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Ireland.htm" title="Music of Ireland">Irish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Scottish traditional music. The name of the genre is derived from the Blue Grass Boys, the name of <!--del_lnk--> Bill Monroe's band. Inspired by immigrants from the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> (particularly the <!--del_lnk--> Scots-Irish immigrants of <!--del_lnk--> Appalachia), as well as the music of rural African-Americans, <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> blues. Like jazz, bluegrass is played with each melody instrument switching off, playing improvised solos in turn while the others revert to backing; this is in contrast to <!--del_lnk--> old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together or one instrument carried the lead throughout while the others provide <!--del_lnk--> accompaniment.<p>
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</script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
<p><a id="Instrumentation" name="Instrumentation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Instrumentation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17065.jpg.htm" title="Bluegrass artists use a variety of stringed instruments to create a unique sound."><img alt="Bluegrass artists use a variety of stringed instruments to create a unique sound." height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bluegrass_group_jamming.jpg" src="../../images/170/17065.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Unlike mainstream <!--del_lnk--> country music, bluegrass relies mostly on acoustic stringed instruments. The <!--del_lnk--> fiddle, <!--del_lnk--> banjo, <!--del_lnk--> acoustic guitar, <!--del_lnk--> mandolin, and <!--del_lnk--> upright bass are sometimes joined by the <!--del_lnk--> resonator guitar (popularly known by the <!--del_lnk--> Dobro brand name). This instrumentation originated in rural black dance bands and was being abandonded by those groups (in favour of blues and jazz ensembles) when picked up by white musicians (van der Merwe 1989, p.62). Instrumental solos are improvised, and can frequently be technically demanding.<p>Debate rages among bluegrass musicians, fans, and scholars over what instrumentation constitutes a bluegrass band. Since the term bluegrass came from Bill Monroe's band, The Blue Grass Boys, many consider the instruments used in his band the traditional bluegrass instruments. These were the mandolin (played by Monroe), the fiddle, guitar, banjo and upright bass. At times the musicians may perform gospel songs, singing four-part harmony and including no or sparse instrumentation (often with banjo players switching to lead guitar). Bluegrass bands have included instruments as diverse as <!--del_lnk--> accordion, <!--del_lnk--> harmonica, <!--del_lnk--> Jew's harp, <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a>, <!--del_lnk--> drums, <!--del_lnk--> electric guitar, and electric versions of all other common bluegrass instruments, though these are considered to be more progressive and are a departure from the traditional bluegrass style.<p><a id="Vocals" name="Vocals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vocals</span></h3>
<p>Besides instrumentation, the distinguishing characteristics of bluegrass include vocal harmonies featuring two, three, or four parts, often featuring a <!--del_lnk--> dissonant or <!--del_lnk--> modal sound in the highest voice (see <!--del_lnk--> modal frame); an emphasis on traditional songs, often with sentimental or religious themes. This vocal style has been characterized as the "high lonesome sound." The "High Lonesome" sound can be credited to <!--del_lnk--> Shape-Note music where a high-pitched harmony, that can generally be characterized as having a nasal timbre, is sung over the main melody.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Creation" name="Creation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Creation</span></h3>
<p>Bluegrass as a style developed during the mid <!--del_lnk--> 1940s. Because of war rationing, recording was limited during this time, and the best we can say is that bluegrass was not played before <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and it was being played after. As with any musical genre, no one person can claim to have "invented" it. Rather, bluegrass is an amalgam of <!--del_lnk--> old-time music, <!--del_lnk--> blues, <a href="../../wp/r/Ragtime.htm" title="Ragtime">ragtime</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a>. Nevertheless, bluegrass's beginnings can be traced to one band. Today <!--del_lnk--> Bill Monroe is referred to as the "founding father" of bluegrass music; the bluegrass style was named for his band, the <!--del_lnk--> Blue Grass Boys, formed in 1939. The 1945 addition of <!--del_lnk--> banjo player <!--del_lnk--> Earl Scruggs, who played with a three-finger roll originally developed by Snuffy Jenkins but now almost universally known as "Scruggs style", is pointed to as the key moment in the development of this genre. Monroe's 1945-48 band, which featured <!--del_lnk--> banjo player <!--del_lnk--> Earl Scruggs, singer/guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Lester Flatt, fiddler Chubby Wise and bassist Howard Watts, aka "Cedric Rainwater," created the definitive sound and instrumental configuration that remains a model to this day.<p>By some arguments, as long as the <!--del_lnk--> Blue Grass Boys were the only band playing this music, it was just their unique style; it could not be considered a musical genre until other bands began performing the same style. In 1947 <!--del_lnk--> the Stanley Brothers recorded the traditional song "<!--del_lnk--> Molly and Tenbrooks" in the Blue Grass Boys' style, and this could also be pointed to as the beginning of bluegrass as a genre.<p>It is important to note that bluegrass is not and never was a <a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk music</a> under a strict definition; however, the topical and narrative themes of many bluegrass songs are highly reminiscent of "folk music". In fact many songs that are widely considered to be "bluegrass" are older works legitimately classified as "folk" or "old-time" performed in a "bluegrass" style. From its earliest days to today, bluegrass has been recorded and performed by professional musicians. Although amateur bluegrass musicians and trends such as "parking lot picking" are too important to be ignored, it is professional musicians who have set the direction of the genre. While bluegrass is not a folk music in the strictest sense, the interplay between bluegrass music and other folk forms has been studied. Folklorist Dr. Neil Rosenberg, for example, shows that most devoted bluegrass fans and musicians are familiar with traditional folk songs and old-time music and that these songs are often played at shows and festivals.<p><a id="First_generation" name="First_generation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">First generation</span></h3>
<p>First generation bluegrass musicians dominated the genre from its beginnings in the mid-1940s through the mid-1960s. This group generally consists of those who were playing during the "Golden Age" in the 1950s, including <!--del_lnk--> Bill Monroe and his <!--del_lnk--> Blue Grass Boys, the <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Brothers, <!--del_lnk--> Lester Flatt & <!--del_lnk--> Earl Scruggs with the <!--del_lnk--> Foggy Mountain Boys, <!--del_lnk--> Reno and Smiley, the Lonesome Pine Fiddlers, Jim and Jesse, the Osborne Brothers, Mac Martin and the Dixie Travellers, and <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Martin.<p><a id="Second_generation" name="Second_generation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Second generation</span></h3>
<p>Bluegrass's second generation came to prominence in the mid- to late-1960s, although many of the second generation musicians were playing (often at young ages) in first generation bands prior to this. Among the most prominent second generation musicians are <!--del_lnk--> The Dillards, <!--del_lnk--> J. D. Crowe, <!--del_lnk--> Doyle Lawson, <!--del_lnk--> Sam Bush, <!--del_lnk--> John Hartford, <!--del_lnk--> Norman Blake, and <!--del_lnk--> Tony Rice. With the second generation came a growth in <!--del_lnk--> progressive bluegrass, as exemplified by second generation bands such as the <!--del_lnk--> The Country Gentlemen, <!--del_lnk--> New Grass Revival, <!--del_lnk--> Seldom Scene, and <!--del_lnk--> Del McCoury and the Dixie Pals. In that vein, first-generation bluegrass fiddler <!--del_lnk--> Vassar Clements, mandolin virtuoso <!--del_lnk--> David Grisman, <!--del_lnk--> Grateful Dead frontman <!--del_lnk--> Jerry Garcia (on banjo) and <!--del_lnk--> Peter Rowan as lead vocalist collaborated on the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Old and in the Way</i>; the Garcia connection helped to expose progressive bluegrass to a <!--del_lnk--> rock music audience.<p><a id="Third_generation" name="Third_generation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Third generation</span></h3>
<p>The third generation in bluegrass reached primacy in the mid-1980s. Third generation bluegrass saw a number of notable changes from the music played in previous years. In several regards, this generation saw a redefinition of "mainstream bluegrass." Increased availability of high-quality sound equipment led to each band member being miked independently, and a "wall of sound" style developed (exemplified by <!--del_lnk--> IIIrd Tyme Out and <!--del_lnk--> Lonesome River Band). Following the example set by Tony Rice, lead guitar playing became more common (and more elaborate). An electric bass became a generally, but not universally, accepted alternative to the traditional acoustic bass, though electrification of other instruments continued to meet resistance outside progressive circles. Nontraditional chord progressions also became more widely accepted. On the other hand, this generation saw a rennaissance of more traditional songs, played in the newer style.<p><a id="Fourth_generation" name="Fourth_generation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fourth generation</span></h3>
<p>It could be argued that a fourth generation of bluegrass musicians is beginning to appear, marked by a high level of technical skill. Although it is too soon to see definite trends, the most notable fourth generation musician to emerge so far is probably <!--del_lnk--> Chris Thile, who has recorded five solo albums since he was 13.<p><a id="Recent_developments" name="Recent_developments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recent developments</span></h3>
<p>Since the late 1990s, several mainstream <!--del_lnk--> country musicians have recorded bluegrass albums. <!--del_lnk--> Ricky Skaggs, who began as a bluegrass musician and crossed over to mainstream country in the 1980s, returned to bluegrass in <!--del_lnk--> 1996, and since then has recorded several bluegrass albums and tours with his bluegrass band <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky Thunder. Around the same time, country music superstars <!--del_lnk--> Dolly Parton and <!--del_lnk--> Patty Loveless have both released several bluegrass albums. Along with the Coen Brothers' movie, <!--del_lnk--> O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the subsequent "Down From the Mountain" music tour, this has brought bluegrass music to a much wider audience. Meanwhile, bands such as the <!--del_lnk--> Yonder Mountain String Band in the United States, and <!--del_lnk--> Druhá Tráva in the Czech Republic have attracted large audiences while pushing at the edges of <!--del_lnk--> progressive bluegrass.<p>Though she is often considered a crossover or mainstream country artist, no discussion of recent developments in bluegrass music would be complete without mention of <!--del_lnk--> Alison Krauss. A vocalist/fiddler whose first album was released when she was just 16, Krauss and her band, Union Station, were major contributors to the soundtrack of 'O Brother, Where Art Thou?'. As a solo artist, collaborator, producer and with Union Station, Krauss has won, as of 2006, 20 Grammy Awards, the most of any female artist in history. She is now tied for 7th place on the all-time winners list.<p>Other notable recent bluegrass bands are the Earl Brothers, who write innovative music that remains evocative of bluegrass and old-time tradition, and Colorado's Open Road, a traditional-sounding band with original material.<p><a id="Subgenres" name="Subgenres"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Subgenres</span></h2>
<p>In addition to what might be considered "mainstream" bluegrass, which has gradually changed over the last 60 years, two major subgenres have existed almost since the music's beginning.<p><a id="Traditional_bluegrass" name="Traditional_bluegrass"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Traditional bluegrass</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Traditional bluegrass, as the name implies, emphasizes the traditional elements. Traditional bluegrass musicians are likely to play folk songs, songs with simple traditional chord progressions, and use only acoustic instruments. In the early years, traditional bluegrass sometimes included instruments no longer accepted in mainstream bluegrass, such as washboards, mouth harps, and <!--del_lnk--> harmonicas. Traditional bands may use bluegrass instruments in slightly different ways (claw-hammer style of banjo playing, or multiple guitars or fiddles within a band). In this sub-genre, the guitar rarely takes the lead (the notable exception being gospel songs), remaining a rhythm instrument. Melodies and lyrics tend to be simple, and a I-IV-V chord pattern is very common.<p><a id="Progressive_bluegrass" name="Progressive_bluegrass"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Progressive bluegrass</span></h3>
<p>The other major subgenre is <!--del_lnk--> progressive bluegrass, roughly synonymous with "newgrass" (the latter term is attributed to <!--del_lnk--> New Grass Revival member Ebo Walker). Progressive bluegrass came to widespread attention in the late 1960s and 1970s, as some groups began using electric instruments and importing songs from other genres (particularly rock & roll). However, progressive bluegrass can be traced back to one of the earliest bluegrass bands. A brief listen to the banjo and bass duets Earl Scruggs played even in the earliest days of the Foggy Mountain Boys give a hint of wild chord progressions to come. The four key distinguishing elements (not always all present) of progressive bluegrass are instrumentation (frequently including electric instruments, drums, piano, and more), songs imported (or styles imitated) from other genres, chord progressions, and lengthy "<!--del_lnk--> jam band"-style improvisation.<p><a id="Social_and_musical_impact" name="Social_and_musical_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Social and musical impact</span></h2>
<p><a id="Bluegrass_in_movies" name="Bluegrass_in_movies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluegrass in movies</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cold Mountain (film)</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> O Brother, Where Art Thou?</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> King of Bluegrass: The Life and Times of Jimmy Martin</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> That High Lonesome Sound</i><li><i>High Lonesome: the Story of Bluegrass Music</i> (documentary)<li><i>The Ralph Stanley Story</i> (documentary)<li><i>Bill Monroe: the Father of Bluegrass</i> (documentary)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Deliverance</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Harlan County, USA</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bonnie and Clyde</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bluegrass Journey</i> (documentary)</ul>
<p><a id="Publications" name="Publications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Publications</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bluegrass Unlimited <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Bluegrass Now <!--del_lnk--> <li>Bluegrass Works <!--del_lnk--> , a bluegrass webzine<li>[Banjo Newsletter] <!--del_lnk--> <li>[Bluegrass Europe] <!--del_lnk--> <li>International Bluegrass<li><!--del_lnk--> Moonshiner (Japanese) <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Women in Bluegrass Newsletter (has suspended publication) <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Bluegrass Music Profiles <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<p><a id="Museums" name="Museums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> International Bluegrass Music Museum <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> Owensboro, Kentucky<li><!--del_lnk--> Bill Monroe Museum <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> Rosine, Kentucky<li><!--del_lnk--> Bill Monroe's Bluegrass Hall of Fame and Country Star Museum <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> Bean Blossom, Indiana<li><!--del_lnk--> Ralph Stanley Museum and Traditional Mountain Music Centre <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> Clintwood, Virginia</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegrass_music"</div>
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Bluetooth
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bluetooth</h1>
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<p><b>Bluetooth</b> is an industrial specification for wireless <!--del_lnk--> personal area networks (PANs). Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as <!--del_lnk--> mobile phones, <!--del_lnk--> laptops, <!--del_lnk--> PCs, <!--del_lnk--> printers, <!--del_lnk--> digital cameras, and <!--del_lnk--> video game consoles over a secure, globally unlicensed short-range <a href="../../wp/r/Radio_frequency.htm" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a>. The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the <!--del_lnk--> Bluetooth Special Interest Group.<p>
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<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/158.jpg.htm" title="A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset"><img alt="A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset" class="thumbimage" height="162" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bluetooth_headset.jpg" src="../../images/1/158.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/158.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A typical Bluetooth <!--del_lnk--> mobile phone <!--del_lnk--> headset</div>
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<p>Bluetooth is a <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a> standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 meter, 10 <!--del_lnk--> meters, 100 meters) based on low-cost <!--del_lnk--> transceiver <a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" title="Integrated circuit">microchips</a> in each device.<p>Bluetooth lets these devices communicate with each other when they are in range. The devices use a radio communications system, so they do not have to be in line of sight of each other, and can even be in other rooms, as long as the received transmission is powerful enough.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Class</th>
<th abbr="Maximum power">Maximum Permitted Power<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> mW/<!--del_lnk--> dBm)</th>
<th abbr="Range">Range<br /> (approximate)</th>
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<tr>
<th>Class 1</th>
<td>100 mW (20 dBm)</td>
<td>~100 meters</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Class 2</th>
<td>2.5 mW (4 dBm)</td>
<td>~10 meters</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Class 3</th>
<td>1 mW (0 dBm)</td>
<td>~1 meter</td>
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</table>
<p><a id="Bluetooth_profiles" name="Bluetooth_profiles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth profiles</span></h3>
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<p>In order to use Bluetooth, a device must be compatible with certain Bluetooth profiles. These define the possible applications and uses.<p><a id="List_of_applications" name="List_of_applications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">List of applications</span></h3>
<p>More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include:<ul>
<li>Wireless control of and communication between a <!--del_lnk--> cell phone and a <!--del_lnk--> hands-free <!--del_lnk--> headset or car kit. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.<li>Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.<li>Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being the <!--del_lnk--> mouse, <!--del_lnk--> keyboard and <!--del_lnk--> printer.<li>Transfer of files between devices with <!--del_lnk--> OBEX.<li>Transfer of contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX.<li>Replacement of traditional wired <!--del_lnk--> serial communications in test equipment, <!--del_lnk--> GPS receivers, medical equipment and traffic control devices.<li>For controls where <!--del_lnk--> infrared was traditionally used.<li>Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.<li>Seventh-generation <!--del_lnk--> game consoles—Nintendo <!--del_lnk--> Wii, Sony <!--del_lnk--> PlayStation 3—use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.</ul>
<p><a id="Bluetooth_vs._Wi-Fi_in_networking" name="Bluetooth_vs._Wi-Fi_in_networking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi in networking</span></h3>
<p>Bluetooth and <!--del_lnk--> Wi-Fi both have their places in today's offices, homes, and on the move: setting up networks, printing, or transferring presentations and files from PDAs to computers.<p><a id="Bluetooth" name="Bluetooth"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth</span></h4>
<p>Bluetooth is implemented in a variety of new products such as phones, printers, modems, and headsets. Bluetooth is acceptable for situations when two or more devices are in proximity to each other and don't require high bandwidth. Bluetooth is most commonly used with phones and hand-held computing devices, either using a Bluetooth headset or transferring files from phones/PDAs to computers.<p>Bluetooth also simplifies the discovery and setup of services. Bluetooth devices advertise all services they provide. This makes the utility of the service that much more accessible, without the need to worry about network addresses, permissions and all the other considerations that go with typical networks.<p><a id="Wi-Fi" name="Wi-Fi"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Wi-Fi</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Wi-Fi is more analogous to the traditional Ethernet network and requires configuration to set up shared resources, transmit files, set up audio links (for example, headsets and hands-free devices). It uses the same radio frequencies as Bluetooth, but with higher power output resulting in a stronger connection. Wi-Fi is sometimes, but rarely, called "wireless <!--del_lnk--> Ethernet." Although this description is inaccurate, it provides an indication of its relative strengths and weaknesses. Wi-Fi requires more setup, but is better suited for operating full-scale networks because it enables a faster connection, better range from the base station, and better security than Bluetooth.<p>One method for comparing the efficiency of wireless transmission protocols such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi is <!--del_lnk--> spatial capacity, or bits per second per square meter.<p><a id="Computer_requirements" name="Computer_requirements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Computer requirements</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/161.jpg.htm" title="A typical Bluetooth USB dongle (BCM2045A), shown here next to a metric ruler"><img alt="A typical Bluetooth USB dongle (BCM2045A), shown here next to a metric ruler" class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BluetoothUSB.jpg" src="../../images/1/161.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/161.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A typical Bluetooth <!--del_lnk--> USB dongle (BCM2045A), shown here next to a metric ruler</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/163.jpg.htm" title="An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm)"><img alt="An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm)" class="thumbimage" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DELL_TrueMobile_350_Bluetooth_card.jpg" src="../../images/1/163.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/163.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm)</div>
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<p>A <!--del_lnk--> personal computer must have a Bluetooth <!--del_lnk--> dongle in order to be able to communicate with other Bluetooth devices (such as <!--del_lnk--> mobile phones, <!--del_lnk--> mice and <!--del_lnk--> keyboards). While some <!--del_lnk--> portable computers and fewer <!--del_lnk--> desktop computers already contain an internal Bluetooth dongle, most computers require an external <!--del_lnk--> USB Bluetooth dongle. Unlike its predecessor, <!--del_lnk--> IrDA, in which each device requires a separate dongle, multiple Bluetooth devices can communicate with a computer over a single dongle.<p><a id="Operating_system_support" name="Operating_system_support"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Operating system support</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" title="Linux">Linux</a> provides two <!--del_lnk--> Bluetooth stacks, with the BlueZ stack included with most Linux kernels. It was originally developed by <!--del_lnk--> Qualcomm and <!--del_lnk--> Affix. BlueZ supports all core Bluetooth protocols and layers.<p>Only Microsoft <!--del_lnk--> Windows XP Service Pack 2 and later versions of Windows have native support for Bluetooth. Previous versions required the users to install their Bluetooth dongles' own drivers, which tended to clash with the operating system. <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s own Bluetooth dongles (that are packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2.<p><a id="Specifications_and_features" name="Specifications_and_features"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Specifications and features</span></h2>
<p>The Bluetooth specification was developed in 1994 by <!--del_lnk--> Sven Mattisson and <!--del_lnk--> Jaap Haartsen, who were working for <!--del_lnk--> Ericsson Mobile Platforms in <!--del_lnk--> Lund, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. The specifications were formalized by the <!--del_lnk--> Bluetooth Special Interest Group (<!--del_lnk--> SIG). The SIG was formally announced on <!--del_lnk--> May 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1998. Today it has over 7000 companies worldwide. It was established by <!--del_lnk--> Ericsson, <!--del_lnk--> Sony Ericsson, <!--del_lnk--> IBM, <!--del_lnk--> Intel, <!--del_lnk--> Toshiba, and <!--del_lnk--> Nokia, and later joined by many other companies. Bluetooth is also known as <!--del_lnk--> IEEE 802.15.1.<p><a id="Bluetooth_1.0_and_1.0B" name="Bluetooth_1.0_and_1.0B"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B</span></h3>
<p>Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulties making their products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also had mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the <!--del_lnk--> handshaking process, rendering anonymity impossible at a protocol level, which was a major setback for services planned to be used in Bluetooth environments, such as <!--del_lnk--> Consumerium.<p><a id="Bluetooth_1.1" name="Bluetooth_1.1"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth 1.1</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed.<li>Added support for non-encrypted channels.<li>Received Signal Strength Indicator (<!--del_lnk--> RSSI).</ul>
<p><a id="Bluetooth_1.2" name="Bluetooth_1.2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth 1.2</span></h3>
<p>This version is backward-compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include the following:<ul>
<li>Faster Connection and Discovery<li><i>Adaptive <!--del_lnk--> frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH)</i>, which improves resistance to <!--del_lnk--> radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.<li>Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 kbps, as in 1.1.<li>Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets.<li>Host Controller Interface (HCI) support for three-wire <!--del_lnk--> UART.</ul>
<p><a id="Bluetooth_2.0" name="Bluetooth_2.0"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth 2.0</span></h3>
<p>This version, specified in November 2004, is backward-compatible with 1.1. The main enhancement is the introduction of an enhanced data rate (EDR) of 3.0 Mbps. This has the following effects:<ul>
<li>Three times faster transmission speed—up to 10 times in certain cases (up to 2.1 <!--del_lnk--> Mbit/s).<li>Lower power consumption through a reduced <!--del_lnk--> duty cycle.<li>Simplification of multi-link scenarios due to more available bandwidth.<li>Further improved (<!--del_lnk--> bit error rate) performance.</ul>
<p><a id="Bluetooth_2.1" name="Bluetooth_2.1"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth 2.1</span></h3>
<p>Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR, is fully backward-compatible with 1.1, and will be adopted by the Bluetooth SIG once interoperability testing has completed. This specification includes the following features:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Extended inquiry response: provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection. This information includes the name of the device, a list of services the device supports, as well as other information like the time of day, and pairing information.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sniff subrating: reduces the power consumption when devices are in the sniff low-power mode, especially on links with asymmetric data flows. <!--del_lnk--> Human interface devices (HID) are expected to benefit the most, with mouse and keyboard devices increasing the battery life from 3 to 10 times those currently used.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Encryption Pause Resume: enables an encryption key to be refreshed, enabling much stronger encryption for connections that stay up for longer than 24 hours.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Secure Simple Pairing: radically improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. It is expected that this feature will significantly increase the use of Bluetooth.</ul>
<p><a id="Future_of_Bluetooth" name="Future_of_Bluetooth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Future of Bluetooth</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Broadcast Channel: enables Bluetooth information points. This will drive the adoption of Bluetooth into cell phones, and enable advertising models based around users pulling information from the information points, and not based around the intrusive object push model that is used in a limited way today.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Topology Management: enables the automatic configuration of the piconet topologies especially in scatternet situations that are becoming more common today. This should all be invisible to the users of the technology, while also making the technology just work.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alternate MAC PHY: enables the use of alternative <!--del_lnk--> MAC and <!--del_lnk--> PHY's for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth Radio will still be used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration, however when lots of data needs to be sent, the high speed alternate MAC PHY's will be used to transport the data. This means that the proven low power connection models of Bluetooth are used when the system is idle, and the low power per bit radios are used when lots of data needs to be sent.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> QoS improvements: enable audio and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same <!--del_lnk--> piconet.</ul>
<p>Bluetooth technology already plays a part in the rising <!--del_lnk--> Voice over IP (VOIP) scene, with Bluetooth headsets being used as wireless extensions to the PC audio system. As VOIP becomes more popular, and more suitable for general home or office users than wired phone lines, Bluetooth may be used in cordless handsets, with a base station connected to the Internet link.<p>The next version of Bluetooth after v2.1, code-named Seattle, that will be called Bluetooth 3.0, has many of the same features, but is most notable for plans to adopt <!--del_lnk--> ultra-wideband (UWB) radio technology. This will allow Bluetooth use over UWB radio, enabling very fast data transfers of up to 480 Mbit/s, synchronizations, and file pushes, while building on the very low-power idle modes of Bluetooth. The combination of a radio using little power when no data is transmitted and a high data rate radio to transmit bulk data could be the start of software radios. Bluetooth, given its world-wide regulatory approval, low-power operation, and robust data transmission capabilities, provides an excellent signaling channel to enable the soft radio concept.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 28 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group announced its selection of the <!--del_lnk--> WiMedia Alliance Multi-Band Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM) version of UWB for integration with current Bluetooth wireless technology.<p>UWB integration will create a version of Bluetooth wireless technology with a high-speed/high-data-rate option. This new version of Bluetooth technology will meet the high-speed demands of synchronizing and transferring large amounts of data, as well as enabling high-quality video and audio applications for portable devices, multi-media projectors and television sets, and wireless VOIP.<p>At the same time, Bluetooth technology will continue catering to the needs of very low power applications such as mice, keyboards, and mono headsets, enabling devices to select the most appropriate physical radio for the application requirements, thereby offering the best of both worlds.<p>The Bluetooth SIG have also announced that they are looking to include Ultra Low Power use cases into Bluetooth, enabling a whole new set of use cases. This inculdes watches displaying Caller ID information, sports sensors monitoring your heart rate during exercise, as well as medical devices. The Medical Devices Working Group is also creating a medical devices profile and associated protocols to enable this market.<p>The Draft High Speed Bluetooth Specification is available at <!--del_lnk--> the Bluetooth website.<p><a id="Technical_information" name="Technical_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technical information</span></h2>
<p><a id="Communication_and_connection" name="Communication_and_connection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Communication and connection</span></h3>
<p>A master Bluetooth device can communicate with up to seven devices. This network group of up to eight devices is called a <!--del_lnk--> piconet.<p>A piconet is an ad-hoc computer network, using Bluetooth technology protocols to allow one master device to interconnect with up to seven active devices. Up to 255 further devices can be inactive, or parked, which the master device can bring into active status at any time.<p>At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device. However, the master switches rapidly from device to another in a <!--del_lnk--> round-robin fashion. (Simultaneous transmission from the master to multiple other devices is possible, but not used much.) Either device can switch roles and become the master at any time.<p>Bluetooth specification allows connecting two or more piconets together to form a <!--del_lnk--> scatternet, with some devices acting as a bridge by simultaneously playing the master role and the slave role in one piconet. These devices are planned for 2007.<p><a id="Setting_up_connections" name="Setting_up_connections"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Setting up connections</span></h3>
<p>Any Bluetooth device will transmit the following sets of information on demand:<ul>
<li>Device name.<li>Device class.<li>List of services.<li>Technical information, for example, device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification, clock offset.</ul>
<p>Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to which to connect, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of device services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be started by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device.<p>Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However, these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by the user. This name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.<p>Most phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs that are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several phones in range named <!--del_lnk--> T610 (see <!--del_lnk--> Bluejacking).<p><a id="Pairing" name="Pairing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pairing</span></h3>
<p>Pairs of devices may establish a trusted relationship by learning (by user input) a shared secret known as a <i>passkey</i>. A device that wants to communicate only with a trusted device can <a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" title="Cryptography">cryptographically</a> <!--del_lnk--> authenticate the identity of the other device. Trusted devices may also <!--del_lnk--> encrypt the data that they exchange over the air so that no one can listen in. The encryption can, however, be turned off, and passkeys are stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Since the Bluetooth address is permanent, a pairing is preserved, even if the Bluetooth name is changed. Pairs can be deleted at any time by either device. Devices generally require pairing or prompt the owner before they allow a remote device to use any or most of their services. Some devices, such as <!--del_lnk--> Sony Ericsson phones, usually accept OBEX business cards and notes without any pairing or prompts.<p>Certain printers and access points allow any device to use its services by default, much like unsecured <!--del_lnk--> Wi-Fi networks. Pairing algorithms are sometimes manufacturer-specific for transmitters and receivers used in applications such as music and entertainment.<p><a id="Air_interface" name="Air_interface"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Air interface</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> protocol operates in the license-free <!--del_lnk--> ISM band at 2.45 <!--del_lnk--> GHz. To avoid interfering with other protocols that use the 2.45 GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz wide) and changes channels up to 1600 times per second. Implementations with versions 1.1 and 1.2 reach speeds of 723.1 <!--del_lnk--> kbit/s. Version 2.0 implementations feature Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) and reach 2.1 <!--del_lnk--> Mbit/s. Technically, version 2.0 devices have a higher power consumption, but the three times faster rate reduces the transmission times, effectively reducing power consumption to half that of 1.x devices (assuming equal traffic load).<p>Bluetooth differs from <!--del_lnk--> Wi-Fi in that the latter provides higher throughput and covers greater distances, but requires more expensive hardware and higher power consumption. They use the same <!--del_lnk--> frequency range, but employ different multiplexing schemes. While Bluetooth is a cable replacement for a variety of applications, Wi-Fi is a cable replacement only for <!--del_lnk--> local area network access. Bluetooth is often thought of as wireless <!--del_lnk--> USB, whereas Wi-Fi is wireless <!--del_lnk--> Ethernet, both operating at much lower bandwidth than the cable systems they are trying to replace. However, this analogy is not entirely accurate since any Bluetooth device can, in theory, host any other Bluetooth device—something that is not universal to USB devices.<p>Many USB Bluetooth <!--del_lnk--> adapters are available, some of which also include an <!--del_lnk--> IrDA adapter. Older (pre-2003) Bluetooth adapters, however, have limited services, offering only the Bluetooth Enumerator and a less-powerful Bluetooth Radio incarnation. Such devices can link computers with Bluetooth, but they do not offer much in the way of services that modern adapters do.<p><a id="Security" name="Security"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Security</span></h3>
<p>Bluetooth implements <!--del_lnk--> authentication and <!--del_lnk--> key derivation with custom algorithms based on the <!--del_lnk--> SAFER+ block cipher. The initialization key and master key are generated with the E22 algorithm. The <!--del_lnk--> E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets. This makes eavesdropping on Bluetooth-enabled devices more difficult.<p><a id="Social_concerns" name="Social_concerns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Social concerns</span></h2>
<p><a id="Security_concerns" name="Security_concerns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Security concerns</span></h3>
<p><b>2003</b>:<br /> In November <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data. It should be noted, however, that the reported security problems concerned some poor implementations of Bluetooth, rather than the protocol itself.<p>In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was able to do a field-trial at the <!--del_lnk--> CeBIT fairgrounds, showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called BlueBug was used for this experiment.<p><b>2004</b>:<br /> In April <!--del_lnk--> 2004, security consultant firm <!--del_lnk--> @stake (now <!--del_lnk--> Symantec) revealed a security flaw that makes it possible to <!--del_lnk--> crack conversations on Bluetooth based wireless headsets by <!--del_lnk--> reverse engineering the <!--del_lnk--> PIN.<p>This is one of a number of concerns that have been raised over the security of Bluetooth communications. In 2004 the first purported <!--del_lnk--> virus using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the <!--del_lnk--> Symbian OS. The virus was first described by <!--del_lnk--> Kaspersky Lab and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate.<p>The virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as <!--del_lnk--> 29A and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth or <!--del_lnk--> Symbian OS since the virus has never spread in the wild.<p>In August 2004, a world-record-setting experiment (see also <!--del_lnk--> Bluetooth sniping) showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to 1.78 km (1.08 <!--del_lnk--> mile) with directional antennas. This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth-devices from a distance beyond expectation. However, such experiments do not work with signal amplifiers. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on.<p><b>2005</b>:<br /> In April 2005, <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge University</a> security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the PIN-based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices, confirming the attacks to be practicably fast and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method to be vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they carried out an implementation which showed that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices, such as handphones.<p>In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published the paper "Cracking the Bluetooth PIN1," which shows both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if they were present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary.<p>In August 2005, police in <!--del_lnk--> Cambridgeshire, England, issued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth-enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure that any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way.<p><b>2006</b>:<br /> In April 2006, researchers from <!--del_lnk--> Secure Network and <!--del_lnk--> F-Secure published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm.<p>In October 2006, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell over Bluetooth on Mac OSX 10.3.9 and 10.4. They also demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and Shaked.<p><a id="Health_concerns" name="Health_concerns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health concerns</span></h3>
<p>Bluetooth uses the <!--del_lnk--> microwave <a href="../../wp/r/Radio_frequency.htm" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a> spectrum in the 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz range. The fact that microwave ovens use the same frequency may account for some of the public concern about a possible health hazard. Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is 1mW, 2.5mW, and 100mW for Class 3, Class 2, and Class 1 devices respectively, which puts Class 1 at roughly the same level as cell phones, and the other two classes much lower.. Accordingly, Class 2 and Class 3 Bluetooth devices are considered less of a potential hazard than cell phones, and Class 1 may be of concern comparable to that of cell phones.<p><a id="Origin_of_the_name_and_the_logo" name="Origin_of_the_name_and_the_logo"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin of the name and the logo</span></h2>
<p>Bluetooth was named after a late 900s king, <!--del_lnk--> Harald Bluetooth King of <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>. He is known for his unification of previously warring tribes from Denmark (including <!--del_lnk--> Scania, present-day <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, where the Bluetooth technology was invented), and <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>. Bluetooth likewise was intended to unify different technologies, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a> and mobile phones.<p>The name may have been inspired less by the historical Harald than the loose interpretation of him in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Long Ships</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Frans Gunnar Bengtsson, a Swedish <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a>-inspired novel.<p>The Bluetooth logo merges the Nordic <!--del_lnk--> runes analogous to the modern Latin H and B: <a class="image" href="../../images/1/165.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="21" longdesc="/wiki/Image:H-rune.gif" src="../../images/1/165.gif" width="10" /></a> (<!--del_lnk--> haglaz) and <a class="image" href="../../images/1/183.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Runic_letter_berkanan.png" src="../../images/1/183.png" width="10" /></a> (<!--del_lnk--> berkanan) forming a <!--del_lnk--> bind rune.<p><a id="Bluetooth_Consortium" name="Bluetooth_Consortium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bluetooth Consortium</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1998, <!--del_lnk--> Ericsson, <!--del_lnk--> IBM, <!--del_lnk--> Intel, and <!--del_lnk--> Nokia, formed a consortium and adopted the code name Bluetooth for their proposed open specification. In December 1999, <!--del_lnk--> 3Com, <!--del_lnk--> Lucent Technologies, <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Motorola joined the initial founders as the promoter group. Since that time, <!--del_lnk--> Lucent Technologies transferred their membership to their spinoff <!--del_lnk--> Agere Systems, and <!--del_lnk--> 3Com has left the promoter group.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Boidae</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1871.jpg.htm" title="Red-tailed Boa, Boa constrictor"><img alt="Red-tailed Boa, Boa constrictor" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Columbian_boa_constricor.jpg" src="../../images/18/1871.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Red-tailed Boa, <i>Boa constrictor</i></small></div>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">Reptilia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Squamata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Serpentes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Boidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Gray, 1825</small></td>
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</td>
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<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Genera</center>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Acrantophis</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Boa</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Candoia</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Corallus</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Epicrates</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eryx</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eunectes</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Gongylophis</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sanzinia</i></ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br /><b>Boas</b> are a type of <!--del_lnk--> snake that are members of the <b>Boidae</b> family. Boas are <!--del_lnk--> basal snakes that are "primitive" in evolutionary terms (i.e. less derived). They are <!--del_lnk--> constrictors and most give birth to live young. They have <!--del_lnk--> anal spurs, a pair of claws on each side of the <!--del_lnk--> cloaca which assist in mating. Boas are named after cows (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>: <i>bos</i>) because of the old myth that boa snakes pursue cows and suckle them until they are drained to death.<p>Boas have two subfamilies: <!--del_lnk--> Boinae or true boas and Erycinae or <!--del_lnk--> sand boas. Pythons are sometimes classified as a subfamily of Boidae, but are frequently listed under their own family, <!--del_lnk--> Pythonidae.<p><a id="Boidae" name="Boidae"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Boidae</span></h2>
<p>True boas are medium sized to large snakes. Females are usually larger than their male counterparts. Boas contain many subspecies based on locaility. They include Colombian, Suriname, Bolivian, Peruvian, Hog Island, Long Tail Peruvian, Argentine and more. The boas from the amazon basin are the most colorful possessing bright cherry red tails. It used to be said that boas were New World Snakes and pythons were Old World Snakes, but, with boas found on Madagascar and the Solomon Islands, this is not quite true. Instead, it is possible that boas have survived in evolutionarily isolated areas. South America, until a few million years ago, had a distinct fauna that included <!--del_lnk--> marsupial <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>; with the land bridge to North America, boas have migrated north as placental mammals and <!--del_lnk--> colubrids (for example) have migrated south.<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Acrantophis</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Dumeril's Boa and <!--del_lnk--> Madagascar Ground Boa; sometimes equated with <i>Boa</i>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Boa</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Red-tailed Boa, <i>Boa constrictor</i>, and relatives)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Candoia</i> (Pacific boas)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Charina</i>(Rosy boas)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Corallus</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Tree boas)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Epicrates</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Rainbow boas and Island boas)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eryx</i> (Sand boas, <!--del_lnk--> Eryx johnii)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eunectes</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Anaconda.htm" title="Anaconda">Anacondas</a>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Gongylophis</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Gongylophis conicus</i>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sanzinia</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Madagascar Tree Boa; sometimes equated with <i>Boa</i>)</ul>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1872.jpg.htm" title="An Argentine Boa"><img alt="An Argentine Boa" height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Argentine_Boa.JPG" src="../../images/18/1872.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1872.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An Argentine Boa</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:344px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1873.jpg.htm" title="Cook's Tree Boa"><img alt="Cook's Tree Boa" height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:0080caroni3.JPG" src="../../images/18/1873.jpg" width="342" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1873.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cook's Tree Boa</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<br clear="clear" />
<p><a id="Erycinae" name="Erycinae"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Erycinae</span></h2>
<p>Compared to true boas, erycines are quite small, with most members of this subfamily remaining well under a metre in length. Fossil erycines have been found in rock strata over 50 million years old, and were once widespread in North America. Now, only two species remain in North America, as well as the sand boas in Africa, Asia and southeastern Europe.<p>At least three erycine species lay <!--del_lnk--> eggs: the <!--del_lnk--> Calabar Burrowing "Python" , <i>Calabaria reinhardtii</i> (once classified as a python for this reason); the Arabian Sand Boa, <i>Eryx jayakari</i>; and the West African Sand Boa, <i>Eryx muelleri</i>.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Calabaria reinhardtii</i> (Calabar Burrowing "Python", Africa; sometimes equated with <i>Charina</i>)<li><i>Charina bottae</i> (<!--del_lnk--> rubber boas, west coast of North America)<li><i>Eryx</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Sand boa, Africa, western Asia and southeastern Europe)<li><i>Lichanura trivirgata</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Rosy boa, southwestern U.S. and northwestern Mexico; sometimes equated with <i>Charina</i>)</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boa"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Board game</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Games.htm">Games</a></h3>
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<p>A <b>board game</b> is a <a href="../../wp/g/Game.htm" title="Game">game</a> played with counters or pieces that are placed on, removed from, or moved across a "board" (a premarked surface, usually specific to that game). Simple board games often make ideal "family entertainment" since they are often appropriate for all ages. Some board games, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">chess</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" title="Go (board game)">go/weiqi</a>, <!--del_lnk--> xiangqi, <!--del_lnk--> shogi, or <!--del_lnk--> oware, have intense strategic value and have been classics for centuries.<p>There are many different types of board games. Many games simulate aspects of real life. Popular games of this type include:<ul>
<li><i><a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" title="Monopoly (game)">Monopoly</a></i>, which simulates the <!--del_lnk--> real estate market<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cluedo/Clue</i>, which simulates a <!--del_lnk--> murder mystery<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Risk</i>, which simulates warfare</ul>
<p>Other games only loosely, or do not at all, attempt to imitate reality. These include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> abstract strategy games like <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">chess</a>, <!--del_lnk--> checkers or <a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" title="Go (board game)">go</a><li><!--del_lnk--> word games, like <i><!--del_lnk--> Scrabble</i><li><!--del_lnk--> trivia games, like <i><!--del_lnk--> Trivial Pursuit</i>.</ul>
<p>A new genre of board games, <!--del_lnk--> DVD games, was introduced into the marketplace in 2002 with the launch of the first edition of <!--del_lnk--> Scene It? (now distributed in the mass market channel by <!--del_lnk--> Mattel), and have spawned their own game category.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1874.jpg.htm" title="A shelf full of board games, including Risk, Monopoly and Trivial Pursuit."><img alt="A shelf full of board games, including Risk, Monopoly and Trivial Pursuit." height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Board_Games.jpg" src="../../images/18/1874.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1874.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A shelf full of board games, including <!--del_lnk--> Risk, <!--del_lnk--> Monopoly and <!--del_lnk--> Trivial Pursuit.</div>
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<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1875.jpg.htm" title="Senet is believed to be the oldest board game"><img alt="Senet is believed to be the oldest board game" height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_003.jpg" src="../../images/18/1875.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1875.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Senet</b> is believed to be the oldest board game</div>
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<p>Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. Some of these include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Senet has been found in <!--del_lnk--> Predynastic and <!--del_lnk--> First Dynasty burials of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, c. <!--del_lnk--> 3500 BC and <!--del_lnk--> 3100 BC respectively . Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed, having been pictured in a fresco found in <!--del_lnk--> Merknera's tomb (<!--del_lnk--> 3300-<!--del_lnk--> 2700 BC) .<li><!--del_lnk--> Mehen is another ancient board game from <!--del_lnk--> Predynastic Egypt.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Tombs of Ur contained, among others, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Game of Ur. They were excavated by <!--del_lnk--> Leonard Woolley, but his books document little on the games found. Most of the games he excavated are now housed in the <!--del_lnk--> British Museum in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Buddha games list is the earliest known list of games.</ul>
<p><a id="Timeline" name="Timeline"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Timeline</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 3500 BC - <!--del_lnk--> Senet found in <!--del_lnk--> Predynastic Egyptian burials; also depicted in the tomb of <!--del_lnk--> Merknera.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 3000 BC - <!--del_lnk--> Mehen, board game from <!--del_lnk--> Predynastic Egypt, played with <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lion</a>-shaped game pieces and <!--del_lnk--> marbles.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 3000 BC - Ancient <a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a> set, found in the <!--del_lnk--> Burnt City in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a><li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 2560 BC - Board of the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Game of Ur (found at Ur Tombs)<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 2500 BC - Paintings of <!--del_lnk--> senet and <!--del_lnk--> han being played made in the tomb of <!--del_lnk--> Rashepes<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 2000 BC - Drawing in a tomb at Benihassan depicting two unknown board games being played (depicted in Falkner). It has been suggested that the second of these is <!--del_lnk--> tau.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1500 BC - <!--del_lnk--> Liubo carved on slab of blue stone. Also painting of board game of <!--del_lnk--> Knossos.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 1400 BC - Game boards including <!--del_lnk--> alquerque, <!--del_lnk--> three men's morris, <!--del_lnk--> nine men's morris, and a possible <a href="../../wp/m/Mancala.htm" title="Mancala">mancala</a> board etched on the roof of the <!--del_lnk--> Kurna temple. (Source: Fiske, and Bell)<li><!--del_lnk--> 548 BC The earliest written references to <a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" title="Go (board game)">go/weiqi</a> come from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Zuo Zhuan</i>, which describes a man who likes the game.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 500 BC - The earliest reference to <!--del_lnk--> chaturaji or <!--del_lnk--> pachisi written in the <i><a href="../../wp/m/Mahabharata.htm" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>.<li>c. 500 BC - The <!--del_lnk--> Buddha games list mentions several types of board games.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 200 BC - A <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> <a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" title="Go (board game)">go/weiqi</a> board pre-dating 200 BC was found in <!--del_lnk--> 1954 in <!--del_lnk--> Wangdu County. This board is now in <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Historical Museum. .<li><!--del_lnk--> 116-<!--del_lnk--> 27 BC - <!--del_lnk--> Marcus Terentius Varro's Lingua Latina X (<b>II, par. 20</b>) contains earliest known reference to <i><!--del_lnk--> latrunculi</i> (often confused with <!--del_lnk--> ludus duodecim scriptorum, <!--del_lnk--> Ovid's game mentioned below).<li><!--del_lnk--> 79-<!--del_lnk--> 8 BC - Liu Xiang's (劉向) <b>Shuo yuan,</b> contains earliest known reference to <!--del_lnk--> Xiangqi.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 BC-<!--del_lnk--> 8 AD - <!--del_lnk--> Ovid's <!--del_lnk--> Ars Amatoria contains earliest known reference to <!--del_lnk--> ludus duodecim scriptorum and the <!--del_lnk--> smaller merels.<li><!--del_lnk--> 220-<!--del_lnk--> 265 - <a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" title="Backgammon">Nard</a> enters <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> under the name <i>t'shu-p'u</i> (Source: <i>Hun Tsun Sii</i>).<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 400 onwards - <!--del_lnk--> Tafl games played in Northern Europe.<li>c. <!--del_lnk--> 600 The earliest references to <!--del_lnk--> chaturanga written in Subandhu's <i>Vasavadatta</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Banabhatta's <i><!--del_lnk--> Harsha Charitha</i><li>c. 600 - The earliest reference to <!--del_lnk--> shatranj written in <i>Karnamak-i-Artakhshatr-i-Papakan</i>.</ul>
<p>Board games first became widely popular among the general population early in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> when the rise of the <!--del_lnk--> middle class with disposable income and leisure time made them a receptive audience to such games. This popularity expanded after the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, a period from which many classic board games date. <!--del_lnk--> Computer games are closely related to board games, and many acclaimed computer games such as <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization_%2528computer_game%2529.htm" title="Civilization (computer game)">Civilization</a> are based upon board games.<p>Many board games are now available as <!--del_lnk--> computer games, including the option to have the computer act as an opponent. The rise of computers has also led to a relative decline in the most complicated board games, as computers require less space, and the games don't have to be set up and cleared away. With the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>, many board games can now be played online against a computer or other players (like the classic board games available on <!--del_lnk--> Yahoo, <!--del_lnk--> Lycos and other big Internet sites). Some web sites allow play in real time and immediately show the opponent's moves, while most use e-mail to notify the players after each move (see the links at the end of this article).<p>The modern board game industry is rife with corporate mergers and acquisitions, with large companies such as <!--del_lnk--> Hasbro owning many subsidiaries and selling products under a variety of brand names. It is difficult to successfully market a new board game to the mass market. Retailers tend to be conservative about stocking games of untested popularity, and most large board game companies have established criteria that a game must meet in order to be produced. If, for instance, <a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" title="Monopoly (game)">Monopoly</a> were introduced as a new game today, it might not meet the criteria for production.<p><a id="Luck.2C_strategy_and_diplomacy" name="Luck.2C_strategy_and_diplomacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Luck, strategy and diplomacy</span></h2>
<p>One way of defining board games are between those based upon <!--del_lnk--> luck and <!--del_lnk--> strategy. Some games, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">chess</a>, have no luck involved. Children's games tend to be very luck based, with games such as <!--del_lnk--> Sorry!, <!--del_lnk--> Candy Land and <!--del_lnk--> snakes and ladders having virtually no decisions to be made. Most board games have both luck and strategy. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dice.htm" title="Dice">dice</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Risk or <a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" title="Monopoly (game)">Monopoly</a>, but over many games a player with a superior strategy will win more often. While some purists consider luck to not be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more complex and multi-faceted strategies as concepts such as <!--del_lnk--> expected value and <!--del_lnk--> risk management must be considered. Still most adult game players prefer to make some decisions during play, and find purely luck based games such as <!--del_lnk--> Top Trumps quite boring.<p>The third important factor in a game is <!--del_lnk--> diplomacy, or players making deals with each other. A game of <!--del_lnk--> solitaire, for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually do not have diplomacy, as cooperation between the two players does not occur. Thus, this generally applies only to games played with three or more people. An important facet of <!--del_lnk--> Settlers of Catan, for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In <!--del_lnk--> Risk, one example of diplomacy's effectiveness is when two or more players team up against others. Easy diplomacy consists of convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Difficult diplomacy (such as in the aptly named game <!--del_lnk--> Diplomacy) consists of making elaborate plans together, with possibility of betrayal.<p>Luck is introduced to a game by a number of methods. The most popular is using <a href="../../wp/d/Dice.htm" title="Dice">dice</a>, generally six sided. These can determine everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in <!--del_lnk--> Settlers of Catan. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special <!--del_lnk--> cards that when shuffled create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on which question a person gets. <!--del_lnk--> German-style board games are notable for often having rather less luck factor than in many North American board games.<p><a id="Common_terms" name="Common_terms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Common terms</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1876.jpg.htm" title="Carcassonne tokens, or meeples"><img alt="Carcassonne tokens, or meeples" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carcassonne_Miples.jpg" src="../../images/18/1876.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1876.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Carcassonne tokens, or <i>meeples</i></div>
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<p>Although many board games have a <!--del_lnk--> jargon all their own, there is a generalized <!--del_lnk--> terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic <!--del_lnk--> game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games.<ul>
<li><b>Game board</b> (or <b>board</b>) — the (usually <!--del_lnk--> quadrilateral) surface on which one plays a board game; the <!--del_lnk--> namesake of the board game, gameboards are a <!--del_lnk--> necessary and sufficient condition of the <!--del_lnk--> genre<li><b>Game piece</b> (or <b>token</b> or <b>bit</b>) — a player's representative on the game board. Each player may control one or more game pieces. In some games that involve commanding multiple game pieces, such as chess, certain pieces have unique designations and capabilities within the <!--del_lnk--> parameters of the game; in others, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same essential capabilities.<li><b>Jump</b> — to bypass one or more game pieces and/or <b>spaces</b>. Depending on the context, <b>jumping</b> may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (<i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Game mechanic: capture)<li><b>Space</b> (or <b>square</b>) — a <!--del_lnk--> physical unit of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct <!--del_lnk--> border (<i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Game mechanic: Movement)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game"</div>
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Boat
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boat</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Air_and_Sea_transport.htm">Air & Sea transport</a></h3>
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<p>A <b>boat</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> craft or <!--del_lnk--> vessel designed to float on, and provide transport over, water.<p>A boat's propulsion will be achieved through any of the following means, individually or in combination: <!--del_lnk--> propellers, <!--del_lnk--> oars, <!--del_lnk--> paddles, <!--del_lnk--> setting poles, <!--del_lnk--> sails, <!--del_lnk--> paddlewheels, or <!--del_lnk--> water jets. Boats are generally smaller than <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">ships</a>, and although there is no hard rule between the two, the <!--del_lnk--> rule of thumb is that a boat can be mounted on a ship but not vice-versa.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1877.jpg.htm" title="A wooden boat operating near shore."><img alt="A wooden boat operating near shore." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boating_in_fair_weather.jpg" src="../../images/18/1877.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1877.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A wooden boat operating near shore.</div>
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</script><a id="Parts_of_a_boat" name="Parts_of_a_boat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Parts of a boat</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1878.jpg.htm" title="A boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE"><img alt="A boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE" height="79" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EgyptTombOarboat.jpg" src="../../images/18/1878.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1878.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE</div>
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<p>The roughly horizontal, but cambered structures spanning the <!--del_lnk--> hull of the boat are referred to as the "deck". In a ship there are often several, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. The similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coach-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole but is more likely to be called the floor. (A floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel.) The underside of a deck is the deck head.<p>The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are "bulkheads", they are important parts of the vessel's structure. The front of a boat is called the bow or prow. The rear of the boat is called the stern. The right side is starboard and the left side is port. Many boats have a section called the <i>gralper</i>. This section is designed to reduce water flow to the non-aerodynamic parts of the boat.<p><a id="Types_of_boats" name="Types_of_boats"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of boats</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1879.png.htm" title="A passenger boat to the islands off the coast of the Sai Kung Peninsula of Hong Kong."><img alt="A passenger boat to the islands off the coast of the Sai Kung Peninsula of Hong Kong." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Saikung-boat.png" src="../../images/18/1879.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1879.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A passenger boat to the islands off the coast of the <!--del_lnk--> Sai Kung Peninsula of <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1880.jpg.htm" title="A sailboat (racing dinghy) and barge share the Mississippi River,USA."><img alt="A sailboat (racing dinghy) and barge share the Mississippi River,USA." height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mutandbarge.jpg" src="../../images/18/1880.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1880.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A sailboat (racing dinghy) and barge share the <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>,USA.</div>
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<table>
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Air boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Banana boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Bangca<li><!--del_lnk--> Bareboat charter<li><!--del_lnk--> Barge<li><!--del_lnk--> Bow Rider<li><!--del_lnk--> Cabin cruiser<li><!--del_lnk--> Canoe<li><!--del_lnk--> Cape Islander<li><!--del_lnk--> Car-boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Caravel<li><!--del_lnk--> Cargo Boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Catamaran<li><!--del_lnk--> Catboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Coble<li><!--del_lnk--> Centre Console<li><!--del_lnk--> Coracle<li><!--del_lnk--> Cruiser<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuddy<li><!--del_lnk--> Cutter (pulling boat)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cutter (sailing boat)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dhow<li><!--del_lnk--> Dinghy<li><!--del_lnk--> Dory<li><!--del_lnk--> Dragon boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Dredge<li><!--del_lnk--> Durham Boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Dutch Barge<li><!--del_lnk--> Express Cruiser<li><!--del_lnk--> Felucca<li><!--del_lnk--> Ferry<li><!--del_lnk--> Fireboat</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fishing boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Folding boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Go-fast boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Gondola<li><!--del_lnk--> Houseboat<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hovercraft.htm" title="Hovercraft">Hovercraft</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Hydrofoil<li><!--del_lnk--> Hydroplane<li><!--del_lnk--> Inflatable boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Jangada<li><!--del_lnk--> Jetboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Jet ski<li><!--del_lnk--> Jon boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Junk<li><!--del_lnk--> Kayak and <!--del_lnk--> Sea kayak<li><!--del_lnk--> Ketch<li><!--del_lnk--> Lifeboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Log boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Longboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Luxury yacht<li><!--del_lnk--> Motorboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Narrowboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Norfolk wherry<li><!--del_lnk--> Outrigger canoe<li><!--del_lnk--> Padded V-hull<li><!--del_lnk--> Personal water craft (PWC)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pinnace<li><!--del_lnk--> Pirogue<li><!--del_lnk--> Pleasure craft<li><!--del_lnk--> Pontoon<li><!--del_lnk--> Powerboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Punt</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Raft<li><!--del_lnk--> Rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB)<li><!--del_lnk--> Riverboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Runabout<li><!--del_lnk--> Rowboat, rowing boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Sailboat, sailing boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Sampan<li><!--del_lnk--> Schooner<li><!--del_lnk--> Scow<li><!--del_lnk--> Sharpie<li><!--del_lnk--> Shikaras<li><!--del_lnk--> Ship's tender<li><!--del_lnk--> Ski boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Skiff<li><!--del_lnk--> Sloop<li><!--del_lnk--> Submarine<li><!--del_lnk--> Surf boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Swift boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Tarai Bune<li><!--del_lnk--> Tjalk<li><!--del_lnk--> Trimaran<li><!--del_lnk--> Trawler (fishing)<li><!--del_lnk--> Trawler (cruising)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tugboat<li><!--del_lnk--> U-boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Waka<li><!--del_lnk--> Wakeboard boat<li><!--del_lnk--> Walkaround<li><!--del_lnk--> Water taxi<li><!--del_lnk--> Whaleboat<li><!--del_lnk--> Yacht<li><!--del_lnk--> Yawl</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Unusual boats have been used for sports purposes - for example, in "bathtub races" which use boats made from bathtubs.<p><a id="Boat_building_materials" name="Boat_building_materials"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Boat building materials</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1881.jpg.htm" title="A ship's lifeboat, built of steel, rotting in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, USA."><img alt="A ship's lifeboat, built of steel, rotting in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, USA." height="364" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg" src="../../images/18/1881.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1881.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A ship's lifeboat, built of steel, rotting in the wetlands of <!--del_lnk--> Folly Island, <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina, <!--del_lnk--> USA.</div>
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<p>Boats can be classified by the material used to build them. Until the mid 19th century all boats were wooden. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats and the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> cheapened the cost of steel, the age of the steel ship began. In the mid 20th century aluminium gained popularity, being lighter and easier to work with than steel. Around the mid 1960s, boats made out of <!--del_lnk--> glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fibreglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. The <!--del_lnk--> coast guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic) boats.<p>One of the advantages of fiberglass boats is that they are extremely strong, and do not rust, corrode, or rot. Fiberglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy (i.e., plastic) to form the hull of the boat. One of the disadvantages of fiberglass is that it is heavy and to alleviate this, various lighter components can be incorporated into the design. One of the more common methods is to use cored fiberglass, with the core being balsa wood completely encased in fibreglass. While this works, the addition of wood makes the structure of the boat susceptible to rotting. Similarly, 'advanced composites' are simply other methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by some <!--del_lnk--> claims, less structurally sound materials.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1882.jpg.htm" title="Severn class lifeboat in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. This is the largest class of UK lifeboat at 17 metres long"><img alt="Severn class lifeboat in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. This is the largest class of UK lifeboat at 17 metres long" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lifeboat.17-31.underway.arp.jpg" src="../../images/18/1882.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1882.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Severn class lifeboat in <!--del_lnk--> Poole Harbour, <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. This is the largest class of UK <!--del_lnk--> lifeboat at 17 metres long</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Boat_propulsion" name="Boat_propulsion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Boat propulsion</span></h2>
<p>The most common means are:<ul>
<li>Human power (rowing, paddling, <!--del_lnk--> setting pole etc.)<li>Wind power (sailing)<li>Motor powered <!--del_lnk--> screws<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Inboard<ul>
<li>Internal Combustion (gasoline, diesel)<li>Steam (Coal, <!--del_lnk--> fuel oil)<li>Nuclear (for LARGE boats)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Inboard/Outboard<ul>
<li>Gasoline<li>Diesel</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Outboard<ul>
<li>Gasoline<li>Electric</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Paddle Wheel<li>Water Jet (<!--del_lnk--> Jet ski, <!--del_lnk--> Personal water craft, <!--del_lnk--> Jetboat)<li>Air Fans (<a href="../../wp/h/Hovercraft.htm" title="Hovercraft">Hovercraft</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Air boat)</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Why_boats_float" name="Why_boats_float"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Why boats float</span></h2>
<p>A boat stays afloat because its weight is equal to that of the water it <!--del_lnk--> displaces. The material of the boat itself may be heavier than water (<i>per volume</i>!), but it forms only the outer layer. Inside it is air, which is negligible in weight. But it <i>does</i> add to the volume. The central term here is <!--del_lnk--> density, which is <!--del_lnk--> mass ('weight') per <!--del_lnk--> volume. One has to divide the mass of the boat (plus contents) <i>as a whole</i> by the volume <i>below the waterline</i>. If the boat floats than that is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). One could say that to the water it is as if there is water there because the <i>average</i> density is the same. If one adds weight to the boat, the volume below the waterline will have to increase too, to keep the mass/weight balance equal, so the boat sinks a little to compensate.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat"</div>
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Bob_Dylan
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bob Dylan</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;">
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: #f0e68c;"><big>Bob Dylan</big></th>
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<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23816.jpg.htm" title="Dylan performing at St. Lawrence University on November 26, 1963."><img alt="Dylan performing at St. Lawrence University on November 26, 1963." height="330" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bob_Dylan_in_November_1963.jpg" src="../../images/238/23816.jpg" width="220" /></a><br />
<div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">Dylan performing at <!--del_lnk--> St. Lawrence University on <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1963.</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #f0e68c;">Background information</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Robert Allen Zimmerman</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Also known as</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Elston Gunn, Blind Boy Grunt, Lucky Wilbury, Elmer Johnson, Sergei Petrov, Jack Frost, et al.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Born</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> May 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1941 (age 65)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Duluth, <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Folk, <!--del_lnk--> rock, <!--del_lnk--> blues, <!--del_lnk--> country</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Occupation(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Singer-<!--del_lnk--> songwriter, <!--del_lnk--> author, <!--del_lnk--> poet, <!--del_lnk--> artist, <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a>, <!--del_lnk--> screenwriter, <!--del_lnk--> disc jockey</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">Instrument(s)</a></b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Vocals, <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> harmonica, <!--del_lnk--> keyboards</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Years active</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1956-<!--del_lnk--> Present</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Columbia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b>Associated<br /> acts</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Joan Baez, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Butterfield Blues Band, <!--del_lnk--> Al Kooper, <!--del_lnk--> The Band, <!--del_lnk--> Rolling Thunder Revue, <!--del_lnk--> Traveling Wilburys, <!--del_lnk--> The Grateful Dead.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Website</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> www.bobdylan.com</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bob Dylan</b> (born <b>Robert Allen Zimmerman</b> on <!--del_lnk--> May 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1941) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> singer-songwriter, <!--del_lnk--> author, <!--del_lnk--> musician and <!--del_lnk--> poet who has been a major figure in popular music for five decades. Much of Dylan's best known work is from the 1960s when he became an informal documentarian and reluctant figurehead of American unrest. Some of his songs, such as "<!--del_lnk--> Blowin' in the Wind" and "<!--del_lnk--> The Times They Are a-Changin'", became <!--del_lnk--> anthems of the <!--del_lnk--> anti-war and <!--del_lnk--> civil rights movements. Forty years later, his 2001 album <i><!--del_lnk--> "Love and Theft"</i>, reached the top five on the charts in the U.S. and the UK. His latest studio album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Modern Times</i>, released on <!--del_lnk--> August 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, became his first US #1 album in thirty years, making him the oldest living person to top the charts at the age of 65.<p>Dylan's early lyrics incorporated <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> social commentary, <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literary</a> influences, defying existing pop music conventions and appealing widely to the <!--del_lnk--> counterculture of the time. While expanding and personalizing musical styles, he has shown steadfast devotion to many traditions of American song, from <a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk</a> and <!--del_lnk--> country/<!--del_lnk--> blues to <!--del_lnk--> rock 'n' roll and <!--del_lnk--> rockabilly, to <!--del_lnk--> Celtic balladry, even <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a>, <!--del_lnk--> swing and <!--del_lnk--> Broadway.<p>Dylan performs with the <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> keyboard and <!--del_lnk--> harmonica. Backed by a changing lineup of musicians, he has toured steadily since the late 1980s on what has been dubbed the <!--del_lnk--> Never Ending Tour. He has also recently performed alongside other major artists, such as <!--del_lnk--> Paul Simon, <!--del_lnk--> Tom Petty, <a href="../../wp/b/Bruce_Springsteen.htm" title="Bruce Springsteen">Bruce Springsteen</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Patti Smith, <!--del_lnk--> Jack White and <a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" title="Eric Clapton">Eric Clapton</a>. Although his contributions as performer and recording artist have been central to his career, his songwriting is generally held as his highest accomplishment.<p>His career accomplishments have been recognized with the <!--del_lnk--> Polar Music Prize, the <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Center Honours, and induction into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, <!--del_lnk--> Nashville Songwriters and <!--del_lnk--> Songwriters Hall of Fame. He has even been nominated several times for the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Literature. Dylan was listed as one of <!--del_lnk--> TIME Magazine's 100 most influential people of the 20th century.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Beginnings" name="Beginnings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Beginnings</span></h3>
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<div style="width:156px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23817.jpg.htm" title="Robert Zimmerman in high school"><img alt="Robert Zimmerman in high school" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BobDylanHSPhoto.jpg" src="../../images/238/23817.jpg" width="154" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Robert Zimmerman was born in <!--del_lnk--> Duluth, <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, and was raised there and in <!--del_lnk--> Hibbing, Minnesota, on the <!--del_lnk--> Mesabi Iron Range northwest of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Superior.htm" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>. His grandparents were <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> immigrants from <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and his parents, Abraham Zimmerman and Beatrice Stone (Beatty), were part of the area's small but close-knit Jewish community. He lived in Duluth until age seven, when his father was stricken with <!--del_lnk--> polio. The family returned to nearby <!--del_lnk--> Hibbing, Beatty's hometown, where Robert Zimmerman spent the rest of his childhood.<p>Zimmerman spent much of his youth listening to the radio—first to the powerful <!--del_lnk--> blues and <!--del_lnk--> country stations broadcasting from <!--del_lnk--> Shreveport and later, to early <!--del_lnk--> rock and roll. He formed several bands while at high school: the first, The Shadow Blasters, was short-lived (according to legend this band tried to play at the high school talent show, but did not make the cut); the second, The Golden Chords, lasted longer and played covers including "Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay" at their high school talent show. In his 1959 school year book, Robert Zimmerman listed his ambition as "To join <!--del_lnk--> Little Richard." The same year, he performed two dates under the name of Elston Gunn with <!--del_lnk--> Bobby Vee, playing piano and providing handclaps.<p>Robert Zimmerman enrolled at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Minnesota in September 1959 and moved to <a href="../../wp/m/Minneapolis%252C_Minnesota.htm" title="Minneapolis, Minnesota">Minneapolis</a>. His musical focus on <!--del_lnk--> rock and roll gave way to an interest in subtler, <!--del_lnk--> Gael-inflected American folk music, typically performed with an acoustic guitar. He soon became actively involved in the local <!--del_lnk--> Dinkytown <a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk music</a> circuit, fraternizing with local folk enthusiasts and occasionally "borrowing" many of their albums. During his Dinkytown days, Zimmerman began introducing himself as "Bob Dylan". In his autobiography, <i>Chronicles</i> (2004), Dylan wrote: "What I was going to do as soon as I left home was just call myself Robert Allen.... It sounded like a Scottish king and I liked it." However, by reading <i>Downbeat</i> magazine, he discovered that there was already a saxophonist called David Allyn. A little later he became acquainted with the work of writer <!--del_lnk--> Dylan Thomas and made a choice between Robert Allyn and Robert Dylan: "I couldn't decide—the letter D came on stronger" he explained. He decided on "Bob" because there were several Bobbies in popular music at the time.<p>Dylan quit college at the end of his freshman year, but stayed in Minneapolis, working the folk circuit there with temporary sojourns in <a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" title="Denver, Colorado">Denver, Colorado</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago, Illinois</a>.<p>In January 1961, he headed for New York City to perform and to visit his ailing musical idol <!--del_lnk--> Woody Guthrie in a New Jersey <!--del_lnk--> hospital. Guthrie had been a huge revelation to Dylan and was a major influence. In the hospital room, Dylan also met Woody's old road-buddy <!--del_lnk--> Ramblin' Jack Elliott visiting Guthrie the day after returning from his trip to Europe. Bob and Jack became friends and much of Guthrie's repertoire was actually channelled through Elliott. Dylan paid a fulsome tribute to Elliott in <i>Chronicles</i> (2005).<p>After initially playing mostly in small "basket" clubs for little pay, he gained some public recognition after a positive review in <i><!--del_lnk--> The New York Times</i> by critic <!--del_lnk--> Robert Shelton. Shelton's review and word-of-mouth around <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich Village led to legendary music business figure <!--del_lnk--> John Hammond's signing Dylan to <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Records that October.<p>His performances, like his first Columbia album <i><!--del_lnk--> Bob Dylan</i> (1962), consisted of familiar folk, blues and gospel material combined with some of his own songs. As he continued to record for Columbia, he recorded more than a dozen songs for <i><!--del_lnk--> Broadside Magazine</i> a folk music magazine and record label, under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt. In August 1962, Robert Allen Zimmerman went to the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court building in New York and changed his name to Robert Dylan.<p>By the time his next record, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan</i>, was released in 1963, he had begun to make his name as both singer and songwriter. Many of the songs on this album were labelled <!--del_lnk--> protest songs, inspired partly by <!--del_lnk--> Woody Guthrie and influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Pete Seeger's passion for topical songs. "Oxford Town" was a sardonic account of <!--del_lnk--> James Meredith's ordeal as the first black student to risk enrollment at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Mississippi.<p>His most famous song of the time, "<!--del_lnk--> Blowin' in the Wind", partially derived its melody from the traditional slave song "No More Auction Block", and coupled this to Dylan's lyrics questioning the social and political status quo. The song was widely recorded and became an international hit for <!--del_lnk--> Peter, Paul and Mary, setting a precedent for other artists. While Dylan's topical songs solidified his early reputation, <i>Freewheelin'</i> also included a mixture of love songs and jokey, frequently surreal talking blues. Humor was a large part of Dylan's persona, and the range of material on the album impressed many listeners including <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">the Beatles</a>. George Harrison said, "We just played it, just wore it out. The content of the song lyrics and just the attitude - it was incredibly original and wonderful."<p>The <i>Freewheelin'</i> song "<!--del_lnk--> A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall", built melodically from a loose adaptation of the stanza tune of the folk <!--del_lnk--> ballad <!--del_lnk--> Lord Randall, with its veiled references to <!--del_lnk--> nuclear <!--del_lnk--> apocalypse, gained even more resonance as the <!--del_lnk--> Cuban missile crisis developed only a few weeks after Dylan began performing it. Like "<!--del_lnk--> Blowin' in the Wind", "<!--del_lnk--> A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall" marked an important new direction in modern songwriting, blending a <!--del_lnk--> stream-of-consciousness, <!--del_lnk--> imagist lyrical attack with traditional folk progressions to create a sound and sense that struck listeners as somehow new and ancient simultaneously. Soon after the release of <i>Freewheelin</i>, Dylan emerged as a dominant figure of the so-called "new folk movement" headquartered in Lower Manhattan's <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich Village.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23818.jpg.htm" title="With Joan Baez during the Civil Rights March in Washington D.C., 1963"><img alt="With Joan Baez during the Civil Rights March in Washington D.C., 1963" height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Joan_Baez_Bob_Dylan.jpg" src="../../images/238/23818.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>While an interpreter of traditional songs, Dylan's singing voice was unusual and untrained and his phrasing as a vocalist was eccentric. He sang his songs in a style that hearkened back to the folk-singers of the 1920s and 30s, which was almost unheard-of in the music industry of the time. Many of his most famous early songs first reached the public through versions by other performing musicians who were more immediately palatable. <!--del_lnk--> Joan Baez, celebrated as the queen of the folk movement, became Dylan's advocate as well as his lover. In addition to jumpstarting Dylan's performance career by inviting him onstage during her concerts, she recorded several of his early songs and was influential in bringing Dylan to national and international prominence.<p>Others who recorded and released his songs around this time included <!--del_lnk--> The Byrds, <!--del_lnk--> Sonny and Cher, <!--del_lnk--> The Hollies, <!--del_lnk--> Peter, Paul and Mary, <!--del_lnk--> Manfred Mann, <!--del_lnk--> The Brothers Four, <!--del_lnk--> Judy Collins and <!--del_lnk--> Herman's Hermits, most attempting to impart more of a pop feel and rhythm to the songs where Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk pieces keying rhythmically off the vocals. These covers were so ubiquitous by the mid-1960s that <!--del_lnk--> CBS started to promote him with the tag "Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan".<p><a id="Protest_and_another_side" name="Protest_and_another_side"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Protest and another side</span></h3>
<p>By 1963, Dylan and Baez were becoming increasingly prominent in the <a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> movement, singing together at rallies including the <!--del_lnk--> March on Washington where <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther_King%252C_Jr..htm" title="Martin Luther King, Jr.">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a> gave his "<!--del_lnk--> I have a dream" speech. In January, he appeared on <!--del_lnk--> British television in the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> play <i><!--del_lnk--> Madhouse on Castle Street</i>, playing the part of a "hobo guitar-player". Dylan's next album, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times They Are a-Changin'</i>, reflected a more sophisticated, politicized and cynical Dylan. This bleak material, concerned with such subjects as the murder of civil rights worker <!--del_lnk--> Medgar Evers and the despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities ("Ballad of Hollis Brown", "<!--del_lnk--> North Country Blues"), was accompanied by two love songs, "Boots of Spanish Leather" and "One Too Many Mornings", and the renunciation of "Restless Farewell". The <!--del_lnk--> Brechtian-influenced "<!--del_lnk--> The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll" describes a young socialite's killing of a hotel maid. The song never explicitly mentions race, but many sources wrote it leaves no doubt that the killer is white, the victim black.<p>By the end of 1963, Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk-protest movement. Accepting the "<!--del_lnk--> Tom Paine Award" from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee at a ceremony shortly after the assassination of <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, a drunken, rambling Dylan questioned the role of the committee, insulted its members as old and balding, and claimed to see something of himself (and of every man) in assassin <!--del_lnk--> Lee Harvey Oswald.<p>His next album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Another Side of Bob Dylan</i>, recorded on a single June evening in 1964, had a lighter mood than its predecessor. The surreal Dylan reemerged on "I Shall Be Free #10" and "Motorpsycho Nightmare", accompanied by a sense of humor that has often reappeared over the years. "Spanish Harlem Incident" and "To Ramona" were love songs, "I Don't Believe You" a rock and roll song played on acoustic guitar, and "It Ain't Me Babe" a rejection of the role his reputation thrust at him. His newest direction was signaled by three lengthy songs: the <a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" title="Impressionism">impressionistic</a> "<!--del_lnk--> Chimes of Freedom" sets elements of social commentary against a denser metaphorical landscape in a style later characterized by <!--del_lnk--> Allen Ginsberg as "chains of flashing images"; "<!--del_lnk--> My Back Pages" attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs; and "<!--del_lnk--> Mr. Tambourine Man", written before many songs included on <i>Another Side</i> but held back for Dylan's next release.<p>In 1964-65 Dylan’s appearance changed rapidly as he made his move from leading contemporary song-writer of the folk scene to rock’n’roll star. His scruffy jeans and work shirts were replaced by a <!--del_lnk--> Carnaby Street wardrobe. A London reporter wrote: “Hair that would set the teeth of a comb on edge. A loud shirt that would dim the neon lights of Leicester Square. He looks like an undernourished cockatoo.” Dylan also began to play with interviewers in increasingly cruel and surreal ways. Appearing on the <!--del_lnk--> Les Crane TV show and asked about a movie he was planning to make, he told Crane it would be a cowboy horror movie. Asked if he played the cowboy, Dylan replied. “No, I play my mother.”<p>His March 1965 album <i><!--del_lnk--> Bringing It All Back Home</i> was a huge stylistic leap. Influenced by <!--del_lnk--> The Animals (whose recording of "<!--del_lnk--> House of the Rising Sun" was racing up the US charts), and the rock and roll of his youth, the album featured his first significant up-tempo rock songs. The first single, "<!--del_lnk--> Subterranean Homesick Blues", owed much to <!--del_lnk--> Chuck Berry's "Too Much Monkey Business" and was provided with an early <!--del_lnk--> music video courtesy of <!--del_lnk--> D. A. Pennebaker's <!--del_lnk--> cinéma vérité presentation of Dylan's 1965 tour, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dont Look Back</i>. Its free association lyrics both harked back to the manic energy of Beat poetry and were a forerunner of rap and hip-hop. In 1969, the militant <!--del_lnk--> Weatherman group took their name from a line in "<!--del_lnk--> Subterranean Homesick Blues" ("You don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows").<p>The second side of the album was a different matter, including four lengthy acoustic songs whose undogmatic political, social and personal concerns are illuminated with the poetic imagery that became another trademark. One of these songs, "<!--del_lnk--> Mr. Tambourine Man", had already been a hit for The Byrds, albeit in a truncated form, while "Gates of Eden", "It's All over Now Baby Blue", and "It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)" have been fixtures in Dylan's live performances for most of his career.<p>That summer Bob Dylan made history by performing his first electric set (since his high school days) with a pickup group drawn mostly from the <!--del_lnk--> Paul Butterfield Blues Band, i.e. <!--del_lnk--> Mike Bloomfield, guitar, Sam Lay, drums, Jerome Arnold, bass, plus <!--del_lnk--> Al Kooper, organ and <!--del_lnk--> Barry Goldberg, piano, at the <!--del_lnk--> Newport Folk Festival. Dylan had appeared at Newport twice before in 1963 and 1964, and two wildly divergent accounts of the crowd's response in 1965 emerged. The settled fact is that Dylan, met with a mix of cheering and booing, left the stage after only three songs. As one version of the legend has it, the boos were from the outraged folk fans Dylan alienated by his electric guitar. An alternative account has it that audience members were upset by poor sound quality and a surprisingly short set. Whatever sparked the crowd's disfavor, Dylan soon reemerged and sang two much better received solo acoustic numbers, "It's All over Now, Baby Blue" and "Mr. Tambourine Man".<p>The significance of Dylan's 1965 Newport performance was that he outraged the folk music establishment. <!--del_lnk--> Ewan MacColl wrote in <!--del_lnk--> Sing Out!: "Our traditional songs and ballads are the creations of extraordinarily talented artists working inside traditions formulated over time... But what of Bobby Dylan?... Only a non-critical audience, nourished on the watery pap of pop music could have fallen for such tenth-rate drivel." Dylan had outlined his position in the sleeve notes for <i>Bringing It All Back Home</i> where he wrote, "i accept chaos. i am not sure whether it accepts me."<p>Many in the folk revival had embraced the idea that life equalled art, that a certain kind of life defined by suffering and social exclusion in fact replaced art. Folksong collectors and singers often presented folk music as an innocent characteristic of lives lived without reflection or the false consciousness of capitalism. This philosophy, both genteel and paternalistic, was ultimately what Dylan had run afoul of by 1965. But at an Austin press conference in September of that year, on the day of his first performance with <!--del_lnk--> Levon and the Hawks, he described his music not as a pop charts-bound break with the past, but as “historical-traditional music.” Dylan later told interviewer <!--del_lnk--> Nat Hentoff: “What folk music is... is based on myths and the Bible and plague and famine and all kinds of things like that which are nothing but mystery and you can see it in all the songs….All these songs about roses growing out of people’s brains and lovers who are really geese and swans that turn into angels…and seven years of this and eight years of that and it’s all really something that nobody can touch....(the songs) are not going to die.” It was this mystical, living tradition of songs that served as the palette for <i>Bringing It All Back Home</i> and subsequent collections, which would seem to confer their status as 'historical-traditional'.<p><a id="Creative_height.2C_motorcycle_crash" name="Creative_height.2C_motorcycle_crash"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Creative height, motorcycle crash</span></h3>
<p>The single "<!--del_lnk--> Like a Rolling Stone" was a U.S. and UK hit; at over six minutes and devoid of a bridge, it helped to expand the limits of songs played on hit radio. In 2004, <i><!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stone</i> listed it at number one on its list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. Its signature sound — with a full, jangling band and an organ riff — characterized his next album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Highway 61 Revisited</i>. Titled after the road that led from Dylan's native Minnesota to the musical hotbed of <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, the songs passed stylistically through the birthplace of blues, the Mississippi Delta, and referenced any number of <!--del_lnk--> blues songs. For example, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi Fred McDowell's "61 Highway"). The songs were in the same vein as the hit single, surreal litanies of the grotesque flavored by <!--del_lnk--> Mike Bloomfield's blues guitar, a rhythm section and Dylan's obvious enjoyment of the sessions. The closing song, "<!--del_lnk--> Desolation Row", is an apocalyptic vision with references to many figures of <!--del_lnk--> Western culture.<p>In support of the record, Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts and set about assembling a band. <!--del_lnk--> Mike Bloomfield was unwilling to leave the Butterfield Band, so Dylan mixed <!--del_lnk--> Al Kooper and <!--del_lnk--> Harvey Brooks from his studio crew with bar-band stalwarts <!--del_lnk--> Robbie Robertson and <!--del_lnk--> Levon Helm, best known for backing <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Hawkins. In August 1965 at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium, the group was heckled by an audience who, Newport notwithstanding, still demanded the acoustic troubadour of previous years. The band's reception on <!--del_lnk--> September 3 at the <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood Bowl was more uniformly favorable.<p>Neither Kooper nor Brooks wanted to tour with Dylan, and he was unable to lure his preferred band, a crew of west coast musicians best known for backing <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Rivers, featuring guitarist <!--del_lnk--> James Burton and drummer <!--del_lnk--> Mickey Jones, away from their regular commitments. Dylan then hired Robertson and Helm's full band, <!--del_lnk--> The Hawks, for his tour group, and began a string of studio sessions with them in an effort to record the follow-up to <i>Highway 61 Revisited</i>.<p>Dylan secretly married <!--del_lnk--> Sara Lownds on <!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1965; their first child, Jesse Byron Dylan, was born on <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1966. Dylan and Lownds had four children in total: <!--del_lnk--> Jesse, Anna, Samuel, and <!--del_lnk--> Jakob (born <!--del_lnk--> December 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1969). Dylan also adopted Sara Lownds' first daughter Maria Lownds (born <!--del_lnk--> October 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1961) from a prior marriage. In the 1990s the youngest of the pair's children, <!--del_lnk--> Jakob Dylan, became well known as the lead singer of the band <!--del_lnk--> The Wallflowers. <!--del_lnk--> Jesse Dylan is a film director and a successful businessman.<p>While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences on tour, their studio efforts floundered. Producer <!--del_lnk--> Bob Johnston had been trying to persuade Dylan to record in Nashville for some time. In February 1966 Dylan agreed and Johnston surrounded him with a cadre of top-notch session men. At Dylan's insistence, Robertson and Kooper came down from <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> to play on the sessions. The Nashville sessions created what Dylan later called "that thin wild mercury sound" - <i><!--del_lnk--> Blonde on Blonde</i> (1966). <!--del_lnk--> Al Kooper said the record was a masterpiece because it was "taking two cultures and smashing them together with a huge explosion": the musical world of Nashville, and the world of the "quintessential New York hipster" Bob Dylan.<p>For many critics, Dylan's mid-'60s trilogy of albums – <i>Bringing It All Back Home</i>, <i>Highway 61 Revisited</i> and <i>Blonde on Blonde</i> – represents one of the great cultural achievements of the 20th century. In Mike Marqusee's words: "Between late 1964 and the summer of 1966, Dylan created a body of work that remains unique. Drawing on folk, blues, country, R&B, rock’n’roll, gospel, British beat, symbolist, modernist and <!--del_lnk--> Beat poetry, <!--del_lnk--> surrealism and <a href="../../wp/d/Dada.htm" title="Dada">Dada</a>, advertising jargon and social commentary, <!--del_lnk--> Fellini and <!--del_lnk--> Mad magazine, he forged a coherent and original artistic voice and vision. The beauty of these albums retains the power to shock and console."<p>Dylan undertook a "world tour" of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the spring of 1966. Each show was split into two parts. Dylan performed solo during the first half, accompanying himself on <!--del_lnk--> acoustic guitar and <!--del_lnk--> harmonica. In the second half, backed by <!--del_lnk--> the Hawks, he played high voltage electric music. This contrast provoked many fans, who jeered and slowly handclapped.<p>The tour culminated in a famously raucous confrontation between Dylan and his audience at the Manchester <!--del_lnk--> Free Trade Hall in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> (officially released on CD in 1998 as <!--del_lnk--> The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The "Royal Albert Hall" Concert). At the climax of the concert, one fan, angry with Dylan's electric sound, shouted: "<!--del_lnk--> Judas!" and Dylan responded, "I don't believe you. You're a liar!" He turned to the band and, just within earshot of the microphone, articulated with almost mathematical precision: "Play ... fuckin' ... loud!" They then launched into the last song of the night — "Like a Rolling Stone" — with an apocalyptic intensity.<p>After his European tour, Dylan returned to <!--del_lnk--> New York, but the pressures on him continued to increase. His publisher was demanding a finished <!--del_lnk--> manuscript of the poem/novel <i><!--del_lnk--> Tarantula.</i> Manager <!--del_lnk--> Albert Grossman had already scheduled an extensive summer/fall concert tour. On <!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1966, while Dylan rode his Triumph 500 <!--del_lnk--> motorcycle in <!--del_lnk--> Woodstock, New York, its brakes locked, throwing him to the ground. Though the extent of his injuries were never fully disclosed, it was confirmed that he indeed broke his <!--del_lnk--> neck. Dylan used an extended convalescence to escape the pressures of stardom: "When I had that motorcycle accident ... I woke up and caught my senses, I realized that I was just workin' for all these leeches. And I really didn't want to do that."<p>Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work, he began editing footage of his 1966 tour into <i><!--del_lnk--> Eat the Document</i>, a rarely exhibited follow-up to <i>Don't Look Back</i>. In 1967 he began recording music with the Hawks at his home and the basement of the Hawks' nearby "Big Pink". The relaxed atmosphere yielded renditions of many of Dylan's favored old and new songs and some newly written pieces. These songs, initially compiled as demos for other artists to record, provided hit singles for <!--del_lnk--> Julie Driscoll, <!--del_lnk--> The Byrds, and <!--del_lnk--> Manfred Mann. Columbia belatedly released selections from them in 1975 as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Basement Tapes</i>. Later in 1967, the Hawks (soon to be rechristened as <!--del_lnk--> The Band) independently recorded the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Music from Big Pink</i>, thus beginning a long and successful recording and performing career of their own.<p>In December 1967 Dylan released <i><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley Harding</i>, his first album since the motorcycle crash. It was a quiet, contemplative record of shorter songs, set in a landscape which drew on both the <!--del_lnk--> American West and the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>. The sparse structure and instrumentation, coupled with lyrics which took the Judeo-Christian tradition seriously, marked a departure not only from Dylan's own work but from the escalating psychedelic fervor of the 1960s musical culture. It included "<!--del_lnk--> All Along the Watchtower", with lyrics derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Isaiah (21:5–9). The song was later recorded by <!--del_lnk--> Jimi Hendrix, whose celebrated version Dylan himself acknowledged as definitive in the liner notes to <!--del_lnk--> Biograph. Dylan live has performed Hendrix's arrangement since 1974.<p><!--del_lnk--> Woody Guthrie died in October 1967, and Dylan made his first public appearances in eighteen months at a pair of Guthrie memorial concerts the following January.<p>Dylan's next release, <i><!--del_lnk--> Nashville Skyline</i> (1969), was virtually a mainstream country record featuring instrumental backing by <!--del_lnk--> Nashville musicians, a mellow-voiced, contented Dylan, a duet with <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Cash, and the hit single "<!--del_lnk--> Lay Lady Lay". In 1969 Dylan appeared on the first episode of Cash's new television show and then gave a high-profile performance at the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> rock festival (after rejecting overtures to appear at the <!--del_lnk--> Woodstock Festival far closer to his home).<p><a name="1970s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1970s</span></h3>
<p>In the early 1970s critics charged Dylan's output was of varied and unpredictable quality. "What is this shit?" <i>Rolling Stone</i> magazine writer and Dylan loyalist <!--del_lnk--> Greil Marcus notoriously asked, upon first listening to 1970's <i><!--del_lnk--> Self Portrait</i>. In general, <i>Self Portrait</i>, a double LP including few original songs, was poorly received. Later that year, Dylan released <i><!--del_lnk--> New Morning</i>, which some considered a return to form. His unannounced appearance at <!--del_lnk--> George Harrison's 1971 <i><!--del_lnk--> Concert for Bangladesh</i> was widely praised, but reports of a new album, a television special, and a return to touring came to nothing.<p>In 1972 Dylan signed onto <!--del_lnk--> Sam Peckinpah's film <i><!--del_lnk--> Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid</i>, providing the songs (see <!--del_lnk--> Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (album)) and taking a role as "Alias", a minor member of Billy's gang. The most memorable song, "<!--del_lnk--> Knockin' on Heaven's Door", has proved its durability, having been covered by over 150 recording artists.<p>Dylan signed with <!--del_lnk--> David Geffen's new Asylum label when his contract with <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Records expired in 1973, and he recorded <i><!--del_lnk--> Planet Waves</i> with <!--del_lnk--> The Band while rehearsing for a major tour. The album included two versions of "Forever Young". The phrase may have been lifted from <!--del_lnk--> John Keats's <!--del_lnk--> Ode on a Grecian Urn ("For ever panting, and for ever young") but Dylan turned it into an emotional work which has become one of his most popular concert songs. Columbia Records simultaneously released <i><!--del_lnk--> Dylan</i>, a haphazard collection of studio outtakes (almost exclusively cover songs), which was widely interpreted as a churlish response to Dylan's signing with a rival record label. In January 1974 Dylan and <!--del_lnk--> The Band embarked on their high-profile, coast-to-coast <!--del_lnk--> Bob Dylan and The Band 1974 Tour of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>; promoter <!--del_lnk--> Bill Graham claimed he received more ticket purchase requests than for any prior tour by any artist. A live double album of the tour, <i><!--del_lnk--> Before the Flood</i>, was released on <!--del_lnk--> Asylum Records.<p>After the tour, Dylan and his wife became publicly estranged. He filled a small red notebook with songs about his marital problems, and quickly recorded a new album entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Blood on the Tracks</i> in September 1974. Word of Dylan's efforts soon leaked out, and expectations were high. But Dylan delayed the album's release, and then re-recorded half of the songs in <!--del_lnk--> Minneapolis by year's end.<p>Released in early 1975, <i>Blood on the Tracks</i> received mixed reviews. In the <i><!--del_lnk--> NME</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Nick Kent described "the accompaniments [as] often so trashy they sound like mere practise takes." In <i>Rolling Stone</i>, reviewer <!--del_lnk--> Jon Landau wrote that "the record has been made with typical shoddiness". Over the years critics have come to see it as one of Dylan's greatest achievements, perhaps the only serious rival to his great mid 60s trilogy of albums. In <!--del_lnk--> Salon.com, Bill Wyman wrote: "<i>Blood on the Tracks</i> is his only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-'60s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years." The songs have been described as Dylan's most intimate and direct.<p>That summer Dylan wrote his first successful "protest" song in twelve years, championing the cause of boxer <!--del_lnk--> Rubin "Hurricane" Carter who he believed had been wrongfully imprisoned for a triple homicide in <!--del_lnk--> Paterson, New Jersey (an eponymous 1971 tribute to <!--del_lnk--> George Jackson, a <!--del_lnk--> Black Panther who was killed in prison, sank almost unnoticed). After visiting Carter in jail, Dylan wrote "<!--del_lnk--> Hurricane", presenting the case for Carter's innocence. Despite its 8½ minute length, the song was released as a single, peaking within the top forty on the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Chart, and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan's next tour, the <!--del_lnk--> Rolling Thunder Revue. The tour was a varied evening of entertainment featuring many performers drawn mostly from the resurgent Greenwich Village folk scene, including <!--del_lnk--> T-Bone Burnett; <!--del_lnk--> Allen Ginsberg; <!--del_lnk--> Ramblin' Jack Elliott; <!--del_lnk--> Steven Soles; <!--del_lnk--> David Mansfield; former <!--del_lnk--> Byrds frontman <!--del_lnk--> Roger McGuinn. British guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Mick Ronson ; <!--del_lnk--> Scarlet Rivera, a <!--del_lnk--> violin player Dylan discovered while she was walking down the street to a rehearsal, her violin case hanging on her back; and a reunion with <!--del_lnk--> Joan Baez (the tour marked Baez and Dylan's first joint performance in more than a decade). <!--del_lnk--> Joni Mitchell added herself to the Revue in November, and poet <!--del_lnk--> Allen Ginsberg accompanied the troupe, staging scenes for the film Dylan was simultaneously shooting. <!--del_lnk--> Sam Shepard was initially hired as the writer for this film, but ended up accompanying the tour as informal chronicler.<p>Running through late 1975 and again through early 1976, the tour encompassed the release of the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Desire</i> (1976), with many of Dylan's new songs featuring an almost <!--del_lnk--> travelogue-like narrative style, showing the influence of his new collaborator, playwright <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Levy. The spring 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special, <i>Hard Rain</i>, and the LP <i><!--del_lnk--> Hard Rain</i>; no concert album from the better-received and better-known opening half of the tour was released until 2002, when <i><!--del_lnk--> Live 1975</i> appeared as the fifth volume in Dylan's official <i>Bootleg Series</i>.<p>The fall 1975 tour with the Revue also provided the backdrop to Dylan's nearly four-hour film <i><!--del_lnk--> Renaldo and Clara</i>, a sprawling and improvised narrative mixed with concert footage and reminiscences. Released in 1978, the movie received generally poor, sometimes scathing, reviews and had a very brief theatrical run. Later in that year, Dylan allowed a two-hour edit, dominated by the concert performances, to be more widely released.<p>In November 1976 Dylan appeared at The Band's "farewell" concert, along with other guests including <!--del_lnk--> Joni Mitchell, <!--del_lnk--> Muddy Waters, <!--del_lnk--> Van Morrison, and <a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Young.htm" title="Neil Young">Neil Young</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Martin Scorsese's acclaimed cinematic chronicle of this show, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Last Waltz,</i> was released in 1978 and included about half of Dylan's set.<p>Dylan and Lownds were divorced on <!--del_lnk--> June 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1977, though they reportedly remained in regular contact for many years and, by some accounts, even to the present day.<p>Dylan's 1978 album <i><!--del_lnk--> Street Legal</i> was lyrically one of his more complex and cohesive; it suffered, however, from a poor sound mix (attributed to his studio recording practices), submerging much of its instrumentation in the sonic equivalent of cotton wadding until its remastered CD release nearly a quarter century later.<p>Dylan's work in the late 1970s and early 1980s was dominated by his becoming, in 1979, a <!--del_lnk--> born-again Christian. He released two albums of exclusively religious material and a third that seemed mostly so; of these, the first, <i><!--del_lnk--> Slow Train Coming</i> (1979), is generally regarded as the more accomplished, winning him a Grammy Award for "Best Male Vocalist". The second album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Saved</i> (1980), was not so well-received. When touring from the fall of 1979 through the spring of 1980 Dylan refused to play secular music and delivered sermonettes on stage, such as:<blockquote>
<p>Years ago they used ..., said I was a prophet. I used to say, "No I'm not a prophet" they say "Yes you are, you're a prophet." I said, "No it's not me." They used to say "You sure are a prophet." They used to convince me I was a prophet. Now I come out and say Jesus Christ is the answer. They say, "Bob Dylan's no prophet." They just can't handle it.</blockquote>
<p>Dylan's religious conversion was met with distrust by some fans and fellow artists. Shortly before his December 1980 shooting, <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon, for example, recorded "Serve Yourself", in negative response to Dylan's "Gotta Serve Somebody". But for <i>Rolling Stone</i> editor <!--del_lnk--> Jann Wenner, writing in his review for <i><!--del_lnk--> Slow Train Coming</i>, Dylan had not "sold out" totally to born-again Christianity so much as he had simply shifted focus. According to him, Dylan was still Dylan, and the same intensity and passion had been present in Dylan's protest songs of the 1960s. Wenner commented:<dl>
<dd><i>Slow Train Coming</i> is pure, true Dylan, probably the purest and truest Dylan ever. The religious symbolism is a logical progression of Dylan's Manichaean vision of life and his pain-filled struggle with good and evil.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>"I don't go to church or to a synagogue. I don't kneel beside my bed at night. I don't think I will. I have yet to face the terror I read about in all the great literature. But, since politics, economics and war have failed to make us feel any better—as individuals or as a nation—and we look back at long years of disrepair, then maybe the time for religion has come again, and rather too suddenly—'like a thief in the night.'"</dl>
<p><a id="Later_career" name="Later_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Later career</span></h3>
<p><a name="1980s"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">1980s</span></h4>
<p>In the fall of 1980 Dylan briefly resumed touring, restoring several of his most popular 1960s songs to his repertoire, for a series of concerts billed as "A Musical Retrospective". <i><!--del_lnk--> Shot of Love</i>, recorded the next spring, featured Dylan's first secular compositions in more than two years, mixed with explicitly Christian songs. The haunting "<!--del_lnk--> Every Grain of Sand" reminded some critics of <!--del_lnk--> William Blake’s verses.<p>In the 1980s the quality of Dylan's recorded work varied, from the well-regarded <i><!--del_lnk--> Infidels</i> in 1983 to the panned <i><!--del_lnk--> Down in the Groove</i> in 1988. Critics such as Michael Gray condemned Dylan's 1980s albums both for showing an extraordinary carelessness in the studio and for failing to release his best songs.<p>The <i>Infidels</i> recording sessions produced several notable outtakes, and many have questioned Dylan's judgment in leaving them off the album. Most well-regarded of these were "<!--del_lnk--> Blind Willie McTell" (which was both a tribute to the dead blues singer and an extraordinary evocation of African American history reaching back to "the ghosts of slavery ships"), "Foot of Pride" and "Lord Protect My Child"; these songs were later released on the boxed set <i><!--del_lnk--> The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961-1991</i>. An earlier version of <i>Infidels</i>, prepared by producer/guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Mark Knopfler, contained different arrangements and song selections than what appeared on the final product.<p>Dylan contributed vocals to <!--del_lnk--> USA for Africa's <!--del_lnk--> famine relief fundraising single "<!--del_lnk--> We Are the World". On <!--del_lnk--> 13 July <!--del_lnk--> 1985, he appeared at the climax of the <!--del_lnk--> Live Aid concert at <!--del_lnk--> JFK Stadium, <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>. Backed by <!--del_lnk--> Keith Richards and <!--del_lnk--> Ron Wood, Dylan performed a ragged version of "Hollis Brown", his ballad of rural poverty, and then said to a worldwide audience exceeding one billion people: "I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it, maybe ... one or two million, maybe ... and use it to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and, the farmers here, owe to the banks." His remarks were widely criticised as inappropriate, but they did inspire <!--del_lnk--> Willie Nelson to organise a series of events, <!--del_lnk--> Farm Aid, to benefit debt-ridden American farmers.<p>In June 1986 Dylan married his longtime backup singer <!--del_lnk--> Carolyn Dennis (often professionally known as Carol Dennis). Their daughter, Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, was born on <!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1986. The couple divorced in October 1992.<p>In 1987 Dylan starred in <!--del_lnk--> Richard Marquand's movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Hearts of Fire</i>, in which he played a washed-up-rock-star-turned-chicken farmer called "Billy Parker", whose teenage lover (<!--del_lnk--> Fiona) leaves him for a jaded English synth-pop sensation (<!--del_lnk--> Rupert Everett). The film was a critical and commercial flop. Dylan was inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. Later that spring he took part in the first <!--del_lnk--> Traveling Wilburys album, working with <!--del_lnk--> Roy Orbison, <!--del_lnk--> Jeff Lynne, <!--del_lnk--> Tom Petty, and his good friend <!--del_lnk--> George Harrison on lighthearted, well-selling fare. Despite Orbison's death, the other four Wilburys issued a sequel in 1990.<p>Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with the <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Lanois-produced <i><!--del_lnk--> Oh Mercy</i> (1989). Lanois's influence is audible throughout <i>Oh Mercy</i>. "Ring Them Bells" seems to call for Christians to maintain a visible presence in the world. The track "Most of the Time", a lost love composition, was later prominently featured in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> High Fidelity</i>, while "What Was It You Wanted?" has been interpreted both as a catechism and a wry comment on the expectations of critics and fans. Dylan made a number of music videos during this period, but only "Political World" found any regular airtime on <!--del_lnk--> MTV.<p><a name="1990s"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">1990s</span></h4>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23820.jpg.htm" title="Dylan performs at a 1996 concert in Stockholm."><img alt="Dylan performs at a 1996 concert in Stockholm." height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:B_dylan_1996.jpg" src="../../images/238/23820.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23820.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Dylan performs at a 1996 concert in Stockholm.</div>
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<p>Dylan's 1990s began with <i><!--del_lnk--> Under the Red Sky</i> (1990), an about-face from the serious <i>Oh Mercy</i>. The album was dedicated to "Gabby Goo Goo", and contained several apparently simple songs, including "Under the Red Sky" and "Wiggle Wiggle". The "Gabby Goo Goo" dedication was later explained as a nickname for Dylan's four-year-old daughter. Sidemen on the album included <!--del_lnk--> George Harrison, <!--del_lnk--> Slash from <!--del_lnk--> Guns N' Roses, <!--del_lnk--> David Crosby, <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Hornsby, <!--del_lnk--> Stevie Ray Vaughan, and <!--del_lnk--> Elton John. Despite the stellar line-up, the record received bad reviews and sold poorly. Dylan would not make another studio album of new songs for seven years.<p>The next few years saw Dylan returning to his roots with two albums covering old folk and blues numbers: <i><!--del_lnk--> Good as I Been to You</i> (1992) and <i><!--del_lnk--> World Gone Wrong</i> (1993), featuring interpretations and acoustic guitar work. Many critics and fans commented on the quiet beauty of the song "Lone Pilgrim", penned by a 19th century teacher and sung by Dylan with a haunting reverence. An exception to this rootsy mood came in Dylan's 1991 songwriting collaboration with <!--del_lnk--> Michael Bolton; the resulting song "Steel Bars", was released on Bolton's album <i><!--del_lnk--> Time, Love & Tenderness</i>. In 1995 Dylan recorded a live show for <i><!--del_lnk--> MTV Unplugged</i>. He claimed his wish to perform a set of traditional songs for the show was overruled by <a href="../../wp/s/Sony.htm" title="Sony">Sony</a> executives who insisted on a greatest hits package. The album produced from it (see <!--del_lnk--> MTV Unplugged (Bob Dylan album)) included "<!--del_lnk--> John Brown", an unreleased 1963 song detailing the ravages of both war and <!--del_lnk--> jingoism.<p>With a collection of songs reportedly written while snowed-in on his Minnesota ranch, Dylan returned to the recording studio with Lanois in January 1997. Late that spring, before the album's release, he was hospitalized with a life-threatening heart infection, <!--del_lnk--> pericarditis, brought on by <!--del_lnk--> histoplasmosis. His scheduled European tour was cancelled, but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying, "I really thought I'd be seeing <a href="../../wp/e/Elvis_Presley.htm" title="Elvis Presley">Elvis</a> soon." He was back on the road by midsummer, and in early fall performed before <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> at the World Eucharistic Conference in <a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>. The Pope treated the audience of 200,000 people to a sermon based on Dylan's lyric "<!--del_lnk--> Blowin' in the Wind".<p>September saw the release of the new Lanois-produced album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Time Out of Mind</i>. With its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations, Dylan's first collection of original songs in seven years became highly acclaimed. It also achieved an unforeseen popularity among young listeners, particularly the opening song, "Love Sick". This collection of complex songs won him his first solo "Album of the Year" <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Award (he was one of numerous performers on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Concert for Bangladesh</i>, the 1972 winner). The love song "To Make You Feel My Love" was covered by both <!--del_lnk--> Garth Brooks and <!--del_lnk--> Billy Joel.<p>In December 1997 <!--del_lnk--> President Clinton presented Dylan with a Kennedy Center Honour in the East Room of the <!--del_lnk--> White House, paying this tribute: "He probably had more impact on people of my generation than any other creative artist. His voice and lyrics haven't always been easy on the ear, but throughout his career Bob Dylan has never aimed to please. He's disturbed the peace and discomforted the powerful."<p><a name="2000_and_beyond"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">2000 and beyond</span></h4>
<p>In 2000 his song "Things Have Changed", penned for the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Wonder Boys</i>, won a <!--del_lnk--> Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and an <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Song. For reasons unannounced, the Oscar (by some reports a facsimile) tours with him, presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> "Love and Theft"</i> was released on <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2001. Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost, and its distinctive sound owes much to the accompanists. <!--del_lnk--> Tony Garnier, bassist and bandleader, had played with Dylan for 12 years, longer than any other musician. Larry Campbell, one of the most accomplished American guitarists of the last two decades, played on the road with Dylan from 1997 through 2004. Guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Charlie Sexton and drummer <!--del_lnk--> David Kemper had also toured with Dylan for years. Keyboard player <!--del_lnk--> Augie Meyers, the only musician not part of Dylan's touring band, had also played on <i>Time Out of Mind</i>. The album was critically well-received and nominated for several Grammy awards. Critics noted that at this late stage in his career, Dylan was deliberately widening his musical palette. The styles referenced in this album included <!--del_lnk--> rockabilly, Western swing, jazz, and even lounge ballads.<p><i>"Love and Theft"</i> was controversial due to some similarities between the lyrics of the song "Floater" to Japanese writer <!--del_lnk--> Junichi Saga's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Confessions of a Yakuza</i>. It is unclear if Dylan intentionally lifted any material. Dylan's publicist had no comment.<p>In February of 2003, an 8-minute long epic ballad called "Cross The Green Mountain", written and recorded by Dylan, was released as the closing song on the soundtrack to the Civil War movie "Gods and Generals", and later appeared as one of the 42 rare tracks on the iTunes Music Store release of "Bob Dylan: The Collection". A music video for the song was also produced in promotion of the motion picture.<p>2003 also saw the release of the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Masked & Anonymous</i>, a creative collaboration with television producer <!--del_lnk--> Larry Charles, featured many well-known actors. Dylan and Charles cowrote the film under the pseudonyms Rene Fontaine and Sergei Petrov. As difficult to decipher as some of his songs, <i>Masked & Anonymous</i> was panned by most major critics and had a limited run in theaters.<p>In 2005 preproduction began on a film entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> I'm Not There: Suppositions on a Film Concerning Dylan</i>. The movie makes use of seven characters to represent the different aspects of Dylan's life. The movie is to be directed by <!--del_lnk--> Todd Haynes, and the cast currently includes <!--del_lnk--> Cate Blanchett, <!--del_lnk--> Heath Ledger, <a href="../../wp/c/Christian_Bale.htm" title="Christian Bale">Christian Bale</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Richard Gere.<p><!--del_lnk--> Martin Scorsese's film biography <i><!--del_lnk--> No Direction Home</i> was shown on <!--del_lnk--> September 26 and <!--del_lnk--> September 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 on <!--del_lnk--> BBC Two in the United Kingdom and <!--del_lnk--> PBS in the United States. An accompanying soundtrack was released in August 2005, which contained much previously unavailable early Dylan material. The documentary received a <!--del_lnk--> Peabody Award in April 2006.<p>Dylan himself returned to recording studio at some point in 2005. He recorded at least one song, "Tell Ol' Bill", for the motion picture <i><!--del_lnk--> North Country</i>. The song is an original composition, not the similarly titled traditional folk song.<p>In February 2006, Dylan recorded tracks for a new album in New York City that resulted in the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Modern Times</i>, released on <!--del_lnk--> August 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. This date also included the <!--del_lnk--> iTunes Music Store release of <!--del_lnk--> Bob Dylan: The Collection, a digital box set containing all of his studio and live albums (773 tracks in total), along with 42 rare & unreleased tracks and a 100 page booklet. To promote the digital box set and the new album (on iTunes), Apple released a 30 second TV spot featuring Dylan, in full country & western regalia, lip-synching to "Someday Baby" against a striking white background. In a well-publicized interview to promote the album, Dylan criticised the quality of modern sound recordings and claimed that his new songs "probably sounded ten times better in the studio when we recorded 'em".<p>Despite some coarsening of Dylan’s voice (<!--del_lnk--> The Guardian critic characterised his singing on the album as “a catarrhal death rattle”) most reviewers gave the album high marks and many described it as the final instalment of a successful trilogy, embracing <i>Time Out of Mind</i> and <i>Love and Theft</i>. The track most frequently singled out for praise was the final song “Ain’t Talkin’”, a nine minute talking blues in which Dylan appeared to be walking “through all-enveloping darkness, before finally disappearing into the murk”. <i>Modern Times</i> made news by entering the US charts at #1, making it Dylan's first album to reach that position since <!--del_lnk--> 1976's <i>Desire</i>. At 65, Dylan became the oldest, still-living musician to top the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard albums chart. The record also shot to number one in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and Switzerland.<p>In September 2006 Scott Warmuth, an Albuquerque, N.M.-based disc jockey, noted similarities between Dylan's lyrics in the album, <i>Modern Times</i> and the poetry of <!--del_lnk--> Henry Timrod, the 'Poet Laureate of the Confederacy'. A wider debate developed in <i><!--del_lnk--> The New York Times</i> and other journals about the nature of "borrowing" within the folk process and in literature.<p>May 3, 2006, was the premiere of Dylan's <!--del_lnk--> DJ career, hosting a weekly radio program, <!--del_lnk--> Theme Time Radio Hour, for <!--del_lnk--> XM Satellite Radio. Amongst the classic and obscure records played on his show from the 30s, 40s and 50s, Dylan has also played tracks by <!--del_lnk--> Blur, <!--del_lnk--> Prince, <!--del_lnk--> Billy Bragg & <!--del_lnk--> Wilco, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Gauthier and even <!--del_lnk--> L.L. Cool J and <!--del_lnk--> The Streets. In the fall, 2006, Dylan announced the next installment of his "<!--del_lnk--> Never Ending Tour", commencing in <a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a> and ending in <!--del_lnk--> New York.<p><a id="Recent_live_performances_and_the_Never_Ending_Tour" name="Recent_live_performances_and_the_Never_Ending_Tour"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Recent live performances and the <!--del_lnk--> Never Ending Tour</span></h4>
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<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23821.jpg.htm" title="Dylan performing in Bologna in November 2005."><img alt="Dylan performing in Bologna in November 2005." height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bob_Dylan_Bologna_Nov_05_concert.jpg" src="../../images/238/23821.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23821.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Dylan performing in <a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> in November 2005.</div>
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<p>Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and the 2000s, a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s. The "<!--del_lnk--> Never Ending Tour" continues, anchored by longtime bassist Tony Garnier and filled out with talented musicians better known to their peers than to their audiences. To the dismay of some fans, Dylan refuses to be a nostalgia act; his reworked arrangements, evolving bands and experimental vocal approaches keep the music unpredictable night after night.<p>Dylan, once known as a guitar player, has not been playing guitar in live performance since 2002 (with very rare exceptions). Instead he chooses to play on the keyboard, with increasingly frequent harmonica solos. Various rumors have circulated as to why Dylan gave up his guitar, none terribly reliable. At a 2006 concert in Boston, Dylan said "I would love to play the guitar, but then I would have to find someone to play this thing. Someday." According to David Gates, a Newsweek reporter who interviewed Dylan in 2004, "...it has to do with his guitar not giving him quite the fullness of sound he was wanting at the bottom... He's thought of hiring a keyboard player so he doesn't have to do it himself, but hasn't been able to figure out who."<p>Dylan chooses songs from throughout his 40-year career, seldom playing the same set twice.<p><a id="Fan_base" name="Fan_base"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fan base</span></h2>
<p>Bob Dylan's large and vocal fan base writes books, essays, '<!--del_lnk--> zines, etc. at a furious rate. They also maintain a massive Internet presence with daily Dylan news, a site which rigorously documents every song he has ever played in concert, one that documents bootlegs that have been released on vinyl and disc, and one where visitors bet on what songs he will play on upcoming tours; along with many hundreds of other sites. Within minutes of the end of concerts, set lists and reviews are posted by his loyal following.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> poet laureate of Britain, <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Motion, is a vocal supporter of Dylan's work, as are musicians <!--del_lnk--> Lou Reed, <a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Young.htm" title="Neil Young">Neil Young</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bruce_Springsteen.htm" title="Bruce Springsteen">Bruce Springsteen</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tom Petty, <!--del_lnk--> David Bowie, <!--del_lnk--> Mike Watt, <!--del_lnk--> Roger Waters, <!--del_lnk--> Ian Hunter, and <!--del_lnk--> Tom Waits.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Dylan pool, which was created in 2001 has been featured on CNN, CBC, BBC, and the Associated Press. To the Associated Press, "The pool reflects both the obsessive interest Dylan still draws 40 years into his career and the way this road warrior has structured his career." It allows interaction between fans while adding a level of competition through the unique online Bob Dylan fantasy game.<p><!--del_lnk--> ISIS Magazine was founded in 1985 and is the longest running publication about Bob Dylan. Edited since its inception by renowned Dylan expert Derek Barker, the magazine, which is published bi-monthly, has subscribers in 32 countries.<p><a id="Chronicles_Vol._1" name="Chronicles_Vol._1"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Chronicles Vol. 1</i></span></h2>
<p>After a lengthy delay, October 2004 saw the publishing of Dylan's autobiography <i><!--del_lnk--> Chronicles, Vol. 1</i>, with which he once again confounded expectations. Dylan wrote three chapters about the year between his arrival in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1961 and recording his first album. Dylan focused on the brief period before he was a household name, while virtually ignoring the mid-1960s when his fame was at its height. He also devoted chapters to two lesser-known albums, <i><!--del_lnk--> New Morning</i> (1970) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Oh Mercy</i> (1989), which contained insights into his collaborations with poet <!--del_lnk--> Archibald MacLeish and producer <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Lanois. In the <i><!--del_lnk--> New Morning</i> chapter, Dylan expresses distaste for the "spokesman of a generation" label bestowed upon him, and evinces disgust with his more fanatical followers.<p>Another section features Dylan's account of a guitar-playing style in mathematical detail that he claimed was the key to his renaissance in the 1990s. Despite the <!--del_lnk--> opacity of some passages, there is an overall clarity in voice that is generally missing in Dylan's other prose writings, and a noticeable generosity towards friends and lovers of his early years. At the end of the book, Dylan describes with great passion the moment when he listened to the Brecht/Weill song "Pirate Jenny", and the moment when he first heard <!--del_lnk--> Robert Johnson’s recordings. In these passages, Dylan suggested the process which ignited his own song-writing.<p><i>Chronicles, Vol. 1</i> reached number two on <i><!--del_lnk--> The New York Times'</i> Hardcover Non-Fiction best seller list in December 2004 and was nominated for a National Book Award. Simultaneously, <!--del_lnk--> Amazon.com and <!--del_lnk--> Barnes & Noble reported the book as their number two best-seller among all categories. <i>Chronicles Vol. 1</i> is the first of three planned volumes.<p><a id="Discography.2C_film.2C_books" name="Discography.2C_film.2C_books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Band</span></h2>
<p>The current members of Bob Dylan's touring band:<ul>
<li><b>Bob Dylan</b> - <!--del_lnk--> vocals, <!--del_lnk--> keyboard, <!--del_lnk--> harmonica<li>Stu Kimball - <!--del_lnk--> rhythm guitar<li>Denny Freeman - <!--del_lnk--> lead guitar<li>Donny Herron - <!--del_lnk--> pedal steel guitar, <!--del_lnk--> lap steel guitar, <!--del_lnk--> electric mandolin, <!--del_lnk--> banjo, <!--del_lnk--> violin<li><!--del_lnk--> Tony Garnier - <!--del_lnk--> bass guitar, <a href="../../wp/d/Double_bass.htm" title="Double bass">standup bass</a><li>George Receli - <!--del_lnk--> drums<li>Tommy Morrongiello - occasional rhythm guitar, <!--del_lnk--> guitar tech</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bob Marley</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: khaki;"><big>Bob Marley</big></th>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki;">Background information</th>
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<td><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Robert Nesta Marley</td>
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<td><b>Also known as</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Tuff Gong</td>
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<td><b>Born</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> February 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1945<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/788.png.htm" title="Jamaica"><img alt="Jamaica" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg" src="../../images/7/788.png" width="22" /></a> Nine Miles, <!--del_lnk--> Saint Ann, <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></td>
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<td><b>Died</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1981<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Miami%252C_Florida.htm" title="Miami, Florida">Miami</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/r/Reggae.htm" title="Reggae">Reggae</a><br /><a href="../../wp/s/Ska.htm" title="Ska">Ska</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Rocksteady</td>
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<td><b>Occupation(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Singer, songwriter, guitarist</td>
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<td><b><a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">Instrument(s)</a></b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">Guitar</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Vocals</td>
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<td><b>Years active</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1962-<!--del_lnk--> 1981</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Studio One<br /><!--del_lnk--> Beverley's<br /><!--del_lnk--> Upsetter/<!--del_lnk--> Trojan<br /><!--del_lnk--> Island/<!--del_lnk--> Tuff Gong</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b>Associated<br /> acts</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> The Wailers Band, <!--del_lnk--> The Wailers</td>
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<td><b>Website</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> www.bobmarley.com</td>
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<p><b>Robert Nesta Marley</b>, <!--del_lnk--> OM (<!--del_lnk--> February 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1945 – <!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1981), better known as <b>Bob Marley</b>, was a <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaican</a> <!--del_lnk--> singer, <!--del_lnk--> songwriter, and <!--del_lnk--> guitarist. He is the most widely known performer of <a href="../../wp/r/Reggae.htm" title="Reggae">reggae</a> music, and is famous for having popularized the genre outside Jamaica. A faithful <!--del_lnk--> Rastafari, Marley is regarded by many as a <!--del_lnk--> prophet of the religion, as well as one of the greatest songwriters of all time.<p>His best known songs are a mixture of reggae, <!--del_lnk--> rock, and <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="Rhythm and blues">rhythm and blues</a>, and include "<!--del_lnk--> I Shot the Sheriff", made famous in 1974 by <a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" title="Eric Clapton">Eric Clapton</a>, which raised Marley's international profile, "No Woman No Cry", "Exodus", "Could You Be Loved", "Jamming","Redemption Song" and one of his most famous songs, "One Love". His posthumous album <i><!--del_lnk--> Legend</i> (1984) became the best-selling reggae album ever, with sales of more than 12 million copies.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life_and_career" name="Early_life_and_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and career</span></h2>
<p>Bob Marley was born on Tuesday in the small village of Nine Miles in <!--del_lnk--> Saint Ann, <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>. His father, <!--del_lnk--> Norval Sinclair Marley, was a white Jamaican born in <!--del_lnk--> 1895 to <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> parents from <!--del_lnk--> Sussex. Norval was a <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Marines.htm" title="Royal Marines">Marine officer</a> and captain, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> plantation overseer, when he married <!--del_lnk--> Cedella Booker, an eighteen-year-old black Jamaican. Norval provided financial support for his wife and child, but seldom saw them, as he was often away on trips. Bob was ten years old when Norval died of a heart attack in 1955 at age 60.<p>Being of mixed race, Bob Marley faced questions about his own racial identity throughout his life. He reflected:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<td>I don't have prejudice against myself. My father was a white and my mother was black. Them call me half-caste or whatever. Me don't dip on nobody's side. Me don't dip on the black man's side nor the white man's side. Me dip on God's side, the one who create me and cause me to come from black and white.</td>
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<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<p>Marley and his mother moved to <!--del_lnk--> Kingston's <!--del_lnk--> Trenchtown slum after Norval's death. Marley was forced to learn <!--del_lnk--> self-defense, as he became the target of <!--del_lnk--> bullying because of his racial makeup and stature (he was 5'4" (163 cm) tall). He gained a reputation for his physical strength and constitution, which earned him the nickname "Tuff Gong".<p>Young Marley became friends with Neville "Bunny" Livingston (later <!--del_lnk--> Bunny Wailer), with whom Marley started to play music. Marley left school at the age of 14 and started as an apprentice at a local welder's shop. In his free time, he and Livingston made music with <!--del_lnk--> Joe Higgs, a local singer and devout <!--del_lnk--> Rastafarian whom many critics regard as Marley's mentor. It was at one of the <!--del_lnk--> jam sessions with Higgs and Livingston that Marley met Peter McIntosh (later known as <!--del_lnk--> Peter Tosh), who had similar musical ambitions.<p>In 1962, Marley recorded his first two singles, "<!--del_lnk--> Judge Not" and "<!--del_lnk--> One Cup of Coffee", with local music producer <!--del_lnk--> Leslie Kong. These songs attracted little attention, and were later re-released on Marley's <i><!--del_lnk--> Songs of Freedom</i> album.<p><a id="The_Wailers" name="The_Wailers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Wailers</span></h2>
<p>In 1963, Bob Marley, Bunny Livingston, <!--del_lnk--> Peter McIntosh, <!--del_lnk--> Junior Braithwaite, <!--del_lnk--> Beverley Kelso, and <!--del_lnk--> Cherry Smith formed a <a href="../../wp/s/Ska.htm" title="Ska">ska</a> and <!--del_lnk--> rocksteady group, calling themselves "The Teenagers". They later changed their name to "The Wailing Rudeboys", then to "The Wailing Wailers", and finally to "<!--del_lnk--> The Wailers". By 1966, Braithwaite, Kelso, and Smith had left The Wailers, leaving the core trio of Marley, Livingston, and McIntosh.<p>Marley took on the role of leader, singer, and main songwriter. Much of The Wailers' early work, including their first single <i><!--del_lnk--> Simmer Down</i>, was produced by <!--del_lnk--> Coxsone Dodd at <!--del_lnk--> Studio One. The single topped Jamaican Charts in 1964 and established The Wailers as one of the hottest groups in the country. They followed up with songs such as "Soul Rebel" and "400 Years".<p>In 1966, Marley married <!--del_lnk--> Rita Anderson, and moved near his mother's residence in <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington, Delaware for a few months. Upon returning to Jamaica, Marley began practicing Rastafari and started to wear his trademark <!--del_lnk--> dreadlocks (<i>see the</i> <!--del_lnk--> religion section <i>for more on Marley's religious views</i>).<p>After a conflict with Dodd, Marley and his band teamed up with <!--del_lnk--> Lee "Scratch" Perry and his studio band, <!--del_lnk--> The Upsetters. Although the alliance lasted less than a year, they recorded what many consider The Wailers' finest work. Marley and Perry split after a dispute regarding the assignment of recording rights, but they would remain friends and work together again.<p>Between 1968 and 1972, Bob and Rita Marley, Peter McIntosh, and Bunny Livingston recut some old tracks with <!--del_lnk--> JAD Records in Kingston and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> in an attempt to commercialize The Wailers' sound. Livingston later asserted that these songs "should never be released on an album... they were just demos for record companies to listen to".<p>The Wailers' first album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Catch A Fire</i>, was released worldwide in 1973, and sold well. It was followed a year later by <i><!--del_lnk--> Burnin'</i>, which included "<!--del_lnk--> Get Up, Stand Up" and "<!--del_lnk--> I Shot The Sheriff". <a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" title="Eric Clapton">Eric Clapton</a> made a hit cover of the latter in 1974.<p>The Wailers broke up in 1974, with each of the three main members going on to pursue solo careers. The reason for the breakup is shrouded in conjecture; some believe that there were disagreements amongst Livingston, McIntosh, and Marley concerning performances, while others claim that Livingston and McIntosh simply preferred solo work. McIntosh began recording under the name <!--del_lnk--> Peter Tosh, and Livingston continued on as Bunny Wailer.<p><a id="Bob_Marley_.26_The_Wailers" name="Bob_Marley_.26_The_Wailers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bob Marley & The Wailers</span></h2>
<p>Despite the breakup, Marley continued recording as "Bob Marley & The Wailers". His new <!--del_lnk--> backing band included brothers <!--del_lnk--> Carlton and <!--del_lnk--> Aston "Family Man" Barrett on drums and bass respectively, <!--del_lnk--> Junior Marvin and <!--del_lnk--> Al Anderson on lead guitar, <!--del_lnk--> Tyrone Downie and <!--del_lnk--> Earl "Wya" Lindo on keyboards, and <!--del_lnk--> Alvin "Seeco" Patterson on percussion. The "<!--del_lnk--> I Threes", consisting of <!--del_lnk--> Judy Mowatt, <!--del_lnk--> Marcia Griffiths, and Marley's wife, Rita, performed backup vocals.<p>In 1975, Marley had his international breakthrough with his first hit outside Jamaica, "<!--del_lnk--> No Woman, No Cry" from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Natty Dread</i> album. This was followed by his breakthrough album in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Rastaman Vibration</i> (1976), which spent four weeks in the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard charts Top Ten.<p>In December 1976, two days before "<!--del_lnk--> Smile Jamaica", a free concert organized by <!--del_lnk--> Jamaican Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Michael Manley in an attempt to ease tension between two warring political groups, Marley, his wife, and manager Don Taylor were wounded in an assault by unknown gunmen inside Marley's home. Taylor and Marley's wife sustained serious injuries, but later made full recoveries. Bob Marley received only minor injuries in the chest and arm. The shooting was thought to have been politically motivated, as many felt the concert was really a support rally for Manley. Nonetheless, the concert proceeded, and an injured Marley performed as scheduled.<p>Marley left Jamaica at the end of 1976 for <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, where he recorded his <i><!--del_lnk--> Exodus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Kaya</i> albums. <i>Exodus</i> stayed on the British album charts for 56 consecutive weeks. It included four UK hit singles: "Exodus", "Waiting In Vain", "Jamming", and also "One Love", a rendition of <!--del_lnk--> Curtis Mayfield's hit, "<!--del_lnk--> People Get Ready". It was here that he was arrested and received a conviction for possession of a small quantity of <!--del_lnk--> cannabis while travelling in London.<p>In 1978, Marley performed at another political concert in Jamaica, the <!--del_lnk--> One Love Peace Concert, again in an effort to calm warring parties. Near the end of the performance, by Marley's request, Manley and his political rival, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Seaga, joined each other on stage and shook hands.<p>The words he said, as he called the two politicians onstage, and while he held their hands above his head:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<td>His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Selassie I, run lightning, leading the people of the slaves to shake hands. . . To show the people that you love them right, to show the people that you gonna unite, show the people that you're over bright, show the people that everything is all right. Watch, watch, watch, what you're doing, because . . I'm not so good at talking but I hope you understand what I'm trying to say. I'm trying to say, could we have, could we have, up here onstage here the presence of Mr. Michael Manley and Mr. Edward Seaga. I just want to shake hands and show the people that we're gonna unite . . . we're gonna unite . . . we've got to unite . . . The moon is high over my head, and I give my love instead. The moon is high over my head, and I give my love instead.</td>
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<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<p>He said this while improvising on the song "Jamming".<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Survival</i>, a defiant and politically charged album, was released in 1979. Tracks such as "Zimbabwe", "<!--del_lnk--> Africa Unite", "Wake Up and Live", and "Survival" reflected Marley's support for the struggles of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africans</a>. In early <!--del_lnk--> 1980, he was invited to perform at the <!--del_lnk--> April 17 celebration of <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>'s Independence Day.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Uprising</i> (1980) was Bob Marley's final studio album, and is one of his most religious productions, including "<!--del_lnk--> Redemption Song" and "Forever Loving Jah". It was in "Redemption Song" that Marley sang the famous lyric,<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>Emancipate yourselves from mental slavery<br /> None but ourselves can free our minds...</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Confrontation</i>, released posthumously in 1983, contained unreleased material recorded during Marley's lifetime, including the hit "<!--del_lnk--> Buffalo Soldier" and new mixes of singles previously only available in Jamaica.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2>
<p>Bob Marley was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Rastafari movement, whose culture was a key element in the development of reggae. Bob Marley became the leading proponent of the Rastafari, taking their music out of the socially deprived areas of Jamaica and onto the international music scene.<p>Now considered a "rasta" legend, Marley's adoption of the characteristic Rastafarian dreadlocks and famous use of <!--del_lnk--> marijuana as a <!--del_lnk--> sacred sacrament in the late sixties were an integral part of his persona. He is said to have entered every performance proclaiming the divinity of <!--del_lnk--> Jah Rastafari.<p>Many of Marley's songs contained Biblical references, sometimes using wordplay to fuse activism and religion, as in "Revolution" and "Revelation":<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>Revelation, reveals the truth...</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td valign="top" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>It takes a revolution to make a solution...</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
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<p>A few months before his death, Marley was baptised into the <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Orthodox Church and took the name <i>Berhane Selassie</i> (meaning <i>the Light of the Holy Trinity</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Amharic).<p><a id="Battle_with_cancer" name="Battle_with_cancer"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Battle with cancer</span></h2>
<p><a id="Diagnosis" name="Diagnosis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diagnosis</span></h3>
<p>In July <!--del_lnk--> 1977, Marley was found to have <!--del_lnk--> malignant melanoma in a <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> wound on his right <!--del_lnk--> hallux (big toe). Marley refused amputation, citing worries that the operation would affect his dancing, as well as the Rastafarian belief that the body must be "whole"<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td valign="top" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:10px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:10px; overflow:hidden; line-height:10px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/153/15302.png" width="10" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>Rasta no abide amputation. I don't allow a man to be dismantled.</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:10px; height:10px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:10px; overflow:hidden; line-height:10px; letter-spacing:10px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bob Marley"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bob Marley"><img alt="Bob Marley" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/153/15303.png" width="10" /></a></div>
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<td colspan="3" style="padding-top: 10px">
<p style="font-size:smaller;line-height:1em;text-align: right"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—From the biography <i>Catch a Fire</i></cite></td>
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<p>Marley may have seen <!--del_lnk--> medical doctors as <i>samfai</i>, <!--del_lnk--> confidence men who cheat the gullible by pretending to have the power of witchcraft . True to this belief Marley went against all surgical possibilities and sought out other means that would not break his religious beliefs.<p><a id="Collapse_and_treatment" name="Collapse_and_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Collapse and treatment</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> spread to Marley's <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brain</a>, <!--del_lnk--> lungs, <!--del_lnk--> liver, and <!--del_lnk--> stomach following his refusal of treatment. After playing two shows at <!--del_lnk--> Madison Square Garden as part of his fall 1980 <!--del_lnk--> Uprising Tour, he collapsed while jogging in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">NYC's</a> <!--del_lnk--> Central Park. The remainder of the tour was subsequently cancelled.<p>Bob Marley played his final concert at the <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Theatre in <!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on <!--del_lnk--> September 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1980. The live version of "<!--del_lnk--> Redemption Song" on <i><!--del_lnk--> Songs of Freedom</i> was recorded at this show. Marley afterwards sought medical help from <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a> specialist <!--del_lnk--> Josef Issels, but his cancer had already progressed to the terminal stage.<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2>
<p>While flying home from <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> to Jamaica for his final days, Marley became ill, and landed in Miami for immediate medical attention. He died at Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in <a href="../../wp/m/Miami%252C_Florida.htm" title="Miami, Florida">Miami, Florida</a> on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 at the age of 36. His final words to his son <!--del_lnk--> Ziggy were "Money can't buy life". Marley received a <!--del_lnk--> state funeral in Jamaica, which combined elements of <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Rastafari. He was buried in a crypt near his birthplace with his <!--del_lnk--> Gibson Les Paul, a soccer ball, a marijuana bud, and a <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>. A month before his death, he was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Jamaican Order of Merit.<p><a id="Children" name="Children"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Children</span></h2>
<p>Bob Marley had 13 children: three with his wife <!--del_lnk--> Rita, two adopted from Rita's previous relationships, and the remaining eight with separate women. His children are, in order of birth:<ol>
<li>Imani Carole, born May 22, 1963 to Cheryl Murray<li>Sharon, born <!--del_lnk--> November 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1964 to <!--del_lnk--> Rita in a separate marriage;<li>Cedella, born <!--del_lnk--> August 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1967 to <!--del_lnk--> Rita;<li><!--del_lnk--> David "Ziggy", born <!--del_lnk--> October 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1968 to <!--del_lnk--> Rita;<li><!--del_lnk--> Stephen, born <!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1972 to <!--del_lnk--> Rita;<li>Robert "Robbie", born <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1972 to Pat Williams;<li><!--del_lnk--> Rohan, born <!--del_lnk--> May 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1972 to Janet Hunt;<li>Karen, born <!--del_lnk--> 1973 to Janet Bowen;<li>Stephanie, born <!--del_lnk--> 1974; according to <!--del_lnk--> Cedella Booker she was product from a affair of <!--del_lnk--> Rita with a man called Ital, but she was acknowledged as Bob's daughter;<li><!--del_lnk--> Julian, born <!--del_lnk--> June 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1975 to Lucy Pounder;<li><!--del_lnk--> Ky-Mani, born <!--del_lnk--> February 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1976 to Anita Belnavis;<li><!--del_lnk--> Damian, born <!--del_lnk--> July 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1978 to <!--del_lnk--> Cindy Breakspeare;<li>Makeda, born <!--del_lnk--> May 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 to Yvette Crichton.</ol>
<p><a id="Posthumous_reputation" name="Posthumous_reputation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Posthumous reputation</span></h2>
<p>Bob Marley's music has continuously grown in popularity in the years since his death, providing a stream of revenue for his estate and affording him a mythical status in <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> music history. He remains enormously popular and well-known all over the world, particularly so in Africa. Marley was inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in <!--del_lnk--> 1994. <i><!--del_lnk--> Time</i> magazine chose Bob Marley & The Wailers' <i><!--del_lnk--> Exodus</i> as the greatest album of the 20th century.<p>In 2001, the same year that Marley won the <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, a feature-length documentary about his life by <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Marre, Rebel Music, was nominated for the Best Long Form Music Video documentary at the Grammies. It won various other awards. With contributions from Rita, the Wailers, and Marley's lovers and children, it tells much of the story too in his own words.<p>In February <!--del_lnk--> 2006, a Brooklyn community board voted to rename a portion of Church Avenue, which runs through several heavily populated Caribbean-American neighbourhoods, after Bob Marley, pending approval of the New York City Council.<p>In January <!--del_lnk--> 2005, it was reported that Rita Marley was planning to have her late husband's remains exhumed and reburied in <!--del_lnk--> Shashamane, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. This announcement was met with great resistance in Jamaica, with critics arguing that his life was a testament to the unique <!--del_lnk--> Jamaican culture. Marley's 60th birthday celebration on February 6, 2005 was celebrated in Shashamane, having previously always been held in Jamaica. Later that year, Rita Marley denied having made such plans.<p><a id="Discography" name="Discography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Tours" name="Tours"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tours</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Apr-Jul <!--del_lnk--> 1973: <b><!--del_lnk--> Catch a Fire Tour</b> (England, USA)<li>Oct-Nov <!--del_lnk--> 1973: <b><!--del_lnk--> Burnin' Tour</b> (USA, England)<li>Jun-Jul <!--del_lnk--> 1975: <b><!--del_lnk--> Natty Dread Tour</b> (USA, Canada, England)<li>Apr-Jul <!--del_lnk--> 1976: <b><!--del_lnk--> Rastaman Vibration Tour</b> (USA, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Netherlands, France, England, Wales)<li>May-Jun <!--del_lnk--> 1977: <b><!--del_lnk--> Exodus Tour</b> (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England)<li>May-Aug <!--del_lnk--> 1978: <b><!--del_lnk--> Kaya Tour</b> (USA, Canada, England, France, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium)<li>Apr-May <!--del_lnk--> 1979: <b><!--del_lnk--> Babylon by Bus Tour</b> (Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Hawaii)<li>Oct-Dec <!--del_lnk--> 1979: <b><!--del_lnk--> Survival Tour</b> (USA, Canada, Trinidad/Tobago, Bahamas)<li>Apr <!--del_lnk--> 1980: Zimbabwe<li>May-Sep <!--del_lnk--> 1980: <b><!--del_lnk--> Uprising Tour</b> (Switzerland, Germany, France, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Ireland, England, Scotland, Wales, USA)</ul>
<p><a id="Awards_and_honors" name="Awards_and_honors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and honours</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15306.jpg.htm" title="Marley's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame"><img alt="Marley's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame" height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bob-Star.jpg" src="../../images/153/15306.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15306.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Marley's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>1976: Band of the Year (<!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stone)<li>June 1978: Awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Peace Medal of the Third World from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a><li>February 1981: Awarded Jamaica's third highest honour, the <!--del_lnk--> Jamaican Order of Merit<li>March 1994: Inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame<li>1999: Album of the Century for <i><!--del_lnk--> Exodus</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Time Magazine)<li>February 2001: A star on the <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood Walk of Fame<li>February 2001: Awarded <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award<li>2005: Posthumous Achievement Award<li>"One Love" named song of the millennium by The <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a></ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Marley"</div>
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Bobcat
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bobcat</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bobcat</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1884.jpg.htm" title="A Bobcat sitting on some hay"><img alt="A Bobcat sitting on some hay" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bobcat_sitting.jpg" src="../../images/18/1884.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>A Bobcat sitting on some hay</small></div>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnivora<br />
</td>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Felidae<br />
</td>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Lynx</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>L. rufus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Lynx rufus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Schreber, 1777</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Bobcat</b> (<i>Lynx rufus</i>, or commonly <i>felis rufus</i>) is a wild cat native to North America. They are found mostly in the United States, southern Canada, and northern Mexico. The bobcat is an adaptable animal that inhabits wooded areas as well as semi-desert, urban, and swampland environments. They live in a set home range which shifts in size with the season. They utilize several methods to mark their territorial boundaries including claw marks and deposits of urine or feces.<p>In appearance, the bobcat has characteristic black bars on its forelegs and tail. They also have prominent, pointed ears with short tufts of black hair at the tip. The name is derived from their stubby black-tipped tails that, unlike those of other species of Lynx, have a white underside. Their coat is most often light gray or various shades of brown in colour, with varying degrees of black spots either dispersed along much of their body or relegated to the otherwise white underparts. The bobcat is twice as large as a house cat but typically smaller than the related <!--del_lnk--> Canada lynx. The adult male, averaging 36 inches (90 cm) in length, and weighing from 16 to 30 pounds (7 to 14 kg), is generally 30-40% larger than the female.<p>Bobcats are carnivorous animals which will hunt anything from insects and small rodents to large deer, but often show a preference for rabbits and hares. What they hunt will depend on location and habitat, season, and scarcity of prey. The bobcat breeds from winter into the spring and has a gestation period of about two months. The kittens will stay with the mother until about a year old.<p>
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</script><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>There has been some debate over whether to classify this species as <i>lynx rufus</i> or <i>felis rufus</i>. Although the former is the preferred scientific name, the debate is part of a wider issue as to whether the lynx should be given its own genus, or simply placed in a more inclusive genus <i>felis</i>. The bobcat is believed to be evolved from a Eurasian lynx which crossed into North America by way of the <!--del_lnk--> Bering land bridge during the <!--del_lnk--> Pleistocene. The first wave moved into the southern portion of North America, which was soon cut off from the north by glaciers. This population evolved into modern bobcats around 20,000 years ago. A second population arrived from Asia and settled in the north, creating the modern Canadian Lynx.<p><a id="Subspecies" name="Subspecies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Subspecies</span></h3>
<p>The main subspecies, found in much of the eastern United States is the nominate: <i>L. rufus rufus</i> (Schreber). To the north in Maine and Canada lives <i>L. rufus gigas</i> (Bangs), and to the south <i>L. rufus floridanus</i> (Rafinesque). However nine other subspecies are recognised, including <i>L. rufus superiorensis</i> (Peterson & Downing), <i>L. rufus baileyi</i> (Merriam), <i>L. rufus californicus</i> (Mearns), <i>L. rufus escuinipae</i> (J. A. Allen), <i>L. rufus fasciatus</i> (Rafinesque), <i>L. rufus oaxacensis</i> (Goodwin), <i>L. rufus pallescens</i> (Merriam), <i>L. rufus peninsularis</i> (Thomas), and <i>L. rufus texensis</i> (Mearns).<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1886.jpg.htm" title="A Bobcat finds water in Tucson"><img alt="A Bobcat finds water in Tucson" height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bobcat500.jpg" src="../../images/18/1886.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1886.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Bobcat finds water in Tucson</div>
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<p>In appearance the bobcat is quite similar to the Canada Lynx but is usually significantly smaller. In color they are mostly tan to grayish brown, but can vary. They also have numerous black streaks in their coat, with dark bars on their forelegs and tails. Their spotted coat allows them to blend into their environment. The ears are black-tipped and pointed with short black tufts. There is generally an off-white colour on their lips, chin, and underparts. Kittens are born well-furred and already have their spots.<p>A few melanistic bobcats have been sighted and captured in Florida. They appear black, but may actually still exhibit a spot pattern.<p>Adult male bobcats are 28 to 47 inches (70–120 cm) long, averaging 36 inches (90 cm), and height to their shoulders is about 14 or 15 inches (36–38 cm). Included in their length is a stubby 6-inch (15 cm) tail, which has a "bobbed" apearance, which gives this species its name. They weigh about twice that of a house cat, with adult males usually ranging from 16 to 30 pounds (7–14 kg) while the females, which are smaller, average about 20 pounds (9 kg). They are muscular, and have hind legs that are longer than their front legs, giving the animal a bobbing run. They weigh 0.6 to 0.75 pounds (280–340 g) and are about 10 inches (25 cm) in length at birth. By their first year they will reach about 10 pounds (4.5 kg). They have sharp hearing and vision, and a good sense of smell. They are also excellent climbers. Bobcats can and will swim when they need to, but will normally avoid water.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1887.jpg.htm" title="Bobcat tracks in Note the hind print (top) partially covering the fore print (center)."><img alt="Bobcat tracks in Note the hind print (top) partially covering the fore print (center)." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bobcat_tracks_in_mud.jpg" src="../../images/18/1887.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1887.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bobcat tracks in Note the hind print (top) partially covering the fore print (centre).</div>
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<p><a id="Tracks" name="Tracks"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tracks</span></h3>
<p>Bobcat tracks show four toes and no claw marks. The tracks can range in size from 1 to 3 inches (2–8 cm). When walking or trotting, the spread of the tracks are spaced roughly 8 to 18 inches (20–46 cm) apart, but can make great strides when running, often from 4 to 8 feet (1-3 m). Like all cats, bobcats <i>directly register</i>, meaning their hind prints usually fall exactly on top of their fore prints (this is not the case in the photograph in this section). Bobcat tracks can generally be distinguished from feral or house cat tracks by their size (feral cat tracks being about 1.5 inches square (3.8 cm square) and also by the indentation at the top of the bobcat's foot pad (feral cat tracks generally show a single, rounded hump at the top of the foot pad).<p><a id="Behavior" name="Behavior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
<p>Bobcats are generally most active during twilight and are therefore considered <!--del_lnk--> crepuscular. They keep on the move from three hours before sunset until midnight, then again from before dawn until three hours after sunrise. Each night they will move from two to seven miles (3 to 11 km) along their habitual routes.<p><a id="Hunting" name="Hunting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hunting</span></h3>
<p>As a predator, the bobcat is able to go for long periods without food, but will eat heavily when prey is abundant. During the lean periods, they will often predate larger animals which they can cache and come back to later. The bobcat hunts by stalking or ambushing their prey and then pouncing or giving chase for short distances. Their preference is for mammals about 1.5 to 12.5 pounds (0.7 to 5.7 kg) in weight. Their main prey varies by region. In the eastern United States it is the <!--del_lnk--> cottontail rabbit, but in the north it is the <!--del_lnk--> snowshoe hare. When these prey exist together, as in New England, they make up the primary sustenance of the bobcat. In the far south, the rabbit or hare is sometimes replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> cotton rat as the primary food source. The bobcat is an opportunistic predator that, unlike its Canadian cousin the Lynx, can readily replace its primary prey with a variety of options.<p>The bobcat hunts animals of three different sizes, and will adjust its hunting techniques accordingly. On small animals they will hunt in areas known to be abundant in prey, and will lie, crouch, or stand still in wait for an animal to wander close. It will then pounce, grabbing its prey with its sharp, retractable claws. These are usually small rodents like mice and squirrels or birds, but also fish and insects. For slightly larger animals such as rabbits and hares, they will stalk from a covering and wait until they come within 20 to 35 feet (6 to 10 m) before rushing in to attack. Less commonly they will feed on larger animals such as foxes, minks, skunks, and house cats. They have been known to kill deer as well, especially in winter when smaller prey is scarce, or when deer populations become more abundant. They will do so by stalking the deer, often when it is lying down, then rushing in and grabbing it by the neck and biting through the base of the skull or chest. While they rarely kill deer, when they do, they eat their fill and then bury it with snow or leaves, often returning to it several times to feed.<p>Additionally, bobcats are agile, good climbers and well-suited to gaining access to domestic farming operations such as chicken roosts.<p><a id="Breeding" name="Breeding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Breeding</span></h3>
<p>The male and female bobcats will begin breeding by their second summer, but the female may sometimes start as early as their first year. By September or October, sperm production begins, and the male will be fertile into the summer. A dominant male will travel with a female and mate with her several times, generally from winter until early spring. The two may undertake a number of different behaviours, including bumping, chasing, and ambushing. Other males may be in attendance of this, but will not become involved and remain aloof. Once the male sees that the female is receptive, he grasps her in the typical felid neck grip. The female may go on to mate with other male cats. The female is left to raise the young alone. One to six, but usually two to four, kittens are born in April or May, roughly after 62 days of gestation. There may sometimes be a second litter, with births as late as September. The female generally gives birth in some sort of enclosure, usually a small cave or hollow log. The young open their eyes by the ninth or ten day. They start exploring their surroundings at four weeks and are weaned at about two months. They will be hunting by themselves by their first fall but remain with the mother until nearly a year old.<p><a id="Survival" name="Survival"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Survival</span></h2>
<p>The bobcat has no major <!--del_lnk--> predators other than man. The <!--del_lnk--> coyote has been known to be a direct predator of the bobcat, but has an unknown effect on their populations. <!--del_lnk--> Cougars and <!--del_lnk--> wolves may also occasionally kill bobcats when they get the chance. Death is due to a variety of causes, such as diseases, accidents, hunters, automobiles, and starvation. Kittens however may be hunted by several predators, including <!--del_lnk--> owls, <!--del_lnk--> foxes, and even male bobcats. The young are most likely to die shortly after leaving their mothers while still perfecting their hunting technique. Of fifteen bobcats tracked, the yearly survival rate averaged 0.624, with females having the same rate as males. Many bobcats will live to six or eight years of age, with a few reaching beyond ten. The longest they have been known to live in the wild is 16 years, but in captivity have been known to live up to 32.2 years. However, when prey populations are not as abundant, fewer kittens are likely to reach adulthood. Bobcats may also harbour large parasites, mostly <!--del_lnk--> ticks and <!--del_lnk--> fleas, and will often carry the parasites of its prey, especially <a href="../../wp/r/Rabbit.htm" title="Rabbits">rabbits</a> and <!--del_lnk--> squirrels. One <!--del_lnk--> mite in particualar (<i>lynxacarus morlani</i>) has to date only been found on the bobcat. It's still unclear how large of a role parasites and diseases play in the mortality of bobcats, but they seem to account for greater mortality than starvation, accidents, and predation.<p>The bobcat has long been hunted and trapped by humans. They are listed in the <!--del_lnk--> CITES treaty which allows them to be hunted so long as doing so is not detrimental to their population. However bobcats have maintained a high population, even in the south where they are extensively hunted. Kittens are most vulnerable to hunting, albeit indirectly, due to their dependence on an adult female for the first few months of its life. In the 1970s and 1980s their furs saw an unprecedented rise in price, causing further interest in hunting them. However, these furs are worth little today. They are nevertheless still hunted, with half the mortality of some populations being attributed to this cause. As a result, the rate of bobcats dying in winter when hunting season is generally open is skewed. There have also been reports of cannibalism occurring when prey levels are low, but it is very rare and does not overtly influence the population. If chased by a dog, which in human-inhabited areas are a major source of predation, they will usually climb up a tree. Additionally the bobcat does not tolerate deep snow, and will hole-up and wait out heavy snow storms.<p><a id="Distribution" name="Distribution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution</span></h2>
<p>The original range of the bobcat was from southern <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> to throughout the eastern <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, and down as far south as <!--del_lnk--> Oaxaca, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. The bobcat still occurs in much of this range, from <!--del_lnk--> Maine to <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and westward to <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi. They will often inhabit areas near large cities. However they are thought to no longer exist in certain habitats such as western <!--del_lnk--> New York and <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, and much of the <!--del_lnk--> Midwest, such as southern <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, eastern <!--del_lnk--> South Dakota, <!--del_lnk--> Iowa, and much of <!--del_lnk--> Missouri. Their activities are confined to well-defined territories which vary in size depending on sex, season, and distribution of prey. The home range is marked with their feces, urine scent, and by clawing prominent trees in the area. In this territory the bobcat will have numerous places of shelter, usually a main den and several auxiliary shelters on the outer extent of their range such as hollow logs, brush piles, thickets, or under a rock ledge. The odour of their den is strong. In summer the range of a male can reach roughly 16 square miles (41 km<sup>2</sup>) or be less than a square mile (2.5 km<sup>2</sup>), while the range of the female is less than half that. In winter bobcat territories may expand up to 40 square miles (100 km<sup>2</sup>), often overlapping those of other bobcats. While male bobcats are more tolerant of this overlap, females rarely wander into other females' ranges. However two or more females may reside within a male's home range. When multiple male territories overlap a dominance hierarchy is often established resulting in the exclusion of some transients from favored areas. Generally though there exists about one bobcat per every five square miles (13 km<sup>2</sup>), or perhaps slightly less depending on the location. Additionally there seems to be a link between population density and sex ratio. One study noted that a dense, unharvested population in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> had a sex ratio of 2.1 males per female. When the density decreased, the sex ratio skewed to 0.86 males per female. Another study observed a similar ratio, and added the possible explanation that males were better able to cope with the increased competition, and that this would help limit reproduction until various factors would lower the density.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1889.jpg.htm" title="A male Bobcat in an urban surrounding (standing on wires)"><img alt="A male Bobcat in an urban surrounding (standing on wires)" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bobcatonwires.jpg" src="../../images/18/1889.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1889.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A male Bobcat in an urban surrounding (standing on wires)</div>
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<p>The bobcat is an adaptable animal, able to survive in numerous environments. Unlike the lynx it does not depend on the deep forest, but will also live in swamps as well as mountainous and wooded areas. If rocky ledges, swamps, or forested tracts are present, they will also make their home near agricultural areas. Their need is simply for land which will give them activity and rest, typically provided by woodlands (both deciduous and coniferous, or mixed). Much of their activity centers around swamps or ledges where they utilize their spotted coats for camouflage. Their range does not seem to be hindered by human populations, as long as they can still find a suitable habitat. However their population in the north seems to be limited due to both snow depth and the presence of the lynx. They are nevertheless well-suited to human caused changes in the environment, unlike the lynx, and some researchers believe there are more bobcats today in the United States than in colonial times.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobcat"</div>
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Body_mass_index
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Body mass index</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1890.png.htm" title="An example of a body mass index chart"><img alt="An example of a body mass index chart" height="242" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Body_mass_index_chart.svg" src="../../images/18/1890.png" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1890.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An example of a body mass index chart</div>
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<p><b>Body mass index</b> (<b>BMI</b>) or <b>Quetelet Index</b> is a statistical measure of the weight of a person scaled according to height. It was invented between 1830 and 1850 by the <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> <!--del_lnk--> polymath <!--del_lnk--> Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing "social physics".<p>
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</script><a id="Calculation" name="Calculation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Calculation</span></h2>
<p>BMI is defined as the individual's <!--del_lnk--> body weight divided by the square of the height, and is almost always expressed in the unit <span class="texhtml">kg / m<sup>2</sup></span>, which is therefore often left out. The BMI value can be calculated with the following formulae.<center>
<table class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">
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<td><!--del_lnk--> SI units</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Imperial units</td>
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<td><img alt="\mathrm{BMI} = \frac{\mathit{weight} \ \mathrm{(kg)}}{\mathit{height}^2 (\mathrm{m})}" class="tex" src="../../images/398/39843.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="\mathrm{BMI} = 703 \frac{\mathit{weight} \ (\mathrm{lb})}{\mathit{height}^2 \ (\mathrm{in})}" class="tex" src="../../images/398/39844.png" /></td>
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</center>
<p>When calculating BMI, using <!--del_lnk--> SI units is preferred. <a id="Usage" name="Usage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Usage</span></h2>
<p>The BMI has become controversial because many people, including physicians, have come to rely on it for medical diagnosis - but that has never been the BMI's purpose. It is meant to be used as a simple means of classifying sedentary (physically inactive) individuals with an average body composition. For these individuals, the current value settings are as follows: a BMI of 18.5 to 25 may indicate optimal weight; a BMI lower than 18.5 suggests the person is <!--del_lnk--> underweight while a number above 25 may indicate the person is <!--del_lnk--> overweight; a BMI below 15 may indicate the person has an <!--del_lnk--> eating disorder; a number above 30 suggests the person is <!--del_lnk--> obese (over 40, morbidly obese).<p>In <!--del_lnk--> physiology the term “<!--del_lnk--> weight” is used interchangeably with the “<!--del_lnk--> mass”. For a given body shape and given density, the BMI will be proportional to height e.g. if all body dimensions increase by 50%, the BMI increases by 50%.<p>Generally, a BMI chart displays calculated BMI as a function of weight (horizontal axis) and height (vertical axis) using “contour lines” for different values of BMI or colors for different BMI categories.<p><a id="Accuracy" name="Accuracy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accuracy</span></h2>
<p>The BMI is meant to broadly categorise populations for purely statistical purposes. As noted, its accuracy in relation to actual levels of body fat is easily distorted by such factors as fitness level, muscle mass, bone structure, gender, and ethnicity. People who are <!--del_lnk--> mesomorphic tend to have higher BMI numbers than people who are <!--del_lnk--> endomorphic, because they have greater bone mass and greater muscle mass, respectively, than do endomorphic individuals.<p>Similarly, an <!--del_lnk--> ectomorphic individual could conceivably receive an unhealthily low reading, when in fact their body type makes them naturally thin no matter what they eat.<p>People with <!--del_lnk--> short stature tend to have lower BMI. Therefore they should use a lower cut-off value for obesity diagnosis. The same applies to older people, whose reduced muscle mass can hide additional body fat without increasing BMI.<p><a id="BMI_categories" name="BMI_categories"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">BMI categories</span></h2>
<p>A frequent use of the BMI is to acess how much an individual's body weight departs from what is normal or desirable for a person of his or her height. The weight excess or deficiency may, in part, be accounted for by body fat (<!--del_lnk--> adipose tissue) although other factors such as muscularity also affect BMI (see discussion below and <!--del_lnk--> overweight). Human bodies rank along the index from around 15 (near starvation) to over 40 (morbidly obese). This statistical spread is usually <!--del_lnk--> described in broad categories: underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese and morbidly obese. The particular BMI values used to demarcate these categories varies based on the authority, but typically a BMI of less than 18.5 is considered underweight and may indicate <!--del_lnk--> malnutrition, an <!--del_lnk--> eating disorder, or other health problems, while a BMI greater than 25 is considered overweight and above 30 is considered <!--del_lnk--> obese. These ranges of BMI values are valid only when applied to adults.<p><a id="Thresholds" name="Thresholds"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Thresholds</span></h3>
<p>Given the reservations detailed below concerning the limitations of the BMI as a diagnostic tool for individuals, the following are common definitions of BMI categories:<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li>Starvation: less than 15<li>Underweight: less than 18.5<li>Ideal: from 18.5 to 25<li>Overweight: from 25 to 30<li>Obese: from 30 to 40<li>Morbidly Obese: greater than 40</ul>
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<p>The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of <!--del_lnk--> 1994 indicates that 59% of American men and 49% of women have BMIs over 25. Extreme obesity — a BMI of 40 or more — was found in 2% of the men and 4% of the women. There are differing opinions on the threshold for being underweight in females, doctors quote anything from 18.5 to 20 as being the lowest weight, the most frequently stated being 19. A BMI nearing 15 is usually used as an indicator for starvation and the health risks involved, with a BMI <17.5 being one of the <!--del_lnk--> DSM criteria for the diagnosis of <!--del_lnk--> anorexia nervosa.<p><a id="BMI-for-age" name="BMI-for-age"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">BMI-for-age</span></h3>
<p>BMI is used differently for children. It is calculated the same way as for adults, but then compared to typical values for other children of the same age. Instead of set thresholds for underweight and overweight, then, the BMI <!--del_lnk--> percentile allows comparison with children of the same gender and age. A BMI that is less than the 5th percentile is considered underweight and above the 95th percentile is considered overweight. Children with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile are considered to be at risk of becoming overweight.<p>Recent studies in England have indicated that females between the ages 12 and 16 have a higher BMI than males by 1.0 kg/m² on average.<p><a id="International_variations" name="International_variations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">International variations</span></h3>
<p>These recommended distinctions along the liner scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic. In 1998, the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health brought U.S. definitions into line with <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> guidelines, lowering the normal/overweight cut-off from BMI 27.8 to BMI 25. This had the effect of redefining approximately 30 million Americans, previously "technically healthy" to "technically overweight". It also recommends lowering the normal/overweight threshold for South East Asian body types to around BMI 23, and expects further revisions to emerge from clinical studies of different body types.<p>For Asians, the new cut-off BMI index for obesity is 27.5 compared with the traditional WHO figure of 30. An Asian adult with a BMI of 23 or greater is now considered overweight and the ideal normal range is 18.5-22.9. <!--del_lnk--> Singapore BMI Cut-offs.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p><a id="Statistical_device" name="Statistical_device"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Statistical device</span></h3>
<p>The Body Mass Index is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a basic means of estimating <!--del_lnk--> adiposity. However, the duality of the Body Mass Index is that, whilst easy-to-use as a general calculation, it is limited in how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the Index is suitable for recognising trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin for errors.<p>This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the <!--del_lnk--> RDA for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, due to the majority of their exercise habits.<p>The growth of children is usually documented against a BMI-measured growth chart. Obesity trends can be calculated from the difference between the child's BMI and the BMI on the chart. However, this method again falls prey to the obstacle of body composition: many children who are generally born, or grow as an <!--del_lnk--> endomorph, would be classed as obese despite body composition. Clinical professionals should take into account the child's body composition and defer to an appropriate technique such as <!--del_lnk--> densiometry.<p><a id="Clinical_practice" name="Clinical_practice"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Clinical practice</span></h3>
<p>BMI can be calculated quickly and without expensive equipment. However, BMI categories do not take into account factors such as <!--del_lnk--> frame size and muscularity. The categories also fail to account for varying proportions of muscle, fat, bone & cartilage, and water weight.<p>Despite this, BMI categories are generally regarded as a satisfactory tool for measuring whether sedentary individuals are "underweight," "overweight" or "obese." It has been used by the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization"><b>WHO</b></a> as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s. In the United States, BMI is also used as a measure of underweight, owing to advocacy on behalf of those suffering with eating disorders, such as <!--del_lnk--> anorexia nervosa and <!--del_lnk--> bulimia nervosa.<p>Individuals who are not sedentary - especially athletes - as well as children, the elderly, the infirm, and individuals who are naturally <!--del_lnk--> endomorphic or <!--del_lnk--> ectomorphic (i.e., people who don't have a medium frame) are ill-fitted to assessment using the BMI. Or to state the problem more accurately, the BMI measurements at which these people may be underweight, overweight or obese are different from sedentary <!--del_lnk--> mesomorphs whose ages are between about 20 and 70.<p>In athletes, the problem is that muscle is denser than fat. Most professional athletes are "overweight" or "obese" according to their BMI - unless the number at which they are considered "overweight" or "obese" is adjusted upward. In children and the elderly, differences in bone density and, thus, in the proportion of bone to total weight can mean the number at which these people are considered <i>under</i>weight should be adjusted downward.<p>In all cases, methods for actually measuring <!--del_lnk--> body fat percentage are always preferable to BMI for measuring healthy body size.<p><a id="Problems" name="Problems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Problems</span></h3>
<p>As a general rule, developed muscle is denser than fat and the BMI does not account for this. Therefore a person with more muscle mass, such as a body-builder, will seem to be overweight. Likewise it could be stipulated that some long-distance or endurance athletes would be classified as <!--del_lnk--> ectomorphic (underweight, anorexic or starvation), this type of athlete tends to have low body fat and well developed slow twitch muscle, which does not contribute greatly to muscle mass. These individuals could be widely regarded as the perfect composite for their particular sports. Due to these limitations, body composition for athletes would not be calculated using the body mass index, and instead the <!--del_lnk--> body fat would be determined by such techniques as skinfold measurements or underwater weighing. In parallel to this, sportsmen or women from sports such as <a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_football.htm" title="Rugby football">Rugby</a>, where size and muscle are often of importance, could be listed as overweight, due to a large amount of muscle. At the extreme, many <!--del_lnk--> bodybuilders would be classified as morbidly obese, such as <!--del_lnk--> Markus Rühl who has a BMI of 46.<p>Another issue is that competitive athletes often know very accurately what their actual height and weight are, while the general public has tendencies toward over-estimating their height, and under-estimating their weight. The BMI standards, as a public health tool, take this tendency into account. This can lead to athletes having a higher reported BMI than a lay person of the same height and weight.<p>Mayo Clinic researchers say the BMI doesn't accurately predict risk of cardiovascular death because it doesn't distinguish between muscle and fat. They say a better measure may be your <!--del_lnk--> Waist-hip ratio.<p>In an analysis led by Lopez-Jiminez of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, heart patients with normal BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the "obese" range.<p>In fact, the ones in the study who had the highest death rates were people who weighed the least; in other words, they had the lowest BMIs.<p><a id="BMI_Chart_.28height_150_to_174_cm.29" name="BMI_Chart_.28height_150_to_174_cm.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">BMI Chart (height 150 to 174 cm)</span></h2>
<p>Body mass index chart for height from 150 to 174 cm<ul>
<li>Starvation: less than 15<li>Underweight: less than 18.5<li>Ideal: from 18.5 to 25<li>Overweight: from 25 to 30<li>Obese: from 30 to 40<li>Morbidly Obese: greater than 40</ul><pre>
Height = 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 = centimetres
140 kg |62.2 60.6 59.0 57.5 56.1 54.7 53.3 52.1 50.8 49.6 48.4 47.3 46.2 | 140 kg
139 kg |61.8 60.2 58.6 57.1 55.7 54.3 53.0 51.7 50.4 49.2 48.1 47.0 45.9 | 139 kg
138 kg |61.3 59.7 58.2 56.7 55.3 53.9 52.6 51.3 50.1 48.9 47.8 46.6 45.6 | 138 kg
137 kg |60.9 59.3 57.8 56.3 54.9 53.5 52.2 50.9 49.7 48.5 47.4 46.3 45.3 | 137 kg
136 kg |60.4 58.9 57.3 55.9 54.5 53.1 51.8 50.6 49.4 48.2 47.1 46.0 44.9 | 136 kg
135 kg |60.0 58.4 56.9 55.5 54.1 52.7 51.4 50.2 49.0 47.8 46.7 45.6 44.6 | 135 kg
134 kg |59.6 58.0 56.5 55.1 53.7 52.3 51.1 49.8 48.6 47.5 46.4 45.3 44.3 | 134 kg
133 kg |59.1 57.6 56.1 54.7 53.3 52.0 50.7 49.4 48.3 47.1 46.0 45.0 43.9 | 133 kg
132 kg |58.7 57.1 55.7 54.2 52.9 51.6 50.3 49.1 47.9 46.8 45.7 44.6 43.6 | 132 kg
131 kg |58.2 56.7 55.2 53.8 52.5 51.2 49.9 48.7 47.5 46.4 45.3 44.3 43.3 | 131 kg
130 kg |57.8 56.3 54.8 53.4 52.1 50.8 49.5 48.3 47.2 46.1 45.0 43.9 42.9 | 130 kg
129 kg |57.3 55.8 54.4 53.0 51.7 50.4 49.2 48.0 46.8 45.7 44.6 43.6 42.6 | 129 kg
128 kg |56.9 55.4 54.0 52.6 51.3 50.0 48.8 47.6 46.5 45.4 44.3 43.3 42.3 | 128 kg
127 kg |56.4 55.0 53.6 52.2 50.9 49.6 48.4 47.2 46.1 45.0 43.9 42.9 41.9 | 127 kg
126 kg |56.0 54.5 53.1 51.8 50.5 49.2 48.0 46.8 45.7 44.6 43.6 42.6 41.6 | 126 kg
125 kg |55.6 54.1 52.7 51.4 50.1 48.8 47.6 46.5 45.4 44.3 43.3 42.3 41.3 | 125 kg
124 kg |55.1 53.7 52.3 51.0 49.7 48.4 47.2 46.1 45.0 43.9 42.9 41.9 41.0 | 124 kg
123 kg |54.7 53.2 51.9 50.5 49.3 48.0 46.9 45.7 44.6 43.6 42.6 41.6 40.6 | 123 kg
122 kg |54.2 52.8 51.4 50.1 48.9 47.7 46.5 45.4 44.3 43.2 42.2 41.2 40.3 | 122 kg
121 kg |53.8 52.4 51.0 49.7 48.5 47.3 46.1 45.0 43.9 42.9 41.9 40.9 40.0 | 121 kg
120 kg |53.3 51.9 50.6 49.3 48.1 46.9 45.7 44.6 43.5 42.5 41.5 40.6 39.6 | 120 kg
119 kg |52.9 51.5 50.2 48.9 47.7 46.5 45.3 44.2 43.2 42.2 41.2 40.2 39.3 | 119 kg
118 kg |52.4 51.1 49.8 48.5 47.3 46.1 45.0 43.9 42.8 41.8 40.8 39.9 39.0 | 118 kg
117 kg |52.0 50.6 49.3 48.1 46.9 45.7 44.6 43.5 42.5 41.5 40.5 39.5 38.6 | 117 kg
116 kg |51.6 50.2 48.9 47.7 46.5 45.3 44.2 43.1 42.1 41.1 40.1 39.2 38.3 | 116 kg
115 kg |51.1 49.8 48.5 47.3 46.1 44.9 43.8 42.8 41.7 40.7 39.8 38.9 38.0 | 115 kg
114 kg |50.7 49.3 48.1 46.8 45.7 44.5 43.4 42.4 41.4 40.4 39.4 38.5 37.7 | 114 kg
113 kg |50.2 48.9 47.6 46.4 45.3 44.1 43.1 42.0 41.0 40.0 39.1 38.2 37.3 | 113 kg
112 kg |49.8 48.5 47.2 46.0 44.9 43.7 42.7 41.6 40.6 39.7 38.8 37.9 37.0 | 112 kg
111 kg |49.3 48.0 46.8 45.6 44.5 43.4 42.3 41.3 40.3 39.3 38.4 37.5 36.7 | 111 kg
110 kg |48.9 47.6 46.4 45.2 44.1 43.0 41.9 40.9 39.9 39.0 38.1 37.2 36.3 | 110 kg
109 kg |48.4 47.2 46.0 44.8 43.7 42.6 41.5 40.5 39.6 38.6 37.7 36.8 36.0 | 109 kg
108 kg |48.0 46.7 45.5 44.4 43.3 42.2 41.2 40.2 39.2 38.3 37.4 36.5 35.7 | 108 kg
107 kg |47.6 46.3 45.1 44.0 42.9 41.8 40.8 39.8 38.8 37.9 37.0 36.2 35.3 | 107 kg
106 kg |47.1 45.9 44.7 43.6 42.5 41.4 40.4 39.4 38.5 37.6 36.7 35.8 35.0 | 106 kg
105 kg |46.7 45.4 44.3 43.1 42.1 41.0 40.0 39.0 38.1 37.2 36.3 35.5 34.7 | 105 kg
104 kg |46.2 45.0 43.9 42.7 41.7 40.6 39.6 38.7 37.7 36.8 36.0 35.2 34.4 | 104 kg
103 kg |45.8 44.6 43.4 42.3 41.3 40.2 39.2 38.3 37.4 36.5 35.6 34.8 34.0 | 103 kg
102 kg |45.3 44.1 43.0 41.9 40.9 39.8 38.9 37.9 37.0 36.1 35.3 34.5 33.7 | 102 kg
101 kg |44.9 43.7 42.6 41.5 40.5 39.5 38.5 37.6 36.7 35.8 34.9 34.1 33.4 | 101 kg
100 kg |44.4 43.3 42.2 41.1 40.1 39.1 38.1 37.2 36.3 35.4 34.6 33.8 33.0 | 100 kg
99 kg |44.0 42.8 41.7 40.7 39.7 38.7 37.7 36.8 35.9 35.1 34.3 33.5 32.7 | 99 kg
98 kg |43.6 42.4 41.3 40.3 39.3 38.3 37.3 36.4 35.6 34.7 33.9 33.1 32.4 | 98 kg
97 kg |43.1 42.0 40.9 39.9 38.9 37.9 37.0 36.1 35.2 34.4 33.6 32.8 32.0 | 97 kg
96 kg |42.7 41.6 40.5 39.4 38.5 37.5 36.6 35.7 34.8 34.0 33.2 32.4 31.7 | 96 kg
95 kg |42.2 41.1 40.1 39.0 38.1 37.1 36.2 35.3 34.5 33.7 32.9 32.1 31.4 | 95 kg
94 kg |41.8 40.7 39.6 38.6 37.7 36.7 35.8 34.9 34.1 33.3 32.5 31.8 31.0 | 94 kg
93 kg |41.3 40.3 39.2 38.2 37.3 36.3 35.4 34.6 33.7 33.0 32.2 31.4 30.7 | 93 kg
92 kg |40.9 39.8 38.8 37.8 36.9 35.9 35.1 34.2 33.4 32.6 31.8 31.1 30.4 | 92 kg
91 kg |40.4 39.4 38.4 37.4 36.5 35.5 34.7 33.8 33.0 32.2 31.5 30.8 30.1 | 91 kg
90 kg |40.0 39.0 37.9 37.0 36.1 35.2 34.3 33.5 32.7 31.9 31.1 30.4 29.7 | 90 kg
89 kg |39.6 38.5 37.5 36.6 35.7 34.8 33.9 33.1 32.3 31.5 30.8 30.1 29.4 | 89 kg
88 kg |39.1 38.1 37.1 36.2 35.3 34.4 33.5 32.7 31.9 31.2 30.4 29.7 29.1 | 88 kg
87 kg |38.7 37.7 36.7 35.7 34.9 34.0 33.2 32.3 31.6 30.8 30.1 29.4 28.7 | 87 kg
86 kg |38.2 37.2 36.3 35.3 34.4 33.6 32.8 32.0 31.2 30.5 29.8 29.1 28.4 | 86 kg
85 kg |37.8 36.8 35.8 34.9 34.0 33.2 32.4 31.6 30.8 30.1 29.4 28.7 28.1 | 85 kg
84 kg |37.3 36.4 35.4 34.5 33.6 32.8 32.0 31.2 30.5 29.8 29.1 28.4 27.7 | 84 kg
83 kg |36.9 35.9 35.0 34.1 33.2 32.4 31.6 30.9 30.1 29.4 28.7 28.1 27.4 | 83 kg
82 kg |36.4 35.5 34.6 33.7 32.8 32.0 31.2 30.5 29.8 29.1 28.4 27.7 27.1 | 82 kg
81 kg |36.0 35.1 34.2 33.3 32.4 31.6 30.9 30.1 29.4 28.7 28.0 27.4 26.8 | 81 kg
80 kg |35.6 34.6 33.7 32.9 32.0 31.2 30.5 29.7 29.0 28.3 27.7 27.0 26.4 | 80 kg
79 kg |35.1 34.2 33.3 32.5 31.6 30.9 30.1 29.4 28.7 28.0 27.3 26.7 26.1 | 79 kg
78 kg |34.7 33.8 32.9 32.1 31.2 30.5 29.7 29.0 28.3 27.6 27.0 26.4 25.8 | 78 kg
77 kg |34.2 33.3 32.5 31.6 30.8 30.1 29.3 28.6 27.9 27.3 26.6 26.0 25.4 | 77 kg
76 kg |33.8 32.9 32.0 31.2 30.4 29.7 29.0 28.3 27.6 26.9 26.3 25.7 25.1 | 76 kg
75 kg |33.3 32.5 31.6 30.8 30.0 29.3 28.6 27.9 27.2 26.6 26.0 25.4 24.8 | 75 kg
74 kg |32.9 32.0 31.2 30.4 29.6 28.9 28.2 27.5 26.9 26.2 25.6 25.0 24.4 | 74 kg
73 kg |32.4 31.6 30.8 30.0 29.2 28.5 27.8 27.1 26.5 25.9 25.3 24.7 24.1 | 73 kg
72 kg |32.0 31.2 30.4 29.6 28.8 28.1 27.4 26.8 26.1 25.5 24.9 24.3 23.8 | 72 kg
71 kg |31.6 30.7 29.9 29.2 28.4 27.7 27.1 26.4 25.8 25.2 24.6 24.0 23.5 | 71 kg
70 kg |31.1 30.3 29.5 28.8 28.0 27.3 26.7 26.0 25.4 24.8 24.2 23.7 23.1 | 70 kg
69 kg |30.7 29.9 29.1 28.4 27.6 27.0 26.3 25.7 25.0 24.4 23.9 23.3 22.8 | 69 kg
68 kg |30.2 29.4 28.7 27.9 27.2 26.6 25.9 25.3 24.7 24.1 23.5 23.0 22.5 | 68 kg
67 kg |29.8 29.0 28.3 27.5 26.8 26.2 25.5 24.9 24.3 23.7 23.2 22.6 22.1 | 67 kg
66 kg |29.3 28.6 27.8 27.1 26.4 25.8 25.1 24.5 24.0 23.4 22.8 22.3 21.8 | 66 kg
65 kg |28.9 28.1 27.4 26.7 26.0 25.4 24.8 24.2 23.6 23.0 22.5 22.0 21.5 | 65 kg
64 kg |28.4 27.7 27.0 26.3 25.6 25.0 24.4 23.8 23.2 22.7 22.1 21.6 21.1 | 64 kg
63 kg |28.0 27.3 26.6 25.9 25.2 24.6 24.0 23.4 22.9 22.3 21.8 21.3 20.8 | 63 kg
62 kg |27.6 26.8 26.1 25.5 24.8 24.2 23.6 23.1 22.5 22.0 21.5 21.0 20.5 | 62 kg
61 kg |27.1 26.4 25.7 25.1 24.4 23.8 23.2 22.7 22.1 21.6 21.1 20.6 20.1 | 61 kg
60 kg |26.7 26.0 25.3 24.7 24.0 23.4 22.9 22.3 21.8 21.3 20.8 20.3 19.8 | 60 kg
59 kg |26.2 25.5 24.9 24.2 23.6 23.0 22.5 21.9 21.4 20.9 20.4 19.9 19.5 | 59 kg
58 kg |25.8 25.1 24.5 23.8 23.2 22.7 22.1 21.6 21.0 20.5 20.1 19.6 19.2 | 58 kg
57 kg |25.3 24.7 24.0 23.4 22.8 22.3 21.7 21.2 20.7 20.2 19.7 19.3 18.8 | 57 kg
56 kg |24.9 24.2 23.6 23.0 22.4 21.9 21.3 20.8 20.3 19.8 19.4 18.9 18.5 | 56 kg
55 kg |24.4 23.8 23.2 22.6 22.0 21.5 21.0 20.4 20.0 19.5 19.0 18.6 18.2 | 55 kg
54 kg |24.0 23.4 22.8 22.2 21.6 21.1 20.6 20.1 19.6 19.1 18.7 18.3 17.8 | 54 kg
53 kg |23.6 22.9 22.3 21.8 21.2 20.7 20.2 19.7 19.2 18.8 18.3 17.9 17.5 | 53 kg
52 kg |23.1 22.5 21.9 21.4 20.8 20.3 19.8 19.3 18.9 18.4 18.0 17.6 17.2 | 52 kg
51 kg |22.7 22.1 21.5 21.0 20.4 19.9 19.4 19.0 18.5 18.1 17.6 17.2 16.8 | 51 kg
50 kg |22.2 21.6 21.1 20.5 20.0 19.5 19.1 18.6 18.1 17.7 17.3 16.9 16.5 | 50 kg
49 kg |21.8 21.2 20.7 20.1 19.6 19.1 18.7 18.2 17.8 17.4 17.0 16.6 16.2 | 49 kg
48 kg |21.3 20.8 20.2 19.7 19.2 18.7 18.3 17.8 17.4 17.0 16.6 16.2 15.9 | 48 kg
47 kg |20.9 20.3 19.8 19.3 18.8 18.4 17.9 17.5 17.1 16.7 16.3 15.9 15.5 | 47 kg
46 kg |20.4 19.9 19.4 18.9 18.4 18.0 17.5 17.1 16.7 16.3 15.9 15.5 15.2 | 46 kg
45 kg |20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18.0 17.6 17.1 16.7 16.3 15.9 15.6 15.2 14.9 | 45 kg
44 kg |19.6 19.0 18.6 18.1 17.6 17.2 16.8 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 | 44 kg
43 kg |19.1 18.6 18.1 17.7 17.2 16.8 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 14.2 | 43 kg
42 kg |18.7 18.2 17.7 17.3 16.8 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 14.2 13.9 | 42 kg
41 kg |18.2 17.7 17.3 16.8 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 14.2 13.9 13.5 | 41 kg
40 kg |17.8 17.3 16.9 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 14.2 13.8 13.5 13.2 | 40 kg
39 kg |17.3 16.9 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.5 14.2 13.8 13.5 13.2 12.9 | 39 kg
38 kg |16.9 16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.8 14.5 14.1 13.8 13.5 13.1 12.8 12.6 | 38 kg
37 kg |16.4 16.0 15.6 15.2 14.8 14.5 14.1 13.8 13.4 13.1 12.8 12.5 12.2 | 37 kg
36 kg |16.0 15.6 15.2 14.8 14.4 14.1 13.7 13.4 13.1 12.8 12.5 12.2 11.9 | 36 kg
35 kg |15.6 15.1 14.8 14.4 14.0 13.7 13.3 13.0 12.7 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 | 35 kg
34 kg |15.1 14.7 14.3 14.0 13.6 13.3 13.0 12.6 12.3 12.0 11.8 11.5 11.2 | 34 kg
33 kg |14.7 14.3 13.9 13.6 13.2 12.9 12.6 12.3 12.0 11.7 11.4 11.2 10.9 | 33 kg
32 kg |14.2 13.9 13.5 13.1 12.8 12.5 12.2 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.6 | 32 kg
31 kg |13.8 13.4 13.1 12.7 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.2 11.0 10.7 10.5 10.2 | 31 kg
30 kg |13.3 13.0 12.6 12.3 12.0 11.7 11.4 11.2 10.9 10.6 10.4 10.1 9.9 | 30 kg
29 kg |12.9 12.6 12.2 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.5 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.6 | 29 kg
28 kg |12.4 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.2 10.9 10.7 10.4 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.5 9.2 | 28 kg
27 kg |12.0 11.7 11.4 11.1 10.8 10.5 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.3 9.1 8.9 | 27 kg
26 kg |11.6 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.4 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.6 | 26 kg
Height = 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 = centimetres
Height = 59.1 59.8 60.6 61.4 62.2 63.0 63.8 64.6 65.4 66.1 66.9 67.7 68.5 = inches
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bodyline</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_Post_1900.htm">British History Post 1900</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports_events.htm">Sports events</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13111.jpg.htm" title="Bill Woodfull evades a Bodyline ball."><img alt="Bill Woodfull evades a Bodyline ball." height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4th_Test_Fingleton.jpg" src="../../images/18/1891.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Bodyline</b>, also known as <b>fast leg theory</b>, was a <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricketing</a> tactic devised by the <!--del_lnk--> English cricket team for their 1932–33 <a href="../../wp/t/The_Ashes.htm" title="The Ashes">Ashes</a> tour of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, specifically to combat the extraordinary <!--del_lnk--> batting skill of Australia's <!--del_lnk--> Don Bradman. A Bodyline <!--del_lnk--> bowler deliberately aimed the <!--del_lnk--> cricket ball at the body of the opposing <!--del_lnk--> batsman, in the hope of creating <!--del_lnk--> legside deflections that could be caught by one of several <!--del_lnk--> fielders located in the quadrant of the field behind <!--del_lnk--> square leg.<p>This tactic caused several injuries to Australian players and led to ill feeling between the two national teams. The controversy eventually spilled into the diplomatic arena. Over the next two decades, several of the <!--del_lnk--> Laws of Cricket were changed to prevent this kind of tactic being used again.<p>
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</script><a id="Genesis_of_Bodyline" name="Genesis_of_Bodyline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Genesis of Bodyline</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Australian cricket team toured <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1930. Australia won the five-<!--del_lnk--> Test series 2-1, with Don Bradman scoring an astounding 974 <!--del_lnk--> runs at a <!--del_lnk--> batting average of 139.14, an aggregate record that stands to this day.<p>After the series, <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Jardine – who was later appointed <!--del_lnk--> England's captain for the 1932–33 English tour of Australia – devised a plan with <!--del_lnk--> Nottinghamshire captain <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Carr and his two <!--del_lnk--> fast bowlers <!--del_lnk--> Harold Larwood and <!--del_lnk--> Bill Voce to combat Bradman's extraordinary skills. At a meeting in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>'s Piccadilly Hotel, the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford-educated Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl on leg <!--del_lnk--> stump and make the ball come up into the body of the batsman. The bowlers agreed they could, and that it might prove effective.<p>Accompanying this <!--del_lnk--> bowling line would be a cordon of close <!--del_lnk--> fielders set on the <!--del_lnk--> leg side. The result was that the batsman had to choose to either take evasive action from balls aimed at his body and head, or attempt to fend the ball away with the <!--del_lnk--> bat, possibly giving catching chances to the close-set leg side field. A similar tactic, known as <!--del_lnk--> leg theory, has been employed previously, by slow bowlers such as <!--del_lnk--> Fred Root and Armstrong, but with more conventionally pitched and much slower deliveries. It was occasionally an effective tactic, but sometimes made for boring watching, like the modern tactic of leg-spin or left-arm bowlers bowling into the rough area of the pitch outside leg stump to restrict a batsman's scoring opportunities.<p>Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the next two seasons of English <!--del_lnk--> county cricket, terrorising their opponents as Nottinghamshire finished near the top of the competition each year. By the time the English team left for Australia in October <!--del_lnk--> 1932, Larwood and Voce, along with Bill Bowes from <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire, had perfected their attack.<p><a id="The_1932.E2.80.9333_English_tour" name="The_1932.E2.80.9333_English_tour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The 1932–33 English tour</span></h2>
<p>The English players first tried their tactic in a <!--del_lnk--> first-class tour match against an Australian XI in <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, a game in which Jardine rested and gave the captaincy duties to his deputy <!--del_lnk--> Bob Wyatt. Seeing the bruising balls hit the Australian batsmen on several occasions in this game and the next angered the spectators.<p>The English players and management were consistent in referring to their tactic as <i>fast leg theory</i> because they considered it to be a variant of the established — and relatively harmless — <!--del_lnk--> leg theory tactic. The Australian press came up with the far more evocative and inflammatory term, <i>Bodyline</i> (<a href="#Origin_of_the_term_.22Bodyline.22" title="">see below</a>). The reporting of the series in England described the tactic as <i>fast leg theory</i>, which caused serious misunderstandings, as neither the English public nor the Board of the <!--del_lnk--> Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) — the governing body of English cricket — could understand why the Australians were complaining about a commonly used tactic and came to the conclusion that the Australian cricket authorities and public were sore losers and "squealers".<p>In the Test matches, Bradman countered Bodyline by moving toward the leg side, away from the line of the ball, and cutting it into the vacant <!--del_lnk--> off side field. Whilst this was dubious in terms of <!--del_lnk--> batting technique, it seemed the best way to cope with the barrage, and Bradman <!--del_lnk--> averaged a creditable 56.57 in the series (compared to his career average of 99.94), while being struck above the waist by the ball only once. His team-mates fared worse, being unable to compile large scores.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:264px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1892.jpg.htm" title="Bert Oldfield is hit in the head after Harold Larwood's delivery deflected off his bat."><img alt="Bert Oldfield is hit in the head after Harold Larwood's delivery deflected off his bat." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:3rd_Test_Oldfield2.jpg" src="../../images/18/1892.jpg" width="262" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> Bert Oldfield is hit in the head after <!--del_lnk--> Harold Larwood's delivery deflected off his bat.</div>
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<p>Whilst moderately successful as a tactic (England regained the Ashes with a 4-1 margin), the Australian crowds abhorred Bodyline as vicious and unsporting. Matters came to a head in the third Test at <a href="../../wp/a/Adelaide.htm" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a>, when Larwood struck Australian captain <!--del_lnk--> Bill Woodfull above the heart and fractured <!--del_lnk--> wicket-keeper <!--del_lnk--> Bert Oldfield's skull (although this was from a top <!--del_lnk--> edge off a traditional non-Bodyline ball and Oldfield admitted it was his fault). Tension and feelings ran so high that a riot was narrowly averted as police stationed themselves between the players and enraged spectators. However, at the time England were not using the Bodyline tactics. Woodfull was struck when he was bent over his bat and wicket – and not when upright as often imagined. The crowd was incensed, and popular imagination blurred, when Jardine ordered his team to move to Bodyline positions immediately after Woodfull's injury.<p>In a famous quotation, Bill Woodfull said to the England tour manager <!--del_lnk--> Pelham Warner, when the latter came to express his sympathy for Woodfull's injury:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bodyline"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bodyline"><img alt="Bodyline" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<td>I don't want to see you, Mr Warner. There are two teams out there. One is trying to play cricket and the other is not.</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bodyline"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bodyline"><img alt="Bodyline" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<p>At the end of the fourth day's play the <!--del_lnk--> Australian Board of Control for Cricket sent the following cable to the MCC in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bodyline"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bodyline"><img alt="Bodyline" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<td>Bodyline bowling assumed such proportions as to menace best interests of game, making protection of body by batsmen the main consideration. Causing intensely bitter feeling between players as well as injury. In our opinion is unsportsmanlike. Unless stopped at once likely to upset friendly relations existing between Australia and England.</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bodyline"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bodyline"><img alt="Bodyline" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1893.jpg.htm" title="Bert Oldfield staggers away with his skull fractured."><img alt="Bert Oldfield staggers away with his skull fractured." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:3rd_Test_Oldfield.jpg" src="../../images/18/1893.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1893.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bert Oldfield staggers away with his skull fractured.</div>
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<p>Jardine however insisted his tactic was not designed to cause injury and that he was leading his team in a sportsmanlike and gentlemanly manner, arguing that it was up to the Australian batsmen to play their way out of trouble. It seems he did genuinely regret any injuries sufferred, as he secretly sent a telegram of sympathy to Bert Oldfield's wife and arranged for presents to be given to his young daughters.<p>The situation escalated into a diplomatic incident between the countries as the MCC — supported by the British public and still over the opinion that their <i>fast leg theory</i> tactic was harmless — took serious offence at being branded "unsportsmanlike" and demanded a retraction. With <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> still fresh in people's memories and the first rumblings of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> beginning, many people saw Bodyline as fracturing an international relationship that needed to remain strong.<p>Jardine, and by extension the entire English team, threatened to withdraw from the fourth and fifth Tests unless the Australian Board withdrew the accusation of unsporting behaviour. Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation. The <!--del_lnk--> Governor of <!--del_lnk--> South Australia, <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Hore-Ruthven, who was in England at the time, expressed his concern to British <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs <!--del_lnk--> James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations.<p>The standoff was settled only when <!--del_lnk--> Australian Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Lyons met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade. Given this understanding, the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test, thus saving the tour.<p>The English team continued to bowl Bodyline in the remaining two Tests, but slower pitches meant the Australians, although frequently bruised, sustained no further serious injuries.<p><a id="Bodyline_in_England" name="Bodyline_in_England"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bodyline in England</span></h2>
<p>Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season — most notably by <!--del_lnk--> Nottinghamshire, who had Carr, Voce and Larwood in their team. This gave the English crowds their first chance to see what all the fuss was about. <!--del_lnk--> Ken Farnes, the <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge University fast bowler also bowled it in the <!--del_lnk--> University Match, hitting a few <!--del_lnk--> Oxford batsmen.<p>Jardine himself had to face Bodyline bowling in a Test match. The <!--del_lnk--> West Indian cricket team toured England in 1933, and, in the second Test at <!--del_lnk--> Old Trafford, <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Grant, their captain, decided to try Bodyline. He had a couple of fast bowlers, <!--del_lnk--> Manny Martindale and <!--del_lnk--> Learie Constantine. Facing Bodyline tactics for the first time, England first suffered, falling to 134 for 4, with <!--del_lnk--> Wally Hammond being hit on the chin, though he recovered to continue his innings. Then Jardine himself faced Martindale and Constantine. Jardine never flinched. He played right back to the bouncers, standing on tiptoe, and, no doubt partly because he didn't care for the <!--del_lnk--> hook shot, played them with a dead bat. Whilst the Old Trafford pitch was not as suited to Bodyline as the hard Australian wickets, Martindale did take 5 for 73, but Constantine only took 1 for 55. Jardine himself made 127, his only Test century.<p>In the second West Indian innings, Clark bowled Bodyline back to the West Indians, taking 2 for 64. The match in the end was drawn; it was also the highest-profile game in which Bodyline was bowled in England.<p><a id="Origin_of_the_term_.22Bodyline.22" name="Origin_of_the_term_.22Bodyline.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin of the term "Bodyline"</span></h2>
<p>Although <!--del_lnk--> Jack Worrall claimed that he had invented the term "Bodyline", it is more likely that it was coined by <!--del_lnk--> Sydney journalist <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Buggy who worked for <i>The Sun</i> in 1932, and who happened to be a colleague of <!--del_lnk--> Jack Fingleton. Buggy sent a telegram to his newspaper from the Test after a day's play. As a substitute for "in the line of the body" he used the term "bodyline", to keep the cost down, and the new term quickly became established.<p><a id="Changes_to_the_Laws_of_Cricket" name="Changes_to_the_Laws_of_Cricket"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Changes to the Laws of Cricket</span></h2>
<p>As a direct consequence of the 1932–33 tour, the MCC introduced a new rule to the <!--del_lnk--> Laws of Cricket in 1935. Specifically, <!--del_lnk--> umpires were now given the power — and the responsibility — to intervene if they considered a bowler was deliberately aiming at a batsman with intent to injure.<p>Some 25 years later, another rule was introduced banning the placement of more than two fielders in the quadrant of the field behind square leg. Although this rule was not principally intended to prevent leg theory, it diluted the potency of short-pitched leg theory, as it allowed for fewer catching positions on the leg side.<p>Later law changes, under the heading of "Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling", also restricted the number of "<!--del_lnk--> bouncers" which may be bowled in an <!--del_lnk--> over. Nevertheless, the tactic of intimidating the batsman is still used to an extent that would have been shocking in 1933, although it is less dangerous now because today's players wear helmets and generally far more protective gear. The <!--del_lnk--> West Indies teams of the 1980s, which regularly fielded a bowling attack comprising some of the best fast bowlers in cricket history, were perhaps the most feared exponents.<p><a id="Cultural_impact_of_Bodyline" name="Cultural_impact_of_Bodyline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural impact of Bodyline</span></h2>
<p>Following the 1932–33 series, several authors – including many of the players involved – released books expressing various points of view about Bodyline. Many argued that it was a scourge on cricket and must be stamped out, while some did not see what all the fuss was about.<p>The MCC asked <!--del_lnk--> Harold Larwood to sign an apology to them for his bowling in Australia, making his selection for England again conditional upon it. Larwood was furious at the notion, pointing out that he had been following orders from his upper-class captain, and that was where any blame should lie. Larwood never played for England again, and became vilified in his own country. In retrospect, this event is seen by many as the first step in breaking down the class distinction in English cricket. Douglas Jardine always defended his tactics and in a book he wrote about the tour described allegations that the England bowlers directed their attack with the intention of causing physical harm as stupid and patently untruthful.<p>Outside the sport, there were significant consequences for Anglo-Australian relations, which remained strained, until the outbreak of World War II made cooperation paramount. Business between the two countries was adversely affected as citizens of each country displayed a preference for not buying goods manufactured in the other. Australian commerce also suffered in British colonies in Asia: the <i>North China Daily News</i> published a pro-Bodyline editorial, denouncing Australians as sore losers. An Australian journalist reported that several business deals in <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> were lost by Australians because of local reactions.<p>English immigrants in Australia found themselves shunned and persecuted by locals, and Australian visitors to England were treated similarly. Some years later a statue of <!--del_lnk--> Prince Albert in <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> was vandalised, with an ear being knocked off and the word "BODYLINE" painted on it.<p>Both before and after World War II, numerous satirical cartoons and comedy skits were written, mostly in Australia, based on events of the Bodyline tour. Generally, they poked fun at the English.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1984, Australia's <!--del_lnk--> Network Ten produced a television miniseries titled <i>Bodyline: It's Just Not Cricket</i>, dramatising the events of the 1932–33 English tour of Australia. It starred <!--del_lnk--> Gary Sweet as Don Bradman, <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Weaving as Douglas Jardine, <!--del_lnk--> Jim Holt as Harold Larwood, <!--del_lnk--> Rhys McConnochie as Pelham Warner and <!--del_lnk--> Frank Thring as Jardine's mentor <!--del_lnk--> Lord Harris. The series took some liberties with historical accuracy for the sake of drama, including a depiction of angry Australian fans burning an English flag at the Adelaide Test, an event which was never documented. Larwood, having emigrated to Australia in 1950 to escape ongoing vilification in England, received several threatening and obscene phone calls after the series aired.<p>To this day, the Bodyline tour remains one of the most significant events in the <!--del_lnk--> history of cricket, and strong in the consciousness of many cricket followers. In a poll of cricket journalists, commentators, and players in <!--del_lnk--> 2004, the Bodyline tour was ranked the most important event in cricket history.<p><!--del_lnk--> As of 2006 the Bodyline Controversy is an assessable topic in the New South Wales <!--del_lnk--> HSC.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyline"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Air_and_Sea_transport.htm">Air & Sea transport</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: large; padding-bottom: 0.3em;">Boeing 747</th>
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<div style="border: 1px solid #AAAAAA;"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1895.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boeing_747_London.jpg" src="../../images/18/1895.jpg" width="250" /></a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><!--del_lnk--> Singapore Airlines Boeing 747-400</td>
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<td style="width: 7em;text-align:right;"><b>Type</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Airliner</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boeing</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> 1969-<!--del_lnk--> 02-09</td>
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<td style="text-align:right;"><b>Introduced</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1970-<!--del_lnk--> 01-22 with <!--del_lnk--> Pan American World Airways and <!--del_lnk--> Trans World Airlines</td>
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<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;"><b>Primary user</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines (60)<br /><!--del_lnk--> British Airways (57)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Korean Air (42)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cathay Pacific (37)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Qantas (35)<br /><!--del_lnk--> China Airlines (34)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Air France (32)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;"><b>Number built</b></td>
<td>1375 <!--del_lnk--> as of 2006</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right;"><b>Unit cost</b></td>
<td>747-100 $24,000,000 (1967)<br /> 747-200 $39,000,000 (1976)<br /> 747-300 $82,000,000 (1982)<br /> 747-400 $230,000,000 (2006)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Boeing 747</b>, commonly called a <b>Jumbo Jet</b>, is among the most recognizable <!--del_lnk--> jet airliners and is the largest passenger <!--del_lnk--> airliner <!--del_lnk--> currently in service. First flown commercially in 1970, it held the size record for more than 35 years until surpassed by the <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a> (due to enter service in 2007). The <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>-built <!--del_lnk--> Antonov An-225 <!--del_lnk--> cargo transport remains the world's largest aircraft in service, while the <!--del_lnk--> Hughes H-4 Hercules had a larger wing-span.<p>The four-engine 747, produced by <!--del_lnk--> Boeing's <!--del_lnk--> Commercial Airplane division, uses a <!--del_lnk--> two-deck configuration. A typical three-class layout accommodates 416 passengers, while a two-class layout accommodates a maximum of 524 passengers. The hump created by the upper deck has made the 747 a highly recognizable icon of air travel. As of November <!--del_lnk--> 2006, 1469 planes have been built with 89 more on order in various 747 configurations, making it a very profitable product for Boeing.<p>The 747-400, the only series currently in production, flies at high-subsonic speeds of mach 0.85 (567 mph or 913 km/h), and features intercontinental range (7260 <!--del_lnk--> nm (13446 <!--del_lnk--> km)). In some configurations this is sufficient to fly non-stop from <!--del_lnk--> New York to <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> — a third of the way around the globe. In 1989, a <!--del_lnk--> Qantas 747-400 flew non-stop from <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> to <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, a distance of 11185 miles (18001 kilometres) in 20 hours and 9 minutes, although this was a delivery flight with no passengers or freight aboard.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1896.jpg.htm" title="The prototype 747, City of Everett, at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington."><img alt="The prototype 747, City of Everett, at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boeing_747_prototype.JPG" src="../../images/18/1896.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1896.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The prototype 747, <i><!--del_lnk--> City of Everett</i>, at the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Flight in <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Washington.</div>
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<p>The 747 was born from the explosion of air travel in the 1960s. The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 707, had revolutionized long distance travel and made possible the concept of the "<!--del_lnk--> global village." Boeing had already developed a study for a very large fixed-wing aircraft while bidding on a US military contract for a huge cargo plane. Boeing lost the contract to <!--del_lnk--> Lockheed's <!--del_lnk--> C-5 Galaxy but came under pressure from its most loyal airline customer, <!--del_lnk--> Pan Am, to develop a giant passenger plane that would be over twice the size of the 707. In 1966 <!--del_lnk--> Boeing proposed a preliminary configuration for the airliner, to be called the 747. <!--del_lnk--> Pan Am ordered 25 of the initial 100 series for US$550 million, becoming its launch customer. The original design was a full-length double-decker fuselage. Issues with evacuation routes caused this idea to be scrapped in favour of a <!--del_lnk--> wide-body design.<p>At the time, it was widely thought that the 747 would be replaced in the future with an SST (<!--del_lnk--> supersonic transport) design. In a shrewd move, Boeing designed the 747 so that it could easily be adapted to carry freight. Boeing knew that if and when sales of the passenger version dried up (see below regarding the future sales of the 747), the plane could remain in production as a cargo transport. The cockpit was moved to a shortened upper deck so that a nose cone loading door could be included, thus creating the 747's distinctive "bulge". The supersonic transports, including the <a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> and Boeing's never-produced <!--del_lnk--> 2707, were not widely adopted, such planes being difficult to operate profitably at a time when fuel prices were soaring, and also there were difficulties of operating such aircraft due to regulations regarding flying supersonic over land.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1897.jpg.htm" title="Cargolux 747-400F with the nose cone loading door open"><img alt="Cargolux 747-400F with the nose cone loading door open" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cargolux_B747-400F.jpg" src="../../images/18/1897.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1897.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Cargolux 747-400F with the nose cone loading door open</div>
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<p>The 747 was expected to become obsolete after sales of 400 units. But the 747 outlived many of its critics' expectations and production passed the 1,000 mark in 1993. The expected slow-down in sales of the passenger version in favour of the freighter model has only been realized in the early 2000s, around 2 decades later than expected. The development of the 747 was a huge undertaking - Boeing did not have a facility large enough to assemble the giant aircraft, so the company built an all-new assembly building near <!--del_lnk--> Everett, Washington. The factory is the largest building by volume ever built, on over 780 acres of land.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pratt and Whitney developed a massive <!--del_lnk--> high-bypass turbofan engine, the <!--del_lnk--> JT9D, which was initially used exclusively with the 747. Four of these engines mounted in <!--del_lnk--> pods below the wings power the 747. To appease concerns about the safety and flyability of such a massive aircraft, the 747 was designed with four backup <!--del_lnk--> hydraulic systems, split control surfaces, redundant main landing gear, multiple structural redundancy, and sophisticated flaps that allowed it to use standard-length runways. The wing was <!--del_lnk--> swept back at an unusually high angle of 37.5 degrees, and it was chosen in order to minimize the wing span, thus allowing the 747 to use existing <!--del_lnk--> hangars.<p>During the flight certification period, Boeing built an unusual training device known as "Waddell's Wagon" (named after the 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) which consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck. It was intended to train pilots on how to taxi the plane from the high upper deck position.<p>Boeing had promised to deliver the 747 to Pan Am by 1970, meaning that it had less than four years to develop, build and test the aircraft. Work progressed at such a breakneck pace that all those who worked on the development of the 747 were given the nickname "The Incredibles". The massive cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had to borrow, and gambled its very existence on the 747's success; had the project failed, it would have taken the company along with it. Initial problems with the JT9D's development forced Boeing to delay deliveries up to year, and as a result up to 30 planes at one time were left stranded at the Everett plant, with the company on the brink of bankruptcy.<p>The gamble paid dividends, however, and Boeing enjoyed a monopoly in the very large passenger aircraft industry for decades. In fact, the record and benchmark set by the 747 would only be surpassed, more than 35 years after its first delivery, by the <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">A380</a>, built by Boeing's rival, <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" title="Airbus">Airbus</a>.<p><a id="In_service" name="In_service"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In service</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1899.jpg.htm" title="Flightdeck of the 747-200."><img alt="Flightdeck of the 747-200." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:B747-cockpit.jpg" src="../../images/18/1899.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1899.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Flightdeck of the 747-200.</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1970, First Lady <!--del_lnk--> Pat Nixon officially christened a Pan Am Boeing 747 at <!--del_lnk--> Washington Dulles International Airport in the presence of Pan Am chairman <!--del_lnk--> Najeeb Halaby. Red, white, and blue water was sprayed on the aircraft, rather than breaking a bottle of champagne. The first commercial flight involving the Boeing 747 took place on <!--del_lnk--> January 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1970 operated by Pan Am between New York's <!--del_lnk--> John F. Kennedy International Airport and <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow Airport. Pan Am added 747 service to London from Boston, Washington, and other cities during the spring and summer of 1970. Overnight, a new standard of air travel had been created and other airlines rushed to bring their own 747 jets into service. <!--del_lnk--> TWA, <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines, <!--del_lnk--> Lufthansa, <!--del_lnk--> BOAC, and <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Orient would be among the first carriers to offer 747 service on long-haul flights. <!--del_lnk--> American Airlines initiated 747 service between New York and Los Angeles by the summer of 1970.<p>Initially, many airlines regarded the 747 with skepticism. <!--del_lnk--> McDonnell Douglas and <!--del_lnk--> Lockheed, were working on wide-body three-engine "<!--del_lnk--> tri-jets", which were significantly smaller than the proposed 747. Many airlines believed the 747 would prove too large for an average long distance flight, investing instead in tri-jets. There were also concerns that the 747 would not be compatible with existing airport infrastructure, similar concerns that the <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a> currently faces, however compounded even more due to its double-decker feature.<p>Another issue raised by the airlines was fuel efficiency. A three-engine airliner generally burns less fuel per flight than a four-engine, and with airlines trying to lower costs, fuel efficiency was an important issue that would briefly return to haunt Boeing in the 1970s.<p>Many of the airlines' fears came to bear in the 1970s. The Arab oil crisis and economic stagnation in the United States lowered the number of airline passengers and made it difficult for airlines to fill their new 747s. <!--del_lnk--> American Airlines replaced coach seats on its 747s with <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a> bars in an attempt to attract more customers: eventually, it relegated its 747s to cargo service and then sold them. <!--del_lnk--> Continental Airlines also removed its 747s from service after several years. The advent of smaller, more efficient widebodies, starting with the trijet <!--del_lnk--> DC-10 and <!--del_lnk--> L-1011 and followed by the twinjet <!--del_lnk--> 767 and <!--del_lnk--> A300, took away much of the 747's original market, especially as airline deregulation made point-to-point international service more common. Other airlines that have removed 747s from their fleet include <!--del_lnk--> Air Canada, <!--del_lnk--> Aer Lingus, <!--del_lnk--> Avianca, <!--del_lnk--> SAS, <!--del_lnk--> TAP, <!--del_lnk--> America West, and <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Airways.<p>However, many international airlines continued to use the 747 on their busiest routes. The type remained popular among Asian airlines for short and medium-range flights between major cities: in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, domestic airlines continue to pack 747s to their maximum passenger capacity. Elsewhere, 747s remain popular on long-range trunk routes, such as transoceanic flights and the <!--del_lnk--> Kangaroo routes between Europe and Oceania. The largest fleet of 747s today belongs to <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines, at approximately 78 (series -200s, -300s and 44 -400s). <!--del_lnk--> British Airways has the next largest fleet of 747s, comprising 56 747-400s.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1900.jpg.htm" title="United Airlines 747-400 parked at Denver International Airport."><img alt="United Airlines 747-400 parked at Denver International Airport." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:UA_747_Denver.jpg" src="../../images/19/1900.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1900.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> United Airlines 747-400 parked at <!--del_lnk--> Denver International Airport.</div>
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<p><a id="Future_of_the_747" name="Future_of_the_747"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Future of the 747</span></h3>
<p>Many different stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed, but the only design to be adopted is 2005's <!--del_lnk--> 747-8. The 747-X program was launched in 1996 as <!--del_lnk--> Boeing's response to the <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">A3XX</a> proposal. The 747-X would have consisted of the 747-500X and 747-600X, seating up to 800 passengers. General Electric and P&W formed the <!--del_lnk--> Engine Alliance and designed the <!--del_lnk--> GP7200 turbofan to power the Airbus A380. This engine was rumored to also have been planned to power the 747-X. Airlines, however, would have preferred Boeing to develop an all-new design instead of an updated 747, and the plan was dropped after a few months.<p>After development of the <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a> formally began in 2000, <!--del_lnk--> Boeing reexamined its 747-X studies but instead devoted its energies to the <!--del_lnk--> Sonic Cruiser, and then later on the <!--del_lnk--> 787 after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold for an undefined period. Some of the ideas developed for the 747-X were, however, used in the production of the 747-400ER.<p>In early 2004, <!--del_lnk--> Boeing rolled out tentative plans for what it called the 747 Advanced. Similar in nature to the 747-X plans, the stretched 747 Advanced uses advanced technology from the <!--del_lnk--> 787 to modernize the design and its systems. On <!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, <!--del_lnk--> Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the <!--del_lnk--> 747-8. Eventually, the 747 (in all forms) may be replaced by a clean-sheet aircraft dubbed "<!--del_lnk--> Y3".<p><a id="Variants" name="Variants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variants</span></h2>
<p>There are five variants of the 747 and launched on five separate occasions. The 747-100 was the original and launched in 1966. The 747-200 was the second model and followed soon after with an order in 1968. The 747-300 was launched in 1980. The 747-400 was launched in 1985, and the last, the 747-8 was launched in 2005. Although there are a total of five models, numerous versions of each type have been produced. Many of these variants were in production at the same time, especially in the 1980's. However, only the 747-400 has been in production since.<p><a name="747-100"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">747-100</span></h3>
<p>The first model of the jet, the 747-100, rolled out of the new Everett facility on <!--del_lnk--> 2 September <!--del_lnk--> 1968. The prototype, named <i><!--del_lnk--> City of Everett</i>, first flew on <!--del_lnk--> February 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1969, and on <!--del_lnk--> January 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1970 the 747-100 entered service with launch customer <!--del_lnk--> Pan American World Airways on the New York-London route. The flight was supposed to occur on <!--del_lnk--> January 21, but engine overheating made the original plane unusable and it had to be substituted, creating a more than 6-hour delay. The basic 100 has a range of about 4500 <!--del_lnk--> mi (7242 <!--del_lnk--> km) with full load. The US military designation for 747-100 is <!--del_lnk--> <b>C-19</b>.<p>The very first 747-100s off the line were built with six (3 per side) upper-deck windows to accommodate upstairs lounge areas. A little later, as airlines began to use the upper-deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered a ten window upper deck as an option, and it quickly became the standard. Some 100s were even retrofitted with the new configuration.<p>With a MTOW of 735,000 lb compared to the 833,000 lb of the 747-200, no freighter model of this aircraft was offered directly by Boeing. However, upon airline retirement, many 747-100s have been converted to freighters over the years. Their cheap acquisition costs more than compensate for lack of carrying capacity. They are also ideal for parcels since volume is paramount to weight.<p>A 747-100, registered N905NA, is operated by <!--del_lnk--> NASA as a <!--del_lnk--> Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. It was acquired in 1974 from American Airlines.<p>A 747-100 is owned by <!--del_lnk--> General Electric and used as a testbed for their engines.<p>Total production was 250. Of these, 167 were 747-100, 45 were SP, 29 were SR, and 9 were 100B.<p><b>747-100B</b><p>The 747-100 was later superseded by the 747-100B, which has a stronger airframe and <!--del_lnk--> undercarriage design. This increased maximum take-off weight to 750000 <!--del_lnk--> lb av (340194 <!--del_lnk--> kg). The 747-100B was only delivered to <!--del_lnk--> Iran Air and <!--del_lnk--> Saudia (now Saudi Arabian Airlines).<p><b>747-100SR</b><p>With requests from Japanese airlines, Boeing developed the 747SR as a 'Short Range' variant of the 747-100. The SR has a lower fuel capacity, but can carry more passengers - up to 498 passengers in early versions and more than 550 passengers in later models. The 747SR has a modified body structure to accommodate the added stress accumulated from a greater number of take-offs and landings. Later on, short range versions were developed also of the -100B and the -300. The SR aircraft are primarily used on domestic flights in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<p>Two 747-100B/SRs were delivered to <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines (JAL) with a stretched upper deck to accommodate more passengers. This is known as the "SUD" (stretched upper deck) modification.<p><!--del_lnk--> All Nippon Airways (ANA) operated 747SR on domestic Japanese routes with 455-456 seats but retired the aircraft on <!--del_lnk--> 10 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006. JAL operates its 747-100B/SR/SUD aircraft with 563 seats on domestic routes and plans for retirement in the third quarter of 2006. JAL and <!--del_lnk--> JALways have also been operating the -300SRs on domestic leisure routes and to other parts of Asia.<p>One ex-JAL 747-100SR, registered N911NA, is operated by <!--del_lnk--> NASA as a <!--del_lnk--> Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. It was added in 1988 and first carried a shuttle in 1991.<p>With the arrival of the much more economical <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 777-300, the SRs are now being replaced, with just a very few still in operation.<p>In August 2006 a total of 38 Boeing 747-100 aircraft (all versions) were in airline service with <!--del_lnk--> Iran Air (1), <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines (1), <!--del_lnk--> Orient Thai Airlines (2), <!--del_lnk--> Saudi Arabian Airlines (7), <!--del_lnk--> Evergreen International Airlines (6), <!--del_lnk--> Kalitta Air (6), <!--del_lnk--> Polar Air Cargo (1) and <!--del_lnk--> United Parcel Service (7).<p><b>747SP</b><dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The 747SP was a shortened version of the 747-100. It was introduced into service in 1976 with Pan AM. Apart from the upcoming <!--del_lnk--> 747-8 the SP is the only 747 with a modified length fuselage. It was designed to fly higher, faster, and longer than the 747-100. Boeing hoped that the abilities of the SP would compete and take orders from the <!--del_lnk--> Douglas DC-10 and create a niche market, however in the end only a total of 45 were built.<p>As at August <!--del_lnk--> 2006 a total of 13 Boeing 747SP aircraft were in airline service with <!--del_lnk--> South African Airways (1), <!--del_lnk--> Iran Air (1), <!--del_lnk--> Iraqi Airways (2), <!--del_lnk--> Kinshasa Airways (1), <!--del_lnk--> Palace Air (1), <!--del_lnk--> Saudi Arabian Airlines (1), <!--del_lnk--> Syrian Arab Airlines (2) and <!--del_lnk--> Transatlantic International Airlines (2).<p>The sole remaining South African Airways 747SP - the "Maluti" - was decommissioned on 30 September 2006 with a final flight to Rand Airport where it will remain on show as a static display/museum aircraft. (This final transport flight was the aircraft's first flight in three years.)<p><a name="747-200"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">747-200</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1902.jpg.htm" title="Air France 747-200 in landing configuration"><img alt="Air France 747-200 in landing configuration" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:540756.jpg" src="../../images/19/1902.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1902.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Air France 747-200 in landing configuration</div>
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<p>Entering service in 1971, and further improved over successive years, the 747-200 had more powerful engines and higher takeoff weights than the -100, allowing it to fly farther. A few early build -200s retained the three window configuration of the -100, but most were built with a ten window per side configuration. As on the -100, a stretched upper deck (SUD) modification was offered much later. <!--del_lnk--> KLM remains the only airline to retrofit their -200s with the SUD option. Today, many -200s are still in passenger operation, though retirement and conversion to freighters has accelerated as of late.<p><b>747-200B</b><p>The 747-200B is an improved version of the 747-200, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines. It comes in a combi version as well. The 200B were built in the late 1980s and have a full load range of about 6700 <!--del_lnk--> mi (10783 <!--del_lnk--> km). The US military designation for 747-200B is <!--del_lnk--> C-25. The USAF only operates two <!--del_lnk--> C-25, in VIP configuration (<!--del_lnk--> VC-25A). These two aircraft, tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are known by the call sign <!--del_lnk--> Air Force One when the <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">US President</a> is onboard.<p><b>747-200C</b><p>The 747-200C Convertible is essentially a passenger aircraft that can be converted to a freighter and back when needed. The seats are removable and the fuselage has a much bigger door on the maindeck for cargo entry. The 200C could be fitted with a nose door.<p><b>747-200M</b><p>This type can carry both freight and passengers, but unlike the 200C, it can do so at the same time. A wall half way through the main deck, separates the cargo in the back from passengers on the front. This type carries cargo throughout the lower deck, and on half the maindeck, along with roughly 200 passengers. Also known as the 747-200 Combi.<p><b>747-200F</b><p>This is a freighter version of the -200 model. It could be fitted with or without the nose door. It has a 105ton capacity and a MTOW of 833,000 lb. It entered service in 1972 with Lufthansa.<p>Total production was 393. Of these, 225 were 747-200, 78 were M, 73 were F, 13 were C, and 4 were military. In August 2006 a total of 239 Boeing 747-200 aircraft (all versions) were in airline service. Major operators include: <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines (13), <!--del_lnk--> Nippon Cargo Airlines (10), <!--del_lnk--> Air Atlanta Icelandic (15), <!--del_lnk--> Air France (9), <!--del_lnk--> Atlas Air (16), <!--del_lnk--> Kalitta Air (13), <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Airlines (28) and <!--del_lnk--> Southern Air (9). Some 41 other airlines operate smaller numbers of the type.<p><a name="747-300"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">747-300</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1903.jpg.htm" title="Pakistan International (PIA) 747-300 on final approach to London Heathrow Airport"><img alt="Pakistan International (PIA) 747-300 on final approach to London Heathrow Airport" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pia.b747.arp.750pix.jpg" src="../../images/19/1903.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1903.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Pakistan International (PIA) 747-300 on final approach to <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow Airport</div>
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<p>With the poor reception of the 747SP due to higher trip costs compared to the <!--del_lnk--> DC-10 and <!--del_lnk--> Lockheed L-1011 Boeing decided on offering a <!--del_lnk--> trijet version of the SP. The plane would have been bigger than either of the two, with more payload, range, and passenger capacity, but it received a cold reception and was never launched. Another option was to go bigger and extend the upperdeck all the way back for seating around 600, however this was also dropped.<!--del_lnk--> <p>The 747-300 name was revived for a new aircraft, which was introduced in 1980. This was the first 747 model to feature a "stretched upper deck", which was 23 ft 4 in longer than earlier variants. The 300 also had a straight staircase for the upper deck rather then the spiral, and this created more room both below and above for more seats. With minor aerodynamic changes, Boeing increased the cruise speed of the 300 to Mach 0.85 from Mach 0.84 on the 100/200. Also, with improved fuelburn, range improved to 7700mi (12,392 km).<p><!--del_lnk--> Swissair was the launch customer for the 747-300, however, the first plane was delivered to French airline <!--del_lnk--> UTA on <!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1983.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1904.jpg.htm" title="The impressive wing span of a Boeing 747-300 series. This is an aircraft of PIA landing at London Heathrow Airport."><img alt="The impressive wing span of a Boeing 747-300 series. This is an aircraft of PIA landing at London Heathrow Airport." height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pia.b747-300.ap-bfx.may06.arp.jpg" src="../../images/19/1904.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1904.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The impressive wing span of a Boeing 747-300 series. This is an aircraft of <!--del_lnk--> PIA landing at <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow Airport.</div>
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<p>Boeing never launched a 747-300F as it had no operating advantage over the 747-200F. The most significant change between the 747-300 and the 747-200 was the stretched upperdeck which was useless in freighter configuration as no cargo is placed on this deck.<p>Despite the improvements of the -300, only 81 aircraft were ordered, 56 for full passenger use, 21 M and 4 SR. One factor for the low sales was the launching of the 747-400 in 1985 (just 2 years since the -300 entered service) and the subsequent wait of the airlines for a much more advanced product. Today, most of the -300 versions are still in passenger operation, mostly in south and west Asia.<p><b>747-300M</b><p>The 300M had similar cargo capacity as the 200M, however with the stretched upperdeck it could carry more passengers. This proved popular in the fleet of <!--del_lnk--> KLM on their Africa routes that had few passengers, yet considerable air freight.<p><b>747-300SR</b><p>The Japanese airlines again asked for a high capacity domestic model and Boeing offered the SR. JAL operated such aircraft with over 500 seats on Okinawa-Tokyo route as well as others.<p>Airlines currently (at August 2006) operating the Boeing 747-300 include <!--del_lnk--> JAL/<!--del_lnk--> JALways (12), <!--del_lnk--> Saudi Arabian Airlines (9), <!--del_lnk--> Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) (6), <!--del_lnk--> Qantas (6), and <!--del_lnk--> Air Atlanta Icelandic (6). Some 16 other airlines operate smaller numbers of the type and a total of 72 Boeing 747-300 aircraft (all versions) were in airline service.<p><a name="747-400"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">747-400</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1905.jpg.htm" title="British Airways 747-400 landing at London Heathrow Airport."><img alt="British Airways 747-400 landing at London Heathrow Airport." height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Britaw.b747-400.g-bnlo.arp.jpg" src="../../images/19/1905.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1905.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> British Airways 747-400 landing at <!--del_lnk--> London Heathrow Airport.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <b>747-400</b> is the latest model of the 747 and the only series still in production. It is offered in several versions discussed on the main page article. It added 6 <!--del_lnk--> ft (1.8 <!--del_lnk--> m) wing tip extensions and 6 <!--del_lnk--> ft (1.8 <!--del_lnk--> m) <!--del_lnk--> winglets, tail fuel tanks, revised engines, an all-new interior, and an all-new <!--del_lnk--> glass cockpit which dispensed with the need for a <!--del_lnk--> flight engineer.<p>The passenger version first entered service in February 1989 with <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Airlines on the Minneapolis to Phoenix route. The combi version entered service in September 1989 with <!--del_lnk--> KLM. The freighter version entered service in November 1993 with <!--del_lnk--> Cargolux.<p>In August 2006 a total of 627 Boeing 747-400 aircraft (all versions) were in airline service, with 46 further firm orders. major operators include: <!--del_lnk--> Air China (12), <!--del_lnk--> Air India (12), <!--del_lnk--> All Nippon Airways (23), <!--del_lnk--> Asiana Airlines (14), <!--del_lnk--> Cathay Pacific (30, plus 6 on order), <!--del_lnk--> China Airlines (34, plus 2 on order), <!--del_lnk--> EVA Air (18), <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines (44), <!--del_lnk--> Korean Air (43), <!--del_lnk--> Malaysia Airlines (19), <!--del_lnk--> Qantas (30), <!--del_lnk--> Singapore Airlines (27), <!--del_lnk--> Singapore Airlines Cargo (15), <!--del_lnk--> Thai Airways International (18), <!--del_lnk--> Air France (21), <!--del_lnk--> British Airways (57), <!--del_lnk--> Cargolux (14, plus 2 on order), <!--del_lnk--> KLM Royal Dutch Airlines (25, plus 1 on order), <!--del_lnk--> Lufthansa (30), <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Atlantic Airways (13), <!--del_lnk--> Atlas Air (11), <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Airlines (16) and <!--del_lnk--> United Airlines (31). Some 24 airlines also operate the type, but in smaller numbers.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1906.jpg.htm" title="747 LCF "Guppy"-ized to deliver 787 parts ready to paint"><img alt="747 LCF "Guppy"-ized to deliver 787 parts ready to paint" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:747Guppy.jpg" src="../../images/19/1906.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1906.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 747 LCF "<!--del_lnk--> Guppy"-ized to deliver 787 parts ready to paint</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>747 Large Cargo Freighter</b><dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Three used Boeing 747-400 passenger aircraft are to be converted into an outsize configuration, in order to ferry <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 787 sub-assemblies to <!--del_lnk--> Everett, Washington for final assembly. The first 747 LCF flew for the first time, unpainted, on <!--del_lnk--> September 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The LCF is not a Boeing model and will not be sold to any customers or see any airliner operation.<p><a name="747-8"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">747-8</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Boeing announced a new 747 model, the <b>747-8</b> (referred to as the <b>747 Advanced</b> prior to launch) on <!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, which will use same engine and cockpit technology as the <!--del_lnk--> 787 (It was decided to call it the 747-8 because of the technology it will share with the 787 <i>Dreamliner</i>). Boeing claims that the new design will be quieter, more economical and more environmentally friendly. The passenger version (dubbed <b>747-8 Intercontinental</b>) will be capable of carrying up to 467 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly over 8000 <!--del_lnk--> nm (14816 <!--del_lnk--> km) at <!--del_lnk--> mach 0.86 (1054 <!--del_lnk--> km/h). As a derivative of the already common 747-400, the 747-8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts.<p>The 747-8I is also streched to add more capacity/payload. It's streched from 70.8 to 76.4 meters.<p>In October 2006 there was a total of 3 firm orders for the Boeing 747-8I aircraft from VIP customers.<br /> In November 2006 there was an additional firm order for the Boeing 747-8I aircraft for a VIP transport.<p><b>747-8F</b> Boeing also announced a new freighter model, to be a derivate to the 747-400ERF. It's also a competitor to the A380-800F, which has 20 orders to date. The 747-8F is a 76.4 meters long plane, which provides capacity of 132 tons of cargo, one of the great features is the forward (overhead) nose-door. It has also the same engines as the 747-8I and 787. There are wing changes and there is a new cockpit.<p>In October 2006 there was a total of 44 firm orders for the Boeing 747-8F aircraft from <!--del_lnk--> Nippon Cargo Airlines (8), <!--del_lnk--> Cargolux (10), Emirates air cargo (10) and two undisclosed.<p><a id="Government_and_military" name="Government_and_military"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government and military</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1908.jpg.htm" title="VC-25A 29000 one of the two highly-customized Boeing 747-200Bs that have been part of the U.S. presidental fleet since 1990"><img alt="VC-25A 29000 one of the two highly-customized Boeing 747-200Bs that have been part of the U.S. presidental fleet since 1990" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Air_Force_One_on_the_ground.jpg" src="../../images/19/1908.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1908.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> VC-25A <i>29000</i> one of the two highly-customized Boeing 747-200Bs that have been part of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. presidental fleet since 1990</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1909.jpg.htm" title="20-1101 Japanese Airforce One, one of the two customized Boeing 747-400s that have been part of the Japanese Air Force since 1993"><img alt="20-1101 Japanese Airforce One, one of the two customized Boeing 747-400s that have been part of the Japanese Air Force since 1993" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Japanese_Airforce_One.jpg" src="../../images/19/1909.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1909.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 20-1101 <i>Japanese Airforce One</i>, one of the two customized Boeing 747-400s that have been part of the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese Air Force since 1993</div>
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</div>
<p>The US military designation for 747-400 is <!--del_lnk--> C-33, intended to augment the <!--del_lnk--> C-17 fleet, but the plan was cancelled in favour of purchasing additional C-17 military transports.<p>The current <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">U.S. presidential</a> aircraft, two 747's tail numbered 28000 and 29000 with Air Force designation <!--del_lnk--> VC-25A, are among the most famous 747 models. They are popularly known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Air Force One</i>, although that name is technically the call sign for any <!--del_lnk--> United States Air Force aircraft carrying the President. Both VC-25As are based on the civilian 747-200B, though they contain many of the innovations introduced on the 747-400 (such as an updated flight deck and engines). Other special 747s include the <!--del_lnk--> E-4B Formerly known as National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as "Kneecap"), now referred to as National Airborne Operational Command (NAOC), modified 747s to transport the <!--del_lnk--> Space Shuttle (<!--del_lnk--> Shuttle Carrier Aircraft), and <!--del_lnk--> aerial refueling <!--del_lnk--> tankers. A recent addition to the military's 747 arsenal is the experimental <!--del_lnk--> Airborne Laser, a component of the <!--del_lnk--> National Missile Defense plan. <!--del_lnk--> T/Space is also planning to use a 747 for its CXV space capsule proposal.<p>A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, <!--del_lnk--> India, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Japan, <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>. Recently, several new <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 747-8 have been ordered by <!--del_lnk--> Boeing Business Jet for conversion as VIP Transport for several unidentified customers. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Specifications" name="Specifications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Specifications</span></h2>
<table width="100%">
<tr bgcolor="#DDDD">
<th>Measurement</th>
<th>747-100</th>
<th>747-200B</th>
<th>747-300</th>
<th>747-400</th>
<th>747-400ERF</th>
<th>747-8I</th>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Cockpit Crew</td>
<td align="center">Three</td>
<td align="center">Three</td>
<td align="center">Three</td>
<td align="center">Two</td>
<td align="center">Two</td>
<td align="center">Two</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Length</td>
<td align="center">70.6 m<br /> (231 ft 10 in)</td>
<td align="center">70.6 m<br /> (231 ft 10 in)</td>
<td align="center">70.6 m<br /> (231 ft 10 in)</td>
<td align="center">70.6 m<br /> (231 ft 10 in)</td>
<td align="center">70.6 m<br /> (231 ft 10 in)</td>
<td align="center">76.4 m<br /> (250 ft 8 in)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Wingspan</td>
<td align="center">59.6 m<br /> (195 ft 8 in)</td>
<td align="center">59.6 m<br /> (195 ft 8 in)</td>
<td align="center">59.6 m<br /> (195 ft 8 in)</td>
<td align="center">64.4 m<br /> (211 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">64.4 m<br /> (211 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">68.5 m<br /> (224 ft 9 in)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Height</td>
<td align="center">19.3 m<br /> (63 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">19.3 m<br /> (63 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">19.3 m<br /> (63 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">19.3 m<br /> (63 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">19.3 m<br /> (63 ft 5 in)</td>
<td align="center">19.4 m<br /> (63 ft 6 in)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Weight empty</td>
<td align="center">162,400kg<br /> (358,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">174,000 kg<br /> (383,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">178,100 kg<br /> (392,800 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">178,756 kg<br /> (393,263 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">164,382 kg<br /> (361,640 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">276,691 kg<br /> (610,000 lb)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Maximum take-off weight</td>
<td align="center">333.4 t<br /> (735,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">374.8 t<br /> (833,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">374,800 kg<br /> (833,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">396,890 kg<br /> (875,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">413,636 kg<br /> (910,000 lb.)</td>
<td align="center">439,985 kg<br /> (970,000 lb)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Cruising speed</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.84<br /> (895 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.84<br /> (895 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.85<br /> (910 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.855<br /> (913 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.855<br /> (913 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.85<br /> (910 km/h)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Maximum speed</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.89<br /> (1023 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.89<br /> (1023 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.89<br /> (1023 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.92<br /> (1093 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">mach 0.92<br /> (1093 km/h)</td>
<td align="center">
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Range fully loaded</td>
<td align="center">9,800 km<br /> (5,300 nm)</td>
<td align="center">12,700 km<br /> (6,850 nm)</td>
<td align="center">12,400 km<br /> (6,700 nm)</td>
<td align="center">13,450 km<br /> (7,260 nm)</td>
<td align="center">9,200 km<br /> (4,970 nm)</td>
<td align="center">14,815 km<br /> (8,000 nm)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Max. fuel capacity</td>
<td align="center">183,380 litres<br /> (48,445 USG)</td>
<td align="center">199,158 litres<br /> (52,410 USG</td>
<td align="center">199,158 litres<br /> (52,410 USG)</td>
<td align="center">216,840 litres<br /> (57,285 USG)</td>
<td align="center">216,840 litres<br /> (57,285 USG)</td>
<td align="center">
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Engine thrust each</td>
<td align="center">46,500 lbf PW<br /> 46,500 lbf GE<br /> 50,100 lbf RR</td>
<td align="center">54,750 lbf PW<br /> 52,500 lbf GE<br /> 53,000 lbf RR</td>
<td align="center">54,750 lbf PW<br /> 55,640 lbf GE<br /> 53,000 lbf RR</td>
<td align="center">63,300 lbf PW<br /> 62,100 lbf GE<br /> 59,500 lbf RR</td>
<td align="center">63,300 lbf PW<br /> 62,100 lbf GE</td>
<td align="center">
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<td>Engine models each</td>
<td align="center">PW JT9D-7A<br /> GE CF6-45A2<br /> RR RB211-524B2</td>
<td align="center">PW JT9D-7R4G2<br /> GE CF6-50E2<br /> RR RB211-525D4</td>
<td align="center">PW JT9D-7R4G2<br /> GE CF6-80C2B1<br /> RB211-524D4</td>
<td align="center">PW 4062<br /> GE CF6-80C2B5F<br /> RR RB211-524H</td>
<td align="center">PW 4062<br /> GE CF6-80C2B5F</td>
<td align="center">GEnx-2B67</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a name="747_Deliveries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">747 Deliveries</span></h2>
<table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<tr bgcolor="#006699">
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2006 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2005 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2004 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2003 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2002 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2001 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 2000 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1999 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1998 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1997 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1996 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1995 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1994 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1993 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1992 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1991 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1990 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1989 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1988 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1987 </font></b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>12</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>15</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>27</td>
<td>31</td>
<td>25</td>
<td>47</td>
<td>53</td>
<td>39</td>
<td>26</td>
<td>25</td>
<td>40</td>
<td>56</td>
<td>61</td>
<td>64</td>
<td>70</td>
<td>45</td>
<td>24</td>
<td>23</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#006699">
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1986 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1985 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1984 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1983 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1982 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1981 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1980 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1979 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1978 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1977 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1976 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1975 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1974 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1973 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1972 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1971 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1970 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1969 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1968 </font></b></th>
<th><b><font color="#FFFFFF"> 1967 </font></b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>35</td>
<td>24</td>
<td>16</td>
<td>22</td>
<td>26</td>
<td>53</td>
<td>73</td>
<td>67</td>
<td>32</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>27</td>
<td>21</td>
<td>22</td>
<td>30</td>
<td>30</td>
<td>69</td>
<td>92</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Preserved_aircraft" name="Preserved_aircraft"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Preserved aircraft</span></h2>
<p>As increasing numbers of 'classic' 747-100 and 747-200 series have been retired, some finding their way into aircraft museums. They include:<ul>
<li>Boeing 747-100 <!--del_lnk--> N7470, <i><!--del_lnk--> City of Everett</i>, the first 747 and prototype at the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Flight, <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Washington, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a><li><!--del_lnk--> KLM 747-200(SUD) PH-BUK "Louis Blériot" at <!--del_lnk--> National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome, <!--del_lnk--> Lelystad, <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Qantas 747-200 VH-EBQ "City of Bunbury" at <!--del_lnk--> Qantas Founders Outback Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Longreach Airport, <!--del_lnk--> Longreach, <!--del_lnk--> Queensland, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> South African Airways 747-200 ZS-SAN "Lebombo" and 747SP ZS-SPC "Maluti" at <!--del_lnk--> Rand Airport, <a href="../../wp/j/Johannesburg.htm" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Lufthansa 747-200 D-ABYM "Schleswig-Holstein" at <!--del_lnk--> Technik Museum Speyer, <!--del_lnk--> Speyer, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Air France 747-100 F-BPVJ at <!--del_lnk--> Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, <!--del_lnk--> Le Bourget airport, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Iran Air 747SPs EP-IAA and EP-IAC and 747-200F EP-ICC at <!--del_lnk--> Tehran Aerospace Exhibition, <a href="../../wp/t/Tehran.htm" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Korean Air 747-200 HL7463 at Jeongseok Aviation Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Jeju, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<p><a id="Incidents" name="Incidents"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Incidents</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The first crash of a 747 took place in November of 1974 when <!--del_lnk--> Lufthansa Flight 540 crashed in <a href="../../wp/n/Nairobi.htm" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</a> killing 59 people.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Tenerife disaster on <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1977 claimed a total of 583 lives when two 747s collided in heavy fog at <!--del_lnk--> Los Rodeos Airport, making it the highest <!--del_lnk--> death toll of any accident in aviation history.<li>An <!--del_lnk--> Air India Flight 855 Boeing 747 crashed into the sea off the coast of Mumbai (Bombay) on <!--del_lnk--> New Year's Day, 1978. All passengers and crew were killed. Many residents of sea-front houses in Mumbai were witness to the incident.<li>On <!--del_lnk--> August 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1985, the <!--del_lnk--> Japan Airlines Flight 123 (a 747SR) lost control and crashed, causing 520 fatalities and is currently the worst single-aircraft disaster in aviation history.<li>The <a href="../../wp/p/Pan_Am_Flight_103.htm" title="Pan Am Flight 103">Lockerbie bombing</a> was a <!--del_lnk--> Pan Am 747-100.<li><!--del_lnk--> Air India Flight 182 was a 747-237B that exploded on June 23, 1985. All 329 on board were killed. Up until <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001">September 11, 2001</a>, the Air India bombing was the single deadliest terrorist attack involving aircraft.<li><!--del_lnk--> Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was a 747-230B which was shot down by the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Air Force on <!--del_lnk--> September 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1983. All 269 passengers and crew aboard were killed.<li><!--del_lnk--> El Al Flight 1862 was a 747-200F which crashed shorly after take-off from Amsterdam <!--del_lnk--> Schiphol on <!--del_lnk--> October 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1992. Engines no. 3 and 4 detached shortly after take-off and as a result the flight crew lost control and the crippled 747 crashed into the Klein-Kluitberg apartments in <!--del_lnk--> Bijlmermeer at high speeds. All 3 crew were killed as well as 43 on the ground.<li><!--del_lnk--> China Airlines Flight 611, a 747-209B, broke-up mid flight on <!--del_lnk--> May 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, en route to <!--del_lnk--> Hong Kong International Airport, <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> from <!--del_lnk--> Chiang Kai Shek International Airport in <a href="../../wp/t/Taipei.htm" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. All passengers and crew on board lost their lives.<li>On <!--del_lnk--> 31 October <!--del_lnk--> 2000, <!--del_lnk--> Singapore Airlines Flight 006, a <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 747-400 flying on a Singapore to <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles via <a href="../../wp/t/Taipei.htm" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> route rammed into construction equipment while attempting to take off from a closed runway at <!--del_lnk--> Chiang Kai Shek International Airport, caught fire and was destroyed, killing 79 passengers and 3 crew members. The accident prompted the airline to change the flight number of this route from 006 to 030 and to remove the "Tropical Megatop" livery on the accident aircraft's sister ship.</ul>
<p>Despite all these, very few crashes have been attributed to design flaws of the 747. The Tenerife disaster was a result of pilot error, ATC error and communications failure, while Japan Airlines Flight 123 the consequence of improper aircraft repair. <!--del_lnk--> United Airlines Flight 811, which suffered an explosive decompression mid-flight on <!--del_lnk--> February 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, subsequently had <!--del_lnk--> NTSB issuing a recommendation to have all similar 747-200 cargo doors modified. <!--del_lnk--> TWA Flight 800, a 747-100 that exploded mid-air on <!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1996, led to the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Aviation Administration proposing a rule requiring the installation of an <!--del_lnk--> inerting system in the centre fuel tank for most large aircraft.<p>As of <!--del_lnk--> May 2006, there were a total of 44 hull-loss occurrences involving 747s, with 3707 fatalities.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>A 747-400 has six million parts (half of which are fasteners) made in 33 countries.<li>Just one engine on a 747 produces more thrust than all four engines on an early model <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 707 combined.<li>As with other airliners such as the <!--del_lnk--> DC-10, the engines on a 747 are not visible from the cockpit windows. This configuration has had significance during various <!--del_lnk--> accidents and incidents involving this aircraft.<li>When pressurized, a 747 fuselage holds over a ton of air.<li>Early model 747s have more than 700 lb (300 kg) of <!--del_lnk--> depleted uranium molded into the engine <!--del_lnk--> nacelles. Its purpose is as ballast to prevent the wing from fluttering.<li>At the time of its launch, the term "jumbo jet" had already been coined by the media to describe a general class of new wide-bodied airliners then being developed, including the <!--del_lnk--> Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and <!--del_lnk--> McDonnell Douglas DC-10. Boeing was keen to discourage the media and the public from using the term "jumbo jet" for the 747, but their efforts were in vain and now the term is synonymous with the 747.<li>Because of its length, there is a small flexure of the fuselage in flight. This effect was not anticipated in the design of the autopilot on early models, and so there is a very slow oscillation in yaw when flying on autopilot. This was first discovered on an overseas flight to the Paris Airshow, when some of the people in the rear became air sick. Upon return, the plane went through tests to solve the problem and adjust the yaw damper system. The effect is now too small to be noticeable by passengers.<li>To enable easy transportation of spare engines between sites by airlines, early 747s include the ability to attach a non functioning fifth-pod engine under the port wing of the aircraft, between the nearest functioning engine and the fuselage. Photographs of planes flying in this configuration are highly prized by aircraft enthusiasts.<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <li>Although the upper deck might seem small compared to the size of the whole aircraft, it can seat a significant number of people: JAL has 86 seats on the upper deck of its 747-400D aircraft.<li>The 747 is certified to fly on 3 of its 4 engines. A 747 can successfully take-off even if an engine fails after rotation, and in many cases the flight can continue to its destination.<li>On <!--del_lnk--> 24 May <!--del_lnk--> 1991 an <!--del_lnk--> El Al Boeing 747 airlifted a record-breaking 1,087 passengers - <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Jews flying from <a href="../../wp/a/Addis_Ababa.htm" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a> to Israel as part of <!--del_lnk--> Operation Solomon. The passenger count became 1,088 when a baby was born in-flight.<li>In December 2004, a special Boeing 747-400 (B-18210) was delivered to <!--del_lnk--> China Airlines. It is nicknamed "747 Dreamliner". Its livery is a combination of Boeing's corporate livery on the fuselage and China Airlines's plum blossoom on the tail. It is one of two non-retrofitted non-747-400ERs to feature Boeing's Signature Interior from the <!--del_lnk--> Boeing 777 (the other being B-18211, also delivered to China Airlines).<li>There are other aircraft with prominent humps on the upper fuselage including the <!--del_lnk--> Carvair, which was built from 1961 to 1969, which appeared in the 1964 <a href="../../wp/j/James_Bond.htm" title="James Bond">James Bond</a> movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Goldfinger</i>.<li>The 747 has appeared as a setting for a number of films, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Airport 1975</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Snakes on a Plane</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Air Force One</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Turbulence</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Executive Decision</i>.</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Related content</span></h2>
<table align="right" class="toccolours">
<tr>
<th style="font-size:larger;background:#ccccff;">Giant aircraft</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380-800</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Antonov An-124 <i>Ruslan</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Antonov An-225 <i>Mriya</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Beriev Be-2500<br /><strong class="selflink">Boeing 747</strong>(<!--del_lnk--> -400/<!--del_lnk--> -8/<!--del_lnk--> -LCF)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lockheed C-5 Galaxy<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:center;background:#ddddff;">Cancelled projects</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Boeing NLA<br /><!--del_lnk--> Bristol Brabazon<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hughes H-4 (Spruce Goose)<br /><!--del_lnk--> McDonnell Douglas MD-12<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3>Related development</h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Boeing 747SP<li><!--del_lnk--> Boeing 747-400<li><!--del_lnk--> Boeing 747-8<li><!--del_lnk--> E-4 Nightwatch<li><!--del_lnk--> Air Force One<li><!--del_lnk--> Airborne Laser<li><!--del_lnk--> Shuttle Carrier Aircraft<li><!--del_lnk--> Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy</ul>
<h3>Comparable aircraft</h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Airbus A340-600<li><a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ilyushin Il-96</ul>
<p style="display: none;"> <h3>Related lists</h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> List of Boeing 747 operators</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"</div>
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Bog
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bog</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geology_and_geophysics.htm">Geology and geophysics</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1911.jpg.htm" title="Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany."><img alt="Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern Germany." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:L%C3%BCtt-Witt_Moor-2.jpg" src="../../images/19/1911.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1911.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Lütt-Witt Moor, a bog in <!--del_lnk--> Henstedt-Ulzburg in northern <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>.</div>
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<dd>A <b>bog</b> is a form of wetland. For a summary of the distinguishing features of the various kinds of wetland see <!--del_lnk--> Wetland types.</dl>
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<p>A <b>bog</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> wetland type that accumulates <!--del_lnk--> acidic <!--del_lnk--> peat, a deposit of dead plant material. The term <b>peat bog</b> in common usage is not entirely redundant, although it would be proper to call these <b>sphagnum bogs</b> if the peat is composed mostly of acidophilic <a href="../../wp/m/Moss.htm" title="Moss">moss</a> (peat moss or <i><!--del_lnk--> Sphagnum</i> spp.). <!--del_lnk--> Lichens are a principal component of peat in the far north. <!--del_lnk--> Moisture is provided entirely by <!--del_lnk--> precipitation, and for this reason bog waters are acidic and termed ombrotrophic (or <!--del_lnk--> cloud-fed), which accounts for their low plant nutrient status. Excess rainfall outflows, with dissolved <!--del_lnk--> tannins from the plant matter giving a distinctive tan colour to bog waters. See also <!--del_lnk--> blackwater river.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1912.jpg.htm" title="A wider view of another portion of Lütt-Witt Moor."><img alt="A wider view of another portion of Lütt-Witt Moor." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:L%C3%BCtt-Witt_Moor_1.jpg" src="../../images/19/1912.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1912.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A wider view of another portion of <!--del_lnk--> Lütt-Witt Moor.</div>
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</script><a id="Distribution_and_extent" name="Distribution_and_extent"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution and extent</span></h2>
<p>Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climes, mostly in the northern hemisphere (<i><!--del_lnk--> Boreal</i>). The world's largest wetlands are the bogs of the Western <!--del_lnk--> Siberian Lowlands in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, which cover more than <!--del_lnk--> 600,000 square kilometres.<p>Sphagnum bogs were widespread in northern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> was more than 15% bog; <!--del_lnk--> Achill Island off Ireland is 87% bog. There are extensive bogs in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Alaska (called <b><!--del_lnk--> muskeg</b>), <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (called <b><!--del_lnk--> mosses</b>), the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a> (26% boglands), and northern <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. There are also bogs in the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>. <b>Ombrotrophic wetlands</b> - that is, bogs - are also found in the tropics, with notable areas documented in <!--del_lnk--> Kalimantan; these habitats are forested so would be better called <!--del_lnk--> swamps. Extensive bogs cover the northern areas of the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> of <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Michigan, most notably on <!--del_lnk--> Isle Royale in <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Superior.htm" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Pocosin of the south-western United States is like a bog in that it is an acidic wetland but it has its own unusual combination of features.<p><a id="Bog_habitats" name="Bog_habitats"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bog habitats</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1913.jpg.htm" title="Virgin boreal acid bogs at Brown's Lake Bog, Ohio. The tree cover is not typical of a bog."><img alt="Virgin boreal acid bogs at Brown's Lake Bog, Ohio. The tree cover is not typical of a bog." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brown_Lake_Bog_OH.jpg" src="../../images/19/1913.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1913.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Virgin <!--del_lnk--> boreal acid bogs at Brown's Lake Bog, Ohio. The tree cover is not typical of a bog.</div>
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<p>Bogs are recognized as a significant habitat type by a number of governmental and conservation agencies. For example, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in its <!--del_lnk--> Biodiversity Action Plan establishes bog habitats as a priority for conservation. Bogs are challenging environments for plant life because they are low in nutrients and very acidic. <!--del_lnk--> Carnivorous plants have adapted to these conditions by using <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> as a nutrient source. The high acidity of bogs and the absorption of water by sphagnum moss reduce the amount of water available for plants. Some bog plants, such as <!--del_lnk--> Leatherleaf, have waxy leaves to help retain moisture. Bogs also offer a unique environment for animals. For instance, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> bogs give a home to the <!--del_lnk--> boghopper beetle and a yellow <!--del_lnk--> fly called the <!--del_lnk--> hairy canary.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1914.jpg.htm" title="Sphagnum bog vegetation, Tříjezerní slať, Šumava."><img alt="Sphagnum bog vegetation, Tříjezerní slať, Šumava." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Raselink.jpg" src="../../images/19/1914.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1914.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Sphagnum bog vegetation, <i>Tříjezerní slať</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Šumava.</div>
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<p><a id="Uses_of_bogs" name="Uses_of_bogs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses of bogs</span></h2>
<p><a id="Industrial_uses" name="Industrial_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Industrial uses</span></h3>
<p>A bog is a very early stage in the formation of <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> deposits. In fact, bogs can catch fire and often sustain long-lasting smouldering blazes, producing smoke and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, thus causing health and environmental problems. After drying, <b>peat</b> is used as a <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fuel</a>. More than 20% of home heat in Ireland comes from peat, and it is also used for fuel in Finland, Scotland, Germany, and Russia. Russia is the leading producer of peat for fuel at more than 90 million metric tons per year. Ireland's <!--del_lnk--> Bord na Móna (peat board) was one of the first companies to mechanically harvest peat.<p>The other major use of dried peat is as a <!--del_lnk--> soil amendment (sold as <i>moss peat</i> or <i>sphagnum</i>) to increase the soil's capacity to retain <!--del_lnk--> moisture and enrich the soil. It is also used as a <!--del_lnk--> mulch. Some <!--del_lnk--> distilleries, notably <!--del_lnk--> Laphroaig, use peat fires to smoke the <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a> used in making <!--del_lnk--> scotch whisky. These industrial uses of peat threaten the continued existence of bogs and thereby <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been destroyed.<p><a id="Other_uses" name="Other_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other uses</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1915.jpg.htm" title="Bog Huckleberry at Polly's Cove, Nova Scotia"><img alt="Bog Huckleberry at Polly's Cove, Nova Scotia" height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BogHBy.jpg" src="../../images/19/1915.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1915.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bog Huckleberry at Polly's Cove, Nova Scotia</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Blueberries, <!--del_lnk--> cranberries, <!--del_lnk--> cloudberries, <!--del_lnk--> huckleberries and <!--del_lnk--> lingonberries are harvested from the wild in bogs. <!--del_lnk--> Bog oak, wood that has been partially preserved by bogs, has been used in manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> furniture.<p>Sphagnum bogs are also used for sport, but this can be damaging. <!--del_lnk--> All-terrain vehicles are especially damaging to bogs. <!--del_lnk--> Bog snorkelling is popular in England and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> and has even produced the associated sport of <!--del_lnk--> mountain bike bog snorkelling. <!--del_lnk--> Llanwrtyd Wells, the smallest town in Wales, hosts the World Bog Snorkeling Championships. In this event, competitors with mask, snorkel, and <!--del_lnk--> scuba fins swim along a 60-meter trench cut through a peat bog. Current champion is Chris McGarr from Ireland.<p><a id="Archaeology" name="Archaeology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Archaeology</span></h2>
<p>In parts of Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom, peat bog conditions exist where the subsurface chemistry of moisture combined with an anaerobic environment, such that remarkable preservation of animal organisms can result. Some bogs have preserved ancient <!--del_lnk--> oak logs useful in <!--del_lnk--> dendrochronology, and they have yielded extremely well-preserved <!--del_lnk--> bog bodies, with organs, skin, and hair intact, buried there thousands of years ago after apparent Germanic and <!--del_lnk--> Celtic human sacrifice. Excellent examples of such human specimens are <a href="../../wp/h/Haraldsk%25C3%25A6r_Woman.htm" title="Haraldskær Woman">Haraldskær Woman</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Tollund Man in Denmark. In the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> culture of Denmark, a discovery of several victims of ritual sacrifice by strangulation was recorded. The corpses were thrown into peat bogs where they were discovered after 2000 years, perfectly preserved down to their facial expressions, although well-tanned by the acidic environment of the Danish bogs. The Germanic culture has similarities to the characteristics of the probably Celtic <!--del_lnk--> Lindow man found at <!--del_lnk--> Lindow Common and with the <!--del_lnk--> Frisian culture described in the story of <!--del_lnk--> St. Wulfram.<p><a id="Fiction_and_song" name="Fiction_and_song"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fiction and song</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Gothic Fiction is commonly set on a <!--del_lnk--> moor, a type of landscape common in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and Ireland which often has extensive bogs. One example is "<!--del_lnk--> The Hound of the Baskervilles", a <!--del_lnk--> Sherlock Holmes story by <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Conan Doyle which is largely set on <a href="../../wp/d/Dartmoor.htm" title="Dartmoor">Dartmoor</a> and contains the fictional bog <i>Grimpen Mire</i>, said to have been based on <!--del_lnk--> Fox Tor in <!--del_lnk--> Devon.<p>Several <!--del_lnk--> comic book characters are based on the idea of a half-plant/half-human creature living in a bog, notably <!--del_lnk--> The Heap, <!--del_lnk--> Swamp Thing, <!--del_lnk--> Man-Thing, and <!--del_lnk--> Solomon Grundy.<p>German <!--del_lnk--> industrial band <!--del_lnk--> Bigod 20 had their biggest hit with 1990's "<!--del_lnk--> The Bog", in which the narrator, a fell creature living within the bog or perhaps the bog itself, describes how he's swallowing the listener's body. American <!--del_lnk--> post-punk band <!--del_lnk--> be your own PET also has a song called "Bog", where the singer mentions having drowned her boyfriend in a bog.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The last Sunday in July is International Bog Day <!--del_lnk--> <li><i>Bog</i> is also a <a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" title="British English">British</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Irish <!--del_lnk--> slang word for <!--del_lnk--> toilet. Toilet paper is called a <i>bog roll</i><li>The phrase <i>bog standard</i> is often used to describe something that is ordinary or regular issue<li><i>The Mysterious Bog People</i> is a travelling museum exhibition organized by the <!--del_lnk--> Drents Museum, Assen, The Netherlands, the <!--del_lnk--> Niedersachsisches Landesmuseum, Hannover, Germany, the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Museum of Civilization, Gatineau-Ottawa, Canada and the <!--del_lnk--> Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Canada</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog"</div>
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Bogotá
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bogotá</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.htm">Central & South American Geography</a></h3>
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<dd><i>This article is about the capital of Colombia; for the town in the United States, see</i> <!--del_lnk--> Bogota, New Jersey.</dl>
<table class="infobox geography" style="width: 23em;">
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>Bogotá</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1916.jpg.htm" title="Downtown view from Colpatria Building"><img alt="Downtown view from Colpatria Building" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bogotaview.jpg" src="../../images/19/1916.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div><small>Downtown view from <!--del_lnk--> Colpatria Building</small></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<center><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Official flag of Bogotá" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bogot%C3%A1_%28bandera%29.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="125" /></span></span></center>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1918.png.htm" title="Official seal of Bogotá"><img alt="Official seal of Bogotá" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bogota_coat_of_arms.PNG" src="../../images/19/1918.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Flag</b></small></td>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
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</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nickname: "<i><a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a></i>"</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: Bogotá, 2600 metros más cerca de las estrellas<br /><b>Bogotá, 2600 metres closer to the stars</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1919.png.htm" title="Municipalities of Bogotá"><img alt="Municipalities of Bogotá" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mapa_administrativa_Bogota.png" src="../../images/19/1919.png" width="240" /></a></span></div><small>Municipalities of Bogotá</small></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Country</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Department</th>
<td>Bogotá, D.C.<sup>*</sup></td>
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<th>Foundation</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1538</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Luís Eduardo Garzón, <!--del_lnk--> PDA</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>1,732 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>2,640 <!--del_lnk--> m</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City (<!--del_lnk--> 2005 census)</th>
<td>7,321,831 <sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>4,528/km²</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Metro</th>
<td>7,881,156 <sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><small><sup>*</sup>Bogotá is physically within and is the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Cundinamarca Department, but as the Captial District is treated as its own department.</small></td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> City Official Site<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mayor Official Site</td>
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<p><b>Bogotá</b>—officially named <b>Bogotá, D.C.</b> (D.C. for "Distrito Capital", which means "Capital District"), also called <b>Santa Fe de Bogotá</b>—is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, as well as the largest and most populous city in the country with 7,321,831 inhabitants (2005 census). Bogotá and Soacha have an estimated population of 7,881,156 <p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1920.jpg.htm" title="Colombian National Museum"><img alt="Colombian National Museum" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MN_Bogota.JPG" src="../../images/19/1920.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1920.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Colombian National Museum</div>
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<p>Originally called Bacatá by the <!--del_lnk--> Mexicas, it was the centre of their civilization before the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish explorers colonized the area, and it sustained a large population. The European settlement was founded in <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1538, by <!--del_lnk--> Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and was named "Santa Fé de Bacatá" after his birthplace Santa Fé and the local name. "Bacatá" had become the modern "Bogotá" by the time it was made the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Viceroyalty of New Granada, which was then part of the <!--del_lnk--> Viceroyalty of Peru, and the city soon became one of the centers of Spanish colonial power and civilization in South America.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1810-<!--del_lnk--> 11 its citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a government of their own, but had to contend with internal divisions and the temporary return to power of Spanish military loyalists, who reassumed control of the city from <!--del_lnk--> 1816 to <!--del_lnk--> 1819, when <a href="../../wp/s/Sim%25C3%25B3n_Bol%25C3%25ADvar.htm" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> captured it after his victory at <!--del_lnk--> Boyacá. Bogotá was then made the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Gran Colombia, a federation combining the territories of modern Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. When that republic was dissolved into its constituent parts, Bogotá remained the capital of New Granada, which later became the Republic of Colombia. See <!--del_lnk--> History of Colombia.<p>In 1956, the municipality was joined to other neighboring municipalities forming a "Special District" (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>Distrito Especial</i>). With the Constitution of 1991, Bogotá was confirmed as the Capital of Colombia acquiring the name "Santa Fe de Bogotá", and changing the category from Special District to "Capital District" (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>Distrito Capital</i>).<p>In August <!--del_lnk--> 2000 the capital's name was officially changed back from "Santa Fé de Bogotá" to the more usual "Bogotá". Bogotá Capital District The local government consists of a Capital District, the current chief of government is <!--del_lnk--> Luis Eduardo Garzón.<p><a id="Flag" name="Flag"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flag</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1921.jpg.htm" title="Primate Cathedral"><img alt="Primate Cathedral" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CatedralPrimadaBogota2004-7.jpg" src="../../images/19/1921.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1921.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Primate Cathedral</div>
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<p>The flag originates from the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities, which began on <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1810. During this insurgency, the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colours were the ones in the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish flag which was the one used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> October 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1952, exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially and definitively adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá.<p>The flag itself is divided horizontally in two, the top band is yellow and the bottom band is red. The yellow colour denotes the gold from the earth, as well as the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called "mundane qualities" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendour, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity, power and constancy. The red colour denotes the virtue of charity, as well as the qualities of bravery, nobility, values, audacity, victory, honour and furor, Colombians call it the blood of their people.<p><a id="Coat_of_Arms" name="Coat_of_Arms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Coat of Arms</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1922.jpg.htm" title="National Capitol"><img alt="National Capitol" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CapitolioNacionalDeColombia2004-7.jpg" src="../../images/19/1922.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1922.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> National Capitol</div>
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<p>The coat of arms of the city was granted by emperor <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> (Charles I of Spain) to the New Kingdom of Granada, by royal decree given in <!--del_lnk--> Valladolid, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1548. It contains a black eagle in the centre, which symbolises steadfastness. The eagle is also a symbol of the <!--del_lnk--> Habsburgs, which was the ruling family of the Spanish empire at the time. The eagle is crowned with gold and holds a red <!--del_lnk--> pomegranate inside a golden background. The border contains olive branches with nine golden pomegranates in a blue background. The two red pomegranates symbolize audacity, and the nine golden ones represent the nine states which constituted the New Kingdom of Granada at the time.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1932 the coat of arms was officially recognized and adopted as the symbol of Bogotá.<p><a id="Anthem" name="Anthem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anthem</span></h3>
<p>The lyrics to the anthem of Bogotá were written by Pedro Medina Avendaño, the melody was composed by <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Pineda Duque. The song was officially declared the anthem by decree 1000 of <!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1974, by then <!--del_lnk--> Mayor of Bogotá, <!--del_lnk--> Aníbal Fernandez de Soto.<p><a id="Population_and_Area" name="Population_and_Area"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population and Area</span></h2>
<p><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1923.jpg.htm" title=""Sabana de Bogotá", a high plateau"><img alt=""Sabana de Bogotá", a high plateau" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SabanaBogota.jpg" src="../../images/19/1923.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1923.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Sabana de Bogotá", a high plateau</div>
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<p>Bogotá is located in the centre of the country, on the eastern of the "sabana de Bogotá", 2640 meters (8661 feet) above sea level. Although "sabana", as it is popularly called, is literally "savanna", the geographical site is actually a <i><!--del_lnk--> high plateau</i> up in the Andes mountains..<p>The Bogotá River crosses the 'sabana' forming Tequendama falls to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with flourishing villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production.<p>The 'sabana' is bordered to the east by the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Cordillera of the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> mountain range. Surrounding hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, parallel to the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is the Bogotá river; Sumapaz paramo borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the metioned plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>The average temperature on the 'sabana' is 14.0°C, varying from 9 to 22ºC. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, February and March; the rainiest are April, May, September, October and November. June and July are usually rainy periods and August is sunny with high winds.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1924.jpg.htm" title="Hailstorm"><img alt="Hailstorm" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bogota_hailstorm.jpg" src="../../images/19/1924.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1924.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hailstorm</div>
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<p>Climatic conditions are irregular and quite variable due to the El Niño and La Niña climatic phenomena, which occur in and around the Pacific basin and are responsible for very pronounced climatic changes.<p><a id="Urban_layout_and_nomenclature" name="Urban_layout_and_nomenclature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Urban layout and nomenclature</span></h3>
<p>The urban layout dates back to Colonial times, and is a square layout adopted from Spain. The current street layout has <b>calles</b> which run perpendicular to the hills heading east-west with numbering increasing towards the north, and towards the south from calle 1, and <b>carreras</b> which run parallel to the hills in the south-north direction with numbering increasing east and west from carrera 1. New urban sectors incorporate diagonal – similar to streets – and transversal – similar to carreras. Streets are numbered.<p>It has over one thousand neighborhoods or divisions forming the developed urban network. Neighborhoods of higher economic status are primarily located to the north and north-east. Poorer neighborhoods are located to the south and south-east, many of them squatter areas. The middle classes usually inhabit the central,western and north-western sections of the city.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>The largest and most populous city in Colombia, Bogotá has 7,321,831 inhabitants (2005 census).<p><a id="Government" name="Government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:127px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1925.jpg.htm" title="City Hall"><img alt="City Hall" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Edificio_Lievano.JPG" src="../../images/19/1925.jpg" width="125" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1925.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> City Hall</div>
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<p>Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the national legislature, the Supreme Court of Justice , and the centre of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President of the Republic. The Principal Mayor and District Council – both elected by popular vote – are responsible for city administration.<p>The city divided into 20 localities: Usaquén, <!--del_lnk--> Chapinero, Santa Fe, San Cristóbal, Usme, Tunjuelito, Bosa, <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy, Fontibón, <!--del_lnk--> Engativá, Suba, <!--del_lnk--> Barrios Unidos, <!--del_lnk--> Teusaquillo, <!--del_lnk--> Los Mártires, <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Nariño, Puente Aranda, La Candelaria, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Ciudad Bolívar, <!--del_lnk--> Sumapáz.<p>Each of the 20 localities is governed by an administrative board elected by popular vote, made up of no less than seven members, as determined by the District Council. The Principal Mayor designates local mayors from a trio proposed by the respective administrative board.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>Bogotá is <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>'s largest economic centre, followed by <!--del_lnk--> Medellín, <!--del_lnk--> Cali, and <!--del_lnk--> Barranquilla. Most companies in Colombia have their headquarters in Bogotá, as it is home to most foreign companies doing businesses in Colombia as well as Colombia's main stock market. Bogotá is a major centre for import and export of goods for Colombia.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1926.jpg.htm" title="Justice Palace"><img alt="Justice Palace" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PalacioDeJusticia2004-7-9Bogota.jpg" src="../../images/19/1926.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1926.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Justice Palace</div>
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<p><a id="Manufacturing.2C_Commerce_and_Trade" name="Manufacturing.2C_Commerce_and_Trade"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Manufacturing, Commerce and Trade</span></h3>
<p>Bogotá is the hub of Colombian business. It has a busy banking and insurance sector and a <!--del_lnk--> Stock exchange. Engineering firms provide services for many regions of Colombia and Central America. Bogotá houses the central governmental institutions and military headquarters. It is the centre of the telecommunications network and has the biggest industrial facilities in the country.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1927.jpg.htm" title="Bogotá's financial district at Chile Avenue"><img alt="Bogotá's financial district at Chile Avenue" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:IMG_0098.JPG" src="../../images/19/1927.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1927.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bogotá's financial district at Chile Avenue</div>
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<p>Some services are public and others are private. The public services include energy, sewer and phones. Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence. Thus, the wealthier sections of society help subsidize the energy bills of the poorer sections of society. Telephone service is provided by both "Empresa de Telecomunicaciones de Bogotá" (ETB), a city-owned company, and "Capitel", owned by <i>Colombia Telecomunicaciones</i> and "EPM Bogotá", owned in turn by the <!--del_lnk--> Medellín public services company (<i>Empresas Públicas de Medellín</i> - EPM) . Coin or card-operated payphones are also available, along with cell phone providers. There are (as of May <!--del_lnk--> 2005) three main operators of wireless phones: <!--del_lnk--> Movistar (owned by Spanish firm <!--del_lnk--> Telefónica), <!--del_lnk--> Comcel (owned by <!--del_lnk--> Telmex) and <!--del_lnk--> Ola (co-owned by ETB and EPM).<p>Bogotá also receives money from exports like flowers and emeralds. In downtown Bogotá, millions of dollars in domestically produced rough and cut emeralds are bought and sold daily. Other important industries include financial services, especially banking. Bogotá is headquarters to major commercial banks, and to the Banco de la República, Colombia's central bank. Bogotá is also a printing and publishing centre. The city is a major convention destination with many major convention centers: Centro Ferial de Convenciones Corferias, Centro de Convenciones y Eventos Cafam, Centro de Convenciones Gonzalo Jiménez De Quezada, among others. Because of its status as site of the country's capital, it is home to a number of government agencies, which represent another major component of the city's economy.<p>The city's industrial base include staples of the Colombian economy such as GM Colmotores, Compañía Colombiana Automotriz, and Ecopetrol.<p><a id="Transportation_and_Communications" name="Transportation_and_Communications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation and Communications</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1928.png.htm" title="Street arrangement of Bogota based on the Cartesian coordinate system."><img alt="Street arrangement of Bogota based on the Cartesian coordinate system." height="315" longdesc="/wiki/Image:How-Bogota-Streets-are-Numbered-and-Named.png" src="../../images/19/1928.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1928.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Street arrangement of <b>Bogota</b> based on the <!--del_lnk--> Cartesian coordinate system.</div>
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<p>Bogotá is a modern city with a modern transportation system. It includes an international <!--del_lnk--> airport, bus lines, taxis, the <!--del_lnk--> TransMilenio bus rapid transit system, and even a train that serves as transportation for the outskirts of the city.<p>Buses are the main means of mass transportation. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the trasmilenio. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues:<ul>
<li><b>bus</b>; large buses.<li><b>buseta</b>; medium size buses.<li><b>microbus</b> or <b>colectivo</b>; vans or minivans.</ul>
<p>The buses are divided into two categories: "ejecutivo", which is supposed to be a deluxe service and is not supposed to carry standing passengers, and "corriente" or normal service. Bus fares range, as of March <!--del_lnk--> 2006, from COP 900 to 1250 (US$ .40 aprox.)<p>In addition, Bogotá has several types of taxis. Yellow taxis (cabs) are by far the most common. People often use them in order to get to their destination faster, although they are more expensive. Bogotá also has white taxis, used mostly as shuttles by hotels or companies to transport customers.<p><a id="Airports" name="Airports"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Airports</span></h4>
<p>Bogotá's principal airport is <!--del_lnk--> El Dorado International Airport. Several national airlines (<!--del_lnk--> Avianca, <!--del_lnk--> AeroRepública, <!--del_lnk--> AIRES and <!--del_lnk--> SATENA), and international airlines (such as <!--del_lnk--> Iberia, <!--del_lnk--> American Airlines, <!--del_lnk--> Varig, <!--del_lnk--> Copa, <!--del_lnk--> Continental, <!--del_lnk--> Delta, <!--del_lnk--> Air Canada, <!--del_lnk--> Aerogal,<!--del_lnk--> TAME, <!--del_lnk--> TACA) operate from El Dorado. Bogotá's airport is one of the largest and most expensive in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>. Because of its central location in <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> America, it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers.<p>Currently, a major expansion of El Dorado airport is in the planning stage. This stage will be finished on January 2008.<p><a id="Bus_Terminals" name="Bus_Terminals"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bus Terminals</span></h4>
<p>Bogotá is a hub for national and international bus routes. This terminal serves routes to the majority of cities and towns in Colombia and is the largest in the country. International services are provided to <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> by certain bus companies.<p><a id="TransMilenio" name="TransMilenio"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">TransMilenio</span></h4>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> TransMilenio is a <!--del_lnk--> bus rapid transit system, a network combining modern articulated buses that operate on exclusive roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, 80th Street, Avenue of the Americas, Northern Highway (<i>Autopista Norte</i>), Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as <i>Norte Quito Sur</i> or <i>N.Q.S.</i> for short). The Suba Avenue routes and the southern leg of the 30th Avenue route were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or <i>Avenida El Dorado</i>). The system is expected to cover the entire city by 2030.<p>The Transmilenio rapid bus service is extremely cheap, clean and efficient and carries commuters to numerous corners of the city. While the Transmilenio is expansive, there are some main routes that are not yet reached.<p><a id="Security_on_Transmilenio" name="Security_on_Transmilenio"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Security on Transmilenio</span></h5>
<p>As in any other highly crowded area, users of TransMilenio must be aware that when riding the system they are exposed to pickpockets. Isolated instances of people getting mugged have been reported as well. Security on buses and in stations is handled by police officers employed by the city. However, most of the time the officers assigned are recently graduated highschool students serving their mandatory year with the armed forces ('Policía Bachiller'). Higher ranking officers are assigned as supervisors and respond when a Policía Bachiller requests assistance.<p><a id="Bike_Paths_Network" name="Bike_Paths_Network"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bike Paths Network</span></h4>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Bogotá's network of bike paths, also called <b>ciclorutas</b>, is one of the most extensive dedicated <!--del_lnk--> bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of 303 km. It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from <!--del_lnk--> Monserrate on the east, to the <!--del_lnk--> Bogotá River on the west. The cicloruta was started by the <!--del_lnk--> Antanas Mockus administration (1995-1998), and considerably extended during the administration of Mayor <!--del_lnk--> Enrique Peñalosa.<p>On Sundays, many people ride a popular tourist train with their family. On weekends, the train runs from Bogotá to Zipaquirá and Nemocón, towns on the outskirts of Bogotá.<p>A lack of security on bike paths has caused many would-be riders to search for more traditional means of transportation.<p><a id="Colleges_and_Universities" name="Colleges_and_Universities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Colleges and Universities</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1929.jpg.htm" title="Beaux Arts Building at National University"><img alt="Beaux Arts Building at National University" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Artesplasticasun.jpg" src="../../images/19/1929.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1929.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beaux Arts Building at <!--del_lnk--> National University</div>
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<p>Bogotá's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract national and international industries to the city and surrounding region, including highly needed technology industries. The city is Colombia's educational "Mecca"; it boasts more schools, colleges, and universities than any other city in Colombia.<p><a id="Parks_and_Recreation" name="Parks_and_Recreation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Parks and Recreation</span></h2>
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<li>There are many parks and most of them have facilities for concerts, plays, movies, storytellers and other activities. "Simón Bolívar Metropolitan Park", for instance, is a big park which is regularly used to stage free concerts (such as the annual Rock al Parque, a free festival in which new and popular Latin rock bands play for free). The park is also frequented in the month of August and used for kite flying, a national tradition.</ul>
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<li>Another public park is <i>Parque Nacional</i> (National Park), one of the biggest in Bogotá. The park has many trees and green spaces, as well as ponds, games for children, many foot and bicycle paths, and venues for entertainment such as public screenings of movies and concerts and events organized by the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Bogotá. It is located between two main streets, the Circunvalar Avenue and the 7th Avenue.</ul>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1930.jpg.htm" title="Simón Bolívar Metropolitan Park"><img alt="Simón Bolívar Metropolitan Park" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bogota_cerros.JPG" src="../../images/19/1930.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1930.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Simón Bolívar Metropolitan Park</div>
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<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Bogotá Botanical Garden (<i>Jardín Botánico de Bogotá</i>).</ul>
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<li>There are many other parks around the city of Bogotá. Each neighborhood has its own park. Some of these parks are private and others are public. Some private parks demand that people from the neighbourhood have a card to be able to get into the park. Public parks are for everybody. Some of them have watchmen. These parks also have sporting venues, which provide sports programs for children and adults, such as <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, <!--del_lnk--> taekwondo, football (soccer)|football, and other sports.</ul>
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<li>The most active park (in both leisure activity, promotion of high-end products and nightlife) is the "Parque de la 93" located between 93rd and 93Ath street, and 12th and 13th avenue. Several of the top restaurants and bars in the city are located in this park or in the "Zona T" (T-zone) in the 82nd street. Recently, restaurant activity has begun in the "Zona G" (69th and 70th Streets, in the Los Rosales zone) and La Macarena.</ul>
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<li>Bogotá has not only natural parks but also amusement parks like Mundo Aventura and Salitre Mágico. There is a special rate to get into these parks and people have to buy tickets to be able to play mechanical games. Mundo Aventura park has mechanical games such as sky-coaster, roller coaster, hammer, and other adult amusements. For children there are some mechanical games like little roller coaster, carousel, turtles, and so on. In this park, people can find both amusements and nature, with animals such as goats for children to feed. Besides, there is a "Cerdodromo", which is a place where pigs race.</ul>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1931.jpg.htm" title="Plaza de Toros de Santamaria"><img alt="Plaza de Toros de Santamaria" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Santamar%C3%ADa_Bullring.jpg" src="../../images/19/1931.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1931.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Plaza de Toros de Santamaria</div>
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<li>The other amusement park is "Salitre Mágico", which is one of the entertainment centers for children and adults. The are many mechanical games like pirate ship, apocalypse, 3 roller coasters and other games. The park is next to the Simón Bolívar park, which is a well known place in Bogotá (used also for concerts through the year).</ul>
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<li>For relaxing and finding peace from the stress of city life, the Parque del Chicó, with trees, gardens, artificial creeks and ponds, and a colonial style house converted into a museum, is worth a visit.</ul>
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<li>Not so far from the city, up north, the Parque Jaime Duque offers a cultural encounter for visiting families. It has rides, a giant map of Colombia, popular exhibits, and a zoo. A big hand holding the world symbolizes God, and a reproduction of the <a href="../../wp/t/Taj_Mahal.htm" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> provides a picture collection with reproductions of famous paintings.</ul>
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<li>Bogotá has an interactive museum of sciences called <!--del_lnk--> Maloka.</ul>
<p><a id="Zoos_and_Gardens" name="Zoos_and_Gardens"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zoos and Gardens</span></h3>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1932.jpg.htm" title="Our Lady of Lourdes Church"><img alt="Our Lady of Lourdes Church" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chapinero_lourdes.JPG" src="../../images/19/1932.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1932.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Our Lady of Lourdes Church</div>
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<ul>
<li>Bogotá hosts the <!--del_lnk--> Iberoamerican Theatre Festival, the biggest theatre festival in the world, every two years.<li>Bogotá is also known as the <i><a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a> of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a></i>, given the locals' penchant for education and manners.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> 2007, Bogotá will be the Book Capital of the World.<li>The city also celebrates the International Book Fair, one of the three major book fairs of the Spanish-speaking Americas.<li>The tallest building in the city is the <!--del_lnk--> Colpatria Tower.<li>The former motto of the city was "2600 metres closer to the stars" (in reference to its altitude above sea level).<li>The city has institutionalized a day without cars on the streets, called "El Día sin Carro" (The day without cars). It takes place every first Thursday of February. See <!--del_lnk--> Car Free Days and <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Car Free Days.<li>Bogotá has the highest quality as well as the most expensive potable water in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<li>The Federal District as a whole has the largest economy in Colombia and ranks eighth in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Gold Museum has the biggest gold handicraft collection in the world.<li>Bogotá has one of the most extensive dedicated <!--del_lnk--> Bike Paths Network of any city in the world, with a total of 300km.</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/33/3332.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bogota Eje ambiental.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1933.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>View of downtown Bogotá from nearby <!--del_lnk--> Monserrate</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1934.jpg.htm" title="Image:IMG 0454.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1934.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>An Eastern view of Bogotá's International Business District with <!--del_lnk--> Monserrate looming above</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1935.jpg.htm" title="Image:TransMilenio2004-7-10.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1935.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Transmilenio's 19th Street Station</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1936.jpg.htm" title="Image:Transmilenio en el centro.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1936.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Station at Jiménez Avenue and Seventh Carrera</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1937.jpg.htm" title="Image:IMG 0102.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1937.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>Bavaria Central Park</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1938.jpg.htm" title="Image:North CB.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1938.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>Overview of Bavaria Central Park</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1939.jpg.htm" title="Image:IMG 0237.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1939.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Santamaría <!--del_lnk--> Bullring with Park Towers behind</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1940.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bullfight-Bogotá-1.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1940.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Bullfighting in Bogotá</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1941.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bogota-christmas-2005.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1941.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Colpatria Bank Building</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1942.jpg.htm" title="Image:Salitre 20061110 44.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1942.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>Colpatria Tower at night</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1943.jpg.htm" title="Image:SNMN Bog.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1943.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>Negret Sculpture at <!--del_lnk--> National Museum</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1944.jpg.htm" title="Image:Iglesia SFB.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1944.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Saint Francis of Assisi Church</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 49px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1945.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bogota1.jpg"><img alt="" height="47" src="../../images/19/1945.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Panoramic view of downtown Bogotá from nearby <!--del_lnk--> Monserrate</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1946.jpg.htm" title="Image:Monserrate 03.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1946.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Monserrate Church</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1947.jpg.htm" title="Image:Candelaria Church 01.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1947.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Candelaria Church</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1948.jpg.htm" title="Image:Salitre 20061111 07.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1948.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>View of the <!--del_lnk--> Maloka Museum dome theatre from the museum</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1949.jpg.htm" title="Image:Salitre 20061111 18.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1949.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Maloka Museum from the sidewalk</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1950.jpg.htm" title="Image:Salitre 20061111 19.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1950.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>View of the <!--del_lnk--> Maloka dome theatre</div>
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Bohemian_Rhapsody
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bohemian Rhapsody</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_Recordings_and_compositions.htm">Musical Recordings and compositions</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 20em;">
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;">"Bohemian Rhapsody"</th>
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<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt=""Bohemian Rhapsody" cover" height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bohemian_Rhapsody.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td>
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<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Single by <a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a></th>
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">from the album <i><!--del_lnk--> A Night at the Opera</i></th>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> B-side(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2">I'm in Love With My Car</td>
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<td><b>Released</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
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<td><b>Format</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1975: <!--del_lnk--> Vinyl record (7")<br /> 1991: <!--del_lnk--> CD, <!--del_lnk--> Vinyl record (7")<br /> 1992: <!--del_lnk--> CD</td>
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<td><b>Recorded</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1975:<br /> Rockfield Studio 1<br /> Roundhouse<br /> SARM (East)<br /> Scorpion<br /> Wessex</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Rock<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hard rock<br /><!--del_lnk--> Progressive rock</td>
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<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td colspan="2">05:55</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> EMI <small>(1975)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> Elektra <small>(1975)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> Parlophone <small>(1991)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> Hollywood <small>(1992)</small></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Writer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Freddie Mercury</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Producer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Roy Thomas Baker<br /><a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a></td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Chart positions</th>
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<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<ul>
<li>#1 <small>(<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>; <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>; <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>; <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>; <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>; <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>; <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>; <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>: platinum)</small><li>#2 <small>(<a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>)</small><li>#4 <small>(<a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>; <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>; <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>)</small><li>#7 <small>(<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>)</small><li>#9 <small>(<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>: gold)</small><li>#48 <small>(<a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>)</small></ul>
<p>1991/1992 reissue:<ul>
<li>#1 <small>(<a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>; <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>: platinum)</small><li>#2 <small>(<a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>; <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>: platinum)</small><li>#5 <small>(<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>)</small><li>#8 <small>(<a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>)</small><li>#16 <small>(<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>)</small></ul>
</td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a> singles chronology</th>
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<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;">
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Now I'm Here<br /> (1975)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="center"><b>Bohemian Rhapsody</b><br /> (1975)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> You're My Best Friend<br /> (1976)</td>
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<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: ;">
<td style="width: 33%;">
<hr />
</td>
<td style="width: 33%;">
<hr />
</td>
<td style="width: 33%;">
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<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> The Show Must Go On<br /> (1991)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="center"><b>Bohemian Rhapsody</b>/<!--del_lnk--> These Are The Days Of Our Lives<br /> (1991)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Heaven for Everyone<br /> (1995)</td>
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</table>
<p>"<b>Bohemian Rhapsody</b>" is a song written by <!--del_lnk--> Freddie Mercury, originally recorded by the band <a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a> for their <!--del_lnk--> 1975 album <i><!--del_lnk--> A Night at the Opera</i>. The song is a <!--del_lnk--> rock opera song and has a very unusual musical structure for a piece of <!--del_lnk--> popular music. Its three different sections have no chorus but both <a href="../../wp/a/A_cappella.htm" title="A cappella">a cappella</a> and <!--del_lnk--> heavy metal arrangements. Despite this, it was released as a single and became a huge commercial success, marking a decisive point in Queen's career and setting them on the way to become one of the world's biggest bands. The single was accompanied by what is generally cited as a groundbreaking "<!--del_lnk--> promotional video", which helped establish the visual language of the modern music video. The song was included in all Queen's subsequent live concert performances, and still enjoys great popularity all over the world.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins_and_name" name="Origins_and_name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins and name</span></h2>
<p>Very little has been said about the song's title. According to what <!--del_lnk--> Brian May told a magazine and published in his website, Mercury came up with it later in the recording process. As confirmed in a 2004 <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> Documentary about the song, which included the aforementioned demo and interviews with producer <!--del_lnk--> Roy Thomas Baker, early tapes from Mercury rehearsing the piano parts were simply labelled "Fred's thing".<p>The title's meaning can be taken as a song irregular in form about someone who doesn't follow the rules of society. The reason for this is that the textbook definition of Bohemian is 'a person, as an artist or writer, who lives and acts free of regard for conventional rules and practices' and the definition of rhapsody is 'an instrumental composition irregular in form and suggestive of improvisation'.<p>Mercury composed the song on an upright piano he had in his London flat. According to <!--del_lnk--> Reinhold Mack in a 2000 interview about <i><!--del_lnk--> The Game</i>, when he asked Freddie how he had written the song, he described the process as having a germinal idea, polishing it, then adding and taking out bits until it was exactly as he wanted it.<p>According to what Mercury said in an early 1976 interview, this had simply been one of the pieces he'd got in his songwriting batch for the album, and he had been tempted to drop it at some early stages, until he realised that the track could have some potential.<p><a id="Recording" name="Recording"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Recording</span></h2>
<p>The song was recorded over three weeks by the band and producer Roy Thomas Baker. Recording began at Rockfield Studio 1 near Monmouth on August 24, 1975, after a 3-week rehearsal period in Herefordshire. During the making of the track, a further four studios -- Roundhouse, SARM (East), Scorpion, and Wessex -- were used. According to some band members, Mercury had worked out the entire song in his head and directed the band through the song.<p>May, Mercury, and Taylor sang their vocal parts continually for ten to twelve hours a day, resulting in 180 separate overdubs. Since the studios of the time only offered 24-track analogue tape, it was necessary for May, Mercury and Taylor to overdub themselves many times, and "bounce" these down to successive submixes. In the end, eighth generation tapes were being used. The tapes had passed over the recording heads so many times the normally opaque tapes could be seen through, as the <!--del_lnk--> oxide layer was beginning to wear off. The various sections of tape containing the desired submixes would have to be cut with razor blades and reassembled together in the correct sequence using adhesive tape, a process known as <!--del_lnk--> splicing.<p>A backing track of the grand piano (Mercury), bass guitar (Deacon) and drums (Taylor) was recorded first. The band used many instruments to produce the song, including a <!--del_lnk--> Fender Precision Electric Bass, May's <!--del_lnk--> Red Special electric guitar, <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Drums, <!--del_lnk--> timpani and a <!--del_lnk--> Paiste Gong. Mercury used a <!--del_lnk--> Bechstein "Concert" Grand Piano, the same he'd later play in both the promotional video and the UK Tour.<p>When it was finished it was the most expensive single ever made and remains one of the most elaborate recordings in music history.<p><a id="Release" name="Release"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Release</span></h2>
<p>When Mercury wanted to release the single in 1975, it had been suggested to him that, at 5 minutes and 56 seconds, it was far too long and would thus never be a hit. But Mercury had a plan. He gave a copy of the single to friend and London DJ <!--del_lnk--> Kenny Everett, informing him that it was for him personally, and that he must never play it on air, expecting him to do the opposite (<!--del_lnk--> reverse psychology). Mercury's plan worked, as Everett did just the opposite, teasing his listeners by playing bits and pieces of the song throughout his show. Ultimately, Everett would go on to play the song as many as fourteen times in a single day. From then on, every major radio station played the song in full. The track proved popular and was released with "I'm In Love With My Car" as the <!--del_lnk--> B-side.<p><a id="Song_structure" name="Song_structure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Song structure</span></h2>
<p>The song is composed of six distinct sections - introduction, ballad, guitar solo, opera, rock, and an <!--del_lnk--> outro.<p><a id="Introduction_.280:00-0:48.29" name="Introduction_.280:00-0:48.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Introduction (0:00-0:48)</span></h3>
<p>The song begins with close four-part harmony <a href="../../wp/a/A_cappella.htm" title="A cappella">a cappella</a> introduction in B-flat, which is entirely multitrack recordings of Mercury. The lyrics question whether life is "real" or "just fantasy" before concluding that there can be "no escape from reality." After 15 seconds, the grand piano enters, and Mercury's solo voice alternates with the chorus. The narrator introduces himself as "just a poor boy" but declares that he "need[s] no sympathy" because nothing matters: chromatic side-slipping on "easy come, easy go" highlight the dream-like atmosphere. The end of this section is marked by the bass entrance and the familiar cross-handed piano vamp in B-flat.<p><a id="Ballad_.280:48-2:36.29" name="Ballad_.280:48-2:36.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ballad (0:48-2:36)</span></h3>
<p>The grand piano continues the 2-bar vamp in B-flat. Deacon's bass guitar enters playing the first note, and the vocals change from harmony to an impassioned solo performance by Mercury. The narrator explains that he has "just killed a man," and with that act thrown his life away. The chromatic bass line at the end of brings about a modulation to E-flat. Here Taylor's drums enter (1:19), and the narrator makes the first of several invocations to his "mama" in the new key, reusing the original theme. The narrator explains his regret over "mak[ing] you cry" and urging mama to "carry on" as if "nothing really matters." A truncated phrase connects to a repeat of the vamp in B-flat. As the ballad proceeds into its second verse, the narrator shows how tired and beat down he is by his actions (as May enters on guitar and mimics the upper range of the piano 1:50). May sends "shivers down my spine" by scratching the strings on the other side of the bridge. The narrator bids the world goodbye and prepares to "face the truth" admitting "I don't want to die / I sometimes wish I'd never been born at all." Another chromatic bass descent brings a modulation to the key of A, and the "Opera" section.<p><a id="Guitar_solo_.282:36-3:02.29" name="Guitar_solo_.282:36-3:02.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Guitar solo (2:36-3:02)</span></h3>
<p>As Mercury sings the rising line "I sometimes wish I'd never been born at all," the band builds in intensity, leading up to the song's first highlight: a guitar solo by May that serves as the segue from ballad to opera. May's solo continues to build intensity, but, once the bass line completes its descent establishing the new key, the entire band cuts out abruptly at 3:02 except for quiet A Major quaver chords on the piano: the "opera" has begun. In live performances, the stage would go dark and all the members of the band would walk offstage and allow the entire opera section to play from the recording.<p><a id="Opera_.283:02-4:07.29" name="Opera_.283:02-4:07.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Opera (3:02-4:07)</span></h3>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bohemian Rhapsody"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Bohemian Rhapsody"><img alt="Bohemian Rhapsody" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<td>Every time Freddie came up with another 'Galileo', I would add another piece of tape to the reel... That section alone took about three weeks to record, which in 1975 was the average time spent on a whole album. – Roy Thomas Baker</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bohemian Rhapsody"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bohemian Rhapsody"><img alt="Bohemian Rhapsody" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<p>A rapid series of rhythmic and harmonic changes (E flat major to F minor to A major, among others) introduces a pseudo-operatic midsection, which contains the bulk of the elaborate vocal multitracking, depicting the narrator's "descent into hell". While the underlying pulse of the song is maintained, the dynamics vary greatly from bar to bar, from a single Mercury voice and solo piano, to a multi-voice choir. The choir effect was created by having May, Mercury, and Taylor sing their vocal parts continually for ten to twelve hours a day, resulting in 180 separate overdubs. The band used the <!--del_lnk--> bell effect for lyrics "Magnifico" and "Let me go". Also, on "Let him go", Taylor singing the top section carries his note on further after the rest of the "choir" have stopped singing. Lyrical references in this passage include <!--del_lnk--> Scaramouche, the <!--del_lnk--> fandango, <!--del_lnk--> Galileo, <!--del_lnk--> Figaro, "<!--del_lnk--> Bismillah," and <!--del_lnk--> Beelzebub, as rival factions fight over the narrator's soul. The introduction is recalled with the chromatic inflection on "I'm just a poor boy...easy come, easy go." The section concludes with a full choral treatment of the lyric, "Beelzebub has a devil put aside for me!" in which Taylor famously hits a Bb, almost 2 octaves above middle C.<p><a id="Hard_rock_.284:07-4:55.29" name="Hard_rock_.284:07-4:55.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hard rock (4:07-4:55)</span></h3>
<p>The operatic section leads (with the voices singing "for me" on a block B-flat major chord, topped by a sustained high B-flat falsetto from Taylor) into an aggressive hard rock musical interlude with a guitar riff that was written by Mercury. During group singalongs (including the famous scene in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Wayne's World</i>), it is traditional to <!--del_lnk--> headbang during this passage. At 4:14, a <!--del_lnk--> double-tracked Mercury sings angry lyrics addressed to an unspecified "you," accusing him/her of betrayal and abuse and insisting "can't do this to me, baby." There follows three ascending guitar runs, which May described as something he had to "battle with" when performing the song live. The third guitar run is then imitated by Mercury on the piano.<p><a id="Outro_Ballad_.284:55-5:56.29" name="Outro_Ballad_.284:55-5:56.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Outro Ballad (4:55-5:56)</span></h3>
<p>After Mercury plays ascending octaves of notes from the B flat <!--del_lnk--> mixolydian scale, the song then returns to the tempo and form of the introduction. A guitar accompanies the chorus' "ooh yeah, ooh yeah", to give the effect of trumpets. This effect was achieved by playing the guitar through an amp designed by Deacon, affectionately nicknamed the "<!--del_lnk--> Deacy Amp". The song progressively becomes quieter while Mercury again sings "nothing really matters to me..." The final line, "any way the wind blows," is followed by the barely audible sound of a <!--del_lnk--> gong.<p>Note that an academic paper has been written on the song (McLeod K. 2001, Bohemian rhapsodies: operatic influences on rock music, Popular Music, vol 20/2, pp 189-203).<p><a id="Lyrics" name="Lyrics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lyrics</span></h2>
<p>From the time "Bohemian Rhapsody" was released to the public, there has been speculation as to the meaning behind the song's lyrics. Some believe the lyrics were inspired by author <!--del_lnk--> Albert Camus, given the similarities to Camus's novel <i><!--del_lnk--> The Stranger</i>. Still others believe the lyrics were only written to fit with the music, and don't have any meaning at all. As evidence, <!--del_lnk--> DJ Everett quoted Mercury as claiming the lyrics were simply "random rhyming nonsense."<p>Mercury was famously evasive when asked about the song's meaning. Unlike the other members of Queen, who often talked about the inspiration behind the songs they had written, Mercury disliked too much analysis into his material, and preferred listeners to construct their own personal interpretations. Following the single's release, Mercury was quoted as saying, "It's one of those songs which has such a fantasy feel about it." "I think people should just listen to it, think about it, and then make up their own minds as to what it says to them." "'Bohemian Rhapsody' didn't just come out of thin air. I did a bit of research although it was tongue-in-cheek and mock opera. Why not?"<p><a id="Promotional_video" name="Promotional_video"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Promotional video</span></h2>
<p>The video for the single was directed by <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Gowers, using ideas from the band members themselves. It was created to allow the band to be on tour and appear "live" on the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s <i><a href="../../wp/t/Top_of_the_Pops.htm" title="Top of the Pops">Top of the Pops</a></i>. Shot in just over four hours on the band's rehearsal stage, it cost £4500 to produce, using an outside broadcast truck owned by one of the band's managers.<p>All the special effects were done during the recording. The effect of having the face zooming away was accomplished by simply pointing the camera at a monitor, thus giving <!--del_lnk--> visual feedback, a visual glare which is analogous to <!--del_lnk--> audio feedback. In the original version of the video an apparent editing glitch led to the piano part briefly being double-tracked out of sync with itself, but this was corrected in later releases.<p>The "Bohemian Rhapsody" video is often cited as "the first ever music promo video." This assertion is incorrect. Many bands (including Queen) had made promotional clips to accompany their single releases.<p>However, it wasn't until after the success of the "Bohemian Rhapsody" video that it became regular practice for record companies to produce promo videos for their artists' single releases. These videos could then be shown on TV music shows such as the BBC's <i>Top of The Pops</i>, without the need for the artist to appear in person. A promo video also allowed the artist to have their music broadcast and accompanied by their own choice of visuals, rather than dancers such as <!--del_lnk--> Pan's People performing a routine to the song. The video has been widely hailed as the first true pop promo, launching the MTV age.<p>The famous image of Mercury with his hands crossed over his chest was originally from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Queen II</i> album cover, and was shot by rock photographer <!--del_lnk--> Mick Rock, inspired by a 1932 photograph of <!--del_lnk--> Marlene Dietrich smoking a cigarette with her hands held up and the exact same lighting.<p><a id="Popularity" name="Popularity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Popularity</span></h2>
<p>In 1977, only two years after its release, "Bohemian Rhapsody" was named 'The Best Single Of The Last 25 Years' by BPI.<p>"Bohemian Rhapsody" is the only single to have been UK Christmas Number 1 twice (in a single recording), first in 1975/1976, and then in 1991/1992 (as a double-A single with "<!--del_lnk--> These Are The Days Of Our Lives") following the death of Mercury. The song stayed at number one on the British charts for nine weeks – the longest stay since 1957, and another five weeks during 1991-1992. It has the fourth longest total of weeks at #1 on the UK singles chart. It is also the only UK single ever to sell a million copies on two separate occasions and is placed third in the official <!--del_lnk--> list of the best-selling singles in the United Kingdom.<p>The song consistently ranks highly in media reader polls of "the best singles of all-time". In <!--del_lnk--> 2002, it came first in the Guinness Hit Singles poll of the greatest UK singles of all-time, as well as 10th in a <!--del_lnk--> BBC World Service poll to find the world's favourite song. In <!--del_lnk--> 2000 it came second to "<!--del_lnk--> Imagine" by <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon in a <!--del_lnk--> Channel 4 television poll of <i>The 100 Best Number 1s</i>. It has been in the top 5 of the Dutch annual "Top 100 Aller Tijden" ("All-Time Top 100 Singles") since 1977, reaching #1 eight times.; in the annual "Top 2000" (maintained since <!--del_lnk--> 1999) it has, until <!--del_lnk--> 2005, been #1 every year. In 2005, it went down one place to #2. For popularity comparence: the 2005 edition of the top 2000 was listened to by more then 60% of the total Dutch populace.<p>The song enjoyed renewed popularity in <!--del_lnk--> 1992 as part of the soundtrack to the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Wayne's World</i>. In connection with this, a new video was released, intercutting excerpts from the film with footage from the original Queen video, along with some live footage of the band. The final scene of the video was notable, where a 1974 photo of the band members (from the cover of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Queen II</i> album) "morphs" into an identically-posed 1985 photo. This re-release hit #2 in the US in 1992, sixteen years after the original 1976 US release peaked at #9.<p>As of 2004 "Bohemian Rhapsody" is the second most played song on British radio.<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;">
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Billy Connolly<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> D.I.V.O.R.C.E.</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> UK number one single</b><br /> 1975</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> ABBA<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mamma Mia</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> George Michael and <!--del_lnk--> Elton John<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> UK number one single</b><br /> 1991</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Wet Wet Wet<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Goodnight Girl</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Mud<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Lonely This Christmas</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> UK Christmas Number One single</b><br /> 1975</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Johnny Mathis<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> When A Child Is Born</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Cliff Richard<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Saviour's Day</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b>UK Christmas Number One single</b><br /> 1991</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Whitney Houston<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> I Will Always Love You</i></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Live_performances" name="Live_performances"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Live performances</span></h2>
<p>The a capella introduction was too complex to perform onstage, and though some claim that the band did attempt it at least a few times early on, no live recordings of the introduction exist. In lieu of the a capella segment, Freddie Mercury would try various ways of introducing the song. When the song "<!--del_lnk--> Mustapha" became a live favorite, Mercury would often sub in that song's a capella opening, which was much easier to reproduce live as it was only one voice. During the <i><!--del_lnk--> Hot Space</i> tour, and occasionally at other times, Mercury would do a piano improvisation (generally the introduction to "<!--del_lnk--> Death on Two Legs") that would end with the first notes of the song. More often than not, though, the preceding song would end, and Mercury would simply sit down at the piano, maybe say a quick word to the audience, and start pounding out the opening notes of the ballad.<p>The operatic, middle section of the song proved to be a problem for the band initially. Because of the extensive multi-tracking, there was no way they could sing it on stage. The band did not have enough of a break between the "<!--del_lnk--> Sheer Heart Attack" and "<!--del_lnk--> A Night at the Opera" tours to find a way to make it work live, so they simply split the song up into three sections that were played throughout the night. The opening and closing ballads were played as part of a medley, with "<!--del_lnk--> Killer Queen" and "<!--del_lnk--> March of the Black Queen" taking the place of the operatic and hard rock sections, respectively. Those two sections, in virtually all of the gigs, were played as an introductory piece leading into "<!--del_lnk--> Ogre Battle". This approach worked well for the band, as it allowed them to play the entire operatic section from tape (though Mercury often sang the first line) before taking the stage.<p>Starting with the "<!--del_lnk--> A Day at the Races" tour in 1976, the band adopted what would become their lasting way of playing the song live. The opening ballad would be played onstage, and after Brian May's guitar solo, the lights would go down, the band would leave for a quick costume change, and the operatic section would be played from tape. A blast of <!--del_lnk--> pyrotechnics after Roger Taylor's final "for me" would announce the band's return to the stage for the hard rock section and closing ballad. Queen would continue to play the song in this form all the way through the Magic Tour of 1986.<p>On April 20, 1992, <!--del_lnk--> Elton John and <!--del_lnk--> Axl Rose performed the song with the surviving members of Queen for <!--del_lnk--> The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.<p>On the 2005/2006 <!--del_lnk--> Queen + Paul Rodgers tours, a live performance recording of Mercury (from the famous Wembley show of 1986) would play on video screens doing the vocals and piano for the first segment, while the other musicians played along and <!--del_lnk--> Paul Rodgers sat out. The middle operatic section was left to the studio tape, with a video tribute to Freddie Mercury being played on a screen behind the stage. The band went backstage, and the arena would be completely dark. When the hard rock section kicked in, the lights came back up to the full band onstage, including Rodgers, who took lead vocals for the hard rock section. The taped Mercury and Rodgers made the closing into a duet, with Rodgers allowing the audience to sing the final "Nothing really matters to me" while the taped Mercury took a bow for the crowd. Rodgers would then repeat the line, and the final line was delivered with one last shot of Freddie Mercury smiling at the audience before the arena went black.<p><a id="Selected_cover_versions" name="Selected_cover_versions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Selected cover versions</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fuzzbox - 12" singles <i>What's The Point</i> (1987) and <i>Self!</i> (1989). This a cappella version was one of the first covers of "Bohemian Rhapsody".<li><!--del_lnk--> Bad News - album <i>Bad News</i> (1987). This spoof rock band (created for the UK Channel 4 TV series <i><!--del_lnk--> The Comic Strip Presents...</i>) also released <i>Bohemian Rhapsody</i> as a single. It reached number 44 in the <!--del_lnk--> UK Singles Chart. The cover version was produced by <!--del_lnk--> Brian May. <!--del_lnk--> John Deacon, known for his reluctance to sing, provided some backing vocals.<li><!--del_lnk--> "Weird Al" Yankovic - album <i><!--del_lnk--> Alapalooza</i> (1993). A high-speed <!--del_lnk--> polka version of the song, renamed "<!--del_lnk--> Bohemian Polka".<li><!--del_lnk--> Royal Philharmonic Orchestra - album <i>Royal Philharmonic Orchestra Play Queen</i> (1995).<li>The Braids - <i><!--del_lnk--> High School High</i> soundtrack album (1996). The bay area duo recorded an R&B version of this song for the soundtrack to the <!--del_lnk--> Jon Lovitz movie <i>High School High</i>. It was produced by <!--del_lnk--> Third Eye Blind's lead singer <!--del_lnk--> Stephan Jenkins and was also released as a single.<li><!--del_lnk--> Montserrat Caballé - album <i>Friends for Life</i> (1997). Duet with <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Maiden.htm" title="Iron Maiden">Iron Maiden</a> singer <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Dickinson.<li><!--del_lnk--> Faye Wong - concert album <i>HK Scenic Tour 1998/1999</i>. With the help of several backup vocalists, the song was covered live; it stayed faithful to Queen's original studio version with no cuts.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> California Guitar Trio does an instrumental version on the album <i>Rocks the West</i> (2000).<li><!--del_lnk--> The Flaming Lips - album <i><!--del_lnk--> Killer Queen</i> (2005). The cover was also performed live.<li><!--del_lnk--> G4 - album <i><!--del_lnk--> G4</i> (2005). The band, <i><!--del_lnk--> The X Factor</i> runners-up in the UK, released a version of the song as their debut single, reaching #9 in the UK Singles Chart.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mnozil Brass - DVD <i>Seven</i> (2005), features the Austrian brass ensemble, singing and playing in their own comedic style.<li>Australian gypsy-fusion band <!--del_lnk--> Monsieur Camembert have performed the song live, and a recording of it appears on their self-titled double album.<li>Pop-Classical vocalist <!--del_lnk--> Russell Watson covers "Bohemian Rhapsody" on his third album <i><!--del_lnk--> Reprise</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2003)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rolf Harris did a version in the style of "Tie Me Kangaroo Down Sport" complete with wobble board.<li><!--del_lnk--> Panic! at the Disco will be covering the song live at all of their 2006/2007 tour dates. The band has claimed that they will not use any tape to do so.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemian_Rhapsody"</div>
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Bohor_Reedbuck
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bohor Reedbuck</b></th>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1953.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_CD.svg" src="../../images/19/1953.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Conservation dependent (LR/cd)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Redunca</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>R. redunca</b></i></span><br />
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<td><i><b>Redunca redunca</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Pallas, 1767)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Bohor Reedbuck</b> (<i>Redunca redunca</i>) is an <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a> native to central <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, mostly living in grassland areas near water. It is reddish with lighter areas in the posterior and a white underbelly. Males have curved horns pointing forward and can weigh up to 55 kg (120 lb).<p>Bohor Reedbucks live in small groups consisting of a few individuals or live alone. It is one of many central african animals that is active during the day but retreats to cooler areas during the daily temperature peaks.<p>Bohor Reedbucks have a distinctive whistling (males) and a frog-like croaking (females). These animals become most verbose during ritual mating displays. <!--del_lnk--> Gestation period is about 7.5 months.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohor_Reedbuck"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Antelope', 'Africa']
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Bohrium
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">107</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/s/Seaborgium.htm" title="Seaborgium">seaborgium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">bohrium</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/h/Hassium.htm" title="Hassium">hassium</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/r/Rhenium.htm" title="Rhenium">Re</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Bh</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%">(Ups)</span></td>
<td>
<table>
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<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1954.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bh-TableImage.png" src="../../images/19/1954.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>bohrium, Bh, 107</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> transition metals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 7, <!--del_lnk--> 7, <!--del_lnk--> d</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>unknown, probably silvery<br /> white or metallic gray</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> (272) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>perhaps [<a href="../../wp/r/Radon.htm" title="Radon">Rn</a>] 5f<sup>14</sup> 6d<sup>5</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup><br /> (guess based on <a href="../../wp/r/Rhenium.htm" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td>presumably a <!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>54037-14-8</td>
</tr>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bohrium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈbɔː(h)riəm/</span>), also called <b><!--del_lnk--> eka-<a href="../../wp/r/Rhenium.htm" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a></b>, is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Bh</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 107. It is a <!--del_lnk--> synthetic element whose most stable <!--del_lnk--> isotope, Bh-272, has a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 10 <!--del_lnk--> seconds.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>It was <!--del_lnk--> synthesized in <!--del_lnk--> 1976 by a <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> team led by Y. Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at <!--del_lnk--> Dubna, who produced isotope <sup>261</sup>Bh with a half-life of 1-2 ms (later data gave a half life of around 10 ms). They did this by bombarding <a href="../../wp/b/Bismuth.htm" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>-204 with heavy nuclei of <a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" title="Chromium">chromium</a>-54.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1981 a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> research team led by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Armbruster and <!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Münzenberg at the <!--del_lnk--> Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (Institute for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt were also able to confirm the Soviet team's results and produce bohrium, this time the longer-lived Bh-262.<p>The Germans suggested the name <i>nielsbohrium</i> to honour the Danish physicist <a href="../../wp/n/Niels_Bohr.htm" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. The Soviets had suggested this name be given to element 105 (<a href="../../wp/d/Dubnium.htm" title="Dubnium">dubnium</a>).<p>There was an <!--del_lnk--> element naming controversy as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus <!--del_lnk--> IUPAC adopted <i>unnilseptium</i> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˌjuːnɪlˈsɛptiəm/</span>, symbol <i>Uns</i>) as a temporary, <!--del_lnk--> systematic element name for this element. In <!--del_lnk--> 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named bohrium. While this conforms to the names of other elements honoring individuals, where only the surname is taken, it was opposed by many who were concerned that it could be confused with <a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" title="Boron">boron</a>. Despite this, the name bohrium for element 107 was recognized internationally in <!--del_lnk--> 1997.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohrium"</div>
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['Seaborgium', 'Hassium', 'Rhenium', 'List of elements by name', 'Color', 'Radon', 'Rhenium', 'Electron', 'Phase (matter)', 'Rhenium', 'Chemical element', 'Periodic table', 'Soviet Union', 'Bismuth', 'Chromium', 'Germany', 'Niels Bohr', 'Dubnium', 'Boron']
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Bolivia
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bolivia</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Bolivia. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Bolivia">SOS Children in Bolivia</a></div>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><i><b>República de Bolivia</b></i><br /><b>Republic of Bolivia</b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1955.png.htm" title="Flag of Bolivia"><img alt="Flag of Bolivia" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bolivia_%28state%29.svg" src="../../images/19/1955.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1956.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Bolivia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Bolivia" height="68" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bolivia_coa.png" src="../../images/19/1956.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!</i><br /> (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>: "To die rather than to live as slaves!")</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Bolivianos, el hado propicio</i></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1957.png.htm" title="Location of Bolivia"><img alt="Location of Bolivia" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBolivia.png" src="../../images/19/1957.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sucre.htm" title="Sucre">Sucre</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 16°29′S 68°8′W</span></small></td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz</td>
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<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Aymara, <!--del_lnk--> Quechua</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Evo Morales</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - From <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1825 </td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
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<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1,098,581 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 28th)<br /> 424,163 sq mi </td>
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<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>1.29%</td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<td> - July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>9,182,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 84th)</td>
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<td> - 2001 census</td>
<td>8,280,184</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>8.4/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 210th)<br /> 21.8/sq mi</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$25.684 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 101st)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$2,817 (<!--del_lnk--> 125th)</td>
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<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>0.687 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 113th)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boliviano (<code><!--del_lnk--> BOB</code>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>— (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bo</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+591</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bolivia</b>, officially the <b>Republic of Bolivia</b> (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <span lang="es" xml:lang="es"><i>República de Bolivia</i></span>, <!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[re'puβlika ðe bo'liβi̯a]</span>, <!--del_lnk--> Quechua: <i>Bolivia</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Aymara: <i>Bolivia</i>), named after <a href="../../wp/s/Sim%25C3%25B3n_Bol%25C3%25ADvar.htm" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked <a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">country</a> in central <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>. It is bordered by <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> on the north and east, <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> on the south, and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a> on the west.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p><a id="Colonial_period" name="Colonial_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colonial period</span></h3>
<p>During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of <a href="../../wp/l/Lima.htm" title="Lima">Lima</a>. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata — modern Sucre). Bolivian <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a> mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth.A steady stream of enslaved natives served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleonic_Wars.htm" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic wars</a>, sentiment against colonial rule grew..<p><a id="The_Republic_and_economic_instability_.281809.29" name="The_Republic_and_economic_instability_.281809.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Republic and economic instability (1809)</span></h3>
<p>Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for <a href="../../wp/s/Sim%25C3%25B3n_Bol%25C3%25ADvar.htm" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, on <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1825 (see <!--del_lnk--> Bolivian War of Independence).<p>In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of <!--del_lnk--> Marshal <!--del_lnk--> Andres de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, <!--del_lnk--> General <!--del_lnk--> Luis Orbegoso. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the <i>Supreme Protector</i>. Following tensions between the Confederation and Chile, war was declared by Chile on Dec. 28th, 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on May 9th, 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories; the defeat of the Argentinian expedition, and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition, on the fields of <!--del_lnk--> Paucarpata, near the city of Arequipa. On the same field the <!--del_lnk--> Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army. The treaty assured the Chilean withdrawal from Peru-Bolivia, the return of captured Confederate ships, normalized economic relations, and the payment of Peruvian debt to Chile by the Confederation. Public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. The Chileans organized a second expeditionary force, and attacked the Peru-Bolivian confederation, defeating the Confederation on the fields of <!--del_lnk--> Yungay using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz had allowed them to retain. After this defeat, Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.<p>Following the independence of Peru, <!--del_lnk--> General Gamarra, the Peruvian president, invaded Bolivia in an attempt to reunify the two countries, under the Peruvian flag. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ingaví on November 20, 1841, where General Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian army under General <!--del_lnk--> José Ballivián then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of <!--del_lnk--> Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace in 1842 putting a final end to the war.<p>Due to a period of political and economic instability in the early to middle 19th century, Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Pacific (1879–83), during which it lost its access to the sea, and the adjoining rich <!--del_lnk--> nitrate fields, together with the port of <!--del_lnk--> Antofagasta, to <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars. Bolivia also lost the <!--del_lnk--> state of Acre (known for its production of rubber) when Brazil persuaded the state of Acre to secede from Bolivia in 1903 (see the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Petrópolis).<p>An increase in the world price of <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a> brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed <!--del_lnk--> laissez-faire <a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.<p>Living conditions of the native people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning point. <p><a id="Rise_of_the_Nationalist_Revolutionary_Movement_.281951.29" name="Rise_of_the_Nationalist_Revolutionary_Movement_.281951.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied their victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President <!--del_lnk--> Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR , having strong popular pressure, introduced <!--del_lnk--> Universal Suffrage into his political platform, and carried out a sweeping land reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines.<p>Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military <a href="../../wp/m/Military_dictatorship.htm" title="Military dictatorship">junta</a> overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President <!--del_lnk--> René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta elected President in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder and the rising Popular Assembly, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Banzer Suárez as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.<p><a id="Military_governments:_Garc.C3.ADa_Meza_and_Siles_Zuazo_.281978.29" name="Military_governments:_Garc.C3.ADa_Meza_and_Siles_Zuazo_.281978.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)</span></h3>
<p>Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, <!--del_lnk--> narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year <!--del_lnk--> sentence in 1995.<p>After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the <!--del_lnk--> Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), <!--del_lnk--> Hernán Siles Zuazo again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.<p><a id="S.C3.A1nchez_de_Lozada_and_Banzer:_Liberalizing_the_economy_.281993.29" name="S.C3.A1nchez_de_Lozada_and_Banzer:_Liberalizing_the_economy_.281993.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> corporation, <!--del_lnk--> telecommunications system, <!--del_lnk--> airlines, <!--del_lnk--> railroads, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into <!--del_lnk--> cocaine.<p>During this time, the umbrella labor organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshall the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by Trotskyists, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB. The COB also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996.<p>In the 1997 elections, Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Banzer, leader of the <!--del_lnk--> ADN, former dictator (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1997. During the election campaign, General Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state owned oil company, YPFB. Considering the weak position that Bolivia was in vis-a-vis international corporations, though, this seemed unlikely.<p>The Banzer government basically continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for commodity exports, and reduced employment in the Coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.<p>At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic 4-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto, the slum neighbour of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, <!--del_lnk--> Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez, completed the final year of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in 2002 but can do so in 2007.<p>In the June 2002 national elections, former President <!--del_lnk--> Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca advocate and native peasant leader <!--del_lnk--> Evo Morales (<!--del_lnk--> Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate <!--del_lnk--> Manfred Reyes Villa of the <!--del_lnk--> New Republican Force (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on <!--del_lnk--> August 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2002.<p>A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president <!--del_lnk--> Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on <!--del_lnk--> August 6 he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-<!--del_lnk--> corruption, and social inclusion.<p><a id="Social_Crisis_and_the_nationalization_of_hydrocarbon_resources_.282000-2005.29" name="Social_Crisis_and_the_nationalization_of_hydrocarbon_resources_.282000-2005.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evo Morales, Movement toward Socialism</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Bolivian presidential election was held on <!--del_lnk--> December 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The two main candidates were <!--del_lnk--> Juan Evo Morales Ayma of the <!--del_lnk--> Movement Toward Socialism (MAS) Party, and <!--del_lnk--> Jorge Quiroga, leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic and Social Power (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the <!--del_lnk--> Acción Democrática Nacionalista (ADN) Party.<p>Morales won the election with 54 percent of the votes, an <!--del_lnk--> absolute majority unprecedented in Bolivian elections. He was sworn in on <!--del_lnk--> January 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 for a five-year term. Prior to his official inauguration in La Paz, he was inaugurated in a native ritual at the archeological site of Tiawanaku, before a crowd of thousands of native people and representatives of social movements from across Latin America. However, this ritual does not represent the views/opinions of most Quechua native speakers; it only represents native Aymaras. Since the Spanish Conquest in the early 1500's, this region of South America, with a majority native population, has been ruled by external forces, and Morales has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over, and that the era of autonomy has begun.<p>His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the U.S. drug war in South America and its heavy emphasis on <!--del_lnk--> coca crop eradication. The US-led "Plan Dignidad" (dignity plan), which seeks to reduce coca production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for <!--del_lnk--> coca leaves and promote export of legal coca products.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets. While stating that the nationalization initiative would not be an expropriation, Morales sent Bolivian troops to occupy 56 gas installations simultaneously. Troops were also sent to the 2 Petrobras-owned refineries in Bolivia, which provide over 90% of Bolivia's refining capacity. A deadline of 180 days was announced, by which all foreign energy firms were required to sign new contracts giving Bolivia majority ownership and as much as 82% of revenues (the latter for the largest natural gas fields). That deadline has since passed, and all such firms have signed contracts. Reports from the Bolivian government and the companies involved are contradictory as to plans for future investment. By far the biggest customer for Bolivian hydrocarbons has been Brazil, which imports fully 2/3rds of Bolivia's natural gas via pipelines operated by the huge semi-private Petrobras (PBR). Since gas can only be exported from landlocked Bolivia via PBR's large (and expensive) pipelines, the supplier and customer are strongly linked. How the nationalization will unfold is quite uncertain, as PBR has announced plans to produce sufficient natural gas by 2011 to replace that now supplied by Bolivia. Bolivia's position is strengthened by the knowledge that hydrocarbon reserves are more highly valued than at the time of previous nationalizations as well as the pledged support of <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Chavez of Venezuela.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1958.jpg.htm" title="La Paz is the political capital of Bolivia."><img alt="La Paz is the political capital of Bolivia." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Central_La_Paz_Bolivia.jpg" src="../../images/19/1958.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1958.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a> is the political capital of Bolivia.</div>
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<p>The 1967 constitution, amended in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the <!--del_lnk--> Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes.<p>Bolivia's nine <!--del_lnk--> departments received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors (<i>prefectos</i>) on <!--del_lnk--> 18 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005, after long protests by pro-autonomy-leader department of <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz. <!--del_lnk--> Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected <!--del_lnk--> mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held on <!--del_lnk--> 5 December <!--del_lnk--> 2004, with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services.<p>The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. Elected president <!--del_lnk--> Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada resigned in October 2003, and was substituted by vice-president <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Mesa. Mesa was in turn replaced by chief justice of the Supreme Court <!--del_lnk--> Eduardo Rodríguez in June 2005. Six months later, on December 18, 2005, the Socialist native leader, <!--del_lnk--> Evo Morales, was elected president.<p>Legislative Branch: The <i>Congreso Nacional</i> (<!--del_lnk--> National Congress) has <!--del_lnk--> two chambers. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Cámara de Diputados</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Chamber of Deputies) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, 70 of them in single-member districts (<i>circunscripciones</i>) and 60 by proportional representation. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Cámara de Senadores</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Chamber of Senators) has 27 members (three per department), elected to five-year terms.<p>Bolivia has had more coups d'etat than any other country, with approximately 60 coups in its history.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<p>Bolivia is divided into nine <!--del_lnk--> departments, or in Spanish <i>departamentos</i>:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Chuquisaca (<a href="../../wp/s/Sucre.htm" title="Sucre">Sucre</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cochabamba (<!--del_lnk--> Cochabamba)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beni (<!--del_lnk--> Trinidad)<li><!--del_lnk--> La Paz (<a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Oruro (<!--del_lnk--> Oruro)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pando (<!--del_lnk--> Cobija)<li><!--del_lnk--> Potosí (<!--del_lnk--> Potosí)<li><!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz (<!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz de la Sierra)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tarija (<!--del_lnk--> Tarija)</ul>
<p>Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or <i>provincias</i>, cantons, or <i>cantones</i>, and municipalities, or <i>municipalidades</i>, which handle local affairs.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:330px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1959.png.htm" title="Map of Bolivia from the CIA World Factbook"><img alt="Map of Bolivia from the CIA World Factbook" height="350" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bl-map.png" src="../../images/19/1959.png" width="328" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Map of Bolivia from the <!--del_lnk--> CIA World Factbook</div>
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<p>At 424,135 <!--del_lnk--> mi² (1,098,580 <!--del_lnk--> km²<!--del_lnk--> ), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country (after <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>). It is comparable in size to <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, and is half again as large as the US state of <!--del_lnk--> Texas.<p>Bolivia is a landlocked nation; it lost its connection to the Pacific coast in the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Pacific in 1879. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay river. The west of Bolivia is situated in the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> mountain range, with the highest peak, <!--del_lnk--> Nevado Del Sajama at 6,542 <!--del_lnk--> metres (21,463 <!--del_lnk--> ft) located at the department of <!--del_lnk--> Oruro. The landscape encompasses many different backgrounds, which provide a beautiful view in one of the most incredible natural experiences one can experience. The west of the country is formed by a highland plateau, the <!--del_lnk--> Altiplano. The east of the country is lowland, and covered by the Amazonian <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a>. <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Titicaca.htm" title="Lake Titicaca">Lake Titicaca</a> is located on the border between Bolivia and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>. In the west, in the department of <!--del_lnk--> Potosí, lies the <!--del_lnk--> Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest <!--del_lnk--> salt flat.<p>Major cities are <a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz de la Sierra and <!--del_lnk--> Cochabamba.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1960.jpg.htm" title="Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest salt flat."><img alt="Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest salt flat." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Salar_de_Uyuni%2C_Bolivia2.jpg" src="../../images/19/1960.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1960.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest <!--del_lnk--> salt flat.</div>
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<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Bolivia remains the poorest country in South America after the Guyanas, in part, due to high corruption levels; furthermore, critics often point out the <!--del_lnk--> imperialist role of foreign powers in the country since the "discovery of America". The country is rich, however, in <!--del_lnk--> natural resources, and has been called a "donkey sitting on a <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mine</a>" because of this. Apart from famous mines, which were known by the <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a> and later exploited by the Spaniards, Bolivia owns the second largest <!--del_lnk--> natural gas field of South America after <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. Furthermore, <!--del_lnk--> El Mutún in the <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz department represents 70% of the world's <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>.<p>Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled <!--del_lnk--> USD $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% a year and inflation is expected to be between 3% and 4% in 2002 (it was under 1% in 2001).<p>Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past two decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in silver prices during the early 1980s which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining industries. The second major economic blow came from the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a market liberal regime in power through financial support. The third economic blow came from the U.S. sponsored eradication of the Bolivian coca crop which was used in 80% of the worlds’ cocaine production at its peak. Along with the reduction in the coca crop came a huge loss of income to the Bolivian economy, particularly the peasant classes.<p>Since 1985, the Government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. The most important structural changes in the Bolivian economy have involved the capitalization of numerous public-sector enterprises. (Capitalization in the Bolivian context is a form of privatization where investors acquire a 50% share and management control of public enterprises by agreeing to invest directly into the enterprise over several years rather than paying cash to the government).<p>Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. While the capitalization program was successful in vastly boosting foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bolivia ($1.7 billion in stock during 1996-2002), FDI flows have subsided in recent years as investors complete their capitalization contract obligations.<p>In 1996, three units of the Bolivian state oil corporation (YPFB) involved in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and transportation were capitalized, facilitating the construction of a gas pipeline to <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The Brazil pipeline carried about 12 million <!--del_lnk--> cubic metres (424 million <!--del_lnk--> cu. ft) per day in 2002. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, and its current domestic use and exports to Brazil account for just a small portion of its potential production. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. Widespread opposition to exporting gas through Chile touched off protests that led to the resignation of President Sánchez de Lozada in October 2003.<p>In April 2000, <!--del_lnk--> Bechtel signed a contract with <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Banzer, the former president of Bolivia, to privatize the water supply in Bolivia's 3rd-largest city, <!--del_lnk--> Cochabamba. The contract was officially awarded to a Bechtel subsidiary named <i>Aguas del Tunari</i>, which had been formed specifically for that purpose. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in <!--del_lnk--> protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water. <!--del_lnk--> Martial law was declared, and Bolivian police killed at least 6 people and injured over 170 protesters. Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. In 2001, Bechtel filed suit the Bolivian government for $25 million in lost profits. The continuing legal battle has attracted attention from anti-globalization and anti-capitalist groups.<p>Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. <!--del_lnk--> imports were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian <!--del_lnk--> tariffs are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade deficit was $460 million in 2002.<p>Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Andean Community and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries (<a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>.) Bolivia began to implement an association agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur (Southern Cone Common Market) in March 1997. The agreement provides for the gradual creation of a free trade area covering at least 80% of the trade between the parties over a 10-year period, though economic crises in the region have derailed progress at integration. The U.S. Andean Trade Preference and Drug Enforcement Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> free of duty on a unilateral basis, including <a href="../../wp/a/Alpaca.htm" title="Alpaca">alpaca</a> and <!--del_lnk--> llama products and, subject to a quota, <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a> <!--del_lnk--> textiles.<p>The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>, <!--del_lnk--> jewelry, and <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a> products. Its major imports from the United States are <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">vehicles</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> machinery. A Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001. <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where weather allows for two crops a year. <a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">Soybeans</a> are the major <!--del_lnk--> cash crop, sold into the <!--del_lnk--> Andean Community market. The extraction of <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and hydrocarbons accounts for another 10% of GDP and <a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> less than 17%.<p>The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign <!--del_lnk--> creditors, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development <!--del_lnk--> banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the <!--del_lnk--> Paris Club mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian Government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. Rescheduling agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled <!--del_lnk--> debt. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. Government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian Government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily debted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. Bolivia was one of three countries in the <!--del_lnk--> Western Hemisphere selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account and is participating as an observer in FTA negotiations.<p>In 2004 the government gave great importance to the development of port facilities at Puerto Busch on the Paraguay river. Further north in Puerto Suarez and Puerto Aguirre, which are connected to the Paraguay river via the <!--del_lnk--> canal tamengo, which passes through Brazil, mid-size container ships traverse. As of 2004 about half of Bolivia's exports leave via the Paraguay river. When Puerto Busch is finished, larger ocean-going ships will be able to dock in Bolivia. This will greatly increase Bolivia's competitiveness, in that they will have a reduced need for foreign ports, such as those in Peru and Chile, which adds to the price of exports and imports. Tobacco is produced by Bolivian farmers, but even more is imported to satisfy domestic demand. In 1992 Bolivia produced over 1,000 million <!--del_lnk--> tons of it.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1961.jpg.htm" title="Cristo de la Concordia in Cochabamba."><img alt="Cristo de la Concordia in Cochabamba." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cristo_de_la_Concordia_02.jpg" src="../../images/19/1961.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 30% <!--del_lnk--> Quechua-speaking and 25% <!--del_lnk--> Aymara-speaking Amerindians. The largest of the approximately three-dozen native groups are the <!--del_lnk--> Quechuas (2.5 million), <!--del_lnk--> Aymaras (2 million), then Chiquitano (180,000), and <!--del_lnk--> Guaraní (125,000). The remaining 30% is <a href="../../wp/m/Mestizo.htm" title="Mestizo">Mestizo</a> (mixed European and Amerindian), and around 15% is classified as <!--del_lnk--> white.<p>The white population consists mostly of <!--del_lnk--> criollos who consist of families of relatively unmixed Spanish ancestry, descend from the early Spanish colonists, which have formed much of the aristocracy since independence. Other smaller groups within the white population are <!--del_lnk--> Germans who founded the national airline <!--del_lnk--> Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Italian, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">American</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Basque, <!--del_lnk--> Croatian, <!--del_lnk--> Russian, <!--del_lnk--> Polish and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.<p>Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers under 0.5% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in Brazil and then migrated down south to Bolivia. They are mostly concentrated in the <!--del_lnk--> Yungas region (<!--del_lnk--> Nor Yungas and <!--del_lnk--> Sud Yungas provinces) in the <!--del_lnk--> department of La Paz, some three hours from <a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a> city. There are also <!--del_lnk--> Japanese who are concentrated mostly in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle Easterners</a> who became prosperous in commerce.<p>Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25 per <!--del_lnk--> sq. mi) in the central highlands. As of 2006, the population is increasing about 1.45% per year.<p><a href="../../wp/l/La_Paz.htm" title="La Paz">La Paz</a> is the world's highest capital city at 3,600 meters (11,800 ft.) above <!--del_lnk--> sea level. The adjacent city of <!--del_lnk--> El Alto, at 4,200 meters (13,800 ft) above sea level, is one of the fastest growing in the hemisphere. <!--del_lnk--> Santa Cruz, the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.<p>The great majority of Bolivians are <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic (the <!--del_lnk--> official religion), although <!--del_lnk--> Protestant denominations are expanding strongly. <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners is almost nonexistent. There is also a small <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> community that is almost all <!--del_lnk--> Ashkenazi in origin. More than 1% of Bolivians practice the <a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a> (giving Bolivia one of the largest percentages of Bahá'ís in the world). There are colonies of <!--del_lnk--> Mennonites in the <!--del_lnk--> department of Santa Cruz. Many Native communities interweave <!--del_lnk--> pre-Columbian and <!--del_lnk--> Christian symbols in their <!--del_lnk--> worship. About 80% of the people speak <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> as their <!--del_lnk--> first language, although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas, but according to CIA the literacy rate is 87% which is higher than Brazil’s literacy rate or other Middle Eastern countries. The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, <!--del_lnk--> ceramics, and <!--del_lnk--> weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include <!--del_lnk--> Tiawanaku, <!--del_lnk--> Samaipata, <!--del_lnk--> Incallajta, and <!--del_lnk--> Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.<p>The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and <a href="../../wp/m/Mestizo.htm" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a> builders and <!--del_lnk--> artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown <!--del_lnk--> stonecutters, <!--del_lnk--> woodcarvers, <!--del_lnk--> goldsmiths, and <!--del_lnk--> silversmiths. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.<p>Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a>. Its regional <a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk music</a> is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual <!--del_lnk--> carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at <!--del_lnk--> Tarabuco.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>Bolivian culture has many <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca">Inca</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Aymara and other native influences in religion, music and clothing. The best known fiesta is the <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO heritage "El <!--del_lnk--> carnaval de Oruro". Entertainment includes <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>, which is the national sport, and more correctly the foosball, played in many street corners by kids and adults. Zoos are a popular attraction with a diverse population of interesting creatures but with lack of proper funding.<p><a id="National_symbols" name="National_symbols"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">National symbols</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Cantuta (often spelled kantuta or qantuta) (Cantua buxifolia or Fuchsia buxifolia) is a flower found in the high valleys of the <!--del_lnk--> Yungas, and is considered the national flower of Bolivia.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia"</div>
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['SOS Children in Bolivia', 'Spanish language', 'English language', 'La Paz', 'Sucre', 'Spanish language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'Spain', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'Spanish language', 'Simón Bolívar', 'Country', 'South America', 'Brazil', 'Paraguay', 'Argentina', 'Chile', 'Peru', 'Lima', 'Silver', 'Napoleonic Wars', 'Simón Bolívar', 'Chile', 'Silver', 'Tin', 'Capitalism', 'Paraguay', 'Military dictatorship', 'Human rights', 'Petroleum', 'Cancer', 'La Paz', 'Sucre', 'La Paz', 'Ethiopia', 'Mauritania', 'Andes', 'Rainforest', 'Lake Titicaca', 'Peru', 'La Paz', 'Gold', 'Mining', 'Inca Empire', 'Venezuela', 'Iron', 'Magnesium', 'Brazil', 'South America', 'Peru', 'Ecuador', 'Colombia', 'Venezuela', 'United States', 'Alpaca', 'Cotton', 'Gold', 'Wood', 'Computer', 'Automobile', 'Wheat', 'Agriculture', 'Soybean', 'Mineral', 'Manufacturing', 'Mestizo', 'United States of America', 'La Paz', 'Middle East', 'La Paz', 'Islam', 'Jewish', "Bahá'í Faith", 'Spanish language', 'Archaeology', 'Mestizo', 'Architecture', 'Painting', 'Sculpture', 'Folklore', 'Folk music', 'Inca', 'Football (soccer)']
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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Bolivia News</dt><dd><span>17/04/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_Floods_170407.htm">Bolivia Floods Update: children still at risk</a></dd><dd><span>28/02/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_Floods_280207.htm">Bolivia Floods Update: shelter for the homeless</a></dd><dd><span>22/02/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_Floods_220207.htm">Flooding in Bolivia</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Bolivia</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_bolivia_en.gif" width="405" height="414" alt="Sponsorship sites in Bolivia" class="left" /><p>Landlocked in the centre of South America between Chile, Peru and Brazil, Bolivia is dominated by the Andes Mountains which make vast areas of the country inaccessible. </p><p>Bolivia is the poorest country in South America. Stagnating agriculture, declining industrial production, rising unemployment, high inflation and massive foreign debts are the main features of the economic situation. Since early colonial times, mining for precious minerals and metal ores has been an important part of Bolivia's economy but the collapse of tin prices in 1985 had a devastating effect on the economy and the lives of the people, while the growth in the production and trade of illicit drugs has heightened social tension and violence. </p><p>Around 40 per cent of the population still live in rural areas and are employed in agriculture which suffers from antiquated methods and inadequate transportation. Health conditions are poor. The infant mortality rate is among the highest in South America with one in ten children dying before their fifth birthday. Malaria, dysentery and TB are common. Medical services and hospitals are inadequate, particularly in rural areas.</p><img src="../../wp/m/Mother_With_Child_SC_Sucre.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="SOS Children's Villages Bolivia" class="right" /><p>The charity began its work in Bolivia in 1968, when the first SOS Children's community was established in the centre of Cochabamba, Bolivia's second largest city. </p><p>SOS Children's Villages began its work in Bolivia in 1968. Today there are nine SOS Children's Villages providing family homes for over 1000 children. In addition there are 32 projects attached to the villages providing education, social and medical care for children and their families in the local communities.<br /> </p><p>El Alto was opened in 2003. It is situated on the outskirts of La Paz, the administrative capital of Bolivia. It has 12 family houses and a kindergarten.</p><p>Jordan is on the outskirts of Cochabamba, Bolivia’s third largest city. The SOS Children's Village began life as an orphanage run by an order of nuns and was converted in 1968 into an SOS Children's Village. The first in Bolivia. Today it has 10 family houses, a kindergarten and a vocational training centre.</p><p>Mallasa is on the outskirts of La Paz and has 12 family houses, a primary school and two vocational training centres - sewing and embroidery workshops, a cabinet-maker's shop and electrical, mechanical and printing workshops. </p><p>Oruro is about 140 miles south of La Paz in what was once a prosperous mining area and is now an area of great poverty. The village consists of 12 family houses, a kindergarten and two social centres.</p><p>Potosi is about 340 miles south of La Paz and, at over 13,000 feet above sea level, is one of the highest cities in the world. It was one of the richest cities in the world, its fortune based on silver mining, but it is now an area of high unemployment and poverty with children begging on the streets a part of everyday life. The village has 12 family houses, a kindergarten and two social centres.</p><p>Santa Cruz is in the eastern central plains of Bolivia and has important road and rail links with Brazil and Argentina. The village consists of 12 family houses, a kindergarten, a primary school and two social centres.</p><p>Sucre is the official capital of Bolivia and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 because of its history and its architecture. The SOS Children's Village has 12 family homes, a kindergarten and two medical centres.</p><p>Tarija in the south of the country near the border with Argentina is the centre of the Bolivian wine trade. The SOS Children's Village has 12 family homes, a kindergarten, a day-care centre and a medical centre.</p><p>Tiquipaya is on the outskirts of Cochabamba and has 10 family houses, a kindergarten, vocational training centre, and a social centre. </p><p>As well as the children's villages, there is a wide range of associated SOS facilities in Bolivia helping local communities. The SOS Children's Village Tiquipaya has an SOS Social Centre which provides day-care facilities for working couples and single mothers, as well as basic health care for low income families in the neighbourhood. Paediatric, dental and gynaecological treatment are available as well as emergency first aid and counselling. There are eleven similar SOS Social Centres throughout Bolivia. </p><p>To counteract the high rate of illiteracy, two SOS Schools and five SOS Vocational Training Centres have been established, all of which are open to children and young people from both SOS Children's Villages and local communities. The centre at La Paz has sewing and embroidery workshops, a cabinet-maker's shop and electrical, mechanical and printing workshops. </p><p>Following the earthquake which struck Bolivia in 1998, SOS Children established an emergency relief programme providing food, medical care and shelter, as well as temporary accommodation for over 500 children separated from their families in the disaster.</p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<img src="../../wp/c/Children_At_Cochabamba_Bolivia.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="SOS Children in Bolivia" class="right" /><p>SOS Children in Bolivia:<br />Asociación Nacional de Aldeas Infantiles SOS Bolivia<br />Calle Mendez Arcos 776<br />Casilla 14322<br />La Paz<br />Bolivia<br />Tel: +591/2/24 11 334 (24 12 343)<br />Fax: + 591/2/24 14 581<br />e-mail: [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Bolivia Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
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<div id="bread"><a href="../../wp/c/Children_Charity.htm">Charity Home</a> > <a href="../../wp/c/Charity_News.htm">SOS News</a> > <strong>Bolivia Floods Update: children still at risk</strong></div>
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<h2>Bolivia Floods Update: children still at risk</h2><p><strong>17/04/2007</strong></p>
<p>Two months on, the disastrous floods that hit Bolivia's Amazon plain continue to hamper daily life in one of Latin America’s poorest countries. Roughly 400,000 people have been affected by the worst floods in Bolivia in 25 years, with many having lost their possessions. In Trinidad, the capital of the Beni district, an estimated 40% of the flood-hit victims are children under the age of 12*. Most of these children are still living in unhygienic makeshift shelters alongside the motorways, or in provisional shelters set up in public schools.</p><img src="../../wp/e/Emergency_relief_Bolivia.jpg" width="410" height="271" alt="Providing emergency supplies to families in Bolivia" class="right" /><p>Children and their families still require aid and the longer they continue living in such devastating conditions, the greater the risk of family disintegration. SOS Children continues to provide support in the Santa Cruz and Beni districts under the motto "families help families" and has also set up a day-care centre for children from the most badly affected families in Trinidad.</p><p>Around 120 children under the age of ten are currently being looked after in this day-care programme, which includes health services, four nutritious meals a day as well as educational and recreational activities. The centre is open ten hours a day and is run by fourteen members of SOS Children staff and two facilitators from the local prefecture.</p><p>"The day-care centre is providing assistance to children from 480 of the worst-affected families. These are families with working parents who have no one to care for their children during the day, as well as large families with many small children," said Guido Pecho, director of the SOS Children's Village in Santa Cruz. He added that a second day-care centre will be opened shortly in Trinidad.</p><p>In close cooperation with local authorities, SOS Children has also been providing emergency parcels to families most in need of support in the Beni district. These parcels include oil, milk, rice, cereals, noodles, beans and canned goods, as well as hygiene items, medicine and school books.</p><p>Fortunately SOS Children’s already established projects in the flood-hit districts of Santa Cruz were largely unscathed by the natural disaster and all continue to operate normally.</p><p>*Figures from UNICEF</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_A.htm">Bolivia</a>.</p>
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<h2>Flooding in Bolivia</h2><p><strong>22/02/2007</strong></p>
<p>Heavy rainfall in much of Bolivia has caused chaos in recent months and current flooding in the east and northeast of the country has affected up to 68,000 families in the rural regions of Santa Cruz and Beni districts.</p><img src="../../wp/s/Schoolgirl_Bolivia.jpg" width="432" height="288" alt="Schoolgirl in Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Benno Neeleman)" class="left" /><p>Local authorities have therefore evacuated families from the most-affected areas and relocated them to temporary camps. Together with other humanitarian organisations and the local authorities, SOS Children's Villages is monitoring the situation, particularly the welfare of children affected by the latest natural disaster. Over the next few days, SOS Children's Villages will provide the most vulnerable children with basic relief items and endeavour to provide proper shelter.</p><p>The SOS Children's Village, social centre and school in Santa Cruz have avoided the worst of the flooding. But families benefitting from the SOS family strengthening programme as well as those who attend events organised in the local SOS community centres have had difficulties reaching the centres, as public transportation was partially halted.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_A.htm">Bolivia</a>.</p>
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<h2>Bolivia Floods Update: shelter for the homeless</h2><p><strong>28/02/2007</strong></p>
<p>The devastating floods continue to cause devastation and mayhem in much of Bolivia, with almost 70,000 families falling victim to the effects of "El Niño". The climate phenomenon of heavy rainfalls and floods has meant thousands of children and their families have had to flee their homes and are at severe risk of disease. </p><p>Months of heavy rain have affected the whole of the Latin American country, although the rural districts of Santa Cruz and Beni have been most severely hit, with 17,000 families and almost 13,000 children affected. </p><p>Alfonso Lupo, National Director of SOS Children's Villages in Bolivia, has said that the charity is currently undertaking emergency relief efforts in conjunction with other local organisations, focussing efforts on the affected districts of Santa Cruz and Beni.</p><img src="../../wp/b/Bolivia_floods_feb07.jpg" width="360" height="319" alt="Families affected by flooding in Santa Cruz, Bolivia" class="left" /><p>In Santa Cruz, where the authorities took the decision to evacuate families from severely affected areas, families are currently being sheltered in emergency camps, where they receive blankets, food, medical assistance and wherever possible, school lessons are continuing. </p><p>SOS Children has so far prepared 500 emergency parcels to provide families with necessary rations, including foodstuffs, kitchen utensils, candles, matches, and medicines. New shelters continue to be established and SOS Children is in the process of setting up child care services to provide support to up to 450 children affected by the floods. </p><p>The main SOS Children programmes in Santa Cruz have been largely unaffected by the flooding, however several community homes run by the charity’s SOS Social Centre in the city, and are located in the poverty belt of the city, have been badly affected. Public transport and movements in these areas have been severely restricted. Nonetheless, SOS staff continue to offer support to children and families from the surrounding neighbourhoods. </p><p>The unusual weather has left many more families and children homeless and in extremely difficult living situations. </p><p>More news is expected in the coming days.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia_A.htm">Bolivia</a>.</p>
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Bologna
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bologna</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2"><big>Comune di Bologna</big></th>
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<th colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23822.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Comune di Bologna"><img alt="Coat of arms of Comune di Bologna" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bologna-Stemma.png" src="../../images/238/23822.png" width="88" /></a><br /> Municipal coat of arms</th>
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<td><b>Country</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Region</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Emilia-Romagna</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Province</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bologna (BO)</td>
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<td><b>Mayor</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sergio Cofferati</td>
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</td>
<td>
</td>
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<td><b>Elevation</b></td>
<td>54 m</td>
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<td><b>Area</b></td>
<td>140 km²</td>
</tr>
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<td><b>Population</b></td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> - Total (as of <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2004)</td>
<td>374,425</td>
</tr>
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<td> - Density</td>
<td>2,643/km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Time zone</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CET, <!--del_lnk--> UTC+1</td>
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<td><b>Coordinates</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 44°30′N 11°21′E</span></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Gentilic</b></td>
<td>Bolognesi</td>
</tr>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Dialing code</b></td>
<td>051</td>
</tr>
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<td><b>Postal code</b></td>
<td>40100</td>
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<td>
</td>
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</td>
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<td><b>Patron</b></td>
<td>St. Petronius</td>
</tr>
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<td> - Day</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 4</td>
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<div style="width:211px; background:transparent">
<div style="position:relative; width:211px"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/674.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="283" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Italy_Regions_220px_%28including_Pelagie_Islands%29.png" src="../../images/6/674.png" width="211" /></a><br />
<div style="position:absolute;z-index:200; top:24.1%; left:40.1%; height:0; width:0; margin:0; padding:0;">
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<br /> Location of Bologna in Italy</div>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><small><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.comune.bologna.it</small></td>
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<p><b>Bologna</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[boˈloɲa]</span>, from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>Bononia</i>, <i>Bulåggna</i> in the local dialect) is the capital city of <!--del_lnk--> Emilia-Romagna in northern <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, in the <!--del_lnk--> Pianura Padana, between the <!--del_lnk--> Po River and the <!--del_lnk--> Apennines, exactly, between <!--del_lnk--> Reno River and Sàvena River.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23825.jpg.htm" title="The centre of the city."><img alt="The centre of the city." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BO-Panorama.jpg" src="../../images/238/23825.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23825.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The centre of the city.</div>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bologna was founded by the <!--del_lnk--> Etruscans with the name <i>Felsina</i> (ca. <!--del_lnk--> 534 BCE) in an area previously inhabited by the <!--del_lnk--> villanovians, a people of farmers and shepherds. The Etruscan city grew around a sanctuary built on a hill, and was surrounded by a necropolis.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 4th century BC the city was conquered by the Boii, a Gallic tribe, whence the ancient name <i>Bononia</i> of the Roman colony founded in c.189 BC. The settlers included 3,000 Latin families led by the consuls Lucius Valerius Flaccus, Marcus Atilius Seranus and Lucius Valerius Tappo. The building of the <!--del_lnk--> Via Aemilia in 187 BC made Bologna a road hub, connected to <!--del_lnk--> Arezzo through the <i>Via Flaminia minor</i> and to <!--del_lnk--> Aquileia through the <i>Via Aemilia Altinate</i>.<p>In 88 BC the city became a municipium: it had a rectilinear street plan with six <i>cardi</i> and eight <i>decumani</i> (intersecting streets) which are still discernible today. During the Roman era, its population varied between c.12,000 to c.30,000. At its peak, it was the 2nd city of Italy, and one of the most important of all the Empire) with various temples and baths, a theatre, and one arena. <!--del_lnk--> Pomponius Mela included <i>Bononia</i> among the five <i>opulentissimae</i> ("richest") cities of Italy. The city was rebuilt by the Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Nero after a fire.<p>After a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under bishop <!--del_lnk--> Petronius, who traditionally built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>, Bologna was a frontier stronghold of the <!--del_lnk--> Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain, and was defended by a line of walls which however did not enclose most of the ancient ruined Roman city. In 728, the city was conquered by the <!--del_lnk--> Lombard king <!--del_lnk--> Liutprand, becoming part of the Lombard Kingdom. The German newcomers formed a district called "addizione longobarda" near the complex of S. Stefano, where <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> stayed in 786.<p>In the 11th century Bologna began to grow again as a free <a href="../../wp/m/Medieval_commune.htm" title="Medieval commune">Commune</a>, joining the <!--del_lnk--> Lombard League against <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Barbarossa in 1164. In 1088 the <!--del_lnk--> <i>Studio</i> was founded, now the oldest university of Europe, which could boast notable scholars of the Middle Ages like <!--del_lnk--> Irnerius, and, amongst its students, <a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Boccaccio and <!--del_lnk--> Petrarca. In the <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> the expanding city needed a new line of walls, and another was completed in the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a>.<p>In 1256 Bologna promulgated the <i>Legge del Paradiso</i> ("Paradise Law"), which abolished feudal serfdom and freed the slaves using public money. At that time the city centre was full of towers (perhaps 180) built by the leading families, of notable public edifices, churches and abbeys. In 1294 Bologna was perhaps the 5th or the 6th city in Europe, after <!--del_lnk--> Cordoba, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Venice, <!--del_lnk--> Florence, and, probably, <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, with 60,000 - 70,000 inhabitants.<p>Like most Italian communes of that age, Bologna was torn by internal struggles, which lead to the expulsion of the <!--del_lnk--> Ghibelline family of Lambertazzi in <!--del_lnk--> 1274. After being crushed in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Zappolino by the <!--del_lnk--> Modenese in <!--del_lnk--> 1325, Bologna began to decay and asked the protection of the <!--del_lnk--> Pope at the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1348, during the terrible European pestilence, about 30,000 inhabitants died.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23826.jpg.htm" title="A grosh of the Bentivoglio period (15th century)."><img alt="A grosh of the Bentivoglio period (15th century)." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grossone_Bentivoglio.jpg" src="../../images/238/23826.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23826.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> grosh of the Bentivoglio period (15th century).</div>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23827.jpg.htm" title="The famous "Two Towers" of Bologna."><img alt="The famous "Two Towers" of Bologna." height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2tours_bologne_082005.jpg" src="../../images/238/23827.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23827.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The famous "Two Towers" of Bologna.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23828.jpg.htm" title="Torre degli Asinelli."><img alt="Torre degli Asinelli." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bolonia_1.jpg" src="../../images/238/23828.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23828.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Torre degli Asinelli.</div>
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<p>After the happy years of the rule of <!--del_lnk--> Taddeo Pepoli (<!--del_lnk--> 1337-<!--del_lnk--> 1347), Bologna fell to the <!--del_lnk--> Visconti of <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, but returned to the <!--del_lnk--> Papal orbit with Cardinal <!--del_lnk--> Gil de Albornoz in <!--del_lnk--> 1360. The following years saw an alternation of Republican governments (like that of <!--del_lnk--> 1377, which built the <!--del_lnk--> Basilica di San Petronio and the Loggia dei Mercanti) and Papal or Visconti restorations, while the city's families engaged in continual internecine fighting. In the middle of the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a> the <!--del_lnk--> Bentivoglio family gained the rule of Bologna, reigning with <!--del_lnk--> Sante (<!--del_lnk--> 1445-<!--del_lnk--> 1462) and <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni II (<!--del_lnk--> 1462-<!--del_lnk--> 1506). This period was a flourishing one for the city, with the presence of notable architects and painters who made Bologna a true city.<p>During the Renaissance, Bologna was the only Italian city that allowed women to excel in any profession. Women there had much more freedom than in other Italian cities. Some even had the opportunity to earn a degree at university.<p>Giovanni's reign ended in <!--del_lnk--> 1506 when the Papal troops of <!--del_lnk--> Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace. From that point on, until the <!--del_lnk--> XVIII century, Bologna was part of the Papal States, ruled by a <i>cardinal legato</i> and by a Senate which every two months elected a <i>gonfaloniere</i> (judge), assisted by eight elder consuls. The city's prosperity continued, although a plague at the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a> reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, and another in <!--del_lnk--> 1630 to 47,000. The population later recovered to a stable 60,000-65,000. In <!--del_lnk--> 1564 the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the seat of the University. The period of Papal rule saw the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the renovation of older ones. The 96 convents of Bologna are a record for Italy. Artists working in this age in Bologna established the <!--del_lnk--> Bolognese School that includes <!--del_lnk--> Annibale Carracci, <!--del_lnk--> Domenichino, <!--del_lnk--> Guercino and others of European fame.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23829.jpg.htm" title="Palace of King Enzio."><img alt="Palace of King Enzio." height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BO-pal-reenzo.jpg" src="../../images/238/23829.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23829.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Palace of King <!--del_lnk--> Enzio.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23830.jpg.htm" title="Piazza Nettuno, and behind Piazza Maggiore."><img alt="Piazza Nettuno, and behind Piazza Maggiore." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Piazza_Maggiore.jpg" src="../../images/238/23830.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23830.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Piazza Nettuno, and behind <!--del_lnk--> Piazza Maggiore.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23831.jpg.htm" title="Portico."><img alt="Portico." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bolonia_3.jpg" src="../../images/238/23831.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23831.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Portico.</div>
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<p>With the rise of <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> Bologna became the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Repubblica Cispadana and, later, the second most important centre after <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> Repubblica Cisalpina and the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Kingdom. After the fall of Napoleon, Bologna suffered the Papal restoration, rebelling in <!--del_lnk--> 1831 and again <!--del_lnk--> 1849, when it temporarily expelled the <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> garrisons which commanded the city until <!--del_lnk--> 1860. After a visit by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Pius IX in <!--del_lnk--> 1857, the city voted for annexation to the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Sardinia on <!--del_lnk--> June 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1859, becoming part of the <!--del_lnk--> united Italy.<p>In the new political situation Bologna gained importance for its cultural role and became an important commercial, industrial and communications hub; its population began to grow again and at the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> the old walls were destroyed (except few parts) in order to build new houses for the population.<p>Though damaged during the closing battles of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Bologna soon recovered and is now one of the richest, most civil and well-planned cities of Italy.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1980 a massive bomb killed 86 people in the central train station in the city (see <!--del_lnk--> Bologna massacre). Only two month previously <!--del_lnk--> Aerolinee Itavia Flight 870 crashed in suspicious circumstances enroute from Bologna to <!--del_lnk--> Palermo killing 81 people. The official verdict, released only in 1999 was that the plane was shot down accidentally by <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a> forces. <!--del_lnk--> (Guardian)<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Bologna is the first railway and motorway hub in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>; its Fiera District (exhibitions) is the 2nd in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> and the 4th in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, with important international exhibitions, like Motorshow (cars, motor-cycles, considered the most important in all the world), Saie, Saiedue and Cersaie (buildings), Cosmoprof (beauty culture, considered the most important in all the World), Lineapelle, etc. Bologna and its metropolitan area has important industries (mechanics, foods, electronics), has very important retail and wholesale trade (the "Centergross" in the northern metropolitan area, built in 1973, was the biggest in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> until few years ago), and has the first Italian vegetable and fruit market. Bologna also has important monuments, museums, and rich cultural life.<p><a id="Importance" name="Importance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Importance</span></h2>
<p>The importance of Bologna in Italy and in Europe, considered from the points of view of culture, industry, trade, social, political, economy, etc., is much greater than suggested by its demographic data: about 400,000 inhabitants in the city, about 1 million in the metropolitan area, including over 100,000 students of the ancient and renowned <!--del_lnk--> University of Bologna, founded in the <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a>.<p><a id="Main_sights" name="Main_sights"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Main sights</span></h2>
<p>Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban reconstruction project was undertaken, Bologna remained one of the best-preserved Medieval cities in Europe, though to this day it remains unique in its historic value. Despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's historic centre, Europe's 2nd largest (after <!--del_lnk--> Venice), contains a wealth of Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque artistic monuments of primary importance.<p>Bologna developed as an Etruscan, then Roman colony along the Via Emilia, the street that still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the most central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement.<p>The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. Over twenty medieval defensive towers, some of them leaning precariously, remain from the over two hundred that were constructed in the era preceding the security guaranteed by unified civic government.<p>Bologna is home to numerous important churches. An incomplete list include:<ul>
<li>the basilica of <!--del_lnk--> San Petronio, one of the biggest in the World<li><!--del_lnk--> San Pietro Cathedral<li><!--del_lnk--> Santo Stefano basilica and sanctuary<li><!--del_lnk--> San Domenico basilica and sanctuary<li><!--del_lnk--> San Francesco basilica<li><!--del_lnk--> Santa Maria dei Servi basilica<li><!--del_lnk--> San Giacomo Maggiore basilica<li><!--del_lnk--> Beata Vergine di San Luca basilica and sanctuary, on Colle della Guardia<li><!--del_lnk--> San Michele in Bosco<li><!--del_lnk--> San Paolo the Great, basilica</ul>
<p>The cityscape is further enriched by elegant and extensive arcades (or porticos), for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres of arcades in the city's historical centre (over 45 km in the cityproper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from rain, snow, or hot summer sun. The Portico of San Luca, the longest in the World (3,5 km, 666 arcades) connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve Gates of the ancient Walls built in the Middle-Age which rounded the city on 7,5 km) with San Luca Sanctuary, on Colle della Guardia, over the city (289 m/o.l.s.).<p>The Sanctuary of the <!--del_lnk--> Madonna di San Luca is a very notable site, located just outside the main city on the Colle della Guardia (<i>Guard Hill</i>). Built in the 11th century and much enlarged in 14th and 18th centuries. The interior contains works of different masters but probably the most important is the painting of the Madonna with Child attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Luke the Evangelist. The best way to visit this Sanctuary is by foot as you can walk under the portico mentioned above.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p>Over the centuries, Bologna has acquired many nicknames: "Bologna the learned one" (<i>Bologna la dotta</i>) is a reference to its famous university; "Bologna the fat one" (<i>Bologna la grassa</i>) refers to its cuisine.<p>"Bologna the red one" has also been said to refer to the city's left-leaning politics. Until the election of a centre-right mayor in 1999, the city was a historic bastion of <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>. The centre-left gained power again in the 2004 mayoral elections, with the election of Sergio Cofferati. It was one of the first European settlements to experiment with the concept of "free" public transport.<p>Another nickname for Bologna is <i>Basket City</i>, referring to Bologna's obsession with <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, unusual in <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>-dominated Italy. The <!--del_lnk--> local derby between the city's two principal basketball clubs, <!--del_lnk--> Fortitudo and <!--del_lnk--> Virtus (often called after the clubs' principal sponsors), is intense. Violence, however, has been largely absent in the derby.<p><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a> is still a popular sport in Bologna; the main local club is <!--del_lnk--> Bologna F.C. 1909, which was relegated to <!--del_lnk--> Serie B at the end of the 2004/2005 season.<p>The city of Bologna was appointed a UNESCO City of Music on 29 May 2006. According to UNESCO "As the first Italian city to be appointed to the Network, Bologna has demonstrated a rich musical tradition that is continuing to evolve as a vibrant factor of contemporary life and creation. It has also shown a strong commitment to promoting music as an important vehicle for inclusion in the fight against racism and in an effort to encourage economic and social development. Fostering a wide range of genres from classical to electronic, jazz, folk and opera, Bologna offers its citizens a musical vitality that deeply infiltrates the city’s professional, academic, social and cultural facets". <p><a id="Transport_2" name="Transport_2"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Bologna is home to <!--del_lnk--> Guglielmo Marconi International Airport, expanded in 2004 by extending the runway to accommodate larger aircraft: it is the fifth busiest Italian airport for passenger traffic (about 3,6 million/year). Since 2004, is the third busiest for intercontinental flights.<p><!--del_lnk--> Bologna Central Station is considered the most important train hub in Italy thanks to the city's strategic location. Also, its goods-station (San Donato) with its 33 railway tracks, is the largest in Italy in size and traffic and is one of the biggest in Europe. Bologna's station holds a memory in Italian public consciousness for the huge terrorist bomb attack that killed 85 victims in August <!--del_lnk--> 1980. The attack is also known in Italy as the <!--del_lnk--> Strage di Bologna, the <i>Bologna massacre</i>. It is widely believed the bomb was planted by neo-fascist activists - possibly to stir public opinion against Italian communists.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>As of 2004, the greater Bologna area had a resident population of 943,983, of which 94.09% were ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Italians. Immigrants in the city constitute 5.91% of the population. Of the 55,840 immigrants in Bologna, Europeans other than Italian origins slimly outnumber those from the <!--del_lnk--> African continent. They number 19,668 and are chiefly of <!--del_lnk--> Romanian, <!--del_lnk--> Albanian, and <!--del_lnk--> Ukrainian origins. Closely following, Africans number 19,060, but are almost entirely <!--del_lnk--> North African <!--del_lnk--> Arab rather sub-saharan blacks. A recent and growing Asian population number 14,119 and are mostly <!--del_lnk--> Filipino, and <!--del_lnk--> Chinese. The remaining consists of immigrants from the Americas and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. While ageing continues to be a factor in the city's population, the number of births has risen in the past decade, contributing to the positive growth of the city.<dl>
<dt>Age profile</dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> <ul>
<li>00 - 14 (108,422) = 11.48%<li>15 - 64 (615,488) = 61.59<li>65+ (220,113) = 23.31%</ul>
<p><a id="Cuisine" name="Cuisine"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cuisine</span></h2>
<p>Bologna is renowned for its culinary tradition and it is regarded by some as the food capital of Italy. It has given its name to <!--del_lnk--> Bolognese sauce, a meat based pasta sauce called in Italy <i><!--del_lnk--> ragù alla bolognese</i> but in the City itself just <i>ragù</i> alone as in <i><!--del_lnk--> Tagliatelle al ragù</i> . Bologna is also influenced by Milanese cuisine as its specialities include <!--del_lnk--> risotto, however one is hard pressed to find bread that is neither stale nor made from finely ground bleached flour.<p>Situated in the fertile Po River Valley, the rich local cuisine depends heavily on meats and cheeses. As in all of Emilia-Romagna, the production of cured <!--del_lnk--> pork meats such as <!--del_lnk--> prosciutto, <!--del_lnk--> mortadella and <!--del_lnk--> salame is an important part of the local food industry. Well-regarded nearby vineyards include Pignoletto dei Colli Bolognesi, Lambrusco di Modena and Sangiovese di Romagna.<p><!--del_lnk--> Tagliatelle al ragù, <!--del_lnk--> tortellini served in broth and <!--del_lnk--> mortadella (the original Bologna sausage) are among the local specialties.<p><a id="University" name="University"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">University</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest existing university in Europe, and was an important centre of European intellectual life during the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, attracting scholars from throughout <!--del_lnk--> Christendom. A unique heritage of medieval art, exemplified by the illuminated manuscripts and jurists' tombs produced in the city from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, provide a cultural backdrop to the renown of the medieval institution. The Studium, as it was originally known, began as a loosely organized teaching system with each master collecting fees from students on an individual basis. The location of the early University was thus spread throughout the city, with various colleges being founded to support students of a specific nationality.<p>In the Napoleonic era, the headquarters of the university were moved to their present location on Via Zamboni (formerly Via San Donato), in the north-eastern sector of the city centre. Today, the University's 23 faculties, 68 departments, and 93 libraries are spread across the city and include four subsidiary campuses in nearby <!--del_lnk--> Cesena, <!--del_lnk--> Forlì, <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna, and <!--del_lnk--> Rimini. Noteworthy students present at the university in centuries past included <a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Petrarch, <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Becket.htm" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Nicholas V, <!--del_lnk--> Erasmus of Rotterdam, and <a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Laura Bassi, appointed in 1732, became the first woman to officially teach at a college in Europe. In more recent history, <!--del_lnk--> Luigi Galvani, the discoverer of <!--del_lnk--> biological electricity, and <a href="../../wp/g/Guglielmo_Marconi.htm" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a>, the pioneer of radio technology, also worked at the University. The University of Bologna remains one of the most respected and dynamic post-secondary educational institutions in Italy. To this day, Bologna is still very much a university town, and the city's population swells from 400,000 to over 500,000 whenever classes are in session. This community includes a great number of Erasmus, Socrates, and overseas students. Several American Colleges and Universities, such as <!--del_lnk--> Brown University, <!--del_lnk--> Dickinson College and <!--del_lnk--> University of California, sponsor exchange programs. There is also a consortium of several universities, the <!--del_lnk--> Bologna Cooperative Studies Program, that is headed by <!--del_lnk--> Indiana University. The <!--del_lnk--> University of Denver also has an embedded study abroad program in Bologna, in coordination with the Centre for Civic Engagement. In addition the <!--del_lnk--> Johns Hopkins University <!--del_lnk--> School of Advanced International Studies maintains a permanent campus in the city.<p>Nowadays, the University of Bologna controls 23 faculties: Agricultural sciences; Industrial Chemistry; Economics; Pharmacy; Law; Engineering; Literature and philosophy; Foreign languages and literatures; Medicine and surgery; Veterinary medicine; Sciences of education; Mathematics, physics and natural sciences; Sciences of physical education; Political Sciences; Statistics. Only in <!--del_lnk--> Cesena: Architecture; Psychology. Only in <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna: Conservation of cultural heritage.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23832.jpg.htm" title="San Petronio."><img alt="San Petronio." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bologna_italy_duomo_from_Asinelli.JPG" src="../../images/238/23832.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23832.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> San Petronio.</div>
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<p><a id="Famous_natives_of_Bologna_and_environs" name="Famous_natives_of_Bologna_and_environs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous natives of Bologna and environs</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Pupi Avati (director, born 1938)<li><!--del_lnk--> Adriano Banchieri (composer, 1568 – 1634)<li><!--del_lnk--> Laura Bassi (scientist, first female appointed to university chair in Europe, 1711 – 1788)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ugo Bassi (Italian nationalist hero, executed for role in 1848 uprisings, 1800 - 1849)<li><!--del_lnk--> Stefano Benni (writer, born 1947)<li><!--del_lnk--> Benedict XIV (Prospero Lambertini, Pope 1740-58)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giovanni II Bentivoglio (1443-1508)<li><!--del_lnk--> Annibale Carracci (painter, 1560 – 1609)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lodovico Carracci (painter, 1555 – 1619)<li><!--del_lnk--> Agostino Carracci (painter, 1557 – 1602)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierluigi Collina (football referee, born 1960)<li><!--del_lnk--> Scipione del Ferro (mathematician, solved the <!--del_lnk--> cubic equation, 1465 – 1526)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucio Dalla (singer-songwriter, born 1943)<li><!--del_lnk--> Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri, painter, 1581 - 1641)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gianfranco Fini (politician, born 1952)<li><!--del_lnk--> Luigi Galvani (scientist, discoverer of <!--del_lnk--> bioelectricity, 1737 – 1798)<li><!--del_lnk--> Serena Grandi (actress, born 1958)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni, Pope 1572-85, instituted <!--del_lnk--> Gregorian Calendar)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gregory XV (Alessandro Ludovisi, Pope 1621-3)<li><!--del_lnk--> Il Guercino (Giovanni Barbieri, painter, 1591 - 1666)<li><!--del_lnk--> Irnerius (jurist, c.1050 - at least 1125)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucius II (Gherardo Caccianemici dell'Orso, Pope 1144-5)<li><a href="../../wp/g/Guglielmo_Marconi.htm" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> (engineer, pioneer of <!--del_lnk--> wireless telegraphy, <!--del_lnk--> Nobel prize for Physics, 1874 - 1937)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Mezzofanti (cardinal and linguist, 1774 - 1839)<li><!--del_lnk--> Marco Minghetti (economist and statesman, 1818 - 1886)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giorgio Morandi (painter, 1890 - 1964)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gianni Morandi (singer, born 1944)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pier Paolo Pasolini (writer, poet, director, 1922 - 1975)<li><!--del_lnk--> Romano Prodi (Italian prime minister and academic, born 1939)<li><!--del_lnk--> Roberto Regazzi (luthier, born 1956)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guido Reni (painter, 1575 - 1642)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ottorino Respighi (composer, 1879 - 1936)<li><!--del_lnk--> Augusto Righi (physicist, authority on <!--del_lnk--> electromagnetism, 1850 - 1920)<li><!--del_lnk--> Fabio Sassi (artist, born 1955)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alberto Tomba (skier, born 1966)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ondina Valla (first Italian woman Olympic gold medalist, 1916 - 2006)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mariele Ventre (teacher and educator, founder of <!--del_lnk--> Piccolo Coro dell' Antoniano choir, 1939 - 1995)<li><!--del_lnk--> Christian Vieri (footballer, born 1973)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alex Zanardi (race car driver, born 1966)</ul>
<p>In addition to the above natives, the following became associated with Bologna by long-term residence:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Giosuè Carducci (poet and academic, Nobel Prize for Literature, born near Lucca, Tuscany, 1835 - 1907)<li><!--del_lnk--> Umberto Eco (writer and academic, born at Alessandria, Piedmont, 1932)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Pascoli (poet and academic, born at San Mauro di Romagna, 1855 - 1912)<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Petronius (San Petronio, bishop of Bologna and patron saint of the city, birthplace unknown, died c. 450 AD)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gioacchino Rossini (opera composer, born in Pesaro, 1792 - 1868)</ul>
<p><a id="Famous_companies" name="Famous_companies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous companies</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ducati Motor Holding (motorcycles)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lamborghini (cars)<li><!--del_lnk--> Maserati (cars, now seats in Modena)<li><!--del_lnk--> Omas (luxury fountain pen, now owned by French Luxury Group LVMH)<li>A number of prominent co-operative enterprises, including Coop, the leading Italian retailing chain.</ul>
<p><a id="Twin_cities" name="Twin_cities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Twin cities</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Coventry.htm" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, since 1984<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/745.png.htm" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg" src="../../images/7/745.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kharkov, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, since 1966<li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> La Plata, <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, since 1988<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Leipzig, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, since 1962<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> St. Louis, Missouri, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, since 1987<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Portland, Oregon, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, since 2003<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/790.png.htm" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg" src="../../images/7/790.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Thessaloniki, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>, since 1981<li><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2209.png.htm" title="Nicaragua"><img alt="Nicaragua" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg" src="../../images/22/2209.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> San Carlos, <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, since 1988<li><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1045.png.htm" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Senegal.svg" src="../../images/10/1045.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Louis, Senegal, since 1991<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Toulouse, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, since 1981<li><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2014.png.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina"><img alt="Bosnia and Herzegovina" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg" src="../../images/20/2014.png" width="22" /></a> - <!--del_lnk--> Tuzla, <!--del_lnk--> Bosnia and Hercegovina, since 1994<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Valencia, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, since 1976<li><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2013.png.htm" title="Croatia"><img alt="Croatia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Croatia.svg" src="../../images/20/2013.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Zagreb, <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, since 1963</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna"</div>
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['Italy', 'Latin', 'Italy', 'Rome', 'Charlemagne', 'Medieval commune', 'Dante Alighieri', '12th century', '14th century', 'Paris', 'Milan', '14th century', 'Milan', '15th century', '16th century', 'Napoleon', 'Milan', 'Austria', '20th century', 'World War II', 'NATO', 'Italy', 'Italy', 'Europe', 'Europe', '11th century', 'Socialism', 'Communism', 'Basketball', 'Football (soccer)', 'Football (soccer)', 'Middle East', 'Middle Ages', 'Dante Alighieri', 'Thomas Becket', 'Nicolaus Copernicus', 'Guglielmo Marconi', 'Guglielmo Marconi', 'Coventry', 'United Kingdom', 'Ukraine', 'Argentina', 'Germany', 'United States', 'United States', 'Greece', 'Nicaragua', 'France', 'Spain', 'Croatia']
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Boltysh_crater
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17067.png.htm" title="Location of the Boltysh Crater"><img alt="Location of the Boltysh Crater" height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boltysh_crater_location_map.png" src="../../images/170/17067.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17067.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Location of the Boltysh Crater</div>
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<p>The <b>Boltysh Crater</b> is an <!--del_lnk--> impact <!--del_lnk--> crater (<!--del_lnk--> astrobleme) in <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. It is 24 <!--del_lnk--> km in <!--del_lnk--> diameter and its age is estimated to be 65.17±0.64 <!--del_lnk--> million <!--del_lnk--> years. This age is almost exactly the same as that of the <!--del_lnk--> Chicxulub Crater in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> KT boundary. The Chicxulub impact is believed to have caused the <!--del_lnk--> mass extinction at the end of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> era, which included the extinction of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>.<p>As well as Boltysh, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Silverpit crater and several other craters around the world have estimated ages of about 65 million years, leading to the suggestion that the Earth was struck by multiple impactors at that time. The collision of <a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9.htm" title="Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</a> with <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter in <!--del_lnk--> 1994 showed that such multiple impacts over a few days are possible.<p>
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<p>The Boltysh Crater is located in central Ukraine, in the basin of the <!--del_lnk--> Tyasmin River, a tributary of the <!--del_lnk--> Dnieper River. It is 24 km in diameter, and is surrounded by an ejecta blanket of <!--del_lnk--> breccia covering an area of 6500 km². It is estimated that immediately after the impact, ejecta covered an area of 25,000 km² to a depth of 1 m or greater, and was some 600 m deep at the crater rim.<p>The crater contains a central uplift about 6 km in diameter, rising about 550 m above the base level of the crater. It currently lies beneath about 500 m of sediment deposited since the impact, and was discovered in the 1960s during prospecting for <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> in the region.<p><a id="Age" name="Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Age</span></h2>
<p>When it was first identified, the age of the crater could only be roughly established. Sediments from the <!--del_lnk--> Cenomanian (98.9 to 93.5 million years ago) and <!--del_lnk--> Turonian (93.5 to 89 million years ago) epochs were found beneath ejecta from the impact, thus setting an upper limit of about 89 million years on the age. Bore samples taken from sediments overlying the crater contain many fossils, and analysis of these dates the sediments at the <a href="../../wp/p/Paleocene.htm" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a> epoch, 65 to 54.8 million years ago. The age of the crater was thus constrained to between 54.8 and 98.9 million years.<p>Later <!--del_lnk--> radiometric dating constrained the age further. The concentration of <!--del_lnk--> Uranium-238 decay products in impact glasses from the crater was used to derive an age of 65.04±1.10 million years, the first indication that it was of similar age to the <!--del_lnk--> Chicxulub Crater. Analysis of <a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" title="Argon">Argon</a> radioactive decay products yielded an age of 65.17±0.64 million years.<p><a id="Likelihood_of_multiple_impact" name="Likelihood_of_multiple_impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Likelihood of multiple impact</span></h2>
<p>Although the ages derived for Chicxulub and Boltysh are the same to within the <!--del_lnk--> statistical errors, it does not necessarily follow that they formed at exactly the same time. At the estimated rate of impacts on the Earth, it would not be extremely unusual for a Boltysh-sized crater to be formed within half a million years of Chicxulub.<p>However, the subsequent discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> Silverpit crater and its dating to approximately the same epoch gives greater weight to the theory that the Earth was struck by multiple impactors at this time. The dating of these impact craters is not yet accurate enough to establish whether the multiple impactors arrived over several thousand years, as part of a generally elevated rate of impacts at that time, or were almost simultaneous, like the impacts of the fragments of <a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9.htm" title="Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</a> on <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter in <!--del_lnk--> 1994.<p>Another crater to form at the same time was the <!--del_lnk--> Shiva crater.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltysh_crater"</div>
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['Ukraine', 'Mexico', 'Cretaceous', 'Dinosaur', 'United Kingdom', 'Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9', 'Petroleum', 'Paleocene', 'Argon', 'Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9']
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Bongo_(antelope)
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bongo</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1964.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bongoza.jpg" src="../../images/19/1964.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
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<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1835.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_NT.svg" src="../../images/18/1835.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Near Threatened (LR/nt)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subphylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vertebrata<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovinae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Tragelaphus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>T. eurycerus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Tragelaphus eurycerus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Ogilby, 1837</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Bongo</b>, <i>Tragelaphus eurycerus</i>, is a large <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> forest <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a> species. It is characterized by a striking reddish coat, black and white markings, prominent colours and long slightly spiral horns.<p>
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</script><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>The Bongo belongs to the <!--del_lnk--> genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Tragelaphus</i>, which includes the <!--del_lnk--> Sitatunga (<i>Tragelaphus spekeii</i>), the <!--del_lnk--> Nyala (<i>Tragelaphus angasii</i>), the <a href="../../wp/b/Bushbuck.htm" title="Bushbuck">Bushbuck</a> (<i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i>), the <!--del_lnk--> Mountain Nyala (<i>Tragelaphus buxtoni</i>), the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Kudu (<i>Tragelaphus imberbis</i>) and the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Kudu (<i>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</i>).<p>A Bongo is further catalogued into one of the two subspecies: <i>Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus</i>, the lowland or "Western Bongo" and the far more rare <i>Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci</i>, the mountain or "Eastern Bongo" isolated to North-Eastern Central Africa. There are two other subspecies from West and Central Africa, taxonomic clarification not withstanding. Their life span up to 19 years in observation.<p>The scientific name of the Bongo (<i>Tragelaphus eurycerus</i>) is acquired from Greek words. "Tragelaphus" is derived from the Greek words "Trago" (a he-goat), and "elaphos" (a deer), in combination referring to "an antelope". The word "Eurycerus" is originated from the fusion of "eurus" (broad, widespread) and "keras" (an animal's horn). Bongo is an African native name.<p>Bongos are one of the largest of the forest <!--del_lnk--> antelopes, and are considered by many to be the most beautiful of all antelopes. In addition to the deep chestnut colour of their coats, bongos have bright white stripes on their sides to help camouflage them from their enemies.<p><!--del_lnk--> Gestation is approximately 285 days (9.5 months) with 1 young per birth with <!--del_lnk--> weaning at 6 months. <!--del_lnk--> Sexual maturity is at 24 to 27 months. Adults of both genders are similar in size. Adult height is about 1.1 to 1.3 m (3' 8"-4' 3") and length is 1.7 to 2.5 m (5' 8"-8' 3"). Females weigh around 210 to 235 kg (460 to 520 lb) while males weigh around 240 to 405 kg (530 to 895 lb). Both sexes have heavy spiraling horns; those of the male are longer and more massive. All bongos in captivity are from the isolated <!--del_lnk--> Aberdere Mountain portion of the species’ range in central Kenya.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics_and_information" name="Physical_characteristics_and_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics and information</span></h2>
<p><a id="Distribution" name="Distribution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution</span></h3>
<p>Bongos are found in dense tropical jungles with dense undergrowth up to an altitude of 4,000 m (12,800 ft) in central Africa, with isolated populations in Kenya, and western Africa. Countries: Angola, Benin [regionally extinct?], Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana. Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya (the <i><b>only</b></i> place where the Eastern Bongo are found in the wild), Liberia, Mali, Niger, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo [regionally extinct?] and Uganda [regionally extinct] (IUCN, 2002).<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h3>
<p>Historically bongos were found in three disjunct parts of Africa. Evolved for a life in dense forest, jungle and bamboo thickets, one population, the eastern/mountain bongo, is native to the Aberdere Mountains of central Kenya (from which all zoo-held bongos originate). The second is from Central Africa and the third is from West Africa. Today all three populations’ ranges have shrunk in size due to habitat loss for agriculture and uncontrolled timber cutting as well as poaching for meat.<p><a id="Coat_and_body" name="Coat_and_body"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Coat and body</span></h3>
<p>The bongo has the most beautiful and dazzling coat of all <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelopes</a>. Its rich and brilliant body sports a bright auburn colour, but the neck, chest and legs are generally darker than the rest of the body. Coats of male bongos become darker and buffy as they age until it results in a dark mahogany-brown colour. Coats of female bongos are usually more brightly coloured than males'. The <!--del_lnk--> pigmentation in the coat rubs off quite easily with <!--del_lnk--> anecdotal reports that rain running off a bongo has been noticed to run red with pigment.<p>A bongo's smooth coat is accented with an average of ten to fifteen vertical and white-yellow torso stripes that run from the base of the neck down to the rump. The narrow stripes travel down the sides of the bongo, but the number of stripes on each side is rarely the same. The bongo has a short, bristly and vertical brown ridge of hair with slender white stripes that extends along the shoulder to the rump.<p>A white chevron appears between the eyes and two large white spots grace each cheek.<p>The large ears are believed to sharpen hearing, and the distinctive coloration may help bongos identify one another in their dark forest habitats. Bongos have no special secretion glands and so rely less on scent to find one another than do other similar antelopes.<p>The lips of a bongo are white, topped with a black muzzle.<p><a id="Horns" name="Horns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Horns</span></h3>
<p>Bongos have two heavy and slightly spiralled <!--del_lnk--> horns that slope over their back and like in many other <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a> species, both the male and female bongos have horns. Bongos are the only <!--del_lnk--> Tragelaphid in which both sexes have horns. The horns of bongos are in the form of a lyre and bear a resemblance to those of the related <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a> species of <!--del_lnk--> nyalas, <!--del_lnk--> sitatungas, <a href="../../wp/b/Bushbuck.htm" title="Bushbuck">bushbucks</a>, <!--del_lnk--> kudus and <!--del_lnk--> elands.<p>Unlike <!--del_lnk--> deer, which have branched <!--del_lnk--> antlers that they shed annually, <!--del_lnk--> bongos and other <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelopes</a> have pointed horns that they keep throughout their lifespan. Males have massive backswept horns while females have smaller, thinner and more parallel horns. The size of the horns range between 75 and 99 centimetres (30 to 39 in). The horns twist once. Like all other horns of <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelopes</a>, the core of a bongo's horn is hollow and the outer layer of the horn is made of <!--del_lnk--> keratin, the same material that makes up human fingernails, toenails and hair. The Bongo runs gracefully, and at full speed through even the thickest tangles of <!--del_lnk--> lianas, laying its heavy spiraled horns on its back so that the brush cannot impede its flight. Bongos are hunted for their horns by humans.<p><a id="Social_organization_and_behaviour" name="Social_organization_and_behaviour"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Social organization and behaviour</span></h3>
<p>Like other forest <!--del_lnk--> ungulates, bongos are seldom seen in large groups. Males tend to be solitary and groups of females with young seem to live in groups of 6 to 8. Bongos have seldom been seen in herds of more than 20. The preferred habitat of this species is so dense and difficult to operate in that few Europeans or Americans observed this species until the 1960’s. Current living animals derive solely from Kenyan importations made during the period 1969-1978.<p>As young males mature, they leave their maternal groups. Adult males of similar size or age seem to try to avoid one another, but occasionally they will meet and spar with their horns in a ritualized manner. Sometimes serious fights will take place, but they are usually discouraged by visual displays, in which the males bulge their necks, roll their eyes and hold their horns in a vertical position while slowly pacing back and forth in front of the other male. Younger mature males most often remain solitary, although they sometimes join up with an older male. They seek out females only at mating time; when they are with a herd of females, males do not coerce them or try to restrict their movements as do some other antelopes.<p>Although bongos are mostly <!--del_lnk--> nocturnal, they are occasionally active during the day. They are timid and easily frightened. They will move away after a scare, running at considerable speed, even through dense undergrowth. They seek cover, where they stand very still and alert, facing away from the disturbance and turning their heads from time to time to check on the situation. The bongo's hindquarters are less conspicuous than the forequarters, and from this position the animal can quickly flee.<p>When in distress the bongo emits a <!--del_lnk--> bleat. It uses a limited number of vocalizations, mostly grunts and snorts. The females have a weak, mooing contact call for their young.<p>Females prefer to use traditional <!--del_lnk--> calving grounds restricted to certain areas. The newborn calf lies out in hiding for a week or more, receiving short visits by the mother to suckle it. The calves grow rapidly and can soon accompany their mothers in the nursery herds. Their horns also grow rapidly and begin to show in 3 1/2 months.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h3>
<p>Bongos are <!--del_lnk--> herbivorous, like many other forest <!--del_lnk--> ungulates. A large animal, the Bongo requires an ample amount of food, and is therefore quite restricted to suitable areas with abundant year-round growth of herbs and low shrubs. Such restrictions may account for the animal's limited distribution.<p>Bongos are browsers and feed primarily on the leaves of trees, bushes, vines, bark and pith of rotting trees, grasses, herbs, roots, cereals, shrubs and fruits. Bongos need salt in their diet. Indeed, bongos are known to regularly visit natural salt licks. They have been known to eat burned wood after lightning storms; this behaviour is believed to be a means of getting salts and minerals into their diet (See Animal Diversity link 2). Suitable habitat must have permanent water available.<p><a id="Threats_to_survival" name="Threats_to_survival"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threats to survival</span></h2>
<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h3>
<p>Few estimates of population density are available. Assuming average population densities of 0.25 animals per km² in regions where it is known to be common or abundant, and 0.02 per km² elsewhere, and with a total area of occupancy of 327,000 km², a total population estimate of approximately 28,000 is suggested. Only about 60% are in protected areas, suggesting that actual numbers of the lowland subspecies may only be in the low tens of thousands. In Kenya, their numbers have declined significantly and on <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Kenya, they were extirpated within the last decade due to illegal hunting with dogs. Although information on their status in the wild is lacking, lowland bongos are not presently considered endangered.<p>Bongos are susceptible to disease such as <!--del_lnk--> rinderpest (in the 1890s this disease almost exterminated the species). It has been observed that the <i>Tragelaphus eurycerus</i> may suffer from <!--del_lnk--> Goiter (C. A. Schiller <i>et al</i>, Department of Pathology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA. Veterinary Pathology, Vol 32, Issue 3 242-249). Over the course of the disease, the thyroid glands greatly enlarge (up to 10 x 20 cm) and became <!--del_lnk--> polycystic. C. A. Schiller <i>et al</i> (cited above) concluded that the pathogenesis of goiter in the Bongo may reflect a mixture of genetic predisposition coupled with environmental factors, including a period of exposure to a <!--del_lnk--> goitrogen.<p><!--del_lnk--> Leopards, <!--del_lnk--> Spotted Hyenas, <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">Lions</a>, and Humans prey on them for their pelts, horns and meat; <!--del_lnk--> Pythons sometimes eat bongo calves.<p>Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting and snares, although some bongo refuges exist. Although Bongos are quite easy for humans to catch via snares; it is of interest that many people native to the Bongos habitat believed that if they ate or touched Bongo they would have spasms similar to <!--del_lnk--> epileptic seizures. Because of this <!--del_lnk--> superstition Bongos were less harmed in their native ranges than expected. However, these taboos are said no longer to exist and that may account for increased hunting by humans in recent times.<p><a id="Zoo_programs" name="Zoo_programs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zoo programs</span></h3>
<p>An international studbook is maintained to help manage animals held in captivity. Because of its bright colour, it is very popular in zoos and private collections. In North America, there are thought to be over 400 individuals, a population that probably exceeds that of the mountain bongo in the wild.<p>In 2000, the American Zoo and Aquarum Association (<!--del_lnk--> AZA) upgraded the Bongo to a Species Survival Plan (SSP) Participant - which works to improve the genetic diversity of managed animal populations. The target population for participating zoos and private collections in North America is 250 animals. Through the efforts of zoos in North America, a reintroduction to the population in Kenya is being developed.<p><a id="Conservation" name="Conservation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation</span></h3>
<p>The western/lowland Bongo faces an ongoing population decline as habitat destruction and meat hunting pressures increase with the relentless expansion of human settlement. Its long-term survival will only be assured in areas which receive active protection and management. At present, such areas comprise about 30,000 km²., and several are in countries where political stability is fragile. There is therefore a realistic possibility that its status could decline to Threatened in the near future.<p>As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the western/lowland Bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by sport hunters during the 1990’s. Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of western/lowland bongo populations. Trophy hunting has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999).<p>The eastern/mountain Bongo’s survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya. If this does not occur, if will eventually become extinct in the wild. The existence of a healthy captive population of this subspecies offers the potential for its reintroduction. The total number of mountain Bongos held in captivity in North America alone may already be similar to or exceed the total number remaining in the wild.<p><a id="Legal_status" name="Legal_status"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Legal status</span></h3>
<p>In 2002 the <!--del_lnk--> IUCN, listed the species as "low risk/near threatened". This may mean that Bongos may be endangered due to human environmental interaction as well as hunting and illegal actions towards wildlife. Bongos are becoming extinct and endangered due to hunters.<p><!--del_lnk--> CITES lists bongo as an Appendix III species, only regulating their exportation from a single country, Ghana. It is not protected by the U.S. Endangered Species Act and is not listed by USFWS.<p>The IUCN Antelope Specialist Group considers the western or lowland bongo, <i>T. e. eurycerus</i>, to be Lower Risk (Near Threatened), and the eastern or mountain bongo, <i>T. e. isaaci</i>, of Kenya to be <!--del_lnk--> Endangered. Other subspecific names have been used but their validity has not been tested.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1965.jpg.htm" title="Image:BongoP2.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/19/1965.jpg" width="77" /></a></div>
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<p>Bongo at <!--del_lnk--> Louisville Zoo.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1966.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bongo NashvilleZoo.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/19/1966.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i>Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci</i> Bongo at the <!--del_lnk--> Nashville Zoo at Grassmere.</div>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bongo_%28antelope%29"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Africa', 'Antelope', 'Bushbuck', 'Antelope', 'Antelope', 'Antelope', 'Bushbuck', 'Antelope', 'Antelope', 'Lion']
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Bonobo
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bonobo</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bonobo</b></th>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1859.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_EN.svg" src="../../images/18/1859.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Endangered (EN)<small></small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Primates<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hominidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">Pan</a></i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>P. paniscus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Pan paniscus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Schwarz, 1929</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1968.png.htm" title="Bonobo distribution"><img alt="Bonobo distribution" height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bonobo_distribution.PNG" src="../../images/19/1968.png" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Bonobo distribution</small></div>
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<p>The <b>Bonobo</b> (<i>Pan paniscus</i>), until recently usually called the <b>Pygmy Chimpanzee</b> and less often the <b>Dwarf</b> or <b>Gracile Chimpanzee</b>, is one of the two <!--del_lnk--> species comprising the chimpanzee <!--del_lnk--> genus, <i><a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">Pan</a></i>. The other species in genus <i>Pan</i> is <i>Pan troglodytes</i>, or the <!--del_lnk--> Common Chimpanzee. Both species are chimpanzees, although that term is now frequently used to refer only to the larger of the two species, <i>Pan troglodytes</i>. To avoid confusion, this article follows the growing trend to use "chimpanzee" to refer to both members of the genus.<p>The Bonobo was discovered in 1928, by <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Harold Coolidge, represented by a <!--del_lnk--> skull in the <!--del_lnk--> Tervuren museum in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> that was thought to have belonged to a juvenile chimpanzee, though credit for the discovery went to the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Schwarz, who published the findings in 1929. The species is distinguished by an upright gait, a <!--del_lnk--> matriarchal and <!--del_lnk--> egalitarian culture, and the prominent role of <!--del_lnk--> sexual activity in their society.<p>
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</script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
<p><a id="Common_Name" name="Common_Name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Common Name</span></h3>
<p>One theory about the origin of the name "Bonobo" is that it is a misspelling of the name of the town of Bolobo on the Congo river. A more likely explanation is that it comes from the word for <i>ancestor</i> in an ancient <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a> language.<p><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h3>
<p>The scientific name for the Bonobo is <i>Pan paniscus</i>. As their <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> is more than 98% identical to that of <i>Homo sapiens</i> , they are more closely related to Humans than Gorillas. Another study on the similarity of critical DNA sites in human and chimpanzee genes suggests that 99.4 percent are identical.<p>Therefore, scientists reclassified the taxonomy of the Bonobo (and Common Chimpanzee), changing their scientific family name from the family <i>Pongidae</i> of apes to the family <i>Hominidae</i> of humans.<p>But there is still controversy. Scientists such as Morris Goodman of Wayne State University in Detroit argue that the Bonobo and Common Chimpanzee are so closely related to humans, their genus name should also be classified with the Human genus <i>Homo</i>: <i>Homo paniscus</i>, <i>Homo sylvestris</i>, or <i>Homo arboreus</i>. An alternative philosophy suggests that the term <i>Homo sapiens</i> is actually the <!--del_lnk--> misnomer, and that humanity should be reclassified as <i>Pan sapiens</i>. In either case, a name change of the genus is problematic because it complicates the taxonomy of other species closely related to humans, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Australopithecus</i>.<p>Recent DNA evidence suggests the Bonobo and Common Chimpanzee species separated from each other less than one million years ago. The chimpanzee line split from the <!--del_lnk--> last common ancestor with the <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">Human</a> approximately six million years ago. Because no species other than <i>Homo sapiens</i> has survived from the human line of that branching, both chimpanzee species are the closest living relatives of humans.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1969.jpg.htm" title="Bonobo"><img alt="Bonobo" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bonobo_009.jpg" src="../../images/19/1969.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1969.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bonobo</div>
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<p>The Bonobo is more gracile than the Common Chimpanzee. Its head is smaller than that of the Common Chimpanzee but has a higher forehead. It has a black face with pink lips, small ears, wide nostrils, and long hair on its head. Females have slightly prominent <!--del_lnk--> breasts in contrast to the flat breasts of other female apes, though not as prominent as those of humans. The Bonobo also have slim upper bodies, narrow shoulders, thin necks, and long legs compared with the Common Chimpanzee. Bonobos walk upright about 25% of the time during ground locomotion. These characteristics, and their posture, give Bonobos a more human-like appearance than that of Common Chimpanzees. Moreover, Bonobos have highly individuated facial features, as humans do, so that one individual can look significantly different from another, adapted for visual recognition in social interaction.<p><a id="Psychological_characteristics" name="Psychological_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Psychological characteristics</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Frans de Waal, one of the world's leading primatologists, avers that the Bonobo is often capable of <!--del_lnk--> altruism, <!--del_lnk--> compassion, <!--del_lnk--> empathy, kindness, patience and <!--del_lnk--> sensitivity.<p>Recent observations in the wild have confirmed that the males among the Common Chimpanzee troops are extraordinarily hostile to males from outside of the troop. Murder parties are organized to "patrol" for the unfortunate males who might be living nearby in a solitary state. This does not appear to be the behaviour of the Bonobo males or females, both of which seem to prefer sexual contact with their group to violent confrontation with outsiders. The Bonobo lives where the more aggressive Common Chimpanzee does not. Possibly the Bonobo has given a wide berth to their more violent and stronger cousins. Neither swim, and they generally inhabit ranges on opposite sides of the great rivers.<p>Bonobos, at least in captivity, are generally held to have superior intelligence to chimpanzees.<p><a id="Sexual_social_behavior" name="Sexual_social_behavior"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sexual social behaviour</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sexual intercourse plays a major role in Bonobo society, being used as a <!--del_lnk--> greeting, a means of <!--del_lnk--> conflict resolution and <!--del_lnk--> post-conflict reconciliation, and as <!--del_lnk--> favors traded by the females in exchange for food. Bonobos are the only non-human apes to have been observed engaging in <i>all</i> of the following sexual activities: face-to-face <!--del_lnk--> genital sex (most frequently <!--del_lnk--> female-female, then <!--del_lnk--> male-female and <!--del_lnk--> male-male), <!--del_lnk--> tongue kissing, and <!--del_lnk--> oral sex.<!--del_lnk--> In scientific literature, the female-female sex is often referred to as <i>GG rubbing</i> or <i>genital-genital rubbing</i>, while male-male sex is sometimes referred to as <i>penis fencing</i> .<p>Sexual activity happens within the immediate family as well as outside it, and often involves adults and children, even infants. Bonobos do not form permanent relationships with individual partners. They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behaviour by gender or age, with the possible exception of sexual intercourse between mothers and their adult sons; some observers believe these pairings are taboo. When Bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground, the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity, presumably decreasing tension and allowing for peaceful feeding.<p>Bonobo males frequently engage in various forms of male-male genital sex (<!--del_lnk--> frot). <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> One form has two males hang from a tree limb face-to-face while "penis fencing". Frot may also occur where two males rub their penises together while in missionary position. A special form of frot called "rump rubbing" occurs to express reconciliation between two males after a conflict, where they stand back-to-back and rub their scrotal sacks together.<p>Bonobo females also engage in female-female genital sex (<!--del_lnk--> tribadism) to socially bond with each other, thus forming a female nucleus of Bonobo society. The bonding between females allows them to dominate Bonobo society - although male Bonobos are individually stronger, they cannot stand alone against a united group of females. Adolescent females often leave their troop of birth to join another troop. Sexual bonding with other females establishes the new females as members of the group. This troop migration mixes the Bonobo gene pools.<p>Bonobo reproductive rates are not any higher than that of the Common Chimpanzee. Female Bonobos carry and nurse their young for five years and can give birth every five to six years. Compared with Common Chimpanzees, Bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth, allowing them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society. Also, Bonobo females who are either sterile or too young to reproduce engage in sexual activity.<p><!--del_lnk--> Richard Wrangham and <!--del_lnk--> Dale Peterson emphasize the Bonobo's use of sex as a mechanism to avoid violence.<dl>
<dd>"[Common] Chimpanzees and Bonobos both evolved from the same ancestor that gave rise to humans, and yet the Bonobo is one of the most peaceful, unaggressive species of mammals living on the earth today. They have evolved ways to reduce violence that permeate their entire society. They show us that the evolutionary dance of violence is not inexorable". <!--del_lnk--> </dl>
<p><a id="Other_social_behavior" name="Other_social_behavior"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other social behaviour</span></h3>
<p>Females are much smaller than males but can be considered to have a higher social status. Aggressive encounters between males and females are rare, and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles. The male's status reflects the status of his mother, and the son-mother bond often stays strong and continues throughout life. While social hierarchies do exist, rank does not play as prominent a role as it does in other primate societies.<p>Bonobos are active from dawn to dusk and live in a <!--del_lnk--> fission-fusion pattern: a tribe of about a hundred will split into small groups during the day while looking for food, and then come back together to sleep. They sleep on trees in nests they construct. Unlike Common Chimpanzees, who have been known to hunt monkeys, Bonobos are primarily <!--del_lnk--> frugivores, although they do eat <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> and have been observed occasionally catching small <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> such as <!--del_lnk--> squirrels.<p><a id="Closeness_to_humanity" name="Closeness_to_humanity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Closeness to humanity</span></h3>
<p>Bonobos are capable of passing the <!--del_lnk--> mirror-recognition test for self-awareness. They communicate through primarily vocal means, although the meanings of their vocalizations are not currently known; however, humans do understand their facial expressions and some of their natural hand gestures, such as their invitation to play. Two Bonobos, <!--del_lnk--> Kanzi and <!--del_lnk--> Panbanisha have been taught a vocabulary of about 400 words which they can type using a special keyboard of <!--del_lnk--> lexigrams (geometric symbols), and can respond to spoken sentences. Some, such as <!--del_lnk--> bioethicist <!--del_lnk--> Peter Singer, argue that these results qualify them for the "rights to survival and life", <!--del_lnk--> rights that humans theoretically accord to all persons.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h2>
<p>Around 10,000 Bonobos are found only south of the <a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> and north of the <!--del_lnk--> Kasai River (a tributary of the Congo), in the humid forests of the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Congo of central <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. They are an <!--del_lnk--> endangered species, due to both <!--del_lnk--> habitat loss and hunting for <!--del_lnk--> bushmeat, the latter activity having increased dramatically during the current civil war due to the presence of heavily armed militias even in remote "protected" areas such as <!--del_lnk--> Salonga National Park. Today, at most several thousand Bonobos remain. This is part of a more general trend of <!--del_lnk--> ape extinction.<p><a id="Conservation_efforts" name="Conservation_efforts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation efforts</span></h2>
<p>The genetic closeness of Bonobos, their relative rarity, and their self-awareness compel a moral and scientific imperative to preserve them and protect them from both abuse and extinction. Currently Bonobos may still be hunted to extinction by humans who eat them. The recent war in the DRC, driven by illegal exploitation of resources, had a major impact on the Bonobo and the local population. The locals now, more than ever, have a stronger desire to protect their interests and rights. Bonobo conservation efforts, are balancing these issues.<p>As the Bonobo's habitat is shared with people, the ultimate success of conservation efforts will rely on local and community involvement. The issue of parks vs. people is very cogent in the Cuvette Centrale, the Bonobo's range. There is strong local and broad-based Congolese resistance to establishing national parks as indigenous communities have often been driven from their forest homes by the establishment of parks. In Salonga, the only existing national park in the Bonobo habitat, there is no local involvement, and recent surveys indicate that the Bonobo, the <!--del_lnk--> African Forest Elephant and other species have been severely devastated by poachers. In contrast to this, there are areas where the Bonobo and biodiversity still thrive without any established parks, due to the indigenous beliefs and taboos against killing Bonobos.<p>During the war in the 1990s researchers and international NGOs were driven out of the Bonobo habitat. In 2002, the <!--del_lnk--> Bonobo Conservation Initiative, initiated the Bonobo Peace Forest Project in cooperation with national institutions, local NGOs and local communities. The Peace Forest Project works with local communities to establish a linked constellation of community-based reserves, managed by local and indigenous people. Although there has been only limited support from international organizations, this model, implemented mainly through DRC organizations and local communities, appears to have success, inasmuch as agreements have been made to protect over 5,000 square miles of the Bonobo habitat. According to <!--del_lnk--> Dr. Amy Parish, the Bonobo Peace Forest "…is going to be a model for conservation in the 21st century."<p>This initiative has been gaining momentum and greater international recognition and has recently gained greater support through <!--del_lnk--> Conservation International, the Global Conservation Fund, US Fish & Wildlife Services Great Ape Conservation Fund, and the United Nation’s Great Ape Survival Project.<p>Starting in 2003, the US government allocated $54,000,000 to the Congo Basin Forest Partnership. This significant investment has triggered the involvement of international NGOs to establish bases in the region and work to develop bonobo conservation programs. This recent initiative should improve the likelihood of bonobo survival, but its success may still depend upon supporting greater involvement and capacity building of local and indigenous communities.<p>In addition, Some concerned parties have addressed the crisis plight of these cousins of humanity on several science and ecological websites. Organizations like the <!--del_lnk--> WWF, the <!--del_lnk--> African Wildlife Foundation, and others are trying to focus attention on the extreme risk to the species. Some have suggested that a reserve be established in a less unstable part of Africa, or on an island in a place like Indonesia. Non-invasive medical research could be conducted on relocated free Bonobos with little risk or discomfort.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo"</div>
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Bontebok
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bontebok</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bontebok</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1970.jpg.htm" title="Bontebok in the Cape Peninsula National Park"><img alt="Bontebok in the Cape Peninsula National Park" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bontebok-TW.jpg" src="../../images/19/1970.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Bontebok in the Cape Peninsula National Park</small></div>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1953.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_CD.svg" src="../../images/19/1953.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Conservation dependent (LR/cd)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
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<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alcelaphinae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Damaliscus</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>D. pygargus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Damaliscus pygargus</b></i><br />
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<center>Subspecies</center>
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<p><i>Damaliscus pygargus pygargus</i><br /><i>Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi</i></td>
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<p>The <b>Bontebok</b> is an <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a> found in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>. The Bontebok has two <!--del_lnk--> subspecies; the Bontebok (<i>Damaliscus pygargus pygargus</i>), occurring naturally in the <!--del_lnk--> Fynbos and Renosterveld areas of the Western Cape, and the Blesbok (<i>Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi</i>) occurring in the <!--del_lnk--> highveld.<p>The Bontebok stands 80 to 100 centimetres at the shoulder and weighs 50 to 90 kilograms. The Bontebok is a chocolate brown colour, with a white underside and a white stripe from the forehead to the tip of the nose, although there is a brown stripe across the white near the eyes in most Blesbok. Bontebok also has a distinctive white patch around its tail (whence the latin name), while this patch is light brown/tan in Blesbok. The horns of Bontebok are lyre-shaped and clearly ringed they are found in both sexes and can reach a length of half a metre.<p>Blesbok live in highveld where they eat short <!--del_lnk--> grasses, while Bontebok are restricted to coastal Fynbos and Renosterveld (Skead 1980). They are <!--del_lnk--> diurnal, though they rest during the heat of the day. Herds contain only males, only females or are mixed and do not exceed forty animals for Bonteboks or seventy for Blesboks.<p>Bontebok are not good jumpers but they are very good at crawling under things. Mature males form territories and face down other males in displays and occasionally combat.<p>Bontebok were killed as <!--del_lnk--> pests and were reduced to seventeen animals in the wild but have recovered. Blesbok are extinct in their natural <!--del_lnk--> habitat but they have increased in population to the point where they are now <!--del_lnk--> farmed.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 24px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1971.jpg.htm" title="Image:BontebokP1.jpg"><img alt="" height="98" src="../../images/19/1971.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Binder Park Zoo</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/19/1972.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bontebok PA020073 .JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/19/1972.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>in the Bontebok N.P., South Africa</div>
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<p>Baby Bontebok</div>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bontebok"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Antelope', 'South Africa', 'Lesotho']
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Booby
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Booby</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Boobies</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1974.jpg.htm" title="Red-footed Booby, Sula sula"><img alt="Red-footed Booby, Sula sula" height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Redfootbooby06.jpg" src="../../images/19/1974.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Red-footed Booby, <i>Sula sula</i></small></div>
</td>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pelecaniformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sulidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Papasula</b></i><br /><small>Olsen & Warhett, 1988</small></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Sula</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Brisson, 1760</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Species</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Papasula abbotti</i></ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula nebouxii</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula variegata</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula dactylatra</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula granti</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula sula</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sula leucogaster</i></ul>
<p>For fossil species, see text</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>boobies</b> are part of the <!--del_lnk--> family <!--del_lnk--> Sulidae, a group of <!--del_lnk--> seabirds closely related to <!--del_lnk--> gannets.<p>The boobies are large birds with long pointed wings and long bills. They hunt <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> by diving from a height into the sea and pursuing their prey underwater. They have facial air sacs under their skin which cushion the impact with the water.<p>These are colonial breeders on islands and coasts, which normally lay one or more chalky blue eggs on the ground or sometimes in a tree nest. Their name is possibly based on the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <!--del_lnk--> slang term <i>bubi</i>, meaning "<!--del_lnk--> dunce", as these tame birds had a habit of landing on board sailing ships where they were easily captured and eaten.<p>Owing to this, boobies are often mentioned to have been caught and eaten by shipwrecked sailors, notably <!--del_lnk--> Captain Bligh of <!--del_lnk--> HMAV <i>Bounty</i> and his loyalists during their famous voyage after being set adrift by Fletcher Christian and his mutineers.<p>
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</script><a id="Systematics_and_evolution" name="Systematics_and_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Systematics and evolution</span></h2>
<p>Five of the six extant booby species are in the <!--del_lnk--> genus <i>Sula</i>, with the sixth recently given its own genus <i>Papasula</i>, while the three gannets are usually treated in the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Morus</i>; some authorities consider that all nine species should be considered congeneric, in <i>Sula</i>. However, they are readily told apart by means of <!--del_lnk--> osteology, and the distinct lineages of gannets and boobies are known to have existed in such form for at least 3 million years.<p>The fossil record of boobies is not as well documented as that of gannets; possible reasons could be that booby species were less numerous in the late <a href="../../wp/m/Miocene.htm" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> to <a href="../../wp/p/Pliocene.htm" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> when gannets had their highest diversity, or that due to the more tropical distribution of boobies, many fossil species have simply not been found yet as most localities are in continental <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> or <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<p><b>Genus <i>Papasula</i></b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Abbott's Booby <i>Papasula abbotti</i></ul>
<p><b>Genus <i>Sula</i></b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Blue-footed Booby <i>Sula nebouxii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Peruvian Booby <i>Sula variegata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Masked Booby <i>Sula dactylatra</i><ul>
<li>Tasman Booby, <i>Sula (dactylatra) tasmani</i> (possibly <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinct</a>)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nazca Booby, <i>Sula granti</i> (formerly <i>S. dactylatra granti</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Red-footed Booby <i>Sula sula</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Brown Booby <i>Sula leucogaster</i></ul>
<ul>
<li><i>Sula pygmaea</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>; Early Miocene of France)<li><i>Sula humeralis</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>; Middle Pliocene)<li><i>Sula avita</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>; formerly believed to be a gannet)<li><i>Sula magna</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>)<li><i>Sula sulita</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>)</ul>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1975.jpg.htm" title="Booby chick"><img alt="Booby chick" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Booby_chick.jpg" src="../../images/19/1975.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1975.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Booby chick</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Fish', 'Spanish language', 'Miocene', 'Pliocene', 'North America', 'Europe', 'Extinction', 'Fossil', 'Fossil', 'Fossil', 'Fossil', 'Fossil']
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Book</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Literature_types.htm">Literature types</a></h3>
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<th align="center" style="background:#ffffdd">Major forms</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Epic • <!--del_lnk--> Romance • <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">Novel</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Performance • <strong class="selflink">Book</strong></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Prose • <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> History • <!--del_lnk--> Modern History • <!--del_lnk--> Books • <!--del_lnk--> Authors • <!--del_lnk--> Awards • <!--del_lnk--> Basic Topics</td>
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<th align="center" style="background:#ffffdd">Discussion</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Criticism • <!--del_lnk--> Theory • <!--del_lnk--> Magazines</td>
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<p>A <b>book</b> is a collection of <!--del_lnk--> paper, <!--del_lnk--> parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound together along one edge, usually within covers. Each side of a sheet is called a <!--del_lnk--> page and a single sheet within a book may be called a leaf. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an <!--del_lnk--> e-book.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> library and information science, a book is called a <!--del_lnk--> monograph to distinguish it from serial <!--del_lnk--> publications such as <!--del_lnk--> magazines, <!--del_lnk--> journals or <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a>.<p>Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as <!--del_lnk--> galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.<p>A lover of books is usually referred to as a <!--del_lnk--> bibliophile, a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a <!--del_lnk--> bookworm.<p>A book may be studied by students in the form of a <!--del_lnk--> book report. It may also be covered by a professional writer as a <!--del_lnk--> book review to introduce a new book. Some belong to a <!--del_lnk--> book club.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_books" name="History_of_books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of books</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1977.jpg.htm" title="Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400-2200 BC."><img alt="Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400-2200 BC." height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg" src="../../images/19/1977.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1977.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Sumerian language cuneiform script <!--del_lnk--> clay tablet, 2400-2200 BC.</div>
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<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Antiquity" name="Antiquity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Antiquity</span></h3>
<p>The oral account (<!--del_lnk--> word of mouth, <!--del_lnk--> tradition, <!--del_lnk--> hearsay) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories. When <!--del_lnk--> writing systems were invented in <!--del_lnk--> ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon—stone, <!--del_lnk--> clay, tree bark, metal sheets—was used for writing. <!--del_lnk--> Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt around 1800 BC and at first the words were not separated from each other (<i>scripta continua</i>) and there was no <!--del_lnk--> punctuation. The text could be written from right to left, from left to right or even so that alternate lines must be read in opposite directions (<!--del_lnk--> boustrophedon).<p><a id="Scroll" name="Scroll"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Scroll</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1978.jpg.htm" title="Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart."><img alt="Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg" src="../../images/19/1978.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1978.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, <!--del_lnk--> papyrus (a form of <!--del_lnk--> paper made from the stems of the papyrus plant) was used for writing maybe as early as from <!--del_lnk--> First Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of King <!--del_lnk--> Neferirkare Kakai of the <!--del_lnk--> Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a <!--del_lnk--> scroll. This custom gained widespread popularity in the Hellenistic and Roman world, although we have evidence that tree bark (Latin <i>liber</i>, from there also <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">library</a>) and other materials were also used. According to <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (History 5:58) the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenicians brought writing and also papyrus to Greece around tenth or ninth century BC and so the Greek word for papyrus as writing material (<i>biblion</i>) and book (<i>biblos</i>) come from the Phoenician port town <!--del_lnk--> Byblos through which most of the papyrus was exported to Greece.<p><a id="Codex" name="Codex"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Codex</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1979.jpg.htm" title="Woman holding a book (or wax tablets) in the form of the codex. Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79 AD."><img alt="Woman holding a book (or wax tablets) in the form of the codex. Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79 AD." height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Puh213r1.jpg" src="../../images/19/1979.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1979.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Woman holding a book (or wax tablets) in the form of the <!--del_lnk--> codex. Wall painting from <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, before 79 AD.</div>
</div>
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<p>In schools, in accounting and for taking notes <!--del_lnk--> wax tablets were the normal writing material. Wax tablets had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted and a new text carved into the wax. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman <i>pugillares</i>) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex). Also the etymology of the word codex (block of wood) suggest that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.<p>As witnessed by the findings in <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> papyrus scrolls were still dominant in the first century AD. At the end of the century we have the first written mention of the codex as a form of book from <!--del_lnk--> Martial in his Apophoreta <small>CLXXXIV</small>, where he praises its compactness. In the pagan Hellenistic world however, the codex never gained much popularity and only within the Christian community was it popularized and gained widespread use. This gradual change happened during the third and fourth centuries and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the codex format is more economical as both sides of the writing material can be used, it is easy to conceal, portable and searchable. It is also possible that the Christian authors distinguished their writings on purpose from the pagan texts which were written normally in the form of scrolls.<p>In the 7th century <!--del_lnk--> Isidore of Seville explains the relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13) as this:<dl>
<dd>A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (<i>codex</i>) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches.</dl>
<p><a id="Middle_Ages" name="Middle_Ages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Middle Ages</span></h3>
<p><a id="Manuscripts" name="Manuscripts"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Manuscripts</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12829.jpg.htm" title="Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals."><img alt="Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals." height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg" src="../../images/19/1980.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12829.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 14 recto of the <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a> <!--del_lnk--> Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of <a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>. Note the <!--del_lnk--> bookcase (<i>capsa</i>), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in <!--del_lnk--> rustic capitals.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The fall of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the fifth century A.D. saw the decline of the <!--del_lnk--> culture of ancient Rome. Due to lack of contacts with Egypt the papyrus became difficult to obtain and <!--del_lnk--> parchment (what had been used for writing already for centuries) started to be the main writing material.<p>In <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> mainly monasteries carried on the <!--del_lnk--> latin writing tradition, because first <!--del_lnk--> Cassiodorus in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540) stressed the importance of copying texts, and later also <!--del_lnk--> St. Benedict of Nursia, in his <i><a href="../../wp/r/Rule_of_St_Benedict.htm" title="Rule of St Benedict">Regula Monachorum</a></i> (completed around the middle of the 6th century) promoted reading. The Rule of St. Benedict (Ch. <small>XLVIII</small>), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. At first the tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated and only slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.<p>Before the invention and adoption of the <!--del_lnk--> printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries had usually only some dozen books, medium sized a couple hundred. By the ninth century larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages the papal library in <!--del_lnk--> Avignon and Paris library of <!--del_lnk--> Sorbonne held only around 2000 volumes.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1981.jpg.htm" title="Burgundian scribe (portrait of Jean Miélot, from Miracles de Notre Dame), 15th century. The depiction shows the room's furnishings, the writer's materials, equipment, and activity."><img alt="Burgundian scribe (portrait of Jean Miélot, from Miracles de Notre Dame), 15th century. The depiction shows the room's furnishings, the writer's materials, equipment, and activity." height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Escribano.jpg" src="../../images/19/1981.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1981.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Burgundian scribe (portrait of Jean Miélot, from <i>Miracles de Notre Dame</i>), 15th century. The depiction shows the room's furnishings, the writer's materials, equipment, and activity.</div>
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<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> scriptorium</i> of the monastery was usually located over the <!--del_lnk--> chapter house and artificial light was forbidden in fear that it may damage the manuscripts. The bookmaking process was long and laborious. At first the parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after that the text was written by the scribe who usually left blank areas for illustration and <!--del_lnk--> rubrication. Only after that the book was bound by the <!--del_lnk--> bookbinder.<p>There were four types of scribes:<ol>
<li><i>Copyists</i>, who dealt with basic production and correspondence<li><i>Calligraphers</i>, who dealt in fine book production<li><i>Correctors</i>, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced<li><i>Rubricators</i>, who painted in the red letters; and <i>Illuminators</i>, who painted illustrations</ol>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1982.jpg.htm" title="Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy."><img alt="Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy." height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg" src="../../images/19/1982.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1982.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy.</div>
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<p>Already in antiquity there were known different types of ink, usually prepared from soot and gum or later also from <!--del_lnk--> gall nuts and <!--del_lnk--> iron vitriol. This gave writing the typical brownish black colour, but black or brown were not the only colours used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and of course different colours were used for illumination. Sometimes the whole parchment was coloured purple and the text was written on it with gold or silver (eg <!--del_lnk--> Codex Argenteus). Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the seventh century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before 12th century. It has been argued, that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.<p>The first books used <!--del_lnk--> parchment or <!--del_lnk--> vellum (calf skin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. As dried parchment tends to assume the form before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During later <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, when public libraries appeared, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a <!--del_lnk--> desk to prevent theft. The so called <i>libri catenati</i> were used up to 18th century.<p>At first books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a>, the demand for books increased and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (<i>pecia</i>), which were lent out to different copyists, so the book production speed was considerably increased. The system was maintained by <!--del_lnk--> stationers guilds, which were secular, and produced both religious and non-religious material.<p><a id="Block_printing_and_incunables" name="Block_printing_and_incunables"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Block printing and incunables</span></h4>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1983.jpg.htm" title="A 15th century incunabulum. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps for holding the book shut."><img alt="A 15th century incunabulum. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps for holding the book shut." height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg" src="../../images/19/1983.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A 15th century <!--del_lnk--> incunabulum. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps for holding the book shut.</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> block printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved out of blocks of wood. It could then be inked and used to reproduce many copies of that page. This method was used widely throughout <!--del_lnk--> East Asia, originating in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Eygpt">Eygpt</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> sometime between the mid-6th and late 9th centuries as a method of printing on <!--del_lnk--> paper and cloth. The oldest dated (868 AD) book printed with this method is <i><!--del_lnk--> The Diamond Sutra</i>.<p>This method (called also <i><!--del_lnk--> xylography</i>) arrived to Europe in the early 14th century. Books, as well as playing cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by such method. Creating an entire book, however, was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page. Also, the wood blocks were not durable and could easily wear out or crack.<p>The Chinese inventor <!--del_lnk--> Pi Sheng made <!--del_lnk--> movable type of earthenware circa <!--del_lnk--> 1045, but we have no surviving examples of his printing. Metal movable type was invented in <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a> during the <!--del_lnk--> Goryeo Dynasty (around <!--del_lnk--> 1230), but was not widely used, one reason being the enormous <!--del_lnk--> Chinese character set. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, <a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Gutenberg.htm" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> introduced movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and <!--del_lnk--> hand mould. This invention made books comparatively affordable (although still quite expensive for most people) and more widely available. It is estimated that in Europe about 1,000 various books were created per year before the development of the printing press. These early printed books, single sheets and images which are created before the year 1501 in Europe are known as <!--del_lnk--> incunabula, sometimes anglicized to <i>incunables</i>.<p><a id="Paper" name="Paper"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Paper</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Though <!--del_lnk--> papermaking in Europe begun around 11th century, up until the beginning of 16th century vellum and paper were produced congruent to one another, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market. As was the case with many medieval inventions, paper was first made in China, as early as 200 B.C., and reached Europe through <!--del_lnk--> muslim territories. At first made of rags, the <!--del_lnk--> industrial revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp.<p><a id="Modern_world" name="Modern_world"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern world</span></h3>
<p>With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were published in limited numbers and were quite valuable. The need to protect these precious commodities was evident. One of the earliest references to the use of <!--del_lnk--> bookmarks was in 1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher Barker, presented <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth I with a fringed silk bookmark. Common bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book at the top of the spine and extended below the lower edge of the page. The first detachable bookmarks began appearing in the <!--del_lnk--> 1850's and were made from silk or embroidered fabrics. Not until the <!--del_lnk--> 1880's, did paper and other materials become more common.<p>Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 1800s. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.<p><!--del_lnk--> Monotype and <!--del_lnk--> linotype presses were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once.<p>The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for <!--del_lnk--> freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also <!--del_lnk--> intellectual property, <!--del_lnk--> public domain, <!--del_lnk--> copyright. In mid-20th century, Europe book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.<p><a id="Structure_of_books" name="Structure_of_books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Structure of books</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1984.jpg.htm" title="Open book"><img alt="Open book" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Otvorena_knjiga.JPG" src="../../images/19/1984.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1984.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Open book</div>
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<p>Depending on a book's purpose or type (<i>e.g.</i> <!--del_lnk--> Encyclopedia, <!--del_lnk--> Dictionary, <!--del_lnk--> Textbook, <!--del_lnk--> Monograph), its <!--del_lnk--> structure varies, but some common structural parts of a book usually are:<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Book cover (hard or soft, shows title and author of book, sometimes with <!--del_lnk--> illustration)<li><!--del_lnk--> Title page (shows title and author, often with small illustration or icon)<li>Metrics page<li>Dedication (may or may not be included)<li><!--del_lnk--> Table of contents<li><!--del_lnk--> Preface<li>Text of contents of the book<li><!--del_lnk--> Index</ol>
<p><a id="Conservation_issues" name="Conservation_issues"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation issues</span></h2>
<p>In the early-<a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, papers made from <!--del_lnk--> pulp (cellulose, wood) were introduced because it was cheaper than cloth-based papers (<!--del_lnk--> linen or <!--del_lnk--> abaca). Pulp based paper made cheap novels, cheap school text books and cheap books of all kinds available to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations and eased the spread of information during the <!--del_lnk--> Second Industrial Revolution.<p>However, this pulp paper contained acid that causes a sort of <!--del_lnk--> slow fires that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Libraries today have to consider <!--del_lnk--> mass deacidification of their older collections. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or <!--del_lnk--> alkaline paper.<p>The proper care of books takes into account the possibility of chemical changes to the cover and text. Books are best stored in reduced lighting, definitely out of direct sunlight, at cool temperatures, and at moderate humidity. Books, especially heavy ones, need the support of surrounding volumes to maintain their shape. It is desirable for that reason to group books by size.<p><a id="Collections_of_books" name="Collections_of_books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Collections of books</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1985.jpg.htm" title="Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000 scrolls."><img alt="Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000 scrolls." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg" src="../../images/19/1985.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1985.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000 scrolls.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in <!--del_lnk--> archives) first appeared in <!--del_lnk--> classical Greece. In ancient world the maintaining of a <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">library</a> was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for individuals that were interested in using them. The difference from a modern <!--del_lnk--> public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the <!--del_lnk--> third century there were around 30 public libraries, public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Mediterranean region (e.g. <a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Alexandria.htm" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>). Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.<p>The beginning of modern public library begins around <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a> when individuals started to donate books to towns. The growth of a <!--del_lnk--> public library system in the United States started in the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> and was much helped by donations from <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Carnegie.htm" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a <!--del_lnk--> private library built in their homes.<p>The advent of <!--del_lnk--> paperback books in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in <!--del_lnk--> pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1986.jpg.htm" title="Library bookshelves with bookends and call numbers visible on the spines of the books."><img alt="Library bookshelves with bookends and call numbers visible on the spines of the books." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SanDiegoCityCollegeLearingRecourceCity-bookshelf.jpg" src="../../images/19/1986.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Library bookshelves with <!--del_lnk--> bookends and call numbers visible on the spines of the books.</div>
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<p>While a small collection of books, or one to be used by a small number of people, can be stored in any way convenient to the owners, including a standard <!--del_lnk--> bookcase, a large or public collection requires a <!--del_lnk--> catalogue and some means of consulting it. Often codes or other marks have to be added to the books to speed the process of relating them to the catalogue and their correct shelf position. Where these identify a volume uniquely, they are referred to as "call numbers". In large libraries this call number is usually based on a <!--del_lnk--> Library classification system. The call number is placed inside the book and on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, in accordance with institutional or national standards such as <!--del_lnk--> ANSI/<!--del_lnk--> NISO Z39.41 - 1997. This short (7 pages) standard also establishes the correct way to place information (such as the title or the name of the author) on book spines and on "shelvable" book-like objects such as containers for <a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" title="DVD">DVDs</a>, <!--del_lnk--> video tapes and <!--del_lnk--> software.<p>In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the <!--del_lnk--> paper size from which the book is made.<p>When rows of books are lined on a bookshelf, <!--del_lnk--> bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.<p><a id="Keeping_track_of_books" name="Keeping_track_of_books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Keeping track of books</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1987.jpg.htm" title="ISBN number with barcode."><img alt="ISBN number with barcode." height="97" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ISBN.JPG" src="../../images/19/1987.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1987.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> ISBN number with <!--del_lnk--> barcode.</div>
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<p>One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the <!--del_lnk--> Dewey Decimal System. This system has fallen out of use in some places, mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. Another popular classification system is the <a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Congress.htm" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> system, which is more popular in university libraries.<p>For the entire 20th century most <!--del_lnk--> librarians concerned with offering proper library services to the public (or a smaller subset such as students) worried about keeping track of the books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the <!--del_lnk--> International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (<!--del_lnk--> IFLA) they devised a series of tools such as the International Standard Book Description or <!--del_lnk--> ISBD.<p>Besides, each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or <!--del_lnk--> ISBN, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. It has four parts. The first part is the country code, the second the <!--del_lnk--> publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a checksum or a check digit and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The <!--del_lnk--> EAN <!--del_lnk--> Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for <!--del_lnk--> Bookland and calculating a new check digit.<p>Many government publishers, in industrial countries as well as in developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system. They often produce books which do not have ISBNs. In certain industrialized countries large classes of commercial books, such as novels, textbooks and other non-fiction books, are nearly always given ISBNs by publishers, thus giving the illusion to many customers that the ISBN is an international and complete system, with no exceptions.<p><a id="Transition_to_digital_format" name="Transition_to_digital_format"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transition to digital format</span></h2>
<p>The term <!--del_lnk--> e-book (electronic book) in the broad sense is an amount of information like a conventional book, but in digital form. It is made available through internet, CD-ROM, etc. In the popular press the term e-Book sometimes refers to a device such as the <!--del_lnk--> Sony Librie EBR-1000EP, which is meant to read the digital form and present it in a human readable form.<p>Throughout the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an <!--del_lnk--> information explosion. The advent of <!--del_lnk--> electronic publishing and the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a <!--del_lnk--> digital library, on <!--del_lnk--> CD-ROM, or in the form of e-books.<p>On the other hand, though books are nowadays produced using a digital version of the content, for most books such a version is not available to the public (i.e. neither in the library nor on the Internet), and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing. There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the <!--del_lnk--> public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. The effort is spearheaded by <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg combined with <!--del_lnk--> Distributed Proofreaders.<p>There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as <!--del_lnk--> print on demand have made it easier for less known authors to make their work available to a larger audience.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"</div>
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Book_of_Common_Prayer
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Book of Common Prayer</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_texts.htm">Religious texts</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2"><small>Part of the series on</small><br /><font size="4"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></b></font></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/521.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Thomas-Cranmer-ez.jpg" src="../../images/5/521.jpg" width="150" /></a></td>
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<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Organization</th>
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<tr>
<td style="font-size:11px">
<p><b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a></b><br /> 'focus of unity':<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a><br /> 'instruments of communion':<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lambeth Conferences<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anglican Consultative Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Primates' Meeting<br />
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<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Background</th>
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<p><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" title="Apostolic Succession">Apostolic Succession</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Catholicism<br /><a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a><br />
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<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">People</th>
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<p><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a><br /><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a><br /><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker<br />
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<th style="font-size:11px; background:#ccccff">Liturgy and Worship</th>
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<p><strong class="selflink">Book of Common Prayer</strong><br /><!--del_lnk--> High Church · <!--del_lnk--> Low Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Broad Church<br /><!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement<br /><!--del_lnk--> Thirty-Nine Articles<br /><!--del_lnk--> Book of Homilies<br /><!--del_lnk--> Doctrine<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ministry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sacraments<br /><!--del_lnk--> Saints in Anglicanism</td>
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<p>The <i><b>Book of Common Prayer</b></i> is the foundational prayer book of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (and hence <a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>). It was one of the instruments of the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a> and was later to be adapted and revised in other countries where Anglicanism became established. The BCP replaced the various 'uses' or rites in Latin that had been used in different parts of the country with a single compact volume in English so that "now from henceforth all the Realm shall have but one use". First produced in 1549, it was drastically revised in 1552 and more subtly changed in 1559 and 1662. It remains, in law, the primary liturgical prayer book of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, although it has, in practice, been largely replaced by more modern prayer books, the most recent of which is <i><!--del_lnk--> Common Worship</i>. The Book of Common Prayer is also the name of the current liturgical book in the <!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church of America as well as some <!--del_lnk--> Methodist churches.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_Prayer_Books_of_Edward_VI" name="The_Prayer_Books_of_Edward_VI"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Prayer Books of Edward VI</span></h3>
<p>The work of producing English language books for use in the liturgy was largely the work of <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> at first under the reign of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, only more radically under his son Edward. Cranmer was not one of the "advanced thinkers" and was not initially in touch with contemporary German reform. Nevetheless, his first work, the <!--del_lnk--> Exhortation and Litany, the earliest English-language service book of the Church of England, was no mere translation: its <!--del_lnk--> Protestant character is made clear by the drastic reduction of the place of saints, compressing what had been the major part into three petitions. Published in 1544 it borrowed greatly from <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther.htm" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Litany and <!--del_lnk--> Myles Coverdale's <!--del_lnk--> New Testament and was the only service that might be considered to be "<!--del_lnk--> Protestant" to be finished within the lifetime of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">King Henry VIII</a>.<p>It was not until Henry's death in 1547 and the accession of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI</a> that revision could proceed faster. <!--del_lnk--> Cranmer finished his work on an English <!--del_lnk--> Communion rite in 1548, obeying an order of <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> that Communion was to be given as both bread and wine. The service existed as an addition to the pre-existing Latin <!--del_lnk--> Mass.<p>It was included, one year later, in 1549, in a full prayer book, set out with a daily office, readings for Sundays and Holy Days, the Communion Service, Public <!--del_lnk--> Baptism, of <!--del_lnk--> Confirmation, of <!--del_lnk--> Matrimony, The Visitation of the Sick, At a Burial and the Ordinal (added in 1550). The Preface to this edition, which contained Cranmer's explanation as to why a new prayer book was necessary, began: "There was never any thing by the wit of man so well devised, or so sure established, which in continuance of time hath not been corrupted." The original version was only used until 1552, when a further revision was published.<p>The 1549 introduction of the Book of Common Prayer was widely unpopular especially in places such as <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall where traditional religious processions and pilgrimages were banned and commissioners sent out to remove all symbols of Roman Catholicism. At the time the <!--del_lnk--> Cornish only spoke their native <!--del_lnk--> Cornish language and the forced introduction of the English Book of Common Prayer resulted in the 1549 <!--del_lnk--> Prayer Book Rebellion. Proposals to translate the Prayer Book into Cornish were suppressed and in total some 4,000 people lost their lives in the rebellion. (Ironically, one of the <!--del_lnk--> Articles of Religion was to read: "It is a thing plainly repugnant to the word of God and the custom of the primitive Church, to have public prayer in the Church, or to minister the sacraments in a tongue not understanded of the people.")<p>The 1552 prayer book marked a considerable change. In response to criticisms by such as <!--del_lnk--> Peter Martyr and <!--del_lnk--> Martin Bucer deliberate steps were taken to excise Catholic practices and more fully realize the Calvinist theological project in England. In the <!--del_lnk--> Eucharist, gone were the words <!--del_lnk--> Mass and <!--del_lnk--> altar; the '<!--del_lnk--> Lord have mercy' was inserted into a recitation of the <!--del_lnk--> Ten Commandments; removed to the end was the <!--del_lnk--> Gloria; gone was any reference to an offering of a 'Sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving' in the Eucharistic prayer, which ended with the words of institution (This is my Body..This is my blood...in remembrance of me.) The elevation of the host and all other manual acts were omitted. The part of the prayer which followed, the Prayer of Oblation, was transferred, much changed, to a position after the congregation had received communion. The words at the administration of communion which, in the prayer book of 1549 described the eucharistic species as 'The body of our Lorde Jesus Christe...', 'The blood of our Lorde Jesus Christe...' were replaced with the words 'Take, eat, in remembrance that Christ died for thee..' etc. The Peace, at which in earlier times the congregation had exchanged a greeting, was removed altogether. Vestments such as the <!--del_lnk--> stole, <!--del_lnk--> chasuble and <!--del_lnk--> cope were no longer to be worn, but only a surplice. It was the final stage of Cranmer's work of removing all elements of sacrifice from the Latin Mass. In the Baptism service the signing with the cross was moved until after the baptism and the exorcism, the anointing, the putting on of the chrysom robe and the triple immersion were omitted. Most drastic of all was the removal of the Burial service from church: it was to take place at the graveside. In 1549, there had been provision for a Requiem (not so called) and prayers of commendation and committal, the first addressed to the deceased. All that remained was a single reference to the deceased, giving thanks for their delivery from 'the myseryes of this sinneful world'. This new Order for the Burial of the Dead was a drastically stripped-down memorial service designed to definitively undermine the whole complex of traditional beliefs about Purgatory and intercessory prayer.<p>Before the book was in general use, however, Edward VI died. In 1553, <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a>, upon her succession to the throne, restored the old religion. The <!--del_lnk--> Mass was re-established, altars, roods and statues were re-instated; an attempt was made to restore the Church to its Roman affiliation. Cranmer was punished for his work in the Protestant reformation by being burned at the stake on March 21, 1556. Nevertheless, the 1552 book was to survive. After Mary's death in 1558, it became the primary source for the Elizabethan Book of Common Prayer, with subtle if significant changes only.<p><a id="The_1559_prayer_book" name="The_1559_prayer_book"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1559 prayer book</span></h3>
<p>Thus, under <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth</a>, a more permanent enforcement of the Reformed religion was undertaken, and the 1552 book was republished in 1559, along with laws requiring conformity to the new standards. In its Elizabethan form, scarcely altered, it was used for nearly 100 years, thus being the official prayer book under the Stuarts as well as being the first Anglican service in the American colonies. This was the prayer book of Queen Elizabeth I, <!--del_lnk--> John Donne, and <!--del_lnk--> Richard Hooker. It was also at the core of English liturgical life throughout the lifetime of Shakespeare.<p>The alterations of the 1559 Prayer Book from its 1552 precursor, though minor, were to cast a long shadow. One related to what was worn. Instead of the banning of all vestments save the rochet (for bishops) and the <!--del_lnk--> surplice for parish clergy, it permitted 'such ornaments...as were in use...in the second year of K. Edward VI'. This allowed substantial leeway for more traditionalist clergy to retain at least some of the vestments which they felt were appropriate to liturgical celebration. It was also to be the basis of claims in the 19th. century that vestments such as chasubles, albs and stoles were legal. At the Communion the words 'the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ' etc. were combined with the words of Edward's second book, 'Take eat in remembrance..' etc. The prohibition on kneeling at the Communion was omitted. The conservative nature of these changes underlines the fact that Elizabeth's Protestantism was by no means universally popular, a fact which she herself recognised; her revived Act of Supremacy, giving her the ambiguous title of <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Governor passed without difficulty, but the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Uniformity passed through Parliament by only three votes.<p>Still, the 1559 Prayer Book offered enough to both traditionalists and radical reformers to establish it at the heart of the first relatively stable Protestant state in Europe -- the "Elizabethan settlement." However, on her death in 1603, this book, substantially the book of 1552, having been regarded as offensive by the likes of Bishop Stephen Gardiner in the sixteenth century as being a break with the tradition of the Western church, as it was, by the seventeenth century had come to be regarded as unduly Catholic. On the accession of <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a>, following the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Millenary Petition, the <!--del_lnk--> Hampton Court conference of 1604, a meeting of bishops and Puritan divines, resisted the pressure for change (save to the catechism). By the reign of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> (1625-1649) the Puritan pressure, exercised through a much changed Parliament, had increased. Government-inspired petitions for the removal of the prayer book and episcopacy 'root and branch' resulted in local disquiet in many places and eventually the production of locally organised counter petitions. The government had its way but it became clear that the division was not between Catholics and Protestants, but between Puritans and those who valued the Elizabethan settlement. The 1559 book was finally outlawed by Parliament in 1645 to be replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Directory of Public Worship which was more a set of instructions than a prayer book. How widely the Directory was used is not certain; there is some evidence of its having been purchased, in churchwardens' accounts, but not widely. The Prayer Book certainly was used clandestinely in some places, not least because the Directory made no provision at all for burial services. Following the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Lord Protector <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a>, it would not be reinstated until shortly after the restoration of the monarchy to England.<p><a id="The_Prayer_Book_in_Scotland" name="The_Prayer_Book_in_Scotland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Prayer Book in Scotland</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/198/19816.jpg.htm" title="Laud's abortive 1637 Prayer book"><img alt="Laud's abortive 1637 Prayer book" class="thumbimage" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Book_of_common_prayer_Scotland_1637.jpg" src="../../images/198/19816.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/198/19816.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Laud's abortive 1637 Prayer book</div>
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<p>With the uniting of the two thrones, King <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, with the assistance of Archbishop Laud, had sought to impose the prayer book on Scotland. The book concerned was not, however, the 1559 book but very much that of 1549,the first book of Edward VI. First used in 1637, it was never accepted, having been <!--del_lnk--> violently rejected by the Scots. Following the English Civil war, the Church of Scotland was re-established on a presbyterian basis but by the Act of Comprehension 1690, the rump of Episcopalians were allowed to hold onto their benefices. For liturgy they looked to Laud's book and in 1724 the first of the 'Wee Bookies' was published, containing, for the sake of economy, the central part of the Communion beginning with the Offertory. Between then and 1764, when a more formal revised version was published, a number of things happened which were to separate the Scottish liturgy more firmly from either the English books of 1549 or 1559. First, informal changes were made to the order of the various parts of the service and inserting words indicating a sacrificial intent to the eucharist; secondly, as a result of Bishop Rattray's researches into the liturgies of St. James and St. Clement, published in 1744, the form of the invocation was changed. These changes were incorporated into the 1764 book which was to be the liturgy of the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a> (until 1911 when it was revised) but it was also to influence the liturgy of the Episcopal Church in the United States (See below). (A completely new revision was finished in <!--del_lnk--> 1929, and several revisions to the communion service have been prepared since then.)<p><a id="The_1662_prayer_book" name="The_1662_prayer_book"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1662 prayer book</span></h3>
<p>The 1662 prayer book was printed only two years after the restoration of the monarchy, following the <!--del_lnk--> Savoy Conference convened by Royal Warrant to review the book of 1559. Attempts by <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterians led by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Baxter to gain approval for an alternative service book were in vain. In reply to the Presbyterian Exceptions to the book only fifteen 'trivial' changes were made to the book of 1559, some of which were the opposite of what they wanted. Among them was the inclusion of the <!--del_lnk--> Offertory. This was achieved by the insertion of the words 'and oblations' into the prayer for the Church and the revision of the rubric so as to require the monetary offerings to be brought to the Table (instead of being put in the poor box) and the bread and wine placed upon the Table. Previously it had not been clear when and how bread and wine got onto the altar. The so-called manual acts, whereby the priest elevated the bread and the cup during the prayer of consecration, which had been deleted in 1552, were restored. After the communion the unused but consecrated bread and wine were to be reverently consumed in church rather than being taken away and used for any other occasion. By such subtle means were Cranmer's purposes further subverted, leaving it for generations to argue over the precise theology of the rite. One change was made that constituted somewhat of a reversion to Cranmerian theology was the re-insertion of the so-called Black Rubric, which had been removed in 1559. This declared that kneeling in order the receive the communion did not imply adoration of the species of the Eucharist nor 'to any Corporal Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood' - which, said the rubric, were in heaven, not here.<p>Unable to accept the new book 2,000 Presbyterians were deprived of their livings. This revision survives today as the "standard" Parliament-approved <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> in England, with only minor revisions since its publication (mostly due the changes in the monarchy and in the dominion of the former Empire). Many parishes still use it, but usually only for an early morning Sunday communion, or evensong. Most services in the Church of England are from <!--del_lnk--> Common Worship, approved by General Synod in 2000, following nearly forty years of experiment.<p>The actual language of the 1662 revision was little changed from that of Cranmer, with the exception of the modernization of only the most archaic words and phrases. This book was the one which had existed as the official <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> during the most monumental periods of growth of the British empire, and, as a result, has been a great influence on the prayer books of Anglican churches worldwide, <!--del_lnk--> liturgies of other denominations in English, and of the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a> as a whole.<p><a id="Further_developments" name="Further_developments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Further developments</span></h3>
<p>After the 1662 prayer book, development ceased in England until the twentieth century; that it did was, however, a bit of a close run thing. On the death of Charles II his brother, a Roman Catholic, became <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a>. James wished to achieve toleration for those of his own Roman Catholic faith, whose practices were still banned. This, however, drew the Presbyterians closer to the Church of England in their common desire to resist 'popery'; talk of reconciliation and liturgical compromise was thus in the air. But with the flight of James in 1688 and the arrival of the Calvinist <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> the position of the parties changed. The Presbyterians could achieve toleration of their practices without such a right being given to Roman Catholics and without, therefore, their having to submit to the Church of England, even with a liturgy more acceptable to them. They were now in a much stronger position to demand even more radical changes to the forms of worship. John Tillotson, Dean of St. Paul's pressed the king to set up a Commission to produce such a revision The so-called <i>Liturgy of Comprehension</i> of 1689, which was the result, conceded two thirds of the Presbyterian demands of 1661; but when it came to <!--del_lnk--> Convocation the members, now more fearful of William's perceived agenda, did not even discuss it and its contents were, for a long time, not even accessible. This work, however, did go on to influence the prayer books of many British colonies.<p>By the 19th century other pressures upon the book of 1662 had arisen. Adherents of the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford Movement, begun in 1833, raised questions about the relationship of the Church of England to the apostolic church and thus about its forms of worship. Known as <!--del_lnk--> Tractarians after their production of 'Tracts for the Times' on theological issues, they advanced the case for the Church of England being essentially a part of the 'Western Church', of which the Roman Catholic Church was the chief representative. The illegal use of elements of the Roman rite, the use of candles, vestments and incense, practices known as <!--del_lnk--> Ritualism, had become widespread and led to the <!--del_lnk--> Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 which established a new system of discipline, intending to bring the 'Romanisers' into conformity. The Act had no effect on illegal practices: five clergy were imprisoned for contempt of court and after the trial of the much loved Bishop <!--del_lnk--> Edward King of Lincoln, it became clear that some revision of the liturgy had to be embarked upon. Following a Royal Commission report in 1906, work began on a new prayer book, work that was to take twenty years.<p>In 1927, this proposed prayer book was finished. It was decided, during development, that the use of the services therein would be decided on by each given congregation, so as to avoid as much conflict as possible with traditionalists. With these open guidelines the book was granted approval by the Church of England Convocations and Church Assembly. Since the Church of England is a state church, a further step—sending the proposed revision to Parliament—was required, and the book was rejected in December of that year when the MP <!--del_lnk--> William Joynson-Hicks argued strongly against it on the grounds that the proposed book was "papistical" and insufficiently Protestant. The next year was spent revising the book to make it more suitable for Parliament, but it was rejected yet again in 1928. However Convocation declared a state of emergency and authorised bishops to use the revised Book throughout that emergency.<p>The effect of the failure of the 1928 book was salutary: no further attempts were made to change the book, other than those required for the changes to the monarchy. Instead a different process, that of producing an alternative book, led to the publication of Series 1, 2 and 3 in the 1960s, the 1980 <!--del_lnk--> Alternative Service Book and subsequently to the 2000 <i><!--del_lnk--> Common Worship</i> series of books. Both differ substantially from the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i>, though the latter includes in the Order Two form of the Holy Communion a very slight revision of the prayer book service altering only one or two words and allowing the insertion of the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) before Communion. Order One follows the pattern of modern liturgical scholarship.<p>In 2003, a <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic adaptation of the BCP was published called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Book of Divine Worship</i>. It is a compromise of material drawn from the proposed 1928 book, the 1979 <!--del_lnk--> ECUSA book, and the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Missal. It was published primarily for use by Catholic converts from Anglicanism within the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Use.<p><a id="The_Prayer_book_in_the_Anglican_Communion" name="The_Prayer_book_in_the_Anglican_Communion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Prayer book in the Anglican Communion</span></h2>
<p>With British colonial expansion from the seventeenth century onwards, the Anglican church was planted across the globe. These churches at first used and then revised the use of the Prayer Book, until they, like their parent, produced prayer books which took into account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which come under the general heading of the <!--del_lnk--> Liturgical Movement.<p><a id="USA" name="USA"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">USA</span></h3>
<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Episcopal Church in the United States of America</b> separated itself from the Church of England in 1789, having been established in the United States in 1607. Its prayer book, published in 1790, had as its sources, the 1662 English book and the 1764 Scottish Liturgy (see above) which <!--del_lnk--> Bishop Seabury of Connecticut has brought over following his consecration in Aberdeen in 1784, containing elements of each.. The preface to the 1789 Book of Common Prayer says that "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship...further than local circumstances require." There were some notable differences. For example, after the words of institution there follows a Prayer of Oblation from 1549, but into which were inserted the words 'which we now offer unto thee' (in small caps) with reference to the 'holy gifts' An <!--del_lnk--> epiclesis was included, as in the Scottish book, though modified to meet reformist objections. On the whole the book was modelled in the English Prayer Book, the Convention having resisted attempts at deletion and revision and modified the Scottish Liturgy to bring it substantially into line with the English.<p>Further revisions occurred in 1892 and 1928, in which minor changes were made, removing, for instance, some of Cranmer's Exhortations and introducing such innovations as prayers for the dead.<p>In 1979, a more substantial revision was made. There were now two rites for the most common services, the first which kept most of the language of 1928, and the second using only contemporary language (some of it newly composed, and some adapted from the older language). Many changes were made in the rubrics and the shapes of the services, which were generally made for both the traditional and contemporary language versions. However, there was arguably a greater degree of continuity than was the case in England, which may account for the fact that all the books of the series, from 1790 to 1979 retain the same title. The 1979 book owes a good deal to the Liturgical Movement and to the 19th century Catholic revival.<p>Even so the revision caused some controversy and in 2000 an apology was issued by the General Convention of the Episcopal Church to those "offended or alienated during the time of liturgical transition to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer".<p><a id="Australia" name="Australia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Australia</span></h3>
<p>The <b><a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" title="Anglican Church of Australia">Anglican Church of Australia</a></b>, until 1981 officially known as the <i>Church of England in Australia and Tasmania</i>, became self-governing in 1961. Among other things the General Synod agreed that the Book of Common Prayer was to '... be regarded as the authorised standard of worship and doctrine in this Church ...'. In 1978 <i>An Australian Prayer Book</i> was produced which sought to adhere to this principle, so that where the Liturgical Committee could not agree on a formulation, the words or expressions of the BCP were to be used. The result was conservative revision.<p>In 1995 a similar process could be observed as elsewhere with the production of <!--del_lnk--> A Prayer Book for Australia which departed from both the structure and wording of the BCP. The process was accompanied by numerous objections, notably from the deeply conservatively Evangelical <!--del_lnk--> Diocese of Sydney which noted the loss of BCP wording and of an explicit 'biblical doctrine of substitutionary atonement'. On the other hand, the rest of the Australian church has not proved as difficult as prayer book revisers might have supposed. The Diocese of Sydney has developed its own small prayer book, called <!--del_lnk--> Sunday Services, to supplement the existing prayer book and preserve the original theology which the Sydney diocese asserts has been changed.<p><a id="Canada" name="Canada"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Canada</span></h3>
<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church of Canada</b> developed its first Book of Common Prayer separate from the English version in <!--del_lnk--> 1918. The revision of 1962 was much more substantial, bearing a family relationship to that of the abortive 1928 book in England: the language was conservatively modernised, and additional seasonal material was added but, as in England, whilst many prayers were retained the structure of Communion service was altered: a Prayer of Oblation was added to the Eucharistic prayer after the 'words of institution', thus reflecting the rejection of Cranmer's theology in liturgical developments across the Anglican Communion. A French translation, <i>Le Recueil des Prières de la Communauté Chrétienne</i>, was published in 1967.<p>After a period of experimentation with the publication of various supplements, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Book of Alternative Services</i> was published in 1985. This book (which owes much to Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and other sources) has widely supplanted the 1962 book, though the latter remains authorised. As in other places there has been a reaction and the Canadian version of the Book of Common Prayer has found supporters.<p><a id="India" name="India"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">India</span></h3>
<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Church of South India</b> was the first episcopal uniting church of our age, consisting as it did, from its foundation in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, of Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationists, Presbyterians and Reformed Christians. Its liturgy, from the first, combined the free use of Cranmer's language with an adherence to the principles of congregational participation and the centrality of the Eucharist, much in line with the Liturgical Movement. Because it was a minority church of widely differing traditions in a non-Christian culture, practice varied wildly but the retention of Cranmerian language, and a sympathy with his theology, in the 2004 revision, is a reminder of both the richness of his language and the breadth of his influence.<p><a id="Religious_influence" name="Religious_influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religious influence</span></h2>
<p>The <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> has had a great influence on a number of other denominations. While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owes a great debt to the prayer book.<p><!--del_lnk--> John Wesley, an Anglican priest whose revivalist preaching led to the creation of <!--del_lnk--> Methodism wrote, "I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England." Many Methodist churches in England continued to use a slightly revised version of the book for communion services well into the 20th century.<p>In the 1960s, when <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism adopted a <!--del_lnk--> vernacular <!--del_lnk--> revised mass, many translations of the English prayers followed the form of Cranmer's translation.<p><a id="Literary_influence" name="Literary_influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Literary influence</span></h2>
<p>Together with the <!--del_lnk--> King James Version of the Bible and the works of <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, the Book of Common Prayer has been one of the three fundamental underpinnings of modern English. As it has been in regular use for centuries, many phrases from its services have passed into the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a>, either as deliberate quotations or as unconscious borrowings. They are used in non-liturgical ways. For example, many authors have used quotes from the prayer book as titles for their books.<p>Some examples of well-known phrases from the Book of Common Prayer are:<ul>
<li>"Speak now or forever hold your peace" from the <!--del_lnk--> marriage liturgy.<li>"Till death us do part", from the marriage liturgy.<li>"Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust" from the <!--del_lnk--> funeral service.<li>"From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and the devil" from the <!--del_lnk--> litany.</ul>
<p>The phrase "till death us do part" has been changed to "till death do us part" in some more recent prayer books, such as the 1962 Canadian Book of Common Prayer.<p><a id="Copyright_status" name="Copyright_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Copyright status</span></h2>
<p>In most of the world the Book of Common Prayer can be freely reproduced as it is long out of copyright. This is not the case in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> itself.<p>In the United Kingdom, the rights to the Book of Common Prayer are held by the British Crown. The rights fall outside the scope of copyright as defined in <!--del_lnk--> statute law. Instead they fall under the purview of the <!--del_lnk--> royal prerogative and as such they are perpetual in subsistence. Publishers are licensed to reproduce the Book of Common Prayer under <!--del_lnk--> letters patent. In <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> the letters patent are held by the <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Printer, and in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> by the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Bible Board. The office of Queen's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for many years, with the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the Queen's Printer is <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge University Press. CUP inherited the right of being Queen's Printer when they took over the firm of <!--del_lnk--> Eyre & Spottiswoode in the late 20th century. Eyre & Spottiswoode had been Queen's Printer since 1901. Other letters patent of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University Press the right to produce the Book of Common Prayer independently of the Queen's Printer.<p>The terms of the letters patent prohibit those other than the holders, or those authorised by the holders from printing, publishing or importing the Book of Common Prayer into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Book of Common Prayer, and also the <!--del_lnk--> Authorised Version, enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom.<p>It is common misconception that the <!--del_lnk--> Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office holds letters patent for being Queen's Printer. The Controller of HMSO holds a separate set of letters patent which cover the office Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The <!--del_lnk--> Scotland Act 1998 defines the position of Queen's Printer for Scotland as also being held by the Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The position of Government Printer for Northern Ireland is also held by the Controller of HMSO.<p>As mentioned above, the ECUSA book is always released into the public domain. Trial use and supplemental liturgies are however copyrighted by Church Publishing, the official publishing arm of the church.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer"</div>
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Book_of_Kells
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Book of Kells</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.General_Literature.htm">General Literature</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/70/7077.jpg.htm" title="This page (folio 292r) contains the lavishly decorated text that opens the Gospel of John."><img alt="This page (folio 292r) contains the lavishly decorated text that opens the Gospel of John." height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg" src="../../images/238/23833.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/70/7077.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This page (folio 292r) contains the lavishly decorated text that opens the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of John.</div>
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<p>The <b>Book of Kells</b> (less widely known as the <b>Book of Columba</b>) is an ornately illustrated <!--del_lnk--> manuscript, produced by <!--del_lnk--> Celtic <!--del_lnk--> monks around AD 800. It is one of the more lavishly <!--del_lnk--> illuminated manuscripts to survive from the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and has been described as the zenith of Western calligraphy and illumination. It contains the <!--del_lnk--> four gospels of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, along with prefatory and explanatory matter decorated with numerous colourful illustrations and illuminations. Today it is on permanent display at the <!--del_lnk--> Trinity College Library in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> where it is catalogued as MS 58.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Origin" name="Origin"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origin</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23834.jpg.htm" title="Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels contains the incipit Liber generationis from the Gospel of Matthew. Compare this page with the corresponding page from the Book of Kells (see here), especially the form of the "Lib" monogram."><img alt="Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels contains the incipit Liber generationis from the Gospel of Matthew. Compare this page with the corresponding page from the Book of Kells (see here), especially the form of the "Lib" monogram." height="284" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg" src="../../images/238/23834.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23834.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 27r from the <a href="../../wp/l/Lindisfarne_Gospels.htm" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a> contains the incipit <b>Liber generationis</b> from the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Matthew. Compare this page with the corresponding page from the Book of Kells (see <a href="../../images/113/11379.jpg.htm" title="Image:KellsFol029rIncipitMatthew.jpg">here</a>), especially the form of the "Lib" monogram.</div>
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<p>The Book of Kells is the high point of a group of manuscripts produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in <!--del_lnk--> monasteries in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and northern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and in continental monasteries with Irish or English foundations. These manuscripts include the <!--del_lnk--> Cathach of St. Columba, the <!--del_lnk--> Ambrosiana Orosius, a <!--del_lnk--> fragmentary gospel in the Durham cathedral library (all from the early 7th century), and the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Durrow (from the second half of the 7th century). From the early 8th century come the <!--del_lnk--> Durham Gospels, the <!--del_lnk--> Echternach Gospels, the <a href="../../wp/l/Lindisfarne_Gospels.htm" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a> (see illustration at right), and the <!--del_lnk--> Lichfield Gospels. The <!--del_lnk--> St. Gall Gospel Book and the <!--del_lnk--> Macregal Gospels come from the late 8th century. The <!--del_lnk--> Book of Armagh (dated to 807-809), the <!--del_lnk--> Turin Gospel Book Fragment, the <!--del_lnk--> Leiden Priscian, the <!--del_lnk--> St. Gall Priscian and the <!--del_lnk--> Macdurnan Gospel all date from the early 9th century. Scholars place these manuscripts together based on similarities in artistic style, script, and textual traditions. The fully developed style of the ornamentation of the Book of Kells places it late in this series, either from the late eighth or early ninth century. The Book of Kells follows many of the iconographic and stylistic traditions found in these earlier manuscripts. For example, the form of the decorated letters found in the incipit pages for the Gospels is surprisingly consistent in Insular Gospels. Compare, for example, the incipit pages of the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Matthew <!--del_lnk--> in the Lindisfarne Gospels and <!--del_lnk--> in the Book of Kells both of which feature intricate decorative knotwork inside the outlines formed by the enlarged initial letters of the text. (For a more complete list of related manuscripts see: <!--del_lnk--> List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts.)<p>The name "Book of Kells" is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Abbey of Kells in <!--del_lnk--> Kells, <!--del_lnk--> County Meath in Ireland, where it was kept for much of the medieval period. The Abbey of Kells was founded in the early ninth century, at the time of the <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> invasions, by monks from the monastery at <!--del_lnk--> Iona (off the Western coast of Scotland). Iona, which had been a missionary centre for the Columban community, had been founded by St. <a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" title="Columba">Columba</a> in the middle of the 6th century. When repeated Viking raids made Iona too dangerous, the majority of the community removed to Kells, which became the centre of the group of communities founded by St. Columba.<p>The date and place of production of the manuscript has been the subject of considerable debate. Traditionally, the book was thought to have been created in the time of Saint Columba (also known as St. Columcille), possibly even as the work of his own hands. However, it is now generally accepted that this tradition is false based on <!--del_lnk--> palaeographic grounds: the style of script in which the book is written did not develop until well after Columba's death, making it impossible for him to have written it.<p>The manuscript was never finished. There are at least five competing theories about the manuscript's place of origin and time of completion. First, the book may have been created entirely at Iona, then brought to Kells and never finished. Second, the book may have been begun at Iona and continued at Kells, but never finished. Third, the manuscript may have been produced entirely in the <!--del_lnk--> scriptorium at Kells. Fourth, it may have been produced in the north of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, perhaps at <!--del_lnk--> Lindisfarne, then brought to Iona and from there to Kells. Finally, it may have been the product of an unknown monastery in Scotland. Although the question of the exact location of the book's production will probably never be answered conclusively, the second theory, that it was begun at Iona and finished at Kells, is currently the most widely accepted. Regardless of which theory is true, it is certain that Kells was produced by Columban monks closely associated with the community at Iona.<p><a id="Medi.C3.A6val_period" name="Medi.C3.A6val_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mediæval period</span></h3>
<p>Wherever it was made, the book soon came to its namesake city of Kells. It probably arrived in the early 11th century, and was definitely there by the twelfth.<p>The evidence for an eleventh century arrival consists of an entry in the <!--del_lnk--> Annals of Ulster for 1006. This entry records that "the great Gospel of Columkille, the chief relic of the Western World, was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine". Cenannas was the medieval Irish name for Kells. The manuscript was recovered a few months later - minus its golden and bejewelled cover - "under a <!--del_lnk--> sod". It is generally assumed that the "great Gospel of Columkille" is the Book of Kells. If this is correct, then the book had arrived in Kells by 1006, and been there long enough for thieves to learn of its presence. The force of ripping the manuscript free from its cover may account for the <!--del_lnk--> folios missing from the beginning and end of the Book of Kells.<p>Regardless, the book was certainly at Kells in the 12th century, when land <!--del_lnk--> charters pertaining to the Abbey of Kells were copied into some of the book's blank pages. The copying of charters into important books such as the Book of Kells was a wide-spread mediaeval practice, which gives us indisputable evidence about the location of the book at the time the charters were written into it.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23835.jpg.htm" title="Folio 27v contains the four evangelist symbols."><img alt="Folio 27v contains the four evangelist symbols." height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol027v4Evang.jpg" src="../../images/238/23835.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23835.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 27v contains the four evangelist symbols.</div>
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<p>The 12th century writer, <!--del_lnk--> Gerald of Wales, in his <i>Topographia Hibernica</i>, described, in a famous passage, seeing a great Gospel Book in <!--del_lnk--> Kildare which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells. The description certainly matches Kells:<dl>
<dd>"This book contains the harmony of the four <!--del_lnk--> Evangelists according to <!--del_lnk--> Jerome, where for almost every page there are different designs, distinguished by varied colours. Here you may see the face of majesty, divinely drawn, here the mystic symbols of the Evangelists, each with wings, now six, now four, now two; here the eagle, there the calf, here the man and there the lion, and other forms almost infinite. Look at them superficially with the ordinary glance, and you would think it is an erasure, and not tracery. Fine craftsmanship is all about you, but you might not notice it. Look more keenly at it and you will penetrate to the very shrine of art. You will make out intricacies, so delicate and so subtle, so full of knots and links, with colours so fresh and vivid, that you might say that all this was the work of an <!--del_lnk--> angel, and not of a man."</dl>
<p>Since Gerald claims to have seen his book in Kildare, he may have seen another, now lost, book equal in quality to the Book of Kells, or he may have been confused as to his location when seeing Kells.<p>The Abbey of Kells was dissolved due to the ecclesiastical reforms of the 12th century. The abbey church was converted to a parish church in which the Book of Kells remained.<p><a id="Modern_period" name="Modern_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern period</span></h3>
<p>The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654. In that year <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell's</a> cavalry was quartered in the church at Kells and the governor of the town sent the book to <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> for safe keeping. The book was presented to <!--del_lnk--> Trinity College in Dublin in 1661 by Henry Jones, who was to become bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Meath after the <!--del_lnk--> Restoration. The book has remained at Trinity College since the 17th century, except for brief loans to other libraries and museums. It has been displayed to the public in the Old Library at Trinity since the 19th century.<p>In the 16th century, the chapter numbers of the Gospels according to the division created by the 13th century <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Langton were written in the margins of the pages in <!--del_lnk--> roman numerals by <!--del_lnk--> Gerald Plunkett of Dublin. In 1621 the folios were numbered by the <!--del_lnk--> bishop-elect of Meath, <!--del_lnk--> James Ussher. In 1849 <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Prince Albert were invited to sign the book. They in fact signed a modern flyleaf which was erroneously believed to have been one of the original folios. The page which they signed was removed when the book was rebound in 1953.<p>Over the centuries the book has been <!--del_lnk--> rebound several times. During an 18th century rebinding, the pages were rather unsympathetically cropped, with small parts of some illustrations being lost. The book was also rebound in 1895, but that rebinding broke down quickly. By the late 1920s several folios were being kept loose under a separate cover. In 1953, the work was bound in four volumes by Roger Powell, who also gently stretched several of the pages, which had developed bulges.<p>In 2000, the volume containing the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Mark was sent to <a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> for an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts. This was only the fourth time the Book of Kells had been sent abroad for exhibition. Unfortunately, the volume suffered what has been called "minor pigment damage" while en route to Canberra. It is thought that the vibrations from the <!--del_lnk--> aeroplane's engines during the long flight may have caused the damage.<p><a id="Reproductions" name="Reproductions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reproductions</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23836.jpg.htm" title="Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the text "Erat autem hora tercia" ("now it was the third hour")."><img alt="Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the text "Erat autem hora tercia" ("now it was the third hour")." height="310" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BookKells.jpg" src="../../images/238/23836.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23836.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the text "Erat autem hora tercia" ("now it was the third hour").</div>
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<p>In 1951, the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> publisher, Urs Graf-verlag Bern, produced a <!--del_lnk--> facsimile. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black and white <!--del_lnk--> photographs. There were, however, forty-eight pages reproduced in colour, including all of the full page decorations.<p>In 1979, another Swiss publisher, Faksimile verlag Luzern, requested permission to produce a full colour facsimile of the book. Permission was initially denied because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high. In 1986, after developing a process which used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it, the publisher was given permission to produce a facsimile edition. After each page was photographed, a single page facsimile was prepared and the colours were carefully compared to the original and adjustments were made where necessary. The facsimile was published in 1990 in two volumes, the facsimile and a volume of commentary by prominent scholars. One copy is held by the <!--del_lnk--> Anglican Church in Kells, on the site of the original monastery. A <a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" title="DVD">DVD</a> version containing scanned versions of all pages along with additional information is also available.<p><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<p>The Book of Kells contains the four gospels of the <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> scriptures written in black, red, purple, and yellow ink in an <!--del_lnk--> insular majuscule script, preceded by prefaces, summaries, and concordances of gospel passages. Today it consists of 340 <!--del_lnk--> vellum leaves, called folios. The majority of the folios are part of larger sheets, called bifolios, which are folded in half to form two folios. The bifolios are nested inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called quires. On occasion, a folio is not part of a bifolio, but is instead a single sheet inserted within a quire.<p>It is believed that some 30 folios have been lost. (When the book was examined by Ussher in 1621 there were 344 folios.) The extant folios are gathered into 38 <!--del_lnk--> quires. There are between four and twelve folios per quire (two to six bifolios). Ten folios per quire is common. Some folios are single sheets. The important decorated pages often occurred on single sheets. The folios had lines drawn for the text, sometimes on both sides, after the bifolia were folded. Prick marks and guide lines can still be seen on some pages. The vellum is of high quality, although the folios have an uneven thickness, with some being almost leather, while others are so thin as to be almost translucent. The book's current dimensions are 330 by 250 <!--del_lnk--> mm. Originally the folios were not of standard size, but they were cropped to the current standard size during an 18th century rebinding. The text area is approximately 250 by 170 mm. Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text. The manuscript is in remarkably good condition. The book was apparently left unfinished, as some of the artwork appears only in outline.<p><a id="Contents" name="Contents"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Contents</span></h3>
<p>The book, as it exists now, contains preliminary matter, the complete text of the Gospels of <!--del_lnk--> Matthew, <!--del_lnk--> Mark and <!--del_lnk--> Luke, and the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of John through John 17:13. The remainder of John and an unknown amount of the preliminary matter is missing and was perhaps lost when the book was stolen in the early 11th century. The extant preliminary matter consists of two fragments of lists of <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> names contained in the gospels, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Breves causae</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Argumenta</i> of the four gospels, and the <!--del_lnk--> Eusebian <!--del_lnk--> canon tables. It is probable that, like the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Books of Durrow and Armagh, part of the lost preliminary material included the letter of <!--del_lnk--> Jerome to <!--del_lnk--> Pope Damasus I known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Novum opus</i>, in which Jerome explains the purpose of his translation. It is also possible, though less likely, that the lost material included the letter of Eusebius, known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Plures fuisse</i>, in which he explains the use of the canon tables. (Of all the insular gospels, only Lindisfarne contains this letter.)<p>There are two fragments of the lists of Hebrew names; one on the recto of the first surviving folio and one on folio 26, which is currently inserted at the end of the prefatory matter for John. The first list fragment contains the end of the list for the Gospel of Matthew. The missing names from Matthew would require an additional two folios. The second list fragment, on folio 26, contains about a fourth of the list for Luke. The list for Luke would require an additional three folios. The structure of the quire in which folio 26 occurs is such that it is unlikely that there are three folios missing between folios 26 and 27, so that it is almost certain that folio 26 is not now in its original location. There is no trace of the lists for Mark and John.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23837.jpg.htm" title="Folio 5r contains a page of the Eusebian Canon Tables."><img alt="Folio 5r contains a page of the Eusebian Canon Tables." height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol005rEusebianCanonTable.jpg" src="../../images/238/23837.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23837.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 5r contains a page of the Eusebian Canon Tables.</div>
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<p>The first list fragment is followed by the canon tables of <!--del_lnk--> Eusebius of <!--del_lnk--> Caesarea. These tables, which predate the text of the Vulgate, were developed to cross reference the gospels. Eusebius divided the Gospel into chapters and then created tables which allowed readers to find where a given episode in the life of Christ was located in each of the Gospels. The canon tables were traditionally included in the prefatory material in most mediaeval copies of the Vulgate text of the Gospels. The tables in the Book of Kells, however, are almost unusable because the scribe condensed the tables into in such a way as to make them confused. In addition, the corresponding chapter numbers were never inserted into the margins of the text, making it impossible to find the sections to which the canon tables refer. The reason these chapter numbers were never inserted is uncertain. It may have been planned to insert them when the decoration was completed, but since the decoration was never completed, they were never inserted. It also may be that it was decided to leave them out so as not to mar the appearance of pages.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23838.jpg.htm" title="Folio 19 contains the beginning of the Breves causae of Luke."><img alt="Folio 19 contains the beginning of the Breves causae of Luke." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol019vBrevCausLuke.jpg" src="../../images/238/23838.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23838.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 19 contains the beginning of the <i>Breves causae</i> of Luke.</div>
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<p>The <i>Breves causae</i> and the <i>Argumenta</i> belong to a pre-Vulgate tradition of manuscripts. The <i>Breves causae</i> are summaries of the <!--del_lnk--> Old Latin translations of the Gospels. They are divided into numbered chapters. These chapter numbers, like the numbers for the canon tables, are also not used on the text pages of the gospels. However, it is unlikely that these numbers would have been used, even if the manuscript had been completed, because the chapter numbers corresponded to old Latin translations and would have been difficult to harmonise with the Vulgate text. The <i>Argumenta</i> are collections of legends about the Evangelists. The <i>Breves causae</i> and <i>Argumenta</i> are arranged in a strange order: first come the <i>Breves causae</i> and <i>Argumenta</i> for Matthew, followed by the <i>Breves</i> and <i>Argumenta</i> for Mark, then, quite oddly, come the <i>Argumenta</i> of Luke and John, followed by the <i>Breves causae</i> of Luke and John. This anomalous order is the same as is found in the Book of Durrow, although the out of place <i>Breves causae</i> of Luke and John are placed at the end of the manuscript in Durrow, while the rest of the preliminaries are at the beginning. In other insular manuscripts, such as the <a href="../../wp/l/Lindisfarne_Gospels.htm" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Armagh, and the <!--del_lnk--> Echternach Gospels, each Gospel is treated as separate work and has its preliminaries immediately preceding it. The slavish repetition in Kells of the order of the <i>Breves causae</i> and <i>Argumenta</i> found in Durrow led the scholar T. K. Abbot to the conclusion that the scribe of Kells had either the Book of Durrow, or a common model in hand.<p><a id="Text_and_script" name="Text_and_script"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Text and script</span></h3>
<p>The Book of Kells contains the text of the four gospels based on the Vulgate. It does not, however, contain a pure copy of the Vulgate. There are numerous variants from the Vulgate, where Old Latin translations are used rather than Jerome's text. Although these variants are common in all of the insular gospels, there does not seem to be a consistent pattern of variation amongst the various insular texts. It is thought that when the scribes were writing the text they often depended on memory rather than on their exemplar.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23839.jpg.htm" title="Folio 309r contains text from the Gospel of John written in Insular majuscule by the scribe known as "Hand B"."><img alt="Folio 309r contains text from the Gospel of John written in Insular majuscule by the scribe known as "Hand B"." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol309r.jpg" src="../../images/238/23839.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23839.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 309r contains text from the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of John written in Insular majuscule by the scribe known as "Hand B".</div>
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<p>The manuscript is written in <!--del_lnk--> Insular majuscule, with some <!--del_lnk--> minuscule letters usually "c" and "s". The text is usually written in one long line across the page. Francoise Henry identified at least three scribes in this manuscript, whom she named Hand A, Hand B, and Hand C. Hand A is found on folios 1 through 19v, folios 276 through 289 and folios 307 through the end of the manuscript. Hand A for the most part writes eighteen or nineteen lines per page in the brown gall-ink common throughout the west. Hand B is found on folios 19r through 26 and folios 124 through 128. Hand B has a somewhat greater tendency to use minuscule and uses red, purple and black ink and a variable number of lines per page. Hand C is found throughout the majority of the text. Hand C also has greater tendency to use minuscule than Hand A. Hand C uses the same brownish gall-ink used by hand A, and wrote, almost always, seventeen lines per page.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23840.jpg.htm" title="Luke's genealogy of Jesus (extends over three pages)"><img alt="Luke's genealogy of Jesus (extends over three pages)" height="257" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol200rGeneolgyOfChrist.jpg" src="../../images/238/23840.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23840.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Luke's <!--del_lnk--> genealogy of Jesus (extends over three pages)</div>
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<p><a id="Errors" name="Errors"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Errors</span></h4>
<p>There are a number of <!--del_lnk--> differences between the text and the accepted <!--del_lnk--> gospels.<ul>
<li>In the <!--del_lnk--> genealogy of Jesus, which starts at <!--del_lnk--> Luke 3:23, Kells erroneously names an extra ancestor.<li><!--del_lnk--> Matthew 10:34b should read <i>“I came not to send peace, but the sword”</i>. However rather than “gladium” which means “<!--del_lnk--> sword”, Kells has “gaudium” meaning “<!--del_lnk--> joy”. Rendering the verse in translation: <i>“I came not [only] to send peace, but joy”.</i></ul>
<p><a id="Decoration" name="Decoration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Decoration</span></h3>
<p>The text is accompanied by incredibly intricate full pages of artwork, with smaller painted decorations appearing throughout the text itself. The book has a broad palette of colours with purple, lilac, red, pink, green, yellow being the colours most often used. (The illustrations in the Book of Durrow, by contrast, use only four colours.) Surprisingly, given the lavish nature of the work, there was no use of gold or silver leaf in the manuscript. The pigments used for the illustrations had to be imported from all over Europe; the immensely expensive blue <!--del_lnk--> lapis lazuli came from <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<p>The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving insular gospel book. There are ten surviving full page illuminations including two <!--del_lnk--> evangelist portraits, three pages with the four <!--del_lnk--> evangelist symbols, a <!--del_lnk--> carpet page, a miniature of the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin and Child, a miniature of Christ enthroned, and miniatures of the <!--del_lnk--> Arrest of Jesus and the <!--del_lnk--> Temptation of Christ. There are 13 surviving full pages of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of the gospels. There are many pages where only some of the text on the page is decorated. Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have extensive decoration. It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost. In addition to these major pages there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated initials scattered throughout the text.<p>The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names. This fragment occupies one column of folio 1 recto. The other column of the folio is occupied by a miniature of the four evangelist symbols, now much abraded. The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees in order to view it properly. The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book. They are almost always shown together so that the doctrine of unity of message of the four Gospels is emphasised.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23841.jpg.htm" title="Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the Eusebian Canon Tables"><img alt="Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the Eusebian Canon Tables" height="283" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol002rCanonTable.jpg" src="../../images/238/23841.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23841.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the <!--del_lnk--> Eusebian Canon Tables</div>
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<p>The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables. The canon tables themselves are designed to establish the unity of the Gospels by allowing readers to find corresponding passages from the gospels. The Eusebian canon tables normally requires twelve pages. In the Book of Kells the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages (folios 1v through 7r), but for unknown reasons condensed them into ten pages, leaving folios 6v and 7r blank. This condensation caused the canon tables to be unusable. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean. It was traditional to enclose the tables in an arcade. (See, for example the <!--del_lnk--> London Canon Tables). Kells does this, but with an Insular spirit. The arcades are not seen as architectural elements, but are rather stylised into geometric patterns which are then decorated with Insular motifs. The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the arches. The last two canon tables are presented within a grid. This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow.<p>The remainder of the book after the canon tables is broken into sections with the beginning of each section being marked by miniatures and full pages of decorated text. Each of the Gospels is introduced by a consistent decorative programme. The preliminary matter is treated as one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread. In addition to the preliminaries and the Gospels, the "second beginning" of the Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/42/4253.jpg.htm" title="Folio 7v contains an image of the Virgin and Child. This is the oldest extant image of the Virgin Mary in a western manuscript."><img alt="Folio 7v contains an image of the Virgin and Child. This is the oldest extant image of the Virgin Mary in a western manuscript." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol007vMadonnaChild.jpg" src="../../images/42/4253.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/42/4253.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 7v contains an image of the Virgin and Child. This is the oldest extant image of the Virgin Mary in a western manuscript.</div>
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<p>The preliminary matter is introduced by an <!--del_lnk--> iconic image of the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin and <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Child</a> (folio 7v). This miniature is the first representation of the Virgin in a western manuscript. Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three-quarter pose. This miniature also bears a stylistic similarity to the carvings on the lid of St. <!--del_lnk--> Cuthbert's coffin. The iconography of the miniature may ultimately derive from an Eastern or Coptic icon.<p>The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the <i>Breves Causae</i> of Matthew, which begins <i>Nativitas Christi in Bethlem</i> (the birth of Christ in Bethlehem). The beginning page (<!--del_lnk--> folio 8r) of the text of the <i>Breves Causae</i> is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame. The two page spread of the miniature and the text make a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material. The opening line of each of the sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated (see above for the <i>Breves causae</i> of Luke), but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of the <i>Breves Causae</i> of Matthew.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23842.jpg.htm" title="Folio 291v contains a portrait of John the Evangelist."><img alt="Folio 291v contains a portrait of John the Evangelist." height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kelljohn.jpg" src="../../images/238/23842.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23842.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 291v contains a portrait of <!--del_lnk--> John the Evangelist.</div>
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<p>The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme. Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols, followed by a blank page. Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the gospel which was given an elaborate decorative treatment. The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait (<!--del_lnk--> folio 28v) and its page of Evangelist symbols (folio 27r, see above). The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist portrait, but retains its Evangelist symbols page (<!--del_lnk--> folio 129v). The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page. The Gospel of John, like the Matthew retains both its portrait (folio 291v, see at right) and its Evangelist symbols page (<!--del_lnk--> folio 290v). It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke, and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed, but have been lost. The use of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the Gospels.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11379.jpg.htm" title="Folio 29r contains the incipit to the Gospel of Matthew ."><img alt="Folio 29r contains the incipit to the Gospel of Matthew ." height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol029rIncipitMatthew.jpg" src="../../images/238/23843.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11379.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 29r contains the <!--del_lnk--> incipit to the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of Matthew .</div>
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<p>The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish. These pages were, in effect turned into carpet pages. The decoration of these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible. The opening page (folio 28r) of Matthew may stand as an example. (See illustration at left.) The page consists of only two words <i>Liber generationis</i> ("The book of the generation"). The "lib" of <i>Liber</i> is turned in to a giant monogram which dominates the entire page. The "er" of <i>Liber</i> is presented as interlaced ornament within the "b" of the "lib" monogram. <i>Generationis</i> is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page. The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border. The border and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals and <!--del_lnk--> knot work, many of them zoomorphic. The opening words of Mark, <i><!--del_lnk--> Initium evangelii</i> ("The beginning of the gospel"), Luke, <i><!--del_lnk--> Quoniam quidem multi</i>, and John <i><a href="../../images/70/7077.jpg.htm" title="Image:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg">In principio erat verbum</a></i> ("In the beginning was the Word") are all given similar treatments. Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells, these pages were decorated in all of the other Insular Gospel Books.<p>The Gospel of Matthew begins with a <!--del_lnk--> genealogy of Jesus. At <!--del_lnk--> Matthew 1:18, the actual narrative of <!--del_lnk--> Christ's life starts. This "second beginning" to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books, so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works. The "second beginning" begins with the word "Christ". The Greek letters "<!--del_lnk--> Chi" and "<!--del_lnk--> Rho" were often used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate the word "Christ". In Insular Gospel Books the initial "<!--del_lnk--> Chi Rho <!--del_lnk--> monogram" was enlarged and decorated. In the Book of Kells, this second beginning was given a decorative programme equal to the those that preface the individual Gospels. Folio 32 verso has a miniature of Christ enthroned. (It has been argued that this miniature is one of the lost evangelist portraits. However the iconography is quite different from the extant portraits, and current scholarship accepts this identification and placement for this miniature.) Facing this miniature, on <!--del_lnk--> folio 33 recto, is the only Carpet Page in the Kells. (The single Carpet Page in Kells is a bit anomalous. The <a href="../../wp/l/Lindisfarne_Gospels.htm" title="Lindisfarne Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a> has five extant Carpet Pages and the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Durrow has six.) The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early mediaeval period, the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram, which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23844.jpg.htm" title="Folio 34r contains the Chi Rho monogram. Chi and Rho are the first two letters of the word "Christ" in Greek."><img alt="Folio 34r contains the Chi Rho monogram. Chi and Rho are the first two letters of the word "Christ" in Greek." height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol034rChiRhoMonogram.jpg" src="../../images/238/23844.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23844.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Folio 34r contains the <!--del_lnk--> Chi Rho monogram. <!--del_lnk--> Chi and <!--del_lnk--> Rho are the first two letters of the word "<!--del_lnk--> Christ" in <!--del_lnk--> Greek.</div>
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<p>In the Book of Kells, the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the entire page. The letter "Chi" dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page. The letter "Rho" is snuggled underneath the arms of the Chi. Both letters are divided into compartment which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other patterns. The background is likewise awash in mass of swirling and knotted decoration. Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects. Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the Chi. This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that started with the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Durrow.<p>The Book of Kells contains two other Full page miniatures which illustrate episodes from the <!--del_lnk--> Passion story. The text of Matthew is illustrated with full page illumination of the <i>Arrest of Christ</i> (<!--del_lnk--> folio 114r). Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures. In the text of Luke there is a full sized miniature of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Temptation of Christ</i> (<!--del_lnk--> folio 202v). Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple. To his a right is a crowd of people, perhaps representing his disciples. To his left and below him is a black figure of <!--del_lnk--> Satan. Above him hover two <!--del_lnk--> angels.<p>The verso of the folio containing the <i><!--del_lnk--> Arrest of Christ</i> contains a full page of decorated text which begins "<!--del_lnk--> Tunc dicit illis". Facing the miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text (folio 203r "Iesus autem plenus"). In addition to this page five other full pages also receive elaborate treatment. In Matthew there is one other full page treatment of (<!--del_lnk--> folio 124r, "Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones"). In the Gospel of Mark, there are also two pages of decorated text (<!--del_lnk--> folio 183r, "Erat autem hora tercia", and folio 187v "[Et Dominus] quidem [Iesus] postquam"). The Gospel of Luke contains two pages of fully decorated text. (folio 188v "Fuit in diebus Herodis ", and <!--del_lnk--> folio 285r "Una autem sabbati valde"). Although these texts do not have miniatures associated with them it is probable that miniatures were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been lost, or were never completed. There is no surviving full page of text in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit. However, in the other three Gospels all of the full pages of decorated text, except for folio 188c which begins the Nativity narration, occur within the Passion narrative. However, since the missing folios of John contain the Passion narrative, it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23845.jpg.htm" title="Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small illuminations like this decorated initial."><img alt="Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small illuminations like this decorated initial." height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsDecoratedInitial.jpg" src="../../images/238/23845.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23845.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small illuminations like this decorated initial.</div>
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<p>The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages. Indeed all but two pages have at least some decoration. Scattered through the text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans often twisted and tied into complicated knots. Many significant texts, such as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pater Noster</i> have decorated initials. The page containing text of the <!--del_lnk--> Beatitudes in Matthew (<!--del_lnk--> folio 40v) has a large miniature along the left margin of the page in which the letter "B" which begins each line is linked into an ornate chain. The genealogy of Christ found in the Gospel of Luke (<!--del_lnk--> folio 200r) contains a similar miniature in which the word "qui" is repeatedly linked along the left margin. Many of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a "turn-in-the-path" (that is, a place where a line is finished in a space above or below the original line). Many other animals serve to fill spaces left at the end of lines. No two of these designs are the same. No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of decoration.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23846.jpg.htm" title="The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)"><img alt="The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KellsFol034rXRhoDet3.jpg" src="../../images/238/23846.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23846.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)</div>
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<p>The decorations are all of high quality. The complexity of these designs is often breath-taking. In one decoration, which occupies one inch square piece of a page, it is possible to count as many as 158 complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either side. Some decorations can only be fully appreciated with magnifying glasses, although glasses of the required power were not available until hundreds of years after the book's completion. The complicated knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period. These design have also had an enduring popularity. Indeed many of these motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and <!--del_lnk--> tattoos.<p><a id="Use" name="Use"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Use</span></h2>
<p>The book had a sacramental, rather than educational purpose. A large, lavish Gospel, such as the Book of Kells would have been left on the high altar of the church, and taken off only for the reading of the Gospel during Mass. However, it is probable that the reader would not actually read the text from the book, but rather recite from memory. It is significant that the <i>Chronicles of Ulster</i> state that the book was stolen from the <!--del_lnk--> sacristy (where the vessels and other accruements of the <!--del_lnk--> mass were stored) rather than from the monastic library. The design of the book seems to take this purpose in mind, that is the book was produced to look good rather than be useful. There are numerous uncorrected mistakes in the text. Lines were often completed in a blank space in the line above. The chapter headings that were necessary to make the canon tables usable were not inserted into the margins of the page. In general, nothing was done to disrupt the aesthetic look of the page: aesthetics were given a priority over utility.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Kells"</div>
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Boolean_logic
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boolean logic</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Mathematics.htm">Mathematics</a></h3>
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<p><b>Boolean logic</b> is a complete system for <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">logical</a> <!--del_lnk--> operations. It was named after <!--del_lnk--> George Boole, an English mathematician at <!--del_lnk--> University College Cork who first defined an <!--del_lnk--> algebraic system of logic in the mid <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>. Boolean logic has many applications in electronics, computer hardware and software, and is the base of <!--del_lnk--> digital electronics. In <!--del_lnk--> 1938, <!--del_lnk--> Claude Shannon showed how electric circuits with relays were a model for Boolean logic. This fact soon proved enormously consequential with the emergence of the electronic <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a>.<p><i>Using the <!--del_lnk--> algebra of sets, this article contains a basic introduction to <a href="../../wp/s/Set.htm" title="Set">sets</a>, Boolean operations, <a href="../../wp/v/Venn_diagram.htm" title="Venn diagram">Venn diagrams</a>, <!--del_lnk--> truth tables, and Boolean applications. The <!--del_lnk--> Boolean algebra article discusses a type of <!--del_lnk--> algebraic structure that satisfies the axioms of Boolean logic. The <!--del_lnk--> binary arithmetic article discusses the use of <!--del_lnk--> binary numbers in <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a> systems.</i><script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Terms" name="Terms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Terms</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17055.svg.htm" title="Venn diagram showing the intersection of sets A AND B (in violet), the union of sets A OR B (all the colored regions), and set A XOR B (all the colored regions except the violet). The "universe" is represented by the rectangular frame."><img alt="Venn diagram showing the intersection of sets A AND B (in violet), the union of sets A OR B (all the colored regions), and set A XOR B (all the colored regions except the violet). The "universe" is represented by the rectangular frame." class="thumbimage" height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.svg" src="../../images/45/4508.png" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17055.svg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Venn diagram showing the intersection of sets A AND B (in violet), the union of sets A OR B (all the colored regions), and set A XOR B (all the colored regions except the violet). The "universe" is represented by the rectangular frame.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Let <i>X</i> be a set:<ul>
<li>An <b>element</b> is one member of a set. This is denoted by <img alt="\in" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4509.png" />. If it's not an element of the set, this is denoted by <img alt="\notin" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4510.png" />.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <b>universe</b> is the set <i>X</i>, sometimes denoted by 1. Note that this use of the word universe means <i>"all elements being considered"</i>, which are not necessarily the same as <i>"all elements there are"</i>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <b>empty set</b> or <b>null set</b> is the set of no elements, denoted by <img alt="\varnothing" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4511.png" /> and sometimes 0.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>unary operator</b> applies to a single set. There is one unary operator, called logical <b>NOT</b>. It works by taking the <!--del_lnk--> complement.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>binary operator</b> applies to two sets. The basic binary operators are logical <b>OR</b> and logical <b>AND</b>. They perform the <!--del_lnk--> union and <!--del_lnk--> intersection of sets. There are also other derived binary operators, such as <b>XOR</b> (exclusive OR). See <!--del_lnk--> the geometry of logic.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>subset</b> is denoted by <img alt="A \subseteq B" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4512.png" /> and means every element in set A is also in set B.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>proper subset</b> is denoted by <img alt="A \subset B" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4514.png" /> and means every element in set A is also in set B and the two sets are not equal.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>superset</b> is denoted by <img alt="A \supseteq B" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4515.png" /> and means every element in set B is also in set A.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A <b>proper superset</b> is denoted by <img alt="A \supset B" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4516.png" /> and means every element in set B is also in set A and the two sets are not equal.</ul>
<p><a id="Example" name="Example"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Example</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/45/4517.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boolean_multiples_of_2_3_5.svg" src="../../images/45/4517.png" width="480" /></a></span></div>
<p>Let's imagine that set A contains all even numbers (multiples of two) in "the universe" and set B contains all multiples of three in "the universe". Then the <b>intersection</b> of the two sets (all elements in sets A AND B) would be all multiples of six in "the universe".<p>The complement of set A (all elements NOT in set A) would be all odd numbers in "the universe".<p><a id="Chaining_operations_together" name="Chaining_operations_together"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chaining operations together</span></h3>
<p>While at most two sets are joined in any Boolean operation, the new set formed by that operation can then be joined with other sets utilizing additional Boolean operations. Using the previous example, we can define a new set C as the set of all multiples of five in "the universe". Thus "sets A AND B AND C" would be all multiples of 30 in "the universe". If more convenient, we may consider set AB to be the intersection of sets A and B, or the set of all multiples of six in "the universe". Then we can say "sets AB AND C" are the set of all multiples of 30 in "the universe". We could then take it a step further, and call this result set ABC.<p><a id="Use_of_parentheses" name="Use_of_parentheses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Use of parentheses</span></h3>
<p>While any number of logical ANDs (or any number of logical ORs) may be chained together without ambiguity, the combination of ANDs and ORs and NOTs can lead to ambiguous cases. In such cases, parentheses may be used to clarify the order of operations. As always, the operations within the innermost pair is performed first, followed by the next pair out, etc., until all operations within parentheses have been completed. Then any operations outside the parentheses are performed.<p><a id="Properties" name="Properties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Properties</span></h2>
<p>Let's define symbols for the two primary binary operations as <img alt="\land / \cap" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4519.png" /> (logical AND/intersection) and <img alt="\lor / \cup" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4520.png" /> (logical OR/union), and for the single unary operation <img alt="\lnot" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4521.png" /> / ~ (logical NOT/complement). We will also use the values 0 (logical FALSE/the empty set) and 1 (logical TRUE/the universe). The following properties apply to both Boolean algebra and Boolean logic:<dl>
<dd>
<table cellpadding="5">
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor (b \lor c) = (a \lor b) \lor c" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4522.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land (b \land c) = (a \land b) \land c" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4523.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> associativity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor b = b \lor a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4524.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land b = b \land a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4525.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> commutativity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor (a \land b) = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4526.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land (a \lor b) = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4527.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> absorption</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor (b \land c) = (a \lor b) \land (a \lor c)" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4528.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land (b \lor c) = (a \land b) \lor (a \land c)" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4529.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> distributivity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor \lnot a = 1" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4530.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land \lnot a = 0" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4531.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> complements</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor a = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4533.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land a = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4534.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> idempotency</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor 0 = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4539.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land 1 = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4540.png" /></td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> boundedness</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="a \lor 1 = 1" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4542.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="a \land 0 = 0" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4543.png" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="\lnot 0 = 1" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4545.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="\lnot 1 = 0" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4546.png" /></td>
<td>0 and 1 are <!--del_lnk--> complements</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="\lnot (a \lor b) = \lnot a \land \lnot b" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4547.png" /></td>
<td><img alt="\lnot (a \land b) = \lnot a \lor \lnot b" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4548.png" /></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> de Morgan's laws</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img alt="\lnot \lnot a = a" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4550.png" /></td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> involution</td>
</tr>
</table>
</dl>
<p>The first three properties define a <!--del_lnk--> lattice; the first five define a <!--del_lnk--> Boolean algebra.<p><a id="Truth_tables" name="Truth_tables"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Truth tables</span></h2>
<p>For Boolean logic using only two values, 0 and 1, the INTERSECTION and UNION of those values may be defined using <!--del_lnk--> truth tables such as these:<table>
<tr>
<td width="80">
</td>
<td>
<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th><img alt="\cap" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4551.png" /></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>0</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td width="40">
</td>
<td>
<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th><img alt="\cup" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4552.png" /></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>0</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>1</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li>More complex truth tables involving multiple inputs, and other Boolean operations, may also be created.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Truth tables have applications in <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">logic</a>, interpreting 0 as FALSE, 1 as TRUE, <img alt="\cap" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4551.png" /> as AND, <img alt="\cup" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4552.png" /> as OR, and ¬ as NOT.</ul>
<p><a id="Other_notations" name="Other_notations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other notations</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Mathematicians and <!--del_lnk--> engineers often use plus (+) for OR and a product sign (<img alt="\cdot" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4555.png" />) for AND. OR and AND are somewhat analogous to addition and multiplication in other <!--del_lnk--> algebraic structures, and this notation makes it very easy to get <!--del_lnk--> sum of products form for normal algebra. NOT may be represented by a line drawn above the expression being negated (<img alt="\overline{x}" class="tex" src="../../images/226/22674.png" />).<p><!--del_lnk--> Programmers will often use a pipe symbol (|) for OR, an ampersand (&) for AND, and a tilde (~) for NOT. In many <a href="../../wp/p/Programming_language.htm" title="Programming language">programming languages</a>, these symbols stand for <!--del_lnk--> bitwise operations. "||", "&&", and "!" are used for variants of these operations.<p>Another notation uses "meet" for AND and "join" for OR. However, this can lead to confusion, as the term "join" is also commonly used for any Boolean operation which combines sets together, which includes both AND and OR.<p><a id="Basic_mathematics_use_of_Boolean_terms" name="Basic_mathematics_use_of_Boolean_terms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Basic mathematics use of Boolean terms</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>In the case of simultaneous equations, they are connected with an implied logical AND:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>x + y = 2</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>AND</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>x - y = 2</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>The same applies to simultaneous inequalities:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>x + y < 2</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>AND</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>x - y < 2</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>The greater than or equals sign (<img alt="\ge" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4556.png" />) and less than or equals sign (<img alt="\le" class="tex" src="../../images/45/4557.png" />) may be assumed to contain a logical OR:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>X < 2</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>OR</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>X = 2</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>The plus/minus sign (<img alt="\pm" class="tex" src="../../images/446/44607.png" />), as in the case of the solution to a square root problem, may be taken as logical OR:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>WIDTH = 3</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>OR</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>WIDTH = -3</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="English_language_use_of_Boolean_terms" name="English_language_use_of_Boolean_terms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">English language use of Boolean terms</span></h2>
<p>Care should be taken when converting an English sentence into a formal Boolean statement. Many English sentences have imprecise meanings, e.g. "All that glitters is <b>not</b> gold," which could mean that "nothing that glitters is gold" or "some things which glitter are not gold".<p>AND and OR can also be used interchangeably in English, in certain cases:<ul>
<li>"I always carry an umbrella for when it rains <b>and</b> snows."</ul>
<ul>
<li>"I always carry an umbrella for when it rains <b>or</b> snows."</ul>
<p>Sometimes the English words AND and OR have the opposite meaning in Boolean logic:<ul>
<li>"Give me all the red <b>and</b> blue berries" usually means "Give me all berries that are red <b>or</b> blue". An alternative phrasing for standard written English: "Give me all berries that are red as well as all berries that are blue".</ul>
<p>Also note that the word OR in English may correspond with either logical OR or logical XOR, depending on the context:<ul>
<li>"I start to sweat when the humidity <b>or</b> temperature is high." (logical OR)</ul>
<ul>
<li>"You want ice cream and candy? You may have ice cream <b>or</b> candy." (logical XOR)</ul>
<p>The combination AND/OR is sometimes used in English to specify a logical OR, when just using the word OR alone might have been mistaken as meaning logical XOR:<ul>
<li>"I'm having chicken <b>and/or</b> beef for dinner." (logical OR). An alternative phrasing for standard written English: "I'm having either chicken or beef or both for dinner."</ul>
<p>The use of the "and/or" <!--del_lnk--> virgule is generally disfavored in formal written English. Such usage may introduce critical imprecision in legal instruments, research findings, and <!--del_lnk--> specifications for computer programs or electronic circuits. For example, the statement: "the program should verify that the applicant has checked the male <b>or</b> female box", should be taken as an XOR, and a check added to ensure that one, and only one, box is selected. In other cases, the interpretation of English may be less certain, and the author of the specification may need to be consulted to determine their true intent.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p><a id="Digital_electronic_circuit_design" name="Digital_electronic_circuit_design"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Digital electronic circuit design</span></h3>
<p>Boolean logic is also used for circuit design in <a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>; here 0 and 1 may represent the two different states of one <!--del_lnk--> bit in a <!--del_lnk--> digital circuit, typically high and low <!--del_lnk--> voltage. Circuits are described by expressions containing variables, and two such expressions are equal for all values of the variables if, and only if, the corresponding circuits have the same input-output behavior. Furthermore, every possible input-output behaviour can be modeled by a suitable Boolean expression.<p>Basic <!--del_lnk--> logic gates such as AND, OR, and NOT gates may be used alone, or in conjunction with NAND, NOR, and XOR gates, to control digital electronics and circuitry. Whether these gates are wired in <!--del_lnk--> series or parallel controls the precedence of the operations.<p><a id="Database_applications" name="Database_applications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Database applications</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Relational databases use <!--del_lnk--> SQL, or other database-specific languages, to perform queries, which may contain Boolean logic. For this application, each record in a table may be considered to be an "element" of a "set". For example, in SQL, these <!--del_lnk--> SELECT statements are used to retrieve data from tables in the database:<pre>
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE LAST_NAME = 'Smith' AND FIRST_NAME = 'John' ;
</pre> <pre>
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE LAST_NAME = 'Smith' OR FIRST_NAME = 'John' ;
</pre> <pre>
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE NOT LAST_NAME = 'Smith' ;
</pre><p>Parentheses may be used to explicitly specify the order in which Boolean operations occur, when multiple operations are present:<pre>
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE (NOT LAST_NAME = 'Smith') AND (FIRST_NAME = 'John' OR FIRST_NAME = 'Mary') ;
</pre><p>Multiple sets of nested parentheses may also be used, where needed.<p>Any Boolean operation (or operations) which combines two (or more) tables together is referred to as a <b>join</b>, in relational database terminology.<p>In the field of <!--del_lnk--> Electronic Medical Records, some software applications use Boolean logic to query their patient databases, in what has been named <!--del_lnk--> Concept Processing technology.<p><a id="Search_engine_queries" name="Search_engine_queries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Search engine queries</span></h3>
<p>Search engine queries also employ Boolean logic. For this application, each web page on the Internet may be considered to be an "element" of a "set". The following examples use a syntax supported by <a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" title="Google">Google</a>.<ul>
<li>Doublequotes are used to combine whitespace-separated words into a single search term.<li>Whitespace is used to specify logical AND, as it is the default operator for joining search terms:</ul><pre>
"Search term 1" "Search term 2"
</pre><ul>
<li>The OR keyword is used for logical OR:</ul><pre>
"Search term 1" OR "Search term 2"
</pre><ul>
<li>The minus sign is used for logical NOT (AND NOT):</ul><pre>
"Search term 1" -"Search term 2"
</pre><p>
<br />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_logic"</div>
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Borage
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Borage</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
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<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Borage</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1988.jpg.htm" title="Borage flower"><img alt="Borage flower" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Starflower_1.jpg" src="../../images/19/1988.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Borage flower</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lamiales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boraginaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Borago</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>B. officinalis</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
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</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Borago officinalis</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
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</table>
<p><b>Borage</b> <i>(Borago officinalis or echium amoenum)</i>, also known as "starflower", (گل گاو زبان in Persian) is an annual <!--del_lnk--> herb originating in Syria, but naturalized throughout the Mediterranean region, as well as most of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, North Africa, and Iran. It grows to a height of 60-100 cm, and is bristly-hairy all over the stems and <!--del_lnk--> leaves; the leaves are alternate, simple, and 5-15 cm long. The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are small, blue or pink, with five narrow, triangular-pointed petals. It produces plenty of seeds and thus continues to grow and spread prolifically from where it is first sown or planted. In milder climates, borage will bloom continuously for most of the year.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1989.jpg.htm" title="Borage plant"><img alt="Borage plant" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Borage.jpg" src="../../images/19/1989.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1989.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Borage plant</div>
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</div>
<p>The leaves have been found to contain small amounts (10 ppm of dried herb) of the <!--del_lnk--> liver-toxic <!--del_lnk--> pyrrolizidine <!--del_lnk--> alkaloids: <!--del_lnk--> intermedine, <!--del_lnk--> lycopsamine, <!--del_lnk--> amabiline and <!--del_lnk--> supinine. They taste like fresh <!--del_lnk--> cucumber and are used in salads and soups especially in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. One of the better known recipes with borage is the <!--del_lnk--> Green Sauce made in <a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>. Frankfurter Grüne Sauce, as it is called in Germany, is made from seven herbs: <a href="../../wp/p/Parsley.htm" title="Parsley">parsley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> chervil, <a href="../../wp/c/Chives.htm" title="Chives">chives</a>, <!--del_lnk--> cress, <a href="../../wp/s/Sorrel.htm" title="Sorrel">sorrel</a>, <!--del_lnk--> burnet and <b>borage</b>.<p>The flower, which contains the non-toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloid <!--del_lnk--> thesinine, has a sweet honey-like taste and is often used to decorate <!--del_lnk--> desserts and dishes. If frozen into ice-cubes, the flowers become exotic drink coolers.<p>The oil that is extracted from the seeds (marketed as "starflower oil" or "borage oil") is a good source of <!--del_lnk--> gamma-linolenic acid.<p>Borage is also rich in <!--del_lnk--> oleic and <!--del_lnk--> palmitic acid, conferring a hypocholesterolemic effect. This oil, which has recently been commercialised, may regulate metabolism and the hormonal system, and is considered by many naturopathic practitioners to be a good remedy for <!--del_lnk--> PMS. Borage is also sometimes indicated to alleviate and heal colds, bronchitis, and respiratory infections in general for its <!--del_lnk--> anti-inflammatory and balsamic properties.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1990.jpg.htm" title="Detail of flower"><img alt="Detail of flower" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Borage-flower-hr.jpg" src="../../images/19/1990.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1990.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Detail of flower</div>
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</div><b><!--del_lnk--> Herbs and <!--del_lnk--> spices</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;">
</td>
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<td>Herbs</td>
<td style="border-left: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="../../wp/b/Basil.htm" title="Basil">Basil</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Bay leaf · <!--del_lnk--> Boldo · <strong class="selflink">Borage</strong> · <!--del_lnk--> Chervil · <a href="../../wp/c/Chives.htm" title="Chives">Chives</a> · <a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" title="Coriander">Coriander leaf (cilantro)</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Curry leaf · <a href="../../wp/d/Dill.htm" title="Dill">Dill</a> · <a href="../../wp/e/Epazote.htm" title="Epazote">Epazote</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Eryngium foetidum (long coriander) · <a href="../../wp/f/Fennel.htm" title="Fennel">Fennel</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Holy basil · <!--del_lnk--> Houttuynia cordata · <!--del_lnk--> Hyssop · <!--del_lnk--> Lavender · <a href="../../wp/c/Cymbopogon.htm" title="Cymbopogon">Lemon grass</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Limnophila aromatica (rice paddy herb) · <a href="../../wp/l/Lovage.htm" title="Lovage">Lovage</a> · <a href="../../wp/m/Marjoram.htm" title="Marjoram">Marjoram</a> · <a href="../../wp/m/Mentha.htm" title="Mentha">Mint</a> · <a href="../../wp/o/Oregano.htm" title="Oregano">Oregano</a> · <a href="../../wp/p/Parsley.htm" title="Parsley">Parsley</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Perilla · <a href="../../wp/r/Rosemary.htm" title="Rosemary">Rosemary</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Rue · <a href="../../wp/c/Common_sage.htm" title="Common sage">Sage</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Savory · <a href="../../wp/s/Sorrel.htm" title="Sorrel">Sorrel</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Stevia · <a href="../../wp/t/Tarragon.htm" title="Tarragon">Tarragon</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Thyme · <!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese coriander (rau ram)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;">
</td>
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<tr style="font-size:90%;">
<td>Spices</td>
<td style="border-left: 1px solid #ccc;"><!--del_lnk--> African pepper · <!--del_lnk--> Ajwain (bishop's weed) · <!--del_lnk--> Allspice · <a href="../../wp/m/Mango.htm" title="Mango">Amchur (mango powder)</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Anise · <!--del_lnk--> Asafoetida · <!--del_lnk--> Caraway · <!--del_lnk--> Cardamom · <!--del_lnk--> Cardamom, black · <!--del_lnk--> Cassia · <a href="../../wp/c/Celery.htm" title="Celery">Celery seed</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Chili · <!--del_lnk--> Cinnamon · <!--del_lnk--> Clove · <a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" title="Coriander">Coriander seed</a> · <a href="../../wp/c/Cubeb.htm" title="Cubeb">Cubeb</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Cumin · <!--del_lnk--> Cumin, black · <a href="../../wp/d/Dill.htm" title="Dill">Dill seed</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Fenugreek · <!--del_lnk--> Galangal · <!--del_lnk--> Garlic · <!--del_lnk--> Ginger · <!--del_lnk--> Grains of paradise · <!--del_lnk--> Horseradish · <a href="../../wp/j/Juniper_berry.htm" title="Juniper berry">Juniper berry</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Liquorice · <a href="../../wp/n/Nutmeg.htm" title="Nutmeg">Mace</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Mahlab · <!--del_lnk--> Mustard, black · <!--del_lnk--> Mustard, white · <!--del_lnk--> Nigella (kalonji) · <a href="../../wp/n/Nutmeg.htm" title="Nutmeg">Nutmeg</a> · <a href="../../wp/p/Paprika.htm" title="Paprika">Paprika</a> · <a href="../../wp/b/Black_pepper.htm" title="Black pepper">Pepper, black</a> · <a href="../../wp/b/Black_pepper.htm" title="Black pepper">Pepper, green</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Pepper, pink · <a href="../../wp/b/Black_pepper.htm" title="Black pepper">Pepper, white</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Pomegranate seed (anardana) · <!--del_lnk--> Poppy seed · <a href="../../wp/s/Saffron.htm" title="Saffron">Saffron</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Sarsaparilla · <!--del_lnk--> Sassafras · <a href="../../wp/s/Sesame.htm" title="Sesame">Sesame</a> · <a href="../../wp/s/Sichuan_Pepper.htm" title="Sichuan Pepper">Sichuan pepper</a> · <a href="../../wp/s/Star_anise.htm" title="Star anise">Star anise</a> · <a href="../../wp/s/Sumac.htm" title="Sumac">Sumac</a> · <a href="../../wp/t/Tamarind.htm" title="Tamarind">Tamarind</a> · <a href="../../wp/t/Turmeric.htm" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a> · <a href="../../wp/w/Wasabi.htm" title="Wasabi">Wasabi</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Zedoary</td>
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<p>
<br />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borage"</div>
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['Scientific classification', 'Plant', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Europe', 'Flower', 'Germany', 'Frankfurt', 'Parsley', 'Chives', 'Sorrel', 'Basil', 'Chives', 'Coriander', 'Dill', 'Epazote', 'Fennel', 'Cymbopogon', 'Lovage', 'Marjoram', 'Mentha', 'Oregano', 'Parsley', 'Rosemary', 'Common sage', 'Sorrel', 'Tarragon', 'Mango', 'Celery', 'Coriander', 'Cubeb', 'Dill', 'Juniper berry', 'Nutmeg', 'Nutmeg', 'Paprika', 'Black pepper', 'Black pepper', 'Black pepper', 'Saffron', 'Sesame', 'Sichuan Pepper', 'Star anise', 'Sumac', 'Tamarind', 'Turmeric', 'Wasabi']
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Boris_Becker
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger; margin-left: 1em;"><b>Boris Becker</b></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/525/52539.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boris_Becker2.jpg" src="../../images/525/52539.jpg" width="180" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Country</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Residence</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Schwyz, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Date of birth</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 22 November <!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Place of birth</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Leimen, Germany</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Height</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1.90 <!--del_lnk--> m (6 <!--del_lnk--> ft 3 <!--del_lnk--> in)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Weight</b></td>
<td colspan="2">85 <!--del_lnk--> kg (187 <!--del_lnk--> lb)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Turned Pro</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Retired</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Plays</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Right</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career Prize Money</b></td>
<td colspan="2">$25,080,956</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #CCCCCC;"><b>Singles</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career record:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">713 - 214</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career titles:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Highest ranking:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1 (<!--del_lnk--> 28 January <!--del_lnk--> 1991)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #ffffff;"><b>Grand Slam results</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Australian Open</td>
<td colspan="2"><b>W</b> (1991, '96)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="French Open (tennis)">French Open</a></td>
<td colspan="2">SF (1987, '89, '91)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><b>W</b> (1985, '86, '89)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Open</td>
<td colspan="2"><b>W</b> (1989)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #CCCCCC;"><b>Doubles</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career record:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">254 - 136</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career titles:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Highest ranking:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">6 (<!--del_lnk--> 22 September <!--del_lnk--> 1986)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="font-size: 80%; font-weight: lighter; text-align: center;">
<p><span style="margin: 1em; color: #555;">Infobox last updated on: N/A.</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 23em; font-size: 90%;">
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<td colspan="3"><b>Olympic medal record</b></td>
</tr>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#EEEEEE">
<th colspan="4">Men's <!--del_lnk--> Tennis</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center" bgcolor="white" valign="middle">
<td bgcolor="gold"><b>Gold</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1992 Barcelona</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Men's doubles</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Boris Franz Becker</b> (b. <!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1967 in <!--del_lnk--> Leimen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>) is a former <!--del_lnk--> World No. 1 professional <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> player from Germany. He is a six-time <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> singles champion, an <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</a> gold medalist, and the youngest-ever winner of the men's singles title at <!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon at the age of 17. Since he retired from the professional tour, media work and colourful aspects of his personal life have kept him in the headlines.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Tennis_career" name="Tennis_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tennis career</span></h2>
<p>Becker is the only son of an <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architect</a>, who built the tennis centre where Boris learned the game. Becker turned professional in <!--del_lnk--> 1984 and won his first professional doubles title that year in <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>.<p>The orange-blond teenager took the sports world by storm in <!--del_lnk--> 1985. He won his first top-level singles title in June at <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Club and then, two weeks later, became the first unseeded player, the youngest-ever male, and the first German to win the <!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon singles title, defeating <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Curren in four sets. At the time, he was the youngest-ever male Grand Slam singles champion at 17 years, 7 months (a record broken by <!--del_lnk--> Michael Chang who won the <!--del_lnk--> French Open when he was 17 years, 3 months). Two months after his triumph, Becker became the youngest winner of the <!--del_lnk--> Cincinnati Masters.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1986, Becker successfully defended his Wimbledon title, defeating <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl (world #1 at the time) in straight sets.<p>Becker unexpectedly lost in the second round of Wimbledon in <!--del_lnk--> 1987. In the <a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" title="Davis Cup">Davis Cup</a>, Becker and <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a> played one of the longest matches in tennis history. Becker won 4-6, 15-13, 8-10, 6-2, 6-2 (at that time, there were no tiebreaks in the Davis Cup). The match lasted 6 hours and 39 minutes.<p>Becker was back in the Wimbledon final in <!--del_lnk--> 1988, where he lost in four sets to <a href="../../wp/s/Stefan_Edberg.htm" title="Stefan Edberg">Stefan Edberg</a> in a match that marked the start of one of Wimbledon's great rivalries. Becker also helped West Germany win its first Davis Cup in 1988. And he won the year-end Masters in New York, defeating five-time champion Lendl 5-7, 7-6, 3-6, 6-2, 7-6.<p><!--del_lnk--> 1989 was possibly the pinnacle of Becker's career. He defeated Edberg in straight sets in the Wimbledon final and then beat Lendl in the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">U.S. Open</a>. He also helped West Germany retain the Davis Cup, winning a long match in the quarterfinal round against <!--del_lnk--> Andre Agassi, 6-7, 6-7, 7-6, 6-4, 6-4. The World No. 1 ranking, however, still eluded him.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1990, Becker met Edberg for the third consecutive year in the Wimbledon final, losing a long five-set match.<p>Becker reached the final of the <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a> for the first time in his career in <!--del_lnk--> 1991, where he defeated Lendl to finally claim the World No. 1 ranking. He was ranked No. 1 for several weeks during 1991, though he never managed to finish a year ranked as the World's No. 1 player.<p>Becker reached his fourth consecutive Wimbledon final in 1991, where he unexpectedly lost in straight sets to his German compatriot <!--del_lnk--> Michael Stich. Becker and Stich developed a long-standing fierce rivalry, the media often pairing up the raw, passionate Becker against the level-headed, suave Stich. However, Becker and Stich teamed up in <!--del_lnk--> 1992 to win the men's doubles gold medal at the <!--del_lnk--> Olympic Games in <a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>.<p>Becker defeated <!--del_lnk--> Jim Courier in straight sets to win the 1992 year-end ATP Tour World Championships, held then in Frankfurt, Germany.<p>Becker reached the Wimbledon final for the seventh time in <!--del_lnk--> 1995, where he lost in four sets to <a href="../../wp/p/Pete_Sampras.htm" title="Pete Sampras">Pete Sampras</a>. He won the year-end ATP Tour World Championships in Frankfurt with a straight-set win over Michael Chang in the final.<p>Becker's sixth and final Grand Slam title came in <!--del_lnk--> 1996, when he defeated <!--del_lnk--> Michael Chang in the final of the Australian Open. In that tournament, Becker delivered one of the funniest victory speeches in recent tennis history. When he listed his sponsors, he cut himself short saying that he did not have the whole day left. He then said that in prior years, when he was eliminated early, the organisation was so good that he really enjoyed watching the matches on TV. And he consoled losing finalist Chang by saying that his (Becker's) days were numbered, while Chang was still a young guy.<p>Becker lost to Sampras in the final of the 1996 ATP Tour World Championships in Hannover, Germany, 3-6, 7-6, 7-6, 6-7, 6-4. Becker saved two match points in the fourth set and held serve 27 consecutive times until he was broken in the penultimate game. Sampras, who had lost to Becker a month earlier in a five-set final in Stuttgart, later called Becker the best indoor player he ever faced.<p>In 1997, Becker also lost to Sampras in a quarterfinal at Wimbledon, in what many had thought would be Becker's final appearance there. In 1999, however, he again played at Wimbledon, losing in the fourth round to <!--del_lnk--> Patrick Rafter.<p>Becker was most comfortable playing on fast-playing surfaces, particularly indoor carpet (on which he won 26 titles) and <!--del_lnk--> grass courts. He reached a few finals playing on <!--del_lnk--> clay courts but never won a clay court tournament in his professional career. His best performances at the <!--del_lnk--> French Open were when he reached the semifinals in 1987, 1989, and 1991.<p>Over the course of his career, Becker won 49 singles titles and 15 doubles titles. Besides his six Grand Slam titles, he was also a singles winner in the year-end <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">Tennis Masters Cup</a> in 1988, 1992, and 1995, and at the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Slam Cup in 1996. He won a record-equalling four singles titles at London's Queen's Club. In Davis Cup, his career win-loss record was 54-12, including 38-3 in singles. He also won the other two major international team titles playing for Germany – the <a href="../../wp/h/Hopman_Cup.htm" title="Hopman Cup">Hopman Cup</a> (in 1995) and the <!--del_lnk--> World Team Cup (in 1989 and '98).<p>Becker won singles titles in 14 different countries: <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands, <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Becker was inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> International Tennis Hall of Fame.<p>Becker occasionally plays on the senior tour and in <!--del_lnk--> World Team Tennis. He also commentates at Wimbledon for the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> each year.<p><a id="Grand_Slam_singles_finals" name="Grand_Slam_singles_finals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grand Slam singles finals</span></h2>
<p><a id="Wins_.286.29" name="Wins_.286.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wins (6)</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td width="50"><b>Year</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Championship</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Opponent in Final</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Score in Final</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/525/52541.png" width="25" /></a>/ <a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/106/10674.png" width="25" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Curren</td>
<td>6-3, 6-7, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(2)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/37/3799.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg" src="../../images/525/52542.png" width="25" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl</td>
<td>6-4, 6-3, 7-5</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(3)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/188/18803.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg" src="../../images/525/52543.png" width="25" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Stefan_Edberg.htm" title="Stefan Edberg">Stefan Edberg</a></td>
<td>6-0, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<td>1989</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">U.S. Open</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/37/3799.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg" src="../../images/525/52542.png" width="25" /></a> Ivan Lendl</td>
<td>7-6, 1-6, 6-3, 7-6</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCFF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/37/3799.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg" src="../../images/525/52542.png" width="25" /></a> Ivan Lendl</td>
<td>1-6, 6-4, 6-4, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCFF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td>Australian Open <small>(2)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/106/10674.png" width="25" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Michael Chang</td>
<td>6-2, 6-4, 2-6, 6-2</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Runner-ups_.284.29" name="Runner-ups_.284.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Runner-ups (4)</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td width="50"><b>Year</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Championship</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Opponent in Final</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Score in Final</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/188/18803.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg" src="../../images/525/52543.png" width="25" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Stefan_Edberg.htm" title="Stefan Edberg">Stefan Edberg</a></td>
<td>4-6, 7-6, 6-4, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td>Wimbledon</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/188/18803.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg" src="../../images/525/52543.png" width="25" /></a> Stefan Edberg</td>
<td>6-2, 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td>Wimbledon</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/15/1566.png" width="25" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Michael Stich</td>
<td>6-4, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1995</td>
<td>Wimbledon</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/106/10674.png" width="25" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Pete_Sampras.htm" title="Pete Sampras">Pete Sampras</a></td>
<td>6-7, 6-2, 6-4, 6-2</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Grand_Slam_singles_performance_timeline" name="Grand_Slam_singles_performance_timeline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grand Slam singles performance timeline</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr bgcolor="#EFEFEF">
<th>Tournament</th>
<th>1984</th>
<th>1985</th>
<th>1986</th>
<th>1987</th>
<th>1988</th>
<th>1989</th>
<th>1990</th>
<th>1991</th>
<th>1992</th>
<th>1993</th>
<th>1994</th>
<th>1995</th>
<th>1996</th>
<th>1997</th>
<th>1998</th>
<th>1999</th>
<th>Career SR</th>
<th>Career Win-Loss</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center">NH</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">1R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">1R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">1R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>2 / 11</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>29-9</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><!--del_lnk--> French Open</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">1R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>0 / 9</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>26-9</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>3 / 15</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>71-12</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><!--del_lnk--> US Open</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">1R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>1 / 11</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>37-10</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;">SR</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">2 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 0</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 1</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>6 / 46</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">N/A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;">Annual Win-Loss</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">6-2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">11-3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">16-2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">11-4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">10-3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">22-2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">15-4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">20-3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">9-3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">9-4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">5-2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">13-4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">9-1</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">4-2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0-0</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">3-1</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">N/A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>163-40</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>NH = tournament not held.<p>A = did not participate in the tournament.<p>SR = the ratio of the number of Grand Slam singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played.<p><a id="Singles_titles_.2849.29" name="Singles_titles_.2849.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Singles titles (49)</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1985 (3) - <b>Wimbledon</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Cincinnati, <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Club<li>1986 (6) - <b>Wimbledon</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Open, <!--del_lnk--> Paris Indoor, Chicago, Sydney Indoor, Tokyo Indoor<li>1987 (3) - <!--del_lnk--> Indian Wells, Milan, <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Club<li>1988 (7) - <!--del_lnk--> Indian Wells, <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">Masters</a><small>*</small>, Dallas WCT, <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Club, Stockholm, Tokyo Indoor, Indianapolis<li>1989 (5) - <b>Wimbledon</b>, <b>US Open</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Paris Indoor, Milan, Philadelphia<li>1990 (5) - <!--del_lnk--> Stockholm, Brussels, Stuttgart Indoor, Sydney Indoor, Indianapolis<li>1991 (2) - <b>Australian Open</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Stockholm<li>1992 (5) - <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">ATP World Championship</a><small>*</small>, <!--del_lnk--> Paris Indoor, Basel, Brussels, Rotterdam<li>1993 (2) - Doha, Milan<li>1994 (4) - <!--del_lnk--> Stockholm, Los Angeles, Milan, New Haven<li>1995 (2) - <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">ATP World Championship</a><small>*</small>, <!--del_lnk--> Marseille<li>1996 (5) - <b>Australian Open</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Stuttgart Indoor, <!--del_lnk--> Grand Slam Cup, <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Club, Vienna</ul>
<p><small>*</small> - Year-End Championship Official Names: <i>Before 1989 : Masters</i>, <i>1990 - 1999 : ATP World Championship</i><br />
<p><a id="Doubles_titles_.2815.29" name="Doubles_titles_.2815.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Doubles titles (15)</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1984 (1) - Munich<li>1986 (2) - Sydney Indoor, Brussels<li>1987 (3) - Frankfurt, Brussels, Milan<li>1988 (2) - Indian Wells, Milan<li>1989 (1) - Indian Wells<li>1990 (1) - Indian Wells<li>1992 (3) - Brussels, <b>Barcelona Olympics</b>, Monte Carlo<li>1993 (1) - Doha<li>1995 (1) - Milan</ul>
<p><a id="Playing_style" name="Playing_style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Playing style</span></h2>
<p>Becker's game was based on a huge <!--del_lnk--> serve that earned him the nicknames "Boom Boom" and "Baron von Slam." His penchant to throw himself at every shot with diving volleys endeared him to the crowds. His heavy forehand and powerful return of serve were also very significant factors in his game. For much of his career, Becker was the crown prince of the singles world rankings, spending long periods ranked as World No. 2, mostly behind Ivan Lendl and Stefan Edberg. He was ranked No. 1 for a total of 12 weeks.<p>Becker was notorious for his frequent emotional outbreaks on court. Whenever he played badly, he would loudly swear at himself, and sometimes even smashed his rackets on court. However, in contrast to <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a>, he rarely showed aggression towards his opponents. His raw displays of emotions made him a crowd favourite. Becker's highly dramatic play spawned a plethora of new expressions, such as the <i>Becker Blocker</i> (his trademark early return shot), the <i>Becker Hecht</i> (his flying lunge), the <i>Becker Faust</i> ("Becker Fist"), the <i>Becker Shuffle</i> (the dance he sometimes performed after making important points) and <i>Becker Säge</i> ("Becker Saw" – referring to the way in which he famously pumped his fists in a sawing motion).<p>Becker's high-power tennis made him one of the most dangerous lawn and hard court players, but he was notoriously ineffective on clay. He never won a top-level singles title on clay. Becker and Stich, however, won the men's doubles Olympic gold medal in 1992 on clay.<p><a id="Personal_life" name="Personal_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personal life</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1993, Becker married the <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a> and <!--del_lnk--> designer <!--del_lnk--> Barbara Feltus, the daughter of an <!--del_lnk--> African American serviceman and a white German woman. A month later, their son Noah was born. He was named after Becker's friend <!--del_lnk--> Yannick Noah. Their second child, Elias, was born in September 1999. Before the marriage, they shocked Germans by posing nude for the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Stern</i> (the picture was taken by her father). After the shock of their coupling faded, Boris and Barbara became the model for a New Germany. Becker gained the respect of his countrymen for his stance against racism and intolerance.<p>However, all that changed when he asked Barbara for a separation. Becker claimed he merely wanted some time out. But she flew to <a href="../../wp/m/Miami%252C_Florida.htm" title="Miami, Florida">Miami</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <!--del_lnk--> USA a week later with Noah and Elias and filed a petition in <!--del_lnk--> Miami-Dade County Court, sidestepping their <!--del_lnk--> prenuptial agreement, which had entitled her to a single $2.5 million payoff. The January 2001 pretrial hearing was broadcast live to Germany. Becker was granted a divorce on <!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2001. She got a $14.4 million settlement, their condo on the exclusive <!--del_lnk--> Fisher Island, and custody of Noah and Elias.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> test results forced Becker to admit paternity of a daughter, Anna (b. <!--del_lnk--> March 22, 2000), by Russian-African waitress Angela Ermakova. He at first denied paternity, and his lawyers suggested that Ermakova was part of a <!--del_lnk--> blackmail plot devised by the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Mafia. Nonetheless, in July 2001, he agreed to pay $5 million. As of April 2006, he was expressing huge joy from his relationship with this daughter.<p>Becker was convicted of tax evasion on <!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, when he admitted that he lived in Germany from 1991–93 while claiming to reside in <!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo. He was given two years probation, fined $500,000, and ordered to pay all court costs.<p>Since October 2005, Becker has been a team captain on the British TV sports <!--del_lnk--> quiz show <i><!--del_lnk--> They Think It's All Over</i>.<p>Becker speaks with a distinctive lisp and the Heidelberg region intonation. He is notorious for saying regularly <i>ääh, ääh</i>. He has been constantly mocked by comedians for this.<p>He is a fan of German <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> club <!--del_lnk--> Bayern Munich and serves on its advisory board together with, among others, <!--del_lnk--> Bavarian <!--del_lnk--> Minister-President <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Stoiber. He is also a fan of <!--del_lnk--> Chelsea FC. <!--del_lnk--> <p>He is not related to <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Becker, an <!--del_lnk--> ATP tour player who also comes from <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and who defeated André Agassi at the 2006 U.S. Open, Agassi's final match as a tennis professional.<p>Since retiring from the professional tour, Becker has lived in <!--del_lnk--> Schwyz in <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>His nickname in the German media is <i>“Bobbele”</i> (German <!--del_lnk--> baby talk for <i>“Boris”</i>).<li>The album title Nightfreak and the Sons of Becker by <!--del_lnk--> The Coral is a reference to him.<li>A large portion of the <!--del_lnk--> 1986 <a href="../../wp/i/Italo_disco.htm" title="Italo disco">Italo disco</a> hit "<!--del_lnk--> Geil" is about Becker, repeatedly stating that "Boris is geil (cool)" (the <!--del_lnk--> music video shows a picture of Becker, confirming the reference).<li>The Italian techno song "Balla Da Li" makes reference to several celebrities in succession, among them Boris Becker (the singer even follows his name with Becker's well-known <i>ääh, ääh</i> sound).</ul>
<p><a id="Books" name="Books"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Books</span></h2>
<p>In 2003, Becker published a tell-all autobiography, <i>Augenblick, verweile doch...</i> (English title: <i>The Player</i>).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Becker"</div>
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Boron
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boron</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">5</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/b/Beryllium.htm" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">boron</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%">-</span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">B</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">Al</a></span></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1991.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:B-TableImage.png" src="../../images/19/1991.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>boron, B, 5</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> metalloids</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>black/brown<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1992.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="64" longdesc="/wiki/Image:B%2C5.jpg" src="../../images/19/1992.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10.811<!--del_lnk--> (7) g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup> 2p<sup>1</sup></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 3</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Physical properties</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>2.34 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>2.08 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>2349 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (2076 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 3769 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>4200 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (3927 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 7101 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>50.2 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>480 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 11.087 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
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<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
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<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>2348</td>
<td>2562</td>
<td>2822</td>
<td>3141</td>
<td>3545</td>
<td>4072</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>rhombohedral</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>3<br /> (mildly <!--del_lnk--> acidic oxide)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>2.04 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 800.6 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>2nd: 2427.1 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>3rd: 3659.7 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 85 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
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<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 87 pm</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 82 pm</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>nonmagnetic</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 1.5×10<sup>4</sup> Ω·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 27.4 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 5–7 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 16200 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>(β form) 185 GPa</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>9.3</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Vickers hardness</td>
<td>49000 MPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-42-8</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
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<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of boron</caption>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
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<tr>
<td><sup>10</sup>B</td>
<td>19.9%*</td>
<td colspan="4">B is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 5 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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<tr>
<td><sup>11</sup>B</td>
<td>80.1%*</td>
<td colspan="4">B is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 6 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="6">*<small>Boron-10 content may be as low as 19.1% and as<br /> high as 20.3% in natural samples. Boron-11 is<br /> the remainder in such cases.</small></td>
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</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccc99; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
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<p><b>Boron</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈbɔːrɒn/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> with <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol <b>B</b>. A trivalent <!--del_lnk--> metalloid element, boron occurs abundantly in the ore <!--del_lnk--> borax. Boron is never found free in nature.<p>Several <!--del_lnk--> allotropes of boron exist; <!--del_lnk--> amorphous boron is a brown powder, though crystalline boron is black, hard (9.3 on <!--del_lnk--> Mohs' scale), and a weak conductor at room temperature.<p>Elemental boron is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry, while boron compounds play important roles as light structural materials, nontoxic insecticides and preservatives, and reagents for chemical synthesis.<p>Boron is an essential plant nutrient, and as an ultratrace mineral is necessary for the optimal health of animals, though its physiological role in animals is poorly understood.<p>
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</script><a id="Characteristics_of_the_element_and_boron_nitride" name="Characteristics_of_the_element_and_boron_nitride"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics of the element and boron nitride</span></h2>
<p>Brown amorphous boron is a product of certain chemical reactions. It contains boron atoms randomly bonded to each other without long range order.<p><!--del_lnk--> Crystalline boron, a very hard material with a high melting point, exists in many <!--del_lnk--> polymorphs. Two <!--del_lnk--> rhombohedral forms, α-boron and β-boron containing 12 and 106.7 atoms in the rhombohedral unit cell respectively, and 50-atom <!--del_lnk--> tetragonal boron are the three most characterised crystalline forms.<p>Optical characteristics of crystalline/metallic boron include the transmittance of <!--del_lnk--> infrared light. At standard temperatures, metallic boron is a poor <!--del_lnk--> electrical conductor, but is a good electrical conductor at high temperatures.<p>Chemically boron is <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electron</a>-deficient, possessing a vacant <!--del_lnk--> p-orbital. It is an <!--del_lnk--> electrophile. Compounds of boron often behave as <!--del_lnk--> Lewis acids, readily bonding with electron-rich substances to compensate for boron's electron deficiency. The reactions of boron are dominated by such requirement for electrons. Also, boron is the least <!--del_lnk--> electronegative non-metal, meaning that it is usually <!--del_lnk--> oxidized (loses electrons) in reactions.<p><!--del_lnk--> Boron nitride is a material in which the extra electron of nitrogen (with respect to carbon) in some ways compensates for boron's deficiency of an electron. Boron nitride can be used to make crystals that are extremely hard, second in hardness only to <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a>, and the similarity of this compound to diamond extends to other applications. Like diamond, boron nitride acts as an electrical <!--del_lnk--> insulator but is an excellent conductor of heat.<p>Like carbon, boron nitride exists in a second form that has structural and <!--del_lnk--> lubricating qualities similar to <!--del_lnk--> graphite. This form of boron nitride is composed of layers of fused hexagonal sheets (analogous to graphite). These sheets (unlike those in graphite) are <b>in registry</b>. This means that layers are placed directly upon one another such that a viewer looking down onto the structure would view only the top layer. The polar B-N bonds interfere with electron transfer so that boron nitride in this form is not an electrical conductor (in contrast to graphite which is a <!--del_lnk--> semimetal that conducts electricity through a network of pi bonds in the plane of its hexagonal sheets).<p>Boron nitride nanotubes can be constructed analogously to carbon nanotubes.<p>Boron is also similar to <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> with its capability to form stable <!--del_lnk--> covalently bonded molecular networks.<p><a id="Boron_Compounds" name="Boron_Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Boron Compounds</span></h2>
<p>The most economically important compounds of boron are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sodium tetraborate pentahydrate (<a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">Na</a><sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub>7</sub> · 5<!--del_lnk--> H<sub>2</sub>O), which is used in large amounts in making insulating <a href="../../wp/f/Fiberglass.htm" title="Fiberglass">fibreglass</a> and <!--del_lnk--> sodium perborate <!--del_lnk--> bleach,<li>Orthoboric acid (<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sub>3</sub>B<a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub>3</sub>) or <!--del_lnk--> boric acid, used in the production of textile <a href="../../wp/f/Fiberglass.htm" title="Fiberglass">fibreglass</a> and <!--del_lnk--> flat panel displays or <!--del_lnk--> eye drops, among many uses, and<li><!--del_lnk--> Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (<a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">Na</a><sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub>7</sub> · 10<!--del_lnk--> H<sub>2</sub>O) or <!--del_lnk--> borax, used in the production of adhesives, in anti-corrosion systems and many other uses.</ul>
<p><a id="Uses_for_Boron" name="Uses_for_Boron"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses for Boron</span></h2>
<p>Of the several hundred uses of boron compounds, especially notable uses include:<ul>
<li>Boron is an essential plant <!--del_lnk--> micronutrient, notably playing a role in plant <a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" title="Fertilizer">fertilization</a> and in the building of <!--del_lnk--> cell wall structures; as such, <!--del_lnk--> borates are used in <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>.<li>Because of its distinctive green flame, amorphous boron is used in <!--del_lnk--> pyrotechnic flares.<li><!--del_lnk--> Boric acid is an important compound used in <a href="../../wp/t/Textile.htm" title="Textile">textile</a> products. For example, boron compounds are used as nontoxic flame retardants used to treat cotton fibre. <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Boric acid is also traditionally used as an <!--del_lnk--> insecticide, notably against <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a> or <!--del_lnk--> cockroaches.<li>Compounds of boron are used extensively in organic synthesis and in the manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> borosilicate and <!--del_lnk--> borophosphosilicate <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glasses</a>.<li>Other compounds are used as <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a> preservatives, and are particularly attractive in this regard because they possess low <!--del_lnk--> toxicity.<li><!--del_lnk--> Borax is sometimes found in <!--del_lnk--> laundry detergent.<li><sup>10</sup>B is used to assist control of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors, a <!--del_lnk--> shield against <!--del_lnk--> radiation and in <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutron</a> detection.<li>Purified <sup>11</sup>B (<a href="#Depleted_boron" title="">depleted boron</a>) is used for <!--del_lnk--> borosilicate glasses in <!--del_lnk--> rad-hard electronics.<li>Research is being conducted into the production of hydrogen fuel through the interaction of water and a borohydride (such as NaBH<sub>4</sub>). The engine would work by mixing borohydride with water to produce hydrogen as needed, thus solving some present issues of safely transporting hydrogen gas. The research is being conducted at the University of Minessota, United States by Abu-Hamed and at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. To succeed, the rate of hydrogen production by the small engine needs only to meet the energy demands of the engine. Five kilograms of hydrogen (corresponding to 40 kg of NaBH<sub>4</sub>) has the same amount of energy as twenty gallons (60 kg) of fuel. <li><!--del_lnk--> Sodium borohydride (NaBH<sub>4</sub>), the same chemical as used in the experimental car, is a popular chemical <!--del_lnk--> reducing agent, used (for example) for reducing <!--del_lnk--> aldehydes and <!--del_lnk--> ketones to <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohols</a>. (citation needed)<li>Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight materials that are chiefly used for advanced <!--del_lnk--> aerospace structures as a component of <!--del_lnk--> composite materials, as well as limited production consumer and sporting goods such as golf clubs and <!--del_lnk--> fishing rods.<li>Boron in trace amounts is used as <!--del_lnk--> dopant for <!--del_lnk--> P-type semiconductors.<li>Boron is used as a melting point depressant in nickel-chromium braze alloys. Diffusion of the boron from the braze alloy into the parent metal at brazing temperature increases the melting temperature promoting solidification of the joint. Subsequent remelting occurs at a much higher temperature.</ul>
<p>Boron compounds are being investigated for use in a broad range of applications, including as components in sugar-permeable membranes, <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrate sensors and <!--del_lnk--> bioconjugates.<p>Medicinal applications being investigated include boron <!--del_lnk--> neutron capture therapy and <!--del_lnk--> drug delivery. Other boron compounds show promise in treating <!--del_lnk--> arthritis.<p><!--del_lnk--> Hydrides of boron are <!--del_lnk--> oxidized easily and liberate a considerable amount of <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a>. They have therefore been studied for use as possible <!--del_lnk--> rocket fuels, along with elemental boron. However, issues of cost, incomplete combustion, and <!--del_lnk--> boric oxide deposits have so far made this use infeasible.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Compounds of boron (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <i>Buraq</i> from <!--del_lnk--> Persian <i>Burah</i> from <!--del_lnk--> Turkish <i>Bor</i>) have been known of for thousands of years. In early Egypt, <!--del_lnk--> mummification depended upon an ore known as <!--del_lnk--> natron, which contained borates as well as some other common salts. Borax <!--del_lnk--> glazes were used in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> from 300 AD, and boron compounds were used in glassmaking in ancient Rome.<p>The element was not isolated until <!--del_lnk--> 1808 by Sir <a href="../../wp/h/Humphry_Davy.htm" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and <!--del_lnk--> Louis Jacques Thénard, to about 50 percent purity, by the <!--del_lnk--> reduction of <!--del_lnk--> boric acid with <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">sodium</a> or <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. These men did not recognize the substance as an element. It was <!--del_lnk--> Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1824 that identified boron as an element. The first pure boron was produced by the American chemist W. Weintraub in 1909, although this is disputed by some researchers.<p>Boron was not believed to be useful to the human body until 1989 research suggested its signficance.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> are the world's largest producers of boron. Turkey has almost 63% of the world’s boron potential and boron reserves. Boron does not appear in nature in elemental form but is found combined in <!--del_lnk--> borax, <!--del_lnk--> boric acid, <!--del_lnk--> colemanite, <!--del_lnk--> kernite, <!--del_lnk--> ulexite and <!--del_lnk--> borates. Boric acid is sometimes found in <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> spring waters. Ulexite is a <!--del_lnk--> borate <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> that naturally has properties of <!--del_lnk--> fibre optics.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1993.jpg.htm" title="Borax crystals"><img alt="Borax crystals" height="78" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Borax_crystals.jpg" src="../../images/19/1993.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1993.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Borax crystals</div>
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<p>Economically important sources are from the <!--del_lnk--> ore rasorite (kernite) and tincal (borax ore) which are both found in the <!--del_lnk--> Mojave Desert of <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, with borax being the most important source there. <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> is another place where extensive <!--del_lnk--> borax deposits are found.<p>Even a boron-containing natural <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic, <!--del_lnk--> boromycin, isolated from <!--del_lnk--> streptomyces, is known.<p>Pure elemental boron is not easy to prepare. The earliest methods used involve reduction of <!--del_lnk--> boric oxide with metals such as <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>. However the product is almost always contaminated with metal <!--del_lnk--> borides. (The reaction is quite spectacular though). Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halogenides with <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> at high temperatures. The highly pure boron, for the use in semiconductor industry, is produced by the decomposition of <!--del_lnk--> diborane at high temperatures and than further purified with the <!--del_lnk--> Czochralski process.<p>In 1997 <!--del_lnk--> crystalline boron (99% pure) cost about <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a>5 per <!--del_lnk--> gram and <!--del_lnk--> amorphous boron cost about US$2 per gram.<p><a id="Food" name="Food"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Food</span></h3>
<p>Boron occurs in all foods produced by plants. Since 1989 its nutritional value has been argued. The U.S. Department of agriculture conducted an experiment in which postmenopausal women took 3 mg of boron a day. The results showed that boron can drop excretion of calcium by 44%, and activate estrogen and vitamin D.<p>The US <!--del_lnk--> National Institute of Health quotes this source:<dl>
<dd>Total daily boron intake in normal <!--del_lnk--> human diets ranges from 2.1-4.3 mg boron/kg body weight (bw)/day. /Total boron/ Zook EG and Lehman J; J. Assoc. Off Agric. Chem. 48: 850-5 (1965)</dl>
<p><a id="Analytical_quantification" name="Analytical_quantification"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analytical quantification</span></h3>
<p>For determination of boron content in food or materials the <!--del_lnk--> colorimetric curcumin method is used. Boron has to be transferred to <!--del_lnk--> boric acid or <!--del_lnk--> borates and on reaction with <!--del_lnk--> curcumin in acidic solution a red colored boron-<!--del_lnk--> chelate complex - <!--del_lnk--> rosocyanine - is formed.<p><a id="Market_trend" name="Market_trend"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Market trend</span></h2>
<p>Estimated global consumption of boron rose to a record 1.8 million tonnes of B<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> in 2005 following a period of strong growth in demand from Asia, Europe and North America. Boron mining and refining capacities are considered to be adequate to meet expected levels of growth through the next decade.<p>The form in which boron is consumed has changed in recent years. The use of beneficiated ores like <!--del_lnk--> colemanite has declined following concerns over <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> content. Consumers have moved towards the use of refined borates or boric acid that have a lower pollutant content.<p>Increasing demand for boric acid has led a number of producers to invest in additional capacity. Eti Mine opened a new 100,000 tonnes per year capacity boric acid plant at Emet in 2003. <!--del_lnk--> Rio Tinto increased the capacity of its Boron plant from 260,000 tonnes per year in 2003 to 310,000 tonnes per year by May 2005, with plans to grow this to 366,000 tonnes per year in 2006.<p>Chinese boron producers have been unable to meet rapidly growing demand for high quality borates. This has led to imports of <!--del_lnk--> disodium tetraborate growing by a hundredfold between 2000 and 2005 and boric acid imports increasing by 28% per year over the same period.<p>The rise in global demand has been driven by high rates of growth in <!--del_lnk--> fibreglass and borosilicate production. A rapid increase in the manufacture of reinforcement-grade fibreglass in Asia with a consequent increase in demand for borates has offset the development of boron-free reinforcement-grade fibreglass in Europe and the USA. The recent rises in energy prices can be expected to lead to greater use of insulation-grade fibreglass, with consequent growth in the use of boron.<p><!--del_lnk--> Roskill Consulting Group forecasts that world demand for boron will grow by 3.4% per year to reach 21 million tonnes by 2010. The highest growth in demand is expected to be in Asia where demand could rise by an average 5.7% per year.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Boron has two naturally-occurring and stable <!--del_lnk--> isotopes, <sup>11</sup>B (80.1%) and <sup>10</sup>B (19.9%). The mass difference results in a wide range of δ<sup>11</sup>B values in natural waters, ranging from -16 to +59. There are 13 known isotopes of boron, the shortest-lived isotope is <sup>7</sup>B which decays through <!--del_lnk--> proton emission and <!--del_lnk--> alpha decay. It has a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 3.26500x10<sup>-22</sup> <!--del_lnk--> s. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B(<a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">H</a>)<sub>3</sub> and B(OH)<sub>4</sub>. Boron isotopes are also fractionated during <!--del_lnk--> mineral crystallization, during H<sub>2</sub>O phase changes in <!--del_lnk--> hydrothermal systems, and during hydrothermal alteration of <!--del_lnk--> rock. The latter effect species preferential removal of the <sup>10</sup>B(OH)<sub>4</sub> <!--del_lnk--> ion onto clays results in solutions enriched in <sup>11</sup>B(OH)<sub>3</sub> may be responsible for the large <sup>11</sup>B enrichment in seawater relative to both <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceanic</a> crust and <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continental</a> crust; this difference may act as an <!--del_lnk--> isotopic signature.<p>The exotic <sup>17</sup>B exhibits a <!--del_lnk--> Nuclear halo.<p><a id="Depleted_boron" name="Depleted_boron"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Depleted boron</span></h3>
<p>The <sup>10</sup>B isotope is good at capturing <!--del_lnk--> thermal neutrons from <!--del_lnk--> cosmic radiation. It then undergoes <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_fission.htm" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> - producing a <!--del_lnk--> gamma ray, an <!--del_lnk--> alpha particle, and a <a href="../../wp/l/Lithium.htm" title="Lithium">lithium</a> ion. When this happens inside of an <a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>, the fission products may then dump charge into nearby chip structures, causing data loss (bit flipping, or <!--del_lnk--> single event upset). In critical <a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor.htm" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> designs, <b>depleted boron</b> -- consisting almost entirely of <sup>11</sup>B -- is used to avoid this effect, as one of <!--del_lnk--> radiation hardening measures. <sup>11</sup>B is a by-product of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_power.htm" title="Nuclear power">nuclear industry</a>.<p><a id="B-10_enriched_boron" name="B-10_enriched_boron"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">B-10 enriched boron</span></h3>
<p>The <sup>10</sup>B isotope is good at capturing <!--del_lnk--> thermal neutrons, and this quality has been used in both radiation shielding and in <!--del_lnk--> neutron capture medical therapy where a tumor is treated with a compound containing <sup>10</sup>B is attached to a tissue, and the patient treated with a relatively low dose of thermal neutrons which go on to cause energetic and short range alpha radiation in the tissue treated with the boron isotope.<p>In nuclear reactors, <sup>10</sup>B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems. It can serve either function in the form of <!--del_lnk--> borosilicate rods or as <!--del_lnk--> boric acid. In <!--del_lnk--> pressurized water reactors, boric acid is added to the reactor coolant when the plant is shut down for refueling. It is then slowly filtered out over many months as fissile material is used up and the fuel becomes less reactive.<p>In future manned interplanetary spacecraft, <sup>10</sup>B has a theoretical role as structural material (as boron fibers or BN nanotube material) which also would serve a special role in the radiation shield. One of the difficulties in dealing with <!--del_lnk--> cosmic rays which are mostly high energy protons, is that some secondary radiation from interaction of cosmic rays and spacecraft structural materials, is high energy <!--del_lnk--> spallation neutrons. Such neutrons can be moderated by materials high in light elements such as structural polyethylene, but the moderated neutrons continue to be a radiation hazard unless actively absorbed in a way which dumps the absorption energy in the shielding, far away from biological systems. Among light elements that absorb thermal neutrons, <sup>6</sup>Li and <sup>10</sup>B appear as potential spacecraft structural materials able to do double duty in this regard.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>Elemental boron is nontoxic and common boron compounds such as borates and boric acid have low toxicity (approximately similar to table salt with the lethal dose being 2 to 3 grams per kg) and therefore do not require special precautions while handling. Some of the more exotic <!--del_lnk--> boron hydrogen compounds, however, <i>are</i> toxic as well as highly <!--del_lnk--> flammable and do require special handling care.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron"</div>
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<h2>SOS Children in Bosnia-Herzegovina</h2>
<img src="../../wp/b/Bosnia_Sponsorship_Locations.gif" width="405" height="416" alt="bosnia sponsorship locations" class="left" /><p>The Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina is still struggling to recover from three years of bloody inter-ethnic war during 1992-95. Around 250,000 people died in the conflict between Bosnian Muslims, Croats and Serbs - part of the break-up of Yugoslavia. </p><p>War, poverty and the daily struggle for survival have deeply affected the traditional extended family structure. Children and young people cope with deeply traumatic experiences relating to the war and post war period. Family violence is a problem. Bosnia and Herzegovina has become a regional centre for trafficked women and girls. </p><p>The war was still in progress when the charity first began working there in 1994 with an emergency aid programme for families in Sarajevo who were caring for orphaned children. Specialised treatment was also provided for a number of deaf and dumb children, as well as children suffering from diabetes. Youth clubs, which also offered therapy and counselling, were set up to help young people, families and children cope with the traumas life in the besieged city </p><p>After the war, work began on two SOS Children's communities. SOS Children Sarajevo, built on a site provided by the city authorities in Mojmila, a residential district which was extensively damaged during the war, took in its first families in 1997. All of the children were war-affected with parents killed or missing during the war. The village has fifteen family houses, built in traditional Bosnian style and a youth house. </p><p>In 1999 the charity finished work on an SOS Social Centre close to the Children’s Village. It includes a kindergarten for sixty children and a computer centre to train young people in IT skills. English and German language classes are provided, as well as handicrafts and visual arts workshops. Around 800 children and young people are currently benefiting from the facilities. There is also an adventure playground which provides somewhere for children from the SOS Children's Village and the neighbourhood to play in safety away from the busy city streets. </p><p>In autumn 2003 the popular Play-Mobil-Project, which has been running very successfully in Albania and Romania, was introduced in Sarajevo with the aim of helping to keep children off the streets. continued </p><p>Bosnia-Herzegovina’s second SOS Children’s communuity opened in north-eastern Bosnia on a hill overlooking the town of Gracanica, about 35 km from Tuzla in 1998. SOS Children Gracania has twelve family houses built in the traditional style and a youth house for the children who have grown up in the village and are now on the verge of independence. </p><p>Other SOS projects in Bosnia-Herzegovina include the rebuilding of two kindergartens in Mostar which were destroyed in the war, one of which has now been handed over to the city authorities to run, and a kindergarten in Gorazde.</p><h3>Local Contact</h3>
<p>SOS Children's Villages Bosnia and Herzegovina, Semira Fraste bb, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina </p><p>tel +387/33/465 218 e-mail [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Bosnia Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bosnia and Herzegovina</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.European_Countries.htm">European Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Bosnia and Herzegovina. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia.htm" title="SOS Children in Bosnia">SOS Children in Bosnia</a></div>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;"><i>Bosna i Hercegovina</i><br /> Босна и Херцеговина</span></b><br /><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span></b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2014.png.htm" title="Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina"><img alt="Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg" src="../../images/19/1994.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1995.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina"><img alt="Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina" height="97" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_Coats_of_Arms.svg" src="../../images/19/1995.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: none</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: "<!--del_lnk--> Intermeco"</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/19/1996.png.htm" title="Location of Bosnia and Herzegovina"><img alt="Location of Bosnia and Herzegovina" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBosniaAndHerzegovina.png" src="../../images/19/1996.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 43°52′N 18°25′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bosnian, <!--del_lnk--> Croatian, <!--del_lnk--> Serbian</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Presidency members</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Haris Silajdžić<sup>1 (<!--del_lnk--> Bosniak)</sup><br /><!--del_lnk--> Nebojša Radmanović <sup>(<!--del_lnk--> Serb)</sup><br /><!--del_lnk--> Željko Komšić <sup>(<!--del_lnk--> Croat)</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Chairman of the Council of Ministers</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Adnan Terzić</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>from <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslavia </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Recognized</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 6 April <!--del_lnk--> 1992 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 51,197 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 128th)<br /> 19,767 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - July 2006 estimate</td>
<td>4,498,976<sup>2</sup> (<!--del_lnk--> 127th<sup>3</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 1991 census</td>
<td>4,377,033<sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>76/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 116th<sup>3</sup>)<br /> 197/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2006 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$24.33 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 100th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$6,159 (<!--del_lnk--> 94th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2006)</th>
<td>0.800 (<font color="#009900">high</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 62nd)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Convertible mark (<code><!--del_lnk--> BAM<sup>4</sup></code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CET (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CEST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ba</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+387</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Current chairman of three-member rotating presidency.<br /><sup>2</sup> Population estimate from CIA World Factbook <!--del_lnk--> . Other estimates are about 500,000 lower.<br /><sup>3</sup> Rank based on 2005 UN estimate of de facto population<br /><sup>4</sup> The <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a> is also widely accepted; the <!--del_lnk--> Croatian kuna (<!--del_lnk--> HRK) also accepted in Croat-dominated areas of the <!--del_lnk--> Herzegovina region.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bosnia and Herzegovina</b>, also known as the <i>Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina</i> is a country on the <!--del_lnk--> Balkan peninsula of <!--del_lnk--> southern Europe with an area of 51,129 km² (19,741 square miles), and an estimated population of around four million people. It is known in the country's official languages as <i>Bosna i Hercegovina</i> or Босна и Херцеговина (in the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Cyrillic alphabets respectively), although the name is commonly abbreviated to <i>Bosnia</i>, <i>BIH', 'BiH</i> or БиХ.<p>The country is a homeland to three ethnic "<!--del_lnk--> constituent peoples": <!--del_lnk--> Bosniaks, <!--del_lnk--> Serbs and <!--del_lnk--> Croats. Regardless of ethnicity, a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> as a <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian. The country is decentralized and is administratively divided into two "entities", the <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the <!--del_lnk--> Republika Srpska.<p>Bordered by <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> to the north, west and south, <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> to the east, and <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> to the south, Bosnia and Herzegovina is landlocked, except for 20 km of the <!--del_lnk--> Adriatic Sea coastline, centered around the town of <!--del_lnk--> Neum. The interior of the country is heavily mountainous and divided by various rivers, most of which are nonnavigable. The nation's capital and largest city is <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>.<p>Formerly one of the six federal units constituting the <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence during the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav wars of the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s. As a result of the <!--del_lnk--> Dayton Accords it is currently administered in a supervisory role by a <!--del_lnk--> High Representative selected by the <!--del_lnk--> Peace Implementaton Council. More recently the country has acquired many central institutions (such as ministry of defense, state court etc.) as it takes the jurisdiction back from its entities.<p><!--del_lnk--> Bosnia itself is the chief geographic region of the modern state, with a moderate <!--del_lnk--> continental climate, consisting of hot summers and cold, snowy winters. <!--del_lnk--> Herzegovina is the southern tip of the country, known for its starkly <!--del_lnk--> Mediterranean climate and topography. It was included first as the official name of the then Ottoman province official name in the mid-<a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">nineteenth century</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The first preserved mention of the name "Bosnia" lies in the <i><!--del_lnk--> De Administrando Imperio</i>, a politico-geographical handbook written by <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine emperor <!--del_lnk--> Constantine VII in <!--del_lnk--> 958. The <!--del_lnk--> Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from <!--del_lnk--> 1172-<!--del_lnk--> 1196 also names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year <!--del_lnk--> 753. The exact meaning and origin of the word is unclear. The most popular theory holds that Bosnia comes from the name of the <!--del_lnk--> Bosna river around which it has been historically based. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European root <i>bos</i> or <i>bogh</i>, meaning "running water". Certain <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> sources similarly mention <i>Bathinus flumen</i>, or the <!--del_lnk--> Illyrian word <i>Bosona</i>, both of which would mean "running water" as well. Other theories involve the rare <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> term <i>Bosina</i>, meaning boundary, and possible <!--del_lnk--> Slavic origins.<p>The origins of the word "Herzegovina" can be identified with more precision and certainty. During the <!--del_lnk--> Early Middle Ages the region was known as <!--del_lnk--> Hum or Zahumlje, named after the <i>Zachlumoi</i> tribe of Slavs which inhabited it. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1440s, the region was ruled by powerful nobleman Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. In a document sent to <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich III on <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1448, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača called himself <i>Herzog of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Sava, lord of Hum and Primorje, great duke of the Bosnian kingdom</i> (<i>Herzog</i> means <!--del_lnk--> duke in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>) and so the lands he controlled would later become known as <i>Herzog's lands</i> or <i>Herzegovina</i>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Pre-Slavic_period" name="Pre-Slavic_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-Slavic period</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<p>Bosnia has been inhabited at least since <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic times. In the early <a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European tribes known as the Illyres or <!--del_lnk--> Illyrians. <!--del_lnk--> Celtic migrations in the <!--del_lnk--> 4th century BC and <!--del_lnk--> 3rd century BC displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> started in <!--del_lnk--> 229 BC, but Rome would not complete its annexation of the region until <!--del_lnk--> 9 AD. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from all over the <!--del_lnk--> Roman empire settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.<p><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> had already arrived in the region by the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a>, and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years <!--del_lnk--> 337 and <!--del_lnk--> 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>. The region was conquered by the <!--del_lnk--> Ostrogoths in <!--del_lnk--> 455, and further exchanged hands between the <!--del_lnk--> Alans and <!--del_lnk--> Huns in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Justinian had re-conquered the area for the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. The Slavs, a migratory people from northeastern Europe, were subjugated by the <!--del_lnk--> Avars in the <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a>, and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and <!--del_lnk--> 7th centuries, settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. The Serbs and Croats came in a second wave, invited by Emperor <a href="../../wp/h/Heraclius.htm" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> to drive the Avars from Dalmatia.<p><a id="Medieval_Bosnia" name="Medieval_Bosnia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Medieval Bosnia</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1997.jpg.htm" title="Bosnia in 10th century Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180-1204 Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353-1391 Borders of Bosnian state in second part of 15th century Bosnia and Herzegovina in second part of 19th century"><img alt="Bosnia in 10th century Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180-1204 Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353-1391 Borders of Bosnian state in second part of 15th century Bosnia and Herzegovina in second part of 19th century" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bosna.jpg" src="../../images/19/1997.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1997.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><small><font color="#EE7CA3">Bosnia in 10th century</font><br /><font color="#EF6E30">Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180-1204</font><br /><font color="#2859A3">Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353-1391</font><br /><font color="#B0B005">Borders of Bosnian state in second part of 15th century</font><br /><font color="#30925F">Bosnia and Herzegovina in second part of 19th century</font><br /></small></div>
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<p>Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a> is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to <!--del_lnk--> Feudalism only with <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Frankish</a> penetration into the region in the late <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a> (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal Slavic entity). It was also around this time that the south Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatian coast. The kingdoms of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a>, but by the <!--del_lnk--> High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the late <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a>, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local <!--del_lnk--> bans.<p>The first notable Bosnian monarch, <!--del_lnk--> Ban Kulin, presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with <!--del_lnk--> Dubrovnik and <!--del_lnk--> Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in <!--del_lnk--> 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in <!--del_lnk--> 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in <!--del_lnk--> 1254.<p>Bosnian history from then until the early <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a> was marked by the power struggle between the <!--del_lnk--> Šubić and <!--del_lnk--> Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in <!--del_lnk--> 1322, when <!--del_lnk--> Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in <!--del_lnk--> 1353, he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew <!--del_lnk--> Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in <!--del_lnk--> 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in <!--del_lnk--> 1377 when he was crowned in Mile near Visoko. Following his death in <!--del_lnk--> 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> had already started its <!--del_lnk--> conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans throughout the first half of the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in <!--del_lnk--> 1463. Herzegovina would follow in <!--del_lnk--> 1482, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in <!--del_lnk--> 1527.<p><a id="Ottoman_era" name="Ottoman_era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ottoman era</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1998.png.htm" title="The Ottoman province of Bosnia in 17th century."><img alt="The Ottoman province of Bosnia in 17th century." height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ottomanbosnia.PNG" src="../../images/19/1998.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1998.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Ottoman province of Bosnia in 17th century.</div>
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<p>The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced tremendous changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed, the Ottomans nonetheless allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity - a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Within this <!--del_lnk--> sandžak (and eventual <!--del_lnk--> vilayet) of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.<p>The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>), while a significant number of <!--del_lnk--> Sephardi Jews arrived following their <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Inquisition.htm" title="Spanish Inquisition">expulsion</a> from Spain in the late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian <!--del_lnk--> Franciscans (and the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, although on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded and their numbers dwindled. The <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and Podrinje, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the 19th century. Meanwhile, the schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.<p>As the Ottoman Empire thrived and expanded into Central Europe, Bosnia was relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a prolonged period of general welfare and prosperity. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and <!--del_lnk--> Mostar, were established and grew into major regional centers of trade and urban culture. Within these cities, various Sultans and governors financed the construction of many important works of <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian architecture (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Stari most and <!--del_lnk--> Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque). Furthermore, numerous Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian soldiers formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of <!--del_lnk--> Mohács and <!--del_lnk--> Krbava field, two decisive military victories, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military bureaucracy to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals, generals, and grand viziers. Many Bosnians also made a lasting impression on Ottoman culture, emerging as mystics, scholars, and celebrated poets in the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages.<p>However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Turkish War with the <!--del_lnk--> treaty of Karlowitz in <!--del_lnk--> 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following hundred years were marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's efforts at <!--del_lnk--> modernizing the Ottoman state were met with great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous (albeit ultimately unsuccessful) revolt by <a href="../../wp/h/Husein_Grada%25C5%25A1%25C4%258Devi%25C4%2587.htm" title="Husein Gradaščević">Husein Gradaščević</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1831. Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the <!--del_lnk--> Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in <!--del_lnk--> 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary through the <!--del_lnk--> treaty of Berlin in <!--del_lnk--> 1878.<p><a id="Austro-Hungarian_rule" name="Austro-Hungarian_rule"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Austro-Hungarian rule</span></h3>
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<p>Though an Austro-Hungarian occupying force quickly subjugated initial armed resistance upon take-over, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model <!--del_lnk--> colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization.<p>Although successful economically, Austro-Hungarian policy - which focused on advocating the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian <!--del_lnk--> nation (largely favored by the Muslims) - failed to curb the rising tides of nationalism. The concept of Croat and Serb nationhood had already spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholics and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid 19th century, and was too well-entrenched to allow for the wide-spread acceptance of a parallel idea of Bosnian nationhood. By the latter half of the <!--del_lnk--> 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections.<p>The idea of a <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">unified South Slavic state</a> (typically expected to be spear-headed by independent Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to formally annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 (see <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian Crisis) added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists. The political tensions caused by all this culminated on <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1914, when Serb nationalist youth <!--del_lnk--> Gavrilo Princip <!--del_lnk--> assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, <!--del_lnk--> Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo; an event that proved to be the spark that set off <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.<p><a id="The_first_Yugoslavia" name="The_first_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The first Yugoslavia</span></h3>
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<p>Following the war, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav <!--del_lnk--> kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. Although the initial split of the country into 33 <!--del_lnk--> oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as <!--del_lnk--> Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole.<p>The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in <!--del_lnk--> 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into <!--del_lnk--> banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous <!--del_lnk--> Cvetković-<!--del_lnk--> Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in <!--del_lnk--> 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Following a period that saw attempts at <!--del_lnk--> appeasement, the signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Tripartite Treaty, and a <!--del_lnk--> coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1941.<p><a id="World_War_II" name="World_War_II"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">World War II</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1999.jpg.htm" title="A Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern B&H."><img alt="A Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern B&H." height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TijentisteSutjeska.jpg" src="../../images/19/1999.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/19/1999.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Monument commemorating the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Sutjeska in eastern B&H.</div>
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<p>Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, all of Bosnia was ceded to the <!--del_lnk--> Nazi-puppet state of Croatia. The Nazi rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution of Jewish, Serbian and Gypsy civilians. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated and roughly 750,000 Serbs died as a result of genocide perpetrated by the Croatian Ustasha. Many Serbs in the area took up arms and joined the <!--del_lnk--> Chetniks; a Serb nationalist and royalist resistance movement that conducted <!--del_lnk--> guerrilla warfare against the Nazis.<p>Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of <!--del_lnk--> Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the <!--del_lnk--> partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On <!--del_lnk--> November 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1943 the <!--del_lnk--> Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in <!--del_lnk--> Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. Military success eventually prompted the <!--del_lnk--> Allies to support the Partisans, and the end of the war resulted in the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the <!--del_lnk--> constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.<p><a id="Socialist_Yugoslavia" name="Socialist_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Socialist Yugoslavia</span></h3>
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<p>Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in the <!--del_lnk--> war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s. However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Being one of the poorer republics in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1950s it quickly recovered economically, taking advantage of its extensive natural resources to stimulate industrial development. The Yugoslavian communist doctrine of "<!--del_lnk--> brotherhood and unity" particularly suited Bosnia's diverse and multi-ethnic society that, because of such an imposed system of tolerance, thrived culturally and socially.<p>Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 50s and 60s, the 70s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the <!--del_lnk--> non-aligned movement and Bosnian Muslims serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps. While working within the <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communist</a> system, politicians such as <!--del_lnk--> Džemal Bijedić, <!--del_lnk--> Branko Mikulić and <!--del_lnk--> Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in <!--del_lnk--> 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic hardly escaped the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. With the fall of communism and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.<p><a id="The_Bosnian_War" name="The_Bosnian_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Bosnian War</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2000.jpg.htm" title="Situation on the ground in the closing days of the war."><img alt="Situation on the ground in the closing days of the war." height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prije_daytona.JPG" src="../../images/20/2000.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2000.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Situation on the ground in the closing days of the war.</div>
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<p>The 1990 parliamentary elections led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>'s subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). A declaration of sovereignty in October of <!--del_lnk--> 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> in February and March <!--del_lnk--> 1992 boycotted by the great majority of Bosnian Serbs. With a voter turnout of 64%, 99.4% of which voted in favour of the proposal, Bosnia and Herzegovina became an independent state. Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on <!--del_lnk--> April 6.<p>International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did, however, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the <!--del_lnk--> Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. By <!--del_lnk--> 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of <!--del_lnk--> Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska.<p>In March <!--del_lnk--> 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This, along with international outrage at <!--del_lnk--> Serb war crimes and atrocities (most notably the <!--del_lnk--> genocidal killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak males in <!--del_lnk--> Srebrenica in July, <!--del_lnk--> 1995), eventually turned the tide of war. The signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Dayton Agreement in <!--del_lnk--> Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (<!--del_lnk--> Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (<!--del_lnk--> Franjo Tuđman), and Yugoslavia (<!--del_lnk--> Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The most recent research places the number of victims at around 100,000–110,000 killed (civilians and military), and 1.8 million displaced.<p><a id="Politics_and_government" name="Politics_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics and government</span></h2>
<p>The system of government established by the Dayton Accord is an example of consociationalism, as representation is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power. The Chair of the <!--del_lnk--> Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (<!--del_lnk--> Bosniak, <!--del_lnk--> Serb, <!--del_lnk--> Croat), each elected as the Chair for an 8-month term within their 4-year term as a member. The three members of the <!--del_lnk--> Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, <!--del_lnk--> Republika Srpska for the <!--del_lnk--> Serb). The Chair of the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.<p>The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.<p>The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of <!--del_lnk--> nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the <!--del_lnk--> European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2002.png.htm" title="Bosnia & Herzegovina comprises the Federation of Bosnia & Herzegovina (FBiH), the Republika Srpska (RS), and the Brčko District (BD)."><img alt="Bosnia & Herzegovina comprises the Federation of Bosnia & Herzegovina (FBiH), the Republika Srpska (RS), and the Brčko District (BD)." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bosniadivisions1.PNG" src="../../images/20/2002.png" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2002.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bosnia & Herzegovina comprises the Federation of Bosnia & Herzegovina (FBiH), the <!--del_lnk--> Republika Srpska (RS), and the <!--del_lnk--> Brčko District (BD).</div>
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<div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2003.png.htm" title="The FBiH consists of ten cantons."><img alt="The FBiH consists of ten cantons." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bosniadivisions2.PNG" src="../../images/20/2003.png" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2003.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The FBiH consists of ten cantons.</div>
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<div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2004.png.htm" title="Bosnia & Herzegovina is further split into 137 municipalities."><img alt="Bosnia & Herzegovina is further split into 137 municipalities." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bosniadivisions3.PNG" src="../../images/20/2004.png" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2004.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bosnia & Herzegovina is further split into 137 municipalities.</div>
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<p>Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring under the federal government level. Most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers some 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while <!--del_lnk--> Republika Srpska covers around 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time, were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 due to the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. Since <!--del_lnk--> 1996 the power of the entities relative to the federal government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The <!--del_lnk--> Brčko federal district in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. The Brčko district has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.<p>The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested in <!--del_lnk--> cantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent peoples.<p>The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the municipalities. The country consists of 137 municipalities, of which 74 are in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and 63 in Republika Srpska. Municiaplities also have their own local government, and are typically based around the most significant city or place in the region. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the IEBL. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, with the municipalities themselves further divided into local communities.<p>Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are: <!--del_lnk--> Banja Luka, <!--del_lnk--> Mostar, <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> East Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:328px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2005.png.htm" title="Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina"><img alt="Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina" height="350" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bk-map.png" src="../../images/20/2005.png" width="326" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2006.jpg.htm" title="Red flower from central Bosnia"><img alt="Red flower from central Bosnia" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Some_red_flower_in_Bosnia.JPG" src="../../images/20/2006.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2006.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Red flower from central Bosnia</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2007.jpg.htm" title="Mountains in Bosnia, view of mountain Kik (right mountain) which is 1,000 m (3,280 ft) and Rance (Suvi Vrh) to the left 1,432 m (4,698 ft)"><img alt="Mountains in Bosnia, view of mountain Kik (right mountain) which is 1,000 m (3,280 ft) and Rance (Suvi Vrh) to the left 1,432 m (4,698 ft)" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mountins_in_Bosnia.JPG" src="../../images/20/2007.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2007.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mountains in Bosnia, view of mountain Kik (right mountain) which is 1,000 <!--del_lnk--> m (3,280 <!--del_lnk--> ft) and Rance (Suvi Vrh) to the left 1,432 m (4,698 ft)</div>
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<p>Bosnia is located in the western <!--del_lnk--> Balkans, bordering <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (932km) to the north and south-west, <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> (302km) to the east, and <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> (225km) to the southeast. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central <!--del_lnk--> Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the <!--del_lnk--> Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the <!--del_lnk--> Adriatic. The country has only 20 kilometres (12 mi) of coastline, around the town of <!--del_lnk--> Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although it's enclosed within Croatian territory and <!--del_lnk--> territorial waters. Neum has many hotels and an is important tourism destination.<p>The country's name comes from the two regions <!--del_lnk--> Bosnia and <!--del_lnk--> Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country.<p>The major cities are the capital <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Banja Luka in the northwest region known as <!--del_lnk--> Bosanska Krajina, <!--del_lnk--> Bijeljina and <!--del_lnk--> Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica in the central part of Bosnia and <!--del_lnk--> Mostar, the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Herzegovina.<p>The south part of Bosnia has Mediterranean climate and a great deal of agriculture. Central Bosnia is the most mountainous part of Bosnia featuring predominate mountains Vlasic, Cvrsnica, and Prenj. Eastern Bosnia also features mountains like Trebevic, Jahorina, Igman, Bjelasnica and Treskavica. It was here that the Olympic games were held in 1984.<p>Eastern Bosnia is heavily forested along the river Drina, and overall close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighbouring Croatia and Serbia. The river Sava and corresponding <!--del_lnk--> Posavina river basin hold the cities of Brcko, Bosanski Samac, Bosanski Brod and Bosanska Gradiska.<p>The northwest part of Bosnia is called Bosanska Krajina and holds the cities of Banja Luka, Sanski Most, Cazin, Velika Kladisa and Bihać. Kozara National Park is in this forested region.<p>There are 7 major rivers in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The <!--del_lnk--> Una river in the northwest part of Bosnia flows along the northern and western border of Bosnia and Croatia and through the Bosnian city of Bihac. It is a very beautiful river and popular for rafting and adventure sports.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Sana flows through the city of Sanski Most and is a tributary of the river Sava in the north.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Vrbas flows through the cities of Gornji Vakuf - Uskoplje, Bugojno, Jajce and Banja Luka and reaches the river Sava in the north. The Vrbas flows through the central part of Bosnia and flows outwards to the North.<p>The River <!--del_lnk--> Bosna is the longest river in Bosnia and is fully contained within the country as it stretches from its source near Sarajevo to the river Sava in the north.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, at many places in the border between Bosnia and Serbia. The Drina flows through the cities of Foca, Gorazde and Visegrad.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Neretva river is a large river in Central and Southern Bosnia, flowing from Jablanica south to the Adriatic Sea. The river is famous as it flows through the famous city of Mostar.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Sava river is the largest river in Bosnia and Herzegovina but not the largest river that is flowing through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Sava river flows through Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Sava is making a natural border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia and towns like Brcko, Bosanski Samac, Bosanska Gradiska lies on the river.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Bosnia faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its former centrally planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former dictator <!--del_lnk--> Josip Broz Tito, military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants but fewer commercially viable firms.<p>For the most part in Bosnia's history, <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> has been based on privately-owned small and inefficient farms, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic.<p>When it was a part of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many large construction projects throughout that country. The <!--del_lnk--> Highway "Bratstvo i jedinstvo", a pan-Yugoslavian project, which linked <!--del_lnk--> Ljubljana (Slovenia) - <!--del_lnk--> Zagreb (Croatia) - <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade (Serbia) - <!--del_lnk--> Skopje (Macedonia), was financed by Bosnia and Herzegovina, despite the lack of direct benefit to that region. The funneling of capital to that project resulted in an increase in unemployment and a decrease in production in the region.<p>The war in the 1990s caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy. Production fell to 6%, GDP fell 75% and the destruction of physical infrastructure created massive economic trauma. While much of the production capacity has been restored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinking national debt are positive trends, but high unemployment and a large trade deficit remain cause for concern.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:192px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2008.jpg.htm" title="Legal tender coins from Bosnia-Herzegovina"><img alt="Legal tender coins from Bosnia-Herzegovina" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BIH001.jpg" src="../../images/20/2008.jpg" width="190" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2008.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Legal tender coins from Bosnia-Herzegovina</div>
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<p>The national currency is the <!--del_lnk--> Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark (BAM), which is fixed to the Euro (€1 = KM1.95583) and is therefore very stable. Yearly inflation is the lowest in comparison to other countries that were formerly part of Yugoslavia. The inflation rate was 1.9% in 2004, and international debt was $3.1 billion (2005 est); making it the smallest amount of debt owed from the former Yugoslav countries (Serbia and Montenegro's international debt is $15.43 billion (2005 est), while Croatia is at $29.28 billion (2005 est)). Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina.<p>Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the best <!--del_lnk--> income equality rankings in the world, ranked eighth among the world's 193 nations.<p>Overall <!--del_lnk--> investment value (<!--del_lnk--> 1994-<!--del_lnk--> 2002):<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1994-<!--del_lnk--> 97: 39,563,000 <!--del_lnk--> KM<li><!--del_lnk--> 1998: 55,750,000 KM<li><!--del_lnk--> 1999: 154,067,000 KM<li><!--del_lnk--> 2000: 147,214,000 KM<li><!--del_lnk--> 2001: 130,172,000 KM<li><!--del_lnk--> 2002: 321,446,000 KM<li>Total (<!--del_lnk--> 1994-<!--del_lnk--> 2002): 805,013,000 KM</ul>
<p>It is important to note the 247% spike in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 from the preceding year, illumating an ever growing interest and sense of stability. <!--del_lnk--> Foreign investors have come to trust in their investments in Bosnia and Herzegovina.<p>The largest foreign investments (1996 - 2006) in the country have come from:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (308.444.000 €)<li><a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> (279.533.000 €)<li><a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> (252.395.000 €)<li><a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> (236.532.000 €)<li><a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> (204.889.000 €)<li><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> (130.984.000 €)</ul>
<p>Foreign investments by sector:<ul>
<li>55.5% <a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a><li>16.5% <!--del_lnk--> Banking<li>8.6% <!--del_lnk--> Services<li>6.2% <!--del_lnk--> Trade<li>0.9% <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transport">Transport</a><li>0,7% <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">Tourism</a></ul>
<p><a id="Tourism" name="Tourism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism</span></h2>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> BiH has been a top performer in recent years in terms of <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> development; tourist arrivals have grown by an average of 24% annually from <!--del_lnk--> 1995 to <!--del_lnk--> 2000 (360,758 in <!--del_lnk--> 2002). According to an estimation of the <!--del_lnk--> World Tourism Organization, <!--del_lnk--> BiH will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between <!--del_lnk--> 1995 and <!--del_lnk--> 2020. The major sending countries in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 have been <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. <!--del_lnk--> <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Visit: Hidden Bosnia — places and trips.</ul>
<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2009.png.htm" title="Ethnic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2006 municipality data (est.). Bosnian Serbs - blue, Bosnian Croats - red, Bosniaks - green."><img alt="Ethnic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2006 municipality data (est.). Bosnian Serbs - blue, Bosnian Croats - red, Bosniaks - green." height="242" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DemoBIH2006.PNG" src="../../images/20/2009.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2009.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ethnic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2006 municipality data (est.). Bosnian Serbs - blue, Bosnian Croats - red, Bosniaks - green.</div>
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<p>Large population migrations during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused a large demographic shift in the country. No census has been taken since 1991, and none is planned for the near future due to political disagreements. Since censuses are the only statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze demographics, almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate. Most sources, however, estimate the population at roughly 4 million (representing a decrease of 350,000 since 1991).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2010.gif.htm" title="Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (local community data)."><img alt="Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (local community data)." height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bih_Stan_1991.GIF" src="../../images/20/2010.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2010.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (local community data).</div>
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<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,354,911. Ethnically, 43.7% were <!--del_lnk--> Bosniaks, 31.3% <!--del_lnk--> Serbs, and 17.3% <!--del_lnk--> Croats, with 5.5% declaring themselves <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslavs.<p>According to 2000 data from the <!--del_lnk--> CIA World Factbook, Bosnia and Herzegovina is ethnically 48% <!--del_lnk--> Bosniak, 37.1% <!--del_lnk--> Serb, 14.3% <!--del_lnk--> Croat, 0.6% Other.<p>It is believed by some that Bosniaks now have an outright majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina, although that is speculation, as no census has been conducted for over 15 years.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2011.gif.htm" title="Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (municipality data)."><img alt="Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (municipality data)." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ethnic_Composition_of_BiH_in_1991.gif" src="../../images/20/2011.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2011.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ethnic composition of Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1991 (municipality data).</div>
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<p>There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. as is shown by the fact that 90% of Bosniaks are <!--del_lnk--> Muslims whilst 93% of Serbs are <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox Christians. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high in BiH and often provoke political disagreements. Each of the three peoples are influential to roughly a same degree in Bosnia with <!--del_lnk--> Bosniaks being the most numerous, <!--del_lnk--> Serbs having their own entity, and <!--del_lnk--> Croats, though <!--del_lnk--> politically marginalized, being the strongest economically.<p>In Bosnia and Herzegovina <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> is the largest single religion with an estimated 48% being Muslim. The second largest religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina is <!--del_lnk--> Serb Orthodox Christianity, accounting for an estimated 37%, and the third largest religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina is <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism, with 14% being Catholics.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
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<p>As part of the former <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia enjoyed a highly-developed educational system. This system not only encouraged study and higher education, but it also respected academic achievements. Two of Bosnia’s natives were awarded <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prizes from this era: <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Prelog, for chemistry in <!--del_lnk--> 1975, and <!--del_lnk--> Ivo Andrić, for literature in <!--del_lnk--> 1961; ex-Yugoslavia had three Nobel Prize winners all together, the third was <!--del_lnk--> Lavoslav Ružička from <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>. This concentration of talent is remarkable in a country whose total population was severely depleted due to the diaspora of individuals fleeing during the recent war years. Bosnian college students abroad are good and recognized students; most of them attend universities in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and other <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> countries.<p>The recent war created a “brain drain” and resulted in many <!--del_lnk--> Bosnians working in high-tech, academic and professional occupations in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Such situation is viewed as an economic opportunity for building a vibrant economy in today’s Bosnia. However, only few of Bosnia’s diaspora are returning to Bosnia and Herzegovina with their experience, western education and exposure to modern business practices. Most still lack professional incentives to justify widespread and permanent return to their homeland.<p>Bosnia’s current educational system—with seven universities, one in every major city, plus satellite campuses—continues to turn out highly-educated graduates in math, science and literature. However, they have not been modernized in last 15 years due to the war and various political and economic reasons and as a result do not meet <!--del_lnk--> Western educational standards which are part of <!--del_lnk--> criteria for <!--del_lnk--> EU membership. The need for reform of the current Bosnian education system is generally acknowledged although specific methods for its change have still not been formulated.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h2>
<p>Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many good sports stars. Many of them were famous in the Yugoslav national teams before Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav national basketball team, which medaled in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, has included Bosnian stars like <!--del_lnk--> Drazen Dalipagic and <!--del_lnk--> Mirza Delibasic. Other internationally famous players from Bosnia and Herzegovina include <!--del_lnk--> Zoran Savic, <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Radmanovic, <!--del_lnk--> Zoran Planinic and <!--del_lnk--> Aleksandar Nikolic. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the <!--del_lnk--> European Championship in Basketball.<p>In football, Bosnia and Herzegovina has not qualified for a big championship yet. <!--del_lnk--> Mirsad Hibic, <!--del_lnk--> Elvir Bolic, <!--del_lnk--> Elvir Baljic, <!--del_lnk--> Mirsad Bešlija, <!--del_lnk--> Meho Kodro, <!--del_lnk--> Sergej Barbarez, and <!--del_lnk--> Hasan Salihamidzic are famous Bosnian football players who have played for the <!--del_lnk--> Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team. The former <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav national football team included famous Bosnian players, such as <!--del_lnk--> Josip Katalinski, <!--del_lnk--> Dusan Bajevic, <!--del_lnk--> Ivica Osim, <!--del_lnk--> Safet Susic, and <!--del_lnk--> Mirsad Fazlagic.<p>Bosnia and Herzegovina is the current world champion in <!--del_lnk--> paralympic volleyball. One thing that makes the players so respected is the fact that they lost their legs in the War of 1992-1995.<p>Bosnian national teams face a struggle to get all the best players born in the country to play for them. Many players born in Bosnia and Herzegovina choose to play for other countries due to their ethnic identification and also because of higher salaries offered by other teams. For example <!--del_lnk--> Mario Stanic and <!--del_lnk--> Mile Mitic were both born in Bosnia, but choose to play for Croatia and Serbia respectively.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"</div>
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Boston,_Massachusetts
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boston, Massachusetts</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>Boston, Massachusetts</b></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2022.jpg.htm" title="Skyline of Boston, Massachusetts"><img alt="Skyline of Boston, Massachusetts" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_-_Charles_River_View_2006.jpg" src="../../images/20/2022.jpg" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<center><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Official flag of Boston, Massachusetts" height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Us-ma-bo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="125" /></span></span></center>
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<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Official seal of Boston, Massachusetts" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_city_seal.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="100" /></td>
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<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Flag</b></small></td>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nickname: "<i>City on the Hill, Beantown, The Hub (of the Universe)<sup>1</sup>, <!--del_lnk--> Athens of America, The Cradle of Revolution, Puritan City, America's Walking City</i>"</td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2025.png.htm" title="Location in Massachusetts, USA"><img alt="Location in Massachusetts, USA" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_ma_highlight.png" src="../../images/20/2025.png" width="250" /></a></span></div><small>Location in <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></small></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Counties</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Suffolk County</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas M. Menino(<!--del_lnk--> D)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>232.1 <!--del_lnk--> km² (89.6 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Land</th>
<td>125.4 km² (48.4 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Water</th>
<td>106.7 km² (41.2 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Metro</th>
<td>11,684.7 km² (4,511.5 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>43 <!--del_lnk--> m (141 <!--del_lnk--> ft)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City (2005)</th>
<td>596,638</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>4,457/km² (11,543/sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Urban</th>
<td>4,313,000</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Metro</th>
<td>5,804,816</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eastern (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-5)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eastern (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> The State House, according to <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Wendell Holmes, is the hub of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.cityofboston.gov</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Boston</b> is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> and the most populous city of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Massachusetts, a <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">state</a> of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>. Founded in 1630, Boston is one of the oldest, wealthiest and most culturally significant cities in the United States. Boston is recognized as a gamma <a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" title="Global city">global city</a>. Its economy is based on higher education, research, health care, finance, and technology, principally biotechnology. Citizens of Boston are called <i><!--del_lnk--> Bostonians</i>.<p>The city lies at the centre of <!--del_lnk--> Greater Boston, which also includes the cities of <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge, <!--del_lnk--> Quincy, and <!--del_lnk--> Newton, the town of <!--del_lnk--> Brookline, and many suburban communities farther from Boston. The Greater Boston area encompasses parts of the states of <!--del_lnk--> New Hampshire, <a href="../../wp/r/Rhode_Island.htm" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut. The city also lies at the centre of the Boston-Worcester-Manchester <!--del_lnk--> Combined Statistical Area (CSA), the fifth largest <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area in the United States.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:201px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2026.jpg.htm" title="The 18th century Old State House in Boston is surrounded by tall buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries."><img alt="The 18th century Old State House in Boston is surrounded by tall buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries." height="281" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_Old_State_House-200px.jpg" src="../../images/20/2026.jpg" width="199" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2026.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 18th century <!--del_lnk--> Old State House in Boston is surrounded by tall buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>"In the political events which have affected the history of the entire country, and in shaping the thought of a people who have come to be a great nation, Boston has played a leading part." <i>Boston</i> by Henry Cabot Lodge<p>Boston was founded on <!--del_lnk--> November 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1630, by <!--del_lnk--> Puritan colonists from England, on a <!--del_lnk--> peninsula called <i><!--del_lnk--> Shawmut</i> by its original <!--del_lnk--> Native American inhabitants. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow <!--del_lnk--> isthmus, and surrounded by the waters of <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay and the Back Bay, an <!--del_lnk--> estuary of the <!--del_lnk--> Charles River. Boston's early European settlers first called the area <i>Trimountaine</i>. They later renamed the town for <!--del_lnk--> Boston, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> Lincolnshire, from which several prominent <!--del_lnk--> "pilgrim" colonists emigrated. A majority of Boston's early citizens were <!--del_lnk--> Puritans. <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Colony's original governor, <!--del_lnk--> John Winthrop, gave a famous sermon entitled "a <!--del_lnk--> City upon a Hill," which captured the idea that Boston had a special covenant with God. (Winthrop also led the signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge Agreement which is regarded as a key founding document of the city.) Puritan ethics molded an extremely stable and well-structured society in Boston. For example, shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans founded America's first public school, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Latin School (1635), and America's first college, <!--del_lnk--> Harvard College (1636). Hard work, moral uprightness, and an emphasis on education remain part of Boston's culture. Until the 1760s, Boston was America's largest, wealthiest, and most influential city.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:122px;"><!--del_lnk--> Image:Bos-downtown.jpg<div class="thumbcaption">Back Bay.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>During the early 1770s, British attempts to exert control on the <!--del_lnk--> thirteen colonies, primarily via taxation, prompted Bostonians to initiate the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution. The <!--del_lnk--> Boston Massacre, the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Tea Party, and several early battles occurred in or near the city, including the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Lexington and Concord, <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Bunker Hill, and the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Boston. During this period, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride. After the Revolution, Boston quickly became one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports because it was the closest major American port to Europe — exports included rum, fish, salt, and tobacco. During this era, descendants of old Boston families became regarded, in the American popular mind, as the nation's social and cultural elites; they were later dubbed the <i><!--del_lnk--> Boston Brahmins</i>. In 1822, Boston was chartered as a city. By the mid-1800s, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 1900s, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers, and was notable for its <a href="../../wp/c/Clothing.htm" title="Clothing">garment</a> production, <!--del_lnk--> leather goods, and machinery industries. A network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region made for easy shipment of goods and allowed for a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, an even denser network of railroads facilitated the region's industry and commerce. From the mid-to-late-nineteenth century, Boston flourished culturally — it became renowned for its rarefied literary culture and lavish artistic patronage. It also became a centre of the <!--del_lnk--> abolitionist movement.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2027.jpg.htm" title="Downtown Boston."><img alt="Downtown Boston." height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DowntownBoston.jpg" src="../../images/20/2027.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2027.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Downtown Boston.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the 1820s, Boston's ethnic composition began to change dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants. Groups like the Irish and Italians moved into the city and brought with them <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism. (This trend of immigration continued throughout the 1800s - most famously when the <!--del_lnk--> Potato Famine hit Ireland.) Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community and since the early 20th century the Irish have played a major role in Boston politics — prominent figures include the <!--del_lnk--> Kennedys, <!--del_lnk--> Tip O'Neill and <!--del_lnk--> John F. Fitzgerald.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2028.gif.htm" title="Boston in 1772 and 1880. The original area of the Shawmut Peninsula was substantially expanded by landfill."><img alt="Boston in 1772 and 1880. The original area of the Shawmut Peninsula was substantially expanded by landfill." height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_1772.gif" src="../../images/20/2028.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2028.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Boston in 1772 and 1880. The original area of the Shawmut Peninsula was substantially expanded by landfill.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Between 1630 and 1890, the city tripled its physical size by <!--del_lnk--> land reclamation, specifically by filling in marshes, mud flats, and gaps between wharves along the waterfront, a process <!--del_lnk--> Walter Muir Whitehill called "cutting down the hills to fill the coves." The largest reclamation efforts took place during the 1800s. Beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-<!--del_lnk--> acre (20 <!--del_lnk--> ha) mill pond that later became Haymarket Square (just south of today's North Station area). The present-day <!--del_lnk--> State House sits atop this shortened Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the <!--del_lnk--> South End, <!--del_lnk--> West End, Financial District, and <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown. After <!--del_lnk--> The Great Boston Fire of 1872, workers used building rubble as landfill along the downtown waterfront. Boston's Back Bay land reclamation project proved dramatic. During the mid-to-late 19th century, workers filled almost 600 acres (2.4 km²) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of the Boston Common with soil brought by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. Boston also annexed the adjacent communities of <!--del_lnk--> East Boston, <!--del_lnk--> Dorchester, <!--del_lnk--> South Boston, <!--del_lnk--> Brighton, Allston, Hyde Park, <!--del_lnk--> Roxbury, <!--del_lnk--> West Roxbury, <!--del_lnk--> Jamaica Plain and <!--del_lnk--> Charlestown.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2029.jpg.htm" title="Scollay Square, Boston, Boston, in the 1880s"><img alt="Scollay Square, Boston, Boston, in the 1880s" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Scollay1880s.jpg" src="../../images/20/2029.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2029.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Scollay Square, Boston, Boston, in the 1880s</div>
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<p>By the early and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere. Boston responded by initiating various <!--del_lnk--> urban renewal projects, including the demolition of the old West End neighbourhood and the construction of <!--del_lnk--> Government Centre. In the 1970s, Boston boomed after thirty years of economic downturn, becoming a leader in the <!--del_lnk--> mutual fund industry. Boston already had a reputation for excellent healthcare services. Hospitals such as <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts General Hospital, <!--del_lnk--> Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre, and <!--del_lnk--> Brigham and Women's Hospital led the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Universities such as Harvard, <!--del_lnk--> MIT, and <!--del_lnk--> Boston University attracted many students to the Boston area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over <!--del_lnk--> desegregation busing, which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s. The unrest served to highlight racial tensions in the city.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2030.jpg.htm" title="Hyatt in Boston downtown"><img alt="Hyatt in Boston downtown" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hyatt_in_Boston_downtown.JPG" src="../../images/20/2030.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2030.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hyatt in Boston downtown</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Housing prices sharply increased in the 1990s. In 2004, the Boston metropolitan area had the highest cost of living of any in the country, and Massachusetts was the only state to lose population.<p>The City of Boston has a City Archaeologist on staff, and also a City Archaeology Program and an Archaeology Laboratory, Education and Curation Centre which houses over 27 collections owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Part of the job of the City Archaeologist is to oversee any lots of land to be developed for historical artifacts and significance, and to manage the archaeological remains located on public land in Boston.<p><a id="Geography_and_climate" name="Geography_and_climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and climate</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2031.jpg.htm" title="A simulated-color satellite image of the Boston area taken on NASA's Landsat 3."><img alt="A simulated-color satellite image of the Boston area taken on NASA's Landsat 3." height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_Landsat.jpg" src="../../images/20/2031.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2031.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A simulated-colour satellite image of the Boston area taken on <!--del_lnk--> NASA's <!--del_lnk--> Landsat 3.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h3>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 89.6 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (232.1 <!--del_lnk--> km²)— 48.4 square miles (125.4 km²) of it is land and 41.2 square miles (106.7 km²) of it is water. The total area is 46.0% water. With an elevation of 19 <!--del_lnk--> feet (5.8 m) above sea level at <!--del_lnk--> Logan International Airport, Boston is bordered by the cities of <!--del_lnk--> Winthrop, <!--del_lnk--> Revere, <!--del_lnk--> Chelsea, <!--del_lnk--> Everett, <!--del_lnk--> Somerville, <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge, <!--del_lnk--> Watertown, <!--del_lnk--> Newton, <!--del_lnk--> Brookline, <!--del_lnk--> Needham, <!--del_lnk--> Dedham, <!--del_lnk--> Canton, <!--del_lnk--> Milton, and <!--del_lnk--> Quincy—often known as, and considered a part of, <i><!--del_lnk--> Greater Boston</i>.<p>Much of the <!--del_lnk--> Back Bay and <!--del_lnk--> South End are built on <!--del_lnk--> reclaimed land—two and a half of Boston's three original hills were used as a source of material for landfill. Only <!--del_lnk--> Beacon Hill, the smallest of the three original hills, remains partially intact. The downtown area and immediate surroundings consist mostly of low-rise brick or stone buildings, with many older buildings in the <!--del_lnk--> Federal style. Several of these buildings mix in with modern high-rises, notably in the Financial District, <!--del_lnk--> Government Centre, Back Bay, and the South Boston waterfront. To this day, the <!--del_lnk--> South End Historic District remains the nation's largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighbourhood. Smaller commercial areas are interspersed amongst single-family homes and wooden/brick multifamily row houses.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Charles River separates Boston proper from Cambridge, Watertown, and the neighbourhood of Charlestown. To the east lies <!--del_lnk--> Boston Harbour and the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Harbour Islands National Recreation Area. The <!--del_lnk--> Neponset River forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the cities of Quincy and Milton. The <!--del_lnk--> Mystic River separates the neighborhoods of East Boston and Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2032.jpg.htm" title="Beacon Hill in the winter."><img alt="Beacon Hill in the winter." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beacon_Hill_Winter_Boston_MA_USA.jpg" src="../../images/20/2032.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2032.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beacon Hill in the winter.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Boston experiences a <!--del_lnk--> continental climate that is very common in <!--del_lnk--> New England. The weather in Boston, like much of New England, changes rapidly. It is not uncommon for the city to experience temperature swings of 54 <!--del_lnk--> Fahrenheit degrees (30 <!--del_lnk--> Celsius degrees) or more over the course of a couple of days. Summers are typically warm and humid, while winters are cold, windy and snowy. It has been known to snow in October.<p>The earliest recorded 90 °F temperature in a year was in late March 1998, while February in Boston has seen 70 degrees only once in recorded history, on <!--del_lnk--> February 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1985. Spring in Boston can be hot, with temperatures in the 90s, though it is just as possible for a day in late May to remain in the 40s. The hottest month is July, with an average high of 81.9 °<!--del_lnk--> F (27.7 °<!--del_lnk--> C) and a low of 65.1 °F (18.4 °C). The coldest month is January, with an average high of 35.8 °F (2.1 °C) and a low of 21.6 °F (-5.6 °C). Periods exceeding 90 °F in summer and below 10 °F in winter are not uncommon, but rarely prolonged. The record high temperature is 104 °F (40 °C), recorded <!--del_lnk--> July 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1911. The record low temperature is -18 °F (-28 °C), recorded on <!--del_lnk--> February 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1934.<p>The city averages 42 <!--del_lnk--> in (1,080 <!--del_lnk--> mm) of rainfall a year. It also coincidentally averages 42 in (108 <!--del_lnk--> cm) of snowfall a year, although this increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city. Massachusetts' geographic location's jutting out into the <!--del_lnk--> North Atlantic also make the city very prone to <!--del_lnk--> Nor'easter weather systems that can dump more than 20 in (50 cm) of snow on the region in one storm event.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th height="17" style="background: #CCCCCC; color: #000080">Month</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Jan</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Feb</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Mar</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Apr</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">May</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Jun</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Jul</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Aug</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Sep</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Oct</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Nov</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Dec</th>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Year</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Avg high °F<br /> (°C)</th>
<td style="background: #9999CC; color: black;">35.8<br /> (2.1)</td>
<td style="background: #9999CC; color: black;">37.6<br /> (3.1)</td>
<td style="background: #99FF33; color: black;">45.9<br /> (7.7)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">55.9<br /> (13.3)</td>
<td style="background: #FFDD00; color: black;">66.6<br /> (19.2)</td>
<td style="background: #FF8800; color: black;">76.2<br /> (24.6)</td>
<td style="background: #FF0000; color: black;">81.9<br /> (27.7)</td>
<td style="background: #FF0000; color: black;">80.0<br /> (26.6)</td>
<td style="background: #FF8800; color: black;">72.9<br /> (22.7)</td>
<td style="background: #FFDD00; color: black;">62.8<br /> (17.1)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">52.2<br /> (11.2)</td>
<td style="background: #99FF33; color: black;">40.5<br /> (4.7)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">59.0<br /> (15)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th height="16;" style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Avg low °F<br /> (°C)</th>
<td style="background: #6633CC; color: black;">21.6<br /> (-5.8)</td>
<td style="background: #6633CC; color: black;">23.0<br /> (-5.0)</td>
<td style="background: #9999CC; color: black;">31.3<br /> (-0.4)</td>
<td style="background: #99FF33; color: black;">40.3<br /> (4.6)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">49.8<br /> (9.9)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">59.2<br /> (15.1)</td>
<td style="background: #FFDD00; color: black;">65.1<br /> (18.4)</td>
<td style="background: #FFDD00; color: black;">64.0<br /> (17.8)</td>
<td style="background: #339933; color: black;">56.8<br /> (13.8)</td>
<td style="background: #99FF33; color: black;">46.9<br /> (8.3)</td>
<td style="background: #9999CC; color: black;">38.3<br /> (3.5)</td>
<td style="background: #6633CC; color: black;">26.8<br /> (-2.9)</td>
<td style="background: #99FF33; color: black;">43.6<br /> (6.4)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: #CCCCCC; color:#000080;">Rainfall in inches<br /> (millimeters)</th>
<td style="background: #2266AA;">3.92<br /> (99.6)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.30<br /> (83.8)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.85<br /> (97.8)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.60<br /> (91.4)</td>
<td style="background: #66CCFF;">3.24<br /> (82.3)</td>
<td style="background: #66CCFF;">3.22<br /> (81.8)</td>
<td style="background: #66CCFF;">3.06<br /> (77.7)</td>
<td style="background: #44AADD;">3.37<br /> (85.6)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.47<br /> (88.1)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.79<br /> (96.3)</td>
<td style="background: #2266AA;">3.98<br /> (101.1)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">3.73<br /> (94.7)</td>
<td style="background: #2288BB;">42.53<br /> (1,080.2)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<table align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCFF" colspan="3"><b>Town (to 1820) and City of Boston<br /> Population by year</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Census<br /> year</th>
<th>Population</th>
<th>Rank</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<hr />
</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1790</td>
<td> 18,320</td>
<td> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1800</td>
<td> 24,937</td>
<td> 4</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1810</td>
<td> 33,787</td>
<td> 4</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1820</td>
<td> 43,298</td>
<td> 4</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1830</td>
<td> 61,392</td>
<td> 4</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1840</td>
<td> 93,383</td>
<td> 5</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1850</td>
<td>136,881</td>
<td> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1860</td>
<td>177,840</td>
<td> 5</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1870</td>
<td>250,526</td>
<td> 7</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1880</td>
<td>362,839</td>
<td> 5</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1890</td>
<td>448,477</td>
<td> 6</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1900</td>
<td>560,892</td>
<td> 5</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1910</td>
<td>670,585</td>
<td> 5</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1920</td>
<td>748,060</td>
<td> 7</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1930</td>
<td>781,188</td>
<td> 9</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1940</td>
<td>770,816</td>
<td> 9</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1950</td>
<td>801,444</td>
<td>10</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1960</td>
<td>697,197</td>
<td>13</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1970</td>
<td>641,071</td>
<td>16</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1980</td>
<td>562,994</td>
<td>20</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>1990</td>
<td>574,283</td>
<td>20</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>2000</td>
<td>589,141</td>
<td>20</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>As of the <!--del_lnk--> census<sup id="fn_GR2_back"><!--del_lnk--> GR2</sup> of 2000, there were 589,141 people, 239,528 households, and 115,212 families residing in the city. The <!--del_lnk--> population density was 12,166 people per square mile (4,697/km²). There were 251,935 housing units at an average density of 5,203 per square mile (2,009/km²). According to the census, the racial makeup of the city was 54.47% <!--del_lnk--> White, 25.33% <!--del_lnk--> Black or <!--del_lnk--> African American, 0.40% <!--del_lnk--> Native American, 7.52% <!--del_lnk--> Asian American, 0.06% <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Islander, 7.83% from <!--del_lnk--> other races, and 4.39% from two or more races. 14.44% of the population was <!--del_lnk--> Hispanic or <!--del_lnk--> Latino of any race. (These figures became less reliable because of the large Brazilian population, estimated by some studies to approach 250,000 in Massachusetts. Census data may not have fully accounted for this significant segment of the community because Brazilians speak <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and often do not consider themselves to belong to one specific racial category, such as white or black, or to the Hispanic/Latino ethnic category.<p>People of <!--del_lnk--> Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in the city, making up 15.8% of the population. <!--del_lnk--> Italians also form a significant segment of the city's population, accounting for 8.3% of the population. People of <!--del_lnk--> West Indian ancestry are another sizeable group (6.4%); about half of them are of <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haitian</a> ancestry. Some neighborhoods, such as Dorchester, have received an influx of <!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese residents in the past few years.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2033.gif.htm" title="Per capita income in the greater Boston area, by U.S. Census block group"><img alt="Per capita income in the greater Boston area, by U.S. Census block group" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_area_income.gif" src="../../images/20/2033.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2033.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Per capita income in the greater Boston area, by U.S. Census block group</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There were 239,528 households out of which 22.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.4% were <!--del_lnk--> married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.9% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.17.<p>In the city the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 16.2% from 18 to 24, 35.8% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> median income for a household in the city was $39,629, and the median income for a family was $44,151. Males had a median income of $37,435 versus $32,421 for females. The <!--del_lnk--> per capita income for the city was $23,353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families are below the <!--del_lnk--> poverty line. Out of the total population, 25.6% of those under the age of 18 and 18.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.<p><a id="Law_and_government" name="Law_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and government</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2034.jpg.htm" title="Massachusetts State House"><img alt="Massachusetts State House" height="145" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Massachusetts_State_House_frontal_view.jpg" src="../../images/20/2034.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2034.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts State House</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Boston has a <!--del_lnk--> strong mayor system in which the <!--del_lnk--> mayor is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor (currently <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Menino) is elected to a four-year term by <!--del_lnk--> plurality voting. The city council is elected every two years. There are nine district seats, each elected by the residents of that district through plurality voting, and four at-large seats. Each voter casts up to four votes for at-large councilors, no more than one vote per candidate. The candidates with the four highest vote totals are elected. The president of the city council, currently <!--del_lnk--> Michael F. Flaherty, is elected by the councilors from within themselves. The school committee is appointed by the mayor, as are city department heads.<p>In addition to city government, numerous state authorities and commissions play a role in the life of Bostonians, including the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation and the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport). As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in <!--del_lnk--> state politics. Boston is also the <!--del_lnk--> United States federal government centre for New England. Properties include the <!--del_lnk--> John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building and the <!--del_lnk--> Thomas P. O'Neill Federal Building. The city also serves as the home of the <!--del_lnk--> United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, the <!--del_lnk--> United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts, as well as the headquarters of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (the First District of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Reserve). The city is in the <!--del_lnk--> Eighth and <!--del_lnk--> Ninth <!--del_lnk--> Congressional districts.<p>Boston's low crime rate in the last years of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st has been credited to its <!--del_lnk--> police department's collaboration with neighbourhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as involvement from the <!--del_lnk--> US Attorney and <!--del_lnk--> District Attorney's office. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the "Boston Miracle." Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100,000 people) to just 31—not one of them a juvenile—in 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100,000). The police department's figures are made available online and can be searched by neighbourhood. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In more recent years, however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared to the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 64 in 2004, and 75 in 2005. Though the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime.<p>The city's Election Department has made mistakes for years, and in 2005 agreed to oversight by the federal government after the <!--del_lnk--> Justice Department filed a lawsuit alleging coercion and other problems involving services for voters who do not speak English. Following the 2006 election, the Election Department is also under investigation by the Secretary of State's office. It is reported that the department's policy has been to distribute to the polling places only enough ballots for half the registered voters, despite a state law requiring each polling place to have enough ballots for all voters. The Secretary of State has announced an intention to take control of the Elections Department.<center>
<table class="toccolours">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align: center;">County government: <!--del_lnk--> Suffolk County</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Clerk of Courts:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael Joseph Donovan</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> County Treasurer:</b></td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> District Attorney:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Daniel F. Conley</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Registrar of Deeds:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Francis Roache</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Registrar of Probate:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Iannella</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Sheriff:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Andrea J. Cabral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align: center;">State government</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Representative(s) in General Court:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anthony Petruccelli, <!--del_lnk--> Salvatore DiMasi, <!--del_lnk--> Brian Wallace, <!--del_lnk--> Marie St. Fleur, <!--del_lnk--> Shirley Owens-Hicks, <!--del_lnk--> Gloria Fox, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Demakis, <!--del_lnk--> Byron Rushing, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Rush, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Malia, <!--del_lnk--> Linda Dorcena-Forry, <!--del_lnk--> Martin Walsh, <!--del_lnk--> Angelo Scaccia, <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey Sanchez, <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Honan, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Moran</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Senator(s) in General Court:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jarrett Barrios, <!--del_lnk--> Eugene L. O'Flaherty, <!--del_lnk--> Marian Walsh, <!--del_lnk--> Steven A. Tolman, <!--del_lnk--> John Hart, Jr., <!--del_lnk--> Dianne Wilkerson, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Travaglini</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Governor's Councilor(s):</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael J. Callahan, <!--del_lnk--> Kelly A. Timilty, <!--del_lnk--> Marilyn M. Petitto Devaney</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align: center;">Federal government</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">Member(s) of the U.S. House of Representatives</a>:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael Capuano (D-<!--del_lnk--> 8th District),<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Lynch (D-<!--del_lnk--> 9th District)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Senators:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Edward Kennedy (D)<br /><!--del_lnk--> John Kerry (D)</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2035.jpg.htm" title="Newbury Street is one of the busiest shopping streets in Boston."><img alt="Newbury Street is one of the busiest shopping streets in Boston." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Newbury_Street_near_the_Public_Garden%2C_Boston%2C_Massachusetts.JPG" src="../../images/20/2035.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2035.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Newbury Street is one of the busiest shopping streets in Boston.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Boston's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract high-tech industries to the city and surrounding region, including computer hardware and software companies as well as <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> companies like <!--del_lnk--> Millennium Pharmaceuticals, <!--del_lnk--> Millipore, and <!--del_lnk--> Biogen Idec. Boston receives the highest amount of annual funding from the <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health of all cities in the United States.<p>Other important industries include <!--del_lnk--> financial services, especially <!--del_lnk--> mutual funds and <!--del_lnk--> insurance. Boston-based <!--del_lnk--> Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s, and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States. The city is also the regional headquarters of major banks such as <!--del_lnk--> Bank of America and Sovereign Bank, and a centre for <!--del_lnk--> venture capital. Boston is also a printing and publishing centre. Textbook publisher <!--del_lnk--> Houghton Mifflin is headquartered within the city. The city is home to four major <!--del_lnk--> convention centers: the <!--del_lnk--> Hynes Convention Centre in the Back Bay, the Bayside Expo Center in Dorchester, and the World Trade Centre Boston and <!--del_lnk--> Boston Convention and Exhibition Centre on the South Boston waterfront. Because of its status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government is another major component of the city's economy.<p>Major companies headquartered within the city include <!--del_lnk--> Gillette, owned by <!--del_lnk--> Procter & Gamble, and <!--del_lnk--> Teradyne, one of the world's leading manufacturers of semiconductor and other electronic test equipment. <!--del_lnk--> New Balance has its headquarters in the city. Other major companies are located outside the city, especially along <!--del_lnk--> Route 128. The <!--del_lnk--> Port of Boston is a major seaport along the United States' east coast, and is also one of the oldest continuously-operated industrial and <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> ports in the <!--del_lnk--> Western Hemisphere.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p><a id="Colleges_and_universities" name="Colleges_and_universities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colleges and universities</span></h3>
<p>Boston's reputation as the <i>Athens of America</i> derives in large part from the teaching and research activities of more than 100 colleges and universities located in its metropolitan area. These include some of the most famous universities in the world.<p><!--del_lnk--> Boston University, located along the <!--del_lnk--> Charles River on <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Avenue, is the largest university in the city. <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern University, a large private university, maintains a campus in the <!--del_lnk--> Fenway district. <!--del_lnk--> Boston College, one of the oldest and largest <!--del_lnk--> Jesuit institutions in the country, is in <!--del_lnk--> Chestnut Hill.<p><!--del_lnk--> Harvard University, the nation's oldest institution of higher learning, is located across the Charles River in <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge. The <!--del_lnk--> business and <!--del_lnk--> medical schools are in Boston, and there are plans for major expansion into Boston's <!--del_lnk--> Allston neighbourhood. This will put a majority of the students, faculty and physical plant in Boston. The <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which originated in Boston and was long known as Boston Tech, moved across the river to Cambridge in 1917.<p><!--del_lnk--> Tufts University administers its medical and dental school adjacent to the Tufts-<!--del_lnk--> New England Medical Centre (Tufts-NEMC), a 451-bed academic medical institution that is home to both a full-service hospital for adults and the Floating Hospital for Children. Its undergraduate campus is in Medford, adjacent to <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge. Additionally, <!--del_lnk--> Wentworth Institute of Technology, a founding member of the <!--del_lnk--> Colleges of the Fenway, is located in the Fenway area. <!--del_lnk--> Suffolk University, a small private university known for its law school, maintains a campus on Beacon Hill. <!--del_lnk--> Emerson College located by Boston Common is a small private college with a strong reputation in the fields of performing arts, journalism, writing, and film. <!--del_lnk--> Babson College in the suburb of Wellesley is a private college with a strong focus on entrepreneurship. The city is also home to a number of <!--del_lnk--> conservatories and art schools, including the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts College of Art, <!--del_lnk--> New England Conservatory of Music (the oldest independent conservatory in the United States), <!--del_lnk--> Boston Conservatory, The School at the Museum of Fine Art and <!--del_lnk--> Berklee College of Music. Roxbury Community College and <!--del_lnk--> Bunker Hill Community College are the city's two community colleges. Boston has one major public university, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Massachusetts Boston, located on Columbia Point in <!--del_lnk--> Dorchester.<p><a id="Primary_and_secondary_schools" name="Primary_and_secondary_schools"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Primary and secondary schools</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Boston Public Schools, the oldest public school system in the U.S., enrolls 58,600 students from <!--del_lnk--> kindergarten to grade 12. The system operates 145 schools, which includes <!--del_lnk--> Boston Latin School (the oldest public school, established in 1635), <!--del_lnk--> English High (the oldest public <!--del_lnk--> high school, established 1821), and Mather (the oldest public elementary school, established in 1639). The city also has private, parochial, and <!--del_lnk--> charter schools. 3000 students of racial minorities attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council, or <!--del_lnk--> METCO. In 2002, <!--del_lnk--> Forbes Magazine ranked the Boston Public Schools as the best large city school system in the country, with a graduation rate of 82%.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2036.jpg.htm" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington in Boston Public Garden."><img alt="Equestrian statue of George Washington in Boston Public Garden." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_George_Washington_on_Horse.JPG" src="../../images/20/2036.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2036.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Equestrian statue of <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Boston Public Garden.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Boston shares many cultural roots with greater <!--del_lnk--> New England, including a dialect of the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern New England accent known as <!--del_lnk--> Boston English, and a <!--del_lnk--> regional cuisine with a large emphasis on seafood and dairy products. <!--del_lnk--> Irish Americans are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions. Boston has its own collection of <!--del_lnk--> neologisms known as <!--del_lnk--> Boston slang.<p>Many consider Boston a highly cultured city, perhaps as a result of its intellectual reputation; much of Boston's culture originates at its universities. The city also has a number of ornate theatres, including the <!--del_lnk--> Cutler Majestic Theatre, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Opera House, <!--del_lnk--> The Wang Centre for the Performing Arts, <!--del_lnk--> Schubert Theatre, and the <!--del_lnk--> Orpheum Theatre. Renowned performing arts groups include the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Ballet, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Symphony Orchestra, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Pops, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Lyric Opera Company, and the <!--del_lnk--> Handel and Haydn Society (the oldest choral company in the United States). There are a number of major annual events such as <!--del_lnk--> First Night, which occurs during <!--del_lnk--> New Year's Eve, and several events during the <!--del_lnk--> Fourth of July. These events include the weeklong Harborfest festivities and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the <!--del_lnk--> Charles River.<p>In contrast to what might be considered the more "refined" aspects of Boston's culture, the city is also one of the birthplaces of the <!--del_lnk--> hardcore punk genre of music. Boston musicians have contributed greatly to the <!--del_lnk--> hardcore scene over the years (<i>see also <!--del_lnk--> Boston hardcore</i>). Boston also had one of the leading local <a href="../../wp/s/Ska.htm" title="Ska">ska</a> scenes in the ska revival of the mid-1990s with bands like <!--del_lnk--> The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, <!--del_lnk--> The Allstonians, and Skavoovie and the Epitones. The 80s hardcore record <!--del_lnk--> This Is Boston, Not L.A. highlights some of the bands that built the 'scene'. A few clubs in the city <!--del_lnk--> The Channel, Bunnrattys in <!--del_lnk--> Allston and <!--del_lnk--> The Rat were well renowned for showcasing local and out of city punk bands. As a result of the Rat, a cheap pizza place and a few used record stores in Kenmore square, Kenmore became a hangout for skate punks. During the summer after Red Sox games it was not uncommon to see fights break out amongst the punks and the more conservative suburban Red Sox fans.<p><a id="Nicknames" name="Nicknames"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nicknames</span></h3>
<p>Boston has many nicknames owing to historical context.<ul>
<li><i>The City on a Hill</i> came from original <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Colony's governor <!--del_lnk--> John Winthrop's goal to create the biblical "City on a Hill." It also refers to the original three hills of Boston.<li><i>Beantown</i> refers to early Bostonian tradition of making baked beans with imported molasses.<li><i>The Hub</i> is a shortened form of a phrase recorded by writer <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Wendell Holmes, <i>The Hub of the Solar System.</i><li><i>The Athens of America</i> is a title given by <!--del_lnk--> William Tudor, co-founder of the <i><!--del_lnk--> North American Review</i> for Boston's great cultural and intellectual influence.<li><i>The Puritan City</i> nickname references the religion of the city's founders.<li><i>The Cradle of Liberty</i> derives from Boston's role in instigating the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution.<li><i>City of Notions</i> in the nineteenth century.<li><i>America's Walking City</i>, because Boston's compact and high density nature has made walking an effective and popular mode of transit in the city.</ul>
<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sites of interest</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2037.jpg.htm" title="Boston Common."><img alt="Boston Common." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:P1040493.JPG" src="../../images/20/2037.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2037.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Boston Common.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Because of the city's prominent role in the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Boston National Historical Park. Many are found along the <!--del_lnk--> Freedom Trail, which is marked by a red line or bricks embedded in the ground. Along the Freedom Trail is <!--del_lnk--> Boston Common, or "The Common" as it is locally referred to, is the oldest public park in the United States . Along with the adjacent <!--del_lnk--> Boston Public Garden, it is part of the <!--del_lnk--> Emerald Necklace, a string of parks designed by <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Law Olmsted to encircle the city. In the winter, the Frog Pond at Boston Common doubles as an ice-skating rink. Another major park is the <!--del_lnk--> Esplanade located along the banks of the <!--del_lnk--> Charles River. A major recreation site for many Bostonians, it is also the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Hatch Shell. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks and beaches located near <!--del_lnk--> Castle Island, in Charlestown and along the Dorchester, South Boston, and East Boston shorelines. The largest parks in the city are Franklin Park and the adjacent <!--del_lnk--> Arnold Arboretum (both part of the Emerald Necklace), and Stony Brook State Reservation.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2038.jpg.htm" title="The John Hancock Tower."><img alt="The John Hancock Tower." height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:John_Hancock_Tower%2C_200_Clarendon.jpg" src="../../images/20/2038.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2038.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> John Hancock Tower.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Back Bay district includes many prominent landmarks such as the <!--del_lnk--> Christian Science Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Public Library, <!--del_lnk--> Copley Square, and <!--del_lnk--> Newbury Street. Back Bay is also the home of New England's tallest two buildings: the <!--del_lnk--> John Hancock Tower and the <!--del_lnk--> Prudential Centre. Near the John Hancock Tower is the <!--del_lnk--> old John Hancock Building with its prominent <!--del_lnk--> weather forecast beacon. Other notable districts/neighborhoods include <!--del_lnk--> Beacon Hill, <!--del_lnk--> Charlestown, <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown, <!--del_lnk--> Downtown Crossing, <!--del_lnk--> North End, and <!--del_lnk--> South Boston.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2039.jpg.htm" title="Cheers on Beacon Hill"><img alt="Cheers on Beacon Hill" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cheersboston.JPG" src="../../images/20/2039.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2039.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cheers on Beacon Hill</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Boston is home to several museums, including the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Fine Arts, the <!--del_lnk--> Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, and the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Science. The <!--del_lnk--> University of Massachusetts campus at Columbia Point houses the <!--del_lnk--> John F. Kennedy Library. The <!--del_lnk--> New England Aquarium, <!--del_lnk--> Franklin Park Zoo, <!--del_lnk--> Boston Athenaeum (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States), and the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Children's Museum are located within the city.<p>Along with the Freedom Trail, there are two other self-guided walking tours: Harbour Walk, which is designed to follow the entire shore of <!--del_lnk--> Boston Harbour, and the <!--del_lnk--> Black Heritage Trail. A popular guided tour is the Boston Duck Tour, which uses World War II-era <!--del_lnk--> duck boats. The outer suburbs of Boston, which tend to be forested, have vibrantly colored foliage every <!--del_lnk--> autumn that attracts many tourists.<p>Boston is home to the <!--del_lnk--> Bull & Finch Pub, whose building is known from the television show <i><a href="../../wp/c/Cheers.htm" title="Cheers">Cheers</a></i>. Exterior shots of the building were used in the show.<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2040.jpg.htm" title="A Boston Red Sox baseball game at Fenway Park"><img alt="A Boston Red Sox baseball game at Fenway Park" height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fenway_park.jpg" src="../../images/20/2040.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2040.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Boston Red Sox baseball game at <!--del_lnk--> Fenway Park</div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th scope="col">Club</th>
<th scope="col">League</th>
<th scope="col">Sport</th>
<th scope="col">Venue</th>
<th scope="col">Established</th>
<th scope="col">Championships</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Boston Red Sox</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MLB</td>
<td>Baseball</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fenway Park</td>
<td>1901</td>
<td>6 World Series</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><a href="../../wp/n/New_England_Patriots.htm" title="New England Patriots">New England Patriots</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NFL</td>
<td>Football</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gillette Stadium</td>
<td>1960</td>
<td>3 Super Bowls</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Boston Celtics</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NBA</td>
<td>Basketball</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TD Banknorth Garden</td>
<td>1946</td>
<td>16 NBA Titles</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Boston Bruins</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/National_Hockey_League.htm" title="National Hockey League">NHL</a></td>
<td>Hockey</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TD Banknorth Garden</td>
<td>1924</td>
<td>5 Stanley Cups</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> New England Revolution</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MLS</td>
<td>Soccer</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gillette Stadium</td>
<td>1995</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Boston Cannons</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MLL</td>
<td>Lacrosse</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nickerson Field</td>
<td>2001</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Boston can lay claim to being the city to have sponsored a professional sports league franchise the longest. In 1871, the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Red Stockings, formed out of the nucleus of the former <!--del_lnk--> Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first openly professional baseball team, began play in the <!--del_lnk--> National Association. Since then, there has never been a year without a professional franchise playing in the city. The Red Stockings joined the <!--del_lnk--> National League upon its founding in 1876, and would eventually become the Boston Braves. The Braves played in Boston until 1952, when they moved to <!--del_lnk--> Milwaukee, <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin to become the Milwaukee Braves, which, in turn, moved to their current home in <a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Georgia in 1966. Despite four National Association championships, ten National League Pennants, and a World Series title (1915), the team was considered the "second" Boston team for most of its last five decades in the city, due to a team from an upstart league that began play in 1901.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Boston Red Sox are a founding member of the <!--del_lnk--> American League of <!--del_lnk--> Major League Baseball, and one of the four American League teams (the <!--del_lnk--> White Sox, <!--del_lnk--> Indians, and <!--del_lnk--> Tigers are the others) to still play in their original city. The "Sox," as they are colloquially called, play their home games at <!--del_lnk--> Fenway Park, located near <!--del_lnk--> Kenmore Square, in the <!--del_lnk--> Fenway section of Boston. Built in 1912, it is the oldest sports arena or stadium in active use in the United States among the four major professional sports. Boston was also the site of the first game of the first baseball <!--del_lnk--> World Series, in 1903. The series was played between the Red Sox (then known as the "Pilgrims") and the <!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh Pirates, while the team still played at the <!--del_lnk--> Huntington Avenue Grounds (the site is now a part of <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern University). The Red Sox won that series and five more since then (1912, 1915, 1916, 1918 and 2004). Recently the 2004 team is said to have broken the 86-year long "<!--del_lnk--> Curse of the Bambino." There have been many legendary players on the team; members of the <!--del_lnk--> Baseball Hall of Fame include <!--del_lnk--> Cy Young, <a href="../../wp/b/Babe_Ruth.htm" title="Babe Ruth">Babe Ruth</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ted Williams, <!--del_lnk--> Carl Yastrzemski, <!--del_lnk--> Carlton Fisk, <!--del_lnk--> Wade Boggs, manager <!--del_lnk--> Joe Cronin and owner <!--del_lnk--> Tom Yawkey.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> TD Banknorth Garden (formerly called the Fleet Centre) is above <!--del_lnk--> North Station and is the home of two major league teams: the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Bruins <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a> team of the <a href="../../wp/n/National_Hockey_League.htm" title="National Hockey League">National Hockey League</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Celtics <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> team of the <!--del_lnk--> National Basketball Association. The Bruins, founded in 1924, were the first American member of the <a href="../../wp/n/National_Hockey_League.htm" title="National Hockey League">National Hockey League</a> and a <!--del_lnk--> Original Six franchise, and have won five <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Cups, the last being in 1972. Such hall of fame players as <!--del_lnk--> Milt Schmidt, <!--del_lnk--> Eddie Shore, <!--del_lnk--> Raymond Bourque and the legendary <!--del_lnk--> Bobby Orr have played for the Bruins, and the team has been led by hall of famers such as team founder <!--del_lnk--> Charles Adams (namesake of hockey's old <!--del_lnk--> Adams Division), <!--del_lnk--> Art Ross (donor and namesake of the NHL's <!--del_lnk--> trophy for annual scoring champion), <!--del_lnk--> Walter A. Brown and <!--del_lnk--> Harry Sinden. The Boston Celtics were a founding member of the <!--del_lnk--> Basketball Association of America, one of the two leagues that merged to form the NBA. The Celtics have the distinction of having more World Championships than any other NBA team with 16 championships from 1957 to 1986. The list of Celtics who are members of the <!--del_lnk--> Basketball Hall of Fame include <!--del_lnk--> Bill Russell, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Cousy, <!--del_lnk--> John Havlicek, <!--del_lnk--> Dave Cowens, <!--del_lnk--> Larry Bird, original owner Walter Brown (also president of the Bruins and owner of the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Garden), and longtime coach and team president <!--del_lnk--> Red Auerbach who worked for the team until his death in 2006 at age 89. Longtime announcer <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Most was also honored by the BHOF as a recipient of the Curt Gowdy Media Award.<p>Although the team has played twenty-five miles south in <!--del_lnk--> Foxboro since 1971, the <a href="../../wp/n/New_England_Patriots.htm" title="New England Patriots">New England Patriots</a> are still generally considered to be Boston's football team. The team was founded in 1960 as the Boston Patriots, charter members of the <!--del_lnk--> American Football League. In 1970, the team joined the <!--del_lnk--> National Football League and moved to <!--del_lnk--> Foxboro Stadium one year later. While in Boston, the team played at <!--del_lnk--> Nickerson Field (at the time still known and configured as <!--del_lnk--> Braves Field), Fenway Park, <!--del_lnk--> Harvard Stadium, and <!--del_lnk--> BC's <!--del_lnk--> Alumni Stadium (technically, just outside of the city limits). The team has won three <!--del_lnk--> Super Bowl titles (2001, 2003, 2004) since the 2001 season, and currently is second in popularity only to the Red Sox. They share Gillette Stadium with the <!--del_lnk--> New England Revolution of <!--del_lnk--> Major League Soccer.<p>Another major league team is the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Cannons <!--del_lnk--> lacrosse team of <!--del_lnk--> Major League Lacrosse. The team plays at <!--del_lnk--> Boston University's <!--del_lnk--> Nickerson Field (the former <!--del_lnk--> Braves Field) There have been other professional sports teams to play in the city, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Breakers indoor lacrosse team, the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Beacons and <!--del_lnk--> Boston Minutemen of the <!--del_lnk--> NASL, and the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Breakers <!--del_lnk--> WUSA franchise.<p><a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_football.htm" title="Rugby football">Rugby</a> in Boston has a strong following; the city is home to numerous amateur, college and semi-professional sides. The city has two teams in the premier division of USA <!--del_lnk--> rugby union, the <!--del_lnk--> Rugby Super League - the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Irish Wolfhounds and <a href="../../wp/b/Boston_RFC.htm" title="Boston RFC">Boston RFC</a>. The city features one <!--del_lnk--> rugby league team in the <!--del_lnk--> American National Rugby League, the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Braves.<p>Boston's many colleges and universities are active in college athletics. Hockey is very popular in Massachusetts. There are four <!--del_lnk--> NCAA Division I members in the city: <!--del_lnk--> Boston College (member of the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Coast Conference), <!--del_lnk--> Boston University (<!--del_lnk--> America East Conference), <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern University (<!--del_lnk--> Colonial Athletic Association), and <!--del_lnk--> Harvard University (<!--del_lnk--> Ivy League). All except Harvard, which belongs to the <!--del_lnk--> ECAC Hockey League, belong to the <!--del_lnk--> Hockey East conference in hockey. The hockey teams of these four universities meet every year in an immensely popular four-team tournament known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Beanpot Tournament," played at the TDBanknorth Garden (and the Boston Garden before that) over two Monday nights in February. Interestingly, the oldest continuously used indoor and outdoor sports stadiums in the world are used by Boston schools: <!--del_lnk--> Harvard Stadium (built in 1903) and <!--del_lnk--> Boston Arena (now known as Matthews Arena, built in 1910), which is used by Northeastern University.<p>One of the most famous sporting events in the city is the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Marathon, the 26 mile (42 km) run from <!--del_lnk--> Hopkinton to Copley Square in the Back Bay. The Marathon, the world's oldest, is popular and heavily attended. It is run on <!--del_lnk--> Patriot's Day in April and always coincides with a Red Sox home baseball game that starts at 11:00 AM (the only MLB game to start before noon local time all year). Another major event held in the city is the <!--del_lnk--> Head of the Charles Regatta rowing competition on the Charles River.<p>Boston's first all-female flat-track <!--del_lnk--> roller derby league, Boston Derby Dames, formed in May 2005. The league is among the original members of the <!--del_lnk--> Women's Flat Track Derby Association.<p>NOTE: The first five Boston natives to play <!--del_lnk--> Major League Baseball were <!--del_lnk--> John Morrill (1876), <!--del_lnk--> George Fair (1876), <!--del_lnk--> Jim Ward (1876), <!--del_lnk--> John Bergh (1876), and <!--del_lnk--> Chub Sullivan (1877).<p><a id="Infrastructure" name="Infrastructure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2>
<p><a id="Health_and_medicine" name="Health_and_medicine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health and medicine</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Longwood Medical Area is a region of Boston with a concentration of medical and research facilities, including <!--del_lnk--> Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Brigham and Women's Hospital, <!--del_lnk--> Children's Hospital, <!--del_lnk--> Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and <!--del_lnk--> Harvard Medical School. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre and Brigham and Women's Hospital were both formed by mergers: the former between Beth Israel Hospital and New England Deaconess Hospital, and the latter by Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and the Boston Hospital for Women. <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) is located near the Beacon Hill neighbourhood, with the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and <!--del_lnk--> Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital nearby. Boston also has <!--del_lnk--> VA medical centers in the <!--del_lnk--> Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods.<p>Many of Boston's major medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical Area and MGH are world-renowned research medical centers affiliated with Harvard Medical School. New England Medical Center, located in the southern portions of the Chinatown neighbourhood, is affiliated with <!--del_lnk--> Tufts University. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighbourhood, is the primary teaching facility for the <!--del_lnk--> Boston University School of Medicine as well as the largest <!--del_lnk--> trauma centre in the Boston area; it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2041.jpg.htm" title="Longfellow Bridge across the Charles River, with two MBTA Red Line trains. The Beacon Hill neighborhood is in the background."><img alt="Longfellow Bridge across the Charles River, with two MBTA Red Line trains. The Beacon Hill neighborhood is in the background." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Longfellow_Bridge_2.jpg" src="../../images/20/2041.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2041.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Longfellow Bridge across the Charles River, with two <!--del_lnk--> MBTA Red Line trains. The <!--del_lnk--> Beacon Hill neighbourhood is in the background.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Airports" name="Airports"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Airports</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Logan International Airport, located in the <!--del_lnk--> East Boston neighbourhood, handles most of the <!--del_lnk--> scheduled passenger service for Boston. Surrounding the city are three major <!--del_lnk--> general aviation relievers: <!--del_lnk--> Beverly Municipal Airport to the north, Bedford/<!--del_lnk--> Hanscom Field to the west, and <!--del_lnk--> Norwood Memorial Airport to the south. Further from the city, <!--del_lnk--> T. F. Green Airport serving <!--del_lnk--> Providence, <a href="../../wp/r/Rhode_Island.htm" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Manchester-Boston Airport in <!--del_lnk--> Manchester, New Hampshire, also provide scheduled passenger service. There are also many smaller airports within a 30-mile radius of the city.<p>Since <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="9/11">September 11, 2001</a>, Boston has implemented exceptionally strict security at some of its airports, especially Logan and Hanscom field. Because of this and Boston's location as the closest U.S. port to Europe, it is one of the main destinations for airliners that experience security breaches or disturbances while enroute to the U.S., though in many cases, planes are diverted to <!--del_lnk--> Halifax or other Canadian airports instead.<p><a id="Streets" name="Streets"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Streets</span></h4>
<p>Downtown Boston's streets do not seem to follow a logical pattern, as they were not planned when built centuries ago; they were created as needed, and as wharves and landfill expanded the area of the small Boston peninsula. Except for the reclaimed <!--del_lnk--> Back Bay, <!--del_lnk--> East Boston and part of <!--del_lnk--> South Boston, the city has no <!--del_lnk--> street grid. Along with several <!--del_lnk--> rotaries, roads change names and lose and add lanes seemingly at random. In its March 2006 issue, <i>Bicycling</i> magazine named Boston as one of the worst cities in the U.S. for cycling. Boston has been described as a "City of Squares", referring to the tradition of naming the intersections of major thoroughfares after prominent city residents.<p><a id="Highways" name="Highways"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Highways</span></h4>
<p>Boston is the eastern terminus of <!--del_lnk--> I-90, also known as the <!--del_lnk--> Mass Pike. <!--del_lnk--> I-95, which surrounds the city, is locally referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Route 128, its historical state route numbering. <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Route 1 (also known locally as 'Route 1') and <!--del_lnk--> I-93 runs north to south through the city. The elevated <!--del_lnk--> Central Artery, which ran through downtown Boston and was constantly prone to heavy traffic, was replaced with an underground tunnel through the <!--del_lnk--> Big Dig.<p><a id="Public_transit" name="Public_transit"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Public transit</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2042.jpg.htm" title="An MBTA sign at the Chinatown stop on the Orange Line. The MBTA rapid transit system serves urban Boston and surrounding suburban areas."><img alt="An MBTA sign at the Chinatown stop on the Orange Line. The MBTA rapid transit system serves urban Boston and surrounding suburban areas." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MBTA_Chinatown_sign.JPG" src="../../images/20/2042.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2042.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An <!--del_lnk--> MBTA sign at the <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown stop on the <!--del_lnk--> Orange Line. The MBTA rapid transit system serves urban Boston and surrounding suburban areas.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) operated the nation's first underground <!--del_lnk--> rapid transit system, which has since been expanded, reaching as far north as <!--del_lnk--> Malden, as far south as <!--del_lnk--> Braintree, and as far west as <!--del_lnk--> Newton. Collectively known as the "T", the MBTA also operates a network of <!--del_lnk--> bus lines and water shuttles, and a <!--del_lnk--> commuter rail network extending north to the <a href="../../wp/m/Merrimack_River.htm" title="Merrimack River">Merrimack River</a> valley, west to <!--del_lnk--> Worcester, and south to <!--del_lnk--> Providence, Rhode Island. <a id="Rail" name="Rail"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Rail</span></h4>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak's</a> <!--del_lnk--> Northeast Corridor and <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> lines originate at <!--del_lnk--> South Station and stop at <!--del_lnk--> Back Bay. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which service <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and points in between, also stop at <!--del_lnk--> Route 128 Station in the southwestern suburbs of Boston. Meanwhile, Amtrak's <!--del_lnk--> Downeaster service to <!--del_lnk--> Maine originates at <!--del_lnk--> North Station.<p><a id="Utilities" name="Utilities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Utilities</span></h3>
<p>Water supply and sewage-disposal services are provided by the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Water and Sewer Commission. The Commission in turn purchases wholesale water and sewage disposal from the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA). Established as a public authority in 1984, the MWRA pipes water from reservoirs in Western and Central Massachusetts, notably the <!--del_lnk--> Quabbin and <!--del_lnk--> Wachusett Reservoirs, for several communities within Greater Boston. The agency operates several facilities for sewage treatment, notably an effluent tunnel in Boston Harbour and the <!--del_lnk--> Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant near the mouth of Boston Harbour.<p><!--del_lnk--> NSTAR is the exclusive <i>distributor</i> of <!--del_lnk--> electric power to the city, though due to deregulation, customers now have a choice of electric <i>generation</i> companies. <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a> is distributed by <!--del_lnk--> KeySpan Corporation (the successor company to Boston Gas); only commercial and industrial customers may choose an alternate natural gas supplier. <!--del_lnk--> Verizon, successor to <!--del_lnk--> New England Telephone, <!--del_lnk--> NYNEX, and <!--del_lnk--> Bell Atlantic, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various <!--del_lnk--> national wireless companies. <!--del_lnk--> Cable television is available from <!--del_lnk--> Comcast and <!--del_lnk--> RCN, with <!--del_lnk--> Broadband Internet access provided by the same companies in certain areas. A variety of <!--del_lnk--> DSL providers and resellers are able to provide broadband Internet over Verizon-owned phone lines.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boston RFC</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports_teams.htm">Sports teams</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="4" style="font-size:1.3em; "><b>Boston RFC</b></td>
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<td align="center" colspan="4" style="background-color:#ffffff; border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; border-bottom:solid 1px #ccd2d9;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brfc_logo.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="125" /></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>Full name</b></td>
<td colspan="3" width="63%">Boston Rugby Football Club</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1" width="33%"><b>Founded</b></td>
<td colspan="3" width="67%">1960</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>Union</b></td>
<td colspan="3"><small><!--del_lnk--> USA Rugby</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>Ground</b></td>
<td colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Franklin Park</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>Capacity</b></td>
<td colspan="3">~500</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>President</b></td>
<td colspan="3">Dennis Gaffney</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>Coach</b></td>
<td colspan="3">Bill Good</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="1"><b>League</b></td>
<td colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Rugby Super League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; vertical-align:middle;background-color:#ffffff;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:#FFF; width:90px; margin:0 auto; text-align: center;">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#000000"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17080.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_left_arm_yellowshoulders.png" src="../../images/170/17080.png" width="31" /></a></td>
<td bgcolor="#000000"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17081.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_body_yellowshoulders.png" src="../../images/170/17081.png" width="38" /></a></td>
<td bgcolor="#000000"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17082.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_right_arm_yellowshoulders.png" src="../../images/170/17082.png" width="31" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3" height="36px"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/530.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="36" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_shorts.png" src="../../images/5/530.png" width="100" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/531.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_socks.png" src="../../images/5/531.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="3">　</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3"><b>Home colours</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" width="50%">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:#FFF; width:90px; margin:0 auto; text-align: center;">
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<td bgcolor="#000000"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17080.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_left_arm_yellowshoulders.png" src="../../images/170/17080.png" width="31" /></a></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17083.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_body_yellowblackhorizontal.png" src="../../images/170/17083.png" width="38" /></a></td>
<td bgcolor="#000000"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17082.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="59" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_right_arm_yellowshoulders.png" src="../../images/170/17082.png" width="31" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3" height="36px"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/530.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="36" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_shorts.png" src="../../images/5/530.png" width="100" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/531.png.htm" title="Team colours"><img alt="Team colours" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kit_socks.png" src="../../images/5/531.png" width="100" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">　</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3"><b>Away colours</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="4"><b>Official Website</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="4"><!--del_lnk--> www.brfc.org</td>
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<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="4"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="21" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/170/17084.png" width="40" /></a></td>
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</table>
<p><b>Boston Rugby Football Club</b> (also known as <b>BRFC</b>) is a <!--del_lnk--> rugby union team based in <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston, Massachusetts</a>. The club competes in, and is governed by, the <!--del_lnk--> New England Rugby Football Union (their LAU), the <!--del_lnk--> Northeast Rugby Union (their TAU), and <!--del_lnk--> USA Rugby.<p>The club was established in 1960, but they would not be recognized as a nationally competitive club until they were accepted into <!--del_lnk--> Super League, the premier division of club rugby in the United States. The club has also contributed numerous international players to the <!--del_lnk--> United States national side.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a name="1960-1998"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1960-1998</span></h3>
<p>BRFC was formed in 1960 but was not considered a nationally competitive club until 1996 when Beacon Hill Rugby Football Club, a spawn of BRFC that separated from the parent club in 1968, rejoined BRFC to ensure depth and competitiveness . Prior to the merge, the club had been one of the top regional clubs in <!--del_lnk--> New England. From 1970 through 1998, the club won twenty-two New England Rugby Football Union championships, but it was never able to attain consistent success at the national level. During that same time period, it reached the national competition four times and earned fourth place finishes in both 1983 and 1985. During the 1970s and 1980s, Boston RFC was the home club for many <!--del_lnk--> forwards, particularly <!--del_lnk--> locks, who played for the <!--del_lnk--> USA Eagles in international tests.<p><a name="1998-present:_The_Super_League_Years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1998-present: The Super League Years</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Super League was formed in 1996 by <!--del_lnk--> USA Rugby to create a national competition amongst the premier clubs in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. During its first expansion in 1998, Boston RFC was one of two teams invited to join the competition (the other being <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia Whitemarsh RFC). Since joining the competition, Boston has been one of the weakest clubs in Super League play. The club has amassed a 19-40-2 record as of the beginning of the 2007 season. From 2004 through 2006, Boston recorded a 2-18-0 record, and was outscored by 598 points (an average of thirty points per game). Other clubs that compete in the <!--del_lnk--> Premier Division have fared much better than Boston against Super League clubs during that period. Despite failing in the Super League competition, BRFC has remained one of the better clubs in regional competitions and tournaments since entering the Super League. They have won four New England Rugby Football Union Division I Championships since becoming a member of the Super League. The club fields four sides, which compete at various regional and national levels. The third XV has been met with some success at the national level, having won the <!--del_lnk--> USA Rugby National Third Division Competition in 2000.<p><a id="International_Tours" name="International_Tours"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">International Tours</span></h3>
<p>Since 1977, BRFC has embarked on several international tours, the most recent being to the <a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> in 2000. They have also toured <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> (twice), <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> (three times), <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (three times), <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<p><a id="Honors" name="Honors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Honours</span></h2>
<p>Boston RFC has been recognized with many regional honours. In the club's forty-six year history, Boston has won twenty-five <!--del_lnk--> NERFU championships. They have also attained moderate national success, reaching the USA Rugby Premier Division Competition four times, most recently in 2000.<p><a id="Sponsorship" name="Sponsorship"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sponsorship</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> SuperLeague's primary sponsor is <!--del_lnk--> Michelob Amber Bock and as such, each individual team receives a portion of those revenues. In addition to Amber Bock, Boston RFC has individual sponsorships. These consist of several secondary sponsorships from local and regional businesses. <p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Notable_Players" name="Notable_Players"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable Players</span></h2>
<p><small>The following is a list of former and current BRFC players that have earned caps for international tests</small><p><a id="Australia" name="Australia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Australia</span></h3>
<p>Bob Egerton, scrum-half <p><a id="Canada" name="Canada"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Canada</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Jim Yeganagi, flanker, two international caps </ul>
<p><a id="England" name="England"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> England</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Frank Sykes</ul>
<p><a id="USA" name="USA"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> USA</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="50%">
<ul>
<li>Gary Brackett, second row, three international caps <li>Jack Clark, second row, two international caps <li>Dave Horton, flyhalf, three international caps <li>Tom Kelleher, second row, five international caps <li>Pat Malloy, second row, one international cap, <li>Gerry McDonald, hooker, three international caps <li>Boyd Morrison, outside centre, two international caps <li>Tim Moser, second row, one international cap </ul>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="50%">
<ul>
<li>Manus O'Donnell, prop, one international cap <li>Brian Swords, second row, three international caps <li>Kevin Swords, second row, thirty-six international caps <li>Tom Vinick, centre, three international caps <li>Lin Walton, wing, four international caps <li>Mike Waterman, centre, one international cap <li>Barry Williams wing, five international caps <li>Mark Williams, flyhalf/centre/fullback, thirty-six international caps </ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Wales" name="Wales"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Wales</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Mike Roberts, lock, eight international caps. </ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_RFC"</div>
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Boston_Terrier
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boston Terrier</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th colspan="3" style="background-color: pink;"><span style="font-size: larger;">Boston Terrier</span></th>
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<td colspan="3">
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2019.jpg.htm" title="Boston Terrier with brindle coat"><img alt="Boston Terrier with brindle coat" height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BostonTerrierBrindleStand_w.jpg" src="../../images/20/2019.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<th colspan="3">Alternative names</th>
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<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td colspan="3">Boston Bull<br /> Boston Bull & Terrier</td>
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<tr style="background-color: pink;">
<th colspan="3">Country of origin</th>
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<td colspan="3"><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
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<tr style="background-color: pink;">
<th colspan="3">Classification and breed standards</th>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> FCI:</th>
<td>Group 9 Section 11 #140</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> AKC:</th>
<td>Non-sporting</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> ANKC:</th>
<td>Group 7 (Non-Sporting)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> CKC:</th>
<td>Group 6 - Non-Sporting</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> KC (UK):</th>
<td>Utility</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> NZKC:</th>
<td>Non-sporting</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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<tr style="text-align: left;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> UKC:</th>
<td>Companion Breeds</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stds</td>
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</table>
<p>The <b>Boston Terrier</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> breed of <a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" title="Dog">dog</a> originating in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>.<p>
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<p>Boston Terriers are typically small, compactly built, well proportioned, <a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" title="Dog">dogs</a> with erect ears, short <!--del_lnk--> tails, and a short <!--del_lnk--> muzzle that should be free of wrinkles. Boston terriers can weigh from 10 to 25 lb, typically in the vicinity of 15 lb. The breed is known for its gentle, alert, and intelligent expression. Boston Terriers usually stand 15-17 inches at the <!--del_lnk--> withers.<p>The Boston Terrier is characteristically marked with white in proportion to either black, <!--del_lnk--> brindle, seal, or a combination of the three. Seal is a color specifically used to describe Boston Terriers and is defined as a black colour with red highlights when viewed in the sun or bright light. Ideally white should cover its chest, muzzle, band around the neck, half way up the <!--del_lnk--> forelegs, up to the <!--del_lnk--> hocks on the <!--del_lnk--> rear legs, and a white blaze between but not touching the eyes. In <!--del_lnk--> show dogs, symmetrical markings are preferred. Due to the Boston Terrier's markings resembling <!--del_lnk--> formal wear, in addition to its refined and pleasant personality, the breed is commonly referred to as the "American Gentleman."<div class="thumb tright">
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<p>Frequently, variations on the standard are seen depending on the ancestry of the individual dog. At various times, the <!--del_lnk--> English Bulldog, <!--del_lnk--> English Mastiff, <!--del_lnk--> Staffordshire Bull Terrier, and <!--del_lnk--> French Bulldog—among other breeds—have been crossbred with Boston Terrier lines to minimize inbreeding in what is necessarily a small gene pool.<p><a id="Temperament" name="Temperament"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Temperament</span></h2>
<p>While originally bred for fighting, they were later down bred for companionship. The modern Boston Terrier can be gentle, alert, expressive, and well-mannered. Many still retain the spunky attitude of the typical terrier. They were originally a cross-breed between the <!--del_lnk--> White English Terrier (now extinct) and an <!--del_lnk--> English Bulldog. Some Bostons enjoy having another one for companionship. Both females and males generally bark only when necessary. Having been bred as a companion dog, they enjoy being around people, and if properly socialized get along well with children, other canines, and non-canine pets. Boston Terriers can be very cuddly, while others are more independent. Boston Terriers are known to lick the faces of their owners excessively.<p><a id="Health" name="Health"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Health</span></h2>
<p>Many Bostons cannot tolerate excessive heat and humidity due to the shortened muzzle, so hot weather combined with demanding exercise brings the danger of <!--del_lnk--> heat exhaustion.<p>They can live 15 years or more, but the average is around 13 years.<p>The Boston, like other short-snouted breeds have an elongated <!--del_lnk--> palate. When excited, they are prone to a "reverse sneeze" where the dog will quickly, and seemingly laboriously, gasp and snort. This is caused by air or debris getting caught under the palate and irritating the throat or limiting breathing. "Reverse sneezing" episodes won't hurt a Boston in the least, but it will scare the dog, and maybe its owners, a good deal. The quickest way to stop these episodes is to talk to them calmly, and cover their nose with the palm of your hand, which will force the dog to breath more slowly and deeply through its mouth.<p>Because of their short snouts, they do tend to snort and <!--del_lnk--> snore. These can be signs of serious health issues.Surgery is available to correct the defects that can cause trouble with breathing,(i.e.elongated palate,narrow trachea and pinched nares). There are risks attached to the surgery so it is suggested that you put your dog through such surgery only if its health is compromised. You can adjust their heads so the dog's airway is straight and the snoring should cease but does not cure more serious problems as mentioned before. Due to the Boston's prominent eyes, some are prone to <!--del_lnk--> ulcers or minor injuries to their <a href="../../wp/c/Cornea.htm" title="Cornea">cornea</a>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The Boston Terrier breed originated around 1870, when Robert C. Hooper of <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a> purchased a dog known as Hooper's Judge, a cross between an <!--del_lnk--> English Bulldog and an <!--del_lnk--> English White Terrier.<p>Judge weighed over 30 pounds (13.5 kg.). He was bred down in size with a smaller female and one of those male pups was bred to yet a smaller female. Their offspring interbred with one or more French Bulldogs, providing the foundation for the Boston Terrier. Bred down in size from pit-fighting dogs of the bull and terrier types, the Boston Terrier originally weighed up to 44 pounds (20 kg.) (Olde Boston Bulldogge). Their weight classifications were once divided into lightweight, middleweight, and heavyweight.<p>The breed was first <!--del_lnk--> shown in Boston in 1870. By 1889 the breed had become sufficiently popular in Boston that fanciers formed the American Bull Terrier Club, but this proposed name for the breed was not well received by the Bull Terrier Fanciers. The breed's nickname, roundheads, was similarly inappropriate. Shortly after, the breed was named the Boston Terrier after its birthplace.<p>In 1893, the <!--del_lnk--> American Kennel Club (AKC) admitted the Boston Terrier breed and gave the club membership status, making it the first American breed to be recognized. It is one of a small number of breeds to have originated in the United States that it recognizes.<p>The Boston Terrier was the first non-sporting dog bred in America.<p>In the early years, the color and markings were not very important, but by the 1900s the breed's distinctive markings and colour were written into the standard, becoming an essential feature. Terrier only in name, the Boston Terrier has lost most of their ruthless desire for mayhem, preferring the company of humans, although some males will still challenge other dogs if they feel their territory is being invaded.<p>Boston Terriers enjoyed particular popularity during the 1920's in America.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Terrier"</div>
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Boston_and_Lowell_Railroad
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boston and Lowell Railroad</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox bordered" style="width: 23em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%">
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<th bgcolor="#CC9966" colspan="2" style="font-size: large; text-align:center"><b>Boston and Lowell Railroad</b></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17088.png.htm" title="System map"><img alt="System map" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_and_Lowell_Railroad_1887.png" src="../../images/170/17088.png" width="300" /></a><br /><small>Map of the Southern Division as it was in 1887, just before it was leased by the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad, including the original Boston to Lowell mainline.</small></td>
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<th>Locale</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Lowell, Massachusetts and beyond into <!--del_lnk--> New Hampshire and <!--del_lnk--> Vermont</td>
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<th>Dates of operation</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1835 –</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Track gauge</th>
<td>4 <!--del_lnk--> ft 8½ <!--del_lnk--> in (1435 <!--del_lnk--> mm) (<!--del_lnk--> standard gauge)</td>
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<th>Headquarters</th>
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<p>The <b>Lowell Line</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> railroad line of the <!--del_lnk--> MBTA Commuter Rail system, running north from <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Lowell, Massachusetts. Originally built as the <b>Boston and Lowell Railroad</b>, and later operated as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad's Southern Division, the line was one of the <!--del_lnk--> first railroads in North America and the first major one in Massachusetts.<p>
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</script><a id="Beginnings" name="Beginnings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Beginnings</span></h2>
<p>In the early <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Francis Cabot Lowell decided to build a model mill town in a Massachusetts town near Boston that was promptly reincorporated in <!--del_lnk--> 1822 as Lowell, Massachusetts in his honour. This industrial town began to produce large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> textiles and other products which had to get to people so they could be used. It also had to get raw materials such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a> from which to build these products. At the time, the best way for the factory owners to do this was to transport to and from Boston and let Boston merchants deal with the rest there.<p>Before the <!--del_lnk--> railroad, there were two main ways of moving goods between Boston and Lowell. The first was the <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex Canal, built previously to bypass a circuitous coastal route from the Merrimack River. The other consisted of <!--del_lnk--> stagecoaches running on the road between Boston and Lowell. These sufficed for some time, but as Lowell grew and more industrialists built <!--del_lnk--> mills there, problems with both modes soon overwhelmed them.<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" title="Canal">canal</a> was a very efficient way of moving large amounts of heavy goods cheaply and with minimal labor. It was slow, but no one had any delusions that it was suitable for perishables or other time-sensitive goods, passengers included. Unfortunately, it would freeze in the winter and the towpath was muddy in spring and late fall. This made it impractical for a burgeoning mill-town that needed year-round freight transportation.<p>Stagecoaches provided the passenger aspect of the transport, moving 100 to 120 passengers per day. There were six stagecoaches in operation at the time of the building of the railroad, for a total of 39 fully loaded round trips per week. This was sufficient passenger service for people who had to make an occasional trip but was much too expensive for daily use or what we would now call <!--del_lnk--> commuters.<p>One of the <!--del_lnk--> first railroads in North America was nearby Quincy's <!--del_lnk--> Granite Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1826. It was a three-mile, horse-powered railroad, built to move large granite stones from the quarries in <!--del_lnk--> Quincy, Massachusetts to the Neponset River in <!--del_lnk--> Milton. As was believed to be the most sturdy - and convenient, in this case - method at the time, it was built on a deep foundation of granite, setting a precedent for all railroads that could afford it. The Granite Railroad showed the Lowell mill owners that a railroad could be a practical method of freight transport.<p>The owners of the Lowell mills decided that they needed to do something about their transportation problem. They looked at the recently completed, nearby Granite Railroad and took inspiration. A railroad would supply exactly what they wanted. It could run year round, was expandable with as many tracks as they might need, and could use the new <!--del_lnk--> locomotives that were being highly praised in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<p><a id="Getting_chartered" name="Getting_chartered"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Getting chartered</span></h2>
<p>Once convinced that they wanted a railroad, they formed a group called the <b>Boston Associates</b>. This new group had the task of convincing the <!--del_lnk--> state legislature that a railroad was a good idea, and later building the railroad itself. The former proved very difficult, as the investors of the Middlesex Canal were very much against them building a bypass that seemed designed to replace their canal and drive them out of business.<p>Because there was no provision in Massachusetts State law for <!--del_lnk--> chartering railroads prior to <!--del_lnk--> 1872, all railroads had to be chartered by special acts of legislature. This made it slow and inefficient to charter a railroad because the politicians had to agree; the issue would become partisan. This also meant that the legislature would not let the Boston Associates build the line unless they could show it was completely necessary.<p>The case of the Canal investors seemed reasonable and compelling at the time, though some aspects are humorous in hindsight. Their argument was mainly:<ol>
<li>Their investors spent a lot of money on the Canal.<li>The Canal currently deals with all <!--del_lnk--> freight between Boston and Lowell.<li>There is a finite amount of freight to be moved.<li>The railroad is being built with the main purpose of transporting freight between Boston and Lowell.<li>All the railroad can do is take business away from the Canal.<li>This will ruin the canal.<li>The railroad should not be built, or it should be forced to pay compensation to the canal's investors.<li>Failure of the court to force compensation would decrease investor confidence and make it much less likely that people would be willing to invest in major projects in the future.</ol>
<p>The Boston Associates won because they convinced the legislature that the Canal was inherently incapable of providing what they needed: reliable, year round, freight transport.<p>The Canal operators were also unable to foresee the future worth of canals. Before the State Legislature of Massachusetts, the Canal spokesperson testified that, "It is believed that no safer or cheaper mode of conveyance can ever be established, nor any so well adapted for bulky articles" than the Canal. This does not really reflect negatively on them because it was a common attitude at the time, but today is ironic and amusing.<p>The Boston Associates got their charter on <!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1830, with no provision for reparations to the Canal's investors. It was a favorable charter because it allowed for, in addition to the right to build and operate a railroad between Boston and Lowell, a thirty-year monopoly on the right to have a railroad between the same. The people along the road and in terminal end cities bought large amounts of <a href="../../wp/s/Stock.htm" title="Stock">stock</a>, financing half the company. These two ideas, monopoly rights to discourage competition and public interest in the company as shown by the large amount of publicly bought stock, were exactly what the argument over the Canal was about. The legislators seem to have realized the growth value in giving a monopoly that they more or less stole from the Canal, but the Canal's investors seem to have been wrong with their final point; people were eager to purchase stock, showing no decrease in confidence at all.<p><a id="Building_the_railroad" name="Building_the_railroad"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Building the railroad</span></h2>
<p>The Boston Associates, armed with their charter, now had before them the task of surveying and building the line. They brought in Mr. James Baldwin, son of Col. Laommi Baldwin, who had engineered the canal, to do the surveying, and charged him with finding a gently sloped path from Boston to Lowell, with few <!--del_lnk--> grade crossings and well away from town centers. This latter point ended up being quite inconvenient later on. The general popular view toward railroads in the late <!--del_lnk--> 1820s, when Baldwin was preparing to do his surveying, was that railroads were smoky, noisy, dirty, fire-causing nuisances that should be kept as far away from people as possible. No one had any idea of the future possibility of railroads acting as public transportation, or if they did they were not paid any attention by the builders or financers of the road.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> right-of-way that Baldwin surveyed did well in each of these characteristics. The path sloped up at a gentle ten feet per mile at the maximum and there were only three grade crossings over the entire 26 mile distance. The path was close to the older Middlesex Canal path, but was straighter - as <!--del_lnk--> boats can turn sharper than <!--del_lnk--> trains. To achieve this superior linearity it needed small amounts of grade elevation in places. The route ignored <!--del_lnk--> Medford centre entirely, going through West Medford instead, and totally bypassed <!--del_lnk--> Woburn and <!--del_lnk--> Billerica. This would have to be corrected later with various spurs (the one to Medford being built off the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad) but were always sources of annoyance to both the riders and the operators.<p>The proposed route was accepted by the Boston Associates and work began the on building phase. The road was begun from both ends at once and some sources say that they both started on the right hand side of the right-of-way, missing in the middle and having to put in an embarrassing reverse curve to tide them over until they built the other side. <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_people.htm" title="Irish people">Irish</a> laborers were brought in to do the building, which was made especially difficult and heavy because the Boston Associates wanted to make the road using the best techniques then known. This, for them, meant laying imported <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> rails with a four foot deep wall of <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">granite</a> under each rail. They did this because it was commonly believed that the train would sink into the ground if the rails did not have strong support.<p>The first track of the road was completed in <!--del_lnk--> 1835 and freight service began immediately. The solid granite roadbed proved to be much too rigid, jolting the engine and cars nearly to pieces. Repairs on the locomotives (there were two at the time) would sometimes take most of the night, trying to get them ready for the next day's service. The much poorer <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Worcester Railroad could not afford a granite bed and so was built with the modern wooden ties. This turned out to be far superior so the owners of the Boston and Lowell decided they would upgrade their entire roadbed to wood when they added a second track.<p>The original Boston terminal was at the north corner of Causeway Street and Andover Street (halfway between Portland and Friend Streets), at the westernmost edge of the current <!--del_lnk--> North Station. The bridge over the <!--del_lnk--> Charles River to access it was the first <!--del_lnk--> movable railroad bridge in the United States. <!--del_lnk--> The original Lowell terminal was at the south corner of Merrimack Street and Dutton Street.<p><a id="Early_operation" name="Early_operation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early operation</span></h2>
<p>The quantity of freight traffic on the Boston and Lowell was large from the first, as everyone expected it to be, with several large mills needing to be supplied with materials and to have someone take them away after processing. The level of passenger traffic, however, was not anticipated. People all over were fascinated with the trains, and loved that they could get from Boston to Lowell in twenty minutes. Twenty minutes meant travelling at over sixty miles per hour and on unwelded track on a granite roadbed, which was extremely bumpy. Passenger complaints about the rough ride were another reason that the B&L ended up switching to wooden ties.<p>The B&L was now faced with a problem; it had a reputation for passenger speed which made it very popular and highly competitive with stagecoaches. Many people, however, did not want to go from Boston to Lowell but instead to and from places in between. The B&L decided to order another locomotive and some cars for local passenger rail in <!--del_lnk--> 1842, and have them make six stops along the route. Passenger rail proved to be almost as profitable as freight.<p><a id="The_Boston_and_Maine_Railroad" name="The_Boston_and_Maine_Railroad"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Boston and Maine Railroad</span></h2>
<p>Another railroad began about this time whose fortunes would be closely tied to those of the B&L. This road was the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad (B&M). This road ran down from <!--del_lnk--> Portland Maine, through a bit of Southern <!--del_lnk--> New Hampshire, to <!--del_lnk--> Haverhill in Northeastern Massachusetts, connected to the B&L in <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington, and then used B&L track to Boston. This route was conceptualized in <!--del_lnk--> 1834, but took a long time to be built, mostly because, unlike the B&L, it did not have a secure base of funding like the Lowell Mills. It took two years to get to <!--del_lnk--> Andover, another to get to Haverhill, three more to get to <!--del_lnk--> Exeter, and did not get to <!--del_lnk--> Portland until <!--del_lnk--> 1852.<p>This extra traffic on the B&L line, especially with the line still over granite, provided the extra impetus to double track and upgrade. In <!--del_lnk--> 1838, the B&L began two years of extensive track improvements, first laying a second track on wood, and with that one built, going back and re-laying the old track on the more forgiving wood as well. B&L traffic continued to increase and even with double tracks, the schedule became tight enough that the B&M trains, as renters, began to be pushed around to annoying hours, often having to wait over an hour in Wilmington before being allowed to proceed on to Boston.<p>The B&M soon tired of what they perceived as selfishness and decided to build its own track to Boston from Haverhill so that it would not have to rely on the B&L. The B&L tried to fight the B&M in court but failed because the monopoly granted in its charter was only good for traffic between Boston and Lowell. The shortcut, part of today's <!--del_lnk--> Haverhill/Reading Line, was started in <!--del_lnk--> 1844 and was in use by <!--del_lnk--> 1848. While the B&M was building it, they were still running their trains to Boston on the B&L. This made for a lot of conflict, with the B&L trying to squeeze every last penny out of the B&M before it lost the opportunity. The B&M tried to deal with this in court, and got the judge to forbid the B&L from raising rates until the case was done, but by the time they were close to an agreement, the bypass was complete.<p>With B&M business gone, the B&L realized how much they had been relying upon their renters. Additionally, the Lowell mills began to decline somewhat and there was less freight traffic for the line to move. Over the next four decades, the B&L declined until the more successful B&M leased it on <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1887.<p><a id="Branches" name="Branches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Branches</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17089.jpg.htm" title="ca. 1886 map"><img alt="ca. 1886 map" height="365" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ca_1890_B%26L.jpg" src="../../images/170/17089.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17089.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ca. <!--del_lnk--> 1886 map</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The B&L built or leased many branches to serve areas not on its original line. Immediately before its lease by the B&M in <!--del_lnk--> 1887, it had five divisions - the Southern Division (including the original line), the Northern Division, the White Mountains Division, the Vermont Division and the Passumpsic Division. Additionally, it leased the <!--del_lnk--> Central Massachusetts Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1886.<p><a id="Southern_Division" name="Southern_Division"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Southern Division</span></h3>
<p>The main part of the Southern Division was the mainline between <!--del_lnk--> Boston and <!--del_lnk--> Lowell.<dl>
<dt>Charlestown</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Charlestown Branch Railroad was not itself taken over by the B&L, but as originally built in <!--del_lnk--> 1840 it was a short spur from the B&L to <!--del_lnk--> wharves in <!--del_lnk--> Charlestown. In <!--del_lnk--> 1845 the <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg Railroad leased it and incorporated it into their main line.<dl>
<dt>Mystic River</dl>
<p>The Mystic River Branch served the <!--del_lnk--> Mystic River waterfront on the north side of <!--del_lnk--> Charlestown.<dl>
<dt>Woburn</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Woburn Branch Railroad opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1845, connecting <!--del_lnk--> Woburn to the main line towards Boston. The <!--del_lnk--> Woburn Branch Extension Railroad, built in <!--del_lnk--> 1885, continued the line back north to the main line in North Woburn. The <!--del_lnk--> Horn Pond Branch Railroad was a short freight-only branch off the Woburn Branch to <!--del_lnk--> ice houses on <!--del_lnk--> Horn Pond.<dl>
<dt>Stoneham</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Stoneham Branch Railroad was built in 1862 to connect to <!--del_lnk--> Stoneham.<dl>
<dt>Lawrence</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lowell and Lawrence Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1846 to build a line between <!--del_lnk--> Lowell and <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence, which opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1848. In <!--del_lnk--> 1858 the B&L leased the line.<dl>
<dt>Salem</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Salem and Lowell Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1848 as a branch from the Lowell and Lawrence at <!--del_lnk--> Tewksbury Junction to the <!--del_lnk--> Essex Railroad at <!--del_lnk--> Peabody, along which it used <!--del_lnk--> trackage rights to <!--del_lnk--> Salem. The line was opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1850 and operated by the Lowell and Lawrence until <!--del_lnk--> 1858, when the B&L leased it along with the Lowell and Lawrence.<dl>
<dt>Wilmington</dl>
<p>The Wilmington Branch, now known as the <!--del_lnk--> Wildcat Branch, was built just west of the original <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad alignment to connect the main line at <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington to the Salem and Lowell at <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington Junction, providing a shorter route between Boston and Lawrence.<dl>
<dt>Arlington and Concord</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1845 and opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1846, connecting the <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg Railroad at <!--del_lnk--> West Cambridge to <!--del_lnk--> Lexington. It was operated by the Fitchburg from opening, and leased to the Fitchburg from <!--del_lnk--> 1847 to <!--del_lnk--> 1859. The line was reorganized as the <!--del_lnk--> Lexington and Arlington Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1868. The B&L bought the line in <!--del_lnk--> 1870 and built a new connection to their main line at <!--del_lnk--> Somerville Junction.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex Central Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1872 and opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1873, extending the line from Lexington to <!--del_lnk--> Concord. It was leased from completion to the B&L. An extension west to the <!--del_lnk--> Nashua, Acton and Boston Railroad at <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex Junction was built in <!--del_lnk--> 1879. <!--del_lnk--> <dl>
<dt>Bedford</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Billerica and Bedford Railroad was built in <!--del_lnk--> 1877 as a <!--del_lnk--> narrow gauge line between the Middlesex Central at <!--del_lnk--> Bedford and the B&L at <!--del_lnk--> Billerica. It was sold and abandoned in <!--del_lnk--> 1878, and the rails were taken to <!--del_lnk--> Maine for the <!--del_lnk--> Sandy River Railroad. A new <!--del_lnk--> standard gauge branch was built by the B&L in <!--del_lnk--> 1885, mostly on the same right-of-way. <!--del_lnk--> <dl>
<dt>Lowell and Nashua</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lowell and Nashua Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1836 as an extension of the B&L from Lowell north to the <!--del_lnk--> New Hampshire state line. The <!--del_lnk--> Nashua and Lowell Railroad, chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1835, would continue the line in New Hampshire to <!--del_lnk--> Nashua. The two companies merged in <!--del_lnk--> 1838 to form a new Nashua and Lowell Railroad, and the road opened later that year. In <!--del_lnk--> 1857 the B&L and N&L agreed to operate as one company from <!--del_lnk--> 1860, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1880 the B&L leased the N&L.<dl>
<dt>Stony Brook</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Stony Brook Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1845 and opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1848, connecting the Nashua and Lowell at <!--del_lnk--> North Chelmsford with <!--del_lnk--> Ayer. The N&L leased the Stony Brook in <!--del_lnk--> 1848.<dl>
<dt>Nashua to Keene</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Wilton Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1844. It opened a line from <!--del_lnk--> Nashua west to <!--del_lnk--> Danforth's Corner in <!--del_lnk--> 1848, to <!--del_lnk--> Milford in <!--del_lnk--> 1850 and to <!--del_lnk--> East Wilton in <!--del_lnk--> 1851. Since completion it was operated by the N&L.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Peterborough Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1866 to continue the Wilton Railroad northwest to <!--del_lnk--> Greenfield. In <!--del_lnk--> 1873 the N&L leased it; the road opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1874.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Manchester and Keene Railroad was chartered <!--del_lnk--> 1864 and opened <!--del_lnk--> 1878, continuing the Peterborough Railroad west from <!--del_lnk--> Greenfield to the <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut River Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> Keene. In <!--del_lnk--> 1880 the company went bankrupt, and it was operated by the Connecticut River Railroad until <!--del_lnk--> 1882, when it was bought half-and-half by the B&L and the <!--del_lnk--> Concord Railroad.<p><a id="Other_divisions" name="Other_divisions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other divisions</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Central Massachusetts Railroad</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Central Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1869 to build a line east-west across the middle of the state, between the <!--del_lnk--> Boston and Albany Railroad and the <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg Railroad. The first section opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1881, splitting from the B&L's Arlington Branch at <!--del_lnk--> North Cambridge Junction, and the company was reorganized as the <!--del_lnk--> Central Massachusetts Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1883. The B&L leased the line in <!--del_lnk--> 1886, a year before the B&M leased the B&L.<dl>
<dt>Northern Division</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1844, and opened in stages from <!--del_lnk--> 1848 to <!--del_lnk--> 1853, eventually running from <!--del_lnk--> Concord to <!--del_lnk--> Woodsville, New Hampshire. That railroad, along with its branches, became part of the B&L Northern Division in <!--del_lnk--> 1884, when the B&L leased the BC&M.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Northern Railroad was also chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1844, opening in <!--del_lnk--> 1847 from <!--del_lnk--> Concord to <!--del_lnk--> Lebanon, New Hampshire and later extending to <!--del_lnk--> White River Junction, Vermont. The B&L leased it in <!--del_lnk--> 1884 as another part of its Northern Division.<p>The only connection between the Southern and Northern Divisions was at <!--del_lnk--> Hancock Junction, where the <!--del_lnk--> Manchester and Keene Railroad (Southern) and <!--del_lnk--> Peterborough and Hillsborough Railroad (Northern) met.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1889 the BC&M merged with the <!--del_lnk--> Concord Railroad to form the <!--del_lnk--> Concord and Montreal Railroad, taking it out of B&M control until <!--del_lnk--> 1895, when the B&M leased the C&M.<dl>
<dt>White Mountains Division</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> White Mountains Railroad was chartered in <!--del_lnk--> 1848 and opened a line from <!--del_lnk--> Woodsville to <!--del_lnk--> Littleton, New Hampshire in <!--del_lnk--> 1853. Along with extensions and branches, it was leased to the <!--del_lnk--> Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1859 and consolidated into it in <!--del_lnk--> 1872, becoming its White Mountains Division. In <!--del_lnk--> 1884 the B&L leased the BC&M and the old White Mountains Railroad became the B&L's White Mountains Division.<p>The Northern and White Mountains Divisions were connected at <!--del_lnk--> Woodsville.<dl>
<dt>Vermont Division</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Essex County Railroad (chartered <!--del_lnk--> 1864), <!--del_lnk--> Montpelier and St. Johnsbury Railroad (chartered <!--del_lnk--> 1866) and <!--del_lnk--> Lamoille Valley Railroad (chartered <!--del_lnk--> 1867) were consolidated into the <!--del_lnk--> Portland and Ogdensburg Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1875 as their Vermont Division. The line was finished in <!--del_lnk--> 1877, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1880 it was reorganized as the <!--del_lnk--> St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad, which was taken over by the B&L as their Vermont Division. The line did not stay in the B&M system, and the easternmost part was leased to the <!--del_lnk--> Maine Central Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1912.<p>The White Mountains and Vermont Divisions were connected at <!--del_lnk--> Scott's Mills, New Hampshire.<dl>
<dt>Passumpsic Division</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad was organized in <!--del_lnk--> 1846 and opened a line from <!--del_lnk--> White River Junction on the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Railroad to the border with <!--del_lnk--> Quebec, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1867, junctioning the Northern and White Mountains Divisions at <!--del_lnk--> Wells River and the Vermont Division at <!--del_lnk--> St. Johnsbury. The <!--del_lnk--> Massawippi Valley Railway, leased in <!--del_lnk--> 1870, continued to <!--del_lnk--> Sherbrooke, Quebec, where it junctioned the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Trunk Railway among others. The B&L leased the line on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1887, three months before the B&M acquired the B&L.<p><a id="Life_as_a_B.26M_line" name="Life_as_a_B.26M_line"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life as a B&M line</span></h2>
<p>Over the next 70 years or so, things were reasonably stable and constant for the Lowell Line as a part of the B&M's Southern Division. Passenger train round trips per day hovered in the low 20's and while freight from Lowell itself did not last too long, the Lowell line got some traffic from railroads that connected from the west.<p><a id="Modern_times" name="Modern_times"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Modern times</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17090.jpg.htm" title="Winchester Center, a Lowell Line station in Winchester, MA."><img alt="Winchester Center, a Lowell Line station in Winchester, MA." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lowellline-winchestercenter.jpg" src="../../images/170/17090.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17090.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Winchester Centre, a Lowell Line station in <!--del_lnk--> Winchester, MA.</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, things began to change. Trucks began to increase in popularity, and they got the <!--del_lnk--> Eisenhower Interstate System to help them. More and more companies began to send freight by trucks. This was a bad time for a decline to happen, as the B&M, like most other railroads, had just switched over to <!--del_lnk--> diesel locomotives, meaning that they had large debts. By <!--del_lnk--> 1976 the B&M was <!--del_lnk--> bankrupt.<p>This did not affect passenger service, just freight on the Lowell line, because in <!--del_lnk--> 1973 the <!--del_lnk--> MBTA bought the Lowell line, along with the Haverhill and all other local Greater Boston passenger lines. Along with the sale, the B&M contracted to run the passenger service on the Lowell line for the MBTA. After bankruptcy, The B&M continued to run and fulfill its <!--del_lnk--> Commuter Rail contract under the protection of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Bankruptcy Court, in the hopes that a reorganization could make it profitable again. It emerged from the court's protection when newly-formed <!--del_lnk--> Guilford Transportation Industries (GTI) bought it in <!--del_lnk--> 1983.<p>When GTI bought the B&M, commuter rail service was in jeopardy. The MBTA had owned the trains and the tracks since <!--del_lnk--> 1973, but it had outsourced the operation to the B&M. When GTI bought the B&M in <!--del_lnk--> 1983, it had to honour the B&M contract, but GTI management was very much against passenger rail, and, in <!--del_lnk--> 1986, as soon as the contract expired, they let the job go to <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>.<p>From 1986 until 2003, Amtrak managed the entirety of Boston's commuter rail. It did decently, though at times had strained relations with the MBTA. Quibbles centered on equipment failures, numbers of conductors per train, and who takes responsibility when trains are late. Because of these bad relations and Amtrak's repeated announcements that the contract was unreasonable, few people were surprised at Amtrak's decision not to bid again for the Commuter Rail contract when it came up for renewal in <!--del_lnk--> 2003.<p>When the MBTA asked for new bids on the Commuter Rail operation contract, Amtrak did not bid but Guilford and the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Commuter Railroad Company did. The MBCR ended up getting the contract. When the MBCR began operating the Commuter Rail in July of 2004, nothing changed for the commuters as it is the MBTA that owns the trains, tracks, and sets the schedules.<p>Guilford's main line between <!--del_lnk--> Mattawamkeag, Maine and <!--del_lnk--> Mechanicville, New York now uses the <!--del_lnk--> Stony Brook Branch, and the old main line north of Lowell. At Lowell it shifts to the B&M's original <!--del_lnk--> Lowell Branch to get to the B&M main line towards Maine.<p>Another recent change on the Lowell line is the addition of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Downeaster</i>. The Downeaster is an <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> line running from <!--del_lnk--> North Station to Haverhill and up to Portland. Due to scheduling conflicts with the MBTA, the Downeaster runs up the Lowell Line to Wilmington and then out the old B&M <!--del_lnk--> Wildcat Branch to the <!--del_lnk--> Haverhill/Reading Line. This route allows the Downeaster to pass a commuter train on the Haverhill/Reading Line without scheduling conflicts. The route is also historically significant because it is the same route that the original B&M used to Portland.<p><a id="Accessibility" name="Accessibility"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accessibility</span></h2>
<p>North Station is <!--del_lnk--> wheelchair accessible, as are Anderson RTC and stations north of there. See also <!--del_lnk--> MBTA accessibility.<p><a id="Station_listing" name="Station_listing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Station listing</span></h2>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Milepost</th>
<th>City</th>
<th>Station</th>
<th>Opening date</th>
<th>Connections and notes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>0.0</td>
<td rowspan="3"><a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17091.png.htm" title="Handicapped access"><img alt="Handicapped access" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Handicap_reverse_12px.svg" src="../../images/170/17091.png" width="12" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> North Station</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orange Line and <!--del_lnk--> Green Line<br /><!--del_lnk--> MBTA Commuter Rail north-side lines<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> <!--del_lnk--> Downeaster service to Maine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boston Engine Terminal</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>A <!--del_lnk--> flag stop with a wooden platform for MBTA employees only</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MBTA <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg Line, <!--del_lnk--> Haverhill/Reading Line and <!--del_lnk--> Newburyport/Rockport Line split</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cambridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East Cambridge</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed<br /> on the old alignment, west of the current route</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1.9</td>
<td rowspan="4"><!--del_lnk--> Somerville</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Prospect Hill</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed<br /> originally Milk Row</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2.4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Winter Hill</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2.8</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Somerville Junction</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed<br /> originally Somerville<br /> split with <!--del_lnk--> Lexington and Arlington Branch</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3.6</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North Somerville</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4.0</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Medford</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tufts University</td>
<td>November <!--del_lnk--> 1976 (had been open previously)</td>
<td>closed October <!--del_lnk--> 1979<br /> originally College Hill</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4.6</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Medford Hillside</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>5.5</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><!--del_lnk--> West Medford</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7.3</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Winchester</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><!--del_lnk--> Wedgemere</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>originally Mystic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7.8</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><!--del_lnk--> Winchester Centre</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>split with <!--del_lnk--> Woburn Branch</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9.0</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Winchester Highlands</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed June <!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9.8</td>
<td rowspan="5"><!--del_lnk--> Woburn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Montvale</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed<br /> split with <!--del_lnk--> Stoneham Branch</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lechmere Warehouse</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td>closed <!--del_lnk--> 1996 <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10.5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Walnut Hill</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed <!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1965</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>11.6</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><!--del_lnk--> Mishawum</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1984 (had been open previously)</td>
<td>originally East Woburn</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>12.7</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17091.png.htm" title="Handicapped access"><img alt="Handicapped access" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Handicap_reverse_12px.svg" src="../../images/170/17091.png" width="12" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Anderson Regional Transportation Centre</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> <!--del_lnk--> Downeaster service to Maine<br /> originally South Wilmington (had been open previously)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Wilmington</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North Woburn Junction</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>not a station<br /> merge with <!--del_lnk--> Woburn Branch</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>15.2</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17091.png.htm" title="Handicapped access"><img alt="Handicapped access" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Handicap_reverse_12px.svg" src="../../images/170/17091.png" width="12" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>split with <!--del_lnk--> Wildcat Branch, carrying the <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> <!--del_lnk--> Downeaster service (without stopping here)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>17.0</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Silver Lake</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed <!--del_lnk--> June 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1965?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Billerica</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East Billerica</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed <!--del_lnk--> June 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1965?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>21.8</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17091.png.htm" title="Handicapped access"><img alt="Handicapped access" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Handicap_reverse_12px.svg" src="../../images/170/17091.png" width="12" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> North Billerica</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>junction with <!--del_lnk--> Bedford and Billerica Branch</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>24.6</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Lowell</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bleachery</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed<br /> junction with <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Branch, <!--del_lnk--> Lowell and Andover Railroad (<!--del_lnk--> B&M) and <!--del_lnk--> Lowell and Framingham Railroad (<!--del_lnk--> NYNH&H)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>25.5</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFDFFF"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17091.png.htm" title="Handicapped access"><img alt="Handicapped access" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Handicap_reverse_12px.svg" src="../../images/170/17091.png" width="12" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Lowell</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>originally Middlesex Street<br /> junction with <!--del_lnk--> Nashua and Lowell Railroad (B&L)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Merrimack Street</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>closed</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table style="margin:auto; border:1px solid #8888AA;">
<tr>
<td style="text-align:center; background:#CCCCFF;">
<div style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">
</div><b><!--del_lnk--> Boston and Maine Railroad subsidiaries</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Eastern (<!--del_lnk--> 1883) - <!--del_lnk--> Worcester, Nashua and Portland (<!--del_lnk--> 1886) - <strong class="selflink">Boston and Lowell</strong> (<!--del_lnk--> 1887) - <!--del_lnk--> Passumpsic (<!--del_lnk--> 1887) - <!--del_lnk--> Northern (<!--del_lnk--> 1890) - <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut River (<!--del_lnk--> 1893) - <!--del_lnk--> Concord and Montreal (<!--del_lnk--> 1895) - <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg (<!--del_lnk--> 1900)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table style="margin:auto; border:1px solid #8888AA;">
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#CCCCFF;">
<div style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">
</div><b><!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority</b> (<!--del_lnk--> official site)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Red Line</td>
<td bgcolor="red" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Alewife – <!--del_lnk--> Ashmont / <!--del_lnk--> Braintree ––– <!--del_lnk--> Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line: <!--del_lnk--> Ashmont – <!--del_lnk--> Mattapan</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Green Line</td>
<td bgcolor="green" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Lechmere – <!--del_lnk--> Boston College (<!--del_lnk--> "B") / <!--del_lnk--> Cleveland Circle (<!--del_lnk--> "C") / <!--del_lnk--> Riverside (<!--del_lnk--> "D") / <!--del_lnk--> Heath Street (<!--del_lnk--> "E") ––– <i><!--del_lnk--> Watertown (<!--del_lnk--> "A")</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Orange Line</td>
<td bgcolor="orange" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Oak Grove – <!--del_lnk--> Forest Hills ––– <i><!--del_lnk--> Charlestown Elevated – <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Avenue Elevated – <!--del_lnk--> Washington Street Elevated</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Blue Line</td>
<td bgcolor="blue" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Wonderland – <!--del_lnk--> Bowdoin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Silver Line</td>
<td bgcolor="gray" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Dudley Square – <!--del_lnk--> Downtown Crossing; <!--del_lnk--> South Station – various points</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Buses</td>
<td bgcolor="yellow" width="8">
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> List - <!--del_lnk--> Crosstown Buses - <!--del_lnk--> Former Streetcars - <!--del_lnk--> Trackless Trolleys - <!--del_lnk--> Key Routes - <!--del_lnk--> East Boston Area - <!--del_lnk--> South Boston - <i><!--del_lnk--> Urban Ring</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> Commuter Rail</td>
<td bgcolor="purple" width="8">
</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><i><!--del_lnk--> Greenbush</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Plymouth/Kingston – <!--del_lnk--> Middleborough/Lakeville – <i><!--del_lnk--> New Bedford/Fall River</i> – <!--del_lnk--> Fairmount – <!--del_lnk--> Providence/Stoughton – <!--del_lnk--> Franklin – <!--del_lnk--> Needham – <!--del_lnk--> Framingham/Worcester – <!--del_lnk--> Fitchburg – <strong class="selflink">Lowell</strong> – <!--del_lnk--> Haverhill/Reading – <!--del_lnk--> Newburyport/Rockport - <i><!--del_lnk--> North-South Rail Link</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center">Miscellaneous</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Accessibility – <!--del_lnk--> Boat service – <!--del_lnk--> CharlieCard – <!--del_lnk--> Nomenclature</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:right; font-style:italic; padding-right:0.5em; vertical-align:center">Predecessors</td>
<td style="vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Boston Elevated Railway – <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway – <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex and Boston Street Railway</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_and_Lowell_Railroad"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Botany</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
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<p><b>Botany</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> scientific study of <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a><a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a>. As a branch of <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a>, it is also sometimes referred to as <b>plant science(s)</b> or <b>plant biology</b>. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the <!--del_lnk--> structure, <!--del_lnk--> growth, <!--del_lnk--> reproduction, <!--del_lnk--> metabolism, <!--del_lnk--> development and <!--del_lnk--> diseases of <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Scope_and_importance_of_botany" name="Scope_and_importance_of_botany"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Scope and importance of botany</span></h2>
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<p>As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the <!--del_lnk--> molecular, <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> biochemical level through <!--del_lnk--> organelles, <!--del_lnk--> cells, <!--del_lnk--> tissues, <!--del_lnk--> organs, individuals, plant <!--del_lnk--> populations, and <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">communities</a> of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (<!--del_lnk--> taxonomy), structure (<!--del_lnk--> anatomy), or function (<!--del_lnk--> physiology) of plant life.<p>Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include <!--del_lnk--> fungi (studied in <!--del_lnk--> mycology), <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Viruses">viruses</a> (studied in <!--del_lnk--> microbiology), and <!--del_lnk--> algae (studied in <!--del_lnk--> phycology). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses.<p>The study of plants is important for a number of reasons. Plants are a fundamental part of life on earth. They generate the <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" title="Food">food</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fibres, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, a significant <!--del_lnk--> greenhouse gas, through <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:<ul>
<li>Feed the world<li>Understand fundamental life processes<li>Utilise medicine and materials<li>Understand environmental changes</ul>
<p><a id="Feed_the_world" name="Feed_the_world"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Feed the world</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2047.jpg.htm" title="Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice."><img alt="Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_long_grain_rice.jpg" src="../../images/20/2047.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2047.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>.</div>
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<p>Virtually <i>all</i> of the food we eat comes from plants, either directly from <!--del_lnk--> staple foods and other <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> and <!--del_lnk--> vegetables, or indirectly through <!--del_lnk--> livestock, which rely on plants for <!--del_lnk--> fodder. In other words, plants are at the base of nearly all <!--del_lnk--> food chains, or what ecologists call the first <!--del_lnk--> trophic level. Understanding how plants produce the food we eat is therefore important to be able to <i>feed the world</i> and provide <!--del_lnk--> food security for future generations, for example through <!--del_lnk--> plant breeding. Not all plants are beneficial to humans, some <a href="../../wp/w/Weed.htm" title="Weed">weeds</a> are a considerable problem in <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and botany provides some of the basic science in order to understand how to minimise their impact. However, other weeds are pioneer plants which start an abused environment back on the road to rehabilitation, underlining that the term 'weed' is a very relative concept, and that broadly defined a weed is simply a plant which is too successful. <!--del_lnk--> Ethnobotany is the study of this and/or other relationships between plants and people.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:155px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2048.png.htm" title="Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants."><img alt="Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants." height="204" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mendel.png" src="../../images/20/2048.png" width="153" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="../../wp/g/Gregor_Mendel.htm" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants.</div>
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<p><a id="Understand_fundamental_life_processes" name="Understand_fundamental_life_processes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Understand fundamental life processes</span></h3>
<p>Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like <!--del_lnk--> cell division and <!--del_lnk--> protein synthesis for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The <!--del_lnk--> genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by <a href="../../wp/g/Gregor_Mendel.htm" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>, who was studying the way <!--del_lnk--> pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learnt from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, <a href="../../wp/b/Barbara_McClintock.htm" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> discovered '<!--del_lnk--> jumping genes' by studying <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.<p><a id="Utilise_medicine_and_materials" name="Utilise_medicine_and_materials"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Utilise medicine and materials</span></h3>
<p>Many of our <!--del_lnk--> medicinal and <!--del_lnk--> recreational drugs, like <!--del_lnk--> cannabis, <!--del_lnk--> caffeine, and <!--del_lnk--> nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. <!--del_lnk--> Aspirin, which originally came from the <!--del_lnk--> bark of <!--del_lnk--> willow trees, is just one example. There may be many <!--del_lnk--> novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular <!--del_lnk--> stimulants like <a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chocolate.htm" title="Chocolate">chocolate</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> also come from plants. Most <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverages come from <!--del_lnk--> fermenting plants such as <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a> malt and <!--del_lnk--> grapes.<p>Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>, <!--del_lnk--> paper, <!--del_lnk--> linen, <!--del_lnk--> vegetable oils, some types of <!--del_lnk--> rope, and <!--del_lnk--> rubber. The production of <!--del_lnk--> silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the <!--del_lnk--> mulberry plant. <a href="../../wp/s/Sugarcane.htm" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a> and other plants have recently been put to use as sources of <a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>, which are important alternatives to <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>.<p><a id="Understand_environmental_changes" name="Understand_environmental_changes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Understand environmental changes</span></h3>
<p>Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.<ul>
<li>Understanding <!--del_lnk--> habitat destruction and <!--del_lnk--> species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalogue of plant <!--del_lnk--> systematics and <!--del_lnk--> taxonomy.<li>Plant responses to <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet radiation</a> can help us monitor problems like the <a href="../../wp/o/Ozone_depletion.htm" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Analysing pollen deposited by plants <!--del_lnk--> thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of <a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">climate change</a> research.<li>Recording and analysing the timing of plant <!--del_lnk--> life cycles are important parts of <!--del_lnk--> phenology used in climate-change research.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> indicators.</ul>
<p>In many different ways, plants can act a bit like the '<!--del_lnk--> miners canary', an <i>early warning system</i> alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy <a href="../../wp/g/Gardening.htm" title="Gardening">gardening</a>, <!--del_lnk--> horticultural and <!--del_lnk--> culinary uses of plants every day.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_botany_.28before_1945.29" name="Early_botany_.28before_1945.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early botany (before 1945)</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2049.jpg.htm" title="The traditional tools of a botanist."><img alt="The traditional tools of a botanist." height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botany.jpg" src="../../images/20/2049.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2049.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The traditional tools of a botanist.</div>
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<p>Among the earliest of botanical works, written around <!--del_lnk--> 300 B.C., are two large treatises by <!--del_lnk--> Theophrastus: <i>On the History of Plants</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Historia Plantarum</i>) and <i>On the Causes of Plants</i>. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer <!--del_lnk--> Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.<p>In 1665, using an early microscope, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Hooke discovered <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> in <!--del_lnk--> cork, a short time later in living plant tissue. The German <!--del_lnk--> Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss <!--del_lnk--> Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors <!--del_lnk--> Nicholas Culpeper and <!--del_lnk--> John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.<p><a id="Modern_botany_.28since_1945.29" name="Modern_botany_.28since_1945.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Modern botany (since 1945)</span></h3>
<p>A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying <!--del_lnk--> model plants like <i><!--del_lnk--> Arabidopsis thaliana</i>. This mustard weed was one of the first plants to have its <!--del_lnk--> genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice genome and a large international research community have made <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> the de facto <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Cereal">cereal</a>/<!--del_lnk--> grass/<!--del_lnk--> monocot model. Another grass species, <!--del_lnk--> Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially important staple foods like <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> rye, <!--del_lnk--> millet and <a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">soybean</a> are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two <!--del_lnk--> haploid (n) sets of <!--del_lnk--> chromosomes, a condition known as <!--del_lnk--> polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. The "Green Yeast" <i><!--del_lnk--> Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</i> (a single-celled, green <!--del_lnk--> alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany"</div>
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Botswana
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Botswana</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Botswana. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana_B.htm" title="SOS Children in Botswana, Africa">SOS Children in Botswana, Africa</a></div>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><i><b>Lefatshe la Botswana</b></i><br /><b>Republic of Botswana</b></td>
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1544.png.htm" title="Flag of Botswana"><img alt="Flag of Botswana" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Botswana.svg" src="../../images/20/2051.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2052.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Botswana"><img alt="Coat of arms of Botswana" height="66" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botswana_coa.png" src="../../images/20/2052.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Pula</i> <small>("Rain")</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Fatshe leno la rona</i><br /><small>("Blessed Be This Noble Land")</small></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2053.png.htm" title="Location of Botswana"><img alt="Location of Botswana" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBotswana.png" src="../../images/20/2053.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Botswana.htm" title="Demographics of Botswana">(and largest city)</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" title="Gaborone">Gaborone</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 24°40′S 25°55′E</span></small></td>
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<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> (official)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Tswana (national)</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;">Parliamentary Republic</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Festus Gontebanye Mogae</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> </td>
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<td> - Date</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1966 </td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 581,730 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 41th)<br /> 224,606 sq mi </td>
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<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>2.5</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>1,765,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 147th)</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>3.0/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 220th)<br /> 7.8/sq mi</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
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<td> - Total</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>18.068 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 114th)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>11,410 (<!--del_lnk--> 60th)</td>
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<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2006)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a> 0.570 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 131st)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pula (<code><!--del_lnk--> BWP</code>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><i>not observed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bw</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+267</td>
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<div style="width:290px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2054.jpg.htm" title="Okavango Delta, Botswana."><img alt="Okavango Delta, Botswana." height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Onkovango_delta_Botswana_Afrika_november_2004.jpg" src="../../images/20/2054.jpg" width="288" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2054.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Okavango Delta, Botswana.</div>
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<p><b>Botswana</b>, officially the <b>Republic of Botswana</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Tswana: <i>Lefatshe la Botswana</i>), is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked nation in <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>. Formerly the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> protectorate of <!--del_lnk--> Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming <!--del_lnk--> independent within the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth on <!--del_lnk--> September 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1966. It is bordered by <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> to the south and southeast, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> to the west, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to the north, and <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> to the northeast. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is predominated by <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> (especially <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamonds</a>), <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. The country is named after its largest ethnic group, the <!--del_lnk--> Tswana.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and environment</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2055.png.htm" title="Map of Botswana"><img alt="Map of Botswana" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botswana_map.png" src="../../images/20/2055.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2055.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Botswana</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2056.png.htm" title="Satellite image of Botswana, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library"><img alt="Satellite image of Botswana, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botswana_sat.png" src="../../images/20/2056.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2056.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Botswana, generated from <!--del_lnk--> raster graphics data supplied by <!--del_lnk--> The Map Library</div>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2057.gif.htm" title="Districts of Botswana"><img alt="Districts of Botswana" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botswana.geohive.gif" src="../../images/20/2057.gif" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2057.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Districts of Botswana</div>
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<dl>
<dt>Summary</dl>
<p>Predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest<dl>
<dt>More detail</dl>
<p>At 231,788 <!--del_lnk--> mi² (600,370 <!--del_lnk--> km²), Botswana is the world's 45th-largest country (after <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>). It is comparable in size to <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, and is slightly smaller than the state of <!--del_lnk--> Texas in Southern United States.<p>Botswana is dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Kalahari Desert, which covers up to 70% of the land surface of the country. The <!--del_lnk--> Okavango Delta, the world's largest inland <!--del_lnk--> delta, is in the Northwest. The <!--del_lnk--> Makgadikgadi Pan, a large <!--del_lnk--> salt pan lies in the North.<p>Botswana has diverse areas of <!--del_lnk--> wildlife habitat, including the Okavango Delta, the Kalahari Desert, <!--del_lnk--> grasslands and <!--del_lnk--> savannas, the latter where <a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Wildebeest.htm" title="Blue Wildebeest">Blue Wildebeest</a> and many <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelopes</a> as well as other mammals and birds are found.<p><a id="Human_geography" name="Human_geography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Human geography</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Administrative divisions<dd>
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<p>Botswana is divided into <!--del_lnk--> nine districts:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:transparent">
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<p>1 <!--del_lnk--> Central<br /> 2 <!--del_lnk--> Ghanzi<br /> 3 <!--del_lnk--> Kgalagadi<br /> 4 <!--del_lnk--> Kgatleng<br /> 5 <!--del_lnk--> Kweneng</td>
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</td>
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<p>6 <!--del_lnk--> North-East<br /> 7 <!--del_lnk--> North-West<br /> 8 <!--del_lnk--> South-East<br /> 9 <!--del_lnk--> Southern</td>
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<p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
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<p>These districts are subdivided into twenty-eight subdistricts.<dl>
<dt>Main population centres (in descending order)</dl>
<p><i>Cities</i><ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" title="Gaborone">Gaborone</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Francistown</ul>
<p><i>Towns and villages</i><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:transparent">
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Molepolole<li><!--del_lnk--> Selebi-Phikwe<li><!--del_lnk--> Maun<li><!--del_lnk--> Serowe<li><!--del_lnk--> Kanye<li><!--del_lnk--> Mahalapye</ul>
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<td width="15px">
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<td width="120px">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mochudi<li><!--del_lnk--> Mogoditshane<li><!--del_lnk--> Lobatse<li><!--del_lnk--> Palapye<li><!--del_lnk--> Tlokweng<li><!--del_lnk--> Ramotswa</ul>
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<td width="15px">
</td>
<td width="120px">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Thamaga<li><!--del_lnk--> Moshupa<li><!--del_lnk--> Tonota<li><!--del_lnk--> Jwaneng<li><!--del_lnk--> Orapa<li><!--del_lnk--> Letlhakane</ul>
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<td width="15px">
<p>
<br />
<p>
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<p><a id="Politics_and_government" name="Politics_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics and government</span></h2>
<p>The politics of Botswana takes place in a framework of a <!--del_lnk--> presidential <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> republic, whereby the <!--del_lnk--> President of Botswana is both <!--del_lnk--> head of state and <!--del_lnk--> head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the government. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Botswana. Since independence the party system is dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Botswana Democratic Party. The <!--del_lnk--> Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.<p><a id="Defence" name="Defence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Defence</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>At the time of independence Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after attacks from the Rhodesian army that Botswana formed a <!--del_lnk--> Botswana Defence Force (BDF) in self-defence in 1977. The <!--del_lnk--> president is commander in chief and a defence council is appointed by the president. The BDF now has approximately 12,000 members.<p>The BDF is a capable and well-disciplined military force. Following positive political changes in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on anti-poaching activities, disaster-preparedness, and foreign peacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, and a large segment of its officer corps has received U.S. training. It is considered an apolitical and professional institution.<p><a id="Foreign_relations" name="Foreign_relations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign relations</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Botswana puts a premium on economic and political integration in Southern Africa. It seeks to make <!--del_lnk--> SADC a working vehicle for economic development, and promotes efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. It has welcomed post-apartheid South Africa as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African <!--del_lnk--> consensus on most major international matters and is a member of international organisations such as the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations and the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU). Botswana is also a member of the <!--del_lnk--> International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>-military (as covered under <!--del_lnk--> Article 98).<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2058.jpg.htm" title="Cattle at a water hole near Serowe."><img alt="Cattle at a water hole near Serowe." height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BotswanaSeroweWaterhole.jpg" src="../../images/20/2058.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2058.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cattle at a water hole near Serowe.</div>
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<dd>
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<p>Since independence, Botswana has had the fastest growth in <!--del_lnk--> per capita income in the world <!--del_lnk--> . <!--del_lnk--> Economic growth averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. The <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> has maintained a sound <!--del_lnk--> fiscal policy, despite consecutive <!--del_lnk--> budget deficits in 2002 and 2003, and a negligible level of <!--del_lnk--> foreign debt. It earned the highest sovereign <!--del_lnk--> credit rating in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and has stockpiled foreign exchange reserves (over $5.1 billion in 2003/2004) amounting to almost two and one half years of current imports. Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on the foundation of wisely using revenue generated from <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> to fuel economic development through prudent fiscal policies and a cautious <!--del_lnk--> foreign policy. <!--del_lnk--> Debswana, the only <!--del_lnk--> diamond mining company operating in Botswana, is 50% owned by the government and generates about half of all government revenues.<p>However, economic development spending was cut by 10% in 2002-2003 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditure on <!--del_lnk--> healthcare services. Botswana has been hit very hard by the <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> epidemic; the average <!--del_lnk--> life expectancy is approximately 40 years, third to Zimbabwe and <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>. Approximately one in three <!--del_lnk--> Batswana has HIV, giving Botswana the second highest HIV infection rate in the world after <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>. <!--del_lnk--> The government recognizes that <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> will affect the economy and is trying to combat the <!--del_lnk--> epidemic, including free <!--del_lnk--> Antiretroviral drug treatment and a nation-wide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program.<p>Some of Botswana's budget deficits can be traced to relatively high military expenditures (of roughly 4% of GDP in 2004, according to the CIA World Factbook), which some critics contend is unnecessary given the low likelihood of international conflict (though the Botswana government also makes use of these troops for multilateral operations and assistance efforts).<p><a id="Private_sector_development_and_foreign_investment" name="Private_sector_development_and_foreign_investment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Private sector development and foreign investment</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2059.jpg.htm" title="Palapye children, 1987, after the first rain for years."><img alt="Palapye children, 1987, after the first rain for years." height="172" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botswana1987Kidsrainv2.jpg" src="../../images/20/2059.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2059.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Palapye children, 1987, after the first rain for years.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Botswana seeks to further diversify its economy away from minerals, which account for a third of GDP, down from nearly half of GDP in the early 1990s. Foreign investment and management are welcomed in Botswana. Botswana abolished foreign exchange controls in 1999, has a low corporate tax rate (15%), no prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies, and a moderate inflation rate (7.6% November 2004). The Government of Botswana is currently considering additional policies to enhance competitiveness, including a new Foreign Direct Investment Strategy, Competition Policy, Privatisation Master Plan, and National Export Development Strategy.<p>With its proven record of good economic governance, Botswana was ranked as Africa's least corrupt country by <!--del_lnk--> Transparency International in 2004, ahead of many European and Asian countries. The World Economic Forum rates Botswana as one of the two most economically competitive nations in Africa. In 2004 Botswana was once again assigned "A" grade credit ratings by <!--del_lnk--> Moody's and <!--del_lnk--> Standard & Poor's. This ranks Botswana as by far the best credit risk in Africa and puts it on par with or above many countries in central Europe, East Asia, and Latin America.<p>U.S. investment in Botswana remains at relatively low levels, but continues to grow. Major U.S. corporations, such as <!--del_lnk--> H.J. Heinz and <!--del_lnk--> AON Corporation, are present through direct investments, while others, such as <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky Fried Chicken and <!--del_lnk--> Remax, are present via franchise. The sovereign credit ratings by Moody's and Standard & Poor's clearly indicate that, despite continued challenges such as small market size, landlocked location, and cumbersome bureaucratic processes, Botswana remains one of the best investment opportunities in the developing world. Botswana has a 90-member American Business Council that accepts membership from American-affiliated companies.<p>Because of history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Southern Africa Customs Union (SACU), comprising Botswana, <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>, and South Africa, dates from 1910, and is the world’s oldest customs union. <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected <!--del_lnk--> levies from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each country's portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties — held exclusively by the Government of South Africa — became increasingly controversial, and the members renegotiated the arrangement in 2001. The new structure has now been formally ratified and a SACU Secretariat has been established in <!--del_lnk--> Windhoek, Namibia. Following South Africa's accession to the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Trade_Organization.htm" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO), Botswana also joined; many of the SACU duties are thus declining, making products from outside the area more competitive in Botswana. Currently the SACU countries and the U.S. are negotiating a free trade agreement. Botswana is currently also negotiating a free trade agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur and an Economic Partnership Agreement with the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> as part of SADC.<p>Botswana's currency, the <!--del_lnk--> Pula, is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African <!--del_lnk--> Rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government eliminated all exchange controls in 1999. The Central Bank devalued the Pula by 7.5% in February 2004 in a bid to maintain export competitiveness against the real appreciation of the Pula. There was a further 12% devalution in May 2005 and the policy of a "crawling peg" was adopted.<p>Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's <!--del_lnk--> Eskom. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, <!--del_lnk--> Morupule Power Station near <!--del_lnk--> Palapye. <!--del_lnk--> <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2060.jpg.htm" title="Botswana is not all sand and swamp: children playing in Moremi Gorge east of Palapye."><img alt="Botswana is not all sand and swamp: children playing in Moremi Gorge east of Palapye." height="289" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Moremi_gorge1.jpg" src="../../images/20/2060.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2060.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Botswana is not all sand and swamp: children playing in Moremi Gorge east of <!--del_lnk--> Palapye.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" title="Gaborone">Gaborone</a> is host to the headquarters of the 14 nation <!--del_lnk--> Southern African Development Community (SADC), a successor to the <!--del_lnk--> Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC-launched in 1980), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid South Africa. SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2008 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. SADC's failure to distance itself from the <!--del_lnk--> Mugabe government in <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> has diminished the number of opportunities for cooperation between the U.S. and SADC.<p>Botswana is in the process or formulating an Action Programme on the Elimination of <!--del_lnk--> Child Labour, which is expected to be adopted in the period 2006-2007.<p><a id="Tourism" name="Tourism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism</span></h3>
<p>Tourism plays a role in Botswana. A number of national parks and game reserves, with their abundant wildlife, are a top draw for tourists.<p>Botswana is the setting for the popular mystery series by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander McCall Smith, <!--del_lnk--> The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency, and was also the location for the 1980 movie "<!--del_lnk--> The Gods Must Be Crazy".<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana"</div>
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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Botswana News</dt><dd><span>29/08/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/g/Gazza_Botswana.htm">Gazza and The FA pay SOS Children a visit</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Botswana</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_botswana_en.gif" width="405" height="409" alt="SOS Children Sponsorship Sites in Botswana" class="left" /><p>The Republic of Botswana is in southern Africa, north of South Africa and to the west of Zimbabwe, with Namibia on its eastern border. Since independence in 1966 there have been many impressive social and economic improvements. Ninety-seven per cent of the 1.5 million population have access to safe water, and with free primary education access to learning is high with over 84 per cent of children enrolled. However, the highest HIV/AIDS infection rate in the world is creating enormous problems. Close to 22 per cent of the population is HIV positive and life expectancy has dropped from 65 to 38 years. The number of orphans under the age of 15, because of AIDS, is estimated to be nearly 80,000. </p><p>Although agriculture provides a livelihood for more than 80 per cent of the population, it supplies only about half of the country's food needs, with poor crops resulting from bad soils and erratic rainfall. Subsistence farming - crops such as sorghum, maize, millet and pulses - predominates along with cattle raising. The staple diet of the Batswana is maize meal, sometimes eaten with stewed meat or chicken, and locally grown vegetables such as cabbage, spinach and beans. Citrus fruits and melons are common.</p><img src="../../wp/b/Botswana_4.jpg" width="250" height="399" alt="SOS Children Botswana" class="right" /><p>SOS Children began working in Botswana in 1986 when the charity opened a community in Tlokweng in a suburb of the capital, Gabarone, about 7km from the city centre. The village has 15 family houses, and each family has between ten and twelve children whose ages range from just a few days to around 16 years. Children attend the local government schools, all within walking distance, and the younger ones use the SOS kindergarten. At around 16 years old, the children move into one of the three youth houses where they take their first guided steps towards self-sufficiency. An SOS vocational training centre teaches tailoring, welding and carpentry to give them the best possible chance of earning a living when they are ready to leave the village. Tlokweng also has a farm which provides most of the village's food requirements as well as further vocational training opportunities. </p><p>SOS Children Francistown was built in 1998. About 400 km north of Gabarone, near the border with Zimbabwe, it has 15 family houses and a kindergarten which, like all SOS kindergartens and schools, is attended by children from the surrounding community as well as from the SOS Children's Village. </p><p>A third village is being built at Serowe, about 250km north east of Gabarone. There will be 12 family homes for 120 orphaned and abandoned children and a nursery school</p><p>See also <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Botswana_Africa.htm">Aids Orphan Projects in Botswana, Africa</a></p><h3>SOS Children Contact</h3>
<img src="../../wp/b/Botswana_1.jpg" width="400" height="250" alt="SOS Children in Botswana" class="left" /><p>SOS Children Botswana, Southring Road, Plot 2852, PO Box 30396, Gabarone, Botswana<br />Tel & Fax: +267/39 53 220<br />e-mail: [email protected]<br />http://www.sos.org.bw</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Botswana Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso_A.htm">Burkina Faso</a></p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bottlenose Dolphin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bottlenose Dolphin</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/273/27380.jpg.htm" title="A Bottlenose Dolphin at SeaWorld San Antonio in San Antonio, Texas, USA"><img alt="A Bottlenose Dolphin at SeaWorld San Antonio in San Antonio, Texas, USA" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tursiops_truncatus_head.jpg" src="../../images/170/17095.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>A Bottlenose Dolphin at <!--del_lnk--> SeaWorld San Antonio in <!--del_lnk--> San Antonio, Texas, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></small></div><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17096.png.htm" title="Size comparison against an average human"><img alt="Size comparison against an average human" height="96" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bottlenose_dolphin_sizenew.png" src="../../images/170/17096.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Size comparison against an average human</small></div>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center">Data deficient (DD)<small></small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cetacea<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Delphinidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Tursiops</b></i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>T. truncatus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Tursiops truncatus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Montagu, 1821</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17097.png.htm" title="Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue)"><img alt="Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue)" height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cetacea_range_map_Bottlenose_Dolphin.PNG" src="../../images/170/17097.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Bottlenose Dolphin range (in blue)</small></div>
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<p>The <b>Bottlenose Dolphin</b> (<i>Tursiops truncatus</i>) is the most common and well-known <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphin</a> species. It inhabits warm and temperate seas worldwide and may be found in all but the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Oceans.<p>
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</script><a id="Physical_description" name="Physical_description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical description</span></h2>
<p>Bottlenose Dolphins are grey, varying from dark grey at the top near the <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin to very light grey and almost white at the underside. This makes them harder to see both from above and below when swimming. The elongated upper and lower jaws form what is called the rostrum and give the animals their name of bottlenose. The real nose however is the <!--del_lnk--> blowhole on top of the head, and the <!--del_lnk--> nasal septum is visible when the blowhole is open. Their face shows a characteristic "smile".<p>Adults range in length from 2 to 4 <!--del_lnk--> metres (6 to 13 <!--del_lnk--> ft) and in weight from 150 to 650 <!--del_lnk--> kilograms (330 to 1430 <!--del_lnk--> lb), however in most parts of the world the adult's length is about 2.5 m (8 ft) and adult weight ranges form 200 to 300 kg (440 to 600 lb), with males being slightly longer and considerably heavier than females on average. The size of the dolphin appears to vary considerably with habitat. Most research in this area has been restricted to the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a>, where researchers have identified two <!--del_lnk--> ecotypes. Those dolphins in warmer, shallower waters tend to have a smaller body than their cousins in cooler pelagic waters. For example a survey of animals in the <!--del_lnk--> Moray Firth in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, the world's northernmost resident population, recorded an average adult length of just under 4 m (13 ft). This compares with a 2.5 m (8 ft) average in a population off <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>. Those in colder waters also have a fattier composition and blood more suited to deep-diving.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> flukes (lobes of the tail) and <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin are formed of dense <!--del_lnk--> connective tissue and don't contain bones or muscle. The animal propels forward by moving the flukes up and down. The <!--del_lnk--> pectoral flippers (at the sides of the body) serve for steering; they contain bones clearly <!--del_lnk--> homologous to the forelimbs of land mammals (from which dolphins and all other <!--del_lnk--> cetaceans evolved some 50 million years ago). In fact, recently, in Japan, a Bottlenose Dolphin was discovered to have two additional pectoral fins, or "hind legs", at the tail, appearing to be about the size of a human's pair of hands. <!--del_lnk--> Scientists believe that a mutation must have caused the ancient trait to reassert itself.<p><a id="Taxonomy" name="Taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>Scientists have long been aware that the Bottlenose Dolphin might consist of more than one species. The advent of molecular genetics has allowed much greater insight into this previously intractable problem. The consensus amongst scientists is that there are two species:<ul>
<li>the <b>Common Bottlenose Dolphin</b> (<i>T. truncatus</i>), found in most warm to tropical oceans; colour sometimes almost blue; has a dark line from beak to blowhole<li>the <b>Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin</b> (<i>T. aduncus</i>), living in the waters around India, Australia and South-China; back is dark-gray and belly is white with gray spots.</ul>
<p>The following are sometimes recognized as <!--del_lnk--> subspecies of <i>T. truncatus</i>:<ul>
<li>the <b>Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin</b> (<i>T. gillii</i> or <i>T. truncatus gillii</i>), living in the Pacific; has a black line from the eye to the forehead<li>the <b>Black Sea Bottlenose Dolphin</b> (<i>T. truncatus ponticus</i>), living in the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.</ul>
<p>Much of the old scientific data in the field combine data about the two species into a single group - making it effectively useless in determining the structural differences between the two species. Indeed, the <!--del_lnk--> IUCN lists both species as data deficient in their <!--del_lnk--> Red List of endangered species precisely because of this issue.<p>Some recent genetic evidence suggests that the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose belongs in the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Stenella</i>, it being more like the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Spotted Dolphin (<i>Stenella frontalis</i>) than the Common Bottlenose. The taxonomic situation of these animals is likely to remain in flux for some time to come.<p><a id="Behaviour_and_life" name="Behaviour_and_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour and life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1311.jpg.htm" title="A wild Bottlenose Dolphin playing in the wake of a boat in Florida."><img alt="A wild Bottlenose Dolphin playing in the wake of a boat in Florida." height="231" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bottlenose_Dolphin_KSC04pd0178.jpg" src="../../images/170/17098.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1311.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A wild Bottlenose Dolphin playing in the wake of a boat in Florida.</div>
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<p>Bottlenose Dolphins typically swim at a speed of 5-11 kilometres per hour (3-6 mph); for short times, they can reach peak speeds of 35 kilometres per hour (21 mph).<p>Every 5-8 minutes, the dolphins have to rise to the surface to breathe through their blowhole. (However, on average, they breathe more often - several times per minute.) Their sleep is thus very light; some scientists have suggested that the two halves of their brains take turns in sleeping and waking. It has also been suggested that they have tiny periods of '<!--del_lnk--> microsleep'.<p>Bottlenose Dolphins normally live in groups called <i>pods</i>, containing up to 12 animals. These are long-term social units. Typically, a group of females and their young live together in a pod, and juveniles in a mixed pod. Several of these pods can join together to form larger groups of one hundred dolphins or more. Males live mostly alone or in groups of 2-3 and join the pods for short periods of time.<p>The species is commonly known for its friendly character and curiosity towards humans immersed in or near water. It is not uncommon for a diver to be investigated by a group of them. Occasionally, dolphins have rescued injured divers by raising them to the surface, a behaviour they also show towards injured members of their own species. Such accounts have earned them the nickname of "Man's best friend of the sea". In November 2004, a more dramatic report of dolphin intervention came from <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. Three lifeguards, swimming 100 m (328 ft) off the coast near <!--del_lnk--> Whangarei, were reportedly approached by a 3 m (10 ft) <!--del_lnk--> Great White Shark. A group of Bottlenose Dolphins, apparently sensing danger to the swimmers, herded them together and tightly surrounded them for forty minutes, preventing an attack from the shark, as they returned to shore. <p>Dolphins are <!--del_lnk--> predators however, and they also show aggressive behaviours. This includes fights among males for rank and access to females, as well as aggression towards <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">orcas</a>, and other smaller species of dolphins. Male dolphins, during the mating season, compete very vigorously with each other through showing toughness and size with a series of acts such as head butting.<p>Female Bottlenose Dolphins live for about 40 years; the more stressful life of the males apparently takes its toll, and they rarely live more than 30 years.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<p>Their diet consists mainly of small fish, occasionally also <!--del_lnk--> squid, <!--del_lnk--> crabs, octopus, and other similar animals. Their peg-like teeth serve to grasp but not to chew food. When a shoal of fish has been found, the animals work as a team to keep the fish close together and maximize the harvest. They also search for fish alone, often bottom dwelling species. Sometimes they will employ "fish whacking" whereby a fish is stunned (and sometimes thrown out of the water) with the fluke to make catching and eating the fish easier.<p><a id="Senses_and_communication" name="Senses_and_communication"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Senses and communication</span></h2>
<p>The dolphin's search for food is aided by a form of <!--del_lnk--> echolocation similar to <!--del_lnk--> sonar: they locate objects by producing sounds and listening for the echo. The broadband burst pulse clicking sounds are emitted in a focused beam towards the front of the animal. They have two small ear openings behind the eyes, but most sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear through the lower jaw. As the object of interest is approached, the echo grows louder; the dolphins adjust by decreasing the intensity of the emitted sounds. (This is in contrast to the technique used by <a href="../../wp/b/Bat.htm" title="Bat">bat</a> echolocation and human <!--del_lnk--> sonar where the sensitivity of the sound receptor is attenuated.) As the animal approaches the target, the interclick interval also decreases, as each click is usually produced after the round-trip travel time of the previous click. Details of the dolphin's echolocation, such as signal strength, spectral qualities, discrimination abilities, etc., have been well investigated by researchers. Also, Pack & Herman demonstrated that Bottlenose Dolphins are able to extract shape information from their echolocative sense, suggesting that they are able to form an "echoic image" of their targets.<p>They also have sharp eyesight. The eyes are located at the sides of the head and have a <i><!--del_lnk--> tapetum lucidum</i> which aids in dim light. Their horseshoe-shaped double-slit pupil enables the dolphin to have good vision in both in-air and underwater viewing, despite the differences in density of these media. Underwater, the eyeball's lens serves to focus light, whereas in the in-air environment, the typically bright light serves to contract the specialized pupil, resulting in sharpness from a small-aperture (similar to a pinhole camera).<p>By contrast, their sense of smell is very poor, as would be expected as the blowhole, the analogue to the nose, is closed in the underwater environment, and opens only voluntarily for breathing. The olfactory nerves as well as the olfactory lobe in the brain are missing. The sense of taste has not been well-studied, although dolphins have been demonstrated to be able to detect salty, sweet, bitter (quinine sulphate), and sour (citric acid) tastes. Anecdotally, some animals in captivity have been noted to have preferences for food fish types although it is not clear that this preference is mediated by taste.<p>Bottlenose Dolphins communicate with one another through squeaks, whistles, and body language. Examples of body language include leaping out of the water, snapping jaws, slapping tails on the surface of the water, and butting heads with one another. All of these gestures are a way for the dolphins to convey messages. <p>The sounds and gestures that Bottlenose Dolphins produce help keep track of other dolphins in the group and alert other dolphins to possible dangers and nearby food. Bottlenose Dolphins produce sounds using six air sacs near their blow hole (they lack <!--del_lnk--> vocal cords). Each animal has a characteristic frequency-modulated narrow-band signature vocalization (<i>signature whistle</i>) which is uniquely identifying. Other communication uses about 30 distinguishable sounds, and although famously proposed by <!--del_lnk--> John Lilly in the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s, a "dolphin language" has not been found. However, <!--del_lnk--> Herman, Richards, & Wolz demonstrated the comprehension of an artificial language by two Bottlenose Dolphins (named <!--del_lnk--> Akeakamai and Phoenix) in the period of scepticism toward <!--del_lnk--> animal language following Herbert Terrace's critique.<p><a id="Intelligence" name="Intelligence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Intelligence</span></h2>
<p><a id="Cognition" name="Cognition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cognition</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Cognitive abilities investigated in the dolphin include <!--del_lnk--> concept formation, sensory skills, and the use of mental representation of dolphins. Such research has been ongoing from the late 1970s through to the present, and include the specific areas of: acoustic mimicry, behavioural mimicry (inter- and intra-specific), comprehension of novel sequences in an <!--del_lnk--> artificial language (including non finite state grammars as well as novel anomalous sequences), <!--del_lnk--> memory, monitoring of self behaviours (including reporting on these, as well as avoiding or repeating them), reporting on the <!--del_lnk--> presence and absence of objects, object <!--del_lnk--> categorization, discrimination and matching (identity matching to sample, delayed matching to sample, arbitrary matching to sample, matching across <!--del_lnk--> echolocation and <!--del_lnk--> vision, reporting that no identity match exists, etc.), synchronous creative behaviours between two animals, comprehension of symbols for various body parts, comprehension of the pointing gesture and gaze (as made by dolphins or humans), problem solving, echolocative eavesdropping, <!--del_lnk--> attention, <!--del_lnk--> mirror self-recognition, and more. Recent research has shown that dolphins are capable of comprehending numerical values. In an experiment where a dolphin was shown two panels with a various number of dots of different size and position, the dolphin was able to touch the panel with a greater number of dots, much more rapidly than many human beings could do. Some researchers include <!--del_lnk--> Louis Herman, Mark Xitco, John Gory, Stan Kuczaj, Lori Marino, Diana Reiss, Adam Pack, and many others.<p><a id="Tool_use_and_culture" name="Tool_use_and_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tool use and culture</span></h3>
<p>In 1997, tool use was described in Bottlenose Dolphins in <!--del_lnk--> Shark Bay. A dolphin will stick a marine <!--del_lnk--> sponge on its rostrum, presumably to protect it when searching for food in the sandy sea bottom. The behaviour has only been observed in this bay, and is almost exclusively shown by females. This is the only known case of tool use in marine mammals outside of <!--del_lnk--> Sea Otters. An elaborate study in 2005 showed that mothers most likely teach the behaviour to their daughters. Subsets of populations in Mauritania are known to engage in interspecific cooperative fishing with human fishermen. The dolphins drive a school of fish towards the shore where humans await with their nets. In the confusion of casting nets, the dolphins catch a large number of fish as well. Intraspecific cooperative foraging techniques have also been observed, and some propose that these behaviors are transmitted through cultural means. Rendell & Whitehead have proposed a structure for the study of culture in cetaceans, although this view has been controversial (e.g. see Premack & Hauser).<p><a id="Sexuality_and_reproduction" name="Sexuality_and_reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sexuality and reproduction</span></h2>
<p>The male has two slits on the underside of the body: one hiding the <!--del_lnk--> penis and further behind one for the <!--del_lnk--> anus. The female has one <!--del_lnk--> genital slit, housing the <!--del_lnk--> vagina and the anus. A mammary slit is positioned on either side of the female's genital slit.<p>Courtship behaviour of the male includes clinging along to that female, posing for the female, stroking, rubbing, nuzzling, mouthing, jaw clapping, and yelping. <!--del_lnk--> Copulation is preceded by lengthy foreplay; then the two animals arrange belly to belly, the penis extends out of its slit and is inserted into the vagina. The act lasts only 10-30 seconds, but is repeated numerous times, with several minutes break in between.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> gestation period is 12 months. The young are born in shallow water, sometimes assisted by a "midwife" (which may be male). A single calf is born, about 1 m (3 ft) long at birth.<p>To speed up the nursing process, the mother can eject milk from her <!--del_lnk--> mammary glands. There are two slits, one on either side of the genital slit, each housing one <!--del_lnk--> nipple. The calf is nursed for 12 to 18 months.<p>The young live closely with their mother for up to 6 years; the males are not involved in the raising of their offspring. The females become sexually mature at age 5-12, the males a bit later, at age 10-12.<p>Janet Mann, a professor of biology and psychology at Georgetown University, argues that the common same-sex behaviour among male dolphin calves is about bond formation, and benefits the species evolutionarily. She cites studies showing that dolphins later in life as adults are bisexual, and the male bonds forged from homosexuality work for protection as well as locating females to reproduce with.<p>Male Bottlenose Dolphins have been observed working in pairs to follow and/or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time, waiting for her to become sexually receptive. The same pairs have also been observed engaging in intense sexual play with each other.<p><a id="Natural_predators" name="Natural_predators"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Natural predators</span></h2>
<p>Large <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">shark</a> species such as the <a href="../../wp/t/Tiger_shark.htm" title="Tiger shark">tiger shark</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> dusky shark, and the <a href="../../wp/b/Bull_shark.htm" title="Bull shark">bull shark</a> prey on the Bottlenose Dolphin. However, the dolphin is far from helpless against its predators and it has been known to fight back through charges; indeed, dolphin 'mobbing' behaviour of sharks can occasionally prove fatal for the shark. The <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">Orca</a> may also prey on dolphins, but this seems very rare.<p>Swimming in packs allows dolphins to better defend themselves against predators. Bottlenose Dolphins either use complex evasive strategies to outswim their predators or they will batter the predator to death. Bottlenose Dolphins will also aid their injured by holding injured dolphins above water for air.<p><a id="Conservation" name="Conservation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation</span></h2>
<p>Bottlenose Dolphins are not endangered. Their future is currently foreseen to be stable because of their abundance and high adaptability. However, some specific populations are threatened due to various environmental changes. For example, the population in the <!--del_lnk--> Moray Firth in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> is estimated to consist of around 150 animals and to be declining by around 6% per year due to the impact of harassment and traumatic death, water pollution and reduction in food availability. Less local <a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">climate change</a> such as increasing water temperature may also play a role.<p>In <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> waters, hunting and harassing of marine mammals is forbidden in almost all circumstances. The international trade in dolphins is also tightly controlled.<p><a id="Bottlenose_Dolphins_and_humans" name="Bottlenose_Dolphins_and_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bottlenose Dolphins and humans</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28322.jpg.htm" title="K-Dog, trained by the US Navy to find mines and boobytraps underwater, leaping out of the water"><img alt="K-Dog, trained by the US Navy to find mines and boobytraps underwater, leaping out of the water" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NMMP_dolphin_with_locator.jpeg" src="../../images/170/17099.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Bottlenose Dolphins are still occasionally killed in <!--del_lnk--> dolphin drive hunts for their meat or because they compete for fish. Bottlenose Dolphins (and several other <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphin</a> species) often travel together with <a href="../../wp/t/Tuna.htm" title="Tuna">tuna</a>, and since the dolphins are much easier to spot than the tuna, fishermen commonly encircle dolphins to catch tuna, sometimes resulting in the death of dolphins. This has led to <!--del_lnk--> boycotts of tuna products and a "dolphin-safe" label for tuna caught with methods that don't endanger dolphins.<p>Bottlenose Dolphins (as well as other dolphins) are often trained to perform in dolphin shows. Some <!--del_lnk--> animal welfare activists claim that the dolphins there are not adequately challenged and that the pools are too small; others maintain that the dolphins are well cared for and enjoy living and working with humans.<p>Eight Bottlenose Dolphins that were washed out of their <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquarium">aquarium</a> pool during the devastating August 2005 strike of <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> were later found alive by rescue forces, huddled together in coastal waters near their former home in <!--del_lnk--> Gulfport, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi, <!--del_lnk--> USA.<p>Direct interaction with dolphins is used in the therapy of severely handicapped children.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> military of the United States and <!--del_lnk--> Russia train Bottlenose Dolphins as <!--del_lnk--> military dolphins for wartime tasks such as locating sea mines or detecting and marking enemy divers. The USA's program is the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Navy_Marine_Mammal_Program.htm" title="U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program">U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program</a>, located in <!--del_lnk--> San Diego, California.<p>In the town of <!--del_lnk--> Laguna in south <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, a pod of Bottlenose Dolphins is known to drive fish towards fishermen who stand at the beach in shallow waters. One dolphin will then roll over, which the fishermen take as sign to throw out their nets. The dolphins feed on the escaping fish. The dolphins were not trained for this behaviour; the collaboration has been going on at least since 1847. Similar cooperative fisheries also exist in Africa, and have been reported through recorded history.<p>A dolphin with an extra set of fins was found in Wakayama, Japan on October 28, 2006. Scientists are researching and have found that they may be the remains of hind legs. The dolphin is alive and will go through X-Ray and DNA tests.<p><a id="Bottlenose_Dolphins_in_fiction" name="Bottlenose_Dolphins_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bottlenose Dolphins in fiction</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The popular television show <i><!--del_lnk--> Flipper</i>, created by <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Tors, portrayed a Bottlenose Dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys, Sandy and Bud; a kind of sea going <!--del_lnk--> Lassie, Flipper understood English unusually well and was a marked hero: "Go tell Dad we're in trouble, Flipper! Hurry!" The show's theme song contains the lyric <i>no one you see / is smarter than he</i>. The television show was based on a <!--del_lnk--> 1963 film, and remade as a <!--del_lnk--> feature film in 1996 starring <!--del_lnk--> Elijah Wood and <!--del_lnk--> Paul Hogan, as well as a television series running from 1995-2000 starring <!--del_lnk--> Jessica Alba.</ul>
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<li>Ensign Darwin was a Bottlenose Dolphin crew member of <i>seaQuest</i> on the television series <i><!--del_lnk--> seaQuest DSV</i>. Thanks to an invention by <!--del_lnk--> Lucas Wolenczak (<!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Brandis), Darwin could communicate verbally with the crew. Darwin was not played by a real dolphin; it was an <!--del_lnk--> animatronic.</ul>
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<li>Bottlenose Dolphins have appeared in the film adaptation of <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" title="The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a></i> as well as the novel and one of its sequels, <i><!--del_lnk--> So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish</i>. The dolphins are very intelligent creatures who tried in vain to warn humans of the impending destruction of Earth before making their own escape. However, their behaviour was misinterpreted as playful <!--del_lnk--> acrobatics. In particular, dolphins are noted to be the second most intelligent species on the planet Earth, ahead of humans, who ranked third.</ul>
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<li>The science fiction <!--del_lnk--> video game series <i><!--del_lnk--> Ecco the Dolphin</i> stars Ecco, a young adult male Bottlenose Dolphin. The series also features societies of sapient cetaceans, time travel, and malevolent space aliens.</ul>
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<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Zeus and Roxanne</i>, an <!--del_lnk--> HBO TV movie about a female Bottlenose Dolphin (Roxanne) and a male dog (Zeus) becoming friends. The film stars <!--del_lnk--> Steve Guttenberg and <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen Quinlan.</ul>
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<li>In <!--del_lnk--> David Brin's series of <!--del_lnk--> Uplift Universe novels, one of the two species that humans have <!--del_lnk--> uplifted to <!--del_lnk--> sentience are the Bottlenose Dolphin (the other species is the <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>). Also, a Bottlenose Dolphin named <!--del_lnk--> Akeakamai is a central character in his book <i><!--del_lnk--> Startide Rising</i>.</ul>
<p>Factual descriptions of the Bottlenose Dolphin date back into antiquity - the writings of <a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Oppian and <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder all mention the species.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottlenose_Dolphin"</div>
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Boudica
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boudica</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_1500_and_before_including_Roman_Britain.htm">British History 1500 and before (including Roman Britain)</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/526/52600.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Boudica near Westminster Pier, London, with her two daughters upon a chariot"><img alt="Statue of Boudica near Westminster Pier, London, with her two daughters upon a chariot" class="thumbimage" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boudiccastatue.jpg" src="../../images/526/52600.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/526/52600.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of Boudica near <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Pier, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, with her two daughters upon a chariot</div>
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<p><b>Boudica</b> (also spelled <b>Boudicca</b>, formerly better known as <b>Boadicea</b>) (d. 60/61) was a <!--del_lnk--> queen of the <!--del_lnk--> Brythonic <!--del_lnk--> Celtic <!--del_lnk--> Iceni people of <a href="../../wp/n/Norfolk.htm" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> in Eastern <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a> who led a major uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<p>Her husband, <!--del_lnk--> Prasutagus, the Icenian king, who had ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, had left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Emperor in his will, but when he died his will was ignored, possibly because the Romans, unlike the Britons, did not recognise daughters as heirs. The kingdom was annexed as if conquered, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans.<p>In 60 or 61, while the Roman governor, <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Anglesey in north <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, Boudica led the Iceni, along with the <!--del_lnk--> Trinovantes and others, in revolt. They destroyed <!--del_lnk--> Camulodunum (<!--del_lnk--> Colchester), formerly the capital of the Trinovantes but now a <i><!--del_lnk--> colonia</i> (a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers) and the site of a temple to the former emperor <a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, built and maintained at local expense, and routed a Roman legion, the <!--del_lnk--> IX <i>Hispana</i>, sent to relieve the settlement.<p>On hearing the news, Suetonius hurried to <!--del_lnk--> Londinium (<a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>), the twenty-year-old commercial settlement which was the rebels' next target, but concluding he did not have the numbers to defend it, evacuated and abandoned it. It was burnt to the ground, as was <!--del_lnk--> Verulamium (<!--del_lnk--> St Albans). An estimated 70,000-80,000 people were killed in the three cities. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces in the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated Boudica in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Watling Street. The crisis had led the emperor <!--del_lnk--> Nero to consider withdrawing Roman forces from the island, but Suetonius's victory secured Roman control of the province.<p>The chronicles of these events, as recorded by the historians <!--del_lnk--> Tacitus and <!--del_lnk--> Cassius Dio, were rediscovered during the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era, when <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> was portrayed as her "namesake". Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Boudica.27s_name" name="Boudica.27s_name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Boudica's name</span></h3>
<p>Until the late 20th century, Boudica was known as Boadicea, which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Her name takes many forms in various manuscripts – <i>Boadicea</i> and <i>Boudicea</i> in Tacitus; <i>Βουδουικα</i>, <i>Βουνδουικα</i>, and <i>Βοδουικα</i> in Dio – but was almost certainly originally <i>Boudicca</i> or <i>Boudica</i>, derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic word <i>*bouda</i>, victory (proto-celtic <i>*boudīko</i> "victorious") (cf. <!--del_lnk--> Irish <i>bua</i>, <i>Buaidheach</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Welsh <i>buddug</i>). The name is attested in inscriptions as "Boudica" in <!--del_lnk--> Lusitania, "Boudiga" in <!--del_lnk--> Bordeaux and "Bodicca" in Britain.<p>Based on later development of <!--del_lnk--> Welsh and <!--del_lnk--> Irish, <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Jackson concludes that the correct spelling of the name is <i>Boudica</i>, pronounced /<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">bɒʊˈdiːka:</span>/, although it is mispronounced by many as /<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ˈbuːdɪkə</span>/.<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h3>
<p>Tacitus and Dio agree that Boudica was of royal descent. Dio says that she was "possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women", that she was tall, had long red hair down to her hips, a harsh voice and a piercing glare, and habitually wore a large golden necklace (perhaps a <!--del_lnk--> torc), a many-coloured tunic and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/206/20605.png.htm" title="Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni."><img alt="Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni." class="thumbimage" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EnglandNorfolk.png" src="../../images/526/52602.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/206/20605.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni.</div>
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<p>Her husband, <!--del_lnk--> Prasutagus, was the king of <!--del_lnk--> Iceni, who inhabited roughly what is now <a href="../../wp/n/Norfolk.htm" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a>. They were initially not part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following <a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> conquest of 43. They were protective of their independence and had revolted in 47 when the then-<!--del_lnk--> governor, <!--del_lnk--> Publius Ostorius Scapula, threatened to disarm them. Prasutagus lived a long life of conspicuous wealth, and, hoping to preserve his line, made the <!--del_lnk--> Roman emperor co-heir to his kingdom along with his two daughters.<p>It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their <!--del_lnk--> client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will: the provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Bithynia and <!--del_lnk--> Galatia, for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_law.htm" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> also allowed <!--del_lnk--> inheritance only through the male line. So when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. Lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to <!--del_lnk--> Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Dio Cassius says that Roman financiers, including <!--del_lnk--> Seneca the Younger, chose this point to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the <!--del_lnk--> procurator, <!--del_lnk--> Catus Decianus, for criticism for his "avarice". Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt.<p><a id="Boudica.27s_uprising" name="Boudica.27s_uprising"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Boudica's uprising</span></h3>
<p>In 60 or 61, while the current governor, <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of Mona (modern <!--del_lnk--> Anglesey) in north <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the <!--del_lnk--> druids, the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes, amongst others, to revolt. Boudica was chosen as their leader. According to Tacitus, they drew inspiration from the example of <!--del_lnk--> Arminius, the prince of the <!--del_lnk--> Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and their own ancestors who had driven <a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> from Britain. Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of <!--del_lnk--> divination, releasing a <!--del_lnk--> hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction it ran, and invoked <!--del_lnk--> Andraste, a British goddess of victory. It is perhaps significant that Boudica's own name means "victory" (see <!--del_lnk--> above).<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/242/24270.jpg.htm" title="A statue of Emperor Claudius"><img alt="A statue of Emperor Claudius" class="thumbimage" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Emperor_Claudius.jpg" src="../../images/526/52603.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The rebels' first target was <!--del_lnk--> Camulodunum (<!--del_lnk--> Colchester), the former Trinovantian capital and now a Roman <i><!--del_lnk--> colonia</i>. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals, and a temple to the former emperor <a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. Its inhabitants sought reinforcements from the procurator, Catus Decianus, but he sent only two hundred <!--del_lnk--> auxiliary troops. Boudica's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. The future governor <!--del_lnk--> Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the <!--del_lnk--> Legio IX <i>Hispana</i>, attempted to relieve the city, but his forces were routed. His infantry was wiped out: only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. Catus Decianus fled to <!--del_lnk--> Gaul.<p>When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along <a href="../../wp/w/Watling_Street.htm" title="Watling Street">Watling Street</a> through hostile territory to <!--del_lnk--> Londinium (<a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of 43, but had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably Roman officials. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius. <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a> shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before 60 within the bounds of the Roman city. <!--del_lnk--> Verulamium (<!--del_lnk--> St Albans) was next to be destroyed.<p>In the three cities destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire or cross. Dio's account gives more prurient detail: that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste.<p><a id="Romans_rally" name="Romans_rally"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Romans rally</span></h3>
<p>Suetonius regrouped with the <!--del_lnk--> XIV <i>Gemina</i>, some <i>vexillationes</i> (detachments) of the <!--del_lnk--> XX <i>Valeria Victrix</i>, and any available auxiliaries. The <!--del_lnk--> prefect of <!--del_lnk--> Legio II <i>Augusta</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Poenius Postumus, ignored the call, but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men. He took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands somewhere along the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_road.htm" title="Roman road">Roman road</a> now known as <a href="../../wp/w/Watling_Street.htm" title="Watling Street">Watling Street</a>, in a <!--del_lnk--> defile with a wood behind him. But his men were heavily outnumbered. Dio says that, even if they were lined up one deep, they would not have extended the length of Boudica's line: by now the rebel forces numbered 230,000.<p>Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot, her daughters beside her. Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body and the abused chastity of her daughters. Their cause was just, and the gods were on their side; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed. She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice.<p>However, the unmaneuverability of the British forces, combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers, put them at a disadvantage to the Romans, who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline, and the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could only put forth as many troops as the Romans could at a given time. First, the Romans stood their ground and used waves of <!--del_lnk--> javelins to kill thousands of <!--del_lnk--> Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines. The Roman soldiers, who had now used up their javelins, were then able to engage Boudica's second wave in the open. As the Romans advanced in a <!--del_lnk--> wedge formation, the Britons attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered. Tacitus reports that "according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell" compared with only four hundred Romans. According to Tacitus, Boudica poisoned herself; Dio says she fell sick and died, and was given a lavish burial.<p>Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. <!--del_lnk--> Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by <!--del_lnk--> Nero's <!--del_lnk--> freedman <!--del_lnk--> Polyclitus. Suetonius was removed as governor, replaced by the more conciliatory <!--del_lnk--> Publius Petronius Turpilianus. The historian <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.<p><a id="Location_of_her_defeat" name="Location_of_her_defeat"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Location of her defeat</span></h3>
<p>The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands, somewhere along the Roman road now known as <a href="../../wp/w/Watling_Street.htm" title="Watling Street">Watling Street</a>. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to <!--del_lnk--> High Cross in <!--del_lnk--> Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the <!--del_lnk--> Fosse Way, which would have allowed the <!--del_lnk--> Legio II <i>Augusta</i>, based at <!--del_lnk--> Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces. <!--del_lnk--> Manduessedum (<!--del_lnk--> Mancetter), near the modern day town of <!--del_lnk--> Atherstone in <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire, has also been suggested. More recently a new discovery of Roman artifacts in <!--del_lnk--> Kings Norton close to <!--del_lnk--> Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility.<p><a id="Historical_sources" name="Historical_sources"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural impact</span></h2>
<p><a id="History_and_literature" name="History_and_literature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History and literature</span></h3>
<p>By the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> Boudica was forgotten. She makes no appearance in <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a>, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Historia Brittonum</i>, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Mabinogion</i> or <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey of Monmouth's <i><!--del_lnk--> History of the Kings of Britain</i>. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the <i><a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></i> allowed <!--del_lnk--> Polydore Virgil to reintroduce her into British history as "Voadicea" in 1534. Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his <i>Chronicles</i> (1577), based on Tacitus and Dio, and inspired <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare's</a> younger contemporaries <!--del_lnk--> Francis Beaumont and <!--del_lnk--> John Fletcher to write a play, <i>Bonduca</i>, in 1610. <!--del_lnk--> William Cowper wrote a popular poem, <i>Boadicea, an ode</i>, in 1782.<p>It was in the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions as <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> was seen to be Boudica's "namesake". Victoria's <!--del_lnk--> Poet Laureate, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, <i>Boadicea</i>, and ships were named <!--del_lnk--> after her. A great bronze statue of Boudica in her war <!--del_lnk--> chariot (furnished with <!--del_lnk--> scythes after <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a> fashion), together with her daughters, was commissioned by <!--del_lnk--> Prince Albert and executed by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Thornycroft. It was completed in 1905 and stands next to <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Bridge and the <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Houses of Parliament</a>, with the following lines from Cowper's poem, referring to the British Empire:<dl>
<dd>Regions Caesar never knew<br /> Thy posterity shall sway.</dl>
<p>Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<p><a id="Fiction" name="Fiction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fiction</span></h3>
<p>Boudica's story is the subject of several novels:<ul>
<li>Mary Mackie 'The People of the Horse' (W H Allen 1987, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-491-03307-9)<li>J. F. Broxholme (a pseudonym of Duncan Kyle), <i>The War Queen</i> (1967, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-09-001160-0)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rosemary Sutcliff, <i>Song for a Dark Queen</i>, a 1978 <!--del_lnk--> historical novel for children,<li><!--del_lnk--> Manda Scott's series of novels, <i>Dreaming the Eagle</i> (2003), <i>Dreaming the Bull</i> (2004), <i>Dreaming the Hound</i> (2005) and <i>Dreaming the Serpent Spear</i> (2006)<li><!--del_lnk--> Joyce Doré's <i>Hemlock</i>, (2002, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 1-898030-19-7) in which Boudica and her two daughters are taken to Rome, before <!--del_lnk--> Nero, who makes her drink <!--del_lnk--> hemlock. Doré claims to be a <!--del_lnk--> psychic and to have based the book on her conversations with the historical characters.<li><!--del_lnk--> Alan Gold's <i>Warrior Queen</i> (2005)</ul>
<p>Boudica is referred to in other works of fiction, including:<ul>
<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Charlotte Brontë's <i><a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Eyre.htm" title="Jane Eyre">Jane Eyre</a></i> (1847), Mr. Rochester asks Jane if the wedding carriage will be suitable to make the future Lady Rochester look like Queen Boadicea.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Harry Turtledove novel, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ruled Britannia</i>, features a world where the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> succeeded in taking over England. Ten years after the fact, Shakespeare is recruited by a band of rebels to write a play that would stir the English to rebel against Spain. The subject of the play is Boudica.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Alice Borchardt's <i>Tales of Guinevere</i> series, <!--del_lnk--> Guinevere is a direct descendent, on her mother's side, of Boudica.<li>Commodore <!--del_lnk--> Jack Aubrey commands a frigate named <!--del_lnk--> Boadicea in <!--del_lnk--> The Mauritius Command, a book in <!--del_lnk--> Patrick O'Brian's <!--del_lnk--> Aubrey–Maturin series.</ul>
<p><a id="Films_and_television" name="Films_and_television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Films and television</span></h3>
<p><a id="Fictionalisations" name="Fictionalisations"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Fictionalisations</span></h4>
<p>Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, 1928's <i>Boadicea</i>, starring <!--del_lnk--> Phyllis Nielson-Terry, and 2003's <i>Boudica</i> (<i>Warrior Queen</i> in the USA), a UK <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">TV</a> film written by <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Davies and starring <!--del_lnk--> Alex Kingston as Boudica. A new film is planned for release in 2008 entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Warrior</i>, written by <!--del_lnk--> Brian Klugman and <!--del_lnk--> Lee Sternthal, directed by <!--del_lnk--> Gavin O'Connor, and produced by <!--del_lnk--> Mel Gibson. A British TV series, <i><!--del_lnk--> Warrior Queen</i>, was made by <!--del_lnk--> Thames Television in 1978 starring <!--del_lnk--> Sian Phillips as Boudica and <!--del_lnk--> Nigel Hawthorne as Catus Decianus.<p>Boudica was a character in an episode of the third season of <i><!--del_lnk--> Xena: Warrior Princess</i>, called <i>The Deliverer</i>, where she was played by <!--del_lnk--> Jennifer Ward-Lealand.<p><a id="Documentaries" name="Documentaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Documentaries</span></h4>
<p>Boudica and her revolt have been the subject of numerous documentaries, including:<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Warrior Women</i> episode 5, <!--del_lnk--> Discovery Channel, hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Lucy Lawless<li><i><!--del_lnk--> History Bites</i>: "Xena's Evil Sister".<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Warrior Queen Boudica</i> (2006), <!--del_lnk--> History International Channel<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Battlefield Britain</i> (2004) BBC</ul>
<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Comics</span></h3>
<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Sláine</i> series in the British comic <i><!--del_lnk--> 2000 AD</i> included two runs, entitled "Demon Killer" and "Queen of Witches" (1993-1994), written by <!--del_lnk--> Pat Mills and illustrated by <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Fabry and <!--del_lnk--> Dermot Power, which featured a free interpretation of Boudica's story.<p>The 1990s comic book series <i><!--del_lnk--> Witchblade</i> saw Boudicca as one of the original wielders of the Witchblade.<p>In the 1990s, <!--del_lnk--> DC Comics' <!--del_lnk--> Green Lantern Corps included a member named Boodikka, portrayed as a fierce female warrior.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Alan Moore and <!--del_lnk--> Eddie Campbell's graphic novel <i><!--del_lnk--> From Hell</i>, <!--del_lnk--> William Gull considers Boudica's defeat as the final defeat of female power by patriarchy.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
<p>The Irish singer/songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Enya produced a song called "Boadicea" on her 1992 album <i><!--del_lnk--> The Celts</i>. This track was first sampled by <!--del_lnk--> Scarface as the intro to his 1993 release <i><!--del_lnk--> The World is Yours</i>. Later, it was most famously sampled by the rap group <!--del_lnk--> The Fugees for their single "Ready or Not" (from 1996's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Score</i>), and most recently by <!--del_lnk--> Mario Winans (featuring <!--del_lnk--> Sean "P. Diddy" Combs) on his song "I Don't Wanna Know" (2004). The track was also used in the <!--del_lnk--> soundtrack of the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Sleepwalkers</i>.<p>The famous Netherlandian soprano singer/songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Petra Berger produced an[other] song called "Boadicea" (written by G.Romita) on her 2001 album <!--del_lnk--> "Eternal Woman".<p>Scottish singer/songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Steve McDonald composed a biographical song called "Boadicea" on his 1997 album <i>Stone of Destiny</i>, detailing her life and tragic death.<p>British rock band <!--del_lnk--> The Libertines refer to "Queen Boadicea" in their song "The Good Old Days", indicating a belief that her spirit still lives on in Britons today.<p>The British metal band <!--del_lnk--> Bal-Sagoth have written a song entitled "Blood Slakes the Sand at the Circus Maximus" (found on the band's album <i>Battle Magic</i>) which features an Iceni Warrior of Boudica's uprising being captured and brought back to Rome. Her name (always spelled "Boudicca") returns in the song "When Rides the Scion of the Storms" of the same album.<p><!--del_lnk--> Faith and the Muse produced a song, "Boudiccea" for their most recent album, <i>Burning Season</i>. The song suggests that Boudiccea may have committed suicide by falling on her sword.<p>The Song, "Boadicea" appears on the album "Eternal Women", which is a compilation of songs to 11 famous women by Dutch Singer, Petra Berger.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica"</div>
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Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area_Wilderness
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;">Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #DACAA5; line-height: 1.2;"><!--del_lnk--> IUCN Category Ib (<!--del_lnk--> Wilderness Area)</td>
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<div style="position: absolute; left: 162px; top: 25px; padding: 0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17100.png.htm" title="Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness"><img alt="Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness" height="9" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locator_Dot.svg" src="../../images/171/17100.png" width="9" /></a></div><a class="image" href="../../images/199/19924.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_Locator_Blank.svg" src="../../images/171/17101.png" width="288" /></a></div>
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<td><b>Location:</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<td><b>Nearest city:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Duluth, MN</td>
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<td><b>Coordinates:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">47°49′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">91°12′0″W</span></span></td>
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<td><b>Area:</b></td>
<td>1,090,000 acres (1,703 sq mi - 4,411 km²)</td>
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<td><b>Established:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
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<td style="white-space:nowrap;"><b>Governing body:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Forest Service</td>
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<p>The <b>Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</b> (<i>BWCAW</i> or <i>BWCA</i>, sometimes simply the <i>bee-dub</i>) is a 1.09 million acre <!--del_lnk--> wilderness area within the <!--del_lnk--> Superior National Forest in northern <a href="../../wp/m/Minnesota.htm" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> (<!--del_lnk--> USA) under the administration of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Forest Service. The BWCAW is renowned as a destination for both <!--del_lnk--> canoeing and <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> on its many lakes, and is the most visited wilderness in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>The BWCAW is located on the U.S.-Canadian border, and along with <!--del_lnk--> Voyageurs National Park to the west and the <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canadian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Quetico and <!--del_lnk--> La Verendrye Provincial Parks to the north, they make up a large area of contiguous wilderness lakes and forests called the "Quetico-Superior country", or simply the <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Waters. <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Superior.htm" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a> lies to the east of the Boundary Waters.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> continental divide between the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hudson_Bay.htm" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a> <!--del_lnk--> watersheds runs northeast-southwest through the east side of the BWCAW, and was an important landmark for the <!--del_lnk--> fur-trading <!--del_lnk--> Voyageurs of the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a> and <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th centuries</a>. The wilderness also includes the highest peak in Minnesota, <!--del_lnk--> Eagle Mountain (2,301 feet / 701 m).<p>The two main communities with visitor services near the BWCAW are <!--del_lnk--> Ely and <!--del_lnk--> Grand Marais, Minnesota. The smaller town of <!--del_lnk--> Tofte is another gateway community. Several historic roads, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Gunflint Trail, the <!--del_lnk--> Echo Trail, and <!--del_lnk--> Fernberg Road allow access to the many wilderness entry points.<p><a id="Natural_history" name="Natural_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Natural history</span></h2>
<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17102.jpg.htm" title="Lake-side cliffs common throughout the BWCAW"><img alt="Lake-side cliffs common throughout the BWCAW" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area.jpg" src="../../images/171/17102.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17102.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lake-side cliffs common throughout the BWCAW</div>
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<p>The lakes of the BWCAW were carved from <!--del_lnk--> bedrock of the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Shield by the movement of the <!--del_lnk--> Laurentide ice sheet during a succession of <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> during the past <!--del_lnk--> two million years. Because glacial ice <!--del_lnk--> erodes softer and weaker rocks more easily, the size and shape of most lakes in the BWCAW were controlled both by the type of bedrock and the presence of <!--del_lnk--> geologic faults. The resulting depressions in the landscape later filled with water, becoming the lakes of today.<p>Many varieties of <a href="../../wp/p/Precambrian.htm" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> bedrock are exposed, including <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">granite</a>, <!--del_lnk--> basalt, <!--del_lnk--> greenstone, <!--del_lnk--> gneiss, as well as <a href="../../wp/m/Metamorphic_rock.htm" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic rocks</a> derived from <!--del_lnk--> volcanic and <!--del_lnk--> sedimentary rocks. Greenstone located near Ely, Minnesota is up to 2.7 billion years old, some of the oldest exposed rock in the United States.<p><a id="Forest_ecology" name="Forest_ecology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Forest ecology</span></h3>
<p>The plants and animals of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area are representative of the <!--del_lnk--> boreal forest <!--del_lnk--> biome, and their ranges continue into southern Canada and the rest of the upper <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region. Trees found within the wilderness area include <!--del_lnk--> red pine, <!--del_lnk--> eastern white pine, <!--del_lnk--> jack pine, <!--del_lnk--> birch, <!--del_lnk--> balsam fir, <!--del_lnk--> white spruce, and <!--del_lnk--> white cedar. <!--del_lnk--> Blueberries are common in many parts of the BWCAW, as are <!--del_lnk--> raspberries. The BWCAW is estimated to contain some 400,000 acres of <!--del_lnk--> old growth forest, woods which may have burned but which have never been logged. <!--del_lnk--> Forest fires were a natural part of the Boundary Waters ecosystem before fire suppression efforts during the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, with recurrence intervals of 30 - 300 years in most areas.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1999, a powerful wind storm, or <!--del_lnk--> derecho, swept across Minnesota and southern Canada, knocking down millions of trees and affecting about 370,000 acres (1,500 km²) within the BWCAW. This event became known officially as the <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Waters-Canadian Derecho, commonly referred to as "the Boundary Waters blowdown". Although <!--del_lnk--> campsites and portages were quickly cleared after the storm, an increased risk of wildfire continues to remain a concern due to the large number of downed trees. The U.S. Forest Service has undertaken a schedule of <!--del_lnk--> prescribed burns to reduce the forest fuel load in the event of a wildfire.<p>The first major wildfire within the blowdown occurred in <!--del_lnk--> August 2005, burning approximately 1,400 acres (5.7 km²) north of Seagull Lake in the northeastern BWCAW. In <!--del_lnk--> July 2006 the Cavity Lake fire burned over 30,000 acres (125 km²), while the Turtle Lake Fire burned 2,000 acres (8 km²).<p><a id="Wildlife" name="Wildlife"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wildlife</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/252/25236.jpg.htm" title="Gray wolf"><img alt="Gray wolf" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Canis_lupus_laying.jpg" src="../../images/171/17103.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/252/25236.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gray wolf</div>
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</div>
<p>Animals native to the region include <!--del_lnk--> moose, <!--del_lnk--> beaver, <!--del_lnk--> bears, <a href="../../wp/b/Bobcat.htm" title="Bobcat">bobcats</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bald eagles, <!--del_lnk--> peregrine falcons and <!--del_lnk--> loons. The Boundary Waters is within the range of the largest population of <!--del_lnk--> wolves in the <!--del_lnk--> continental United States, as well as an unknown number of <!--del_lnk--> Canada lynx. <!--del_lnk--> Woodland caribou once inhabited the region but have since disappeared due to loss of habitat, encroachment by <!--del_lnk--> deer, and the <!--del_lnk--> brainworm parasite carried by deer which is lethal to caribou. Increasing deer numbers may also affect the future of vegetation in this region as they favour some species over others, such as white cedar.<p><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h2>
<p><a id="Native_peoples" name="Native_peoples"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Native peoples</span></h3>
<p>Within the BWCAW are hundreds of prehistoric <!--del_lnk--> pictographs and <!--del_lnk--> petroglyphs on rock ledges and cliffs. The BWCAW is part of the historic homeland of the <!--del_lnk--> Ojibwe people, who traveled the waterways in <!--del_lnk--> canoes made of <!--del_lnk--> birch <!--del_lnk--> bark. Prior to Ojibwe settlement, the area was sparsely populated by the <!--del_lnk--> Sioux who dispersed westward following the arrival of the Ojibwe. The <!--del_lnk--> Grand Portage Indian Reservation, just east of the BWCAW at the settlement of <!--del_lnk--> Grand Portage, is home to a number of Ojibwe to this day.<p><a id="The_fur_trade" name="The_fur_trade"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The fur trade</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17104.jpg.htm" title="A Voyageur canoe during the fur trade era"><img alt="A Voyageur canoe during the fur trade era" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Voyageur_canoe.jpg" src="../../images/171/17104.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17104.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Voyageur canoe during the fur trade era</div>
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</div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1688, the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> explorer <!--del_lnk--> Jacques de Noyon became the first <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> to travel through the Boundary Waters. Later during the <!--del_lnk--> 1730s, <!--del_lnk--> La Verendrye and others opened the region to trade, mainly in beaver pelts. By the end of the 18th century, the <!--del_lnk--> fur trade had been organized into groups of canoe-paddling <!--del_lnk--> voyageurs working for the competing <!--del_lnk--> North West and <!--del_lnk--> Hudson's Bay Companies, with a North West Company fort located at <!--del_lnk--> Grand Portage on Lake Superior.<p><a id="Development_and_protection" name="Development_and_protection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Development and protection</span></h3>
<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1920s <!--del_lnk--> Edward Backus, a local industrialist, proposed building several dams in the region, which was successfully opposed by <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Oberholtzer. By <!--del_lnk--> 1926, the Superior Roadless Area had been designated by the U.S. Forest Service, offering some protection from <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a>, <!--del_lnk--> logging, and <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric projects. The <!--del_lnk--> Wilderness Act of <!--del_lnk--> 1964 made the BWCAW legal wilderness as a unit of the <!--del_lnk--> National Wilderness Preservation System, while the <!--del_lnk--> 1978 <!--del_lnk--> BWCA Act established the Boundary Waters regulations much as they are today with motors allowed only on a few large entry point lakes.<p>Several aspects of the management of the BWCAW remain controversial today, including the use of <!--del_lnk--> motorboats, <!--del_lnk--> snowmobiles, motorized <!--del_lnk--> portages, permit availability and allocation, as well as suggestions to expand the wilderness area.<p><a id="Recreation" name="Recreation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Recreation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17105.jpg.htm" title="Canoes on Saganaga Lake, BWCAW"><img alt="Canoes on Saganaga Lake, BWCAW" height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boundary_Waters_canoes.jpg" src="../../images/171/17105.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17105.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Canoes on Saganaga Lake, BWCAW</div>
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<p>The BWCAW contains over a thousand lakes and attracts visitors with its reputation for <!--del_lnk--> canoeing, <!--del_lnk--> canoe touring, <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a>, <!--del_lnk--> backpacking, <!--del_lnk--> dog sledding, and remote <!--del_lnk--> wilderness character. Permits are required for all overnight visits to the wilderness area. The BWCAW is one of Minnesota's top tourist attractions, drawing visitors from all over the United States as well as abroad.<p><a id="Canoeing" name="Canoeing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Canoeing</span></h3>
<p>Although there are numerous <!--del_lnk--> campgrounds surrounding the wilderness, most <!--del_lnk--> campsites in the BWCAW are accessible only by water. As of <!--del_lnk--> 1999, about 75% of the BWCAW's water area was reserved for non-motorized boat travel. Most lakes and rivers are interconnected by <!--del_lnk--> portage trails, resulting in over 1000 miles (1,600 km) of <!--del_lnk--> canoe routes. Routes are easily chosen by selecting chains of lakes and portages of any length and difficulty. Some of the most popular entry points include Lake One, Trout Lake, Moose Lake, and Snowbank Lake near Ely, Saganaga Lake and Seagull Lake at the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Gunflint Trail, and <!--del_lnk--> Sawbill Lake near Tofte.<p>Canoe campers often use <!--del_lnk--> Duluth packs, designed for easy portaging and loading in canoes, to carry their gear.<p><a id="Fishing" name="Fishing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fishing</span></h3>
<p>Fishing in the BWCAW can be some of the best in Minnesota. Game species include <!--del_lnk--> northern pike, <!--del_lnk--> walleye, <!--del_lnk--> largemouth and <!--del_lnk--> smallmouth bass, <!--del_lnk--> yellow perch, <!--del_lnk--> whitefish, and <!--del_lnk--> lake trout, among others. Popular <!--del_lnk--> lures include <!--del_lnk--> rapalas, <!--del_lnk--> jigs, and <!--del_lnk--> spoons, while live bait such as <!--del_lnk--> leeches are also used. Multi-sectioned or collapsible <!--del_lnk--> fishing rods are often used for ease in carrying while portaging.<p><a id="Hiking" name="Hiking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hiking</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:258px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17106.jpg.htm" title="Sunset over Pose Lake, a small lake accessible only by foot."><img alt="Sunset over Pose Lake, a small lake accessible only by foot." height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Img_0748.jpg" src="../../images/171/17106.jpg" width="256" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17106.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sunset over Pose Lake, a small lake accessible only by foot.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In addition to shorter trails to <!--del_lnk--> Eagle Mountain, Magnetic Rock, and Angleworm Lake, the Boundary Waters has several <!--del_lnk--> long-distance trails. The <!--del_lnk--> Border Route Trail runs east-west for over 60 miles through the eastern BWCAW, following the ridges between the long border lakes such as Loon, South, and Rose. Eventually, a connection is planned from the eastern end of the Border Route Trail to the northern end of the <!--del_lnk--> Superior Hiking Trail. The <!--del_lnk--> Kekekabic Trail traverses the Boundary Waters from the Gunflint Trail on the east to Snowbank Lake on the west and is the only footpath through the centre of the wilderness. There are also three longer loop trails in the Boundary Waters: the <!--del_lnk--> Pow Wow Trail, the <!--del_lnk--> Snowbank Lake Trail, and the <!--del_lnk--> Sioux-Hustler Trail. These longer trails see a variable amount of maintenance; current conditions should be determined locally before use.<p><a id="Notable_people" name="Notable_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable people</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sigurd Olson, Minnesota author and <!--del_lnk--> conservationist, wrote extensively about the Boundary Waters and worked to ensure preservation of the wilderness. <!--del_lnk--> Dorothy Molter, known as the "Rootbeer Lady," lived alone in the BWCAW for 56 years until her death in <!--del_lnk--> 1986.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area_Wilderness"</div>
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Bourbonnais_train_accident
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bourbonnais train accident</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3>
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<div style="width:238px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17107.jpg.htm" title="Aerial view (looking south) of the derailed train."><img alt="Aerial view (looking south) of the derailed train." height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Amtrak_crash.jpg" src="../../images/171/17107.jpg" width="236" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17107.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial view (looking south) of the derailed train.</div>
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<p>The <b>Bourbonnais train accident</b> was a train-truck collision between <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>'s southbound <i><!--del_lnk--> City of New Orleans</i> <!--del_lnk--> passenger train and a semi truck in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Bourbonnais, Illinois, south of <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago</a>. The impact derailed almost the entire train, killing 11 passengers. A <!--del_lnk--> National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigation into the accident attributed the cause to the truck driver trying to beat the train across a <!--del_lnk--> grade crossing. The NTSB's recommendations from the accident included increased enforcement of grade crossing signals, the installation of <!--del_lnk--> event recorders at all new or improved grade crossings as well as procedures to provide emergency responders with accurate lists of all crew members and passengers aboard trains. The city of Bourbonnais erected a memorial near the site to commemorate those killed in the accident.<p>
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</script><a id="Accident_and_investigation" name="Accident_and_investigation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accident and investigation</span></h2>
<p>The accident occurred <!--del_lnk--> March 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1999, at 9:47pm <!--del_lnk--> Central (local) time in <!--del_lnk--> Bourbonnais, Illinois, in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> on the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois Central Railroad. The southbound <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> train 59, the <i><!--del_lnk--> City of New Orleans</i>, hit a semi truck, loaded with <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>, that was blocking a <!--del_lnk--> grade crossing. The accident resulted in the deaths of 11 of the train's passengers, 122 injuries and over <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a>14 million in damages.<p>Upon impact, both of the train's <!--del_lnk--> locomotives and 11 of the train's 14 <!--del_lnk--> passenger cars derailed; the derailed cars hit two of the 10 freight cars on a <!--del_lnk--> siding next to the mainline. The <!--del_lnk--> National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) attributes the cause of the accident to the truck driver's reaction to the grade crossing signals. Thinking he could beat the train across the tracks, the driver chose to proceed onto the tracks in front of the train. The driver reported that the crossing signal did not activate until his vehicle was "right on top of the track", but he also stated that he did not want to brake quickly to avoid a shifting load that could hit the back of the truck's cab. Witnesses stated that the gates came down after the truck had entered the grade crossing. One witness stated that the gate clipped the truck's trailer and that part of the gate may have broken off as a result.<p>The NTSB's investigation placed the fault of the accident on the truck driver, John R. Stokes, and his failure to yield at the grade crossing; Stokes was sentenced <!--del_lnk--> September 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, to two years in prison for logbook and hours of service violations. In the sentencing trial <!--del_lnk--> Kankakee County Judge Clark Erickson stated that it was not proven if a lack of rest played a factor in the accident but that he believed Stokes would have been more able to make safe driving decisions if he had been fully rested.<p>Following the accident the city of Bourbonnais erected a memorial to the people that died in the tragic accident. It can be seen on the intersection of Highway 45 and 102 across from Olivet Nazerene University.<p><a id="NTSB_recommendations" name="NTSB_recommendations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">NTSB recommendations</span></h2>
<p>As a result of the accident, the NTSB made several recommendations:<dl>
<dd>To the highway maintainers: <ul>
<li>Review the effectiveness of current railroad grade crossing signals and the use of traffic division islands in deterring motorists from trying to drive around crossing gates.</ul>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>To the <!--del_lnk--> United States Secretary of Transportation: <ul>
<li>Provide further grants and incentives to increase enforcement of grade crossing signals.</ul>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>To the <!--del_lnk--> United States Federal Railroad Administration: <ul>
<li>Require the installation of event recorders to monitor gate position at new or improved grade crossings.</ul>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>To the railroads: <ul>
<li>Initiate procedures to get accurate passenger and crew lists to emergency responders.<li>Implement improved crew accountability procedures on reserved passenger trains.<li>Install event recorders on all new or improved grade crossings.</ul>
</dl>
<p><a id="Related_information" name="Related_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Related information</span></h2>
<p>On Tuesday <!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the Village Board of Bourbonnais voted to permanently close the grade crossing where the accident occurred. A replacement crossing will be built at another location nearby that will, the Village Board hopes, prevent similar accidents from occurring in the future.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbonnais_train_accident"</div>
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['Amtrak', 'Chicago, Illinois', 'United States', 'Amtrak', 'Steel', 'United States dollar']
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Bouvet_Island
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<caption><font><b>Bouvetøya</b></font></caption>
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<td align="center" colspan="2">
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1069.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orthographic_projection_centered_over_Bouvet_Island.png" src="../../images/10/1069.png" width="280" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Area<ul>
<li>Total<li>Water (%)</ul>
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<br />
<ul>
<li>49 <!--del_lnk--> km²<li>? %</ul>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Population<br />
<ul>
<li>Total (<!--del_lnk--> 2004)<li><!--del_lnk--> Population density</ul>
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<br />
<ul>
<li>0<li>0/<!--del_lnk--> km²</ul>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Dependency of Norway since</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1930</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UTC +1</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Top level domains</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bv <!--del_lnk--> .no</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Country calling code</td>
<td>47</td>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1070.png.htm" title="Map of Bouvet Island"><img alt="Map of Bouvet Island" height="312" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bouvet_Island.png" src="../../images/10/1070.png" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1070.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Bouvet Island</div>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1072.jpg.htm" title="Aerial photo"><img alt="Aerial photo" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bouvet_aerial_photo.JPG" src="../../images/10/1072.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1072.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial photo</div>
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<p><b>Bouvet Island</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Norwegian: <i>Bouvetøya</i>) is an uninhabited sub-<!--del_lnk--> antarctic volcanic <!--del_lnk--> island in the South <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, south-southwest of the <!--del_lnk--> Cape of Good Hope (<a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>). It is a dependent area of <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> and is not subject to the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Treaty, as it is north of the latitude below which claims are suspended.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 39°52′S 143°59′E</span></span> Bouvet Island is located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 54°26′S 3°24′E</span>. It is 58.5 <!--del_lnk--> km² (22.6 <!--del_lnk--> square miles) in area, 93% of which is covered by <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> which block the south and east coasts. It has no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages, and is difficult to approach. The easiest way is with a helicopter from a ship. The glaciers form a thick ice layer falling in high cliffs into the sea or onto the black beaches of <!--del_lnk--> volcanic sand. The 29.6 <!--del_lnk--> km (18.4 <!--del_lnk--> miles) of coastline are often surrounded by an ice pack. The highest point on the island is called <i>Olavtoppen</i>, whose peak is 780 <!--del_lnk--> m (2,600 <!--del_lnk--> ft) above sea level. A <!--del_lnk--> lava shelf on the island's west coast, which appeared between <!--del_lnk--> 1955 and <!--del_lnk--> 1958, provides a nesting site for birds.<p>Bouvet Island is a candidate for <!--del_lnk--> the most remote island in the world, along with other small isolated islands such as <!--del_lnk--> Tristan da Cunha, <a href="../../wp/e/Easter_Island.htm" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Pitcairn Islands. The nearest land is <!--del_lnk--> Queen Maud Land, <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, over 1,600 km (1,000 miles) away to the south, which is itself uninhabited.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bouvet Island was discovered on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1739, by <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, who commanded the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> ships <i>Aigle</i> and <i>Marie</i>. However, the island's position was not accurately fixed and Bouvet did not circumnavigate his discovery, so it remained unclear whether it was an island or part of a continent.<p>The island was not sighted again until <!--del_lnk--> 1808, when it was spotted by one Lindsay, the captain of the Enderby Company <!--del_lnk--> whaler <i>Swan</i>. Though he didn't land, he was the first to correctly fix the island's position.<p>The first successful landfall dates to December <!--del_lnk--> 1822, when Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer <i>Wasp</i> landed, hunting for <!--del_lnk--> seals. He was successful and took several seal skins.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1825, one Captain Norris, master of the Enderby Company whalers <i>Sprightly</i> and <i>Lively</i>, landed on the island, named it <i>Liverpool Island</i>, and claimed it for the <!--del_lnk--> British Crown.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1898, the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <i>Valdivia</i> expedition of <!--del_lnk--> Carl Chun visited the island but did not land.<p>The first extended stay on the island was in <!--del_lnk--> 1927, when the <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> "Norvegia" crew stayed for about a month; this is the basis for the territorial claim by <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, who have named the island Bouvetøya (Bouvet Island in Norwegian). The island was <!--del_lnk--> annexed on <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1927, by a Royal Norwegian Decree of <!--del_lnk--> January 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1928, Bouvetøya became a Norwegian Territory. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> waived its claim in favour of Norway the following year. In <!--del_lnk--> 1930 a Norwegian act was passed that made the island a dependent area subject to the <!--del_lnk--> sovereignty of the Kingdom (but not a part of the Kingdom).<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1964, an abandoned <!--del_lnk--> lifeboat was discovered on the island, along with various supplies; however, the lifeboat's passengers were never found.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1971, Bouvet Island and the adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was some interest from <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> to establish a weather station, but conditions were deemed to be too hostile. The island remains uninhabited, although an automated <!--del_lnk--> weather station was set up there in <!--del_lnk--> 1977 by the Norwegians.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1979, a <!--del_lnk--> satellite recorded a flash of light (which was later interpreted as having been caused by a <!--del_lnk--> nuclear bomb explosion or natural event such as a <a href="../../wp/m/Meteor.htm" title="Meteor">meteor</a>) in a stretch of the southern <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> between Bouvet Island and <!--del_lnk--> Prince Edward Islands. This flash, since dubbed the <!--del_lnk--> Vela Incident, is still not completely resolved.<p>Despite being uninhabited, Bouvet Island has the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> <!--del_lnk--> country code <!--del_lnk--> top-level domain (<!--del_lnk--> ccTLD) <!--del_lnk--> .bv, though it is <!--del_lnk--> not used. A handful of <!--del_lnk--> amateur radio expeditions have gone to this remote location (<!--del_lnk--> call signs used here begin with <i>3Y</i>). Bouvet Island falls within the UTC Z <a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">time zone</a>. <i>Atlantic/St_Helena</i> is the zone used in the time zone database.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1073.jpg.htm" title="Southeast coast of Bouvet Island, 1898"><img alt="Southeast coast of Bouvet Island, 1898" height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bouvet_island_0.jpg" src="../../images/10/1073.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1073.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Southeast coast of Bouvet Island, 1898</div>
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<p><a id="Bouvet_Island_in_fiction" name="Bouvet_Island_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bouvet Island in fiction</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Bouvet, redundantly called "Bouvetøya Island," was the setting of the <!--del_lnk--> 2004 movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Alien vs. Predator</i>.<li>It also figured prominently in the book, <i>A Grue Of Ice</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Jenkins.<li>Was mentioned in the movie <i>Star Trek: First Contact</i>. It was the destination of Captain Picard's escape pod.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouvet_Island"</div>
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Box_jellyfish
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Box jellyfish</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Organisms.htm">Organisms</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Box Jellyfish</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2063.jpg.htm" title=""Cubomedusae", from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904"><img alt=""Cubomedusae", from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904" height="354" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Haeckel_Cubomedusae.jpg" src="../../images/20/2063.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>"Cubomedusae", from <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Haeckel's <i><!--del_lnk--> Kunstformen der Natur</i>, 1904</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cnidaria<br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><b>Cubozoa</b><br /><small>Werner, 1975</small></td>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><b>Cubomedusae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Haeckel 1877</small></td>
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<center>Families</center>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i>see text</i></td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2064.jpg.htm" title="Jellyfish net enclosure at Ellis Beach, Queensland"><img alt="Jellyfish net enclosure at Ellis Beach, Queensland" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:JellyfishNetAustralia.JPG" src="../../images/20/2064.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2064.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Jellyfish net enclosure at <!--del_lnk--> Ellis Beach, Queensland</div>
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<p><b>Box jellyfish</b> are water-dwelling invertebrates belonging to the <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">class</a> <b>Cubozoa</b>, named for their <!--del_lnk--> cube-shaped <!--del_lnk--> medusae. They share many characteristics with their relatives the <!--del_lnk--> true jellyfish in the class <!--del_lnk--> Scyphozoa. The name <b>sea wasp</b> is also applied to some species of cubozoans, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Chironex fleckeri</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea alata</i>.<p>Box jellyfish are found in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, and many other tropical areas. They are known for the often-fatal effects of their <!--del_lnk--> venom, although not all species are venomous.<p>
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</script><a id="Defense_and_feeding_mechanisms" name="Defense_and_feeding_mechanisms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Defense and feeding mechanisms</span></h2>
<p>Box jellyfish use powerful venom contained in epidermic <!--del_lnk--> nematocysts to stun or kill their prey prior to ingestion, or as an instrument for defense. Their venom is among the most deadly in the <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> <!--del_lnk--> kingdom and has caused at least 63 recorded deaths since 1884. Most often, these fatal envenomations are perpetrated by the largest species of box jellyfish, <i><!--del_lnk--> Chironex fleckeri</i>, owing to its high concentration of nematocysts, though at least two deaths in Australia have been attributed to the thumbnail-sized <!--del_lnk--> irukandji jellyfish (<i>Carukia barnesi</i>). Those who fall victim to <i>Carukia barnesi</i> suffer several severe symptoms known as <!--del_lnk--> Irukandji syndrome.<p>The venom of cubozoans is very distinct from that of scyphozoans, and is used to catch prey (fish and small invertebrates) and for defense from predators. Turtles, however, are unaffected by the sting and eat box jellyfish.<p>In the Australian summer from November to April or May, box jellyfish are abundant in the warm waters of northern Australia and drive away most swimmers. It is not known where they go in the Australian winter. <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> researchers have used <!--del_lnk--> ultrasonic tagging to learn that these creatures sleep on the ocean floor between 3 pm and dawn. It is believed that they sleep to conserve energy and to avoid predators.<p><a id="Vision" name="Vision"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vision</span></h2>
<p>Some theorize box jellyfish actively hunt their prey—for effective hunting they move extremely quickly (moving at speeds up to 3 to 3.5 <!--del_lnk--> knots (1.5 to 1.8 m/s)) instead of drifting as do true jellyfish, and have an active visual system of 24 <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eyes</a> located on the centre of each side of its bell.<p>The eyes occur in clusters on the four sides of the cube-like body. Sixteen are simply pits of light-sensitive pigment (eight slit-shaped eyes and eight lens-less pit eyes), but one pair in each cluster is surprisingly complex, with a sophisticated lens, retina, iris and cornea, all in an eye only 0.1 millimeters across<p>The lenses on these eyes have been analyzed and could form distortion free images. Despite the perfection of the lenses, the <a href="../../wp/r/Retina.htm" title="Retina">retinas</a> of the eyes lie closer to the lens than the optimum focal distance, resulting in a blurred image. One of these eyes in each set has an <!--del_lnk--> iris that contracts in bright light. Four of the eyes can only make out simple light levels.<p>It is not currently known how this visual information is processed by Cubozoa, as they lack a <!--del_lnk--> central nervous system, although they seem to have four primitive brain-like organs.<p><a id="Treatment_of_stings" name="Treatment_of_stings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment of stings</span></h2>
<p><a id="First_aid" name="First_aid"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">First aid</span></h3>
<p>If swimming at a <a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" title="Beach">beach</a> where box jellyfish are known to be present, a bottle of <!--del_lnk--> vinegar is an extremely useful addition to the first aid kit. Following a sting, vinegar should be applied for a minimum of 30 seconds. <a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" title="Acetic acid">Acetic acid</a>, found in vinegar, disables the box jellyfish's nematocysts that have not yet discharged into the bloodstream (though it will not alleviate the pain). Any adherent tentacles should then be removed. Removing the tentacles without first applying vinegar may increase discharge of nematocysts increasing envenoming. If no vinegar is available, however, careful removal of the tentacles by hand is recommended. Vinegar has helped save dozens of lives on Australian beaches. Although commonly recommended in folklore and even some papers on sting treatment, there is no scientific evidence that <!--del_lnk--> urine, <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Meat.htm" title="Meat">meat</a> <!--del_lnk--> tenderizer, <!--del_lnk--> sodium bicarbonate, <!--del_lnk--> boric acid, <!--del_lnk--> lemon juice, or <!--del_lnk--> papaya will disable further stinging, and indeed these substances may even hasten the release of venom. Pressure immobilization bandages, methylated spirits, or alcohol should not be used for jellyfish stings. Often in severe <i>Chironex fleckeri</i> stings cardiac arrest occurs quickly, so <!--del_lnk--> Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can be life saving and takes priority over all other treatment options (including application of vinegar). Activate the emergency medical system for immediate transport to the hospital.<p><a id="Further_treatment" name="Further_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Further treatment</span></h3>
<p>If the effects are minor, pain may be managed with local application of ice, analgesics, and antihistamines. If significant envenoming occurs, further treatment for systemic symptoms may be required. Box jellyfish (<i>Chironex fleckeri</i>) <!--del_lnk--> Antivenom is available from ambulance crews, hospitals, and medical centers close to where the box jellyfish are found. It may reduce life-threatening complications, and has been suggested for significant stings to possibly reduce scarring. However, there have been conflicting studies over the efficacy of this antivenom. Whether the antivenom has the potential to reverse the life-threatening cardiotoxicity remains uncertain. Antivenom may need to be given within minutes and possibly in large doses to reverse the symptoms of significant stings. There is no antivenom for irukandji (<i>Carukia barnesi</i>) stings with treatment being largely supportive with <!--del_lnk--> analgesia being the mainstay of management.<p><a id="Prevention_of_stings" name="Prevention_of_stings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prevention of stings</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Pantyhose, or tights, were once worn by Australian lifeguards to prevent stings. These have now been replaced by <!--del_lnk--> lycra stinger suits. Some popular recreational beaches erect enclosures (stinger nets) offshore to keep predators out, though smaller species such as <i>Carukia barnesi</i> can still filter through the net.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<p>There are two families of Cubozoa, <!--del_lnk--> Chirodropidae and <!--del_lnk--> Carybdeidae containing 20 species between them. A phylogenic analysis of their relationships is yet to be published.<ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Chirodropidae<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chironex fleckeri</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chirosoides buitendijkl</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chirodropus gorilla</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chirodropus palmatus</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chiropsalmus zygonema</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chiropsalmus quadrigatus</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chiropsalmus quadrumanus</i></ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Carybdeidae<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carukia barnesi</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Manokia stiasnyi</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tripedalia binata</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tripedalia cystophora</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tamoya haplonema</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tamoya gargantua</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea alata</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea xaymacana</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea sivicksi</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea rastonii</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea marsupialis</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Carybdea aurifera</i></ul>
</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish"</div>
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Boy_Scout
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Community_organisations.htm">Community organisations</a></h3>
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<p>A <b>Boy Scout</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> boy, usually 11 to 17 years of age, participating in the worldwide <a href="../../wp/s/Scouting.htm" title="Scouting">Scouting</a> movement. This movement began in 1907, when <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Baden-Powell%252C_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell.htm" title="Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell">General Robert Baden-Powell</a> held the <!--del_lnk--> first Scout camp on <!--del_lnk--> Brownsea Island, <!--del_lnk--> South England. To advance his ideas, Baden-Powell wrote the book, <i><!--del_lnk--> Scouting for Boys</i>, which targeted boy readership, and described the <!--del_lnk--> Scout method of using outdoor activities to develop character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities among youth.<p>Boy Scouts are organized into <!--del_lnk--> troops averaging twenty to thirty Scouts under guidance of a <!--del_lnk--> Scout leader. Troops subdivide into <!--del_lnk--> patrols of about six Scouts and engage in outdoor and special interest activities. Troops may affiliate with national and international organizations. Some national Scouting associations have special interest programs such as <!--del_lnk--> Air Scouts, <!--del_lnk--> Sea Scouts, outdoor high adventure, Scouting bands and rider scouts. Some troops, especially in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, have been <!--del_lnk--> co-educational since the 1970s, allowing boys and girls to work together as Scouts.<p>
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<p>Robert Baden-Powell founded the Boy Scouts as an organization in 1908, a few months after the first scout encampment at <!--del_lnk--> Brownsea Island Scout Camp in 1907. Baden-Powell got the idea from his experiences with the British Army in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. To advance his ideas, Baden-Powell wrote <i><!--del_lnk--> Scouting for Boys</i> for boy readership, which describes the <!--del_lnk--> Scout method of outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities among youth. Many boys joined in Scouting activities so that the movement grew rapidly to become the world's largest youth organization.<p>The Boy Scout program is designed to develop youths who have a high degree of self-reliance, initiative, courage, helpfulness, integrity and resourcefulness. Boy Scouts should be helpful; understand their society, heritage, and culture; have respect for the rights of others; and be positive leader-citizens.<p>Originally, the Boy Scout program was aimed at 11-16 year old boys. However, the younger brothers of Boy Scouts started to attend Troop meetings, and so the <!--del_lnk--> Wolf Cub section was started. It was also evident that young girls wanted to participate in similar activities, but the Edwardian values at the time would not allow young boys and girls to "rough and tumble" together, causing the <!--del_lnk--> Guide Movement to be created.<p>Over time, the Boy Scout program has been reviewed and updated in many of the countries where it is run, but the same core values and principles as Baden-Powell originally envisaged still apply.<p>While most Boy Scouts may join a troop after finishing Cub Scouts, this is not required. He may later join another affiliated program for older boys while simultaneously still being a member of a Boy Scout troop or a <!--del_lnk--> Scout Group, such as Exploring or Venturing.<p><a id="Activities" name="Activities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Activities</span></h2>
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<p>A Boy Scout learns the cornerstones of the Scout method, <!--del_lnk--> Scout Promise, and <!--del_lnk--> Scout Law. These are designed to instill character, citizenship, personal fitness, and leadership in boys through a structured program of outdoor activities. Common ways to implement the Scout method include spending time together in small groups with shared experiences, rituals, and activities; as well as emphasizing good citizenship and decision-making that are age-level appropriate. Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities are key elements. Primary activities include <!--del_lnk--> camping, <!--del_lnk--> woodcraft, <!--del_lnk--> aquatics, <!--del_lnk--> hiking, <!--del_lnk--> backpacking, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sports">sports</a>.<p><a id="Fellowship" name="Fellowship"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fellowship</span></h3>
<p>Camping most often occurs on a unit level, such as in the troop, but there are periodic <!--del_lnk--> camporees and <!--del_lnk--> jamborees. Camporees are events where units from a local area camp together for a weekend. These occur a couple times a year and usually have a theme, such as <!--del_lnk--> pioneering. Jamborees are large events on a national or international level held every four years where thousands of Scouts camp together for 1-2 weeks. Activities at these events include games, scoutcraft competitions, <!--del_lnk--> patch trading, aquatics, woodcarving, archery, and rifle and shotgun shooting.<p>For many Scouts and Scouters, the highlight of the year is spending at least a week in the summer as part of an outdoor activity. This can be a long event such as camping, hiking, sailing, canoeing, or kayaking with the unit or a summer camp operated on a council, state, or provincial level. Scouts attending a summer camp, generally one week during the summer, work on merit badges, advancement, and perfecting scoutcraft skills. Some summer camps operate specialty programs for older Scouts, such as <!--del_lnk--> sailing, backpacking, <!--del_lnk--> canoeing and <!--del_lnk--> whitewater, <!--del_lnk--> caving, and <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a>.<p><a id="Working_for_ranks_and_merit_badges" name="Working_for_ranks_and_merit_badges"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Working for ranks and merit badges</span></h3>
<p>All Scouting organizations have an advancement program whereby the Scout learns <!--del_lnk--> scoutcraft, community service, leadership and explores areas of interest to him at an increasingly difficult level. The lower ranks focus mostly on basic Scouting skills. Requirements for demonstrating leadership, community service and learning about other topics, such as possible career areas, generally come in the middle and upper ranks. Scouts are recognized by being awarded ranks and badges of recognition, such as <!--del_lnk--> merit badges, which are called proficiency badges in some countries. Merit badges are awarded for a variety of fields, such as mastering advanced scoutcraft, sports, aquatics, ecology, citizenship, and academics.<p>All Scouting associations have a highest rank that require mastering scoutcraft, leadership, and performing community service. Only a small percentage of Scouts attain them. In the Scouting associations of many member states of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations, the highest rank is the <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Scout or King's Scout Award. In the United States it is the <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle_Scout_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" title="Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)">Eagle Scout Award</a>. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Boy Scouts of the Philippines is an outgrowth of Scouting in the United States, <!--del_lnk--> Eagle Scout is also the highest award. Other worldwide Scouting groups have the Baden-Powell Award (<!--del_lnk--> Baden-Powell Scouts), <!--del_lnk--> Crown Scout (<!--del_lnk--> The Guides and Scouts Movement of Belgium), <!--del_lnk--> Pramuka Garuda (<!--del_lnk--> Indonesian Scouting), King Scout (<!--del_lnk--> The National Scout Organization of Thailand), and <!--del_lnk--> Chief Scout's Award (<!--del_lnk--> Scouts Canada).<p>As Scouts get older, they often seek more challenging and diverse activities. To meet this demand, programs such as <!--del_lnk--> Air Scouts, <!--del_lnk--> Sea Scouts, <!--del_lnk--> Venturing and <!--del_lnk--> Exploring in America, <!--del_lnk--> Explorer Scouts in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rovering and Venturing.<p><a id="Unit_affiliation" name="Unit_affiliation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Unit affiliation</span></h2>
<p><a id="Troop" name="Troop"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Troop</span></h3>
<p>The troop is the fundamental unit of the Boy Scouts. This is the group a Boy Scout joins and via which he participates in Scouting activities, such as camping, backpacking, and canoeing. The troop leadership, youth and adult, organizes and provides support for these activities. It may include as few as a half-dozen boys, or as many as seventy or more. Troops usually meet weekly. A troop is often sponsored by a community organization such as a business, service organization, school, labor group veterran's group, or religious institution. The chartering organization is responsible for providing a meeting place and promoting a good program. A key component of the <i>Scout method</i> is that troops are run by the Scouts under the advice and guidance of adult leaders.<p><a id="Patrol" name="Patrol"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Patrol</span></h3>
<p>Each troop is divided into patrols of six to ten Scouts and use the <i>patrol method</i>, where the Scouts divide into smaller groups within the troop. A patrol's independence from the troop varies among troops and between activities. For instance, a troop typically holds ordinary meetings as a unit. Patrols' autonomy becomes more visible at campouts, where each patrol may set up its own cooking area. However, on a high-adventure trip which only a small part of the troop attends, divisions between patrols may disappear entirely. Patrols may hold meetings and even excursions separately from the rest of the troop, but this is more common in some troops than in others.<p>Some troops mix older and younger Scouts in the same patrols, so that the older boys can teach the younger ones more effectively. Other troops group boys by age, and may assign an older boy as a "troop guide" to mentor each of the younger patrols.<p><a id="Leadership_in_the_troop" name="Leadership_in_the_troop"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Leadership in the troop</span></h3>
<p>Every troop has two separate leadership structures: one consisting of Scouts and another consisting of adults. The adult leadership manages the logistics of troop activities, administers rank advancement and awards, maintains troop records and finance, and recruits new Scouts and adult leaders. The youth leadership keeps order and coordinates labor at activities. Scouts and adults cooperate to plan agendas for troop meetings, as well as the troop's schedule of outings.<p>An adult responsible for a Scout (usually a parent) may join the troop committee. The committee, in turn, selects a chair and appoints its members to specific positions, most importantly those of the <!--del_lnk--> Scoutmaster (or Section Leader) and his assistants. While all adult leaders work for the committee chair, the Scoutmaster is the adult directly responsible for the troop's program. These leaders must complete special training mandated by their Scouting association. The top level leader training course around the world is <!--del_lnk--> Wood Badge.<p>The youth leadership is headed by a senior patrol leader (SPL), who works closely with the Scoutmaster to run troop activities. He is expected to attend most meetings and outings. While the SPL is directly responsible for running the troop, he shares that responsibility with one or more assistants (Assistant Senior Patrol Leaders or ASPLs). Following the <i>Scout method</i>, a troop is "boy-run". Other troop-wide positions of responsibility exist and their duties vary from country to country.<p>The SPL is elected by the entire troop, from a list of candidates approved by the Scoutmaster. He then cooperates with the Scoutmaster to appoint the other troop-wide leaders. Likewise, each patrol elects a Patrol Leader (PL), who appoints his Assistant Patrol Leader(s) (APL). Many youth leadership positions require training. All youth leaders may serve six-month terms. Many Scouting associations have training programs for Scouts holding leadership positions within their troop.<p><a id="Group" name="Group"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Group</span></h3>
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<p>In many countries a local organisation, a "Scout Group", combines different sections together into a single body. In other countries, the different sections are independent of each other, although they might be sponsored or chartered by the same organisation, such as a Church. Scout Groups can consist of any number of Scout Troops, Cub Scout Packs, and Beaver Scout Colonies. In some countries Rover Scout crews and Venture Scout crews can be part of a Scout Group.<p><a id="Organization_above_the_troop_or_group_level" name="Organization_above_the_troop_or_group_level"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Organization above the troop or group level</span></h3>
<p>One or more troops and one or more other sections or groups can form a district. These are troops or groups that are located near each other geographically and provide mutual support, advice and district level encampments a couple of times per year. In some countries, this is the first level at which the troop has contact with professional Scouters from its association. In some associations districts are organized into regions or councils. It is this level of an association that generally operates very large outings. Above these levels there is a national association. Most national association are member of the <!--del_lnk--> World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) and/or the <!--del_lnk--> World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS), some are member of the <!--del_lnk--> Order of World Scouts, the <!--del_lnk--> World Federation of Independent Scouts, the <!--del_lnk--> International Union of the Guides and Scouts of Europe (UIGSE) or <!--del_lnk--> Confederation of European Scouts (CES) and others are non-aligned.<p><a id="Uniforms" name="Uniforms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uniforms</span></h2>
<p>The Scout uniform is a specific characteristic of Scouting. In the words of Lord Robert Baden-Powell at the <!--del_lnk--> 1937 World Jamboree, it "hides all differences of social standing in a country and makes for equality; but, more important still, it covers differences of country and race and creed, and makes all feel that they are members with one another of the one great brotherhood". The original uniform, which has created a familiar image in the public eye and had a very military appearance, consisted of a khaki button-up <!--del_lnk--> shirt, shorts and a broad-brimmed <!--del_lnk--> campaign hat. Baden-Powell himself wore shorts as he felt that being dressed like the youth contributed to reducing distances between the adult and the young person.<p>Uniforms have become much more functional and colorful since the beginning and are now frequently blue, orange, red or green, and shorts are replaced by long trousers in areas where the culture calls for modesty, and in winter weather. T-Shirts and other more casual wear have also replaced the more formal button-up uniforms in many Scouting regions.<p>To show the unity of all Scouts, the World Membership Badge (<!--del_lnk--> World Crest) is a part of all uniforms. <!--del_lnk--> Neckerchiefs and <!--del_lnk--> Woggles (slides) are still quite common, but some Scouting associations do not use them. Patches for leadership positions, ranks, special achievements, troop- or group- numbers or names, and country or regional affiliation are standard.<p>Scout shops sell uniforms, Scouting literature, badges, and other items such as camping equipment for local Scouts, and Scout souvenir items for visiting foreign Scouts. The shops are usually located at the local branch office of the Scout organization and may be run professionally or by volunteers.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy_Scout"</div>
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['Scouting', 'Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell', 'Europe', 'South Africa', 'Sports', 'Fishing', 'Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)', 'United Kingdom']
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Boyle_Roche
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_17501900.htm">British History 1750-1900</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;"><b>Sir Boyle Roche, 1st Baronet</b></td>
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<th colspan="2">Member, <!--del_lnk--> Irish House of Commons</th>
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<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom: none; text-align: center;">In office</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: none; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> 1775 – <!--del_lnk--> 1801</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> James Agar</td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;">October <!--del_lnk--> 1736</span><br /><!--del_lnk--> County Galway</td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> 5 June <!--del_lnk--> 1807</span><br /><a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a></td>
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<th>Residence</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a></td>
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<th>Constituency</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tralee<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gowran<br /><!--del_lnk--> Portarlington<br /><!--del_lnk--> Old Leighlin</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anglican</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td>Mary Frankland</td>
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<p><b>Sir Boyle Roche, 1st Baronet,</b> <!--del_lnk--> MP (October <!--del_lnk--> 1736 – <!--del_lnk--> 5 June <!--del_lnk--> 1807) was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish House of Commons. He is better remembered for the language of his speeches than his politics—they were riddled with <!--del_lnk--> mixed metaphors ("Mr Speaker, I smell a rat; I see him forming in the air and darkening the sky; but I'll nip him in the bud"), <!--del_lnk--> malapropisms and other unfortunate turns of phrase ("Why we should put ourselves out of our way to do anything for posterity, for what has posterity ever done for us?"). Roche may have been <!--del_lnk--> Richard Brinsley Sheridan's model for <!--del_lnk--> Mrs Malaprop. While arguing for a bill, Roche once said, "It would surely be better, Mr. Speaker, to give up not only a <i>part</i>, but, if necessary, even the <i>whole</i>, of our constitution, to preserve the <i>remainder</i>!"<p>
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</script><a id="Life" name="Life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life.2C_family_background_and_military_service" name="Early_life.2C_family_background_and_military_service"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life, family background and military service</span></h3>
<p>Boyle Roche was born, the youngest of three sons, to Jordan Roche and Ellen White in <!--del_lnk--> County Galway in <!--del_lnk--> 1736. His was an old and respectable family, said to be a junior branch of the ancient baronial house of Roche, viscount <!--del_lnk--> Fermoy from which the late <!--del_lnk--> Diana, Princess of Wales, descended. The family were also no strangers to politics: Roche's great-grandfather had been elected <!--del_lnk--> mayor of <a href="../../wp/l/Limerick.htm" title="Limerick">Limerick</a> four times. Roche's older brother was <!--del_lnk--> Tiger Roche, a celebrated duellist and adventurer.<p>Boyle Roche entered the army at an early age, and served in the so-called <!--del_lnk--> American war (that is, the American portion of the <!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War). There are reports of a Lieutenant Boyle Roche in <!--del_lnk--> Rogers' Rangers who was captured by the French during the The Battle on Snowshoes (near what is now <!--del_lnk--> Lake George, <!--del_lnk--> New York in March <!--del_lnk--> 1758) and later returned to his regiment. It is possible that Roche served with <!--del_lnk--> Wolfe at the <!--del_lnk--> siege of <!--del_lnk--> Quebec in <!--del_lnk--> 1759; it is a certainty that he distinguished himself in <!--del_lnk--> 1762 during the capture of <!--del_lnk--> El Morro in <!--del_lnk--> Havana. By <!--del_lnk--> 1770 he had become a <!--del_lnk--> major in the <!--del_lnk--> 28th Foot. He was knighted for his bravery at El Morro in <!--del_lnk--> 1776.<p>Retiring from the army, he obtained an office in the Irish revenue department in <!--del_lnk--> 1775. Soon after this, Boyle Roche entered the <!--del_lnk--> Irish House of Commons as <!--del_lnk--> MP for <!--del_lnk--> Tralee, in the place of <!--del_lnk--> James Agar, created <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Clifden.<p>Although he was one of the first volunteers to fight the <!--del_lnk--> rebellious colonials in <!--del_lnk--> 1776, his contribution to that conflict was mainly in the area of recruitment—he successfully enlisted 500 volunteers in one weekend in <a href="../../wp/l/Limerick.htm" title="Limerick">Limerick</a> alone, a feat which so gratified <!--del_lnk--> Lord Kenmare that he paid Roche an additional bounty of half a <!--del_lnk--> guinea per man. Roche's flamboyant recruiting methods were described by the <i>Edinburgh Advertiser</i> as follows:<blockquote>
<p>Yesterday Major BOYLE Roche, representative in parliament for Tralee (who is raising a body of men for his Majesty's service) began recruiting here, and met with great success, which is not surprising, if we consider his connexions, and the uncommon support he has received from the noblemen and gentlemen of this province. His method of enlisting was as uncommon as it was pleasing to those who viewed the procession, which was as follows: Major Roche, bearing a large purse of gold. Captain Cowley. A great number of likely recruits. An elegant band of music, consisting of French horns, hautboys [oboes], clarionets, and bassoons, playing God Save the King. A large brewer's dray, with five-barrels of beer, the horse richly caparisoned and ornamented with ribbands. Two draymen with cockades to serve the beer, The recruiting serjeant. Drums [and] fifes. Another division of recruits. The returning soldiers. Prodigious concourse of [spectators?]. The following speech was made by Major Roche to the populace: Being appointed, through the favour of [our] most excellent governor, to raise a body of men for the service of his Majesty, I think it [a] most happy circumstance of my life to be the instrument of leading you to honour and renown. The laurels fought for and obtained in all parts [of] the globe [through] war, have procured us a fame so glorious as not to be equalled by people in any fame not to be sullied by the assaults of prejudice, nor the effects of time: not an action in which we were not victorious, not a siege in which we were not honoured. Will you, my dear countrymen, permit those laurels to fade, or those actions to be forgotten? No, forbid it, heaven! Let us now that we have it in our power convey to later posterity a renewal of our fidelity, and a confirmation of our loyalty. A more critical period never presented itself, nor had we ever a fairer opportunity of shewing our attachment to the illustrious house of Hanover, than the present, as his Majesty's deluded subjects in America are in open rebellion, and like unnatural children, wound their ever indulgent parent, forgetting the torrents of blood spilt, and heap of treasure expended for their preservation. His Sacred Majesty now calls and our fidelity obliges us, and I hope your instinct prompts you, to obey the dictates of so [grand] a master. Let us then, my brave and loyal countrymen, join hearts and hands and cheerfully step forth in the glorious cause of our Creator, our King and our Country.</blockquote>
<p><a id="Member_of_Parliament" name="Member_of_Parliament"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Member of Parliament</span></h3>
<p>Roche continued on in the <!--del_lnk--> Grattan Parliament, representing <!--del_lnk--> Gowran from <!--del_lnk--> 1777 to <!--del_lnk--> 1783, <!--del_lnk--> Portarlington from <!--del_lnk--> 1783 to <!--del_lnk--> 1790, <!--del_lnk--> Tralee (again) from <!--del_lnk--> 1790 to <!--del_lnk--> 1797 and <!--del_lnk--> Old Leighlin from <!--del_lnk--> 1798 until the union with England in <!--del_lnk--> 1801. From the beginning of his parliamentary career Roche ranged himself on the side of the government, and for his services he was granted a pension, appointed chamberlain to the <!--del_lnk--> viceregal court, and on <!--del_lnk--> 30 November <!--del_lnk--> 1782 was created a <!--del_lnk--> baronet. For the office of chamberlain he was thought to be "eminently qualified by his handsome figure, graceful address and ready wit, qualities which were set off by a frank, open and manly disposition."<p>Apparently, members of the cabinet wrote speeches for Sir Boyle which he somewhat imperfectly committed to memory, in general mastering the substance but frequently producing, through his love of language and ornament, travesties on the original words. Through this he gained his lasting reputation as an inveterate perpetrator of <!--del_lnk--> Irish bulls.<p>Sir Boyle's memory was indeed excellent. On one occasion he illustrated both the accuracy of his memory and the audacity of his character at the expense of a brother member. Serjeant Stanley, anxious to produce an effect in an important debate, had been at pains to reduce his speech to writing. Unluckily, Stanley happened to drop his manuscript in the coffee-room, and walked back into the House unconscious of his loss. Sir Boyle, finding the document, speedily mastered its contents, and, rising at the first opportunity, delivered the speech almost verbatim in the hearing of its dismayed and astonished author. His apology afterward only added insult to injury:<blockquote>
<p>Here, my dear Stanley, is your speech again, and I thank you kindly for the loan of it. I never was so much at a loss for a speech in the whole course of my life, and sure it is not a pin the worse for the wear. </blockquote>
<p>On another occasion, he amused and relieved the House, irritated by the prospect of being obliged to listen to the reading of a mass of documents as a preliminary to a resolution, by suggesting that a dozen or so clerks be called in who might read the documents simultaneously and thus dispose of the business in a few minutes.<p>Beyond these efforts, he was also the author of a bill to enact, among other things, that "Every <!--del_lnk--> quart bottle should contain a quart."<p><a id="The_Volunteer_Convention" name="The_Volunteer_Convention"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Volunteer Convention</span></h3>
<p>The chief service Boyle Roche rendered his government was in connection with the <!--del_lnk--> Volunteer Convention of November <!--del_lnk--> 1783, in which he "acted a part only less remarkable than his immunity from the opprobrium which might have been expected to attach to it." The question of admitting the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholics to the <a href="../../wp/s/Suffrage.htm" title="Suffrage">franchise</a> was at the time being agitated, and found many warm supporters in the convention. The proposal was extremely obnoxious to the Irish government, and on the second day of the meeting the secretary of state, <!--del_lnk--> George Ogle, announced that the Roman Catholics, in the person of Lord Kenmare, had relinquished the idea of making any claim further than the religious liberty they then enjoyed, and gave as his authority for this extraordinary statement Sir Boyle Roche, by whom it was confirmed!<p>Ten days later Lord Kenmare (who had not been in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> at the time) denied that he had given the least authority to any person to make any such statement in his name. However, his disavowal came too late: the anti-catholic party in the convention had found time to organize themselves, and when the intended Reform Bill took shape it was known that the admission of Roman Catholics to the franchise was not to form part of the scheme.<p>Several months later (on <!--del_lnk--> Valentine's Day), Sir Boyle explained himself in a public letter, starting with a description of his alarm upon hearing that the bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Derry (then <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Hervey) and his associates were bent on extending the legislative privilege:<blockquote>
<p>I thought a crisis was arrived in which Lord Kenmare and the heads of that body should step forth to disavow those wilde projects, and to profess their attachment to the lawful powers. Unfortunately, his lordship was at a great distance, and most of my other friends were out of the way. I therefore resolved on a bold stroke, and authorized only by the sentiments of the persons in question, [took action].</blockquote>
<p>He added that while he regretted that his message had been disowned by Lord Kenmare, that was of less consequence, since his manoeuvre had succeeded to admiration. Some believe that Sir Boyle, who was related to Lord Kenmare and often represented his views in Commons, was also stating Lord Kenmare's true views on this occasion and doing so with his full knowledge, but in a way that provided Kenmare plausible deniability.<p>Sir Boyle fought hard for the Union:<blockquote>
<p>Gentlemen may tither, and tither, and tither, and may think it a bad measure; but their heads at present are hot, and will so remain till they grow cool again, and so they can't decide right now, but when the day of judgement comes then honourable gentlemen will be satisfied with this most excellent union.</blockquote>
<p>For himself, he declared that his love for England and Ireland was so great that he "would have the two sisters embrace like one brother."<p><a id="His_life_in_politics" name="His_life_in_politics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">His life in politics</span></h3>
<p>Those who placidly accept the judgement that Sir Boyle Roche was "the Fool of the Grattan Parliament" should reflect on the fact that for almost 25 years he served as Gentleman Usher and Master of Ceremonies to the Irish Court, "an office for which a dignified and decorous demeanor is among the chief essentials."<p>Roche was also capable of humor which was both subtle and unquestionably intentional. Once, upon hearing his opponent <!--del_lnk--> John Philpot Curran expostulate that he could be "the guardian of his own honour," Sir Boyle offered his "congratulations to the honourable member on his possession of a <!--del_lnk--> sinecure." On another occasion, when the <!--del_lnk--> Opposition tried to cough him down in a debate, Sir Boyle met the interruption by producing some bullets, with the observation "I have here some excellent pills to cure a cough." His personal courage being beyond dispute, this jest was quite sufficient in those duelling days to procure attention for the remainder of his speech.<p><a id="Marriage.2C_retirement_and_death" name="Marriage.2C_retirement_and_death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Marriage, retirement and death</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 20 October <!--del_lnk--> 1778, Boyle Roche married Mary Frankland of Great Thirkleby Hall (<!--del_lnk--> Spofforth, <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire), daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Admiral Sir Thomas Frankland, Bt, whose family name goes back to the time of <!--del_lnk--> William the Conqueror. Although childless, Sir Boyle and Lady Mary appeared to have lived a life of uninterrupted happiness.<p>After the Union and the dissolution of the Irish Parliament, Sir Boyle received a £400 pension, and an addition £300 annually in his capacity as "Surveyor of Kenmare River," a post which had been invented as a reward and required no work. Thus provided for, he was able to spend the rest of his days in comfort.<p>Sir Boyle Roche died at his house in 63 Eccles Street, Dublin, on <!--del_lnk--> 5 June <!--del_lnk--> 1807, and was buried in <!--del_lnk--> St. Mary's Church, Dublin, on <!--del_lnk--> 9 June. Mary lived on until <!--del_lnk--> 1831.<p><a id="Sir_Boyle_Roche.27s_bird" name="Sir_Boyle_Roche.27s_bird"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sir Boyle Roche's bird</span></h2>
<p>Sir Boyle is perhaps best known for once excusing an absence in Parliament thusly: "Mr. Speaker, it is impossible I could have been in two places at once, unless I were a bird." This quotation was referenced by <!--del_lnk--> Ambrose Bierce in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Devil's Dictionary</i> in his definition of <i><!--del_lnk--> ubiquity</i>:<blockquote>
<p>In recent times ubiquity has not always been understood — not even by Sir Boyle Roche, for example, who held that a man cannot be in two places at once unless he is a bird.</blockquote>
<p>But Roche was not uttering a malapropism here, he was quoting, and quoting correctly. The line appears in <!--del_lnk--> Jevon’s play, <i>The Devil of a Wife</i>, as follows:<dl>
<dd><b>Wife:</b> I cannot be in two places at once.</dl>
<dl>
<dd><b>Husband (Rowland):</b> Surely no, unless thou wert a bird.</dl>
<p>So, far from committing a <!--del_lnk--> solecism, Sir Boyle was making a witty reply that demonstrated at once his quickness, his literacy and his excellent memory.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle_Roche"</div>
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Brabantian
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<br /><small>This article is a part of</small><p><small>the <b><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch dialects</a></b> series.</small></th>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>The Dialects</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><strong class="selflink">Brabantian</strong></b></td>
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<p><b>Brabantian</b> or <b>Brabantic</b> (Brabantic: <i>Braobans</i>; <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl"><i>Brabants</i></span>) is a dialect of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch language</a> spoken in the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> Province of <!--del_lnk--> North Brabant and in the <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp and <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Brabant and small parts in the west of <!--del_lnk--> Limburg. In the northwest of Brabant (<!--del_lnk--> Willemstad), <a href="../../wp/h/Hollandic.htm" title="Hollandic">Hollandic</a> is spoken. Conventionally, the <a href="../../wp/z/Zuid-Gelders.htm" title="Zuid-Gelders">Zuid-Gelders</a> dialects are distinguished from Brabantian, though there are no objective criteria apart from geography to do this.<p>Because of the relatively large area in which Brabantian is spoken, it can be roughly divided in three sub-dialects:<ul>
<li>West-Brabantian, spoken in the area west of the river <!--del_lnk--> Donge; in the west of North Brabant (the area around the cities <!--del_lnk--> Breda and <!--del_lnk--> Roosendaal) and in the north and west of the Province of Antwerp in Belgium.<li>East-Brabantian, spoken in the area east of the river <!--del_lnk--> Donge; in the middle and east of North Brabant (the area around the cities <!--del_lnk--> Tilburg, <!--del_lnk--> Eindhoven, <!--del_lnk--> 's-Hertogenbosch and <!--del_lnk--> Helmond), the east of the Province of Antwerp and the far west of the Province of Limburg.<li>South-Brabantian, spoken in the province of Flemish Brabant and the south of <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>.</ul>
<p>Brabantian is not recognized as a minority language in the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>: as standard Dutch is partly based on Brabantian, there is no need of a separate Brabantian standard.<p>About one third of the Dutch-speaking population lives in the Brabantian dialect zone. In large Dutch towns such as Breda and Eindhoven, where many people speak Hollandic dialects, Brabantian dialects have been abandoned, whereas in rural areas many people still speak the original dialect. Tilburg and 's-Hertogenbosch, however, have a large number speaking the Brabantian dialect.<p>In <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, dialects are still the common spoken language. In the capital of <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, French largely replaced Dutch in the middle of the 20th century. Despite this, there are many cultural activities using the Brussels dialect. Moreover, use of Dutch is reviving among young Dutch-speaking families who are moving back from the suburbs toward the old city centre.<!--
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Brabham
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brabham</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports_teams.htm">Sports teams</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger; margin: inherit;"><b>Brabham</b></caption>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Image:Brabham91.gif" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brabham91.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="105" /></td>
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<th>Full name</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
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<th>Base</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Milton_Keynes.htm" title="Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
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<th>Notable staff</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bernie Ecclestone<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ron Tauranac<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gordon Murray<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ron Dennis<br /><!--del_lnk--> Charlie Whiting</td>
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<th>Notable drivers</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney<br /><!--del_lnk--> Denny Hulme<br /><!--del_lnk--> Niki Lauda<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet</td>
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<th>Debut</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1962 <!--del_lnk--> German Grand Prix</td>
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<th>Races competed</th>
<td>402</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Constructors' Championships</th>
<td>2 (<!--del_lnk--> 1966, <!--del_lnk--> 1967)</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Drivers' Championships</th>
<td>4 (<!--del_lnk--> 1966, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, <!--del_lnk--> 1983)</td>
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<th>Race victories</th>
<td>35</td>
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<th>Pole positions</th>
<td>39</td>
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<th>Fastest laps</th>
<td>42</td>
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<th>Last race</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1992 Hungarian Grand Prix</th>
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<p><b>Motor Racing Developments Ltd.</b>, more usually known as <b>Brabham</b>, was a racing car manufacturer and <a href="../../wp/f/Formula_One.htm" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> racing team founded in 1960 by two Australians: driver <!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham and designer <!--del_lnk--> Ron Tauranac. The team won four <!--del_lnk--> drivers' and two <!--del_lnk--> constructors' world championships in its 30 year history. As of 2006, Jack Brabham's 1966 drivers' championship remains the only one won by a driver in a car bearing his own name.<p>In 1966 and 1967 Brabham won the drivers' and constructors' championships using Australian-built engines from <!--del_lnk--> Repco. During the 1960s Brabham was also the largest manufacturer of customer <!--del_lnk--> open wheel racing cars in the world, and had built more than 500 cars by 1970. Brabham cars won championships in <!--del_lnk--> Formula Two and <!--del_lnk--> Formula Three, and competed in the <!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis 500.<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, under the ownership of the British businessman <!--del_lnk--> Bernie Ecclestone — who later become responsible for administrating the commercial aspects of Formula One — the team introduced many innovations to Formula One, such as <i>carbon brakes</i>, the controversial but successful 'fan car', in-race refuelling, and <i><!--del_lnk--> hydropneumatic suspension</i>. In the 1980s the team won two more drivers' championships with Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet, and became the first team to win a drivers' championship with a <!--del_lnk--> turbocharged car.<p>After Ecclestone sold the team in 1987, ownership passed eventually to the Middlebridge Group, a Japanese engineering firm. Midway through the <!--del_lnk--> 1992 season the team collapsed after Middlebridge was unable to continue making repayments against loans provided by Landhurst Leasing. The case was investigated by the UK <!--del_lnk--> Serious Fraud Office.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13634.jpg.htm" title="Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a 'Brabham' car."><img alt="Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a 'Brabham' car." height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrabhamJack1966B.jpg" src="../../images/136/13634.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13634.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a 'Brabham' car.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham and <!--del_lnk--> Ron Tauranac met in 1951 when both were successfully building and racing their own cars in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Brabham went to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in 1955 to further his racing career. Driving for the <!--del_lnk--> Cooper Car Company works team, he became Formula One world champion in <!--del_lnk--> 1959 and <!--del_lnk--> 1960. In addition to driving, he had significant technical involvement at Cooper, particularly in developing the 1960 T53 ‘lowline’ car. Brabham consulted Tauranac by letter on technical matters and fed the results back into the Cooper designs.<p>Although Cooper had revolutionised Formula One by introducing the <!--del_lnk--> mid-engined layout, their approach to car design was less than scientific and Brabham felt sure that he could improve on it. In 1959 Brabham invited his friend Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him. Brabham described Tauranac as "absolutely the only bloke I'd have gone into partnership with". Initially this was at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, producing upgrade kits for <!--del_lnk--> Sunbeam Rapier and <!--del_lnk--> Triumph Herald road cars, but with the long-term aim to design racing cars.<p>Brabham and Tauranac set up a company called Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (see <!--del_lnk--> below), deliberately avoiding the use of either man’s name, and produced their first car for the entry level <!--del_lnk--> Formula Junior class in the summer of 1961. Initially known as an MRD, the car's name was soon changed. Motoring journalist <!--del_lnk--> Jabby Crombac pointed out that "[the] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials — written phonetically, 'em air day' — sounded perilously like the French word... <i><!--del_lnk--> merde.</i>" The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for 'Brabham Tauranac'.<p>By the <!--del_lnk--> 1961 Formula One season, the first run under a new 1.5 litre engine capacity limit, the <!--del_lnk--> Lotus and <!--del_lnk--> Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper. Having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961, Brabham left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the <b>Brabham Racing Organisation</b>, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments. MRD initially concentrated on making money by selling cars to customers, so the first Brabham Formula One car, the BT3, was only delivered partway through the 1962 Formula One season.<p><a id="Racing_history_-_Formula_One" name="Racing_history_-_Formula_One"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Racing history - Formula One</span></h2>
<p><a id="Jack_Brabham_and_Ron_Tauranac_.281961-1970.29" name="Jack_Brabham_and_Ron_Tauranac_.281961-1970.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961-1970)</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17116.jpg.htm" title="Brabham BT33 Technically conservative Brabham did not produce a monocoque car until 1970."><img alt="Brabham BT33 Technically conservative Brabham did not produce a monocoque car until 1970." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1970_Brands_Hatch_Race_of_Champions_Jack_Brabham_BT33.jpg" src="../../images/171/17116.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17116.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Brabham BT33</b> Technically conservative Brabham did not produce a <!--del_lnk--> monocoque car until 1970.</div>
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<p>The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the <!--del_lnk--> 1962 season, its first in Formula One, fielding an outdated customer <!--del_lnk--> Lotus 21 chassis for Jack Brabham. Brabham became a Formula One <!--del_lnk--> constructor when BRO debuted their turquoise <!--del_lnk--> liveried BT3 car at the <!--del_lnk--> 1962 German Grand Prix, where it retired with a <!--del_lnk--> throttle problem after nine of the fifteen laps. By the last two races of the season the car was competitive enough to take a pair of fourth places.<p>From the <!--del_lnk--> 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver <!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia's <!--del_lnk--> racing colours of green and gold. Jack Brabham took the team's first win at the non-championship <!--del_lnk--> Solitude Grand Prix in 1963. Gurney took the <!--del_lnk--> marque's first win in the world championship, at the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 French Grand Prix. The American won again at the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 Mexican Grand Prix and Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 season. The <!--del_lnk--> 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins. During this period, Brabham finished third or fourth in the constructors' championship each year, but promising performances were marred by poor reliability on several occasions. Commentators, including Ron Tauranac, have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results.<p>The Formula One engine capacity limit was raised to 3 litres for the <!--del_lnk--> 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce. Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm <!--del_lnk--> Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 <!--del_lnk--> engine blocks from the defunct American <!--del_lnk--> Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off the shelf parts. Few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season and at the <!--del_lnk--> French Grand Prix at <!--del_lnk--> Reims-Gueux, Jack Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name. Only his former team mate, <!--del_lnk--> Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement. It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran. Jack Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver, as of 2006, to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (<i>cf</i> <!--del_lnk--> Surtees, <!--del_lnk--> Hill and <!--del_lnk--> Fittipaldi Automotive). In <!--del_lnk--> 1967, the title went to Brabham's team mate, New Zealander <!--del_lnk--> Denny Hulme. Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Jack Brabham's desire to try new parts first. The Brabham team took the constructors' world championship in both years.<p>Hulme left for <!--del_lnk--> McLaren in <!--del_lnk--> 1968 and was replaced by Austrian <!--del_lnk--> Jochen Rindt. A more powerful version of the Repco V8 was produced to maintain competitiveness against Ford's new <!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV, but proved very unreliable. The Repco project had always been hindered by the lengthy lines of communication between the UK and Australia, which made correcting problems very difficult. The car was fast — Rindt set <!--del_lnk--> pole position twice during the season — but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year having scored just ten points.<p>Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the <!--del_lnk--> 1969 season. Rindt left for Lotus and was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Jacky Ickx, who had a strong second half to the season, winning in <!--del_lnk--> Germany and <!--del_lnk--> Canada, after Jack Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident. Ickx finished second in the drivers' championship, with 37 points to <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Stewart's 63. Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top three finishes, but did not finish half the races. The team were second in the constructors' championship, aided by second places at <!--del_lnk--> Monaco and <!--del_lnk--> Watkins Glen scored by <!--del_lnk--> Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the <!--del_lnk--> Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad.<p>Jack Brabham intended to retire at the end of the 1969 season and sold his share in the team to Tauranac. However, Rindt's late decision to remain with Lotus meant that Brabham drove for another year. He took his last win in the opening race of the <!--del_lnk--> 1970 season and competed at the front throughout the year, although his challenge was blunted by repeated mechanical failures. Aided by number two driver <!--del_lnk--> Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the constructors' championship.<p><a id="Ron_Tauranac_.281971.29" name="Ron_Tauranac_.281971.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Ron Tauranac (1971)</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17117.jpg.htm" title="Brabham BT34. Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the unique 'lobster claw'."><img alt="Brabham BT34. Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the unique 'lobster claw'." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1971_Race_of_Champions_G_Hill_Brabham_BT34.jpg" src="../../images/171/17117.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17117.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Brabham BT34</b>. <!--del_lnk--> Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the unique 'lobster claw'.</div>
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<p>Tauranac signed veteran double world champion <!--del_lnk--> Graham Hill and the young Australian <!--del_lnk--> Tim Schenken to drive for the <!--del_lnk--> 1971 season. Tauranac designed the unusual ‘lobster claw’ BT34, featuring twin <!--del_lnk--> radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill. Although Hill took his final Formula One win in the non-championship <!--del_lnk--> BRDC International Trophy at <!--del_lnk--> Silverstone, the team scored only seven championship points.<p>Tauranac, an engineer first and foremost, started to feel his Formula One budget of around £100,000 was a gamble he could not afford to take on his own and began to look around for an experienced business partner. He eventually sold Brabham at the end of 1971 to British businessman <!--del_lnk--> Bernie Ecclestone, Jochen Rindt's former manager and erstwhile owner of the <!--del_lnk--> Connaught team. Tauranac stayed on as designer and to run the factory.<p><a id="Bernie_Ecclestone_.281972-1987.29" name="Bernie_Ecclestone_.281972-1987.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bernie Ecclestone (1972-1987)</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13641.jpg.htm" title="The Brabham BT49 competed over four seasons, winning one championship."><img alt="The Brabham BT49 competed over four seasons, winning one championship." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005_Brands_Hatch_A1GP_25_Sept_Christian_Glaesel_Brabham_BT49D.jpg" src="../../images/136/13641.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13641.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49 competed over four seasons, winning one championship.</div>
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<p>Tauranac left Brabham early in the <!--del_lnk--> 1972 season after Ecclestone made several changes to the running of the business without consulting him. Ecclestone has since said that "In retrospect, the relationship was never going to work", noting that "[Tauranac and I] both take the view: 'Please be reasonable, do it my way'". Pole position for Argentinian driver <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann at his home race at <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a> and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix were the highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models. For the <!--del_lnk--> 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted engineer <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Murray to the position of chief designer. The young South African produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the drivers' championship.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1974 season Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham's first since 1970. The team finished a close fifth in the constructors' championship, fielding the much more competitive <!--del_lnk--> BT44s. After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the <!--del_lnk--> 1975 title. The year started well, with an emotional first win for Brazilian driver <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Pace at the <!--del_lnk--> Interlagos circuit in his native <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>. Over the season, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars, and the initial promise was not maintained. Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the <!--del_lnk--> 1975 German Grand Prix, placed Reutemann third. The team was ranked third in the constructors' table at the end of the year.<p>While rival teams Lotus and McLaren relied on the Cosworth DFV engine from the late 1960s to the early 1980s, Ecclestone sought a competitive advantage for his team. Despite the increasing success of Murray’s nimble Cosworth-powered cars, Ecclestone signed a deal with Italian motor manufacturer <!--del_lnk--> Alfa Romeo to use their large and powerful <!--del_lnk--> flat-12 engine from the <!--del_lnk--> 1976 season. The engines were free, but they rendered the new BT45s, now in red <!--del_lnk--> Martini Racing livery, unreliable and overweight. The 1976 and <!--del_lnk--> 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again. Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with <!--del_lnk--> Ferrari. He was replaced at Brabham for 1977 by Ulsterman <!--del_lnk--> John Watson. The team lost Carlos Pace early in the 1977 season when he was killed in a <!--del_lnk--> light aircraft accident.<p>For the <!--del_lnk--> 1978 season Murray’s radical <!--del_lnk--> BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa engines. Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion <!--del_lnk--> Niki Lauda, whose US$1 million salary was met with sponsorship from the Italian dairy products company <!--del_lnk--> Parmalat. 1978 was the year of the dominant <!--del_lnk--> Lotus 79 ‘wing car’, which used aerodynamic <i><!--del_lnk--> ground effect</i> to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial 'B' or 'fan car' version (see <!--del_lnk--> below).<p>The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the <!--del_lnk--> 1979 season, the team's first with young Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet. Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed and unreliable new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective <i>carbon-carbon braking</i> system — a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976 (see <!--del_lnk--> below). However, the team had not understood the effect of movement of the aerodynamic <i><!--del_lnk--> centres of pressure</i> on such a car and dropped to eighth in the constructors' table by the end of the season. Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being "like having a holiday". The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered <!--del_lnk--> BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the <!--del_lnk--> 1979 Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later explaining that he "was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles".<p>The team used the BT49 over four seasons. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took third in the constructors' championship. This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team's demise in 1992. By now the team fully understood ground effect and further developed the BT49C for the <!--del_lnk--> 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride-height limitations intended to reduce <i>downforce</i> (see <!--del_lnk--> below). Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray took the drivers' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating (see <!--del_lnk--> below).<p>Brabham had tested a <!--del_lnk--> BMW 4-cylinder <!--del_lnk--> M10 <!--del_lnk--> turbocharged engine in the summer of 1981. For the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 season a new car, the BT50, was designed around the BMW engine which, like the Repco engine 16 years previously, was based on a road car engine block. Brabham continued to run the Cosworth-powered BT49D in the early part of the season while reliability and driveability issues with the BMW units were resolved. The relationship came close to ending, with the German manufacturer insisting that Brabham use their engine, while Ecclestone maintained that the BMW-powered cars were not reliable enough. The turbo car took its first win at the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Canadian Grand Prix. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1983 season, Piquet was the first driver to win the Formula One drivers' world championship with a turbo-powered car. Piquet scored a sequence of good results from mid-season to take the championship lead from <!--del_lnk--> Renault's <!--del_lnk--> Alain Prost at the last race of the year, the <!--del_lnk--> South African Grand Prix. The team did not win the constructor's championship in either 1981 or 1983, despite Piquet's success. <!--del_lnk--> Riccardo Patrese was the only driver other than Piquet to win a race for Brabham in this period - the drivers in the second car contributed only a fraction of the team's points in each of these championship seasons.<p>Piquet took the team’s last win at the <!--del_lnk--> 1985 French Grand Prix before reluctantly leaving for <!--del_lnk--> Williams at the end of the season. After seven years and two world championships, he felt he was worth more than Ecclestone's salary offer for 1986. During the <!--del_lnk--> 1986 Formula One season, Murray's radical long and low BT55, with its BMW engine tilted over to allow clean airflow to the rear wing, scored only two points; the engine did not perform well in this orientation and the gearbox from Weissman was unreliable. Italian <!--del_lnk--> Elio de Angelis became the Formula One team's first fatality when he was killed in a testing accident at <!--del_lnk--> Paul Ricard. Murray, who had largely taken over the running of the team as Ecclestone became more involved with his role at the <!--del_lnk--> Formula One Constructors Association, left Brabham at the end of the year to join <!--del_lnk--> McLaren.<p>From the <!--del_lnk--> 1987 season FISA progressively reduced the turbo boost pressure allowed in Formula One, before banning turbocharged engines altogether for 1989. BMW, whose programme was based around turbocharged versions of their road engines, withdrew from Formula One after the 1987 season. Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, Ecclestone withdrew the team from Formula One at the beginning of 1988. He eventually sold MRD for £2 million. It passed through the hands of <!--del_lnk--> FIAT before ending up in the ownership of Swiss businessman Joachim Luhti.<p><a id="Joachim_Luhti_.281989.29" name="Joachim_Luhti_.281989.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Joachim Luhti (1989)</span></h4>
<p>The Brabham team missed the 1988 season during the change of ownership, although MRD did produce a prototype mid-engined racing <!--del_lnk--> saloon, the BT57, for Alfa Romeo. The new BT58, powered by an engine from <!--del_lnk--> Judd (originally another of Jack Brabham's companies), was produced for the <!--del_lnk--> 1989 Formula One season. Italian driver <!--del_lnk--> Stefano Modena was signed alongside the more experienced <!--del_lnk--> Martin Brundle. The team finished in eighth place, and Modena took the team's last podium: a third place at the <!--del_lnk--> Monaco Grand Prix.<p><a id="Middlebridge_Racing_.281989_-_1992.29" name="Middlebridge_Racing_.281989_-_1992.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Middlebridge Racing (1989 - 1992)</span></h4>
<p>After the arrest of Luhti in mid-1989 on tax evasion charges, ownership of the team was disputed. Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm which was already involved with established <!--del_lnk--> Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing, ended up with control of the team for the <!--del_lnk--> 1990 Formula One season. They paid for their purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing. Nonetheless, the team was underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons. Jack Brabham's youngest son, <!--del_lnk--> David raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990, and was followed by another son of a former Brabham driver and World Champion when <a href="../../wp/d/Damon_Hill.htm" title="Damon Hill">Damon Hill</a> joined the team in 1992. Hill was drafted into the team after <!--del_lnk--> Giovanna Amati, the last woman to attempt to race in Formula One, was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise.<p>The team's final cars were designed by Argentine <!--del_lnk--> Sergio Rinland and continued to use Judd engines, except for 1991 when <!--del_lnk--> Yamaha engines were used. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1992 season the cars rarely qualified for races. Hill gave the team its final finish, at the <!--del_lnk--> Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line four laps behind the winner. Before the end of the season the team ran out of funds and collapsed. Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into <!--del_lnk--> administration. The case was investigated by the <!--del_lnk--> Serious Fraud Office. Landhurst's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge. It was one of four teams to leave Formula One that year. (<i>cf</i> <!--del_lnk--> March Engineering, <!--del_lnk--> Fondmetal and <!--del_lnk--> Andrea Moda Formula). Although there was talk of reviving the team for the following year, its assets passed to Landhurst Leasing and were auctioned by the company's <!--del_lnk--> receivers in 1993, including the team's factory, which is still used for motorsport purposes today - it is owned by <!--del_lnk--> Trevor Carlin, and houses the <!--del_lnk--> Carlin DPR <!--del_lnk--> GP2 team.<p><a id="Motor_Racing_Developments" name="Motor_Racing_Developments"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Motor Racing Developments</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17120.jpg.htm" title="Brabhams were bought by other teams for use in F1 (Piers Courage, 1969)"><img alt="Brabhams were bought by other teams for use in F1 (Piers Courage, 1969)" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1969_British_Grand_Prix_P_Courage_Brabham_BT26.jpg" src="../../images/171/17120.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17120.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brabhams were bought by other teams for use in F1 (<!--del_lnk--> Piers Courage, 1969)</div>
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<p>The company that Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac set up in 1961 to design and build customer <!--del_lnk--> formula racing cars was called <i>Motor Racing Developments</i> (MRD). Initially Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 percent of the shares.<p>From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One, where the works entry was run by a separate company, Jack Brabham's <i>Brabham Racing Organisation</i>. Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, although it did not pay for development parts. MRD often ran works cars in other formulae. During this period the cars in all formulae were usually known as "Repco Brabhams", not because of the Repco engines used between 1966 and 1968, but because of a smaller-scale sponsorship deal through which the Australian company had been providing parts to Jack Brabham since his Cooper days.<p>Tauranac was not happy with his distance from the Formula One operation and suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement. Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category. After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD, although the name on the official entry list sometimes varied in line with sponsorship deals. At the end of 1971 MRD was sold to Bernie Ecclestone, who retained the Brabham ‘brand’, as did subsequent owners.<p>Under Brabham and Tauranac in the mid-1960s, MRD was the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, and by 1970 had built over 500 cars. Brabhams were used by many teams in Formula One, most successfully by <!--del_lnk--> Frank Williams Racing Cars and the <!--del_lnk--> Rob Walker Racing Team. The <!--del_lnk--> 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season. The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966. Brabham had the reputation of providing customers with cars of a standard equal to those used by the works team, which worked ‘<!--del_lnk--> out of the box’. The company provided a high degree of support to its customers - including Jack Brabham helping customers set up their cars. Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Bernie Ecclestone’s ownership, Ecclestone believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed. The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and Formula Three BT41 of 1973, although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to <!--del_lnk--> RAM Racing as late as 1976.<p><a id="Racing_history_-_other_formulae" name="Racing_history_-_other_formulae"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Racing history - other formulae</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13642.jpg.htm" title="The Brabham BT18-Honda completely dominated Formula Two in 1966"><img alt="The Brabham BT18-Honda completely dominated Formula Two in 1966" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005_Goodwood_Festival_of_Speed_F2_Brabham_BT18_Honda.jpg" src="../../images/136/13642.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/136/13642.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Brabham BT18-Honda completely dominated <!--del_lnk--> Formula Two in 1966</div>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17123.jpg.htm" title="Many top drivers used Brabham F3 cars in their early careers. (James Hunt, 1969)"><img alt="Many top drivers used Brabham F3 cars in their early careers. (James Hunt, 1969)" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1969_F3_Guards_Trophy_Brands_Hatch_James_Hunt_Brabham_BT21.jpg" src="../../images/171/17123.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17123.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Many top drivers used Brabham F3 cars in their early careers. (<!--del_lnk--> James Hunt, 1969)</div>
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<p><a id="Indycar" name="Indycar"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Indycar</span></h4>
<p>Brabham cars competed at the <!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis 500 from the mid 1960s to the early 1970s. After an abortive project in 1962, MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an Indycar chassis powered by an American <!--del_lnk--> Offenhauser engine. The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the <i>Zink-Urschel Trackburner</i> at the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 event and retired on lap 77 with a fuel tank problem. The car was entered again in <!--del_lnk--> 1965 and <!--del_lnk--> 1966, taking a third place for <!--del_lnk--> Jim McElreath on the latter occasion, although MRD was not involved. From 1968 to 1970 Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2 litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One, before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970. MRD's best finish was a fifth place for <!--del_lnk--> Peter Revson in <!--del_lnk--> 1969. The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was used until 1972. Although not successful at Indianapolis, McElreath won four USAC races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12. The <i>Dean Van Lines Special</i> in which <!--del_lnk--> Mario Andretti won the 1965 <!--del_lnk--> United States Automobile Club (USAC) national championship was a direct copy of this car, by Andretti's crew Clint Brawner. Revson won a USAC race in 1969, using the Repco engine.<p><a id="Formula_Two" name="Formula_Two"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Formula Two</span></h4>
<p>In the 1960s and early 1970s, Formula One drivers often competed in <!--del_lnk--> Formula Two as well. In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a <!--del_lnk--> Honda engine acting as a stressed component. The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme. Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier.<p><a id="Formula_Three" name="Formula_Three"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Formula Three</span></h4>
<p>The first <!--del_lnk--> Formula Three Brabham was the BT9 in 1964, but it was not until 1965 that the marque really took off in the category. The BT15 was a highly successful design, 58 of which were sold, winning championships in the UK, Italy, Sweden and Denmark. The cars very much followed the design route of their Formula One and Formula Two cousins, combining <!--del_lnk--> spaceframe <!--del_lnk--> chassis and outboard suspension. Indeed, in the mid 1960s Formulas Three and Two both used 1 litre production-derived engines and the chassis were often very closely related. Further developments of the same concept, featuring the addition of wings, were highly competitive up until 1971. 1972's BT38C was Brabham's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac. It was less popular and successful than its predecessors. The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham.<p><a id="Formula_Junior" name="Formula_Junior"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Formula Junior</span></h4>
<p>The first Brabham chassis was the prototype MRD designed for <!--del_lnk--> Formula Junior, which at that time provided an entry level of racing. Retrospectively labelled the BT1 the car proved immediately competitive in the hands of Australian amateur racer Gavin Youl. The BT2-series were productionised versions of this prototype. Brabham continued to produce cars for this category until it ended in 1963.<p><a id="Sportscars" name="Sportscars"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Sportscars</span></h4>
<p>Tauranac did not enjoy designing sportscars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD's very successful single-seater business. Only 14 sportscars were built between 1961 and 1972, out of a total production of almost 600 chassis. The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. The design was "stretched" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3 litre version of the Repco engine for <!--del_lnk--> Can-Am racing. It was rapidly abandoned by MRD with engine reliability problems.<p><a id="Technical_innovation" name="Technical_innovation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technical innovation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17113.jpg.htm" title="The 1978 BT46B ‘Fan car’ won its only race before being banned."><img alt="The 1978 BT46B ‘Fan car’ won its only race before being banned." height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2001_Goodwood_Festival_of_Speed_Brabham_BT46B_Fan_car.jpg" src="../../images/136/13647.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17113.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 1978 <!--del_lnk--> BT46B ‘Fan car’ won its only race before being banned.</div>
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<p>Brabham was often considered a conservative team in the Brabham-Tauranac era of the 1960s. The team won the 1966 and 1967 championships with traditional <i><!--del_lnk--> spaceframe</i> cars six years after Lotus introduced <i><!--del_lnk--> monocoque</i> chassis to Formula One. Designer Tauranac insists that the spaceframe chassis was far easier to repair and while willing and able to innovate - the BT1 was the first racing car to feature an adjustable <!--del_lnk--> anti-roll bar, for example - would only do so for good reason.<p>Early Brabhams went well on fast tracks; a fact Tauranac attributes in part to MRD’s pioneering use of <!--del_lnk--> wind tunnel testing to hone their <!--del_lnk--> aerodynamics. As early as 1963, tests in the <!--del_lnk--> Motor Industry Research Association tunnel taught the team to keep the nose of the car as close to the track as possible, to minimise <i><!--del_lnk--> aerodynamic lift</i>. Brabham was one of the first teams to use <i>trim tabs</i> at the front of the car to control lift. They appeared as early as 1962 on the Formula Junior car and at the <!--del_lnk--> 1968 Belgian Grand Prix Brabham were the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings for <i><!--del_lnk--> downforce</i>, which increases <i><!--del_lnk--> grip</i>.<p>The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced <i>carbon-carbon <!--del_lnk--> brakes</i> to Formula One, which promised reduced <i><!--del_lnk--> unsprung weight</i> and better stopping performance. The initial versions used <!--del_lnk--> reinforced carbon-carbon composite pads and a <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> disc faced with carbon <i>pucks</i>. The technology was not reliable at first. In 1976 Carlos Pace crashed at 180 mph at the <!--del_lnk--> Österreichring circuit after heat buildup in the brakes boiled the <!--del_lnk--> brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. By 1979 Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT46B of 1978, also known as the 'Fan car', generated an immense level of <!--del_lnk--> downforce by means of a fan, claimed to assist engine cooling, which sucked air from beneath the car. The car only raced once in the Formula One World Championship, <!--del_lnk--> Niki Lauda winning the <!--del_lnk--> 1978 Swedish Grand Prix, before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA.<p>Murray started using lightweight <i><!--del_lnk--> carbon fibre composite</i> panels to stiffen Brabham's <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium alloy</a> <!--del_lnk--> monocoques from 1979. He was reluctant to built the entire chassis from composite materials until he completely understood how they worked, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented <!--del_lnk--> crash test of a BT49 chassis. The team did not follow McLaren's 1981 MP4/1 with their own fully composite chassis until the 'lowline' BT55 in 1986, the last team to do so.<p>For the 1981 season FISA introduced a 6 cm minimum <!--del_lnk--> ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the <!--del_lnk--> downforce created by <!--del_lnk--> aerodynamic <i><!--del_lnk--> ground effect</i>. Gordon Murray devised a <i><!--del_lnk--> hydropneumatic suspension</i> system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham were accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system was legal. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects. See <!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49.<p>At the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 British Grand Prix Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, to allow their drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. In tests at <!--del_lnk--> Donington Park the week before the race the pit crew were reported to "have refuelled and re-tyred the car in only 14 seconds" The team made good use of the tactic in 1982 and 1983. Refuelling was banned for 1984, reappearing in 1994, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One.<p><a id="Controversy" name="Controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Controversy</span></h2>
<p>The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited <!--del_lnk--> loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Lafitte claimed that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted <!--del_lnk--> bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham's management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against them by the sporting authorities.<p>Ecclestone's position as president of the <!--del_lnk--> Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA) left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies the team benefitted in this way and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon their new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. When ground effect was then banned for the 1983 season by the FIA, Brabham had to design and build a second, entirely different, car (BT52) in only three months. At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the drivers' championship by Piquet, protested that the <!--del_lnk--> Research Octane Number (RON) of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102. FISA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit.<p><a id="Championship_results" name="Championship_results"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Championship results</span></h2>
<p>Results achieved by the 'works' Brabham team. <b>Bold</b> results indicate a championship win.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Season</th>
<th>Entrant</th>
<th>Car</th>
<th>Tyres</th>
<th>Engine</th>
<th>Drivers</th>
<th>Constructors Championship</th>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1962</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Lotus 21<br /> Brabham BT3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dunlop</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Coventry-Climax</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham</td>
<td>7th (9 points)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1963</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT3<br /> Brabham BT7<br /> Lotus 25</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dunlop</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Coventry-Climax</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney</td>
<td>3rd (28 points)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1964</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT7<br /> Brabham BT11</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dunlop</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Coventry-Climax</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney</td>
<td>4th (33 points)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1965</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT7<br /> Brabham BT11</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dunlop<br /><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Coventry-Climax</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney<br /><!--del_lnk--> Denny Hulme<br /><!--del_lnk--> Giancarlo Baghetti</td>
<td>3rd (27 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1966</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT19<br /> Brabham BT20<br /> Brabham BT22</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Repco</td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Denny Hulme</td>
<td><b>Champion</b> (42 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1967</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT19<br /> Brabham BT20<br /> Brabham BT24</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Repco</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Denny Hulme</b></td>
<td><b>Champion</b> (37 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1968</th>
<td>Brabham Racing Organisation</td>
<td>Brabham BT24<br /> Brabham BT26</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Repco</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jochen Rindt<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Gurney</td>
<td>8th (10 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1969</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT26/A</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jacky Ickx</td>
<td>2nd (51 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1970</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT33</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rolf Stommelen</td>
<td>4th (35 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1971</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT33<br /> Brabham BT34</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Graham Hill<br /><!--del_lnk--> Tim Schenken<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dave Charlton</td>
<td>9th (5 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1972</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT33<br /> Brabham BT34<br /> Brabham BT37</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Graham Hill<br /><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Wilson Fittipaldi</td>
<td>9th (7 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1973</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments<br /> Ceramica Pagnossin Team MRD</td>
<td>Brabham BT37<br /> Brabham BT42</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Wilson Fittipaldi<br /><!--del_lnk--> Andrea de Adamich<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rolf Stommelen<br /><!--del_lnk--> John Watson</td>
<td>4th (49 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1974</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT42<br /><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT44</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Pace<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rikky von Opel<br /><!--del_lnk--> Richard Robarts<br /><!--del_lnk--> Teddy Pilette</td>
<td>5th (35 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1975</th>
<td>Martini Racing</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT44B</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Pace</td>
<td>2nd (54 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1976</th>
<td>Martini Racing</td>
<td>Brabham BT45</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alfa Romeo</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Reutemann<br /><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Pace<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rolf Stommelen<br /><!--del_lnk--> Larry Perkins</td>
<td>9th (9 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1977</th>
<td>Martini Racing</td>
<td>Brabham BT45/B</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alfa Romeo</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlos Pace<br /><!--del_lnk--> John Watson<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hans Stuck<br /><!--del_lnk--> Giorgio Francia</td>
<td>5th (27 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1978</th>
<td>Parmalat Racing Team</td>
<td>Brabham BT45C<br /><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT46/B/C</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alfa Romeo</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niki Lauda<br /><!--del_lnk--> John Watson<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet</td>
<td>3rd (53 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1979</th>
<td>Parmalat Racing Team</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT46<br /> Brabham BT48<br /><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alfa Romeo<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niki Lauda<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Zuniño</td>
<td>8th (6 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1980</th>
<td>Parmalat Racing Team</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49/B</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michelin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Zuniño<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hector Rebaque</td>
<td>3rd (55 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1981</th>
<td>Parmalat Racing Team</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49/B/C</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV</td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Hector Rebaque<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Zuniño</td>
<td>2nd (61 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1982</th>
<td>Parmalat Racing Team</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT49D<br /> Brabham BT50</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosworth DFV<br /><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Riccardo Patrese</td>
<td>2nd (76 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1983</th>
<td>Fila Sport</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brabham BT52/B</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michelin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Riccardo Patrese</td>
<td>3rd (72 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1984</th>
<td>MRD International</td>
<td>Brabham BT53</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michelin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Teo Fabi<br /><!--del_lnk--> Corrado Fabi<br /><!--del_lnk--> Manfred Winkelhock</td>
<td>4th (38 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1985</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments Ltd</td>
<td>Brabham BT54</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pirelli</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nelson Piquet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Marc Surer<br /><!--del_lnk--> François Hesnault</td>
<td>5th (26 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1986</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments Ltd</td>
<td>Brabham BT54<br /> Brabham BT55</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pirelli</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elio de Angelis<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Patrese<br /><!--del_lnk--> Derek Warwick</td>
<td>9th (2 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1987</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments Ltd</td>
<td>Brabham BT56</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BMW</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Patrese<br /><!--del_lnk--> Andrea de Cesaris<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stefano Modena</td>
<td>8th(10 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1989</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT58</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pirelli</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Judd</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martin Brundle<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stefano Modena</td>
<td>9th (8 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1990</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments</td>
<td>Brabham BT58<br /> Brabham BT59</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pirelli</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Judd</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stefano Modena<br /><!--del_lnk--> David Brabham<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gregor Foitek</td>
<td>10th (2 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1991</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments Ltd</td>
<td>Brabham BT59Y<br /> Brabham BT60Y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pirelli</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yamaha</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martin Brundle<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mark Blundell</td>
<td>9th (3 pts)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top">
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1992</th>
<td>Motor Racing Developments Ltd</td>
<td>Brabham BT60B</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Goodyear</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Judd</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eric van de Poele<br /><!--del_lnk--> Giovanna Amati<br /><a href="../../wp/d/Damon_Hill.htm" title="Damon Hill">Damon Hill</a></td>
<td>NC (0 pts)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;">
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Lotus</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Formula One Constructors' Champion</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 1966-<!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Lotus</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
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<td style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; font-weight: bold; background: #ccccff;"><strong class="selflink">Motor Racing Developments</strong></td>
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</td>
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<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0.5em 1.5em 0.5em 1.5em">
<p><b>Formula One:</b> BT3 | BT7 | BT19 | BT20 | BT23 | BT24 | BT26 | BT33 | BT34 | BT37 | BT39 | BT42 | <!--del_lnk--> BT44/B | BT45 | <!--del_lnk--> BT46/B/C | BT48 | <!--del_lnk--> BT49/C/D | BT50 | BT51 | <!--del_lnk--> BT52 | BT53 | BT54 | BT55 | BT56 | BT58 | BT59/Y | BT60<p><b>Indianapolis 500/USAC:</b> BT12 | BT25 | BT32<p><b>Formula Two:</b> BT10 | BT11/A | BT16 | BT18 | BT23 | BT23C | BT30 | BT36 | BT38 | BT40 |<p><b>Formula Atlantic:</b> BT23F/G | BT29 | BT35A/B | BT38B | BT40<p><b>Formula Three:</b> BT9 | BT15 | BT16A | BT18A | BT21 | BT21B | BT21X | BT28 | BT35C | BT38C | BT41<p><b>Formula Junior:</b> BT1 | BT2 | BT6<p><b>Other single seaters:</b> BT4 | BT7A | BT14 | BT18B | BT21A | BT21C | BT22 | BT23A | BT23B | BT23D | BT23E | BT30X | BT31 | BT35X | BT36X | BT43<p><b>Sportscars:</b> BT5 | BT8A | BT17</td>
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Brachiosaurus
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brachiosaurus</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Dinosaurs.htm">Dinosaurs</a></h3>
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<dd><i>For the extinct amphibian see</i> <!--del_lnk--> Branchiosaurus.</dl>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Brachiosaurus</b></i><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: <!--del_lnk--> Late Jurassic - <!--del_lnk--> Early Cretaceous</small></center>
</th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2067.jpg.htm" title="Brachiosaurus (Giraffatitan) brancai"><img alt="Brachiosaurus (Giraffatitan) brancai" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brachiosaurus-brancai_jconway.jpg" src="../../images/20/2067.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i>Brachiosaurus (<!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan) brancai</i></small></div>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center">Extinct (<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a>)</div>
</td>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Sauropsid">Sauropsida</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dinosauria<br />
</td>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Saurischia.htm" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sauropodomorpha.htm" title="Sauropodomorpha">Sauropodomorpha</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Infraorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sauropoda<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brachiosauridae<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Brachiosaurus</b></i><br /><small>Riggs, 1903</small></td>
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</td>
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<th>
<center>Species</center>
</th>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i>B. altithorax</i> (<!--del_lnk--> type)<li><i>?B. (<!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan) brancai</i></ul>
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<p><i><b>Brachiosaurus</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˌbrækiəˈsɔrəs/</span>) meaning "Arm Lizard", from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <b>brachion/βραχιων</b> meaning 'arm' and <b>sauros/σαυρος</b> meaning 'lizard', was a genus of <!--del_lnk--> sauropod <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> which lived during the Late <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <!--del_lnk--> Period.<p>It was thus named because its forelimbs were longer than its hind limbs. One of the largest animals ever to walk the earth, it has become one of the most famous of all dinosaurs and is widely recognised worldwide.<p>For many decades, <i>Brachiosaurus</i> was the <!--del_lnk--> largest dinosaur known. It has since been discovered that a number of giant <!--del_lnk--> titanosaurians (<i><!--del_lnk--> Argentinosaurus</i>, for example) surpassed <i>Brachiosaurus</i> in terms of sheer mass. More recently, another <!--del_lnk--> brachiosaurid, <i><a href="../../wp/s/Sauroposeidon.htm" title="Sauroposeidon">Sauroposeidon</a></i>, has also been discovered; based on incomplete <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a> evidence, it too is likely to have outweighed <i>Brachiosaurus</i>.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> is often considered to be the largest <a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> known from a relatively complete fossilized skeleton. However, the most complete specimens, including the <i>Brachiosaurus</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Humboldt Museum of <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> (excavated in Africa, the tallest mounted skeleton in the world), are members of the species <i>B. brancai</i> which some scientists consider to be part of a separate <!--del_lnk--> genus, <i><!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan</i>. The holotype material of the type species, <i>B. altithorax</i>. includes a sequence of seven posterior dorsal vertebrae, sacrum, proximal caudal vertebra, coracoid, humerus, femur and ribs: enough from which to estimate size.<p>Based on a complete composite skeleton, <i>Brachiosaurus</i> attained 25 <!--del_lnk--> metres (82 <!--del_lnk--> feet) in length and was probably able to raise its head about 13 metres (42 ft) above ground level. Fragmentary material from larger specimens indicates that it could grow 15% longer than this. Such material includes an isolated fibula HMN XV2 1340 cm in length and the brachiosaurid scapulocoracoid referred to <i><!--del_lnk--> Ultrasauros</i>.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> has been estimated to have weighed anywhere between 15 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes (<!--del_lnk--> Russell et al. 1980) and 78 tonnes (<!--del_lnk--> Colbert 1962). These extreme estimates can be discarded as that of Russell <i>et al</i>. was based on limb-bone allometry rather than a body model, and that of Colbert on an outdated and overweight model. More recent estimates based on models reconstructed from osteology and inferred musculature are in the range 32 tonnes (<!--del_lnk--> Paul 1988) to 37 tonnes (Christiansen 1997). The 15% longer specimens hinted at above would have massed 48 to 56 tonnes.<p>
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</script><a id="Discovery_and_species" name="Discovery_and_species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery and species</span></h2>
<p>The first <i>Brachiosaurus</i> was discovered in 1900 by Elmer S. Riggs, in the <!--del_lnk--> Grand River Canyon of western Colorado, in the United States.<p><a id="Brachiosaurus_species" name="Brachiosaurus_species"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i><b>Brachiosaurus</b></i> species</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2068.jpg.htm" title="The front leg bone of a Brachiosaurus."><img alt="The front leg bone of a Brachiosaurus." height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brachiosaurus_leg_bone.jpg" src="../../images/20/2068.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2068.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The front leg bone of a <i>Brachiosaurus</i>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> includes three known species:<ul>
<li><i>B. alataiensis</i> <!--del_lnk--> de Lapparent & <!--del_lnk--> Zbyszewski, <!--del_lnk--> 1957 has been referred to the new genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Lusotitan</i> (Antunes and Mateus 2003). It is known from back bones (<!--del_lnk--> vertebrae), and parts of the <!--del_lnk--> hip and limbs, which were recovered in <!--del_lnk--> Estremadura, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>. It lived about 150 <!--del_lnk--> million years ago, during the <!--del_lnk--> Kimmeridgian <!--del_lnk--> age of the Late <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <!--del_lnk--> period.<li><i>B. altithorax</i> <!--del_lnk--> Riggs, <!--del_lnk--> 1903: The <!--del_lnk--> type species is known from two partial skeletons recovered in <!--del_lnk--> Colorado and <!--del_lnk--> Utah in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. It lived from 145 to 150 million years ago, during the Kimmeridgian to <!--del_lnk--> Tithonian ages.<li><i>?B. nougaredi</i> de Lapparent, <!--del_lnk--> 1960: While it may not be a distinct species (<i>nomen dubium</i>?) it is known from set of fused bones over the hip (<i><!--del_lnk--> sacrum</i>) and parts of a forelimb, which were recovered in <!--del_lnk--> Wargla, <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. It lived 100 to 110 million years ago, during the Albian to Cenomanian ages of the middle <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period.</ul>
<p>The best specimens of <i>Brachiosaurus</i> were from the species <i>B. brancai</i>, which was found in the <!--del_lnk--> Tendaguru Beds of <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, in Africa in 1909 by Werner Janensch. In 1991, <!--del_lnk--> George Olshevsky placed them in a new genus, <i>Giraffatitan</i>, because they do not share the <!--del_lnk--> derived characteristics of <i>Brachiosaurus</i>. <i>Giraffatitan</i> has <!--del_lnk--> withers over its shoulder, and a rounded crest over its nostrils.<ul>
<li><i>Giraffatitan brancai</i> <!--del_lnk--> Janensch, <!--del_lnk--> 1914 (formerly <i>B. brancai</i>): The new <!--del_lnk--> type species, it is known from five partial skeletons, including at least three <!--del_lnk--> skulls and some limb bones, which were recovered in <!--del_lnk--> Mtwara, Tanzania, in Africa. It lived from 145 to 150 million years ago, during the Kimmeridgian to Tithonian ages of the Late Jurassic period.</ul>
<p><a id="Description_and_environment" name="Description_and_environment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description and environment</span></h2>
<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> was a <!--del_lnk--> sauropod, one of a group of <!--del_lnk--> four-legged, <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">plant-eating</a> dinosaurs with long <!--del_lnk--> necks and <!--del_lnk--> tails and relatively small <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brains</a>. Unlike other <!--del_lnk--> families of sauropods, it had a <a href="../../wp/g/Giraffe.htm" title="Giraffe">giraffe</a>-like build, with long forelimbs and a very long neck. <i>Brachiosaurus</i> had <i>spatulate</i> <!--del_lnk--> teeth (resembling chisels), well-suited to its herbivorous diet. Its skull featured a number of holes, probably aiding weight-reduction. The first <!--del_lnk--> toe on its front foot and the first three toes on its hind feet were <!--del_lnk--> clawed.<p><a id="Skull" name="Skull"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Skull</span></h3>
<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> has traditionally been characterised by its distinctive high-crested skull, but many scientists now assign the specimen which this depiction was based on to the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan</i>.<p>One complete <i>Brachiosaurus</i> skull is known. <!--del_lnk--> Marsh used it on his early reconstructions of <i><!--del_lnk--> Brontosaurus</i>. Carpenter and Tidwell studied it in 1998 and found that it belonged to one of the North American <i>Brachiosaurus</i> species. The skull of <i>Brachiosaurus</i> is more <i><a href="../../wp/c/Camarasaurus.htm" title="Camarasaurus">camarasaur</a></i>-like than the distinctive high-crested skull of <i>Giraffatitan</i> and it lends support to the opinion that <i>Giraffatitan</i> is a distinct genus.<p><a id="Metabolism" name="Metabolism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Metabolism</span></h3>
<p>Like other "long-necked" dinosaurs, <i>Brachiosaurus</i> may not have been able to pump sufficient oxygenated blood from its heart to its brain if it raised its head high above its shoulders, though this is disputed by some researchers.<p>If the <i>Brachiosaurus</i> was <!--del_lnk--> endothermic (warm-blooded), it would have taken an estimated ten years to reach full size. If it were instead <!--del_lnk--> poikilothermic (cold-blooded), then it would have required over 100 years to reach full size. As a warm-blooded animal, the daily energy demands of <i>Brachiosaurus</i> would have been enormous; it would probably have needed to eat more than 400 lb. (~200 kg) of food per day. If <i>Brachiosaurus</i> was fully cold-blooded or was a passive <!--del_lnk--> bulk endotherm, it would have needed far less food to meet its daily energy needs.<p><a id="Environment_and_behaviour" name="Environment_and_behaviour"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Environment and behaviour</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2069.jpg.htm" title="Brachiosaurus at the Dino Jaws exhibition - Natural History Museum, London."><img alt="Brachiosaurus at the Dino Jaws exhibition - Natural History Museum, London." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brachiosaurus_Animatronic_model_NHM2.jpg" src="../../images/20/2069.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2069.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Brachiosaurus</i> at the <i>Dino Jaws</i> exhibition - <!--del_lnk--> Natural History Museum, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>.</div>
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<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> was one of the largest dinosaurs of the <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> era; it lived on prairies filled with <a href="../../wp/f/Fern.htm" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bennettites, <!--del_lnk--> horsetails and it moved through vast <!--del_lnk--> conifer forests, groves of <!--del_lnk--> cycads, <!--del_lnk--> Seed ferns, and <!--del_lnk--> Ginkgos. Some of its contemporary genera included <i><a href="../../wp/s/Stegosaurus.htm" title="Stegosaurus">Stegosaurus</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dryosaurus</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apatosaurus.htm" title="Apatosaurus">Apatosaurus</a></i>, and <i><a href="../../wp/d/Diplodocus.htm" title="Diplodocus">Diplodocus</a></i>. While it is speculated that groups of <i>Brachiosaurus</i> moved in herds, fully grown individuals had little to fear from even the largest predators of the time, <i><a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" title="Allosaurus">Allosaurus</a></i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Torvosaurus</i>, on account of their sheer size.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> <!--del_lnk--> nostrils, like the huge corresponding nasal openings in its skull, were long thought to be located on the top of the head. In past decades, scientists theorised that the animal used its nostrils like a <!--del_lnk--> snorkel, spending most of its time submerged in water in order to support its great mass. The current consensus view, however, is that <i>Brachiosaurus</i> was a fully <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial animal. Studies have demonstrated that <!--del_lnk--> water pressure would have prevented the animal from breathing effectively while submerged and that its feet were too narrow for efficient aquatic use. Furthermore, new studies by Larry Witmer (2001) show that, while the nasal openings in the skull were placed high above the eyes, the nostrils would still have been close to the tip of the snout (a study which also lends support to the idea that the tall "crests" of brachiosaurs supported some sort of fleshy resonating chamber).<p><a id="Berlin.27s_G._brancai_and_Chicago.27s_high_flyer" name="Berlin.27s_G._brancai_and_Chicago.27s_high_flyer"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Berlin's <i>G. brancai</i> and Chicago's high flyer</span></h2>
<p>A <i>Brachiosaurus</i> skeleton is mounted in the B Concourse of <!--del_lnk--> United Airlines' Terminal One in <!--del_lnk--> O'Hare International Airport in <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, courtesy of the <!--del_lnk--> Field Museum of Natural History of Chicago. It is a model, not a collection of fossils.<p>A famous specimen of <i><!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan brancai</i> mounted in Berlin, sometimes considered a species or sub-genus of <i>Brachiosaurus</i>, is one of the largest mounted skeletons in the world.<p>Beginning in 1909, Werner Janensch found many additional brachiosaur specimens in Tanzania, Africa, including some nearly complete skeletons, which were widely used in <i>Brachiosaurus</i> reconstructions. These are now considered to be <i><!--del_lnk--> Giraffatitan</i> fossils.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> appeared in two of the three <i><!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Park</i> movies. In the first movie they are seen when the scientists land on the island. Later, the herd interacts with some people in a tree. In <i><!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Park III</i>, another herd is seen on <!--del_lnk--> Isla Sorna, first from the view of an airplane and later from a boat.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> is also featured in the <!--del_lnk--> Vivendi Universal game, <!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> appeared in the <a href="../../wp/w/Walt_Disney.htm" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a> movie <i>Dinosaur</i>. Only one was shown, an older <!--del_lnk--> female who was the last of her kind.<p><i>Brachiosaurus</i> appeared briefly in the second episode of <!--del_lnk--> Walking with Dinosaurs to show the great achievements of <!--del_lnk--> sauropods.<p>There were two brachiosaurs in the <!--del_lnk--> Power Rangers series. The first was the Carrierzord Titanus in <!--del_lnk--> Mighty Morphin Power Rangers season 1, who also appeared three times in season 3. It also provided the power source for the <!--del_lnk--> Black Ranger in <!--del_lnk--> Power Rangers: Dino Thunder and, like its MMPR counterpart, functioned as a sort of carrier, providing transportation to the other <!--del_lnk--> Dinozords in its bulky body.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiosaurus"</div>
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Brahman
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<p><b>Brahman</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Devanagari: ब्रह्म ) is the concept of the <!--del_lnk--> Godhead found in <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. Brahman is the unchanging, <!--del_lnk--> infinite, <!--del_lnk--> immanent, and <!--del_lnk--> transcendent <!--del_lnk--> reality which is the Divine Ground of all things in this universe. Though its nature is transpersonal it is sometimes considered anthropomorphically as <i><!--del_lnk--> Isvara</i>, the Supreme Lord. In the <!--del_lnk--> Rig Veda, Brahman gives rise to the primordial being <!--del_lnk--> Hiranyagarbha that is equated with the creator God <!--del_lnk--> Brahmā. The <a href="../../wp/t/Trimurti.htm" title="Trimurti">trimurti</a> can thus be considered a personification of hiranyagarbha as the active principle behind the phenomena of the universe. The seers who inspired the composition of the <!--del_lnk--> Upanisads asserted that the liberated soul (<!--del_lnk--> jivanmukta) has realized his identity with Brahman as his true self (see <!--del_lnk--> Atman).<p>The word "Brahman" is derived from the verb <i>brh</i> (<a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>:to grow), and connotes greatness. The <!--del_lnk--> Mundaka Upanishad says:<blockquote>
<p>Om. That supreme <i>Brahman</i> is infinite, and this conditioned <i>Brahman</i> is infinite. The infinite proceeds from infinite. Then through knowledge, realizing the infinitude of the infinite, it remains as infinite alone.</blockquote>
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</script><a id="Conceptualization" name="Conceptualization"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conceptualization</span></h2>
<p>This Supreme Cosmic Spirit or Absolute Reality called Brahman is said to be <!--del_lnk--> eternal, genderless, <!--del_lnk--> omnipotent, <!--del_lnk--> omniscient, and <!--del_lnk--> omnipresent, and ultimately indescribable in human language. It can be at best described as infinite Being, infinite Consciousness and infinite Bliss. Brahman is regarded as the source and essence of the material universe. It is pure being. Brahman manifests as Hiranyagarbha, the "<!--del_lnk--> world soul", which also can take many forms or manifestations of the thousands of gods. It was deemed a <!--del_lnk--> singular substrate from which all that is arises, and debuts with this verse:<blockquote>
<p>"Great indeed are the <!--del_lnk--> devas who have sprung out of Brahman." — Atharva Veda</blockquote>
<p>Originally, in the earliest <!--del_lnk--> mantras of the Vedic <!--del_lnk--> Samhitas, the word Brahman probably meant pious effigies coming out of the prayers in their fire-sacrifices, and hence the actual power behind the rituals. However, as the centuries passed and the first <!--del_lnk--> Upanishads (the primary Vedantic scriptures that putatively serve as commentaries on the original liturgical books of the <!--del_lnk--> Vedas) were written, the concept of Brahman fittingly grew in scope and complexity. Soon, the ancient writers of the <!--del_lnk--> Upanishads insisted that Brahman, in addition to being material, efficient, formal and final causes of the cosmos, was also utterly <i>beyond</i> all four senses of origin. Essentially, it is also beyond being and non-being alike, and thus does not quite fit with the usual connotations of the word <i><a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a></i> and even the concept of <!--del_lnk--> monism. For this reason, some authors use the word 'Godhead' for Brahman, to distinguish it from the usual usage of the word 'God'. It is said that Brahman cannot be known by material means, that we cannot be made conscious <i>of</i> it, because Brahman <i>is</i> our very consciousness. Brahman(Ryke) is also not restricted to the usual dimensional perspectives of being, and thus enlightenment, <!--del_lnk--> moksha, <!--del_lnk--> yoga, <!--del_lnk--> samadhi, <!--del_lnk--> nirvana, etc. do not merely mean to know Brahman, but to realise one's 'brahman-hood', to actually realise that one is and always was of Brahman nature. Indeed, closely related to the Self concept of Brahman is the idea that it is synonymous with jiva-atma, or individual souls, our <!--del_lnk--> atman (or soul) being readily identifiable with the greater soul of Brahman.<p>The Advaitic tradition rejects the above notion of an evolving definition of Brahman. It considers the Vedas to be eternal, timeless and contemporaneous with Brahman. In this tradition, the Vedas were handed down generations by vocal memorizations. Written texts of the Vedas are a relatively recent phenomenon.<p>Connected with the ritual of pre-Vedantic Hinduism, <i>Brahman</i> signified the power to grow, the expansive and self-altering process of <!--del_lnk--> ritual and <!--del_lnk--> sacrifice, often visually realised in the sputtering of flames as they received the all important <!--del_lnk--> ghee (clarified butter) and rose in concert with the <!--del_lnk--> mantras of the <!--del_lnk--> Vedas. <i>Brahmin</i> came to refer to the highest of the four <!--del_lnk--> castes, the <!--del_lnk--> Brahmins, who by virtue of their purity and priesthood are held to have such powers.<p>It is the first instance of <!--del_lnk--> monism in organized <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>. Hinduism remains the only religion with this concept. To call this concept 'God' would be imprecise. The closest interpretation of the term can be found in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Taittariya Upanishad</i> (II.1) where <i>Brahman</i> is described in the following manner: <b>satyam jnanam anantam brahman</b> - "Brahman is of the nature of truth, knowledge and infinity". Thus, <i>Brahman</i> is the origin and end of all things, material or otherwise. <i>Brahman</i> is the root source and Divine Ground of everything that exists, and does not exist in <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. It is defined as unknowable and <b>Satchidananda</b> (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Since it is <!--del_lnk--> eternal and <!--del_lnk--> infinite, it comprises the only <!--del_lnk--> truth. The goal of Hinduism, through the various <!--del_lnk--> yogas, is to realize that the soul (<i><!--del_lnk--> Atman</i>) is actually nothing but <i>Brahman</i>. The Hindu pantheon of gods is said, in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Vedas</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Upanishads</i>, to be only higher manifestations of <i>Brahman</i>. For this reason, "<b>ekam sat</b>" (all is one), and all is <i>Brahman</i>. This explains the Hindu view that "All paths lead to the one <i>Brahman</i>, though many sages [and religions] call him different things." at nakita ni chunkee c puto<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p><b>Brahman</b> or <b>brahma</b>, and similar words, have various meanings, mostly related to <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. In the correct Indian <!--del_lnk--> pronunciation, the first <i>a</i> is long or short as indicated, and the <i>h</i> is pronounced as a voiced consonant.<p>These words come from a <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <!--del_lnk--> root <i>bŗh</i> = " to swell, grow, enlarge", cognate with many <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> words such as "bulge". They all derive from the <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European root <i>*bhel-</i>, meaning "to swell" or "to grow" <!--del_lnk--> . The <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> verb <i>flāre</i> = "to blow" also comes from the same root. Some, including <!--del_lnk--> Georges Dumézil, have said that the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>flāmen</i> (= "priest") may also be cognate to <i>brahman</i>. A possible connection with the <!--del_lnk--> Semitic <!--del_lnk--> root <b>br'</b> <!--del_lnk--> ברא "create, opening" has also been suggested, but this is refuted by most linguists.<p><a id="Semantics_and_pronunciation" name="Semantics_and_pronunciation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Semantics and pronunciation</span></h2>
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<dd><i>Here the underlined vowels carry the Vedic Sanskrit</i> udātta <i><!--del_lnk--> pitch accent. It is usual to use an acute accent symbol for this purpose.</i></dl>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Vedic Sanskrit:-<ul>
<li><i>br<u>a</u>hma</i> (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), <i>br<u>a</u>hman</i> (ब्रह्मन्) (stem)(neuter <a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">gender</a>) means "growth", "development", "swelling"; and then "pious utterance", "worship", perhaps via the idea of saying during prayers and ceremonies that God or the deities are <b>great</b>. Later it came to mean the Supreme Cosmic Spirit.<li><i>brahm<u>ā</u></i> (nom.sg.), <i>brahm<u>a</u>n</i> (stem) (<!--del_lnk--> masculine <a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">gender</a>) means "priest" (compare <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>flamen</i> = "priest"). But in this sense, the neuter form's plural <b>Brahmāņi</b> was also used.</ul>
<p>In later <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> usage:-<ul>
<li><i>brahma</i> (nominative singular), <i>brahman</i> (stem) (neuter <a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">gender</a>) means the concept of the Supreme transcendent and immanent Reality or the One Godhead or Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism; this is discussed below. Also note that the word Brahman in this sense is exceptionally treated as masculine (see the <i>Merrill-Webster Sanskrit Dictionary</i>). It is called "the Brahman" in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>.<li><i>Brahmā</i> (ब्रह्मा) (nom.sg.), <i>Brahman</i> (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (<!--del_lnk--> masculine <a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">gender</a>), means the deity or <!--del_lnk--> deva <!--del_lnk--> Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the <a href="../../wp/t/Trimurti.htm" title="Trimurti">Hindu trinity</a> and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present day India.</ul>
<p>One must not confuse these with:<ul>
<li><b>brāhmaņa</b> (ब्राह्मण, masc., pronounced as /brα:h mə Ņə/ - the N being <!--del_lnk--> retroflex, which literally means "pertaining to prayer") meant a prosaic commentary on the <!--del_lnk--> Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature.<li><b>brāhmaņa</b> (masc., same pronunciation as above), meaning one of the <!--del_lnk--> Hindu priestly <!--del_lnk--> caste; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "<!--del_lnk--> Brahmin". This usage is also found in the <!--del_lnk--> Atharva Veda.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ishvara</b>, or the Supreme <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> (lit., Supreme Lord), which may be completely identified with the Supreme Truth <b>Brahman</b>, as by the <!--del_lnk--> Dvaita philosophy, or partially as a worldly manifestation of the <b>Brahman</b> having (positive) attributes.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Devas</b>, the celestial beings of Hinduism, which maybe regarded as <a href="../../wp/d/Deity.htm" title="Deity">deities</a>, demi-gods, <!--del_lnk--> spirits or <!--del_lnk--> angels. In Vedic Hinduism, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, all the devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme <b>Brahman</b>, for devotional worship. The Hindus do not literally worship 330 million separate gods. The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means "group", and "330 million devas" originally meant "33 types of divine manifestation".</ul>
<p><b>Brahm</b> is sometimes found as a variant form of <b>Brahma</b> or <b>Brahman</b>. In <a href="../../wp/h/Hindi.htm" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, one might find <b>Brahma</b> as being pronounced as /brəm hə/, and consequesntly <b>BrāhmaNa</b> as /brα:m həN/.<p><a id="Brahman_and_Atman" name="Brahman_and_Atman"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Brahman and Atman</span></h2>
<p>Philosopher mystics of the <!--del_lnk--> Upanishads identify Brahman, the world soul, with <!--del_lnk--> Atman, the inner essence of the human being also known as "MICROSOULSPARK of BRAHMAN; ATMAN is what we call as individual's or the human soul. The Ultimate Truth is expressed as <!--del_lnk--> Nirguna Brahman, or LORD Or BOSS of all "GODS". NIRGUNA means formless, attributeless, MEGASOUL aka "SPIRIT" only. While <!--del_lnk--> Advaita philosophy considers Brahman to be without any form, qualities, or attributes, Dvaita philosophy understands nir-<!--del_lnk--> guna as without <i>material</i> form or without bad qualities.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Dvaita, <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu is Brahman since the followers stress a personal God. Advaita, on the other hand, considers all personal forms of God including Vishnu and <!--del_lnk--> Shiva as different aspects of God in personal form or God with attributes, <!--del_lnk--> Saguna Brahman.<p>According to some, God's energy is personified as <!--del_lnk--> Devi, the Divine Mother. For <!--del_lnk--> Vaishnavites who follow <!--del_lnk--> Ramunjacharaya's philosophy, Devi is <!--del_lnk--> Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads with Vishnu for mankind who is entrenched in sin. For <!--del_lnk--> Gaudiya Vaishnavas she is <!--del_lnk--> Radha. For <!--del_lnk--> Shaivites, Devi is <!--del_lnk--> Parvati. For <!--del_lnk--> Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the personal form of God to attain the impersonal Absolute, God. For them, Shiva is personified as God without attributes. See this <!--del_lnk--> Hinduism Today article.<p>The phrase that is seen to be the only possible (and still thoroughly inadequate) description of Brahman that <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>, with limited minds and being, can entertain is the <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i>Sacchidānanda</i>, which is <!--del_lnk--> combined from <i>sat-chit-ānanda</i>, meaning "being - consciousness - bliss".<p><a id="Enlightenment_and_Brahman" name="Enlightenment_and_Brahman"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Enlightenment and Brahman</span></h2>
<p>While Brahman lies behind the sum total of the objective universe, some human minds boggle at any attempt to explain it with only the tools provided by reason. Brahman is beyond the senses, beyond the mind, beyond intelligence, beyond imagination. Indeed, the highest idea is that Brahman is beyond both existence and non-existence, transcending and including time, causation and space, and thus can never be <i>known</i> in the same material sense as one traditionally 'understands' a given concept or object.<p>Imagine a person who is blind from birth and has not seen anything. Is it possible for us to explain to him the meaning of the colour red. Is any amount of thinking or reasoning on his part ever going to make him understand the sensation of the colour red? In a similar fashion the idea of Brahman cannot be explained or understood through material reasoning or any form of human communication. Brahman is like the colour red; those who can sense it cannot explain or argue with those who have never sensed it.<p>Brahman is considered the all pervading consciousness which is the basis of all the animate and inanimate entities and material. (<i>brahmano hi pratisthaham</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Bhagavad Gita 14.27)<p><a id="Advaita_concept" name="Advaita_concept"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Advaita concept</span></h3>
<p>The universe is not just conscious, but it <i>is</i> consciousness, and this consciousness is Brahman. Human consciousness has forgotten its identity, that of Brahman, as if a drop of water from a vast ocean thought itself separate, and that the only path to merge back into that Brahman or supreme consciousness is through the paths of devotion, moral living, following the <!--del_lnk--> eight-fold path of Ashtanga Yoga <!--del_lnk--> meditation, often expressed in various systems of spiritual practices known as <!--del_lnk--> yogas.<p>If one seeks Brahman via true knowledge, Atman seeks truth and accepts it no matter what it is. Atman accepts all truths of the self/ego, and thus is able to accept the fact that it is not separate from its surroundings. Then Atman is permanently absorbed into Brahman and become one and the same with it. This is how one forever escapes rebirth.<p>In Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is without attributes and strictly impersonal. It can be best described as <i>infinite Being, infinite Consciousness and infinite Bliss</i>. It is pure knowledge itself, similar to a source of infinite radiance. Since the Advaitins regard Brahman to be the Ultimate Truth, so in comparison to Brahman, every other thing, including the material world, its distinctness, the individuality of the living creatures and even Ishvara (the Supreme Lord) itself are all untrue. Brahman is the effulgent cause of everything that exists and can possibly exist. Since it is beyond human comprehension, it is without any attributes, for assigning attributes to it would be distorting the true nature of Brahman. Advaitins believe in the existence of both Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman, however they consider Nirguna Brahman to be the absolute supreme truth.<p>When man tries to know the attributeless Brahman with his mind, under the influence of an illusionary power of Brahman called <!--del_lnk--> Maya, Brahman becomes God (<!--del_lnk--> Ishvara). God is Brahman under Maya. The material world also appears as such due to Maya. God is Saguna Brahman, or Brahman with attributes. He is omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, Creator of the world, its ruler and also destroyer. He is eternal and unchangeable. He is both immanent and transcedent, as well as full of love and justice. He may be even regarded to have a personality. He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and giver of the fruits of one's <!--del_lnk--> Karma. He rules the world with his Maya. However, while God is the Lord of Maya and she (ie, Maya) is always under his control, living beings (jīva, in the sense of humans) are the servants of Maya (in the form of ignorance). This ignorance is the cause of all material experiences in the mortal world. While God is Infinite Bliss, humans, under the influence of Maya consider themselves limited by the body and the material, observable world. This misperception of Brahman as the observed Universe results in human emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger and fear. The Ultimate reality remains Brahman and nothing else. The Advaita equation is simple. It is due to Maya that the one single Atman (the individial soul) appears to the people as many Atmans, each in a single body. Once the curtain of maya is lifted, the Atman is <b>exactly equal</b> to the Brahman. Thus, due to true knowledge, an individual loses the sense of ego (Aham-kara) and achieves liberation, or <!--del_lnk--> Moksha. Also see <!--del_lnk--> Advaita Vedanta.<p><a id="VisishtAdvaita" name="VisishtAdvaita"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">VisishtAdvaita</span></h3>
<p>The concept of Brahman in VisishtAdvaita consists of an inseparable triad of Ishwara-Chit-Achit. Ishwara, the Supreme Self (ParamAtman)is the indwelling spirit (Antaryami) in all. Both the Chit (sentient objects) and Achit (insentient object) entities are pervaded and permeated by Ishwara.<p>The key identifier of Brahman in VisishtAdvaita is as the Antaryami (i.e. the In-dwelling spirit in all there is). The relationship between Ishwara-Chit-Achit is understood by two ideas.<p>1. The Sarira-Sariri Concept<p>Ishwara has the Chit (JIvAtman) and Achit (Prakriti, Jagat) entities for his body and being the Supreme Self, exercises complete control over it.<p>2. Substance-Attribute Concept<p>Ishwara is the substance and the Jiva and Prakriti are his modes (or) attributes. An attribute cannot have an existence independent of an underlying substance. The substance-attribute idea establishes an uninterrupted, non-reciprocal relationship between Ishwara and two modes<p><a id="Dvaita" name="Dvaita"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dvaita</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Vedanta Sutra 3.2.23 states, "The form of Brahman is unmanifest, so the scriptures say" (<i>tat avyaktam aha</i>). The next sutra adds, "But even the form of Brahman becomes directly visible to one who worships devoutly - so teach the scriptures" (<i>api samradhane pratyaksa anumanabhyam</i>) .<p>Dvaita schools argue against the Advaita idea that upon attaining liberation one realizes that God is formless since this idea is contradicted by Vedanta Sutra 3.2.16: "The scriptures declare that the form of the Supreme consists of the very essence of His Self" (<i>aha ca tanmatram</i>). And furthermore Vedanta Sutra 3.3.36 asserts that within the realm of Brahman the devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a city (<i>antara bhuta gramavat svatmanah</i>) .<p>They identify the personal form of God indicated here as the transcendental form of Vishnu or Krishna (see <!--del_lnk--> Vaishnavism). The brahma-pura (city within Brahman) is identified as the divine realm of Vishnu known as <!--del_lnk--> Vaikuntha. This conclusion is corroborated by the <!--del_lnk--> Bhagavata Purana, written by <!--del_lnk--> Vyasa as his own "natural commentary" on Vedanta-sutra. The first verse of Bhagavata Purana begins with the phrase "I offer my respectful obeisances to Bhagavan Vasudeva, the source of everything" (<i>om namo bhagavate vasudevaya janmadyasya yatah</i>). Vyasa employs the words "janmadyasya yatah", which comprise the second sutra of the Vedanta Sutra, in the first verse of the Bhagavata Purana to establish that Krishna is Brahman, the Absolute Truth. This is clear testimony of the author's own conclusion about the ultimate goal of all Vedic knowledge.<p>
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<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman"</div>
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Brain
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brain</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
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<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>, the <b>brain</b>, or <i>encephalon</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek for "in the head"), is the control centre of the <!--del_lnk--> central nervous system. In most animals, the brain is located in the head, protected by the <!--del_lnk--> skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of <!--del_lnk--> vision, <!--del_lnk--> hearing, <!--del_lnk--> taste and <!--del_lnk--> olfaction. In humans, it is an organ of <!--del_lnk--> thought. While all <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> have a brain, <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> have either a centralized brain or collections of individual <!--del_lnk--> ganglia. Brains can be extremely complex. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> human brain contains more than 100 billion <!--del_lnk--> neurons, each linked to as many as 10,000 others.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17126.jpg.htm" title="A sketch of the human brain by artist Priyan Weerappuli, imposed upon the profile of Michaelangelo's David"><img alt="A sketch of the human brain by artist Priyan Weerappuli, imposed upon the profile of Michaelangelo's David" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Davidbrain.JPG" src="../../images/171/17126.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between <!--del_lnk--> grey matter and <!--del_lnk--> white matter. Gray matter consists of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers (<!--del_lnk--> axons) that connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a <!--del_lnk--> fatty <!--del_lnk--> insulating sheath called <!--del_lnk--> myelin, giving the white matter its distinctive colour. The outer layer of the brain is gray matter called <!--del_lnk--> cerebral cortex. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter (<!--del_lnk--> fasciculi, fibre tracts), gray matter (<!--del_lnk--> nuclei) and spaces filled with <!--del_lnk--> cerebrospinal fluid (<!--del_lnk--> ventricles) are found.<p>The brain innervates the <!--del_lnk--> head through <!--del_lnk--> cranial nerves, and it communicates with the <!--del_lnk--> spinal cord, which innervates the body through <!--del_lnk--> spinal nerves. Nervous fibers transmitting signal from the brain are called <!--del_lnk--> efferent fibers. The fibers transmitting signals to the brain are called <!--del_lnk--> afferent (or sensory) fibers. Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of fibers).<p>The brain controls a wide variety of functions. It is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components as <!--del_lnk--> cognition, <!--del_lnk--> perception, <!--del_lnk--> attention, <!--del_lnk--> memory and <a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" title="Emotion">emotion</a>. The brain is also responsible for control of <!--del_lnk--> posture and <!--del_lnk--> movements. It makes possible cognitive, <!--del_lnk--> motor and other forms of <!--del_lnk--> learning. The brain can perform a variety of functions automatically, without the need for <!--del_lnk--> conscious awareness, such as coordination of <!--del_lnk--> sensory systems (eg. <!--del_lnk--> sensory gating and <!--del_lnk--> multisensory integration), <!--del_lnk--> walking, and <!--del_lnk--> homeostatic body functions such as <!--del_lnk--> heart rate, <!--del_lnk--> blood pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature.<p>Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and <!--del_lnk--> spinal cord. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple <!--del_lnk--> reflexes and basic <!--del_lnk--> locomotion, can be executed under spinal cord control alone.<p>The brain undergoes transitions from <!--del_lnk--> wakefulness to <a href="../../wp/s/Sleep.htm" title="Sleep">sleep</a> (and subtypes of these states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge consolidation). Each brain state is associated with characteristic <!--del_lnk--> brain waves.<p><!--del_lnk--> Neurons are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas <!--del_lnk--> Glial cells perform supporting function. Brain cell metabolism consumes considerable amounts of energy. In addition to being electrically active, neurons constantly synthesise neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their properties (guided by <!--del_lnk--> gene expression) under the influence of their input signals. This <!--del_lnk--> plasticity underlies <!--del_lnk--> learning and <!--del_lnk--> adaptation.<p>The study of the brain is known as <!--del_lnk--> neuroscience, a field of <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a> aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the <!--del_lnk--> molecular up to the <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychological</a>. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as <!--del_lnk--> biological psychology. This field of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it assesses different parts of the body.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>Early human views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late <!--del_lnk--> Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the <!--del_lnk--> heart that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, during the first step of mummification: ‘The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.’ Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in “memorizing something by heart”.<p>The first thoughts of the field of <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychology</a> actually came from ancient philosophers, including <a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. After philosophers have become more in tune with medical research over time, the idea of psychology had developed. From that point, different branches of <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychology</a> emerged with different individuals creating new theories. For example, <!--del_lnk--> Evolutionary Psychology was created with theories by <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>.<p><a id="Mind_and_brain" name="Mind_and_brain"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mind and brain</span></h2>
<p>A distinction is often made in the <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy_of_mind.htm" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> between the <a href="../../wp/m/Mind.htm" title="Mind">mind</a> and the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading to the <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy_of_mind.htm" title="Mind-body problem">mind-body problem</a>. The brain is defined as the physical and biological <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> contained within the <!--del_lnk--> skull, responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as beliefs or desires. Some believe that the mind exists in some way independently of the brain, such as in a <!--del_lnk--> soul or <!--del_lnk--> epiphenomenon. Others, such as <!--del_lnk--> strong AI theorists, say that the mind is directly analogous to <!--del_lnk--> computer software and the brain to <!--del_lnk--> hardware.<p><a id="Comparative_anatomy" name="Comparative_anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Comparative anatomy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17128.jpg.htm" title="A mouse brain."><img alt="A mouse brain." height="107" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mouse_brain.jpg" src="../../images/171/17128.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the <a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (<a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>), the <!--del_lnk--> cephalopods (<!--del_lnk--> octopuses, <!--del_lnk--> squids, and similar <!--del_lnk--> mollusks), and the <!--del_lnk--> craniates (<a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>). The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large <i>optical lobes</i> behind each <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eye</a> for visual processing.<p>The brain of craniates develops from the <!--del_lnk--> anterior section of a single dorsal <!--del_lnk--> nerve cord, which later becomes the <!--del_lnk--> spinal cord. In craniates, the brain is protected by the <!--del_lnk--> bones of the <!--del_lnk--> skull. In vertebrates, increasing <!--del_lnk--> complexity in the <!--del_lnk--> cerebral cortex correlates with height on the <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic and <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary tree. Primitive vertebrates such as <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> amphibians have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the <!--del_lnk--> allocortex (or heterotypic cortex).<p>More complex vertebrates such as <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> have a six-layered <!--del_lnk--> neocortex (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex. In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds are called <!--del_lnk--> gyri, while the spaces between the folds are called <!--del_lnk--> sulci.<p>Although the general <!--del_lnk--> histology of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross <!--del_lnk--> embryological divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species.<p><a id="Invertebrates" name="Invertebrates"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Invertebrates</span></h3>
<p>In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli. The protocerebrum contains the <!--del_lnk--> mushroom bodies, which respond to <!--del_lnk--> smell, and the central body complex. In some <!--del_lnk--> species such as <a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" title="Bee">bees</a>, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the <!--del_lnk--> antennal lobes, which are similar to the mammalian <!--del_lnk--> olfactory bulb, and the mechanosensory <!--del_lnk--> neuropils which receive information from <!--del_lnk--> touch receptors on the head and <!--del_lnk--> antennae. The antennal lobes of <!--del_lnk--> flies and <!--del_lnk--> moths are quite complex.<p>In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass, separated by the <!--del_lnk--> esophagus. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes. The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain.<p><a id="Vertebrates" name="Vertebrates"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vertebrates</span></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17129.jpg.htm" title="The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (red), temporal (green), occipital (yellow), and parietal lobes (orange). The cerebellum (blue) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used."><img alt="The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (red), temporal (green), occipital (yellow), and parietal lobes (orange). The cerebellum (blue) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used." height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brain-anatomy.jpg" src="../../images/171/17129.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17129.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the <!--del_lnk--> frontal (red), <!--del_lnk--> temporal (green), <!--del_lnk--> occipital (yellow), and <!--del_lnk--> parietal lobes (orange). The <a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> (blue) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> telencephalon (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the <!--del_lnk--> metencephalon is the highest centre in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the <!--del_lnk--> brain stem and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences.<p>Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement, and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the <!--del_lnk--> pons. The cerebrum and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> each have two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the <!--del_lnk--> corpus callosum, another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the <!--del_lnk--> olfactory bulb is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small.<p>Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by <!--del_lnk--> bilaterally symmetrical <!--del_lnk--> encephalization. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fibre tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<p><a id="Vertebrate_brain_regions" name="Vertebrate_brain_regions"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Vertebrate brain regions</span></h4>
<p>(<i>See related article at <!--del_lnk--> List of regions in the human brain</i>)<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17130.png.htm" title="Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures."><img alt="Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures." height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EmbryonicBrain.png" src="../../images/171/17130.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17130.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the <!--del_lnk--> embryonic vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.</div>
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<p>According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, <a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">chordate</a> brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Myelencephalon<li><!--del_lnk--> Metencephalon</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mesencephalon (midbrain)<li><!--del_lnk--> Prosencephalon (forebrain) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Diencephalon<li><!--del_lnk--> Telencephalon</ul>
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<p>The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Limbic system<li><!--del_lnk--> Sensory systems<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Visual system<li><!--del_lnk--> Olfactory system<li><!--del_lnk--> Gustatory system<li><!--del_lnk--> Auditory system<li><!--del_lnk--> Somatosensory system</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Motor system<li><!--del_lnk--> Associative areas</ul>
<p><a id="Humans" name="Humans"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Humans</span></h4>
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<p>The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the <!--del_lnk--> prefrontal cortex—is larger than in all other <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>.<p>Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of <!--del_lnk--> parallel processing.<p><a id="Neurobiology" name="Neurobiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Neurobiology</span></h2>
<p>The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, <!--del_lnk--> neurons and <!--del_lnk--> glia, both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form <!--del_lnk--> neural networks (or <!--del_lnk--> neural ensembles). These networks are similar to man-made <!--del_lnk--> electrical circuits in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons. These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of <!--del_lnk--> perception, different types of action, and higher cognitive function.<p><a id="Histology" name="Histology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Histology</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17132.jpg.htm" title="Diagram of basic features of a neuron."><img alt="Diagram of basic features of a neuron." height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Neuron.jpg" src="../../images/171/17132.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17132.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of basic features of a neuron.</div>
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<p>Neurons are the cells that generate <a href="../../wp/a/Action_potential.htm" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells.<p>In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire <!--del_lnk--> nervous system. Exceptions include the <!--del_lnk--> oligodendrocytes which myelinate neural <!--del_lnk--> axons (a role performed by <!--del_lnk--> Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. <!--del_lnk--> White matter in the brain is myelinated neurons, while <!--del_lnk--> grey matter contains mostly cell <!--del_lnk--> soma, <!--del_lnk--> dendrites, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> neuropil.<p>In mammals, the brain is surrounded by <!--del_lnk--> connective tissues called the <!--del_lnk--> meninges, a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the <!--del_lnk--> dura mater, <!--del_lnk--> arachnoid mater, and <!--del_lnk--> pia mater. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains <!--del_lnk--> cerebrospinal fluid, a substance that protects the nervous system. <!--del_lnk--> Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the <!--del_lnk--> blood-brain barrier which protects the brain from <!--del_lnk--> toxins that might enter through the blood.<p>The brain is bathed in <!--del_lnk--> cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called <!--del_lnk--> ventricles. It is important both chemically for <!--del_lnk--> metabolism and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 <!--del_lnk--> kg. The <!--del_lnk--> mass and <!--del_lnk--> density of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the physical <!--del_lnk--> stress caused by the brain’s mass.<p><a id="Function" name="Function"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Function</span></h3>
<p>Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the <!--del_lnk--> cranial nerves) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain.<p>Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. <!--del_lnk--> Visual, touch, and <!--del_lnk--> auditory sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the <!--del_lnk--> thalamus and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each <!--del_lnk--> sensory system. The <!--del_lnk--> visual system, the <!--del_lnk--> auditory system, and the <!--del_lnk--> somatosensory system. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the <!--del_lnk--> olfactory system. <!--del_lnk--> Taste is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the <!--del_lnk--> gustatory system.<p>To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the <!--del_lnk--> motor cortex, <a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> basal ganglia. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone.<p>Brains also produce a portion of the body's <!--del_lnk--> hormones that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the <!--del_lnk--> pituitary gland.<p>It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and <!--del_lnk--> limbic functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain.<p>Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as <!--del_lnk--> attention. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the <!--del_lnk--> fight-or-flight response mediated by the <!--del_lnk--> amygdala and other limbic structures.<p><a id="Brain_pathology" name="Brain_pathology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brain pathology</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17133.jpg.htm" title="A human brain showing frontotemporal lobar degeneration causing frontotemporal dementia."><img alt="A human brain showing frontotemporal lobar degeneration causing frontotemporal dementia." height="172" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg" src="../../images/171/17133.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17133.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> human brain showing <!--del_lnk--> frontotemporal lobar degeneration causing frontotemporal dementia.</div>
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<p>Clinically, <!--del_lnk--> death is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling (<a href="../../wp/e/Edema.htm" title="Edema">edema</a>) than by the impact itself. <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">Stroke</a>, caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage.<p>Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. <!--del_lnk--> Neurodegenerative diseases, such as <a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Parkinson's disease, <!--del_lnk--> motor neurone disease, and <a href="../../wp/h/Huntington%2527s_disease.htm" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a> are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. <!--del_lnk--> Mental illnesses, such as <!--del_lnk--> clinical depression, <a href="../../wp/s/Schizophrenia.htm" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bipolar disorder, and <!--del_lnk--> post-traumatic stress disorder are brain diseases that impact <!--del_lnk--> personality and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by <!--del_lnk--> psychiatric therapy, <!--del_lnk--> pharmaceutical intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals.<p>Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viruses</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. Infection of the <!--del_lnk--> meninges, the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to <a href="../../wp/m/Meningitis.htm" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> and humans and is linked to <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">prions</a>. <a href="../../wp/k/Kuru_%2528disease%2529.htm" title="Kuru (disease)">Kuru</a> is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to avoid <!--del_lnk--> cannibalism. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in <a href="../../wp/m/Multiple_sclerosis.htm" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Parkinson's disease, <a href="../../wp/l/Lyme_disease.htm" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>, <!--del_lnk--> encephalopathy, and <!--del_lnk--> encephalomyelitis.<p>Some brain disorders are <!--del_lnk--> congenital. <a href="../../wp/t/Tay-Sachs_disease.htm" title="Tay-Sachs disease">Tay-Sachs disease</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Fragile X syndrome, and <a href="../../wp/d/Down_syndrome.htm" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> are all linked to <!--del_lnk--> genetic and <!--del_lnk--> chromosomal errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic <!--del_lnk--> development of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, by <!--del_lnk--> drug use, and <!--del_lnk--> disease during a mother's <!--del_lnk--> pregnancy.<p>Certain brain disorders are treated by brain surgeons (neurosurgeons) while others are treated by neurologists and psychiatrists.<p><a id="Study_of_the_brain" name="Study_of_the_brain"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Study of the brain</span></h2>
<p><a id="Fields_of_study" name="Fields_of_study"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fields of study</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and <!--del_lnk--> computational perspective. <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> seeks to understand behaviour and the brain. The terms <!--del_lnk--> neurology and psychiatry usually refer to <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medical</a> applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. <!--del_lnk--> Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a> (<!--del_lnk--> artificial intelligence and similar fields) and <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<p><a id="Methods_of_observation" name="Methods_of_observation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Methods of observation</span></h3>
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<p><a id="Electrophysiology" name="Electrophysiology"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Electrophysiology</span></h4>
<p>Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons.<p><a id="EEG" name="EEG"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">EEG</span></h4>
<p>By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as <!--del_lnk--> electroencephalography (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity.<p><a id="fMRI_and_PET" name="fMRI_and_PET"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">fMRI and PET</span></h4>
<p>Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in <!--del_lnk--> blood flow in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on <b>BOLD</b>; <b>B</b>lood <b>O</b>xygen <b>L</b>evel <b>D</b>ependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occurs in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent various neuronal activities. Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor <!--del_lnk--> glucose metabolism in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region.<p><a id="Behavioral" name="Behavioral"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Behavioural</span></h4>
<p>Behavioural tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, <!--del_lnk--> lesion, or <!--del_lnk--> tumor within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord.<p><a id="Anatomical" name="Anatomical"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomical</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Autopsy analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. <!--del_lnk--> Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine.<p><a id="Other_methods" name="Other_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Other methods</span></h4>
<p>Attempts have also been made to directly "read" the brain, which has been accomplished in a rudimentary manner through a brain-computer interface. Brain activity can be detected by implanted electrodes, raising the possibility of direct mind-computer interface. The reverse method has been successfully demonstrated: <!--del_lnk--> brain implants have been used to generate artificial hearing and (crude and experimental) artificial vision for deaf and blind people. <!--del_lnk--> Brain pacemakers are now commonly used to regulate brain activity in conditions such as Parkinson's disease.<p><a id="Other_matters" name="Other_matters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other matters</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">Computer scientists</a> have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. <!--del_lnk--> Artificial intelligence seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success.<p>Creating <a href="../../wp/a/Algorithm.htm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> tools of <!--del_lnk--> chaos theory and <!--del_lnk--> dynamical systems. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence.<p><a id="Brain_as_food" name="Brain_as_food"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Brain as food</span></h2>
<p>Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_United_States.htm" title="Southern United States">southern United States</a> canned <!--del_lnk--> pork brain in <!--del_lnk--> gravy can be purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with <!--del_lnk--> scrambled eggs to produce the famous "<!--del_lnk--> Eggs n' Brains". The brain of animals also features in <!--del_lnk--> French cuisine such as in the dish <i>[tête de veau]</i>, or <i>head of calf</i>. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and <!--del_lnk--> jaw, the full meal includes the brain, <!--del_lnk--> tongue, and <!--del_lnk--> glands, with the latter form being the favorite food of <!--del_lnk--> French President <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Chirac. Similar delicacies from around the world include <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> tacos de sesos</i> made with cattle brain as well as <!--del_lnk--> squirrel brain in the US South. The Anyang tribe of <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> practiced a tradition in which a new <!--del_lnk--> tribal chief would consume the brain of a hunted <a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a> while another senior member of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tribe.htm" title="Tribe">tribe</a> would eat the heart.. <!--del_lnk--> Indonesian cuisine specialty in <!--del_lnk--> Padang cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk named <!--del_lnk--> gulai otak (beef brain curry).<p>Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The first problem is that the brain is made up of 60% fat due to the myelin (which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia. As an example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol, 1170% of our recommended daily intake.<p>Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal <!--del_lnk--> transmissible spongiform encephalopathies such as Variant <!--del_lnk--> Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">prion</a> diseases in humans and <!--del_lnk--> mad cow disease in cattle. Another prion disease called <a href="../../wp/k/Kuru_%2528disease%2529.htm" title="Kuru (disease)">kuru</a> has been traced to a funerary ritual among the <!--del_lnk--> Fore people of <a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of <!--del_lnk--> immortality. Some <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> Neanderthals also involved the consumption of the brain.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"</div>
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['Animal', 'Vertebrate', 'Invertebrate', 'Cell (biology)', 'Emotion', 'Sleep', 'Biology', 'Psychology', 'Herodotus', 'Psychology', 'Aristotle', 'Psychology', 'Charles Darwin', 'Philosophy of mind', 'Mind', 'Mind-body problem', 'Matter', 'Arthropod', 'Insect', 'Crustacean', 'Vertebrate', 'Eye', 'Fish', 'Reptile', 'Mammal', 'Bee', 'Cerebellum', 'Cerebellum', 'Chordate', 'Animal', 'Action potential', 'Cerebellum', 'Edema', 'Stroke', "Alzheimer's disease", "Huntington's disease", 'Schizophrenia', 'Virus', 'Bacteria', 'Meningitis', 'Cattle', 'Prion', 'Kuru (disease)', 'Multiple sclerosis', 'Lyme disease', 'Tay-Sachs disease', 'Down syndrome', 'Psychology', 'Medicine', 'Computer science', 'Philosophy', 'Protein', 'Computer science', 'Algorithm', 'Mathematics', 'Southern United States', 'Mexico', 'Cameroon', 'Gorilla', 'Tribe', 'Prion', 'Kuru (disease)', 'Papua New Guinea', 'Archaeology', 'Europe']
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Bran
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<p><b>Bran</b> is the hard outer layer of <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Cereal">cereal</a> grains, and consists of combined <!--del_lnk--> aleurone and <!--del_lnk--> pericarp. Along with <!--del_lnk--> germ, it is an integral part of <!--del_lnk--> whole grains, and is often produced as a <!--del_lnk--> by-product of milling in the production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, they lose a portion of their nutritional value. Bran is present in and may be milled from any cereal grain, including <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oat">oats</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> millet.<p>Bran is particularly rich in <!--del_lnk--> dietary fibre, and contains significant quantitities of <!--del_lnk--> starch, <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fat, <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> dietary minerals. <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oat">Oat</a> bran, alone or as a part of <!--del_lnk--> oatmeal, has been shown to reduce the risk of <!--del_lnk--> coronary heart disease when part of an overall diet that is low in <!--del_lnk--> saturated fat and <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> <!--del_lnk--> Food and Drug Administration now allows manufacturers to make specific <!--del_lnk--> health claims to that effect on food packaging<!--del_lnk--> . Wheat bran (<i>miller's bran</i>) is very effective in treating <!--del_lnk--> constipation.<p>Bran is often used to enrich <a href="../../wp/b/Bread.htm" title="Bread">breads</a> (notably <!--del_lnk--> muffins) and <!--del_lnk--> breakfast cereals, especially for the benefit of those wishing to increase their intake of dietary fibre. Bran may also be used for <!--del_lnk--> pickling, as in the <!--del_lnk--> tsukemono of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<p>Rice bran finds particularly many uses in Japan, where it is known as <i>nuka</i> (糠; ぬか). Besides using it for pickling, Japanese people also add it to the <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> when <!--del_lnk--> boiling <!--del_lnk--> bamboo shoots, and use it for <!--del_lnk--> dish washing. In <!--del_lnk--> Kitakyushu City, it is called <i>Jinda</i> and used for stewing fish, such as <!--del_lnk--> sardine.<p>Rice bran is a by-product of the rice milling process, and it contains various antioxidants that impart beneficial effects on human health. It is well known that a major rice bran fraction contains 12%-13% oil and highly unsaponifiable components (4.3%). This fraction contains tocotrienol, gamma-oryzanol, and beta-sitosterol; all these constituents may contribute to the lowering of the plasma levels of the various parameters of the lipid profile. Rice bran also contains a high level of dietary fibers (beta-glucan, pectin, and gum). In addition, it also contains 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid (ferulic acid), which may also be a component of the structure of non-lignified cell walls.<p>The high oil content of bran makes it subject to <!--del_lnk--> rancidification, one of the reasons that is often separated from the grain before storage or further processing. The bran itself can be heat-treated to increase its longevity<!--del_lnk--> .<p>Eating foods rich in bran became somewhat of a health craze in the late <!--del_lnk--> 1970s and early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, with massive promotion of bran cereals and <!--del_lnk--> granola. In the late <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, there was the "<!--del_lnk--> oat bran craze," with oat products in all shapes and sizes flooding the market (including <!--del_lnk--> potato chips with oat bran added), claiming to lower blood <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol and fight <!--del_lnk--> heart disease. This craze peaked in <!--del_lnk--> 1989 and was short-lived, as studies in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1990s showed that oat bran only modestly reduced cholesterol. However, in January <!--del_lnk--> 1997, the <!--del_lnk--> Food and Drug Administration decided (with some controversy) that food with a lot of oat bran or rolled oats can carry a label claiming it may reduce the risk of heart disease, when combined with a low-fat diet. As of <!--del_lnk--> 2005, this fact still appears on many <!--del_lnk--> oatmeal packages.<p>Recently rice bran fraction derived from Driselase treatment prevents high blood pressure, hyperlipidemia, and hyperglycemia <!--del_lnk--> . Driselase is a commercial plant cell wall-degrading enzyme mixture containing cellulase, xylanase, and laminarinase; however, it is esterase-free.<p><b>Bran oil</b> may be also extracted for use by itself for industrial purposes (such as in the paint industry<!--del_lnk--> ), or as a <!--del_lnk--> cooking oil, such as <!--del_lnk--> rice bran oil.<p>Bran is widely used as a major component in pet foods for <a href="../../wp/r/Rabbit.htm" title="Rabbit">rabbits</a> and <!--del_lnk--> guinea pigs.<p>Bran is also known to absorb large amounts of water and expand, which has led some to claim that bran helps lead to satiety by filling up the stomach with added volume.<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:489377-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061128123846 -->
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Brandon_Routh
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; background-color:#ed8; color:#000;"><b>Brandon Routh</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Image:Brouth1.jpg<br />
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<td style="text-align:left;"><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td>Brandon James Routh</td>
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<td width="85px"><b>Born</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1979 (age 27)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Des Moines, Iowa</td>
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<td><b>Height</b></td>
<td>6' 2.5" (189 cm)</td>
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<td><b>Notable roles</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a> in <i>Superman Returns</i><br />
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<p><b>Brandon James Routh</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> October 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1979) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a> and former fashion model. He grew up in <!--del_lnk--> Iowa before moving to <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles to pursue an acting career, and subsequently appeared on several television series throughout the early 2000s. In 2004, he was cast in the lead role in the 2006 film <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i>. Brandon Routh is currently dating Shannon Smith.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3>
<p>Routh, the third of four children, was born in <!--del_lnk--> Des Moines, <!--del_lnk--> Iowa to Katie, a teacher, and Ron Routh, a carpenter; both of his parents play <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> in their spare time and his sister, Sara Routh, is a singer. Routh's family, which is <!--del_lnk--> Methodist, has <!--del_lnk--> German, <!--del_lnk--> French, <!--del_lnk--> English and <!--del_lnk--> Native American ancestry. Routh grew up in <!--del_lnk--> Norwalk, Iowa, which was located approximately 100 miles south of <!--del_lnk--> Woolstock, the hometown of <!--del_lnk--> George Reeves, the second actor to play <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>. During his childhood, Routh thought that a full-time acting career was unrealistic, citing his small-town background. In his spare time, he played the <a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" title="Trumpet">trumpet</a> and the <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a>. Routh attended Norwalk High School, where he played sports and participated in music and theatre. He describes himself as a "momma's boy" and not "the most popular kid" during his school years. Routh has also noted that during his younger years, he was fond of the <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a> films and comic books.<p>Routh attended the <!--del_lnk--> University of Iowa for a year, aspiring to be a writer. During this time, he starred in several productions at the Norwalk Theatre of Performing Arts, and modelled and acted in order to earn his tuition fee. Routh has said that he was always told that he bore a physical resemblance to <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Reeve, who had previously portrayed <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>. His former manager signed him on because of the resemblance, telling him that he thought Routh would be cast as Superman if there was another film in the series.<p><a id="Early_career" name="Early_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early career</span></h3>
<p>In 1999, Routh left the University and moved to <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> and then <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles, where he pursued a full-time acting career, first appearing as an extra in <a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" title="Christina Aguilera">Christina Aguilera</a>'s music video for "<!--del_lnk--> What a Girl Wants". He was cast in his first major role in 1999, in an episode of the short-lived <!--del_lnk--> ABC television series, <i>Odd Man Out</i>. In 2000, he had a four-episode role on the third season of <!--del_lnk--> MTV's nighttime soap opera, <i><!--del_lnk--> Undressed</i>. Routh subsequently appeared on the <!--del_lnk--> WB's <i><!--del_lnk--> Gilmore Girls</i> (in a February 2001 episode, "Concert Interupptus", playing an attendee of a <!--del_lnk--> Bangles concert), and earned steady work on the <!--del_lnk--> soap opera <i><!--del_lnk--> One Life to Live</i>, playing Seth Anderson from <!--del_lnk--> May 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 until <!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2002.<p>Routh's later primetime credits include guest roles on <!--del_lnk--> CBS's <i><!--del_lnk--> Cold Case</i>, <!--del_lnk--> NBC's <i><!--del_lnk--> Will & Grace</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Fox's short-lived series, <i><!--del_lnk--> Oliver Beene</i>. During this time, he worked as a <!--del_lnk--> bartender at a popular <!--del_lnk--> bowling alley in Hollywood, Lucky Strike Lanes, and shared an apartment with his sister.<p><a id="Superman_role" name="Superman_role"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Superman role</span></h3>
<p>Prior to Routh's casting as <a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros. had spent over a decade developing a plan to relaunch the <!--del_lnk--> franchise, with possible stars including name actors <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Cage (who had at one point signed on to the role), <!--del_lnk--> Josh Hartnett, <!--del_lnk--> Brendan Fraser, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Walker, <!--del_lnk--> James Marsden, <!--del_lnk--> Ashton Kutcher and planned directors including <!--del_lnk--> Tim Burton, <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Smith, <!--del_lnk--> Wolfgang Petersen, <!--del_lnk--> McG, <!--del_lnk--> Brett Ratner and <!--del_lnk--> Shekhar Kapur. When director <!--del_lnk--> Bryan Singer came aboard the project, however, he insisted that an unknown actor be cast in the part, in the tradition of the casting of the best-known film Superman, <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Reeve.<p>Routh, then 25, had previously already auditioned for director McG and was spotted by Singer after he viewed Routh's videotaped audition. Singer, who since noted Routh as being the embodiment of "our collective memory of Superman", was impressed by his resemblance to the comic book icon and found the actor's humble <!--del_lnk--> Mid-western roots perfect for the role, as well as his "combination of vulnerability and confidence" that Singer said reminded him of Christopher Reeve. Singer decided to cast Routh after the two met on <!--del_lnk--> August 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, but did not tell Routh until two months later, when Routh's casting was announced in October 2004, making him an "instant celebrity". Before filming began, Routh bulked-up for the role, gaining 22 pounds to reach approximately 215 pounds. Filming for <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i> began in <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> in February 2005. The film was released in the U.S. on <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. Routh has already signed on to appear in two potential sequels to the film.<p>Routh has commented that he feared his performance would too closely resemble that of <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Reeve. Routh has said that he hopes to "remind people of Christopher while at the same time making them feel like they're seeing a totally new Superman". Reviews of Routh's performance are generally positive, with <i><!--del_lnk--> Newsweek</i> noting that he "effortlessly lays claim to the iconic role". On the other hand, film critic <!--del_lnk--> Roger Ebert noted that he thinks "Routh lacks charisma as Superman, and I suppose as <!--del_lnk--> Clark Kent, he isn't supposed to have any".<p>A video interview with Routh talking about the Superman role with <!--del_lnk--> Scottish TV can be found <!--del_lnk--> here.<p><a id="Personal_life" name="Personal_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Personal life</span></h3>
<p>Routh has been dating <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a>-born actress <!--del_lnk--> Courtney Ford since 2004. The two met at Lucky Strike Lanes bowling alley during Routh's period of employment there. Routh and Ford, who live in Los Angeles together as of 2006, both appeared in <i>Denial</i>, a short film that played at a Las Vegas film festival. In August of 2006, Routh's spokeswoman, Kacey Spies, confirmed that Routh and Ford were engaged. They plan to marry next autumn.<p>Routh has known actor <!--del_lnk--> Kal Penn, a co-star in <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i>, for several years during the time he lived in Los Angeles. Routh and Penn were both also featured in the <!--del_lnk--> The Lonely Island's <i><!--del_lnk--> Awesometown</i> MTV pilot <!--del_lnk--> music video.<p>Routh's sister, Sara, has a musical track entitled "You're Never Gone" on <i><!--del_lnk--> Sound of Superman</i>, the companion soundtrack of the film.<p>Routh is a fan and player of the <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_and_video_games.htm" title="Computer and video games">video game</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> World of Warcraft</i>.<p><a id="Salary" name="Salary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Salary</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2006) - $1,000,000</ul>
<p><a id="Filmography" name="Filmography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Filmography</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns: The Video Game</i> (2006)...<!--del_lnk--> Clark Kent/<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i> (2006)...<!--del_lnk--> Clark Kent/<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Denial (2006) [Updated Nov. 2006 - Purchase at iTunes]</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Karla (2006)...Tim Peters</i></ul>
<p><a id="Television" name="Television"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Television</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Batman</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2006)...The <!--del_lnk--> Everywhere Man<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oliver Beene</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2004)...Brian<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Will & Grace</i> (2004)...Sebastian<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cold Case</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2003)...Young Henry Phillips<li><i><!--del_lnk--> One Life To Live</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2001-<!--del_lnk--> 2002)...Seth Anderson<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Gilmore Girls</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2001)..."Hot" College Student<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Undressed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1999)...Wade<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Odd Man Out</i> (1999)...Connor Williams</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Routh"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brass instrument</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_Instruments.htm">Musical Instruments</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/46/4605.jpg.htm" title="Image of a trumpet, foreground, a piccolo trumpet behind, and a flugelhorn in background."><img alt="Image of a trumpet, foreground, a piccolo trumpet behind, and a flugelhorn in background." class="thumbimage" height="338" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trumpets02262006.jpg" src="../../images/46/4605.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/46/4605.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Image of a <a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" title="Trumpet">trumpet</a>, foreground, a <!--del_lnk--> piccolo trumpet behind, and a <!--del_lnk--> flugelhorn in background.</div>
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<p>A <b>brass instrument</b> is a <a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">musical instrument</a> whose tone is produced by vibration of the lips as the player blows into a tubular <!--del_lnk--> resonator (mouthpiece). They are also called <i>labrosones</i>, literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments" (Baines, 1993).<p>To effectively change pitch on a valved brass instrument, two things come into play: the pressing of valves to effectively change the length of the tubing, and the player's lip aperture or "embouchure" setting, which determines the frequency of the pulsed air or vibrations into the instrument.<p>The view of most scholars (see <!--del_lnk--> organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of <!--del_lnk--> brass. Thus, as exceptional cases one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the <!--del_lnk--> alphorn, the <!--del_lnk--> cornett, and the <!--del_lnk--> serpent, while many of <!--del_lnk--> woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the <a href="../../wp/s/Saxophone.htm" title="Saxophone">saxophone</a>.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Families_of_brass_instruments" name="Families_of_brass_instruments"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Families of brass instruments</span></h2>
<p>Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families:<ul>
<li><b>Valved</b> brass instruments use a set of valves (typically 3 or 4 but as many as 7 or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the <a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" title="Trumpet">trumpet</a>, <!--del_lnk--> horn, <!--del_lnk--> euphonium, and <!--del_lnk--> tuba, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> cornet, <!--del_lnk--> flügelhorn, <!--del_lnk--> baritone horn, <!--del_lnk--> sousaphone, <!--del_lnk--> mellophone, and the old <!--del_lnk--> saxhorn. As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves. Rotary valves are the norm for the <!--del_lnk--> horn and are also prevalent on the <!--del_lnk--> tuba.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Slide</b> brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the <!--del_lnk--> trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a>. The trombone family's ancestor the <!--del_lnk--> sackbut and the folk instrument <!--del_lnk--> bazooka are also in the slide family.</ul>
<p>There are two other families that have now become functionally obsolete for practical purposes, though instruments of both types are sometimes used for <!--del_lnk--> period-instrument performances of Baroque- or Classical-era pieces.<ul>
<li><b>Natural</b> brass instruments, where the player can only play notes in the instrument's <!--del_lnk--> harmonic series, for example the <!--del_lnk--> bugle. The <a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" title="Trumpet">trumpet</a> was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the <!--del_lnk--> horn before about 1820. Natural instruments are still played for some ceremonial functions, as well as period performances.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Keyed or Fingered</b> brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a <!--del_lnk--> woodwind instrument. These included the <!--del_lnk--> cornett, <!--del_lnk--> serpent, <!--del_lnk--> ophicleide and <!--del_lnk--> keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments.</ul>
<p><a id="Some_other_wind_instruments" name="Some_other_wind_instruments"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Some other wind instruments</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alphorn (<a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Conch (<!--del_lnk--> shell)<li><!--del_lnk--> Didgeridoo (<a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Natural horn<li><!--del_lnk--> Shofar (<!--del_lnk--> horn)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vladimirsky rozhok (<a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wagner tuba</ul>
<p><a id="Valves" name="Valves"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Valves</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/46/4614.png.htm" title="Piston valve"><img alt="Piston valve" class="thumbimage" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kinkangakki_piston.png" src="../../images/46/4614.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/46/4614.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Piston valve</div>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/46/4617.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Slide</div>
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<p>As noted above, valves allow brass players to change pitches. When pressed, each valve changes the pitch by diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating (it is possible, though rare, for this behaviour to be reversed, i.e., that pressing the valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one). The additional tubing usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable.<p>The two major types of valves are <i><!--del_lnk--> rotary valves</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> piston valves</i>. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>. The <i>Stölzel valve</i> (invented by <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the <i>Vienna valve</i> was an improved design. However most professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 19th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments.<p>Valves are employed in combination to play different notes. One scheme for deciding what valve does what has become a universal standard. The following list shows how each valve or combination of valves will affect the pitch from a given partial; this is true of all modern brass instruments.<ul>
<li>second valve - one half step<li>first valve - one whole step<li>first and second valves - one and a half steps. This is also achievable by third valve alone but the note will usually be flat (see below).<li>second and third valves - two whole steps<li>first and third valves - a <!--del_lnk--> perfect fourth, or two and a half steps. This combination will be noticeably sharp unless some means of <i>compensation</i> is used.<li>first, second, and third valves - a <!--del_lnk--> tritone, or three whole steps. Will be very sharp unless some means of compensation is used.</ul>
<p>Note that the mentioned tuning deficiencies are unavoidable; they are inherent in the construction of the instrument (see below).<p>In most trumpets and cornets, the <i>"compensation"</i> must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb, to lower the pitch of 1-3 and 1-2-3 combinations. These notes on the trumpet and cornet for example, are ones that use these fingerings, such as low D, low C♯, and low F♯. So chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method.<p>In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, and piccolo trumpets, that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used partly to compensate for the sharpness of the final two valve combinations (4 for 1-3, 2-4 for 1-2-3). Of course, the other three valves can be used as normal to lower the pitch in combination with the fourth valve, so a fourth valve also extends the instrument's range downward by a perfect fourth, though with increasingly severe <!--del_lnk--> intonation problems.<p>When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.<p>To correct for these problems, manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches, whose respective merits are subject to debate:<p><a id="Compensation_system" name="Compensation_system"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Compensation system</span></h3>
<p>In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire.<p>The compensating system was applied to French horns to serve a different purpose. It was used to allow a double horn in F and B flat to ease playing difficulties in the high register. In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing in coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B-flat horn. A later "full double" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight.<p><a id="Additional_valves" name="Additional_valves"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Additional valves</span></h3>
<p>Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being the norm on CC- and BB♭-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.<p>Compensating double French horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less.<p><a id="Additional_sets_of_slides_on_each_valve" name="Additional_sets_of_slides_on_each_valve"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Additional sets of slides on each valve</span></h3>
<p>Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. There used to be euphoniums and tubas built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments - except <!--del_lnk--> French horns for which it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.<p><a id="Trigger_mechanism" name="Trigger_mechanism"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Trigger mechanism</span></h3>
<p>A mechanical lever is provided to pull out the main tuning slide or a valve slide. This mechanism is used to aid intonation on notes that are naturally out of tune in a specific register of the instrument, it allows for speedy adjustment whilst playing and is sprung in such a way to that it returns to its original position after operation. Some examples of instruments that utilize the trigger are:<p><a id="Cornet" name="Cornet"></a><h5><span class="mw-headline">Cornet</span></h5>
<p>Triggers are often found on the first and third valves. They are used to adjust the lower D, Ab, G and Gb in particular along with the higher D, F, and Bb. Due to the mechanics of the trigger it can often get stuck, and a "throw" (similar to trigger but without a spring) is preferred.<p><a id="Trumpet" name="Trumpet"></a><h5><span class="mw-headline">Trumpet</span></h5>
<p>Similar to the cornet, however third valve slides are not as common- a throw is almost always used on the third slide as, due to its slightly augmented length, failure of the mechanism is common.<p><a id="Euphoniums" name="Euphoniums"></a><h5><span class="mw-headline">Euphoniums</span></h5>
<p>A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on the tuning slide, to aid intonation on the F, F# and G.<p><a id="Sound_production_in_brass_instruments" name="Sound_production_in_brass_instruments"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Sound production in brass instruments</span></h2>
<p>Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the <!--del_lnk--> prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the <!--del_lnk--> harmonic at which the instrument's column of air will vibrate. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see <!--del_lnk--> embouchure). Brass players call each harmonic a "partial" because it causes only a part of the tubing to vibrate (whereas at the fundamental the entire tubing will vibrate).<p>Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable <!--del_lnk--> mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. <a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" title="Trumpet">Trumpets</a> are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while <!--del_lnk--> horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.<p>One interesting difference between a <!--del_lnk--> woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a woodwind instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.<p><a id="Materials" name="Materials"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Materials</span></h2>
<p>Brass instruments are normally made of <!--del_lnk--> brass, <!--del_lnk--> polished and then <!--del_lnk--> lacquered to prevent <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>. Some quality instruments use <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a> plating to prevent corrosion.<p>They have also been constructed from other alloys containing significant amounts of <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> or <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>. These alloys are all biostatic because of the <!--del_lnk--> oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of <!--del_lnk--> molds, <!--del_lnk--> fungi or <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. Horns constructed of <!--del_lnk--> stainless steel and <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminum">aluminium</a> do not sound bad, but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play.<p>Most quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce <!--del_lnk--> galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing. This design may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, <!--del_lnk--> sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs. Some instruments use several such features.<p><a id="Didactics" name="Didactics"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Didactics</span></h2>
<p>Children may start to learn a brass instrument as soon as all their <!--del_lnk--> permanent teeth have arrived, usually at age 11. It is possible to start earlier, but while the teeth are still changing the embouchure will need occasional adjustment, and pressure on the lips and teeth may have undesirable effects.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_instrument"</div>
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['Trumpet', 'Musical instrument', 'Saxophone', 'Trumpet', 'Jazz', 'Trumpet', 'Wood', 'Wood', 'Australia', 'Wood', 'Russia', '19th century', 'Trumpet', 'Corrosion', 'Gold', 'Copper', 'Silver', 'Bacteria', 'Aluminum']
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Brasília
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brasília</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.htm">Central & South American Geography</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>Brasília</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> Image:Brasiliaaa.jpg</span></div><small>Brasília skyline</small></td>
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<center><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2071.png.htm" title="Official flag of Brasília"><img alt="Official flag of Brasília" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bandeira_do_Distrito_Federal.svg" src="../../images/20/2071.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></center>
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<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2072.gif.htm" title="Official seal of Brasília"><img alt="Official seal of Brasília" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DF_brasao.gif" src="../../images/20/2072.gif" width="100" /></a></td>
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<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Flag</b></small></td>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2073.png.htm" title="Location of Brasília"><img alt="Location of Brasília" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brazil_State_DistritoFederal.svg" src="../../images/20/2073.png" width="135" /></a></span></div><small>Location of Brasília</small></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller; padding-bottom: 0.7em;">Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 15°46′S 47°55′W</span></th>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Country</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> State</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Distrito Federal</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Governor</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maria de Lourdes Abadia</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>5,801,937 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>1000 <!--del_lnk--> m</td>
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<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
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<th> - City (<!--del_lnk--> 2005)</th>
<td>2,333,108</td>
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<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>353,53/km²</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UTC (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-3)</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.brasilia.df.gov.br</td>
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<p><b>Brasília</b> is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> with a population of 2,333,108 . Located in the <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Federal District, the city is famous for its <!--del_lnk--> urban planning, daring <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a> and rapid <!--del_lnk--> population growth. In <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> diacritical mark on the <!--del_lnk--> í is often omitted and the name written <b>Brasilia</b>.<p>
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</script><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2074.jpg.htm" title="Government buildings in downtown Brasília"><img alt="Government buildings in downtown Brasília" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brasilia_ProcuradoriaGeral.jpg" src="../../images/20/2074.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2074.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Government buildings in downtown Brasília</div>
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<p>Brasília is in a Federal District, created by <!--del_lnk--> Juscelino Kubitschek within the <!--del_lnk--> state of <!--del_lnk--> Goiás. The District is bordered by the Preto River to the east and by the Descoberto River to the west. Brasília is situated on Planalto Central, a 1000 m high <!--del_lnk--> plateau. Brasília is 207 km from <!--del_lnk--> Goiânia, 1,531 km from <!--del_lnk--> Salvador, 930 km from <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, 716 km from <!--del_lnk--> Belo Horizonte and 1,015 km from <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<p>Brasília has dry winters and wet summers. During the dry season, the <!--del_lnk--> relative humidity of the air reaches critical levels during the hottest times of the day. Maximum temperatures average 28°C (82°F). During the dry season the temperature decreases and can reach daily lows of 13°C (55°F) in July. Maximum averages of 25°C (77°F) are the norm.<p>The average temperature is 20.5°C (69°F). The hottest month is September, with an average high of 28°C (82°F) and an average low of 16°C (61°F). The coolest month is July, with an average high of 25°C (75°F) and an average low of 13°C (55°F). The monthly difference between the average high is around 3°C (35°F) and the average low 5°C (39°F).<p>The absolute minimum registered was 0.5°C (33°F) and the maximum absolute 34.1°C (93°F).<p><a id="Government" name="Government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government</span></h2>
<p>The federal district has an autonomous government and legislative powers, but the judiciary is upheld by the Union. The District Governor is elected directly for a 4-year term. Local laws are issued by a legislative assembly also elected by the local population. The district also has the status of a federal state in many aspects. It has representatives both in the Lower House of Congress (Câmara Federal) and in the national Senate.<p>Moreover, Brasília is home to the country's federal government. The executive branch is represented by the <!--del_lnk--> Palácio do Planalto (presidential workplace) and the various <!--del_lnk--> Ministries that are located along the <!--del_lnk--> Monumental Axis. The legislative and judicial powers are also located there.<p><a id="A_Planned_City" name="A_Planned_City"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">A Planned City</span></h2>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2085.jpg.htm" title="The National Congress in Brasília."><img alt="The National Congress in Brasília." height="311" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrasiliaBanNacional.jpg" src="../../images/20/2075.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2085.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The National Congress in Brasília.</div>
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<p>President <!--del_lnk--> Juscelino Kubitschek ordered the construction of Brasília, enacting a long-forgotten article of the country's republican constitutions stating that the capital should be relocated from <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>. Its main <!--del_lnk--> urban planner was <!--del_lnk--> Lúcio Costa. <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Niemeyer was the chief <!--del_lnk--> architect of most of the public buildings and <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Burle Marx was the <!--del_lnk--> landscape designer. The city plan was based on the ideas of <!--del_lnk--> Le Corbusier. Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to <!--del_lnk--> April 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1960 when it was officially inaugurated.<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 1763 to <!--del_lnk--> 1960, <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> was the capital of Brazil, and resources tended to be centred in Brazil's southeast region. Brasília’s geographically central location made for a more regionally neutral federal capital. The idea of placing Brazil’s capital in the interior dates back to the first republican <!--del_lnk--> constitution of <!--del_lnk--> 1891, which roughly defined where the <!--del_lnk--> federal district should be placed, but the site itself was not defined until <!--del_lnk--> 1922. Brasília’s location would promote the development of Brazil's central region and better integrate the entire territory of Brazil.<p>According to legend, in <!--del_lnk--> 1883, the Italian priest <!--del_lnk--> Don Bosco had a prophetic dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location. Today, in Brasília, there are many references to this educator who founded the <!--del_lnk--> Salesian order. One of the main cathedrals carries his name.<p><a id="Design" name="Design"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Design</span></h3>
<p>Lúcio Costa’s plan for the city was detailed and thorough. It stipulates which zones are to be residential and which are to be commercial. It limits where industries can settle, where certain buildings can be built and how tall those buildings can be, etc.<p>The basis of the plan for the city was a simple cross. In the word of Costa: the project "was born from the primary gesture of someone who signs a place of take its ownership: two axes crossing themselves in right angle, the sign of the cross, itself". <!--del_lnk--> However, the cross had to be adapted to the local topography, as there were already plans for the artificial lake, and the city gained the shape of an <!--del_lnk--> airplane.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> fuselage of the aeroplane contains the ministries, government buildings, the Senate and Chamber of Deputies and a futuristic cathedral, designed by Oscar Niemeyer. There is also a tall <!--del_lnk--> television tower, with spectacular views of the city and the lake.<p>The wings of the airplane are named the North Wing and South Wing: each is roughly seven kilometers in length. The avenue between the lake and the wings is called L4 Sul or L4 Norte, depending on which wing.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2076.jpg.htm" title="National Senate"><img alt="National Senate" height="201" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Senado2006.jpg" src="../../images/20/2076.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2076.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> National Senate</div>
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<p>A wide, high-speed avenue, called the Eixo Rodoviário, connects the two wings by passing under a central bus station, where the banking sector (Setor Bancário) and hotel sector (Setor Hoteleiro) are located. The 100s and 300s addresses are on the west side of the Eixo, and 200s and 400s are on east side. There are residential areas on these streets made up of blocks of flats, named Super Quadra Sul or Super Quadra Norte. The blocks are filled with three or six-storey buildings. Each has eleven buildings, identified by letter, with schools and churches in areas placed in between them. Commercial streets typically separate Superquadra blocks from each other.<p>There is also a zoo close to <!--del_lnk--> Brasilia's Airport with animals native to the Cerrado area. Embassies, recreational clubs and luxury homes surround the lake, and an enormous park, called the '<!--del_lnk--> Parque da Cidade' (City Park), gives much-needed space for cycling, jogging and contact with nature.<p>One major criticism of Brasília is that it was not designed on a pedestrian scale. Pedestrians were not taken much into consideration during the advent of the motor age, when the city was developed. In the original plan there were no traffic lights - all cars travelled over overpasses and through tunnels to avoid intersecting traffic. Today, with 200,000 people living in the Plano Piloto (the Pilot Plan), the plan soon became out-dated, but the city found a solution in education: thousands of pedestrian stripes were painted in every street, shortening the way of the pedestrians. A <!--del_lnk--> metro has been built recently to alleviate these problems, but there are several unfinished stations yet. A line was completed for the South Wing, which continues to the major satellite city of <!--del_lnk--> Taguatinga. Whilst public transportation is almost plentiful, the car remains popular as a means of transportation in Brasília.<p>Another criticism of Brasília is the displacement of poor residents too far away in satellite towns like <!--del_lnk--> Santa Maria, <!--del_lnk--> São Sebastião, <!--del_lnk--> Gama, <!--del_lnk--> Ceilândia and <!--del_lnk--> Sobradinho. Buses and a surface rapid transit system connect these cities to the centre. Inhabitants of these satellite towns live in conditions inferior to those of the Pilot Plan due to the habitation policy adopted by <!--del_lnk--> Governor Joaquim Roriz, in which people from other poor regions of the country were attracted to the capital in exchange for a little estate, overfilling the Federal District boundaries. When one talks of Brasília, these satellite cities are rarely taken into consideration, even though their population far surpasses that of the Pilot Plan. Still, Brasilia is the city that has the highest <!--del_lnk--> HDI in Brazil.<p>According to the original plan -- which Brasília must follow -- the city is constantly under construction.<p><!--del_lnk--> UNESCO has declared Brasília a <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.<p><a id="Nightlife" name="Nightlife"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nightlife</span></h2>
<p>Although Brasilia lacks the nightlife infra-structure and standards of other major Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, creativity has helped to combat boredom. The city hosts musical talents such as <!--del_lnk--> Legião Urbana, <!--del_lnk--> Capital Inicial and <!--del_lnk--> Cássia Eller. There are places in the city such as the "Setor de Diversões Sul", also known as Conic, next to the Pátio Brasil mall.<p><a id="Famous_people_born_in_Bras.C3.ADlia" name="Famous_people_born_in_Bras.C3.ADlia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous people born in Brasília</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Leila Barros, volleyball player<li><!--del_lnk--> Rebeca Gusmão, swimmer<li><!--del_lnk--> Kaká, footballer (current club A.C Milan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lúcio, footballer (current club Bayern Munich)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tatiana Lemos, swimmer<li><!--del_lnk--> Ana Paula Padrão, journalist<li><!--del_lnk--> Hudson de Souza, middle distance runner.,(max.5000m)<li><!--del_lnk--> Marílson Gomes dos Santos, professional athlete, winner of the <!--del_lnk--> New York City Marathon (<!--del_lnk--> 2006)</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"</div>
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Bratislava
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bratislava</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2"><big>Bratislava</big></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding: 5px"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23852.jpg.htm" title="Bratislava coat of arms"><img alt="Bratislava coat of arms" height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_erb.jpg" src="../../images/238/23852.jpg" width="128" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Region (<i>kraj</i>)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bratislava Region</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> District (<i>okres</i>)</td>
<td>Bratislava I-V</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Location</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">48°08′41″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">17°06′46″E</span></span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Altitude</td>
<td>126-514 <!--del_lnk--> m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Population</td>
<td>446,819 <small>(as of 2005)</small></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Area</td>
<td>367.59 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Time Zone<br /><font size="-2">• <!--del_lnk--> Summer DST</font></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CET: <!--del_lnk--> UTC+1<br /><!--del_lnk--> CEST: <!--del_lnk--> UTC+2</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Telephone prefix</td>
<td>+421-2</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Postal code</td>
<td>8XXXX</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Car registration plate</td>
<td>BA</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="padding: 5px"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23853.png.htm" title="Bratislava location map"><img alt="Bratislava location map" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_slovakia_bratislava.png" src="../../images/238/23853.png" width="256" /></a></td>
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<p><b>Bratislava</b> (see below for other <!--del_lnk--> names) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> and the country's largest city, with a population of some 450,000. Bratislava is the political, cultural and economic centre of Slovakia. It is the seat of the Slovak presidency, <!--del_lnk--> parliament and government as well as home to several universities, museums, theatres, galleries and other national economic, cultural and educational institutions. Most of Slovakia's large businesses and financial institutions have their headquarters in Bratislava. The city's past has been characterized by the strong influence of various peoples, including <!--del_lnk--> Slovaks, <!--del_lnk--> Germans, <!--del_lnk--> Hungarians, <!--del_lnk--> Czechs, <!--del_lnk--> Austrians and <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a>. Bratislava still retains its cosmopolitan spirit. It hosts many festivals and trade shows and it is famous for its nightlife and leisure facilities. Andrej Ďurkovský is its mayor.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>In March <!--del_lnk--> 1919 <b>Bratislava</b> was adopted as the official name. It is not known on what grounds. One theory is that the name was invented by US president <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a>, another that it might be a corruption of the old Slavic <i>Braslava</i>. However, we know for sure that a variant of this name was reconstructed by <!--del_lnk--> Pavel Jozef Šafárik (by mistake) from old names in the 1830s based on the name of the <!--del_lnk--> Bohemian ruler <!--del_lnk--> Bretislav. It was used subsequently by members of the Slovak movement in the 1840s and occasionally also afterwards.<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; border:1px solid grey; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;" width="300">
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<th align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"><big>Bratislava's names most commonly used before 1919</big></th>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Preßburg</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> (before the 19th century occasionally and since the <!--del_lnk--> German spelling reform of 1996 regularly spelled <i>Pressburg</i>)</td>
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<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Prešporok</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Slovak name; stems from the German one (one of the many variants was <i>Pressporek</i> in 1773)</td>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Prešpurk</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Czech</td>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Pressburg(h)</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Presburgo</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Pressbourg</i>later <i>Presbourg</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> (<i>rue de Presbourg</i> in <i>Paris</i>)</td>
</tr>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Presburg</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></td>
</tr>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Pozsony</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Hungarian (still in use by Hungarians today)</td>
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<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Posonium</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Požun</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Croatian, <!--del_lnk--> Serbian, <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Pozhoma</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Romani</td>
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<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Istropolis</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top">ancient <!--del_lnk--> Roman, meaning <i>the Danube City</i></td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2">
</td>
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<p><i>A more detailed list can be found in the <!--del_lnk--> History of Bratislava article</i>.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>Bratislava lies on both banks of the River <!--del_lnk--> Danube, by Slovakia's borders with <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, and is only an hour's drive from the border with the <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>. It is the only capital in the world which borders two countries. The <!--del_lnk--> Carpathian mountain range begins within the territory of the city with the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Carpathians (Slovak: <i>Malé Karpaty</i>).<p>Bratislava is only 50 km from the <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> capital <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>.<p><b>Climate</b> The city climate is mild. It is often windy with a marked variation between hot summers and cold, humid winters.<ul>
<li>annual average temperature: 9.9 °C<li>annual sunshine hours: 1976.4 (5.4 hours/day)<li>annual average rainfall: 527.4 mm <small>(according to 1993 data)</small></ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Prehistory_and_early_Middle_Ages" name="Prehistory_and_early_Middle_Ages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prehistory and early Middle Ages</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Neolithic Age: the first permanent settlement of the region now known as Bratislava begins with the <!--del_lnk--> Linear Pottery Culture<li><!--del_lnk--> 400 B.C.-<!--del_lnk--> 50 B.C.: <!--del_lnk--> Celts were settled here. From <!--del_lnk--> 125 B.C. they had an important <!--del_lnk--> oppidum (fortified town) with a <!--del_lnk--> mint here.<li><a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" title="1st century">1st century</a> – <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a>: the border of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Limes Romanus) runs right through the middle of today's town; many Roman (e.g. "Gerulata") and Germanic settlements<li><a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a>-<a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a>: first <!--del_lnk--> Slavs (500 A.D.- today) and <!--del_lnk--> Avarians (<!--del_lnk--> 560s - <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a>)</ul>
<dl>
<dd>- <!--del_lnk--> 623-<!--del_lnk--> 658: part of King <!--del_lnk--> Samo's Empire</dl>
<ul>
<li>late <a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" title="8th century">8th century</a> – <!--del_lnk--> 833: part of the <!--del_lnk--> Principality of Nitra<li><!--del_lnk--> 833 – <!--del_lnk--> 907: part of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a></ul>
<p><a name="907-1918"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">907-1918</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>From 2nd half of 10th century to <!--del_lnk--> 1918: part of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary (with short interruptions) and the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Posonium Comitatus:<li><!--del_lnk--> 1536-<!--del_lnk--> 1784: capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Hungary (whose territory consisted until 1699 of today's Slovakia and parts of today's Western Hungary, because the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Turks</a> ruled <a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Buda</a> at that time); the Kingdom of Hungary was part of the <!--del_lnk--> Habsburg (i. e. Austrian) Monarchy from <!--del_lnk--> 1526 to <!--del_lnk--> 1918<li><!--del_lnk--> 1542-<!--del_lnk--> 1848: meeting place of the Hungarian Diet (with short interruptions)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1563-<!--del_lnk--> 1830: coronation town for Hungarian kings (<!--del_lnk--> St. Martin's Cathedral (picture below))<li>since the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>: centre of the <!--del_lnk--> Slovak national movement</ul>
<p><a id="Post_WWI_.281919-present.29" name="Post_WWI_.281919-present.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Post WWI (1919-present)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1919-<!--del_lnk--> 1939: part of <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia; official new name becomes "Bratislava"- instead of "Prešporok" (<!--del_lnk--> Slovak) /"Pressburg" (<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>)/ "Pozsony" (<!--del_lnk--> Hungarian) in 1919<li><!--del_lnk--> 1939-<!--del_lnk--> 1945: capital of <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1945-<!--del_lnk--> 1992: part of <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia again:</ul>
<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> 1969-<!--del_lnk--> 1992: capital of the <!--del_lnk--> federal state of Slovakia within <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia</dl>
<ul>
<li>since <!--del_lnk--> 1993: capital of <a href="../../wp/s/Slovakia.htm" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></ul>
<p><a id="Important_events_held_in_Bratislava" name="Important_events_held_in_Bratislava"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Important events held in Bratislava</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005, February: American president <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Putin met in Bratislava for bilateral summit.</ul>
<p><a id="Landmarks" name="Landmarks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Landmarks</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23854.jpg.htm" title="Paved street in the Old Town of Bratislava"><img alt="Paved street in the Old Town of Bratislava" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_street.jpg" src="../../images/238/23854.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23854.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Paved street in the Old Town of Bratislava</div>
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</div>
<p>Bratislava is picturesquely situated on both banks of the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a>, at the base of the outlying spurs of the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Carpathians, in a position of strategic importance near the <!--del_lnk--> Devín Gate (earlier called <i>Hainburger Pforte</i> or <i>Porta Hungarica</i>). The area includes a picturesque old town centre.<p>One of the most conspicuous buildings of the town is the <!--del_lnk--> Bratislava Castle situated on a plateau 82 m above the Danube. A <!--del_lnk--> castle has existed on the site since time immemorial. It has been the <!--del_lnk--> acropolis of a <!--del_lnk--> Celtic town, part of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <!--del_lnk--> Limes Romanus, a huge Slav fortified settlement and a political, military and religious centre of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a>. A castle of stone was built only in the <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a> (part of Hungary), it was turned into a Gothic anti-<!--del_lnk--> Hussite fortress under <!--del_lnk--> Sigismund of Luxemburg in <!--del_lnk--> 1430, in <!--del_lnk--> 1562 it became a <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> castle, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1649 a <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> reconstruction took place. Under <!--del_lnk--> Queen <!--del_lnk--> Maria Theresa, the castle was turned into a prestige seat of the royal governor <!--del_lnk--> Albert von Sachsen-Teschen, the son-in-law of <!--del_lnk--> Maria Theresa, who founded the <!--del_lnk--> Albertina picture gallery in the castle, which was later moved to <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1784, when Bratislava ceased to be the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of Hungary, the castle was turned into a school for Catholic clergy, and later, in 1802, into <!--del_lnk--> barracks. In <!--del_lnk--> 1811, the castle was inadvertently destroyed by fire by the French soldiers and lay in ruins until the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s, when it was reconstructed mostly in its former <!--del_lnk--> Maria Theresa style.<p>Another castle is <!--del_lnk--> Devín Castle (now in ruins) in the borough of Bratislava-Devín. It is situated on the top of a high rock at the point where the <!--del_lnk--> March (Morava) river, which forms the boundary between Austria and Slovakia, reaches the Danube. It is one of the most important Slovak archaeological sites and has been – thanks to its excellent location – a very important frontier castle of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a> and the early Hungarian state. It was destroyed by Napoleonic troops in <!--del_lnk--> 1809 and is an important symbol of Slovak and Slavic history.<p>Yet another castle, built in <!--del_lnk--> 1813 and turned into an <!--del_lnk--> English Gothic style castle in the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, is situated in the borough of Bratislava-<!--del_lnk--> Rusovce, otherwise known for ruins of Roman <i>Gerulata</i> settlements.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23855.jpg.htm" title="A street in the Old Town"><img alt="A street in the Old Town" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_square.jpg" src="../../images/238/23855.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23855.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A street in the Old Town</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Other noteworthy buildings are:<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23856.jpg.htm" title="City Museum"><img alt="City Museum" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_%28building%29.jpg" src="../../images/238/23856.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23856.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> City Museum</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Martin's Cathedral (a Gothic edifice of the 14th-15th century replacing an older church from the 13th century) in which many of the Hungarian kings were crowned<li><!--del_lnk--> Bratislava's Town hall (a complex of 14th-15th century buildings) containing an interesting museum – the City Museum founded in 1868<li><!--del_lnk--> Bratislava's Franciscan church, dating from 1297<li>the building of the University Library (erected in 1756) where the sittings of the Diet (parliament) of the Kingdom of Hungary were held from 1802 to 1848 and many important laws of the Hungarian Reform Era were enacted (liberation of serfs, foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences).<li>the Primate's Palace (erected in 1781) in which the (4th) <!--del_lnk--> Peace of Pressburg was signed<li>the beautiful <!--del_lnk--> Slovak National Theatre (built in 1886), and<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Michael's Gate (early 17th century), the only extant gate of the municipal fortification<li>the narrowest house in central (or maybe in the whole of) Europe (just behind the Michael's Gate)<li>the 18th century house of the composer <!--del_lnk--> Johann Nepomuk Hummel who was born in the town.<li><!--del_lnk--> Nový Most Bratislava is a bridge across the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a> river, featuring a <!--del_lnk--> UFO-like tower restaurant<li><!--del_lnk--> Kamzik TV Tower is a TV tower of unique design with an observation deck</ul>
<p>The historic centre is characterized by many <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> palaces. The <!--del_lnk--> Grassalkovich Palace (built around 1760), for example, is now the residence of the Slovak president, and the Slovak government now has its seat in the former <!--del_lnk--> Archiepiscopal palace, the former summer residence of the archbishop of <!--del_lnk--> Esztergom).<p>A curiosity is the underground restored portion of the Jewish cemetery where Rabbi <!--del_lnk--> Moses Sofer is buried. (See article on Sofer).<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;" width="300">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"><big>Demographics</big></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3">data derived from the 2001 census</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Population</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top">428,672 inhabitants</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Population by districts</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top">Bratislava I 44,798, Bratislava II 108,139, Bratislava III 61,418, Bratislava IV 93,058, Bratislava V 121,259</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Average age</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top">38.7 years</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Age structure</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top">0–5: 4.1%, 6–14: 9.8%, Working age: 62.9%, Retirement age: 19%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Ethnic groups</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Slovaks 391,761 (91.4%), <!--del_lnk--> Hungarians 16,451 (3.8%), <!--del_lnk--> Czechs 7,972 (1.9%), <!--del_lnk--> Moravians 635, <!--del_lnk--> Ruthenes 461, <!--del_lnk--> Ukrainians 452, <!--del_lnk--> Germans 1 200, <!--del_lnk--> Croats 614, <!--del_lnk--> Roma 417, <!--del_lnk--> Poles 339</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"><i>Religion</i></th>
<td colspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholics 243,048 (56.7%), <!--del_lnk--> Atheists 125,729 (29.3%), <!--del_lnk--> Lutherans of the Augsburg Confession 24,810 (6%), <!--del_lnk--> Greek Catholics 3,163 (0.7%), <!--del_lnk--> Reformed Christians 1,918, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox 1,616, <!--del_lnk--> Jehovah's Witnesses 1,827, <!--del_lnk--> Methodist Protestants 737, <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a> 700, <!--del_lnk--> Baptists 613</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="1">
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> economy of Bratislava is prosperous and mainly based on services, engineering (<!--del_lnk--> Volkswagen), chemical and electrical industry.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> GDP per capita (<!--del_lnk--> PPP), which was valued at €25,351 (2002), reaches 120% of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">EU</a> average, which is the second highest level (after <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>) of all regions in all the recently joined countries (<!--del_lnk--> Eurostat; for the latest Eurostat data, see: <!--del_lnk--> )<p>In recent years <!--del_lnk--> service and <!--del_lnk--> high-tech oriented businesses are thriving in Bratislava. Many global companies, including <!--del_lnk--> IBM, <!--del_lnk--> Dell, <!--del_lnk--> Accenture, <a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lenovo and <!--del_lnk--> SAP to name a few, are building their <!--del_lnk--> outsourcing and service centers here.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Its geographical position has always made Bratislava a natural crossroads for trade traffic. There is a large international motorway junction (<!--del_lnk--> D1/<!--del_lnk--> D2/<!--del_lnk--> D4 - all form the <!--del_lnk--> Bratislava bypass) and railroad junction, <i><!--del_lnk--> International Airport of Milan Rastislav Štefánik</i> with rapidly growing traffic, and a busy <!--del_lnk--> river port. Furthermore, the <!--del_lnk--> Vienna International Airport is located only 40 km away, in <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, providing a large international network.<p>Public transportation in Bratislava is run by <!--del_lnk--> Dopravný podnik Bratislava, the city-owned company. There are three types of transport vehicles used in Bratislava including buses (covering the most of the city and the largest district of <!--del_lnk--> Petržalka), trams (covering the most frequent commuter trips and connecting city centre with suburbs) and trolleybuses (connecting city centre with suburbs and serving as a complementary mean of transport).<p><a id="Territorial_division" name="Territorial_division"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Territorial division</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23857.png.htm" title="Bratislava districts"><img alt="Bratislava districts" height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_parts.png" src="../../images/238/23857.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23857.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bratislava districts</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>5 <i>districts</i> (for the purpose of national administrative division):</ul>
<ul>
<li>17 <i>"city parts"</i> (i.e approx. boroughs) (for the purpose of municipal administrative division and of serving as entities to which the town delegates its powers and functions imposed by law on communities)</ul>
<ul>
<li>20 <i>"cadastral areas"</i> : they coincide with the "city parts", except that: Nové Mesto is further split into Nové Mesto + Vinohrady, and Ružinov is split into Ružinov + Nivy + Trnávka</ul>
<table class="wikitable" style="empty-cells:show; margin-bottom:0.5em; background-color:#FCFCFC;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background-color:#999999; color:white">Administrative and Territorial Division of Bratislava</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#DDDDDD;">
<td>Districts</td>
<td>"City Parts" (Boroughs)</td>
<td>Quarters or Localities</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Bratislava I</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Staré Mesto</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3">Bratislava II</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ružinov</td>
<td><i>Nivy</i>, <i>Pošeň</i>, <i>Prievoz</i>, <i>Ostredky</i>, <i>Trávniky</i>, <i>Štrkovec</i>, <i>Vlčie hrdlo</i>, <i>Trnávka</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vrakuňa</td>
<td><i>Dolné hony</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="white-space:nowrap"><!--del_lnk--> Podunajské Biskupice</td>
<td><i>Dolné hony</i>, <i>Ketelec</i>, <i>Lieskovec</i>, <i>Medzi jarkami</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3">Bratislava III</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nové Mesto</td>
<td><i>Ahoj</i>, <i>Jurajov dvor</i>, <i>Koliba</i>, <i>Kramáre</i>, <i>Mierová kolónia</i>, <i>Pasienky/Kuchajda</i> , <i>Vinohrady</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rača</td>
<td><i>Krasňany</i>, <i>Rača</i>, <i>Východné</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vajnory</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="6" style="white-space:nowrap">Bratislava IV</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Karlova Ves</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dlhé diely, <i>Kútiky</i>, <i>Mlynská dolina</i>, <i>Rovnice</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dúbravka</td>
<td><i>Podvornice</i>, <i>Záluhy</i>, <i>Krčace</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lamač</td>
<td><i>Podháj</i>, <i>Rázsochy</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Devín</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Devínska Nová Ves</td>
<td><i>Devínske Jazero</i>, <i>Kostolné</i>, <i>Paulinské</i>, <i>Podhorské</i>, <i>Stred</i>, <i>Vápenka</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Záhorská Bystrica</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4">Bratislava V</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Petržalka</td>
<td><i>Dvory</i>, <i>Háje</i>, <i>Janíkov dvor</i>, <i>Lúky</i>, <i>Ovsište</i>, <i>Kopčany</i>, <i>Zrkadlový háj</i>, <i>Kapitulský dvor</i>, <i>Starý háj</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jarovce</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rusovce</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Čunovo</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Twin_towns" name="Twin_towns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Twin towns</span></h2>
<p>Bratislava is <!--del_lnk--> twinned with:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/309.png.htm" title="Armenia"><img alt="Armenia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Armenia.svg" src="../../images/3/309.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Yerevan, <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/793.png.htm" title="Austria"><img alt="Austria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Austria.svg" src="../../images/7/793.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/742.png.htm" title="Bulgaria"><img alt="Bulgaria" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bulgaria_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/742.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ruse, <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/612.png.htm" title="Cyprus"><img alt="Cyprus" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cyprus_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/612.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Larnaka, <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Egypt"><img alt="Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/8/848.png.htm" title="Finland"><img alt="Finland" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Finland_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/8/848.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Turku, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Bremen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ulm, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/790.png.htm" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg" src="../../images/7/790.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Thessaloniki, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/8/845.png.htm" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Hungary.svg" src="../../images/8/845.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Székesfehérvár, <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Perugia, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/545.png.htm" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" src="../../images/5/545.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Rotterdam.htm" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/744.png.htm" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/744.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kraków, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/747.png.htm" title="Slovenia"><img alt="Slovenia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg" src="../../images/7/747.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ljubljana, <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/745.png.htm" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg" src="../../images/7/745.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/k/Kiev.htm" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Cleveland%252C_Ohio.htm" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></ul>
<p><a id="Images" name="Images"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Images</span></h2>
<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:802px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23858.jpg.htm" title="Panorama of Bratislava I (from castle)"><img alt="Panorama of Bratislava I (from castle)" height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bratislava_Panorama_01.jpg" src="../../images/238/23858.jpg" width="800" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23858.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Panorama of Bratislava I (from castle)</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23859.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava-old town hall.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/238/23859.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The Old Town Hall viewed from the Main Square.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23860.jpg.htm" title="Image:Theben.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/238/23860.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Devín Castle at the confluence of the Danube and the Morava viewed from Austria - an old picture.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23861.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23861.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Bratislava on the river <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a></div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23862.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava old town from castle hill.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23862.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Old Town (<i>Staré mesto</i>) of Bratislava viewed from Bratislava Castle.</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 26px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23863.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava divadlo.jpg"><img alt="" height="94" src="../../images/238/23863.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Slovak National Theatre.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23864.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava Danube.jpg"><img alt="" height="70" src="../../images/238/23864.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Bratislava on the river Danube</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23865.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava-grassalkovičov palác.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23865.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Grassalkovich Palace - the seat of the President.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Bratislava Castle viewed from the south-west.<hr />
<p><span style="color:black">This image has an uncertain copyright status and is pending deletion. You can <!--del_lnk--> comment on the removal.</span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23867.jpg.htm" title="Image:NovyMost.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/238/23867.jpg" width="80" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Nový Most (New Bridge).</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23868.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ba-michalská brána.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/238/23868.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Michael's Gate.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23869.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava-Dom-sv-Martina.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/238/23869.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> St. Martin's Cathedral - the coronation cathedral.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23870.jpg.htm" title="Image:Petržalka apartment blocks in Bratislava.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23870.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Apartment blocks of <!--del_lnk--> Petržalka, across the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Nový Most</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23871.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bratislava Town Centre.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/238/23871.jpg" width="81" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>A typical paved street in <!--del_lnk--> Bratislava's Old Town district</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23872.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hlavne namestie.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23872.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Bratislava's Old Town district</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23873.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hotel Carlton.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/238/23873.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Hotel Carlton in <!--del_lnk--> Hviezdoslav Square (<i>Hviezdoslavovo námestie</i>)</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/238/23874.png.htm" title="Image:Flag of Bratislava.png"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/238/23874.png" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The flag of Bratislava</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava"</div>
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Brazil
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brazil</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Brazil. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Brazil">SOS Children in Brazil</a></div>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>República Federativa do Brasil</i></span></b><br /><b>Federative Republic of Brazil</b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/20/2079.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2080.png.htm" title="coat of arms of Brazil"><img alt="coat of arms of Brazil" height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/20/2080.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> coat of arms</small></td>
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</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>Ordem e Progresso</i></span><br /> (<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> for "Order and Progress")</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Brazilian National Anthem</i></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2081.png.htm" title="Location of Brazil"><img alt="Location of Brazil" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrazilWorldMap.png" src="../../images/20/2081.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bras%25C3%25ADlia.htm" title="Brasília">Brasília</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 15°45′S 47°57′W</span></small></td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a></td>
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<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Federal republic</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> José Alencar Gomes da Silva</td>
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<th>Independence</th>
<td>From <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> </td>
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<td> - Declared</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1822 </td>
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<td> - Recognised</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1825 </td>
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<td> - Republic</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1889 </td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 8,514,877 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 5th)<br /> 3,287,597 sq mi </td>
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<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>0.65</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>187,560,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 5th)</td>
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<td> - 2000 census</td>
<td>169,799,170</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>22/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 182nd)<br /> 57/sq mi</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
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<td> - Total</td>
<td>$1,577 <!--del_lnk--> trillion (<!--del_lnk--> 9th)</td>
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<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$8,584 (<!--del_lnk--> 68th)</td>
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<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2004)</th>
<td>0.792 (<font color="#F7BC5B">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 69th)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Real (<code><!--del_lnk--> BRL</code>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC-2 to -5 (Official: -3))</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .br</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+55</td>
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</table>
<p><b>Brazil</b>, officially the <b>Federative Republic of Brazil</b> (<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">'<b>Brasil'</b></span> or <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>República Federativa do Brasil</i></span>, <span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> listen</span> ), is the largest and <!--del_lnk--> most populous country in <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> fifth largest in the world in both area and <!--del_lnk--> population. Spanning a vast area between central South America and the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, it is the easternmost country of <!--del_lnk--> America and it borders <a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Guyana.htm" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Suriname.htm" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> and the French department of <a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. In fact, it borders every South American nation except for <a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>.<p>Brazil is home to both extensive <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> lands and <!--del_lnk--> rain forests. Exploring vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is South America's leading <!--del_lnk--> economic power and a regional leader. The country's name is generally believed to be derived from <i>pau-brasil</i> (<!--del_lnk--> brazilwood), a tree highly valued by early colonists, though some credit the name to a <!--del_lnk--> mythical land mentioned in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> during <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Age">Middle Ages</a>.<p>Brazil was <!--del_lnk--> colonized by <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and it is the only <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese-speaking</a> country in the <!--del_lnk--> Americas. Brazil is a <!--del_lnk--> multiracial country and its population is composed of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian, <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Asian elements. <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism in the country's main religion, with a number of adherents never seen in any other country.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_Brazil" name="History_of_Brazil"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of Brazil</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2082.jpg.htm" title="Ancient map of Brazil issued by the Portuguese explorers in 1519."><img alt="Ancient map of Brazil issued by the Portuguese explorers in 1519." height="204" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brazil-16-map.jpg" src="../../images/20/2082.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2082.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ancient map of Brazil issued by the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> <!--del_lnk--> explorers in <!--del_lnk--> 1519.</div>
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<p>Brazil is thought to have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years by semi-nomadic populations before the first <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> explorers, led by <!--del_lnk--> Pedro Álvares Cabral, disembarked in 1500. Over the next three centuries, it was resettled by the Portuguese and exploited mainly for <!--del_lnk--> brazilwood (Pau-Brasil) at first, followed by <a href="../../wp/s/Sugarcane.htm" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> (Cana-de-Açúcar) agriculture, coffee beans and <!--del_lnk--> gold mining. The colony's source of manpower was initially composed of <!--del_lnk--> enslaved <!--del_lnk--> Amerindians, and after 1550, mainly <!--del_lnk--> African. In 1808, Queen <!--del_lnk--> Maria I of Portugal and her son and regent, the future <!--del_lnk--> João VI of Portugal, fleeing from the armies of <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a>, relocated to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with the royal family, nobility and government. This is the only recorded trans-continental relocation of a royal family.<p>Though they didnt return to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to the opening of commercial ports to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> — at the time isolated from most European ports by Napoleon — and to the elevation of Brazil to the status of a united kingdom under the Portuguese Crown. Upon <!--del_lnk--> João VI's departure, the remaining royal government in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio</a> moved to dissolve the Kingdom of Brazil and return it to the status of colony. This resulted in the small scale conflicts known as the <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian War of Independence. On <!--del_lnk--> 7 September <!--del_lnk--> 1822 Prince regent <!--del_lnk--> Dom Pedro I (later Pedro IV of Portugal) declared independence, establishing the independent <!--del_lnk--> Empire of Brazil. A treaty recognizing the Empire's independence was signed on <!--del_lnk--> 29 August <!--del_lnk--> 1825 with Britain and Portugal. As the crown remained in the hands of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Bragança, this was more the severance of the Portuguese empire in two, than an independence movement as seen elsewhere in the Americas.<p>The <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazilian">Brazilian</a> Empire was formally a democracy in the <!--del_lnk--> British style, although in practice, the emperor-premier-parliament balance of power more closely resembled the autocratic <!--del_lnk--> Austrian Empire. Slavery was abolished in 1888, through the "Golden Law", created by <!--del_lnk--> Princess Isabel, and intensive European immigration created the basis for industrialization. Pedro I was succeeded by his son, <!--del_lnk--> Pedro II — who in old age was caught by a political dispute between the Army and the Cabinet, a crisis arising from the <!--del_lnk--> Paraguay War. In order to avoid a civil war between Army and Navy, Pedro II renounced the throne on <!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 1889, when a <!--del_lnk--> federal republic (officially, the Republic of the United States of Brazil) was established by <!--del_lnk--> Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca.<p>In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Brazil attracted well over 5 million <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Arab and <!--del_lnk--> Japanese . That period also saw Brazil industrialise, further colonise, and develop its interior. Brazilian democracy was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> dictatorships three times — 1930–1934 and 1937–1945 under <!--del_lnk--> Getúlio Vargas, and 1964–1985, under a succession of generals appointed by the military. Since 1985, Brazil has been internationally considered a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, specifically a <!--del_lnk--> presidential democracy; that status was affirmed in a 1993 <!--del_lnk--> plebiscite, in which voters were asked to choose between a presidential or <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a>; voters also decided not to restore the country's <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>.<p><a id="Government_and_politics" name="Government_and_politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government and politics</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2084.jpg.htm" title="President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva"><img alt="President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva" height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva.jpg" src="../../images/20/2084.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2084.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President <!--del_lnk--> Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</div>
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<p>The capital of Brazil is <!--del_lnk--> Brasilia. According to the Constitution promulgated in 1988, Brazil is a <!--del_lnk--> federal <!--del_lnk--> presidential <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> republic, wherein the <!--del_lnk--> President is both <!--del_lnk--> head of state and <!--del_lnk--> head of government. One of the fundamental principles of the politics in the Republic is the multi-party system, as a guarantee of political freedom.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:172px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2085.jpg.htm" title="The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil"><img alt="The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil" height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrasiliaBanNacional.jpg" src="../../images/20/2085.jpg" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2085.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The National Congress in <a href="../../wp/b/Bras%25C3%25ADlia.htm" title="Brasília">Brasília</a>, the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of Brazil</div>
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<p>The administrative structure of the State is a federation; however, Brazil has included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite: encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. The legal system is based on <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_law.htm" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>.<p>The Union's <!--del_lnk--> executive power is exercised by the government, headed by the president, who is elected for a four-year term, and is allowed to be re-elected for one other term. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in the <!--del_lnk--> National Congress, which is bicameral. The <!--del_lnk--> deputies of the <!--del_lnk--> Chamber of Deputies are elected every four years in a system of proportional representation by states. The members of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Senate are elected for an eight-year term. The Ordinary Law making process requires the participation of the executive, which has a right to veto on new legislation, and has an exclusive prerogative of initiative of legislation on certain matters. Additionally, if relevant and urgent circumstances justify it, the executive may issue a "Provisory Measure," which has the binding force of the Law and comes into force immediately. The "Provisory Measure" retains its full power for up to 120 days, unless it is reverted by the Congress.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<p>Brazil is a <!--del_lnk--> federation consisting of 26 states (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>estados</i></span>) and 1 federal district (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>distrito federal</i></span>), making a total of 27 <i>Federate Units</i>.<div style="float: right; clear: right;">
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<p><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2086.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="352" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brazil_State_Map.svg" src="../../images/20/2086.png" width="400" /></a><div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:334px; top: 32px;"><i><a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic<br /> Ocean</a></i></div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:14px; top: 292px;"><i><a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific<br /> Ocean</a></i></div>
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<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 272px;"><!--del_lnk--> North Region</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 286px;"><!--del_lnk--> Northeast Region</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 300px;"><!--del_lnk--> Centre-West Region</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 314px;"><!--del_lnk--> Southeast Region</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 328px;"><!--del_lnk--> South Region</div>
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<div style="position: absolute; left:34px; top: 124px;"><!--del_lnk--> Acre</div>
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<div style="position: absolute; left:74px; top: 80px;"><!--del_lnk--> Amazonas</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:186px; top: 80px;"><!--del_lnk--> Pará</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:102px; top: 24px;"><!--del_lnk--> Roraima</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:186px; top: 30px;"><!--del_lnk--> Amapá</div>
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<div style="position: absolute; left:90px; top: 148px;"><!--del_lnk--> Rondônia</div>
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<div style="position: absolute; left:214px; top: 136px;"><!--del_lnk--> Tocantins</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:242px; top: 92px;"><!--del_lnk--> Maranhão</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:274px; top: 164px;"><!--del_lnk--> Bahia</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:274px; top: 112px;"><!--del_lnk--> Piauí</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 84px;"><!--del_lnk--> Ceará</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:330px; top: 84px;"><!--del_lnk--> Rio Grande<br /> do Norte</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:334px; top: 108px;"><!--del_lnk--> Paraíba</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:302px; top: 120px;"><!--del_lnk--> Pernambuco</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:334px; top: 132px;"><!--del_lnk--> Alagoas</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:322px; top: 144px;"><!--del_lnk--> Sergipe</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:146px; top: 164px;"><!--del_lnk--> Mato Grosso</div>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:150px; top: 224px;"><!--del_lnk--> Mato Grosso<br /> do Sul</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:220px; top: 172px;"><!--del_lnk--> Distrito<br /> Federal</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:202px; top: 196px;"><!--del_lnk--> Goiás</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:234px; top: 216px;"><!--del_lnk--> Minas Gerais</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:202px; top: 240px;"><!--del_lnk--> São Paulo</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:274px; top: 244px;"><!--del_lnk--> Rio de Janeiro</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:294px; top: 224px;"><!--del_lnk--> Espírito Santo</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:186px; top: 264px;"><!--del_lnk--> Paraná</div>
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<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:198px; top: 284px;"><!--del_lnk--> Santa Catarina</div>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:166px; top: 304px;"><!--del_lnk--> Rio Grande<br /> do Sul</div>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:82px; top: 312px;"><i><a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina"><span style="color: #a6997b;">Argentina</span></a></i></div>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: 10px;">
<div style="position: absolute; left:82px; top: 196px;"><i><a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia"><span style="color: #a6997b;">Bolivia</span></a></i></div>
</div>
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<p>The Brazilian states enjoy a significant autonomy of government, law making, public security and taxation. The government of a state is headed by a <!--del_lnk--> Governor (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>governador</i></span>), elected by popular vote, and also comprises its own legislative body (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>assembléia legislativa</i></span>).<p>Each state is divided into <!--del_lnk--> municipalities (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>municípios</i></span>) with their own <!--del_lnk--> legislative council (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>câmara de vereadores</i></span>) and a mayor (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>prefeito</i></span>), which are autonomous and hierarchically independent from both federal and state government. A municipality may include other towns (<span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>distritos</i></span>) besides the municipal seat; those, however, have no separate government.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> judiciary is organised at the state and federal levels within districts called <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>comarcas</i></span>. One <span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt"><i>comarca</i></span> may include several municipalities.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2087.jpg.htm" title="The beaches of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, are famous worldwide."><img alt="The beaches of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, are famous worldwide." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brasil.RioDeJaneiro.LeblonUndIpanema.jpg" src="../../images/20/2087.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2087.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The beaches of <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, the second largest city of Brazil, are famous worldwide.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Brazil is characterized by the extensive low-lying <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a> in the north and a more open terrain of hills and low mountains to the south — home to most of the Brazilian population and its agricultural base. Along the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> seacoast are also found several mountain ranges, reaching roughly 2,900 <!--del_lnk--> metres (9,500 <!--del_lnk--> ft) high.<p>The highest peak is the <!--del_lnk--> Pico da Neblina(Myst's Peak) reckoning 3,014 metres (9,735 ft) of altitude, in <!--del_lnk--> Guiana's <!--del_lnk--> highlands. Major rivers include the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" title="Amazon River">Amazon</a>, the largest river in the world in flowing water volume, and the second-longest in the world; the <!--del_lnk--> Paraná and its major tributary, the <!--del_lnk--> Iguaçu River, where the impressive <!--del_lnk--> Iguaçu falls are located; the <!--del_lnk--> Negro, <!--del_lnk--> São Francisco, <!--del_lnk--> Xingu, <!--del_lnk--> Madeira and the <!--del_lnk--> Tapajós rivers.<p>Located mainly within the <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropics</a>, Brazil's <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> has little seasonal variation. In southern most Brazil, however, there is subtropical temperate weather, occasionally experiencing frost and snow in the higher regions. <!--del_lnk--> Precipitation is abundant in the humid <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Basin.htm" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, but more arid landscapes are found as well, particularly in the northeast. A number of <!--del_lnk--> islands in the Atlantic Ocean are part of Brazil:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago<li><!--del_lnk--> Rocas Atoll<li><!--del_lnk--> Fernando de Noronha<li><!--del_lnk--> Trindade and Martim Vaz</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2088.jpg.htm" title="João Pessoa, in Northeastern Brazil"><img alt="João Pessoa, in Northeastern Brazil" height="204" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ilha_Areia_Vermelha_Joao-Pessoa-Paraiba.jpg" src="../../images/20/2088.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2088.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> João Pessoa, in <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern Brazil</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Mainland Brazil is commonly geographically divided into 5 distinctive <!--del_lnk--> regions: <!--del_lnk--> North, <!--del_lnk--> Northeast, <!--del_lnk--> Centre-West, <!--del_lnk--> Southeast and <!--del_lnk--> South.<ul>
<li>The North constitutes 45.27% of the surface of Brazil and it is the region with the lowest number of inhabitants. It is a fairly unindustrialised and undeveloped region (with the exception of Manaus, which hosts a tax-free industrial zone). It accommodates most of the largest rainforest of the world and many <!--del_lnk--> indigenous tribes.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The Northeast has one third of Brazil's population. The region is culturally diverse, with roots from the Portuguese colonial period, <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Brazilian culture and some Brazilian Indian influence. It is also the poorest region of Brazil, and has long periods of dry climate. It is well-known for its beautiful coast.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The Central-West is the region where the Brazilian capital, Brasília, is located. despite that it has a low demographic density compared to the other regions, mostly because it is occupied by the <!--del_lnk--> Pantanal, the world’s largest marshlands area, and a small part of the Amazon <a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a>, in its northwestern area. However, much of the region is overgrown by <!--del_lnk--> Cerrado, the largest <!--del_lnk--> savanna in the world. It is also the most important area for agriculture in the country. The most important cities are: <a href="../../wp/b/Bras%25C3%25ADlia.htm" title="Brasília">Brasília</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Goiânia, <!--del_lnk--> Campo Grande and <!--del_lnk--> Cuiabá</ul>
<ul>
<li>The Southeast is the richest and most densely populated region. It has more inhabitants than any other South American country, and hosts one of the largest <!--del_lnk--> megalopoles of the world, whereof the main cities are the country's two biggest ones; <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>.</ul>
<p>The region is very diverse, including the major business centre of São Paulo, the historical cities of Minas Gerais and its capital <!--del_lnk--> Belo Horizonte, the third largest national city, the world famous beaches of Rio de Janeiro, and the acclaimed coast of Espírito Santo.<ul>
<li>The South is the wealthiest region (considering GDP per capita), with the best <!--del_lnk--> standard of living in the country. It is also the coldest region of Brazil, with occasional occurrences of <!--del_lnk--> frosts and <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a> in some of the higher altitude regions.</ul>
<p>The region has been heavily settled by European immigrants, mainly of Italian, German, Portuguese and Slavic genealogy, and shows clear influences from these cultures.The most important cities are: <!--del_lnk--> Porto Alegre, <!--del_lnk--> Curitiba, <!--del_lnk--> Florianópolis, <!--del_lnk--> Blumenau, <!--del_lnk--> Novo Hamburgo, <!--del_lnk--> Londrina, <!--del_lnk--> Caxias do Sul and <!--del_lnk--> Joinville.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10599.jpg.htm" title="Sao Paulo is the largest Brazilian city and the financial capital of the country"><img alt="Sao Paulo is the largest Brazilian city and the financial capital of the country" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:00040_copy.jpg" src="../../images/20/2090.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10599.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Sao Paulo is the largest Brazilian city and the financial capital of the country</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Possessing large and well-developed <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> service sectors, as well as a large labor pool, Brazil's GDP (PPP) outweighs that of any other <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> country, being the core economy of <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur. The country has been expanding its presence in world markets. Major export products include <!--del_lnk--> aircraft, <a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <!--del_lnk--> vehicles, <a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">soybean</a>, <!--del_lnk--> iron ore, <!--del_lnk--> orange juice, <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>, <!--del_lnk--> textiles, <!--del_lnk--> footwear, <!--del_lnk--> corned beef and <!--del_lnk--> electrical equipment.<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund and the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank, Brazil has the <!--del_lnk--> ninth largest economy in the world at <!--del_lnk--> Purchasing Power Parity and <!--del_lnk--> eleventh largest at market exchange rates. Brazil has a diversified middle income economy with wide variations in development levels. Most large industry is agglomerated in the South and South-East. The North-East is the poorest region of Brazil, but it is beginning to attract new investment. Brazil has the most advanced industrial sector in Latin America. Amounting to one-third of <!--del_lnk--> GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. With the increased economic stability provided by the Plano Real, Brazilian and multinational businesses have invested heavily in new equipment and technology, a large proportion of which has been purchased from North American enterprises. Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. During the early 1990s, the banking sector amounted to as much as 16% of GDP. Although undergoing a major overhaul, Brazilian financial services industry provides local businesses with a wide range of products and is attracting numerous new entrants, including U.S. financial firms. The São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro stock exchanges are undergoing a consolidation.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2091.jpg.htm" title="Curitiba, in Southern Brazil"><img alt="Curitiba, in Southern Brazil" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Praca_Generoso_Marques_1_Curitiba_Brasil.jpg" src="../../images/20/2091.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2091.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Curitiba, in <!--del_lnk--> Southern Brazil</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Brazilian cities vary significantly in the ease of doing business, according to the new <!--del_lnk--> Doing Business in Brazil report released by The World Bank Group. Brazilian cities perform better when it comes to the cost of registering property. But despite identical regulations across Brazil, there is a wide variation in the time it takes to transfer property.<p>According to international standards, Brazil has the 9th biggest economy in the world (see: List of countries by GDP). The country is one of the few in the world to make products of high technology like planes (see: Embraer). Being one of the core countries in the G20, Brazil has lately been expanding its influence in global economic negotiations. Although Brazil's economy is progressive and regionally important, the problems of widespread state <!--del_lnk--> bureaucracy, <!--del_lnk--> corruption, <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a> and <!--del_lnk--> illiteracy are still major barriers to further its development.<p><a id="Environment" name="Environment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environment</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2092.jpg.htm" title="The toucan is a typical animal of the Brazilian rain forests"><img alt="The toucan is a typical animal of the Brazilian rain forests" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ramphastos_toco.jpg" src="../../images/20/2092.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2092.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> toucan is a typical animal of the Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> rain forests</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Due to the relatively explosive economic and demographic rise of the country in the last century, Brazil's ability to protect its environmental <!--del_lnk--> habitats has increasingly come under threat. Extensive <!--del_lnk--> logging in the nation's forests, particularly the Amazon, both official and unofficial, destroys areas the size of a small country each year, and potentially a diverse variety of interesting plants and animals.<p>With abundant <!--del_lnk--> fauna and <!--del_lnk--> flora, Brazil is home to many thousands of species, most of them still undiscovered. By 2020, it is estimated that at least 50% of the species resident in Brazil will be eradicated.<p>As several of these specimens possess special characteristics, or are built in an interesting way, some of their capabilities may be copied for use in technology (see <!--del_lnk--> bionics). The revenues derived from such plans may still hold the key to preserve the country's animal and plant species.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:199px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2093.jpg.htm" title="Indigenous people of Brazil"><img alt="Indigenous people of Brazil" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kuarup3.jpg" src="../../images/20/2093.jpg" width="197" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2093.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Indigenous people of Brazil</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Brazil's population is very diverse, comprising many races and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethnic_group.htm" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a>. In general, Brazilians are <!--del_lnk--> descendants of 4 <!--del_lnk--> migration sources:<ul>
<li>The Amerindians, natives of Brazil, descendants of human groups that migrated from <!--del_lnk--> Siberia, crossing the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait, approximately in 9.000 b.C</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese colonists, who arrived to explore the country since its discovery, in 1500, until its independence, in 1822.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> <!--del_lnk--> slaves brought to the country from 1530 until the end of the slave traffic, in 1850.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The diverse groups of <!--del_lnk--> immigrants from <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> that arrived to Brazil in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.</ul>
<p>It is belived that the Americas were settled by three migratory waves from Northern Asia. The Brazilian Indians are, probably, descendants of the first wave of migrants, that arrived to the region in 9.000 b.C. The main Native Brazilian groups were the <!--del_lnk--> Tupi-<!--del_lnk--> Guarani, the <!--del_lnk--> Jê, the <!--del_lnk--> Arawaks and the Caraibas.<p>The <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> immigration to Brazil started in the 16th century, the vast majority of them coming from <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>. In the first two centuries of colonization, 100.000 Portugueses arrived in Brazil, 500 colonists per year. In the 18th century, 600.000 Portuguese arrived, 10.000 per year. The first region to be settled by the Portuguese was <!--del_lnk--> Northeastern Brazil. Soon, the colonists settled in the <!--del_lnk--> Southeastern region. The interior of Brazil was settled only in the 18th century. The Portuguese were the only ethnic group that spread themselves in the whole territory of Brazil.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2094.jpg.htm" title="Afro-Brazilians with typical clothes in Salvador, Bahia"><img alt="Afro-Brazilians with typical clothes in Salvador, Bahia" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SalvadorDaBahiaBahianDress.jpg" src="../../images/20/2094.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2094.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Afro-Brazilians with typical clothes in <!--del_lnk--> Salvador, Bahia</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The original Amerindian population of Brazil (between 3-5 million) has in large part been exterminated or assimilated into the Portuguese population. The <!--del_lnk--> Mamelucos (or <!--del_lnk--> Caboclos, mixed-race between <!--del_lnk--> Whites and Indians) have always been present in many parts of Brazil.<p>Another important ethnic group arrived at Brazil as slaves. The Africans started to be brought to Brazil in the <!--del_lnk--> 1530's, to supply the man power lack. At first, most slaves were brought from <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>. Starting in the 18th century, most of them were from <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, although in <!--del_lnk--> Bahia most slaves were from <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. Until the slave traffic, in 1850, from 3 to 5 million slaves were brought to Brazil--37% of all slave traffic between Africa and the Americas.<p>The large influx of immigrants to Brazil occured in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1870 and 1930, more than 5 million immigrants entered Brazil. These immigrants were divided in two groups: a part of them was sent to <!--del_lnk--> Southern Brazil to work as small <!--del_lnk--> farmers. However, the biggest part of the immigrants was sent to <!--del_lnk--> Southeastern Brazil to work in the <a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" title="Coffee">coffee</a> <!--del_lnk--> plantations. The immigrants sent to Southern Brazil were mainly <!--del_lnk--> Germans (starting in 1824, mainly from <!--del_lnk--> Rhineland-Palatinate, <!--del_lnk--> Pomerania, <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Westfalia, etc) and <!--del_lnk--> Italians (starting in 1875, mainly from the <!--del_lnk--> Veneto and <!--del_lnk--> Lombardia). In the South, the immigrants estabilished rural communities that, still today, have a strong cultural connection with their homeland. In Southeastern Brazil most of the immigrants were Italians (mainly from the <!--del_lnk--> Veneto, <!--del_lnk--> Campania, <!--del_lnk--> Calabria and <!--del_lnk--> Lombardia), Portuguese (mainly from <!--del_lnk--> Beira Alta, <!--del_lnk--> Minho and <!--del_lnk--> Alto Trás-os-Montes), <!--del_lnk--> Spaniards (mainly from <!--del_lnk--> Galicia and <!--del_lnk--> Andalusia), <!--del_lnk--> Japanese (mainly from <!--del_lnk--> Honshu and <!--del_lnk--> Okinawa) and <!--del_lnk--> Arabs (from <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:122px;"><!--del_lnk--> Image:Soberanas festadauva.jpg<div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> Southern Brazilians during a local party, dressed in traditional <!--del_lnk--> Italian outfit</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Memorial do Imigrante, between <!--del_lnk--> 1870 and <!--del_lnk--> 1953, Brazil attracted nearly 5,5 million immigrants, approximately 1,550,000 <!--del_lnk--> Italians, 1,470,000 Portuguese, 650,000 Spaniards, 210,000 Germans, 190,000 Japanese, 120,000 <!--del_lnk--> Poles and 650,000 of many other nationalities.<p>Brazil's population is mostly concentrated along the coast, with a lower population density in the interior. The population of the southern states is mainly of European descent, while the majority of the inhabitants of the north and northeast are of mixed ancestry (Amerindians, Africans and Europeans)<p>According to the Brazil constitution of 1988, racism is an unbailable crime and must be met with imprisonment. This is taken very seriously.<p><a id="Ethnicity_and_Race" name="Ethnicity_and_Race"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethnicity and Race</span></h3>
<p>The 2000 <!--del_lnk--> IBGE census found Brazil to be made up of:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> White 53.7%<li><!--del_lnk--> Multiracial 38.5%<li><!--del_lnk--> Black 6.2%<li><!--del_lnk--> Asian 0.5%<li>unspecified 0.7%</ul>
<p><a id="Languages" name="Languages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Languages</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Portuguese is the only official language of Brazil. It is spoken by the entire population and is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio, TV and for all business and administrative purposes. Moreover, Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in <!--del_lnk--> the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity. Portuguese as spoken in Brazil has developed independently of the European mother tongue, and it has undergone less phonetic changes than the language spoken in Portugal, thus it is often said that the "<a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Camões", who lived in the 16th Century, sounded closer to modern Brazilian Portuguese, than to the language spoken in Portugal today, and that his work is poetically more perfect when read the Brazilian way. Brazilian Portuguese has notable influences from <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian and <!--del_lnk--> African languages and several <!--del_lnk--> Italian assimilations. Generally, native speakers of each variant can understand one another, but there are several significant phonological, lexical and orthographic differences. (See also <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Portuguese.)<p><a id="Minority_languages" name="Minority_languages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Minority languages</span></h3>
<p>Many Amerindian languages are spoken daily in indigenous communities, primarily in Northern Brazil. Although many of these communities have significant contact with Portuguese, today there are incentives for teaching native languages.<p>Other languages are spoken by descendants of immigrants, who are usually bilingual, in small rural communities in Southern Brazil. The most important are the <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian German dialects, such as <!--del_lnk--> Riograndenser Hunsrückisch and the <!--del_lnk--> Pomeranian language, and also the <!--del_lnk--> Talian, based on the <!--del_lnk--> Italian <!--del_lnk--> Venetian language. In the city of <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Japanese can be heard in the immigrant neighbourhoods, like <!--del_lnk--> Liberdade.<p><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is of the official high school curriculum, but comparatively few Brazilians are truly fluent in the language. <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> is understood to varying degrees by some Portuguese speakers, especially on borders with Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay.<p><a id="Societal_issues" name="Societal_issues"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Societal issues</span></h2>
<p><a id="Poverty" name="Poverty"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Poverty</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11307.jpg.htm" title="Entrenched between some of the richer areas of Rio de Janeiro, the favela of Vidigal is a testimony of the high economic inequality of Brazil"><img alt="Entrenched between some of the richer areas of Rio de Janeiro, the favela of Vidigal is a testimony of the high economic inequality of Brazil" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RiodeJaneiro-Favela.jpg" src="../../images/20/2096.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11307.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Entrenched between some of the richer areas of <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> favela of <!--del_lnk--> Vidigal is a testimony of the high <a href="../../wp/e/Economic_inequality.htm" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> of Brazil</div>
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<p>Despite being a large country with extensive resources and a huge economy, Brazil currently has more than 22 million people living in state of <!--del_lnk--> extreme poverty. Including those living in state of relative poverty, this number can rise to more than 53 million people (around 30% of the country's population) living with an income insufficient for their basic needs. This is a critical issue, and is in part attributed to the country's <a href="../../wp/e/Economic_inequality.htm" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a>, considered one of the world's highest according to the <!--del_lnk--> Gini coefficient index.<p>Poverty in Brazil is most visually represented by the various <!--del_lnk--> favelas, a great number of <!--del_lnk--> slums in the country's metropolitan areas and in upcountry remote regions with low rates of economic and social development.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2097.jpg.htm" title="Poor people in Recife"><img alt="Poor people in Recife" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Recife_2005_JAN_25_GarbageCollection.jpg" src="../../images/20/2097.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2097.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">Poor</a> people in <!--del_lnk--> Recife</div>
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<p>There is also great differences in wealth and welfare between regions. While the Northeast region has chronic problems due to the <!--del_lnk--> semi-arid <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> in the inner regions, as its periodic droughts affect millions of people, there are many cities in the south and southeast region with <!--del_lnk--> first world-like <!--del_lnk--> socioeconomic standards <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The most recent attempt to mitigate these problems is being tried by current President <!--del_lnk--> Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who has proposed a hunger-eradication program (<!--del_lnk--> Fome Zero) and raised the budget for a handful of wealth distribution programs that were previously established, but there is much discussion over the effectiveness of these approaches.<p>In addition, roughly 16 million people in Brazil are officially considered <!--del_lnk--> illiterate <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Government_issues" name="Government_issues"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Government issues</span></h3>
<p>In the last 12 years, Brazil's tax rate increased gradually from around 28% of the country's <!--del_lnk--> GDP to more than 37% <!--del_lnk--> . In spite of this, not enough improvement (in some cases, none at all) was seen in the public services offered by either the federal or most of the state and municipal governments to make this increase considered fair by the population <!--del_lnk--> . There are believed to be two major causes for this:<ul>
<li>High interest rates paid by the government on its debts <!--del_lnk--> .<li>Widespread <!--del_lnk--> corruption <!--del_lnk--> .</ul>
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<dd>In recent years, constant scandals involving members of the <!--del_lnk--> Executive, <!--del_lnk--> Legislative and <!--del_lnk--> Judiciary branches of government accused of participating in schemes of <!--del_lnk--> bribery, <!--del_lnk--> embezzlement, <!--del_lnk--> money laundering, <!--del_lnk--> anonymous banking, illegal campaign financing and <!--del_lnk--> slush fund operations have come to surface.</dl>
<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2098.jpg.htm" title="Capoeira is a Brazilian martial art"><img alt="Capoeira is a Brazilian martial art" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg" src="../../images/20/2098.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2098.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Capoeira is a Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> martial art</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2099.jpg.htm" title="The Niterói Contemporary Art Museum is another impressive example of the Brazilian architecture."><img alt="The Niterói Contemporary Art Museum is another impressive example of the Brazilian architecture." height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Niteroi_Museu_de_Arte_Contemporanea_2005-03-15.jpg" src="../../images/20/2099.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/20/2099.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Niterói Contemporary Art Museum is another impressive example of the Brazilian architecture.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11308.jpg.htm" title="Carnival parade in Rio de Janeiro"><img alt="Carnival parade in Rio de Janeiro" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carnaval_2004.jpg" src="../../images/21/2100.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/113/11308.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Carnival parade in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2101.jpg.htm" title="The Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro is the most famous landmark in Brazil."><img alt="The Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro is the most famous landmark in Brazil." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Redentor.jpg" src="../../images/21/2101.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2101.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Christ the Redeemer statue in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> is the most famous landmark in Brazil.</div>
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<p>The core culture of Brazil is rooted in the <!--del_lnk--> culture of Portugal. The Portuguese <!--del_lnk--> colonists and immigrants brought the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> faith, the Portuguese language and many <!--del_lnk--> traditions and customs that still influence the modern-day Brazilian culture.<p>As a multiracial country, its culture also absorbed other influences. The Amerindian peoples influenced Brazil's language and <!--del_lnk--> cuisine and the Africans, brought as slaves, largely influenced <!--del_lnk--> Brazil's music, <a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" title="Dance">dance</a>, cuisine and language. <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> and other European <!--del_lnk--> immigrants came in large numbers and their influences are felt closer to the Southeast and South of Brazil.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Carnival<li><!--del_lnk--> Religion in Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuisine of Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> List of Brazilians<li><!--del_lnk--> Literature of Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Music of Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Cinema of Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Sports in Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Holidays in Brazil<li><!--del_lnk--> Brazil Skyscrapers</ul>
<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2102.jpg.htm" title="The Cathedral of São João Batista in Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul."><img alt="The Cathedral of São João Batista in Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul." height="387" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Santa_Cruz_do_Sul_catedral_2005-03-21.jpg" src="../../images/21/2102.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2102.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Cathedral of São João Batista in Santa Cruz do Sul, <!--del_lnk--> Rio Grande do Sul.</div>
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<p>According to the IBGE census <!--del_lnk--> <ul>
<li>74% of Brazilians are <!--del_lnk--> Catholics. Brazil possesses the largest Catholic population in the world.<li>Followers of <!--del_lnk--> Protestantism are rising in number, currently at 15.4%.<li>7.4% of the population consider themselves <a href="../../wp/a/Agnosticism.htm" title="Agnosticism">agnostics</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" title="Atheism">atheists</a> or without a religion.<li><!--del_lnk--> Spiritism constitutes 1.3% of the population (about 2.3 million).<li>1.8% are members of other religions. Some of these are <!--del_lnk--> Latter-day Saints (900,000 followers), <!--del_lnk--> Jehovah's Witnesses (600,000) <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (215,000), <!--del_lnk--> Seicho-No-Ie (151,000), <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> (230,000), and <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> (27,000)<!--del_lnk--> .<li>0.3% are followers of African traditional religions such as <!--del_lnk--> Candomblé, <!--del_lnk--> Macumba, and <!--del_lnk--> Umbanda.<li>Some practice a mixture of different religions, such as Catholicism, Candomblé, and indigenous American religion combined.</ul>
<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2103.jpg.htm" title="Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro"><img alt="Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maracana_Stadium.jpg" src="../../images/21/2103.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2103.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Maracanã Stadium in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></div>
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<p>The most popular sport in Brazil is <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football (soccer)</a>, and the country is renowned for the quality of its players, including <a href="../../wp/p/Pel%25C3%25A9.htm" title="Pelé">Pelé</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Garrincha, <!--del_lnk--> Jairzinho, <!--del_lnk--> Rivelino, <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Alberto, <!--del_lnk--> Zico, <!--del_lnk--> Sócrates, <!--del_lnk--> Romário, <!--del_lnk--> Ronaldo, <!--del_lnk--> Rivaldo, <!--del_lnk--> Roberto Carlos, <!--del_lnk--> Juninho, <!--del_lnk--> Adriano, <!--del_lnk--> Diego, <!--del_lnk--> Robinho, <!--del_lnk--> Ronaldinho and The Golden Boy of Brazilian Football <!--del_lnk--> Kaká. The <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian national football team (<i>Seleção</i>), has been victorious in the <a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" title="FIFA World Cup">World Cup</a> tournament a record five times. <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a> is the current national champion for the First Division.<p>Brazil has also achieved success in other international sports, mainly <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> gymnastics and <a href="../../wp/a/Auto_racing.htm" title="Auto racing">auto racing</a>.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Beach soccer, created in the beaches of <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bossaball, a mix of <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Football.htm" title="Football">football</a> and <!--del_lnk--> capoeira, played on inflatables and <!--del_lnk--> trampolines.<li><!--del_lnk--> Footvolley, a mix of <a href="../../wp/f/Football.htm" title="Football">football</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>, also played in sand.<li><!--del_lnk--> Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, a variation of Japanese <!--del_lnk--> judo.<li><!--del_lnk--> Vale tudo, a fight sport.<li><!--del_lnk--> Capoeira, a <!--del_lnk--> martial art of African heritage.<li><!--del_lnk--> Biribol, an aquatic variation of <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Futsal, or Futebol de Salão, the official version of indoor soccer.nn</ul>
<p><a id="Science_and_technology" name="Science_and_technology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Science and technology</span></h2>
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<p>Some of Brazil's most important technology nodes are located in <!--del_lnk--> São José dos Campos, <!--del_lnk--> Campinas, <!--del_lnk--> São Carlos, <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Curitiba, <!--del_lnk--> Porto Alegre, <!--del_lnk--> Belo Horizonte, <!--del_lnk--> Recife and <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>.<p>Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> Information Technology is considered one of the most advanced in the world. Catering for the internal market, <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian IT is recognised as a leader in <!--del_lnk--> financial services, <!--del_lnk--> defense, <!--del_lnk--> CRM, <!--del_lnk--> eGovernment, and <!--del_lnk--> healthcare.<p>The government of Brazil is attempting a switch to <!--del_lnk--> free software and <!--del_lnk--> operating systems in place of <!--del_lnk--> proprietary software with little success so far.<p><a id="See_also_2" name="See_also_2"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"</div>
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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Brazil News</dt><dd><span>01/05/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/f/Football_Auction_020507.htm">Rooney and Shevchenko auction shirts for SOS Children</a></dd><dd><span>22/08/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn_06_Brazil.htm">Autumn 2006 Newsletter: Brazilian Champions?</a></dd><dd><span>20/07/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/s/Six_Villages.htm">SOS FIFA News</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Brazil</h2>
<img src="../../wp/b/Brazil_Sponsorship_Locations.gif" width="405" height="374" alt="Sponsorship sites in Brazil" class="left" /><p>With an estimated 170 million inhabitants, Brazil has the largest population in Latin America and ranks sixth in the world. Poverty and destitution are widespread with 54 million people living below the poverty line, particularly in the huge slum areas in the major cities and industrial areas. Although the child mortality rate has fallen, it remains disproportional to national production capacity and available technology. </p><p>SOS Children began working in Brazil over thirty years ago when the charity opened its Porto Alegre site in 1969. Since then fourteen more communities have been built. The SOS Children Brasilia and Sao Bernardo do Campo (near Sao Paulo) were built in 1971. They were followed by Poa, Goioere, Santa Maria, Bahia near Salvador, Rio Bonito near Sao Paulo, Juiz de Fora and Paraiba outside Joao Pessoa as well as the SOS Children's Village Rio Grande do Norte in Caico, in north-eastern Brazil and SOS Children Manaus in the north-west province of Amazonas. There are two communities just outside Rio de Janerio, Jacarepagua and Pedra Bonita. The most recent village, which opened in 1999, is in Laura de Freitas, a small town near Salvador de Bahia.</p><img src="../../wp/c/Children_From_Jacarepagua_Brazil.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="SOS Children in Brazil" class="right" /><p>As well as the fifteen communities in which the charity gives a home to over 1500 children and young people, there are associated facilities and projects to help the wider community. These include kindergartens, schools, vocational training centres and social and day care centres. There are SOS primary schools at Juiz de Fora, Rio Bonito (Sao Paulo), Rio Grande do Norte and Paraiba (Joao Pessoa) which also has a secondary school. All the schools are attended by pupils from the neighbourhood as well as children living in the communities. Children from the other SOS communities attend local schools. </p><p>Vocational training centres and workshops at Brasilia, Jacarepagua, Paraiba, Rio Bonito and Santa Maria provide young people from SOS Children and the local communities with the opportunity to acquire skills and trades which will help them lead independent lives. </p><p>Alongside some of the villages - Bahia, Porto Alegre, Rio Bonito, Rio Grande do Norte and Santa Maria - day care centres and transit homes provide respite and temporary accommodation and care for maltreated and destitute minors including street children. </p><p>SOS Children in Brazil Aldeia SOS do Amazonas (Manaus) Aldeia SOS de Pedra Bonita (Rio de Janeiro) Aldeia SOS da Bahia Aldeia SOS de Poá (São Paulo) Aldeia SOS de Brasília Aldeia SOS de Porto Alegre Aldeia SOS de Goioerê Aldeia SOS do Rio Grande do Norte (Caicó) Aldeia SOS de Jacarepaguá (Rio de Janeiro) Aldeia SOS de Rio Bonito (São Paulo) Aldeia SOS de Juiz de Fora Aldeia SOS de São Bernardo do Campo (São Paulo) Aldeia SOS da Paraíba (João Pessoa) Aldeia SOS de Santa Maria Aldeia SOS de Lauro de Freitas (Salvador du Bahia).</p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<img src="../../wp/c/Children_Playing_On_Slide_Brazil.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="SOS Children in Brazil playing on a slide" class="right" /><p>SOS Children in Brazil:<br />Aldeias Infantis SOS Brasil<br />Rua Antonio Coelho<br />400-Vila Mariana<br />P.O. Box 14322<br />CEP: 04011-061 Sao Paulo<br />SP<br />Brazil<br />Tel: +55/11/55 74 81 99, +55/21/25 37 13 41<br />Fax: +55/11/55 79 95 51<br />e-mail: [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Brazil Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso_A.htm">Burkina Faso</a></p>
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<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
<p>Charity Commission registered number 1069204</p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bread</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a></h3>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/21/2107.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Title_Cuisine_2.jpg" src="../../images/21/2107.jpg" width="170" /></a></span></div>
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<td>This article is part<br /> of the <!--del_lnk--> Cuisine series</td>
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<tr>
<th style="font-size: 90%; background-color: #F4EEA1">Preparation techniques and cooking items</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Techniques - <!--del_lnk--> Utensils<br /><!--del_lnk--> Weights and measures</td>
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<th style="font-size: 90%; background-color: #F4EEA1">Ingredients and types of food</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Spices and <!--del_lnk--> Herbs<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sauces - <a href="../../wp/s/Soup.htm" title="Soup">Soups</a> - <!--del_lnk--> Desserts<br /><a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">Cheese</a> - <!--del_lnk--> Pasta - <strong class="selflink">Bread</strong> - <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">Tea</a><br />
<p><a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" title="Food">Other ingredients</a></td>
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<th style="font-size: 90%; background-color: #F4EEA1">Regional cuisines</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Asia - <!--del_lnk--> Europe - <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean<br /><!--del_lnk--> South Asian - <!--del_lnk--> Latin America<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mideast - <!--del_lnk--> North America - <!--del_lnk--> Africa<br /><!--del_lnk--> Other cuisines...</td>
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<th style="font-size: 90%; background-color: #F4EEA1">See also:</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Famous chefs - <!--del_lnk--> Kitchens - <!--del_lnk--> Meals<br /><!--del_lnk--> Wikibooks: Cookbook</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2"><b>Bread, whole-wheat (typical)<br /> Nutritional value per 100 g</b></th>
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<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center">Energy 250 kcal 1030 kJ</td>
</tr>
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<td>
<table cellpadding="0px" cellspacing="0px" style="margin:0.3em;">
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<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Carbohydrates </th>
<td>46 g</td>
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<tr>
<td>- <!--del_lnk--> Dietary fibre 7 g </td>
</tr>
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<th align="left"><a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" title="Fatty acid">Fat</a></th>
<td>4 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Protein</th>
<td>10 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.4 mg </td>
<td>31%</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.2 mg </td>
<td>13%</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Niacin (Vit. B3) 4 mg </td>
<td>27%</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Sodium 527 mg</td>
<td>35%</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center"><small>Percentages are relative to US<br /><!--del_lnk--> recommendations for adults.<br /></small></td>
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<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2"><b>Bread, white (typical)<br /> Nutritional value per 100 g</b></th>
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<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center">Energy 270 kcal 1110 kJ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table cellpadding="0px" cellspacing="0px" style="margin:0.3em;">
<tr>
<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Carbohydrates </th>
<td>51 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>- <!--del_lnk--> Dietary fibre 2.4 g </td>
</tr>
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<th align="left"><a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" title="Fatty acid">Fat</a></th>
<td>3 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Protein</th>
<td>8 g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.5 mg </td>
<td>38%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.3 mg </td>
<td>20%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niacin (Vit. B3) 4 mg </td>
<td>27%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sodium 681 mg</td>
<td>45%</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background:#e0e0e0; color:black;">
<td align="center"><small>Percentages are relative to US<br /><!--del_lnk--> recommendations for adults.<br /></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bread</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> staple food of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Middle Eastern and <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> cultures which is prepared by <!--del_lnk--> baking, <!--del_lnk--> steaming, or <!--del_lnk--> frying <!--del_lnk--> dough. Bread consists minimally of <!--del_lnk--> flour and <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>; <a href="../../wp/e/Edible_salt.htm" title="Edible salt">salt</a> is present in most cases; and usually a <!--del_lnk--> leavening agent such as <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast (baking)">yeast (baking)</a> is used. Breads may also contain some amounts of <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> spices, <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> (such as <!--del_lnk--> raisins, <a href="../../wp/p/Pumpkin.htm" title="Pumpkin">pumpkin</a> or <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">bananas</a>), <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetable.htm" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a> (like <a href="../../wp/o/Onion.htm" title="Onion">onion</a> or <!--del_lnk--> zucchini), <!--del_lnk--> nuts, or <!--del_lnk--> seeds (such as <!--del_lnk--> caraway, <a href="../../wp/s/Sesame.htm" title="Sesame">sesame</a> or <!--del_lnk--> poppy seeds). There are a wide variety of breads, with preferences differing from region to region.<p>Fresh bread is prized for its taste and texture, and retaining its freshness is important to keep it appetizing. Bread that has stiffened or dried past its prime is said to be <b>stale</b>. Modern bread is often wrapped in <!--del_lnk--> paper or <!--del_lnk--> plastic film, or stored in airtight containers such as a <!--del_lnk--> breadbox to keep it fresh longer. You can also slice it, put it in a <!--del_lnk--> ziploc, and freeze it to keep it fresh. Bread that is kept in warm moist environments is prone to the growth of <!--del_lnk--> mold. It becomes stale more quickly in the low temperature of a <!--del_lnk--> refrigerator, although by keeping it cool, mold is less likely to grow. A way to keep bread longer is to put it in the <!--del_lnk--> freezer, preserving it for several weeks. To avoid <!--del_lnk--> freezer burn, push all of the air out of the plastic bag before sealing. This will preserve the flavor and texture longer.<p>
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</script><a id="Usage" name="Usage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Usage</span></h2>
<p>Bread can be served ranging anywhere from <!--del_lnk--> room temperature to piping <!--del_lnk--> hot. Once baked, bread can subsequently be <!--del_lnk--> toasted. Bread is most commonly picked up and eaten with the hands, although some applications of bread are more easily eaten with the aid of a utensil such as a <!--del_lnk--> fork. It can be eaten by itself or as a carrier for another, usually less compact food. Bread may be dunked or dipped into a liquid (such as beef gravy or <a href="../../wp/o/Olive_oil.htm" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>), topped with various spreads, both sweet and savory, or serve as the enclosure for the ubiquitous <!--del_lnk--> sandwich with any number of meats, cheeses, vegetables or condiments inside. Across the world, bread is the preferred vehicle for many toppings that vary from culture to culture, such as:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" title="Butter">butter</a>—"bread and butter" has become a famous phrase connoting a duo.<li><!--del_lnk--> nut butters such as <!--del_lnk--> peanut butter<li>fruit-based spreads such as <!--del_lnk--> jam, <!--del_lnk--> jelly, <!--del_lnk--> apple butter or <!--del_lnk--> marmalade<li><!--del_lnk--> molasses, <!--del_lnk--> maple syrup or <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a><li><!--del_lnk--> liverwurst or other forms of <!--del_lnk--> pâté<li><!--del_lnk--> cream cheese or other soft <!--del_lnk--> processed cheese spreads, such as <!--del_lnk--> The Laughing Cow<li>yeast-based spreads such as <!--del_lnk--> Marmite or <!--del_lnk--> Vegemite<li><!--del_lnk--> hummus, refried beans and other <a href="../../wp/b/Bean.htm" title="Bean">bean</a>-based spreads<li>prepared <!--del_lnk--> salads, such as <a href="../../wp/t/Tuna.htm" title="Tuna">tuna</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" title="Chicken">chicken</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egg_%2528food%2529.htm" title="Egg (food)">egg</a> or <!--del_lnk--> ham salad, and a myriad other foods<li><!--del_lnk--> toast with butter and cinnamon<li><!--del_lnk--> tortillas form of bread found long ago-today used in tacos, quesadillas, etc.<li><!--del_lnk--> garlic</ul>
<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The word itself, <a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <i>bread</i>, is common in various forms to many <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages; such as <!--del_lnk--> Frisian <i>brea</i>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <i>brood</i>, <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>Brot</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Swedish <i>bröd</i>, and <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian <i>brød</i>; it has been derived from the root of <i><!--del_lnk--> brew</i>, but more probably is connected with the root of <i>break</i>, for its early uses are confined to <i>broken pieces</i>, or <i>bits</i> of bread, the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>frustum</i>, and it was not until the <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> that it took the place—as the generic name for bread—of <i>hlaf</i> (modern English <i>loaf</i>), which appears to be the oldest <!--del_lnk--> Teutonic name; <!--del_lnk--> Old High German <i>hleib</i> and modern <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>Laib</i>, or <!--del_lnk--> Finnish <i>leipä</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Estonian <i>leib</i>, and <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a> <i>хлеб (khleb)</i> are similar (all are derived from Old Germanic).<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods, dating back to the <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic era. The first breads produced were probably cooked versions of a grain-paste, made from ground cereal grains and water, and may have been developed by accidental cooking or deliberate experimentation with water and grain flour. Descendants of these early breads are still commonly made from various grains worldwide, including the <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexican</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> tortilla</i>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistani</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> chapati</i>, <!--del_lnk--> South Indian <i><!--del_lnk--> dosa</i>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> oatcake</i>, <!--del_lnk--> North American <i><!--del_lnk--> johnnycake</i>, Hebrew Pita bread (Pitot in Hebrew) and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> injera</i>. The basic flat breads of this type also formed a staple in the diet of many early civilizations with the <a href="../../wp/s/Sumer.htm" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> eating a type of barley flat cake, and the <!--del_lnk--> 12th century BC Egyptians being able to purchase a flat bread called <i>ta</i> from stalls in the village streets.<p>The development of leavened bread can probably also be traced to prehistoric times. Yeast spores occur everywhere, including the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest will become naturally leavened. Although leavening is likely of prehistoric origin, the earliest archaeological evidence is from ancient Egypt. Scanning electron microscopy has detected yeast cells in some ancient Egyptian loaves. However, ancient Egyptian bread was made from emmer wheat and has a dense crumb. In cases where yeast cells are not visible, it is difficult to determine whether the bread was leavened by visual examination. As a result, the extent to which bread was leavened in ancient Egypt remains uncertain.<p>There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Air borne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder reported that the <!--del_lnk--> Gauls and <!--del_lnk--> Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples". Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening however was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough <!--del_lnk--> starter.<p>Even within antiquity there was a wide variety of breads available. In the <!--del_lnk--> Deipnosophistae, the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> author <!--del_lnk--> Athenaeus describes some of the breads, cakes, cookies, and pastries available in the Classical world. Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flour used to produce bread could also vary as noted by <!--del_lnk--> Diphilus when he declared "bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior. In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted."<p>Within <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a> bread served not only as a staple food but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the <!--del_lnk--> trencher, a piece of stale bread roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the <!--del_lnk--> 15th Century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety.<p><!--del_lnk--> Otto Frederick Rohwedder is considered to be the father of <!--del_lnk--> sliced bread. In <!--del_lnk--> 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until <!--del_lnk--> 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread.<p>For generations, white bread was considered the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark bread. However, the connotations reversed in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> with dark bread becoming preferred as having superior <a href="../../wp/n/Nutrition.htm" title="Nutrition">nutritional</a> value while white bread became associated with lower class ignorance of nutrition.<p>Another major advance happened in 1961 with the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Chorleywood Bread Process which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the <!--del_lnk--> fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. This process is now widely used around the world.<p>Recently, domestic <!--del_lnk--> breadmakers that automate the process of making bread are becoming popular in the home.<p><a id="Cultural_and_political_importance_in_the_United_Kingdom" name="Cultural_and_political_importance_in_the_United_Kingdom"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural and political importance in the United Kingdom</span></h2>
<p>As a foodstuff of great historical and contemporary importance, in many cultures bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition. The <!--del_lnk--> Lord's Prayer, for example, contains the line 'Give us today our daily bread'; here, 'bread' is commonly understood to mean necessities in general. In <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> the most usual phrase in work related demonstrations is "lehem, avoda" [bread, work], and during the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, the <!--del_lnk--> hippie community used the term bread as a euphemism for <a href="../../wp/m/Money.htm" title="Money">money</a>. The word bread is now commonly used around the world in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> speaking countries as a <!--del_lnk--> synonym for money. In part, derived from the <!--del_lnk--> rhyming slang "<b>Bread and honey</b>". The cultural importance of 'bread' goes beyond slang, however, to serve as a metaphor for basic necessities and living conditions in general. A 'bread-winner' is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision, for example. In <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland, bread was also seen as having the power to protect against <!--del_lnk--> fairies.<p>The political significance of bread is considerable. In Britain in the <!--del_lnk--> nineteenth century the inflated price of bread due to the <!--del_lnk--> Corn Laws caused major political and social divisions, and was central to debates over <!--del_lnk--> free trade and <!--del_lnk--> protectionism. The <!--del_lnk--> Assize of Bread and Ale in the <!--del_lnk--> thirteenth century showed the importance of bread in medieval times by setting heavy punishments for short-changing bakers, and the foodstuff appeared in <i><a href="../../wp/m/Magna_Carta.htm" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></i> a century later.<p><a id="Types" name="Types"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types</span></h2>
<p>Bread is a popular <a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" title="Food">food</a> in Western and most other societies, although East Asian societies typically prefer <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> or <!--del_lnk--> noodles. It is often made from a <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a>-<!--del_lnk--> flour <!--del_lnk--> dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an <!--del_lnk--> oven. Owing to its high levels of <!--del_lnk--> gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), <!--del_lnk--> common wheat (also known as bread wheat) is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, but bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including <!--del_lnk--> durum, <!--del_lnk--> spelt and <!--del_lnk--> emmer), <!--del_lnk--> rye, <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a> (or corn), and <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oat">oats</a>, usually, but not always, in combination with wheat flour. Although common wheat is best suited for making highly-risen white bread, other wheat species are capable of giving a good crumb. Spelt bread (<b>Dinkelbrot</b>) continues to be widely consumed in Germany, and emmer bread was a staple food in ancient Egypt.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h4>
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<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2109.jpg.htm" title="Image:Strucla sweet bread02.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2109.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>European sweetbread (strucla)</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 22px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2110.jpg.htm" title="Image:Four loaves.jpg"><img alt="" height="102" src="../../images/21/2110.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Four loaves</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2111.jpg.htm" title="Image:French bread DSC09293.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/21/2111.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>French bread</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2112.jpg.htm" title="Image:Breads and rolls.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/21/2112.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Breads and Bread Rolls at a bakery</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2113.jpg.htm" title="Image:Continental italian bread.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2113.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Continental Italian Bread</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 36px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2114.jpg.htm" title="Image:Tin vienna bread.jpg"><img alt="" height="74" src="../../images/21/2114.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Tin Vienna Bread</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2115.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bread in a traditional oven.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2115.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Bread in a traditional oven</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2116.jpg.htm" title="Image:Brood.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2116.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Pre-sliced bread</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2117.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bread rolls.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/21/2117.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Bread rolls</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2118.jpg.htm" title="Image:Pain aux noix.jpg"><img alt="" height="83" src="../../images/21/2118.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i>Pain aux noix</i> (nut bread)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 32px 0;"><a href="../../images/98/9890.jpg.htm" title="Image:Various grains.jpg"><img alt="" height="81" src="../../images/21/2119.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A <!--del_lnk--> cereal grain</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 18px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2120.jpg.htm" title="Image:Phulka.jpg"><img alt="" height="110" src="../../images/21/2120.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>An Indian/Pakistani form of flatbread- Roti</div>
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<p><a id="Composition_and_chemistry" name="Composition_and_chemistry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Composition and chemistry</span></h2>
<p><a id="Formulation" name="Formulation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Formulation</span></h3>
<p>The amount of water and flour are the most significant measurements in a bread recipe, as they affect texture and crumb the most. Professional bakers use a system of percentages known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Bakers' Percentage</i> in their recipe formulations, and measure ingredients by weight instead of by volume. Measurement by weight is much more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, especially for the dry ingredients.<p>Flour is always 100%, and the rest of the ingredients are a percent of that amount by weight. Common table bread in the U.S. uses approximately 50% water, resulting in a finely textured, light, bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO<sub>2</sub> bubbles, and a coarser bread crumb. One pound (500 <!--del_lnk--> g) of flour will yield a standard loaf of bread, or two french loaves.<p><a id="Flour" name="Flour"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flour</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Flour is a product made from grain that has been ground into a powdery consistency. It is flour that provides the primary structure to the final baked bread. Commonly available flours are made from rye, barley, maize, and other grains, but it is wheat flour that is most commonly used for breads. Each of these grains provides starch and protein to the final product.<p>Wheat flour in addition to its starch contains three water soluble proteins groups, <!--del_lnk--> albumin, <!--del_lnk--> globulin, <!--del_lnk--> proteoses, and two non-water soluble proteins groups, <!--del_lnk--> glutenin and <!--del_lnk--> gliadin. When flour is mixed with water the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting dough. When worked by kneading, the glutenin forms strands of long thin chainlike molecules while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins is known as <!--del_lnk--> gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to <!--del_lnk--> autolyse.<p><a id="Liquids" name="Liquids"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Liquids</span></h3>
<p>Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The volume of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of 1 cup (2 <!--del_lnk--> dL) of liquid to 3 cups (7 dL) of flour is common for yeast breads while recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour by volume. In addition to water, other types of liquids that may be used include dairy products, fruit juices, or beer. In addition to the water in each of these they also bring additional sweeteners, fats, and or leavening components.<p><a id="Leavening" name="Leavening"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Leavening</span></h3>
<p>Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread consumed in the West is leavened. However, <!--del_lnk--> unleavened breads have symbolic importance in <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. Jews consume unleavened breads such as <!--del_lnk--> Matzo during <!--del_lnk--> Passover. They are also used in the <!--del_lnk--> Christan liturgy when they perform the <!--del_lnk--> Eucharist, a rite derived from the <a href="../../wp/l/Last_Supper.htm" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a> when <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus</a> broke bread with his disciples during a <!--del_lnk--> Passover Seder.<p><a id="Chemical_leavening" name="Chemical_leavening"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Chemical leavening</span></h4>
<p>A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use <!--del_lnk--> baking powder or a <!--del_lnk--> self-rising flour that includes baking powder. The second is to have an acidic ingredient such as <!--del_lnk--> buttermilk and add <!--del_lnk--> baking soda. The reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas.<p>Chemically-leavened breads are called <i>quick breads</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> soda breads</i>. This technique is commonly used to make <!--del_lnk--> muffins and sweet breads such as <!--del_lnk--> banana bread.<p><a id="Yeast_leavening" name="Yeast_leavening"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Yeast leavening</span></h4>
<p>Many breads are leavened by <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a>, a type of single-celled <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungus</a>. The yeast used for leavening bread is <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, the same species used for brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates in the flour, including any <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, producing <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. Most bakers in the U.S. leaven their doughs with commercially produced <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Baker's yeast">baker's yeast</a>. Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a <!--del_lnk--> pure culture.<p>Both the baker's yeast, and the sourdough method of baking bread follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent (baker's yeast or sourdough starter). Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not necessary to bake bread, but often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often <i>punch down</i> the dough and let it rise again), then loaves are formed and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an <!--del_lnk--> oven.<p>Many breads are made from a <i>straight dough</i>, which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough baked after the rising time. Alternatively, doughs can be made with the <i>starter method</i>, when some of the flour, water, and the leavening are combined a day or so ahead of baking, and allowed to ferment overnight. (Such as the <!--del_lnk--> poolish typically used for <!--del_lnk--> baguettes) On the day of the baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the rest of the process is the same as that for straight doughs. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the highly reliable results of baker's yeast, and the flavor/complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available.<p><a id="Sourdough" name="Sourdough"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Sourdough</span></h4>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2121.jpg.htm" title="Sourdough loaves"><img alt="Sourdough loaves" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sour_dough_loaves02.jpg" src="../../images/21/2121.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2121.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sourdough loaves</div>
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<p>The sour taste of <!--del_lnk--> sourdoughs actually comes not from the yeast, but from a <!--del_lnk--> lactobacillus, with which the yeast lives in <!--del_lnk--> symbiosis. The lactobacillus feeds on the byproducts of the yeast fermentation, and in turn makes the culture go sour by excreting <!--del_lnk--> lactic acid, which protects it from spoiling (since most microbes are unable to survive in an acid environment). All breads used to be sourdoughs, and the leavening process was not understood until the 19th century, when with the advance of microscopes, scientists were able to discover the microbes that make the dough rise. Since then, strains of yeast have been selected and cultured mainly for reliability and quickness of fermentation. Billions of cells of these strains are then packaged and marketed as "Baker's Yeast". Bread made with baker's yeast is not sour because of the absence of the lactobacillus. Bakers around the world quickly embraced baker's yeast for it made baking simple and so allowed for more flexibility in the bakery's operations. It made baking quick as well, allowing bakeries to make fresh bread from scratch as often as three times a day. While European bakeries kept producing sourdough breads, in the U.S., sourdough baking was widely replaced by baker's yeast, and only recently has that country (or parts of it, at least) seen the rebirth of sour-vinegar dough in artisan bakeries.<p>Sourdough breads are most often made with a <i>sourdough starter</i> (not to be confused with the starter method discussed above). A sourdough starter is a culture of yeast and lactobacillus. It is essentially a dough-like or pancake-like flour/water mixture in which the yeast and lactobacilli live. A starter can be maintained indefinitely by periodically discarding a part of it and <i>refreshing</i> it by adding fresh flour and water. (When refrigerated, a starter can go weeks without needing to be <i>fed</i>.) There are starters owned by bakeries and families that are several human generations old, much revered for creating a special taste or texture. Starters can be obtained by taking a piece of another starter and growing it, or they can be made from scratch. There are hobbyist groups on the web who will send their starter for a stamped, self-addressed envelope, and there are even mailorder companies that sell different starters from all over the world. An acquired starter has the advantage to be more proven and <i>established</i> (stable and reliable, resisting spoiling and behaving predictably) than from-scratch starters.<p>There are other ways of sourdough baking and culture maintenance. A more traditional one is the process that was followed by peasant families throughout Europe in past centuries. The family (usually the woman was in charge of breadmaking) would bake on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, then a piece of it was saved (to be the starter for next week's bread). The rest was formed into loaves which were marked with the family sign (this is where today's decorative <i>slashing</i> of bread loaves originates from), and taken to the communal oven to bake. These communal ovens over time evolved into what we know today as bakeries, when certain people specialized in bread baking, and with time enhanced the process so far as to be able to mass produce cheap bread for everyone in the village.<p><a id="San_Francisco_sourdoughs" name="San_Francisco_sourdoughs"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">San Francisco sourdoughs</span></h5>
<p>The most famous sourdough bread made in the U.S. is the <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco Sourdough, which in contrast to the majority of the country has remained in continuous production for nearly 150 years, with some bakeries able to trace their starters back to California's territorial period. It is a white bread, characterized by a pronounced sourness (not all sourdoughs are as sour as the San Francisco Sourdough), so much so that the dominant strain of lactobacillus in sourdough starters was named <i>Lactobacillus sanfrancisco</i>.<p><a id="Steam_leavening" name="Steam_leavening"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Steam leavening</span></h4>
<p>The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable. The best known steam-leavened bread is the <!--del_lnk--> popover. Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked.<p>Steam leavening happens regardless of the rising agents (soda powder, yeast, baking-powder, sour dough, egg snow…)<ul>
<li>The rising agent generates carbon dioxide - or already contains air bubbles.<li>The heat vaporises the water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough.<li>The steam expands and makes the bread rise.</ul>
<p>It is actually the main factor in the rise. <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO<sub>2</sub> generation is stopped.<p><a id="Bacterial_leavening" name="Bacterial_leavening"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Bacterial leavening</span></h4>
<p>Salt-risen bread employs a form of bacterial leavening that does not require yeast. Although the leavening action is not always consistent, and requires close attention to the incubating conditions, this bread is making a comeback due to its unique cheese-like flavor and fine texture. <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Aeration" name="Aeration"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Aeration</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Aerated bread is leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. The technique is no longer in common use, but from the mid 19th to 20th centuries bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the <!--del_lnk--> Aerated Bread Company and sold in its high-street <!--del_lnk--> tea rooms.<p><a id="Fats_or_shortenings" name="Fats_or_shortenings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fats or shortenings</span></h3>
<p>Fats such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs affects the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein and also helping hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect will cause the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that will produce the greatest leavening action.<p>This effect is used most popularly in <!--del_lnk--> cookies, in that increased fat - typically shortening - causes a harder cookie (more popular in cookies such as chocolate chip) while increased flour causes a softer cookie (more popular in cookies such as oatmeal). As it is typically not acceptable to have harder bread, this effect is usually not available for use in breads.<p>In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize the breads they are used in and also help to keep the bread fresh longer after baking.<p><a id="Breads_across_different_cultures" name="Breads_across_different_cultures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Breads across different cultures</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2122.jpg.htm" title="Sourdough breads like this baguette (left) and roundbread begin with a starter passed down from excess batter from a previous loaf."><img alt="Sourdough breads like this baguette (left) and roundbread begin with a starter passed down from excess batter from a previous loaf." height="251" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sourdoughbread.jpg" src="../../images/21/2122.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2122.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sourdough breads like this <!--del_lnk--> baguette (left) and roundbread begin with a starter passed down from excess batter from a previous loaf.</div>
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<p>There are many variations on the basic recipe of bread, including <!--del_lnk--> pizza, <!--del_lnk--> chapatis, <!--del_lnk--> tortillas, <!--del_lnk--> baguettes, <!--del_lnk--> brioche, <!--del_lnk--> pitas, <!--del_lnk--> lavash, <!--del_lnk--> biscuits, <!--del_lnk--> pretzels, <!--del_lnk--> naan, <!--del_lnk--> bagels, <!--del_lnk--> puris, and many other variations.<ul>
<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Britain and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the most widely consumed type of bread is soft-textured with a thin crust and is sold ready-sliced in packages. It is usually eaten with the crust, but some eaters or preparers may remove the crust due to a personal preference or style of serving, as for <!--del_lnk--> high tea.<li>In South Asia ( <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, etc.), <!--del_lnk--> Roti or <!--del_lnk--> Chapati, types of flat breads, are commonly used. A variant uses mustard flour rather than white flour. Another variant is <!--del_lnk--> Puri, a thin flat bread which is fried rather than baked and puffs up while cooked. <!--del_lnk--> Paratha is another variation on <!--del_lnk--> Roti. <!--del_lnk--> Nan, however, is baked in brick ovens and is rarely prepared at home. White and brown breads are also very common, but not as much as <!--del_lnk--> Roti.<li><a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> have traditionally baked <!--del_lnk--> challah, a type of <!--del_lnk--> egg bread with a thin, hard crust and a soft, well-leavened centre. It is made by wrapping plaits of dough and then lightly baking them in an oven. Challah is sometimes sweetened using <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a> and sometimes includes <!--del_lnk--> raisins.<li>In <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, another form of bread called plain bread is also consumed. Plain bread loaves are noticeably taller and thinner, with burned crusts at only the top and bottom of the loaf. Plain bread has a much firmer texture than English and American pan bread. Plain Bread is becoming less common as the bread consumed elsewhere in Britain is becoming more popular with consumers.<li>In <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, pan bread is known as <i><!--del_lnk--> pain de mie</i> and is used only for <!--del_lnk--> toast or for making <!--del_lnk--> stuffing; standard bread (in the form of <!--del_lnk--> baguettes or thicker breads) has a thick crust and often has large bubbles of air inside. It is often baked three times daily and is sold totally unwrapped to keep the crust crisp. Some fancy breads contain <!--del_lnk--> walnuts, or are encrusted with <!--del_lnk--> poppy seeds.<li><!--del_lnk--> Focaccia is quite popular in Italy, and is known in <!--del_lnk--> Provence as <b>fougasse</b> or as <b>fouace</b> in the rest of southern France. It is usually seasoned with olive oil and herbs, and often either topped with cheese or stuffed with meat or vegetables. Focaccia doughs are similar in style and texture to pizza doughs.<li><i>White bread</i> is made from flour containing only the central core of the grain (endosperm).<li><i>Brown bread</i> is made with endosperm and 10% bran.<li><i>Whole meal bread</i> contains the whole of the wheat grain (endosperm and bran).<li><i>Wheat germ bread</i> has added wheat germ for flavouring.<li><i>Whole grain bread</i> is white bread with added whole grains to increase the fibre content.<li><i>Granary bread</i> is bread made from granary flour. Trademarked to <!--del_lnk--> Hovis, it is made from malted white or brown flour, wheat germ and whole grains.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Stottie cake</i> is a thick, flat, round loaf. Stotties are common in the <!--del_lnk--> North East of England. Although it is called a <!--del_lnk--> cake, it is a type of bread.<li>Being the simplest, cheapest and most basic type of food, bread is often referred as a metaphor for "food" in general, in some languages and dialects, such as <!--del_lnk--> Greek.<li>Christian traditional societies (usually in poor communities), used to respect bread since <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> symbolised his body with it. The <!--del_lnk--> sign of the cross was performed with the knife on the bread's surface, before the loaf was cut. Sometimes it was considered a sin to desecrate bread (e.g., throw it away).</ul>
<p><a id="Bread_in_Germany" name="Bread_in_Germany"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bread in Germany</span></h3>
<p>Germany has the widest variety of bread available to its residents. About 6,000 types of breads and approximately 1200 different types of pastry and rolls are produced in about 17,000 bakeries and another 10,000 in-shop bakeries. Bread is served with almost every meal. A German breakfast typically consists of sliced bread or <i>Semmeln</i> (rolls) with either cold cuts, cheese etc. or jam, honey and other sweet toppings. Supper, traditionally, usually just consists of cold cuts and cheese (Abendbrot), although this tradition is rapidly changing. Bread is not considered a side dish and is considered important for a healthy diet.<p>Germany's top ten in bread are:<ol>
<li>Rye-wheat ("Roggenmischbrot")<li>Toast bread ("Toastbrot")<li>Whole-grain ("Vollkornbrot")<li>Wheat-rye ("Weizenmischbrot")<li>White bread ("Weißbrot")<li>Multi-grain ("Mehrkornbrot")<li>Rye ("Roggenbrot")<li>Sunflower seed ("Sonnenblumenkernbrot")<li>Pumpkin seed ("Kürbiskernbrot")<li>Onion bread ("Zwiebelbrot")</ol>
<p>Especially the darker kinds of bread like <i>Vollkornbrot</i> or <i>Schwarzbrot</i> are typical of German cuisine. Internationally well known is <i><!--del_lnk--> Pumpernickel</i> which is steamed for a very long time, it is one kind of dark bread from Germany but not representative. Most German breads are made with sourdough. Whole grain is preferred for high fibre. Germans use almost all available types of grain for their breads — wheat, rye, barley, spelt, oats, sorghum, corn and rice. Some breads are even made from potato flour.<p><a id="Denmark_and_Bread" name="Denmark_and_Bread"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and Bread</span></h3>
<p>Bread is a very important part of the <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavian table. It is usually enjoyed at home, in the workplace or in Danish <!--del_lnk--> restaurants and is usually based primarily on <i><!--del_lnk--> rugbrød</i>, which is unleavened <!--del_lnk--> rye bread. It is a dark, heavy bread which is often bought pre-sliced, in varieties from light-coloured <!--del_lnk--> rye, to very dark, and refined to <!--del_lnk--> whole grain. It forms the basis of <i><!--del_lnk--> smørrebrød</i>, which is closely related to the Swedish <i><!--del_lnk--> smörgås</i>, literally 'spread bread' (<i>smør</i> is <a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" title="Butter">butter</a>). Traditional toppings include <i>sild</i>, which are pickled <!--del_lnk--> herrings (<i>marinerede</i> - plain, <i>krydder</i> - spiced, or <i>karry</i> - curried, being the most popular), slightly sweeter than Dutch or <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> herrings; thinly-sliced <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a> in many varieties; sliced <!--del_lnk--> cucumber, <!--del_lnk--> tomato and boiled eggs; <i>leverpostej</i>, which is <!--del_lnk--> pork liver-paste; dozens of types of cured or processed meat in thin slices, or smoked fish such as <!--del_lnk--> salmon; <!--del_lnk--> mackerel in tomato sauce; pickled <!--del_lnk--> cucumber; boiled egg, and rings of <!--del_lnk--> red onion. <!--del_lnk--> Mayonnaise mixed with <!--del_lnk--> peas and diced <a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" title="Carrot">carrot</a>, <!--del_lnk--> remoulade or other thick sauces often top the layered open <!--del_lnk--> sandwich, which is usually eaten with <!--del_lnk--> utensils. It is custom to pass the dish of sliced breads around the table, and then to pass around each dish of toppings, and people help themselves. Hundreds of combinations and varieties of smørrebord are available.<p>A famous and very old restaurant in <a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>'s historic <!--del_lnk--> Nyhavn harbour, <!--del_lnk--> Ida Davidsen, serves up many imaginative combinations, and the fridge in a typical Danish home will often be stocked with toppings for <i><!--del_lnk--> rugbrødsmad</i>, or "rye bread meal", which is a way of saying "a plain normal lunch". Denmark has strong traditions of special types of food eaten at particular times of the year, such as smoked eel with slices of a sort of scrambled-egg loaf eaten on rye bread at New Year, accompanied by beer. Other types of bread are sold in <!--del_lnk--> supermarkets and in <!--del_lnk--> bakeries, which are important shops in every town and shopping centre. Many women still bake at home, particularly <i><!--del_lnk--> boller</i>, which are small bread rolls, and often the traditional <i><!--del_lnk--> kringle</i>, which is a long cooked dough with <!--del_lnk--> currants and a <!--del_lnk--> brown sugar and <a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" title="Butter">butter</a> paste. Home-baked bread uses moist <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a>, and many thousands of packs are sold every day, the major brand being a division of <!--del_lnk--> Carlsberg Brewery. In the great trucking strikes of 1998, yeast was one of the first products to be sold out in shops, indicating the importance of home baking in Denmark. Sliced square white bread is known in Denmark as <i><!--del_lnk--> franskbrød</i>, literally "<a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> bread", and is not as common as it is in many other western countries. People often eat <!--del_lnk--> jam with cheese on crusty white bread for <!--del_lnk--> breakfast, and also very thin slices of <a href="../../wp/c/Chocolate.htm" title="Chocolate">chocolate</a>, called <i><!--del_lnk--> pålægschokolade</i>.<p>Another popular way of consuming bread in Denmark is as tiny buns for long hotdogs, like small puffy napkins made out of white bread, which are available in little kiosks everywhere and in <i>pølservogn</i> ("sausage-vans") that move about the cities.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> anime and <!--del_lnk--> manga <!--del_lnk--> Yakitate!! Japan chronicles the quest of a young baker to create a 'bread that tastes better than <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>'; i.e., one that the <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> people would accept as a staple food.<li>The phrase "<!--del_lnk--> the greatest thing since sliced bread", to mean something of superlative quality, is common in the UK and United States, there is also at least a German and French equivalent.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lithuanian folk saying: "Bread cries when a lazy person eats it". Refers to how difficult it was to produce bread, from sowing to baking, in antiquity.<li>The word "companion" literally means one with whom bread is shared (<i>com</i> with + <i>pani</i> bread).<li>In some Asian Christian churches, the people eat <!--del_lnk--> rice cakes instead of bread served in the <!--del_lnk--> holy communion.<li><a href="../../wp/t/Turkmenistan.htm" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmen</a> President <!--del_lnk--> Saparmyrat Niyazov re-named the word <i>bread</i> (<i>çorek</i> [chorek]) after his mother (<i>Gurbansoltan eže</i> [Gurbansoltan edzhe]), as another of his <!--del_lnk--> eccentric policies.<li>There are some kinds of bread that can take four days to make.</ul>
<p><a id="Related_patents" name="Related_patents"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Related patents</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1867377 -- Bread slicer<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1740038 -- Bread slicer wire<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1591357 -- Bread rack<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1724368 -- Bread staples<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1759592 -- Bread staples<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 1935996 -- Bread handler<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 2034250 -- Bread handler<li><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Patent 2061315 -- Bread handler</ul>
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Breaker_Morant
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<dd><i>For the film of the same name, see</i> <!--del_lnk--> 'Breaker' Morant (film)</dl>
<p><b>Harry 'Breaker' Harbord Morant</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 1864- <!--del_lnk--> 27 February <!--del_lnk--> 1902) was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">Anglo</a>-<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> <!--del_lnk--> drover, <!--del_lnk--> horseman, <!--del_lnk--> poet and <!--del_lnk--> soldier whose renowned skill with horses earned him the nickname "The Breaker." Articulate, intelligent and well educated, he was also a published poet and became one of the better-known "back-block bards" of the 1890s, with the bulk of his work appearing in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Bulletin</i> magazine.<p>During his service in the <a href="../../wp/s/Second_Boer_War.htm" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>, Morant ordered the summary <!--del_lnk--> execution of several <!--del_lnk--> Afrikaner and African prisoners, which led to his controversial <!--del_lnk--> court-martial and execution for murder by the <!--del_lnk--> British Army; his <!--del_lnk--> death warrant was personally signed by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> commander in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Kitchener.<p>In the century since his death Morant has become a <!--del_lnk--> folk hero in Australia. His story has been the subject of several books and a major Australian <!--del_lnk--> feature film. Even during his lifetime there was a great deal of conflicting information about this romantic but elusive figure, and many of the stories about him are undoubtedly <!--del_lnk--> apocryphal.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Accounts of Morant's life before the Boer War vary considerably and it appears that Morant himself fabricated a number of these romantic legends. His full name was either Henry Harbord Morant or Edwin Henry Murrant; he was certainly born in England, probably in <!--del_lnk--> Devon; his date of birth is believed to have been around Christmas <!--del_lnk--> 1864 or sometime in <!--del_lnk--> 1865. He spent his early years in the Union Workhouse in <!--del_lnk--> Bridgwater, England, where his mother was employed, he also knew a fellow called Daniel Green, who was his friend and mentor.<p>Morant is often described as being 'well educated'. He claimed to be the illegitimate son of <!--del_lnk--> Admiral Sir George Digby Morant of the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, a claim often repeated as fact by later writers, although the Admiral is said to have denied it. Other sources name his parents as Edwin Murrant and Catherine Riely. Although it is yet to be proven, Australian author <!--del_lnk--> Nick Bleszynski claims that there is 'strong <!--del_lnk--> circumstantial evidence' to suggest that The Breaker was indeed the son of Admiral Morant.<p>Through an unknown set of circumstances, the young Morant came into the care of a wealthy Scottish author, soldier, hunt-master and golfer, <!--del_lnk--> George Whyte-Melville. Regarded as the greatest British equestrian of his day, he is believed to have exerted a strong influence on Morant, who clearly flourished under his patronage, and learned the horsemanship for which he was to become famous.<p>Morant emigrated to Australia in either <!--del_lnk--> 1883 or <!--del_lnk--> 1884 and settled in outback <!--del_lnk--> Queensland. Over the next fifteen years, working in Queensland, <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales and <!--del_lnk--> South Australia, the charismatic roustabout made a name for himself as a hard-drinking, womanising bush poet and gained renown as a fearless and expert horseman.<p>Morant worked in a variety of occupations. He reportedly traded in horses in <!--del_lnk--> Charters Towers, then worked for a time on a newspaper at <!--del_lnk--> Hughenden in 1884 but there are suggestions that he left both towns as a result of debts. He then drifted around for some time until he found work as a bookkeeper and storeman on the Esmaralda cattle station.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1884 Morant married Daisy May O'Dwyer, who later became famous in Australia as the anthropologist <!--del_lnk--> Daisy Bates, but the couple divorced soon after; Daisy reportedly threw him out after he failed to pay for the wedding and then stole some pigs and a saddle. He then worked for several years as an itinerant drover and horse-breaker, as well as writing his popular bush ballads, becoming known to and friendly with famed Australian poets <!--del_lnk--> Henry Lawson, <!--del_lnk--> Banjo Patterson and <!--del_lnk--> William Ogilvie.<p><a id="Military_career" name="Military_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military career</span></h2>
<p>At the time Morant volunteered for military service (in <!--del_lnk--> 1899), the formal federation of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Australia was still two years away. Australia consisted of separate colonies, each of which was still subject to direct British rule, and because the population comprised such a high proportion of British migrants, most Australians still had strong ties to "The Mother Country". Consequently thousands of Australian men volunteered to fight for Britain in the Boer War, which pitted British colonial forces against Dutch <!--del_lnk--> Boer settlers in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, as Britain attempted to expand its interests into the gold and diamond-rich Boer Republics of the <!--del_lnk--> Transvaal and <!--del_lnk--> Orange Free State Morants good friend Daniel Green served with Morant, but was shot along side capt.Hunt after the attack on 'Duiwelskloof'.<p>Evidently seeing it as a chance to return to England, Morant enlisted with the second contingent of the <!--del_lnk--> South Australian Mounted Rifles. While in Adelaide, Morant was reportedly invited to visit the summer residence of the South Australian governor, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Tennyson; after completing his training he was appointed <!--del_lnk--> Lance Corporal and his <!--del_lnk--> regiment embarked for the <!--del_lnk--> Transvaal on <!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1900.<p>In many respects the terrain and climate of South Africa is remarkably similar to that of outback Australia, so Morant was in his element. His superb horsemanship, expert bush skills and educated manner soon attracted the attention of his superiors. South Australian <!--del_lnk--> Colonel Joseph Gordon recommended him as a dispatch rider to <!--del_lnk--> Bennet Burleigh, the <!--del_lnk--> war correspondent of the London <!--del_lnk--> Daily Telegraph; the job reportedly provided the debonair Morant with ample opportunity to visit the nearby hospital and dally with the nurses.<p>The statement of service Morant tendered at his trial is quoted, apparently verbatim, in the book written by his friend and colleague George Witton. According to that account, Morant was commissioned as a <!--del_lnk--> Lieutenant in the <!--del_lnk--> Bushveldt Carbineers (BVC) on April 1, 1901; prior to that he had served in the South Australian Second Contingent for nine months with the rank of sergeant.<p>In March 1900 Morant carried despatches for the Flying Column to Prieska, under Col. Lowe, 7th D.G. He was in the general advance to <!--del_lnk--> Bloemfontein and took part in the engagements of <!--del_lnk--> Karee Siding and <!--del_lnk--> Kroonstadt, and other engagements with <!--del_lnk--> Lord Roberts until the entry into <a href="../../wp/p/Pretoria.htm" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a>. He was at Diamond Hill and was then attached to General French's staff, Cavalry Brigade, as war correspondent with <!--del_lnk--> Bennet Burleigh of the London <!--del_lnk--> Daily Telegraph. He accompanied that column through Middelburgh and Belfast to the occupation of Barberton. He was promoted to a commission in the Transvaal Constabulary, but at this point he took leave and returned to England for six months. Here he became close friends with <!--del_lnk--> Captain Percy Hunt, and Morant and Hunt became engaged to two sisters.<p>A previously unpublished photo in Nick Bleszinksi's book, taken ca. 1900 (presumably while on leave), shows the 35-year-old Morant to have been a debonair and strikingly handsome man. His short dark hair, carefully groomed, surmounts chiselled features and piercing pale eyes. His left foot rests on a stone; leaning slightly to his left, his left arm rests across the raised leg, riding crop held between thumb and forefinger, a cloth cap dangling from his fingers. Immaculately dressed in an expensive tailored riding outfit, his right thumb is hooked nonchalantly in the coat pocket, a cigarette dangling between his first two fingers.<p><a id="The_guerrilla_campaign.2C_1901-1902" name="The_guerrilla_campaign.2C_1901-1902"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The guerrilla campaign, 1901-1902</span></h2>
<p>Following their defeats on the battlefield during 1899-1900, the Boer rebels embarked on a <!--del_lnk--> guerrilla <!--del_lnk--> campaign against the British. In response, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Kitchener, the British commander in South Africa assembled and deployed a number of <!--del_lnk--> irregular regiments to combat Boer <!--del_lnk--> commando units and protect British interests in the region.<p>On his return from leave, Morant joined one of these irregular units, the BVC, a 320-strong regiment that had been formed in February 1901 under the command of an Australian, <!--del_lnk--> Colonel R.W. Lenehan. Following his friend's lead, Captain Hunt joined the BVC soon after.<p>The regiment, based in <!--del_lnk--> Pietersburg, 180 miles north of Pretoria, saw action in the <!--del_lnk--> Spelonken region of the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Transvaal during 1901-1902. The region was remote, wild and dangerous and was also in a particularly unhealthy <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malarial</a> area, so the British had difficulty in finding troops; as a result many colonial soldiers were enlisted. About forty percent of the men in the BVC were Australians, but the regiment also included about forty surrendered Boers who had been recruited from the <!--del_lnk--> internment camps, and their presence was greatly resented by the Australians. The garrison was soon divided into two columns, one of which was under the command of Lt Morant, operating in the Strydpoort district, about thirty miles south-east of <!--del_lnk--> Pietersburg.<p>During the often savage guerrilla campaign, there were numerous <!--del_lnk--> atrocities on both sides. The Boer commandos had no uniform, they fought in their ordinary civilian attire. On long service, as the state of their clothing became progressively worse, many resorted to taking the clothes of captured troops. Some Boer commandos exploited the resulting potential for confusion, using the uniforms to gain a strategic advantage in battle by masquerading as British soldiers; they also blew up trains. Kitchener responded with equal ruthlessness, ordering the destruction of Boer farms and the mass internment of refugees and prisoners of war in order to deprive the commandos of their civilian support base. Kitchener foiled the train-wrecking by ordering the placing of Boer civilians on the front of trains.<p>Although unknown to the general public and denied by the Army during Morant's trial, it is evident that Kitchener did issue an order that British and colonial troops were to shoot any Boer commandos they encountered who were dressed in khaki. This secret order, confirmed in a <!--del_lnk--> cipher <!--del_lnk--> telegram sent by Kitchener to Lord Roberts, the British Secretary of War, on <!--del_lnk--> November 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1901, was to be Morant's undoing.<p>Morant's unit was very successful in eliminating roving bands of enemy commandos from their area, forcing the Boers to transfer their activities to the <!--del_lnk--> Bandolier Kop area, on the northern fringe of the <!--del_lnk--> Spelonken. In response, the BVC moved north under the command of a British officer, <!--del_lnk--> Captain James Huntley Robertson, and they established a command post in a farmhouse about 90 miles north of Pietersburg, which they renamed <!--del_lnk--> Fort Edward.<p>The other ranking officer at the Fort was <!--del_lnk--> Captain Alfred Taylor, a special officer with the Army's Intelligence Department. He had been selected and sent to Spelonken by Kitchener himself because of his knowledge of "the natives". Witton says that as far as the Africans were concerned,<blockquote>
<p>"...he had a free hand and the power of life and death; he was known and feared by them from the Zambesi to the Spelonken, and was called by them 'Bulala', which means to kill, to slay."</blockquote>
<p>He had the power to order out patrols and, according to Witton, it was generally understood that Taylor was the commander at Spelonken, and that Taylor admitted as much in evidence at the court-martial. He was, as Bleszynski notes, implicated in all the killings in the case, yet was acquitted of all charges. Taylor's role is one of the most problematic aspects of the case.<p>By all accounts, Captain Robertson had great difficulty in maintaining discipline and some of his troops ran wild — they looted a <!--del_lnk--> rum convoy, kept seized Boer <!--del_lnk--> livestock for themselves, and appropriated <!--del_lnk--> liquor and <!--del_lnk--> stills from the Boer farms they raided; according to George Witton's memoir, the situation was bordering on <!--del_lnk--> mutiny by mid-year.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 2, 1901 Captain Taylor received word of a disturbing incident — a few days earlier, a group of six Boers had approached the fort, apparently intending to <!--del_lnk--> surrender, but they were intercepted by a British patrol led by <!--del_lnk--> Sergeant Major Morrison and on his orders they were all shot. When this news reached Pietersburg, the Fort Edward detachment was recalled; after an enquiry, Robertson and Morrison were allowed to resign unconditionally. His squadron was replaced by a new one under the command of Capt. Hunt and which included Lts Morant, Handcock and Witton.<p><a id="Events_leading_to_Morant.27s_arrest" name="Events_leading_to_Morant.27s_arrest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events leading to Morant's arrest</span></h2>
<p>Like so much of his story, the exact sequence and nature of the events leading up to Morant's arrest and trial are still hotly disputed and accounts vary considerably. While it seems clear that some members of the BVC were responsible for shooting Boer prisoners and others, the precise circumstances of these killings and the identities of those responsible will probably never be known for certain. The following account is drawn mainly from the only surviving eyewitness source, the <!--del_lnk--> 1907 book "<!--del_lnk--> Scapegoats Of The Empire" by Lt George Witton, one of the three Australians sentenced to death for the alleged murders and the only one to escape execution.<p>With Hunt now commanding the detachment at Fort Edwards, discipline was immediately re-imposed by Lts Morant and Handcock, but this was resisted by some. In one incident, several members of a supply convoy led by Lt Picton looted the rum it was carrying, so they were arrested for <!--del_lnk--> insubordination and for threatening to shoot Picton. They escaped to Pietersburg but Capt. Hunt sent a report to Col. Lenehan, who had them detained. When the matter was brought before Col. Hall, the commandant of Pietersburg, he ordered the offenders to be discharged from the regiment and released. Witton explicitly accuses these disaffected troopers of being responsible for "the monstrous and extravagant reports about the BVC which appeared later in the English and colonial press."<p>Back at Fort Edward, the seized livestock was collected and handed over to the proper authorities and the stills were broken up, but according to Witton these actions were resented by the perpetrators and as a result Morant and Handcock were "detested" by certain members of the detachment.<p>Witton arrived at Fort Edwards on August 3 with Sgt Major Hammett and thirty men, and it was at this point that he met Morant and Handcock for the first time.<p><a id="Death_of_Capt._Hunt" name="Death_of_Capt._Hunt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Death of Capt. Hunt</span></h3>
<p>The pivotal event of the Morant affair took place two days later, on the night of <!--del_lnk--> August 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1901. Capt. Hunt led a seventeen-man patrol to a Boer <!--del_lnk--> farmhouse called 'Duiwelskloof' (Devil's Ravine), about 80 miles east of the Fort, hoping to capture its owner, the Boer commando leader Veldt Cornet Viljoen. Hunt also had several armed native African <!--del_lnk--> irregulars with him and Witton claims that although "those in authority" denied the use of African <!--del_lnk--> auxiliaries, they were in fact widely used and were responsible for "the most hideous atrocities".<p>Hunt had been told that Viljoen had only twenty men with him, but this appears to have been a ruse and Viljoen was lying in wait with eighty men. The Boers surprised the British as they approached and during the ensuing <!--del_lnk--> skirmish Viljoen was killed, as was one of the troopers, Sgt Eland, the son of a local Boer farmer. Witnesses later testified that Capt. Hunt was wounded in the chest while firing through the windows and had to be left behind, but that he was still alive when the British retreated. Another trooper, Yates, was captured by the Boers, held prisoner for two days, stripped of all his clothes and possessions and was so badly beaten that after his rescue he had to spend several weeks in hospital.<p>When news of Hunt's death reached the fort, it had a profound effect on Morant — Witton says he became "like a man demented". He immediately ordered every available man out on patrol, broke down while addressing the men, and ordered them to avenge the death of their captain and "give no quarter".<p>Hunt's body was recovered the next day. It had been found lying in a gutter, naked and mutilated — the sinews at the backs of both knees and ankles had been severed, his legs were slashed with long knife cuts, his face had been crushed by <!--del_lnk--> hob-nailed boots. According to <!--del_lnk--> Kit Denton, he had also been <!--del_lnk--> castrated, but Witton makes no mention of this.<p>Hunt's battered body was taken to the nearby Reuter's Mission Station, where it was washed and buried by Rev. J.F. Reuter and Hunt's native servant Aaron, who corroborated the troopers' statements about the condition of the body. Significantly, Morant did not see Hunt's body himself — he arrived about an hour after the burial. He questioned the men about Hunt's death and, convinced his friend had been murdered in cold blood, he vowed to give no quarter and take no prisoners. Morant declared that he had on occasion ignored Hunt's order to this effect in the past, but that he would carry it out in the future.<p><a id="Reprisals_in_Hunt.27s_name" name="Reprisals_in_Hunt.27s_name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reprisals in Hunt's name</span></h3>
<p>The following day, after leaving a few men to guard the mission (which the Boers threatened to burn in reprisal for harboring the British) Morant led his unit back to the <!--del_lnk--> Viljoen farm. It had been abandoned, so they tracked the retreating Boers all day, sighting them just on dusk. As they closed in, the hot-headed Morant opened fire too early and they lost the element of surprise, so most of the Boers escaped. They did however capture one wounded commando called Visser.<p>The next morning, as they continued their pursuit, a native runner brought a message that the lightly manned Fort Edward was in danger of being attacked by the Boers, so Morant decided to abandon the chase.<p>At this point he searched and questioned Visser and found items of British uniform, including a pair of trousers which he identified as Hunt's; he then told Witton and others that he would have Visser shot at the first opportunity. When they stopped to eat around 11 a.m. Morant again told Witton that he intended to have Visser shot, quoting orders "direct from headquarters" and citing Kitchener's recent 'no prisoners' proclamation. He called for a firing party and although some of the men initially objected, Visser was shot.<p>On the return journey to the fort, Morant's unit stopped for the night at the store of a British trader, Mr Hays, who was well known for his hospitality. After they left, Hays was raided by a party of Boers who looted everything he owned, even dragging Mrs Hays' wedding ring from her finger. When they arrived back at Fort Edward, they learned that a convoy under Lt Neel had arrived from Pietersburg the previous day, just in time to reinforce Capt. Taylor against a strong Boer force that attacked the fort. During the encounter one Carbineer was wounded and several horses were shot and it was at this time that Taylor had a native shot for refusing to give him information about the Boers' movements. Neel and Picton then returned to Pietersburg.<p>Other killings followed; on 23 August Morant led a small patrol to intercept a group of eight prisoners from Viljoen's commando who were being brought in under guard; Morant ordered them to be taken to the side of the road and shot.<p>About a week later, reports began to circulate that a German missionary, Reverend Predikant C.H.D. Hesse, had been found shot along the Pietersburg road about fifteen miles from the fort. Shortly afterwards, acting on a report that three armed Boer commandos were heading for the fort, Morant took Handcock and several other men to intercept them and the Boers were shot.<p>Later the same day, Major Lenehan arrived at Fort Edwards for a rare visit. Morant persuaded Lenehan to let him lead a strong patrol out to search for a small Boer unit led by <!--del_lnk--> Field-cornet Kelly, an Irish-Boer commando whose farm was in the district. Kelly had fought against the British in the main actions of the war and after returning to his home he had become a commando rather than surrender.<p>Morant's patrol left Fort Edward on <!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1901 with orders from Lenehan that Kelly and his men were to be captured and brought back alive if possible. Covering 130 miles in a week of hard riding, they left their horses two miles from Kelly's <!--del_lnk--> laager and went the rest of the way on foot. In the early hours of the next morning Morant's patrol charged the laager, this time taking the Boers completely by surprise; Morant himself arrested Kelly at gunpoint at the door of his tent. A week later they returned to Fort Edward with the Kelly party and then escorted them safely to Pietersburg. The British commandant, Colonel Hall personally sent Morant a message congratulating him on the success of his mission, after which Morant took two weeks leave.<p><a id="Arrests" name="Arrests"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Arrests</span></h3>
<p>Then, in mid-October, the Spelonken detachment was suddenly recalled to Pietersburg and Fort Edward was abandoned until March 1902. On <!--del_lnk--> 24 October 1901 Colonel Hall ordered the arrest of seven members of the Carbaniers. Four were Australians: Major Lenehan and Lieutenants Handcock, Witton and Hannam; the other two, Captain Taylor and Lt Picton, were English. When Morant returned from leave in Pietersburg he too was arrested, although no charges were laid at the time. A <!--del_lnk--> Court of Enquiry into the affairs of the Bushveldt Carbaniers followed and the War Office subsequently stated that on <!--del_lnk--> 8 October, 1901 some members of the BVC who were discharged at Pietersburg on the expiration of their service had reported the irregular actions of the officers at Fort Edward over the preceding months.<p>The men were held in solitary confinement within the garrison, in spite of vigorous protests by Lenehan; he even wrote directly to Kitchener to ask that he be allowed to inform the Australian government of his position but Kitchener ignored the request. Meanwhile the Court of Enquiry held daily hearings, taking evidence from witnesses about the conduct of the BVC and two weeks later the prisoners were finally informed of the charges against them; in December they were again brought before the panel and told that they were to be tried by <!--del_lnk--> court-martial. Curiously, in the cases of Hannam and Hammett, the panel found that there were no charges to answer.<p>On hearing of the arrests, Kitchener's Chief of Police, Provost Marshall <!--del_lnk--> Robert Poore remarked in his diary: "... if they had wanted to shoot Boers they should not have taken them prisoner first" — a view later ruefully echoed in his book by George Witton. With hindsight, while it is fairly certain that Morant and others did kill some prisoners, their real mistake — in terms of their subsequent court-martial — was that they killed the Boers after they captured them. As Poore noted in his diary, had they shot them before they surrendered, the repercussions might well have been considerably less serious.<p>According to a recent book on the case by Australian author Nick Bleszynski, Poore's diary confirms that there was indeed a standing order from Kitchener to shoot Boer commandos caught wearing khaki — a claim vehemently denied by the prosecution when the defence tried to argue that Visser, the first Boer Morant had executed, was wearing khaki.<p>Poore in fact specifically noted that: "... Most of De Wet's (the Boer commando leader's) men were dressed in our uniform, so Lord K. has issued an order to say that all men caught in our uniform are to be tried on the spot and the sentence confirmed by the commanding officer."<p>Ominously, just before the court-martial, Colonel Hall was suddenly removed from his post at Pietersburg and transferred to India. The BVC were disbanded and replaced by a new troop called the Pietersburg <!--del_lnk--> Light Infantry. On <!--del_lnk--> 15 January, 1902 the accused were finally given copies of the charges against them and informed that they would be defended by Major J.F. Thomas, who in civilian life had been a solicitor in <!--del_lnk--> Tenterfield, <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales. The court-martial began the following day.<p><a id="Court-martial" name="Court-martial"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Court-martial</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd><i>Main article:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Court martial of Breaker Morant</dl>
<p>The court-martial of Morant and his co-accused began on 16 January 1902 and was conducted in several stages. Two main hearings were conducted at Pietersburg in relatively relaxed conditions; one concerned the shooting of Visser, the other the 'Eight Boers' case. Soon after the second hearing, the prisoners were suddenly thrown in irons, taken to <a href="../../wp/p/Pretoria.htm" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a> under heavy guard and tried on the third main count, the killing of the German priest Reverend Predikant Hesse. Although acquitted of killing Hesse, Morant and his co-accused were quickly sentenced to death on the other two charges and Morant and Handcock were shot within days of sentencing; Witton's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by Lord Kitchener. The death warrants of Morant and Handcock were personally signed by Kitchener, but the Field Marshal absented himself on tour when the executions took place.<p><a id="Execution_and_aftermath" name="Execution_and_aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Execution and aftermath</span></h2>
<p>During the day of February 26, Morant and Handcock were visited by a distraught Major Thomas; Witton says that news of the impending execution had "almost driven him crazy". Thomas then rushed off to find Kitchener and plead with him, but was informed by Col. Kelly that the Commander-in-Chief was away and was not expected back for several days. Thomas pleaded with Kelly to have the executions stayed for a few days until he could appeal to the <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">King</a>, but was told that the sentences had already been referred to England — and confirmed — and that there was "not the slightest hope" of a reprieve; Morant and Handcock "must die".<p>When asked if he wanted to see a clergyman, Morant replied indignantly, "No! I'm a <!--del_lnk--> Pagan!" On hearing this, the unfortunate Handcock asked, "What's a Pagan?" and after hearing the explanation, declared "I'm a Pagan too!" As the afternoon wore on, all the prisoners could clearly hear the sound of <!--del_lnk--> coffins being built in the nearby workshop. At 4 p.m. Witton was told he would be leaving for England at five the following morning.<p>That night, Morant, Picton, Handcock and Witton had a "last supper" together; at Morant's request, he and Handcock were allowed to spend their last night in the same cell. Morant spent most of the night writing and then penned a final sardonic verse, which Witton quotes in its entirety.<p>At 5 a.m. on February 27, Witton was taken away and was allowed to say a brief farewell to Morant and Handcock, but was only allowed to see them through the small gate in the cell door and clasped <!--del_lnk--> hands.<p>Shortly after 5 a.m., Lieutenants Harry Morant and Peter Handcock were led out of the fort at <!--del_lnk--> Pietersburg to be executed by a firing squad from the <!--del_lnk--> Cameron Highlanders. Both men refused to be blindfolded; Morant gave his cigarette case to the squad leader, and his <!--del_lnk--> famous last words were: "Shoot straight, you bastards! Don't make a mess of it!" Witton, who was by then at Pretoria railway station, heard the volley of shots that killed his comrades.<p>The British Army continued the cover-up of the case even after the deaths of the two men. There was no indication given beforehand that either the men or their regiment was in any kind of trouble, and due to British military <!--del_lnk--> censorship, reports of the trial and execution did not begin to appear in Australia until the end of March <!--del_lnk--> 1902. The Australian government and Lt. Handcock's wife, who lived in Bathurst with their three children, only learned of Handcock and Morant's death from the Australian newspapers weeks after their executions. After learning of his sentence, Lt Witton arranged to send two <!--del_lnk--> telegrams, one to the Australian government representative in <a href="../../wp/p/Pretoria.htm" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a> and the other to a relative in Victoria, but despite assurances from the British, neither telegram was ever received.<p>News of the executions excited considerable public interest in the UK and a summary of the trial was published in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> on <!--del_lnk--> 18 April <!--del_lnk--> 1902 but the British government announced in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a> that, in keeping with normal practice, the court-martial proceedings would not be made public. The official transcripts of the court-martial reportedly disappeared soon afterwards.<p>In Australia, the executions of Morant and Handcock not surprisingly caused an uproar, no doubt amplified by the fact that Morant was already a well-known figure. The Morant case added fuel to the growing public resentment of the British military and British rule in general — a feeling which, a decade later, grew into a major anti-British backlash as a result of the catastrophic <!--del_lnk--> Gallipoli campaign, in which thousands of Australian and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> troops were needlessly slaughtered, and in the planning of which Kitchener played an integral part. Largely as a result of the Morant case, the Australian army never again accepted British Army justice in cases involving its own soldiers.<p>George Witton was transported to naval detention quarters England and then to <!--del_lnk--> Lewes prison in <!--del_lnk--> Sussex. Some time later he was transferred to the prison at <!--del_lnk--> Portland, <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a> and was released after serving twenty-eight months. His life sentence was overturned by the British House of Commons on <!--del_lnk--> 11 August <!--del_lnk--> 1905. In 1907, he published a controversial book about the Morant case, provocatively titled <i><!--del_lnk--> Scapegoats Of The Empire</i>. The book was reprinted in <!--del_lnk--> 1982 following the success of the <!--del_lnk--> 1980 <!--del_lnk--> film version of the Morant story.<p><a id="Accounts_of_Morant.27s_life_and_conflicting_theories_about_the_case" name="Accounts_of_Morant.27s_life_and_conflicting_theories_about_the_case"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accounts of Morant's life and conflicting theories about the case</span></h2>
<p>The story of Morant's life, exploits, trial and execution have been examined in several books and numerous press and internet articles but as noted above, each account varies very considerably from the other in both the facts presented and their interpretation.<p>As far as is known, the most important source, the official records of the court-martial, have not been seen since the trial and their location remains a mystery. A report on the case from Kitchener to the Australian Governor-General (published in the Australian press on 7 April 1902) quotes Kitchener as saying that "the proceedings have been sent home" [i.e. to England]." Whatever their actual fate, the transcripts have not been seen since the trial and evidently not even the Australian government was granted access to them.<p>In the 'Afterword' to the 1982 reprint of Witton's book, G.A. Embleton states that:<blockquote>
<p>" .. the British authorities have been approached by many researchers eager to examine the transcripts thought to be held by the War Office. Invariably these requests have been met with denials that the documents exist or pronouncements to the effect that they cannot be released until the year 2002 ... It now appears that the papers never reached England ... (it was) recently announced that the court-martial papers had been discovered in South Africa..."</blockquote>
<p>The trial records still appear to be unavailable, and Nick Bleszynski, who wrote his book about Morant in 2002 and revised it in 2003, was evidently unable to access them. Whether they will ever be found and/or released is a matter of conjecture. It has been claimed that the building in which the documents were stored was destroyed by German bombing raids during <a href="../../wp/t/The_Blitz.htm" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a>.<p>In their absence, three primary sources remain. The first is the report of the trial printed in <i>The Times</i> in April 1902; the second is George Witton's crucial first-hand account of the events of 1901-02, contained in his book <i>Scapegoats of the Empire</i>. The third and most recent is a revealing letter about the case, written by Witton to Major Thomas in 1929, which was kept secret at Witton's request until 1970. In it, Witton suggests that although Handcock broke down and confessed to the crimes, he did so under duress.<p>Witton's book, published five years after the trials, recounts the entire Morant affair at length, covering some 240 pages, but the chapters dealing with the court-martial are especially remarkable for their detail. Indeed, they contain so much information that is so precise -- much of it apparently quoted <i>verbatim</i> -- that there are only four possible explanations:<ul>
<li>Witton fabricated much of the text<li>he possessed a photographic memory<li>he took notes at the trial (or compiled notes from memory very soon afterwards), or<li>he had access to either the trial transcipt or notes taken by someone else (possibly the defence counsel, Major Thomas).</ul>
<p>In spite of the fact that the book went through at least two editions and was widely reviewed at the time, this crucial source became virtually unavailable for more than 70 years, and almost every original copy disappeared. Here too, accounts vary as to the reason for its rarity. There have been persistent claims that the book was suppressed by the Australian government and that almost all copies were seized and destroyed. Another version claims that they were accidentally burned in a fire at the publisher's warehouse.<p>Whatever the reason, the outcome was the same — until its reprint in 1982, only seven copies of the book survived, the seven advance copies originally given to Witton by his publisher (D.W Patterson of <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>). These were held variously by Australian public libraries and in the possession of Witton's family. The book's rarity clearly had a significant effect on historical writings about Morant and the Carbineers.<p>Witton's account is crucial to what we know about the Morant case, and there are legitimate questions to be asked about its veracity. One vital concern is that it was published some five years after the event, although all or parts of it may have been written earlier. If he did not fabricate large sections of his account of the trial, the nature of the text makes it almost certain that he must have drawn on detailed written information — but he does not name the source, or whether they were his own or someone else's notes. If they were made by another, the obvious candidate is his defence counsel, Major Thomas, and the two were known to have been in touch over many years after the case.<p>Witton obviously wanted to clear his name, but the question here is whether he was seeking to cover his guilt or proclaim his innocence. He was admittedly working from a position of some strength — in Australia he and his co-accused were widely believed to have been innocent — but a telling point in his favour is that he had already been pardoned and released, thanks to a campaign that was fully supported by no less a figure than the second Australian Prime Minister, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Deakin.<p>Another factor in Witton's favour is that there were good reasons for not reopening the debate. He wrote only five years after the events, and Kitchener was still alive, still in command of the British armed forces and still one of the most powerful men in the Empire. Witton published a highly contentious book with a highly provocative title, which explicitly accused the British Army and its Commander-In-Chief of a cover-up, of staging a show trial, and then executing two Australian soldiers on the flimsiest of evidence as a matter of political expediency. And he wrote all this at a time when publishing material that was deemed seditious or defamatory could easily land an author and/or his publisher in jail.<p>But the fact remains that we do not know for certain where Witton got his information, nor can we say how closely it conforms to the missing official records of the trial; only their retrieval can answer that.<p>The 1976 book "The Australians At The Boer War" by Australian historian J.W. Wallace gives a concise, and reasonably detailed account of Morant's military career, trial and execution although it contains almost no information about Morant's earlier life and omits a number of significant details contained in Witton's account of the events leading up to Morant's trial.<p>The most widely-known book is the best-selling Australian novel "The Breaker" by <!--del_lnk--> Kit Denton, first published in <!--del_lnk--> 1973 and inspired by Denton's meeting and conversation with a Boer War veteran who had actually known Morant. The novel's publication sparked a resurgence of popular interest in the case, leading to Kenneth Ross's play <i><!--del_lnk--> 'Breaker' Morant</i> (1978) and subsequently, a highly acclaimed film adaptation by <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Beresford (1980). These versions of the story have had a considerable effect in shaping public opinion about the Morant case, especially in Australia, but they too omit, condense or transpose many important details and include others (e.g Denton's claim that Capt Hunt had been castrated) which do not appear in Witton's book.<p>Although it is generally accepted that Morant and/or others in his regiment were involved in the deaths of some Boer commandos, historical opinion is still sharply divided over the central questions of the case — how many were killed, by whom they were killed, and on whose orders?<p>Morant's detractors conventionally depict the Carbineers as war criminals, rogue soldiers and cold-blooded murderers who were little better than the Boer guerillas they fought against and that they were fairly tried and executed for killing unarmed prisoners of war and civilians. British historical accounts of the Boer War tend to reflect this view and typically give little space to the matter. They also, predictably, tend to be highly favourable towards Kitchener.<p>The first major history of the Boer War since 1910 was that written by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Pakenham (Lord Longford), published in 1979. It is a major work, running to some 659 pages, yet the events of the Morant case occupy only a single paragraph — although it must be admitted that Witton's book was not republished for another three years after that.<p>Nonetheless, Packenham addresses only one major question. He labels as "a misconception" the notion that there was any foreign political influence on the case — obliquely referring to the claims of German government pressure over the killing of Rev. Hesse. He effectively shifts all blame for the killing of Boer prisoners onto the Australians, exonerating Kitchener of any responsibility for the outcomes of the 'no prisoners' policy, and ascribing to him a simpler and "cruder" motive for ordering the executions. According to Packenham, evidence of his own army's indiscipline drove Kitchener "wild with frustration" — clearly implying that Morant and his co-accused were simply out of control.<p>The 1998 biography of Kitchener by British author <!--del_lnk--> John Pollock likewise exemplifies the 'Establishment' view. Despite the great amount of research that has been done since Packenham's book was published, Pollock still manages to dispatch the case in a mere two paragraphs; the names of Morant, Handcock and Witton do not even appear in the index.<p>Pollock prefaces his remarks about Morant by referring to many cases in which the supposedly kind and sensitive Kitchener had commuted death sentences passed against British soldiers — clearly implying that Morant and Handcock must indeed have deserved their fate. His account of Kitchener's visit to Australia during his world tour in 1910 conspicuously fails to mention the highly controversial claim that Kitchener allegedly refused to officiate at the dedication of a war memorial in Peter Handcock's home town of <!--del_lnk--> Bathurst, NSW unless Handcock's name was removed from the list of names of the fallen. It was not restored until <!--del_lnk--> 1964.<p>Pollock admits that there were 'atrocities on both sides' during the Boer War, but largely glosses over the very serious question of alleged British war crimes against Boer insurgents, particularly in regard to the scandal of the internment camps set up to hold Boer refugees — the original '<!--del_lnk--> concentration camps' — in which over 28,000 people died. Although he does admit that under Kitchener's command '... Boer rebels found wearing British uniforms might be shot without trial ...', he avoids stating directly that these were Kitchener's orders — the claim central to Morant and Handcock's defence at their court-martial.<p>Noting that the executions caused 'an outcry in Australia', Pollock briefly mentions the claims by 'friends of Morant' that the court-martial was 'a farce', and the claims that the Boers and the priest Hesse had not been murdered, but that they had in fact been killed 'in a raid that went wrong'. But, while he admits the case 'remains contentious', he ends on a decidedly pejorative note, describing the Morant story as 'a fertile field for fiction and film'.<p>Morant's supporters, on the other hand, argue that he and Handcock were unfairly singled out for punishment even though many other British soldiers were known to have carried out summary executions of Boer prisoners. In their view, the two Australians were made scapegoats by the British, who were intent on concealing the existence of the "take no prisoners" policy against Boer insurgents — a policy which, they claim, had been promulgated by Kitchener himself.<p>Australian author <!--del_lnk--> Nick Bleszynski is a leading proponent of the 'scapegoat' argument. He asserts that, while Morant and the others probably committed some crimes and may well have deserved disciplinary action, there is now persuasive evidence from several sources to show that the Kitchener 'no prisoners' order did indeed exist, that it was widely known among both the British and Australian troops and carried out by many disparate units. He also argues that the court-martial was fundamentally flawed in its procedures.<p>Bleszynski, like Witton, Denton and Beresford, believes that Morant and Handcock were given a show trial, branded as murderous renegades and then executed as a matter of political expediency. He argues that this was done mainly to appease the Boer government and help secure a peace treaty, but also to prevent the British public from learning that, however unpalatable their actions, Morant and his men had in fact been carrying out a standing 'no prisoners' order that had been issued by the British commander-in-chief himself.<p>The graves of Morant and Handcock were left unattended for many years, but after the release of Beresford's film it became a popular place of pilgrimage for Australian tourists. In <!--del_lnk--> June 1998 the Australian Government spent $1,500 refurbishing the grave site with a new concrete slab and a new marble cross.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaker_Morant"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bretton Woods system</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Business_Studies.Economics.htm">Economics</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>Bretton Woods system</b> of international <a href="../../wp/m/Money.htm" title="Money">monetary</a> management established the rules for <!--del_lnk--> commercial and <a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" title="Finance">financial</a> relations among the world's major industrial states. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation-states.<p>Preparing to rebuild the international economic system as <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> was still raging, 730 delegates from all 44 <!--del_lnk--> Allied nations gathered at the <!--del_lnk--> Mount Washington Hotel in <!--del_lnk--> Bretton Woods, New Hampshire for the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The delegates deliberated upon and signed the <b>Bretton Woods Agreements</b> during the first three weeks of July 1944.<p>Setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system, the planners at Bretton Woods established the <!--del_lnk--> International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (now one of five institutions in the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Bank_Group.htm" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a>) and the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund (IMF). These organizations became operational in 1946 after a sufficient number of countries had ratified the agreement.<p>The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a <!--del_lnk--> monetary policy that maintained the <!--del_lnk--> exchange rate of its <a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">currency</a> within a fixed value—plus or minus one percent—in terms of <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>; and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. In the face of increasing strain, the system collapsed in 1971, following the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>' suspension of convertibility from <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">dollars</a> to gold.<p>Until the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system was effective in controlling conflict and in achieving the common goals of the leading states that had created it, especially the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>The political bases for the Bretton Woods system are in the confluence of several key conditions: the shared experiences of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression, the concentration of power in a small number of states, and the presence of a dominant power willing and able to assume a leadership role in global monetary affairs.<p><a id="The_Great_Depression" name="The_Great_Depression"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Great Depression</span></h3>
<p>A high level of agreement among the powerful on the goals and means of international economic management facilitated the decisions reached by the Bretton Woods Conference. The foundation of that agreement was a shared belief in <a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>. Although the developed countries' governments differed somewhat in the type of capitalism they preferred for their national economies (<a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, for example, preferred greater planning and state intervention, whereas the United States favored relatively limited state intervention), all relied primarily on market mechanisms and on private ownership.<p>Thus, it is their similarities rather than their differences that appear most striking. All the participating governments at Bretton Woods agreed that the monetary chaos of the interwar period had yielded several valuable lessons.<p>The experience of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression, when proliferation of <!--del_lnk--> foreign exchange controls and trade barriers led to economic disaster, was fresh on the minds of public officials. The planners at Bretton Woods hoped to avoid a repeat of the debacle of the 1930s, when foreign exchange controls undermined the international payments system that was the basis for world trade. The "beggar thy neighbour" policies of 1930s governments—using currency devaluations to increase the competitiveness of a country's export products in order to reduce balance of payments deficits—worsened national <!--del_lnk--> deflationary spirals, which resulted in plummeting national <!--del_lnk--> incomes, shrinking <a href="../../wp/s/Supply_and_demand.htm" title="Demand">demand</a>, mass <!--del_lnk--> unemployment, and an overall decline in world <!--del_lnk--> trade. Trade in the 1930s became largely restricted to currency blocs (groups of nations that use an equivalent currency, such as the "<!--del_lnk--> Sterling Area" of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>). These blocs retarded the international flow of capital and foreign investment opportunities. Although this strategy tended to increase government revenues in the short run, it dramatically worsened the situation in the medium and longer run.<p>Thus, for the international economy, planners at Bretton Woods all favored a liberal system, one that relied primarily on the <!--del_lnk--> market with the minimum of barriers to the flow of private <!--del_lnk--> trade and <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a>. Although they disagreed on the specific implementation of this liberal system, all agreed on an open system.<p><a name=".E2.80.9CEconomic_security.E2.80.9D"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">“Economic security”</span></h4>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17152.jpg.htm" title="Cordell Hull"><img alt="Cordell Hull" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CordellHull.jpeg" src="../../images/171/17152.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Also based on experience of interwar years, U.S. planners developed a concept of economic security—that a liberal international <!--del_lnk--> economic system would enhance the possibilities of postwar peace. One of those who saw such a security link was <!--del_lnk--> Cordell Hull, the U.S. secretary of state from 1933 to 1944. Hull believed that the fundamental causes of the two world wars lay in economic discrimination and trade warfare. Specifically, he had in mind the trade and exchange controls (bilateral arrangements) of <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the imperial preference system practiced by Britain (by which members or former members of the British Empire were accorded special trade status). Hull argued<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>[U]nhampered trade dovetailed with peace; high tariffs, trade barriers, and unfair economic competition, with war…if we could get a freer flow of trade…freer in the sense of fewer discriminations and obstructions…so that one country would not be deadly jealous of another and the living standards of all countries might rise, thereby eliminating the economic dissatisfaction that breeds war, we might have a reasonable chance of lasting peace.</td>
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<p><a id="The_rise_of_governmental_intervention" name="The_rise_of_governmental_intervention"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The rise of governmental intervention</span></h4>
<p>The developed countries also agreed that the liberal international economic system required governmental intervention. In the aftermath of the Great Depression, public management of the economy had emerged as a primary activity of governments in the developed states. Employment, stability, and growth were now important subjects of public policy. In turn, the role of government in the national economy had become associated with the assumption by the state of the responsibility for assuring of its citizens a degree of economic well-being. The <!--del_lnk--> welfare state grew out of the Great Depression, which created a popular demand for governmental intervention in the economy, and out of the <!--del_lnk--> theoretical contributions of the <!--del_lnk--> Keynesian school of <!--del_lnk--> economics, which asserted the need for governmental intervention to maintain an adequate level of employment.<p>At the international level, these ideas evolved from the experience of the 1930s. The priority of national goals, independent national action in the interwar period, and the failure to perceive that those national goals could not be realized without some form of international collaboration resulted in “beggar-thy-neighbour” policies such as high <!--del_lnk--> tariffs and competitive devaluations which contributed to economic breakdown, domestic political instability, and international war. The lesson learned was that, as <!--del_lnk--> New Dealer <!--del_lnk--> Harry Dexter White, the principal architect of the Bretton Woods system, put it:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>the absence of a high degree of economic collaboration among the leading nations will…inevitably result in economic warfare that will be but the prelude and instigator of military warfare on an even vaster scale.</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Bretton Woods system"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Bretton Woods system"><img alt="Bretton Woods system" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<p>To ensure economic stability and political peace, states agreed to cooperate to regulate the international economic system. The pillar of the U.S. vision of the postwar world was <!--del_lnk--> free trade. Free trade involved lowering tariffs and among other things a balance of trade favorable to the capitalist system.<p>Thus, the more developed market economies agreed with the U.S. vision of postwar international economic management, which was to be designed to create and maintain an effective international monetary system and foster the reduction of barriers to trade and capital flows.<p><a id="The_rise_of_U.S._hegemony" name="The_rise_of_U.S._hegemony"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The rise of U.S. hegemony</span></h3>
<p>International economic management relied on the dominant power, the United States, to lead the system. The concentration of power facilitated management by confining the number of actors whose agreement was necessary to establish rules, institutions, and procedures and to carry out management within the agreed system.<p>The United States had emerged from the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War with the strongest economy, experiencing rapid industrial growth and capital accumulation. The U.S. had remained untouched by the ravages of World War II and had built a thriving manufacturing industry and grown wealthy selling weapons and lending money to the other combatants; in fact, U.S. industrial production in 1945 was more than double that of annual production between the prewar years of 1935 and 1939. In contrast, Europe and East Asia were militarily and economically shattered.<p>As the Bretton Woods Conference convened, the relative advantages of the U.S. economy were undeniable. The U.S. held a majority of investment capital, manufacturing production and exports. In 1945, the U.S. produced half the world's <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a>, two-thirds of the <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a>, and more than half of the <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. The U.S. was able to produce great quantities of machinery, including <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">ships</a>, <!--del_lnk--> airplanes, <!--del_lnk--> vehicles, <!--del_lnk--> armaments, <!--del_lnk--> machine tools, and <!--del_lnk--> chemicals. Reinforcing the initial advantage—and assuring the U.S. unmistakable leadership in the capitalist world—the U.S. held 80% of <!--del_lnk--> gold reserves and had not only a powerful <!--del_lnk--> army but also the <!--del_lnk--> atomic bomb.<p>The U.S. stood to gain more than any other country from the opening of the entire world to unfettered trade. The U.S. would have a global market for its exports, and it would have unrestricted access to vital raw materials. In addition, U.S. capitalism could not survive without markets and allies. <!--del_lnk--> William Clayton, the assistant secretary of state for economic affairs, was among myriad U.S. policymakers who summed up this point: "We need markets—big markets—around the world in which to buy and sell".<p>There had been many predictions that peace would bring a return of depression and unemployment, as war production ceased and returning soldiers flooded the labor market. Compounding the economic difficulties was a sharp rise in labor unrest. Determined to avoid another economic catastrophe like that of the 1930s, U.S. President <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> saw the creation of the postwar order as a way to ensure continuing U.S. prosperity.<p><a id="The_Atlantic_Charter" name="The_Atlantic_Charter"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Atlantic Charter</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17153.jpg.htm" title="Roosevelt and Churchill during their secret meeting of August 9 – August 12, 1941 in Newfoundland that resulted in the Atlantic Charter, which the U.S. and Britain officially announced two days later."><img alt="Roosevelt and Churchill during their secret meeting of August 9 – August 12, 1941 in Newfoundland that resulted in the Atlantic Charter, which the U.S. and Britain officially announced two days later." height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Atlantic_charter.jpg" src="../../images/171/17153.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17153.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Roosevelt and Churchill during their secret meeting of <!--del_lnk--> August 9 – <!--del_lnk--> August 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1941 in Newfoundland that resulted in the Atlantic Charter, which the U.S. and Britain officially announced two days later.</div>
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<p>Throughout the war, the United States envisaged a postwar economic order in which the U.S. could penetrate markets that had been previously closed to other currency trading blocs, as well as to expand opportunities for foreign investments for U.S. corporations by removing restrictions on the international flow of capital.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Charter, drafted during U.S. President Roosevelt's August 1941 meeting with British Prime Minister <a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> on a ship in the North Atlantic, was the most notable precursor to the Bretton Woods Conference. Like <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> before him, whose "<!--del_lnk--> Fourteen Points" had outlined U.S. aims in the aftermath of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>, Roosevelt set forth a range of ambitious goals for the postwar world even before the U.S. had entered the Second World War. The Atlantic Charter affirmed the right of all nations to equal access to trade and raw materials. Moreover, the charter called for freedom of the seas (a principal U.S. foreign policy aim since France and Britain had first threatened U.S. shipping in the 1790s), the disarmament of aggressors, and the "establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security."<p>As the war drew to a close, the Bretton Woods conference was the culmination of some two and a half years of planning for postwar reconstruction by the Treasuries of the U.S. and the UK. U.S. representatives studied with their British counterparts the reconstitution of what had been lacking between the two world wars: a system of international payments that would allow trade to be conducted without fear of sudden currency depreciation or wild fluctuations in exchange rates—ailments that had nearly paralyzed world capitalism during the Great Depression.<p>Without a strong European market for U.S. goods and services, most policymakers believed, the U.S. economy would be unable to sustain the prosperity it had achieved during the war. In addition, U.S. <!--del_lnk--> unions had only grudgingly accepted government-imposed restraints on their demand during the war, but they were willing to wait no longer, particularly as inflation cut into the existing wage scales with painful force. (By the end of 1945, there had already been major strikes in the <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a>, electrical, and <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> industries.)<p>Financier and self-appointed adviser to presidents and congressmen, <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Baruch, summed up the spirit of Bretton Woods in early 1945: if we can "stop subsidization of labor and sweated competition in the export markets," as well as prevent rebuilding of war machines, "oh boy, oh boy, what long term prosperity we will have." Thus, the United States would use its predominant position to restore an open world economy, unified under U.S. control, which gave all nations unhindered access to markets and raw materials.<p><a id="Wartime_devastation_of_Europe_and_East_Asia" name="Wartime_devastation_of_Europe_and_East_Asia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Wartime devastation of Europe and East Asia</span></h4>
<p>Furthermore, U.S. allies—economically exhausted by the war—accepted this leadership. They needed U.S. assistance to rebuild their domestic production and to finance their international trade; indeed, they needed it to survive.<p>Before the war, the French and the British were realizing that they could no longer compete with U.S. industry in an <!--del_lnk--> open marketplace. During the 1930s, the British had created their own economic bloc to shut out U.S. goods. Churchill did not believe that he could surrender that protection after the war, so he watered down the Atlantic Charter's "free access" clause before agreeing to it.<p>Yet, U.S. officials were determined to break open the empire. Combined, British and U.S. trade accounted for well over half the world's exchange of goods. If the British bloc could be split apart, the U.S. would be well on its way to opening the entire global marketplace. But as the 19th century had been economically dominated by Britain, the second half of the 20th was to be one of U.S. <!--del_lnk--> hegemony.<p>A devastated Britain had little choice. Two world wars had destroyed the country's principal industries that paid for the importation of half the nation's food and nearly all its raw materials except coal. The British had no choice but to ask for aid. In 1945, the U.S. agreed to a loan of $3.8 <!--del_lnk--> billion. In return, weary British officials promised to negotiate the agreement.<p>For nearly two centuries, French and U.S. interests had clashed in both the <!--del_lnk--> Old World and the <!--del_lnk--> New World. During the war, French mistrust of the United States was embodied by General <!--del_lnk--> Charles de Gaulle, president of the French provisional government. De Gaulle bitterly fought U.S. officials as he tried to maintain his country's colonies and diplomatic freedom of action. In turn, U.S. officials saw de Gaulle as a political <!--del_lnk--> extremist.<p>But in 1945 de Gaulle—the leading voice of French <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>—was forced to grudgingly ask the U.S. for a billion-dollar loan. Most of the request was granted; in return France promised to curtail government subsidies and <a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">currency</a> manipulation that had given its exporters advantages in the world market.<p>On a far more profound level, as the Bretton Woods conference was convening, the greater part of the <!--del_lnk--> Third World remained politically and economically subordinate. Linked to the developed countries of the West economically and politically—formally and informally—these states had little choice but to acquiesce to the international economic system established for them. In the East, <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> hegemony in <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe provided the foundation for a separate international economic system.<p>In short, the confluence of these three political conditions—the concentration of power, the cluster of shared interests and ideas, and the hegemony of the United States—provided the political capability to equal the task of managing the international economy.<p><a id="Design" name="Design"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Design</span></h2>
<p>Free trade relied on the free <!--del_lnk--> convertibility of currencies. Negotiators at the Bretton Woods conference, fresh from what they perceived as a disastrous experience with floating rates in the 1930s, concluded that major monetary fluctuations could stall the free flow of trade.<p>The liberal <!--del_lnk--> economic system required an accepted vehicle for investment, trade, and payments. Unlike national economies, however, the international economy lacks a <!--del_lnk--> central government that can issue currency and manage its use. In the past this problem had been solved through the <a href="../../wp/g/Gold_standard.htm" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>, but the architects of Bretton Woods did not consider this option feasible for the postwar political economy. Instead, they set up a system of <!--del_lnk--> fixed exchange rates managed by a series of newly created international institutions using the U.S. dollar (which was a gold standard currency for central banks) as a <!--del_lnk--> reserve currency.<p><a id="Informal_regimes" name="Informal_regimes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Informal regimes</span></h3>
<p><a id="Previous_regimes" name="Previous_regimes"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Previous regimes</span></h4>
<p>In the 19th and early 20th centuries gold played a key role in international monetary transactions. The <a href="../../wp/g/Gold_standard.htm" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a> was used to back currencies; the international value of currency was determined by its fixed relationship to gold; gold was used to settle international accounts. The gold standard maintained fixed exchange rates that were seen as desirable because they reduced the risk of trading with other countries.<p>Imbalances in international trade were theoretically rectified automatically by the gold standard. A country with a <!--del_lnk--> deficit would have depleted gold reserves and would thus have to reduce its <!--del_lnk--> money supply. The resulting fall in <a href="../../wp/s/Supply_and_demand.htm" title="Demand">demand</a> would reduce <!--del_lnk--> imports and the lowering of prices would boost <!--del_lnk--> exports; thus the deficit would be rectified. Any country experiencing <!--del_lnk--> inflation would lose gold and therefore would have a decrease in the amount of money available to spend. This decrease in the amount of money would act to reduce the <!--del_lnk--> inflationary pressure. Supplementing the use of gold in this period was the <!--del_lnk--> British pound. Based on the dominant British economy, the pound became a reserve, transaction, and intervention currency. But the pound was not up to the challenge of serving as the primary world currency, given the weakness of the British economy after the Second World War.<p>The architects of Bretton Woods had conceived of a system wherein exchange rate stability was a prime goal. Yet, in an era of more activist economic policy, governments did not seriously consider permanently fixed rates on the model of the classical gold standard of the nineteenth century. Gold production was not even sufficient to meet the demands of growing international trade and investment. And a sizable share of the world's known gold reserves were located in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, which would later emerge as a <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> rival to the United States and <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe.<p>The only currency strong enough to meet the rising demands for international liquidity was the <!--del_lnk--> US dollar. The strength of the US economy, the fixed relationship of the dollar to gold ($35 an ounce), and the commitment of the U.S. government to convert dollars into gold at that price made the dollar as good as gold. In fact, the dollar was even better than gold: it earned interest and it was more flexible than gold.<p><a id="The_Bretton_Woods_system_of_fixed_exchange_rates" name="The_Bretton_Woods_system_of_fixed_exchange_rates"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates</span></h4>
<p>The Bretton Woods system sought to secure the advantages of the gold standard without its disadvantages. Thus, a compromise was sought between the polar alternatives of either freely floating or irrevocably fixed rates—an arrangement that might gain the advantages of both without suffering the disadvantages of either while retaining the right to revise currency values on occasion as circumstances warranted.<p>The rules of Bretton Woods, set forth in the articles of agreement of the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the <!--del_lnk--> International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), provided for a system of fixed exchange rates. The rules further sought to encourage an open system by committing members to the convertibility of their respective currencies into other currencies and to free trade.<p><a id="The_.22pegged_rate.22_or_.22par_value.22_currency_regime" name="The_.22pegged_rate.22_or_.22par_value.22_currency_regime"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">The "pegged rate" or "par value" currency regime</span></h5>
<p>What emerged was the "<!--del_lnk--> pegged rate" currency regime. Members were required to establish a parity of their national currencies in terms of gold (a "peg") and to maintain exchange rates within plus or minus 1% of parity (a "band") by intervening in their foreign exchange markets (that is, buying or selling foreign money).<p><a id="The_.22reserve_currency.22" name="The_.22reserve_currency.22"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">The "reserve currency"</span></h5>
<p>In practice, however, since the principal "Reserve currency" would be the U.S. dollar, this meant that other countries would peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar, and—once convertibility was restored—would buy and sell U.S. dollars to keep market exchange rates within plus or minus 1% of parity. Thus, the U.S. dollar took over the role that gold had played under the gold standard in the <!--del_lnk--> international financial system.<p>Meanwhile, in order to bolster faith in the dollar, the U.S. agreed separately to link the dollar to gold at the rate of $35 per ounce of gold. At this rate, foreign governments and central banks were able to exchange dollars for gold. Bretton Woods established a system of payments based on the dollar, in which all currencies were defined in relation to the dollar, itself convertible into gold, and above all, "as good as gold." The U.S. currency was now effectively the world currency, the standard to which every other currency was pegged. As the world's key currency, most international transactions were denominated in dollars.<p>The U.S. dollar was the currency with the most <!--del_lnk--> purchasing power and it was the only currency that was backed by gold. Additionally, all European nations that had been involved in World War II were highly in debt and transferred large amounts of gold into the United States, a fact that contributed to the supremacy of the United States. Thus, the U.S. dollar was strongly appreciated in the rest of the world and therefore became the key currency of the Bretton Woods system.<p>Member countries could only change their <!--del_lnk--> par value with IMF approval, which was contingent on IMF determination that its balance of payments was in a "fundamental disequilibrium."<p><a id="Formal_regimes" name="Formal_regimes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Formal regimes</span></h3>
<p>The Bretton Woods Conference led to the establishment of the IMF and the IBRD (now the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank), which still remain powerful forces in the world economy.<p>As mentioned, a major point of common ground at the Conference was the goal to avoid a recurrence of the closed markets and economic warfare that had characterized the 1930s. Thus, negotiators at Bretton Woods also agreed that there was a need for an institutional forum for international cooperation on monetary matters. Already in 1944 the British economist <a href="../../wp/j/John_Maynard_Keynes.htm" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> emphasized "the importance of rule-based regimes to stabilize business expectations"—something he accepted in the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates. Currency troubles in the interwar years, it was felt, had been greatly exacerbated by the absence of any established procedure or machinery for intergovernmental consultation.<p>As a result of the establishment of agreed upon structures and rules of international economic interaction, conflict over economic issues was minimized, and the significance of the economic aspect of international relations seemed to recede.<p><a id="The_International_Monetary_Fund" name="The_International_Monetary_Fund"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The International Monetary Fund</span></h4>
<p>Officially established on <!--del_lnk--> December 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, when the 29 participating countries at the conference of Bretton Woods signed its Articles of Agreement, the IMF was to be the keeper of the rules and the main instrument of public international management. The Fund commenced its financial operations on <!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1947. IMF approval was necessary for any change in exchange rates. It advised countries on policies affecting the monetary system.<p><a id="Designing_the_IMF" name="Designing_the_IMF"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Designing the IMF</span></h5>
<p>The big question at the Bretton Woods conference with respect to the institution that would emerge as the IMF was the issue of future access to international <!--del_lnk--> liquidity and whether that source should be akin to a world central bank able to create new reserves at will or a more limited borrowing mechanism.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17154.jpg.htm" title="Harry Dexter White (left) and John Maynard Keynes (right) at the Bretton Woods Conference"><img alt="Harry Dexter White (left) and John Maynard Keynes (right) at the Bretton Woods Conference" height="315" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WhiteandKeynes.jpg" src="../../images/171/17154.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17154.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Harry Dexter White (left) and <a href="../../wp/j/John_Maynard_Keynes.htm" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> (right) at the Bretton Woods Conference</div>
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<p>Although attended by 44 nations, discussions at the conference were dominated by two rival plans developed by the U.S. and Britain. As the chief international economist at the U.S. Treasury in 1942–44, Harry Dexter White drafted the U.S. blueprint for international access to liquidity, which competed with the plan drafted for the British Treasury by Keynes. Overall, White's scheme tended to favour incentives designed to create price stability within the world's economies, while Keynes' wanted a system that encouraged economic growth.<p>At the time, gaps between the White and Keynes plans seemed enormous. Outlining the difficulty of creating a system that every nation could accept in his speech at the closing plenary session of the Bretton Woods conference on <!--del_lnk--> July 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1944, Keynes stated:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>We, the delegates of this Conference, Mr. President, have been trying to accomplish something very difficult to accomplish.[...] It has been our task to find a common measure, a common standard, a common rule acceptable to each and not irksome to any.</td>
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<p>Keynes' proposals would have established a world <!--del_lnk--> reserve currency (which he thought might be called "<!--del_lnk--> bancor") administered by a <!--del_lnk--> central bank vested with the possibility of creating money and with the authority to take actions on a much larger scale (understandable considering deflationary problems in Britain at the time).<p>In case of balance of payments imbalances, Keynes recommended that <i>both</i> debtors and creditors should change their policies. As outlined by Keynes, countries with payment surpluses should increase their imports from the deficit countries and thereby create a foreign trade equilibrium. Thus, Keynes was sensitive to the problem that placing too much of the burden on the deficit country would be deflationary.<p>But the U.S., as a likely creditor nation, and eager to take on the role of the world's economic powerhouse, balked at Keynes' plan and did not pay serious attention to it. The U.S. contingent was too concerned about <!--del_lnk--> inflationary pressures in the postwar economy, and White saw an imbalance as a problem only of the deficit country.<p>Although compromise was reached on some points, because of the overwhelming economic and military power of the U.S., the participants at Bretton Woods largely agreed on White's plan. As a result, the IMF was born with an economic approach and political <!--del_lnk--> ideology that stressed controlling inflation and introducing austerity plans over fighting <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. This left the IMF severely detached from the realities of Third World countries struggling with <!--del_lnk--> underdevelopment from the onset.<p><a id="Subscriptions_and_quotas" name="Subscriptions_and_quotas"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Subscriptions and quotas</span></h5>
<p>What emerged largely reflected U.S. preferences: a system of subscriptions and <!--del_lnk--> quotas embedded in the IMF, which itself was to be no more than a fixed pool of national currencies and gold subscribed by each country as opposed to a world central bank capable of creating money. The Fund was charged with managing various nations' trade deficits so that they would not produce currency <!--del_lnk--> devaluations that would trigger a decline in imports.<p>The IMF was provided with a fund, composed of contributions of member countries in gold and their own currencies. The original quotas planned were to total $8.8 billion. When joining the IMF, members were assigned "<!--del_lnk--> quotas" reflecting their relative economic power, and, as a sort of credit deposit, were obliged to pay a "subscription" of an amount commensurate to the quota. The subscription was to be paid 25% in gold or currency convertible into gold (effectively the dollar, which was the only currency then still directly gold convertible for central banks) and 75% in the member's own currency.<p>Quota subscriptions were to form the largest source of money at the IMF's disposal. The IMF set out to use this money to grant loans to member countries with financial difficulties. Each member was then entitled to withdraw 25% of its quota immediately in case of payment problems. If this sum was insufficient, each nation in the system was also able to request loans for foreign currency.<p><a id="Financing_trade_deficits" name="Financing_trade_deficits"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Financing trade deficits</span></h5>
<p>In the event of a deficit in the <!--del_lnk--> current account, Fund members, when short of reserves, would be able to borrow needed foreign currency from this fund in amounts determined by the size of its quota. In other words, the higher the country's contribution was, the higher the sum of money it could borrow from the IMF.<p>Members were required to pay back debts within a period of 18 months to five years. In turn, the IMF embarked on setting up rules and procedures to keep a country from going too deeply into debt, year after year. The Fund would exercise "surveillance" over other economies for the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Treasury, in return for its loans to prop up national currencies.<p>IMF loans were not comparable to loans issued by a conventional credit institution. Instead, it was effectively a chance to purchase a foreign currency with gold or the member's national currency.<p>The U.S.-backed IMF plan sought to end restrictions on the transfer of goods and services from one country to another, eliminate currency blocs and lift currency exchange controls.<p>The IMF was designed to advance credits to countries with balance of payments deficits. Short-run balance of payment difficulties would be overcome by IMF loans, which would facilitate stable currency exchange rates. This flexibility meant that member states would not have to induce a <!--del_lnk--> depression automatically in order to cut its national income down to such a low level that its imports will finally fall within its means. Thus, countries were to be spared the need to resort to the classical medicine of deflating themselves into drastic <!--del_lnk--> unemployment when faced with chronic balance of payments deficits. Before the Second World War, European nations often resorted to this, particularly Britain.<p>Moreover, the planners at Bretton Woods hoped that this would reduce the temptation of cash-poor nations to reduce capital outflow by restricting imports. In effect, the IMF extended Keynesian measures—government intervention to prop up demand and avoid recession—to protect the U.S. and the stronger economies from disruptions of international trade and growth.<p><a id="Changing_the_par_value" name="Changing_the_par_value"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Changing the par value</span></h5>
<p>The IMF sought to provide for occasional discontinuous exchange-rate adjustments (changing a member's par value) by international agreement with the IMF. Member nations were permitted first to depreciate (or appreciate in opposite situations) their currencies by 10%. This tends to restore equilibrium in its trade by expanding its exports and contracting imports. This would be allowed only if there was what was called a "fundamental disequilibrium." A decrease in the value of the country's money was called a "devaluation" while an increase in the value of the country's money was called a "<!--del_lnk--> revaluation".<p>It was envisioned that these changes in exchange rates would be quite rare. Regrettably the notion of fundamental disequilibrium, though key to the operation of the par value system, was never spelled out in any detail—an omission that would eventually come back to haunt the regime in later years.<p><a id="IMF_operations" name="IMF_operations"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">IMF operations</span></h5>
<p>Never before had international monetary cooperation been attempted on a permanent institutional basis. Even more groundbreaking was the decision to allocate voting rights among governments not on a one-state, one-vote basis but rather in proportion to quotas. Since the U.S. was contributing the most, U.S. leadership was the key implication. Under the system of weighted voting the U.S. was able to exert a preponderant influence on the IMF. With one-third of all IMF quotas at the outset, enough to veto all changes to the IMF Charter on its own.<p>In addition, the IMF was based in Washington, D.C., and staffed mainly by its economists. It regularly exchanged personnel with the U.S. Treasury. When the IMF began operations in 1946, President <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> named White as its first U.S. Executive Director. Since no Deputy Managing Director post had yet been created, White served occasionally as Acting Managing Director and generally played a highly influential role during the IMF's first year.<p><a id="The_International_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development" name="The_International_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development</span></h4>
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<p>No provision was made for international creation of reserves. New gold production was assumed sufficient. In the event of structural disequilibria, it was expected that there would be national solutions—a change in the value of the currency or an improvement by other means of a country's competitive position. Few means were given to the IMF, however, to encourage such national solutions.<p>It had been recognized in 1944 that the new system could come into being only after a return to normalcy following the disruption of World War II. It was expected that after a brief transition period — expected to be no more than five years — the international economy would recover and the system would enter into operation.<p>To promote the growth of world trade and to finance the postwar reconstruction of Europe, the planners at Bretton Woods created another institution, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) — now the most important agency of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Bank_Group.htm" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a>. The IBRD had an authorized <!--del_lnk--> capitalization of $10 billion and was expected to make loans of its own funds to underwrite private loans and to issue securities to raise new funds to make possible a speedy postwar recovery. The IBRD was to be a specialized agency of the United Nations charged with making loans for economic development purposes.<p><a id="Readjusting_the_Bretton_Woods_system" name="Readjusting_the_Bretton_Woods_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Readjusting the Bretton Woods system</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_dollar_shortages_and_the_Marshall_Plan" name="The_dollar_shortages_and_the_Marshall_Plan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The dollar shortages and the Marshall Plan</span></h3>
<p>The Bretton Wood arrangements were largely adhered to and ratified by the participating governments. It was expected that national monetary reserves, supplemented with necessary IMF credits, would finance any temporary <!--del_lnk--> balance of payments disequilibria. But this did not however prove sufficient to get Europe out of the doldrums.<p>Postwar world capitalism suffered from a huge dollar shortage. The United States was running huge balance of trade surpluses, and the U.S. reserves were immense and growing. It was necessary to reverse this flow. Dollars had to leave the United States and become available for international use. In other words, the United States would have to reverse the natural economic processes and run a balance of payments deficit.<p>The modest credit facilities of the IMF were clearly insufficient to deal with Western Europe's huge balance of payments deficits. The problem was further aggravated by the reaffirmation by the IMF Board of Governors in the provision in the Bretton Woods Articles of Agreement that the IMF could make loans only for current account deficits and not for capital and reconstruction purposes. Only the United States contribution of $570 million was actually available for IBRD lending. In addition, because the only available market for IBRD bonds was the conservative <a href="../../wp/w/Wall_Street.htm" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> banking market, the IBRD was forced to adopt a conservative lending policy, granting loans only when repayment was assured. Given these problems, by 1947 the IMF and the IBRD themselves were admitting that they could not deal with the international monetary system's economic problems.<p>Thus, the much looser <a href="../../wp/m/Marshall_Plan.htm" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>—the European Recovery Program—was set up to provide U.S. finance to rebuild Europe largely through grants rather than loans. The Marshall Plan was the program of massive economic aid given by the United States to favored countries in Western Europe for the rebuilding of capitalism. In a speech to Congress on <!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1946, U.S. Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> George Marshall stated:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>The breakdown of the business structure of Europe during the war was complete. …Europe's requirements for the next three or four years of foreign food and other essential products… principally from the United States… are so much greater than her present ability to pay that she must have substantial help or face economic, social and political deterioration of a very grave character.</td>
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<p>From 1947 until 1958, the U.S. deliberately encouraged an outflow of dollars, and, from 1950 on, the United States ran a balance of payments deficit with the intent of providing liquidity for the international economy. Dollars flowed out through various U.S. aid programs: the <!--del_lnk--> Truman Doctrine entailing aid to the pro-U.S. <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> regimes, which were struggling to suppress socialist revolution, aid to various pro-U.S. regimes in the Third World, and most important, the Marshall Plan. From 1948 to 1954 the United States gave 16 Western European countries $17 billion in grants.<p>To encourage long-term adjustment, the United States promoted European and Japanese trade competitiveness. Policies for economic controls on the defeated former <!--del_lnk--> Axis countries were scrapped. Aid to Europe and Japan was designed to rebuild productive and export capacity. In the long run it was expected that such European and Japanese recovery would benefit the United States by widening markets for U.S. exports, and providing locations for U.S. capital expansion.<p>In 1956, the World Bank created the <!--del_lnk--> International Finance Corporation and in 1960 it created the <!--del_lnk--> International Development Association (IDA). Both have been controversial. Critics of the IDA argue that it was designed to head off a broader based system headed by the United Nations, and that the IDA lends without consideration for the effectiveness of the program. Critics also point out that the pressure to keep developing economies "open" has lead to their having difficulties obtaining funds through ordinary channels, and a continual cycle of asset buy up by foreign investors and <!--del_lnk--> capital flight by locals. Defenders of the IDA pointed to its ability to make large loans for agricultural programs which aided the "<!--del_lnk--> Green Revolution" of the 1960s, and its functioning to stabilize and occasionally subsidize Third World governments, particularly in Latin America.<p>Bretton Woods, then, created a system of triangular trade: the United States would use the convertible financial system to trade at a tremendous profit with developing nations, expanding industry and acquiring raw materials. It would use this surplus to send dollars to Europe, which would then be used to rebuild their economies, and make the United States the market for their products. This would allow the other industrialized nations to purchase products from the Third World, which reinforced the American role as the guarantor of stability. When this triangle became destabilized, Bretton Woods entered a period of crisis which lead ultimately to its collapse.<p><a id="Bretton_Woods_and_the_Cold_War" name="Bretton_Woods_and_the_Cold_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bretton Woods and the Cold War</span></h3>
<p>In 1945, Roosevelt and Churchill prepared the postwar era by negotiating with <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Yalta about respective zones of influence; this same year U.S. and Soviet troops divided <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> into occupation zones and confronted one another in <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>.<p>Harry Dexter White succeeded in getting the Soviet Union to participate in the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, but his goal was frustrated when the Soviet Union would not join the IMF. In the past, the reasons why the Soviet Union chose not to subscribe to the articles by December 1945 have been the subject of speculation. But since the release of relevant Soviet archives, it is now clear that the Soviet calculation was based on the behaviour of the parties that had actually expressed their assent to the Bretton Woods Agreements. The extended debates about ratification that had taken place both in the UK and the U.S. were read in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> as evidence of the quick disintegration of the wartime alliance.<p>Facing the Soviet Union, whose power had also strengthened and whose territorial influence had expanded, the U.S. assumed the role of leader of the capitalist camp. The rise of the postwar U.S. as the world's leading industrial, monetary, and military power was rooted in the impact of the U.S. military victory, in the instability of the national states in postwar Europe, and the wartime devastation of the Soviet economy.<p>Thus, American power had to be used to rebuild U.S.-friendly regimes and free market capitalism, especially in Europe, and prevent Soviet-backed regimes from spreading across the war-torn countries of Europe. The conflict, however, was that European nations, which still nominally held large colonial possessions overseas, could not simultaneously rebuild their own economies, and hold on to their colonial empires. The fiscal discipline imposed by Bretton Woods made the U.S. the only nation that could afford large-scale foreign deployments within the Western alliance. Over the course of the late 1940s and early 1950s, the United Kingdom and France were gradually forced to accept abandoning colonial outposts, which would in the late 1950s and early 1960s, lead to revolt and finally independence for most of their empires.<p>The price paid for this position—especially in the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> climate—was the militarization of the U.S. economy, what U.S. President <a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> called the "armament industry" and "the <!--del_lnk--> military-industrial complex," and the related notion that the U.S. should assume a protective role in what was referred to as "the free world." Looking back at the origins of the Cold War, in a paper that Harry Dexter White was writing at the time of his death, he lamented the "tensions between certain of the major powers" that had brought "almost catastrophic" consequences, including an "acute lack of confidence in continued political stability and the crippling fear of war on a scale unprecedented and almost unimaginable in its destructive potentialities."<p>Despite the economic effort imposed by such a policy, being at the centre of the international market gave the U.S. unprecedented freedom of action in pursuing its foreign affairs goals. A trade surplus made it easier to keep armies abroad and to invest outside the U.S. Because other nations could not sustain foreign deployments, U.S. power to decide why, when and how to intervene in global crisis increased. The dollar continued to function as a compass to guide the health of the world economy, and exporting to the U.S. became the primary economic goal of developing or redeveloping economies. This arrangement came to be referred to as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pax Americana</i>, in analogy to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pax Britannica</i> of the late 19th century and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pax Romana</i> of the first. (<i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Globalism)<p><a id="The_late_Bretton_Woods_System" name="The_late_Bretton_Woods_System"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The late Bretton Woods System</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_U.S._balance_of_payments_crisis_.281958.E2.80.9368.29" name="The_U.S._balance_of_payments_crisis_.281958.E2.80.9368.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The U.S. balance of payments crisis (1958–68)</span></h3>
<p>After the end of World War II, the U.S. held $26 billion in gold reserves, of an estimated total of $40 billion (approx 65%). As world trade increased rapidly through the 1950s, the size of the gold base increased by only a few percent. In 1958, the U.S. balance of payments swung negative. The first U.S. response to the crisis was in the late 1950s when the <a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower administration</a> placed import quotas on oil and other restrictions on trade outflows. More drastic measures were proposed, but not acted on. However, with a mounting recession that began in 1959, this response alone was not sustainable. In 1960, with <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a>'s election, a decade-long effort to maintain the Bretton Woods System at the $35/ounce price was begun.<p>The design of the Bretton Woods System was that only nations could enforce gold convertibility on the anchor currency—the United States’. Gold convertibility enforcement was not required, but instead, allowed. Nations could forgo converting dollars to gold, and instead hold dollars. Rather than full convertibility, it provided a fixed price for sales between central banks. However, there was still an open gold market, 80% of which was traded through London, which issued a morning "gold fix," which was the price of gold on the open market. For the Bretton Woods system to remain workable, it would either have to alter the peg of the dollar to gold, or it would have to maintain the free market price for gold near the $35 per ounce official price. The greater the gap between free market gold prices and central bank gold prices, the greater the temptation to deal with internal economic issues by buying gold at the Bretton Woods price and selling it on the open market.<p>However, keeping the dollar because of its ability to earn interest was still more desirable than holding gold. In 1960 <!--del_lnk--> Robert Triffin noticed that the reason holding dollars was more valuable than gold was because constant U.S. <!--del_lnk--> balance of payments deficits helped to keep the system liquid and fuel economic growth. What would be later known as <!--del_lnk--> Triffin's Dilemma was predicted when Triffin noted that if the U.S. failed to keep running deficits the system would lose its liquidity, not being able to keep up with the world's economic growth, thus bringing the system to a halt. Yet, continuing to incur such payment deficits also meant that over time the deficits would erode confidence in the dollar as the reserve currency creating instability.<p>The first effort was the creation of the "London Gold Pool." The theory of the pool was that spikes in the free market price of gold, set by the "morning gold fix" in London, could be controlled by having a pool of gold to sell on the open market, which would then be recovered when the price of gold dropped. Gold's price spiked in response to events such as the <!--del_lnk--> Cuban Missile Crisis, and other smaller events, to as high as $40/ounce. The Kennedy administration began drafting a radical change of the tax system in order to spur more productive capacity, and thus encourage exports. This would culminate with his tax cut program of 1963, designed to maintain the $35 peg.<p>In 1967 there was an attack on the pound, and a run on gold in the "sterling area," and on <!--del_lnk--> November 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, the British government was forced to devalue the pound. U.S. President <!--del_lnk--> Lyndon Baines Johnson was faced with a brutal choice, either he could institute protectionist measures, including travel taxes, export subsidies and slashing the budget—or he could accept the risk of a "run on gold" and the dollar. From Johnson's perspective: "The world supply of gold is insufficient to make the present system workable—particularly as the use of the dollar as a reserve currency is essential to create the required international liquidity to sustain world trade and growth." He believed that the priorities of the United States were correct, and that, while there were internal tensions in the Western alliance, that turning away from open trade would be more costly, economically and politically, than it was worth: "Our role of world leadership in a political and military sense is the only reason for our current embarrassment in an economic sense on the one hand and on the other the correction of the economic embarrassment under present monetary systems will result in an untenable position economically for our allies."<p>While <!--del_lnk--> West Germany agreed not to purchase gold from the U.S., and agreed to hold dollars instead, the pressure on both the Dollar and the Pound Sterling continued. In January 1968 Johnson imposed a series of measures designed to end gold outflow, and to increase American exports. However, to no avail: on <!--del_lnk--> March 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1968, there was a run on gold, the London Gold Pool was dissolved, and a series of meetings began to rescue or reform the system as it existed. However, as long as the U.S. commitments to foreign deployment continued, particularly to Western Europe, there was little that could be done to maintain the gold peg.<p>The attempt to maintain that peg collapsed in November 1968, and a new policy program was attempted: to convert Bretton Woods to a system where the enforcement mechanism floated by some means, which would be set by either fiat, or by a restriction to honour foreign accounts.<p><a id="Structural_changes_underpinning_the_decline_of_international_monetary_management" name="Structural_changes_underpinning_the_decline_of_international_monetary_management"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Structural changes underpinning the decline of international monetary management</span></h3>
<p><a id="Return_to_convertibility" name="Return_to_convertibility"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Return to convertibility</span></h4>
<p>In the 1960s and 70s, important structural changes eventually led to the breakdown of international monetary management. One change was the development of a high level of monetary interdependence. The stage was set for monetary interdependence by the return to convertibility of the Western European currencies at the end of 1958 and of the <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_yen.htm" title="Yen">yen</a> in 1964. Convertibility facilitated the vast expansion of international financial transactions, which deepened monetary interdependence.<p><a id="The_growth_of_international_currency_markets" name="The_growth_of_international_currency_markets"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The growth of international currency markets</span></h4>
<p>Another aspect of the internationalization of banking has been the emergence of international banking consortia. Since 1964 various banks had formed international syndicates, and by 1971 over three quarters of the world's largest banks had become shareholders in such syndicates. Multinational banks can and do make huge international transfers of capital not only for investment purposes but also for <!--del_lnk--> hedging and <!--del_lnk--> speculating against exchange rate fluctuations.<p>These new forms of monetary interdependence made possible huge capital flows. During the Bretton Woods era countries were reluctant to alter exchange rates formally even in cases of structural disequilibria. Because such changes had a direct impact on certain domestic economic groups, they came to be seen as political risks for leaders. As a result official exchange rates often became unrealistic in market terms, providing a virtually risk-free temptation for speculators. They could move from a weak to a strong currency hoping to reap profits when a revaluation occurred. If, however, monetary authorities managed to avoid revaluation, they could return to other currencies with no loss. The combination of risk-free speculation with the availability of huge sums was highly destabilizing.<p><a id="The_decline_of_U.S._hegemony" name="The_decline_of_U.S._hegemony"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The decline of U.S. hegemony</span></h4>
<p>A second structural change that undermined monetary management was the decline of U.S. hegemony. The U.S. was no longer the dominant economic power it had been for almost two decades. By the mid-1960s Europe and Japan had become international economic powers in their own right. With total reserves exceeding those of the U.S., with higher levels of growth and trade, and with <!--del_lnk--> per capita income approaching that of the U.S., Europe and Japan were narrowing the gap between themselves and the United States.<p>The shift toward a more <!--del_lnk--> pluralistic distribution of economic power led to increasing dissatisfaction with the privileged role of the U.S. dollar as the international currency. As in effect the world's central banker, the U.S., through its deficit, determined the level of international <!--del_lnk--> liquidity. In an increasingly interdependent world, U.S. policy greatly influenced economic conditions in Europe and Japan. In addition, as long as other countries were willing to hold dollars, the U.S. could carry out massive foreign expenditures for political purposes—military activities and foreign aid—without the threat of balance-of-payments constraints.<p>Dissatisfaction with the political implications of the dollar system was increased by <i><!--del_lnk--> détente</i> between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The Soviet threat had been an important force in cementing the Western capitalist monetary system. The U.S. political and security umbrella helped make American economic domination palatable for Europe and Japan, which had been economically exhausted by the war. As gross domestic production grew in European countries, trade grew. When common security tensions lessened, this loosened the transatlantic dependence on defense concerns, and allowed latent economic tensions to surface.<p><a id="The_decline_of_the_dollar" name="The_decline_of_the_dollar"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The decline of the dollar</span></h4>
<p>Reinforcing the relative decline in U.S. power and the dissatisfaction of Europe and Japan with the system was the continuing decline of the dollar—the foundation that had underpinned the post-1945 global trading system. The <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> and the refusal of the administration of <!--del_lnk--> U.S. President <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> to pay for it and its <!--del_lnk--> Great Society programs through taxation resulted in an increased dollar outflow to pay for the military expenditures and rampant <!--del_lnk--> inflation, which led to the deterioration of the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> balance of trade position. In the late 1960s, the dollar was overvalued with its current trading position, while the <!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Mark and the yen were undervalued; and, naturally, the Germans and the Japanese had no desire to revalue and thereby make their exports more expensive, whereas the U.S. sought to maintain its international credibility by avoiding devaluation. Meanwhile, the pressure on government reserves was intensified by the new international currency markets, with their vast pools of speculative capital moving around in search of quick profits.<p>In contrast, upon the creation of Bretton Woods, with the U.S. producing half of the world's manufactured goods and holding half its reserves, the twin burdens of international management and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> were possible to meet at first. Throughout the 1950s Washington sustained a balance of payments deficit in order to finance loans, aid, and troops for allied regimes. But during the 1960s the costs of doing so became less tolerable. By 1970 the U.S. held under 16% of international reserves. Adjustment to these changed realities was impeded by the U.S. commitment to fixed exchange rates and by the U.S. obligation to convert dollars into gold on demand.<p>In sum, monetary interdependence was increasing at a faster pace than international management in the 1960s, leading up to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. New problems created by interdependence, including huge capital flows, placed stresses on the fixed exchange rate system and impeded national economic management. Amid these problems, economic cooperation decreased, and U.S. leadership declined, and eventually broke down.<p><a id="The_paralysis_of_international_monetary_management" name="The_paralysis_of_international_monetary_management"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The paralysis of international monetary management</span></h3>
<p><a name=".22Floating.22_Bretton_Woods_.281968.E2.80.9372.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">"Floating" Bretton Woods (1968–72)</span></h4>
<p>By 1968, the attempt to defend the dollar at a fixed peg of $35/ounce, the policy of the Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson administrations, had become increasingly untenable. Gold outflows from the U.S. accelerated, and despite gaining assurances from Germany and other nations to hold gold, the "dollar shortage" of the 1940s and 1950s had become a <!--del_lnk--> dollar glut. In 1967, the IMF agreed in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> to replace the <!--del_lnk--> tranche division set up in 1946. <!--del_lnk--> Special Drawing Rights were set as equal to one U.S. dollar, but were not usable for transactions other than between banks and the IMF. Nations were required to accept holding SDRs equal to three times their allotment, and interest would be charged, or credited, to each nation based on their SDR holding. The original interest rate was 1.5%.<p>The intent of the SDR system was to prevent nations from buying pegged dollars and selling them at the higher free market price, and give nations a reason to hold dollars by crediting interest, at the same time setting a clear limit to the amount of dollars which could be held. The essential conflict was that the American role as military defender of the capitalist world's economic system was recognized, but not given a specific monetary value. In effect, other nations "purchased" American defense policy by taking a loss in holding dollars. They were only willing to do this as long as they supported U.S. military policy, because of the <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam war and other unpopular actions, the pro-U.S. consensus began to evaporate. The SDR agreement, in effect, monetized the value of this relationship, but did not create a market for it.<p>The use of SDRs as "paper gold" seemed to offer a way to balance the system, turning the IMF, rather than the U.S., into the world's central banker. The US tightened controls over foreign investment and currency, including mandatory investment controls in 1968. In 1970, U.S. President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> lifted import quotas on oil in an attempt to reduce energy costs; instead, however, this exacerbated dollar flight, and created pressure from <!--del_lnk--> petro-dollars now linked to <!--del_lnk--> gas-euros resulting the 1963 energy transition from coal to gas with the creation of the Dutch <!--del_lnk--> Gasunie. Still, the U.S. continued to draw down reserves. In 1971 it had a reserve deficit of $56 Billion dollars; as well, it had depleted most of its non-gold reserves and had only 22% gold coverage of foreign reserves. In short, the dollar was tremendously overvalued with respect to gold.<p><a id="The_.22Nixon_Shock.22" name="The_.22Nixon_Shock.22"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The "Nixon Shock"</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>By the early 1970s, as the Vietnam War accelerated inflation, the United States as a whole began running a trade deficit (for the first time in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth century</a>). The crucial turning point was 1970, which saw U.S. gold coverage deteriorate from 55% to 22%. This, in the view of <!--del_lnk--> neoclassical economists, represented the point where holders of the dollar had lost faith in the ability of the U.S. to cut budget and trade deficits.<p>In 1971 more and more dollars were being printed in Washington, then being pumped overseas, to pay for government expenditure on the military and social programs. In the first six months of 1971, assets for $22 billion fled the U.S. In response, on <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1971 Nixon unilaterally imposed 90-day wage and price controls, a 10% import surcharge, and most importantly "closed the gold window," making the dollar inconvertible to gold directly, except on the open market. Unusually, this decision was made without consulting members of the international monetary system or even his own State Department, and was soon dubbed the "<!--del_lnk--> Nixon Shock".<p>The surcharge was dropped in December 1971 as part of a general revaluation of major currencies, which were henceforth allowed 2.25% devaluations from the agreed exchange rate. But even the more flexible official rates could not be defended against the speculators. By March 1976, all the major currencies were floating—in other words, exchange rates were no longer the principal method used by governments to administer monetary policy.<p><a id="The_Smithsonian_Agreement" name="The_Smithsonian_Agreement"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Smithsonian Agreement</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The shock of <!--del_lnk--> August 15 was followed by efforts under U.S. leadership to develop a new system of international monetary management. Throughout the fall of 1971, there was a series of multilateral and bilateral negotiations of the <!--del_lnk--> Group of Ten seeking to develop a new multilateral monetary system.<p>On 17 and <!--del_lnk--> 18 December <!--del_lnk--> 1971, the Group of Ten, meeting in the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution in Washington, created the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Agreement which devalued the dollar to $38/ounce, with 2.25% trading bands, and attempted to balance the world financial system using SDRs alone. It was criticized at the time, and was by design a "temporary" agreement. It failed to impose discipline on the U.S. government, and with no other credibility mechanism in place, the pressure against the dollar in gold continued.<p>This resulted in gold becoming a floating asset, and in 1971 it reached $44.20/ounce, in 1972 $70.30/ounce and still climbing. By 1972, currencies began abandoning even this devalued peg against the dollar, though it took a decade for all of the industrialized nations to do so. In February 1973 the Bretton Woods currency exchange markets closed, after a last-gasp devaluation of the dollar to $44/ounce, and reopened in March in a <!--del_lnk--> floating currency regime.<p><a id="Bretton_Woods_II.3F" name="Bretton_Woods_II.3F"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bretton Woods II?</span></h2>
<p>A number of economists have referred to the system of currency relations which evolved after 2001, in which currencies, particularly the <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a>, remained fixed to the <!--del_lnk--> US Dollar as Bretton Woods II. The argument is that a system of pegged currencies is both stable and desirable, a notion that causes considerable controversy.<p><a id="Conclusions" name="Conclusions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conclusions</span></h2>
<p>The collapse of the Bretton Woods system is a subject of intense debate. There are a variety of theories as to why it did so, ranging from the continuing printing of fiat money while maintaining a peg to gold, the budget deficit problems, to the Vietnam War, to marginal tax rates. The fundamental point of agreement is that the U.S. ran an increasing <!--del_lnk--> balance of trade deficit, and that, in the end, it could not establish credibility on reining this deficit in. This would lead to the study in economics of credibility as a separate field, and to the prominence of "open" macroeconomic models, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Mundell-Fleming model.<p><a id="Pegged_rates" name="Pegged_rates"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pegged rates</span></h2>
<p><i>Dates shown are those on which the rate was introduced</i><p><a id="Pound_sterling" name="Pound_sterling"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a></span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of pound<br /> in <!--del_lnk--> US dollars</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td align="center">4.03</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">2.8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 17 November <!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td align="center">2.4</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="French_Franc" name="French_Franc"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> French Franc</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in francs</th>
<th>Note</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td align="center">119.11</td>
<td>£1 = 480F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 26 January <!--del_lnk--> 1948</td>
<td align="center">214.39</td>
<td>£1 = 864F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 October <!--del_lnk--> 1948</td>
<td align="center">263.52</td>
<td>£1 = 1062F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 April <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">272.21</td>
<td>£1 = 1097F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">350</td>
<td>£1 = 980F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10 August <!--del_lnk--> 1957</td>
<td align="center">420</td>
<td>£1 = 1176F</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1958</td>
<td align="center">493.71</td>
<td>1F = 1.8 mg gold</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 1960</td>
<td align="center">4.9371</td>
<td>1 new franc = 100 old francs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10 August <!--del_lnk--> 1968</td>
<td align="center">5.48</td>
<td>1NF = 162 mg gold</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Deutsche_Mark" name="Deutsche_Mark"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Mark</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in Mark</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 June <!--del_lnk--> 1948</td>
<td align="center">3.33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">4.20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 6 March <!--del_lnk--> 1961</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 29 October <!--del_lnk--> 1969</td>
<td align="center">3.67</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Italian_lira" name="Italian_lira"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Italian lira</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in lire</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>November <!--del_lnk--> 1947</td>
<td align="center">575</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">625</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Japanese_yen" name="Japanese_yen"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_yen.htm" title="Japanese yen">Japanese yen</a></span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in yen</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 April <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">360</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Swiss_franc" name="Swiss_franc"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Swiss franc</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in francs</th>
<th>Note</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td align="center">4.3052</td>
<td>£1 = 17.35SF</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">4.375</td>
<td>£1 = 12.25SF</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Dutch_gulden" name="Dutch_gulden"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Dutch gulden</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in gulden</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td align="center">2.652</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">3.8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 7 March <!--del_lnk--> 1961</td>
<td align="center">3.62</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Belgian_franc" name="Belgian_franc"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Belgian franc</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in francs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 December <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td align="center">43.77</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1946</td>
<td align="center">43.8725</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
<td align="center">50</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Finnish_markka" name="Finnish_markka"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Finnish markka</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th align="center">Value of US dollar<br /> in markkaa</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1948</td>
<td align="center">3.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td align="center">4.2</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brian Close</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3>
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<td colspan="3" style="font-size: larger">
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15221.png.htm" title="English Flag"><img alt="English Flag" height="48" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" src="../../images/153/15308.png" width="80" /></a></span></div><big><b>Brian Close</b></big><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> England (Eng)</b></td>
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<td bgcolor="white" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/153/15309.png.htm" title="Brian Close"><img alt="Brian Close" height="1" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cricket_no_pic.png" src="../../images/153/15309.png" width="154" /></a></td>
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<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Batting style</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Left-handed batsman (LHB)</td>
</tr>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Bowling type</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Right-arm off break/medium pace</td>
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<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td style="font-size: larger;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Tests</b></td>
<td style="font-size: larger;"><b><!--del_lnk--> ODIs</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Matches</b></td>
<td>22</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Runs scored</b></td>
<td>887</td>
<td>49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Batting average</b></td>
<td>25.34</td>
<td>16.33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>100s/50s</b></td>
<td>0/4</td>
<td>0/0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Top score</b></td>
<td>70</td>
<td>43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Overs bowled</b></td>
<td>202</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Wickets</b></td>
<td>18</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Bowling average</b></td>
<td>29.55</td>
<td>n/a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>5 wickets in <!--del_lnk--> innings</b></td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>10 wickets in match</b></td>
<td>0</td>
<td>N/A</td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Best bowling</b></td>
<td>4/35</td>
<td>n/a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Catches/<!--del_lnk--> stumpings</b></td>
<td>24/0</td>
<td>1/0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: right; font-size: smaller;">
<p>As of <!--del_lnk--> 13 July <!--del_lnk--> 1976<br /> Source: <!--del_lnk--> Cricinfo.com</td>
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</table>
<p><b>Dennis Brian Close</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> 24 February <!--del_lnk--> 1931 in <!--del_lnk--> Rawdon, <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire) is the youngest man ever to play <!--del_lnk--> Test cricket for <!--del_lnk--> England. He was admitted to the Test team to play against New Zealand at just 18 years and 149 days old. Close went on to play 22 <!--del_lnk--> Test matches for England, <!--del_lnk--> captaining them seven times, winning six times and drawing once. Close also captained <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire to four <!--del_lnk--> county championship titles, the main honour English county cricket clubs play for. He later went on to captain <!--del_lnk--> Somerset, where he is widely credited with turning Somerset round to a hard-playing team that helped mould <!--del_lnk--> Viv Richards and <!--del_lnk--> Ian Botham into the cricketing greats they became.<p>Throughout his cricket career, which lasted from 1948 to the 1977 season, Close was one of the most charismatic and well-known cricketers. At just over six <!--del_lnk--> feet (1.8 m) tall he was a noticeable presence on the field, often fielding at short leg. Short leg is a position close to the batsman, and, as cricketers did not use head or body protection in Close's day, he would often get hurt when a batsman struck a ball that hit him. Close was also noted for standing up to intimidatory bowling when he was batting and letting the ball hit his unprotected torso. Indeed, Close was so well known for getting hit a lot that <!--del_lnk--> Eric Morecambe, Britain's leading <!--del_lnk--> comedian of the time, would joke that "you know the cricket season has arrived when you hear the sound of leather on Brian Close" (mimicking the usual phrase "leather on willow" - cricket balls being made of leather, and bats, of willow).<p>Yet despite his successes, Close was dogged by controversy throughout his career. He was serving a sentence of being "confined to barracks" during his <!--del_lnk--> National Service when called up for his first international tour, sacked by England for timewasting, and sacked by Yorkshire for being against <!--del_lnk--> one-day cricket and not giving enough support to younger cricketers. He went on to tour <!--del_lnk--> apartheid <!--del_lnk--> South Africa and white-minority controlled <!--del_lnk--> Rhodesia, and as chairman of Yorkshire's cricket subcommittee, he had many run-ins with the then Yorkshire captain, <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Boycott. In short, Close was known as a cricketing gambler; he was prepared to take risks and to court controversy throughout his career. As his schoolfriend Bryan Stott said, "Brian was a very bright lad, but at school and later on he has done some of the most incredibly stupid things".<p>
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</script><a id="Childhood" name="Childhood"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood</span></h2>
<p>Close was born into a working-class family in Town Street, <!--del_lnk--> Rawdon, <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire on <!--del_lnk--> 24 February <!--del_lnk--> 1931 to Harry, a weaver, and Esther (<i>née</i> Barratt), the second eldest of five boys and a girl. Close was brought up in a series of council houses in Rawdon, <!--del_lnk--> Guiseley and <!--del_lnk--> Yeadon. Although these houses were small, they did have a back yard, where young Brian could practise cricket with his father. Harry Close was himself a keen cricketer, who <!--del_lnk--> kept wicket and was a big hitter in the Bradford League, but he never quite made it to the Yorkshire county team.<p>The hero and dominating figure of Close's home town of <!--del_lnk--> Rawdon was <!--del_lnk--> Hedley Verity, a great England and Yorkshire player in the period before the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War, who also came from Rawdon, and the Verity family continued to live there. Indeed, for a while Close lived in the same Canada Estate that Verity had lived in. At <!--del_lnk--> primary school, Close was taught by Grace Verity, Hedley's sister and was friends with two of Verity's children, Wilfred and Douglas. Later Close went to <!--del_lnk--> Aireborough Grammar School, where Verity was the best-known alumnus. Close's early years were surrounded by images of local cricketing greatness.<p>Close appeared set for equal greatness. At school he was a good all-round sportsman, and an excellent cricketer: Aireborough went unbeaten in the six cricketing summers while Close was there, with Close dominating junior level cricket in the area, both within and outside schools. He joined Rawdon Cricket Club in 1942 when he was eleven years of age and was almost immediately selected to play for the under 18 side and the second team. However, he also excelled as a student and seriously considered becoming a doctor and had an offer to go to university after his <!--del_lnk--> National Service at age 18, which, in the event, he turned down.<p>As well as cricket, Close was also proficient at <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> to such an extent that he was taken on as an amateur by <!--del_lnk--> Leeds United. He even became the first Leeds player to play international football at youth level, when in October 1948 he played for <!--del_lnk--> England against <!--del_lnk--> Scotland at <!--del_lnk--> Pittodrie Park in <a href="../../wp/a/Aberdeen.htm" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a>. However, when he got injured playing football, thereby allowing him to play cricket for <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire County Cricket Club in 1949, his sporting ambitions were focused on cricket. Close's excellence at cricket, together with Yorkshire's enthusiasm for it, even encouraged <!--del_lnk--> Bradford <!--del_lnk--> MP <!--del_lnk--> Maurice Webb to intervene to allow Close to complete the 1949 season for Yorkshire, when he would ordinarily have entered into National Service.<p><a id="Close.27s_1st_first-class_season" name="Close.27s_1st_first-class_season"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Close's 1st first-class season</span></h2>
<p>Close's first <!--del_lnk--> first-class games for Yorkshire in the 1949 season were against <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge <!--del_lnk--> and then <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University. <!--del_lnk--> Close acquitted himself well, although his 8 <!--del_lnk--> wickets against Oxford were not enough to prevent Oxford winning by 69 runs. After these games, he continued to impress, particularly as a <!--del_lnk--> bowler: in his fifth first-class game, against <!--del_lnk--> Essex, <!--del_lnk--> Close took 5 for 58 in Essex's first innings, and top-scored with an undefeated 88. His performances for Yorkshire earned him a place in the North v South Test trial. However, he underperformed in that game taking no wickets and scoring only 2 runs.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Close continued to do well for Yorkshire and was selected for the Players against the Gentlemen.<!--del_lnk--> At that time class status was still important: professionals, known as Players, were expected to show deference to the amateurs, who were the Gentlemen. Gentlemen did not share changing rooms with Players, and cricket scorecards would differentiate between the two of them, with the names of Gentlemen being prefixed "Mr", the names of the professionals being styled by their surnames and then their initials. This was a time when it was considered necessary to announce on the tannoy errors such as "for <i>F.J. Titmus</i> read <i>Titmus, F.J.</i>".<p>Close did well for the Players and top-scored with 65. When he reached his fifty, he was congratulated by the Gentlemen's wicket-keeper, Billy Griffith, and in a conversation that now seems innocuous, Grifftith congratulated Close by saying, "Well played, Brian", with Close replying, "Thank you, Billy". However, Close had not referred to Griffith as "Mister", and ten days later was called to see Brian Sellers, a former captain and member of the Yorkshire committee, who reprimanded Close for the effrontery.<p>At the same time, Close had been selected for the third three-day <!--del_lnk--> Test match at <!--del_lnk--> Old Trafford against the touring <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand cricket team;<!--del_lnk--> in this game, Close became, and <!--del_lnk--> as of 2005 remains, <!--del_lnk--> England's youngest-ever Test player, being aged just 18 years and 149 days when he played against New Zealand. He came in when England needed quick runs, with the instruction from <!--del_lnk--> Freddie Brown, the captain, being to "have a look at a couple and then give it a go". Close played two balls back to the <!--del_lnk--> bowler, then hit out for the <!--del_lnk--> boundary, only to be caught just short, one-handed, for a duck.<p>Overall, Close's first season must be seen as a resounding success. He played his first Test, and <!--del_lnk--> as of 2005 remains the youngest player to have achieved the double of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in a first-class season, and the only player to have achieved this double in his first season as a first-class player. This first season set the flavour of the remainder of Close's career: times of notable success, tarnished by many run-ins with officialdom, and with Sellers in particular. Close himself felt that the Test call-up was an albatross round his neck. He was always referred to as England's youngest player, always with a suggestion of unfulfilled promise.<p><a id="Tour_to_Australia_in_1950" name="Tour_to_Australia_in_1950"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tour to Australia in 1950</span></h2>
<p>Professional footballer Close, as he described himself, finally did his National Service on 1950, becoming 22185787 Signalman Close at <!--del_lnk--> Catterick. This did not prevent him concentrating on sport, although it did mean his first-class cricket games in 1950 were restricted to turning out for the Combined Services side. His performances both first-class and non-first-class were exceptional enough to attract the attentions of <!--del_lnk--> England cricket captain, <!--del_lnk--> Freddie Brown. Before calling Close up to the Test side to tour <!--del_lnk--> Australia, Brown consulted Close's fellow Yorkshiremen, including Bill Bowes. Bowes pleaded with Brown not to select Close arguing that it was too early, and his early promotion could damage him as a player. Bowes later described Close as having a "tremendous ability spoilt by moments of extreme spontaneity, and of determination marred by rashness"; Brown had ignored Bowes and selected Close; Close was never to be a regular in the England Test squad.<p>Close's call-up to the Aussie touring party attracted a lot of press interest, and a press conference was called at Catterick to give the press a chance to question Close. However, his moment of glory also gave rise to controversy when one pressman found out that Close was "confined to barracks" for discliplinary reasons at the time his call-up was announced as he had not turned up to play for the Combined Services in a cricket match. The pressman promised to stay silent, but the story circulated in Catterick, and a week later a clerk on the camp newspaper telephoned the <i>Daily Express</i> with the news. However, Close still toured, and his National Service was suspended so he could do so.<p>Close was the youngest on the tour, and had little in common with the rest of the party; by the end he was not even on talking terms with most of them. After a reasonable start, Close faltered, and then became injured, with a badly pulled groin muscle. It was then that Close was selected to play in the second Test. England were beaten by 28 runs. Australia were dismissed for 194. England however, had collapsed to 54 for 4 when Close came in with only eight deliveries to go before lunch on the second day. Misjudging the bounce on the <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> <!--del_lnk--> wicket, which was somewhat different to the bounce of English wickets, he swept a ball from Iverson only to get a top edge to Sam Loxton behind square. The dressing room was silent when he returned. England captain, <!--del_lnk--> Freddie Brown, when advised that Close was a bit down and needed consolation replied, "Let the blighter stew. He deserves it."<p>Later, when travelling to <!--del_lnk--> Tasmania, he was ordered to play despite doctor's advice to rest, and as Close tried to nurse his injury, he merely got a reputation for malingering and insubordination. He was made to play six of the next seven games. When England won a Test match in Australia for the first time in 13 years in the final Test, Close was not even present, and was not even on speaking terms with the team. Close hated the tour, and even contemplated suicide during it. Nowadays, someone in Close's position would be carefully man-managed and well looked after by captain and team manager. But times were different then, and the Yorkshire stalwarts were proved right: he had been picked too early, and Close would never be a regular Test pick.<p><a id="Out_of_the_limelight_1951_to_1958" name="Out_of_the_limelight_1951_to_1958"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Out of the limelight 1951 to 1958</span></h2>
<p>The years between 1951 and 1958 were relatively unsuccessful for Close, even though he achieved 1,000 runs in a season 5 times. However, immediately after the tour to Australia, Close did have a good season with the Combined Services, including a century against the touring <!--del_lnk--> South Africans. At the end of his National Service in October 1951, he signed for <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" title="Arsenal F.C.">Arsenal</a>, and tried to combine this with his cricket for <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire. But it proved impossible to combine the role of dual professional: Close received permission from Yorkshire captain <!--del_lnk--> Norman Yardley to leave the first match of the 1952 cricket season to play for Arsenal. This leave of absence was later rescinded by the match manager in Yardley's absence. Close arrived late at Arsenal and was sacked.<p>Close enjoyed a good 1952 season at Yorkshire, achieving another double, but played no Test cricket. He played soccer for Bradford City this time, and it was whilst doing this that he picked up a serious knee injury that ended his professional footballing career, and nearly threatened his cricket career. Close played only two first-class matches in the 1953 cricket season.<p>In 1954 Close scored his first <!--del_lnk--> first-class century for Yorkshire, an undefeated 123 for Yorkshire against the touring <!--del_lnk--> Pakistanis. In 1955 he scored his first county championship century. He also played one Test match against <!--del_lnk--> South Africa, and was 3 wickets short of another 1,000 runs/100 wickets double. He was in the Test selectors' sights again, and was picked for the <!--del_lnk--> MCC tour to Pakistan in 1955/6. Close played two Tests against the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies in 1957, but did not perform well enough to secure a regular Test place.<p>Meanwhile, in this period, Yorkshire had not win a single <!--del_lnk--> County Championship. At the end of 1958 there was a shake-up in the Yorkshire team. Yorkshire appointed a new captain, <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Burnet, and <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Wardle, Yorkshire's top bowler and Close's preferred choice of captain, was dropped for disciplinary reasons. Burnet was 40 and seemed an unlikely man to take Yorkshire to the top of the championship. He had been preferred as it was felt by the Yorkshire committee that he would inject some necessary discipline into the Yorkshire team, and, with tactical support from his senior professional, Brian Close, he succeeded in doing just that.<p><a id="Yorkshire_as_County_Champions_and_more_controversy" name="Yorkshire_as_County_Champions_and_more_controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yorkshire as County Champions and more controversy</span></h2>
<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" width="300">
<tr>
<td><big><b>Career record</b></big></td>
<td><big><b><!--del_lnk--> First-class</b></big></td>
<td><big><b><!--del_lnk--> List A</b></big></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Matches</b></td>
<td>786</td>
<td>164</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Runs scored</b></td>
<td>34994</td>
<td>3458</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Batting average</b></td>
<td>33.26</td>
<td>23.84</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>100s/50s</b></td>
<td>52/171</td>
<td>2/11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Top score</b></td>
<td>198</td>
<td>131</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Balls bowled</b></td>
<td>69972</td>
<td>2258</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Wickets</b></td>
<td>1171</td>
<td>65</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Bowling average</b></td>
<td>26.42</td>
<td>22.43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>5 <!--del_lnk--> wickets in <!--del_lnk--> innings</b></td>
<td>43</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>10 <!--del_lnk--> wickets in match</b></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>N/A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Best Bowling</b></td>
<td>8/41</td>
<td>4/9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Catches/<!--del_lnk--> Stumpings</b></td>
<td>813/1</td>
<td>53/0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" colspan="3" style="background: #f9f9f9;"><small>As of <!--del_lnk--> 2 September <!--del_lnk--> 1986<br /> Source: <!--del_lnk--> <br /><!--del_lnk--> </small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Burnet, aided by Close, was immediately successful, and in 1959, Yorkshire won the county championship. At the end of that season, as Close later heard, Burnet was told that, having just won the championship, he could have another season as captain, but, if he did, Close would then take over. If he resigned at the end of 1959, <!--del_lnk--> Vic Wilson could take over as captain in preference to Close. Burnet chose to step down straightaway. Once Wilson took over, with Close still as the senior professional, it seemed that Yorkshire did not know how to lose. Yorkshire won the county championship again in 1960, were second in 1961, and won again in 1962.<p>Close was called up for his seventh Test in 1961, against Australia.<!--del_lnk--> Again, it turned to disaster with Close being blamed for England's defeat. Many considered this unfair, including the Australian captain, <!--del_lnk--> Richie Benaud, who said, "I thought the slating of Brian was one of the most unjust things I have ever experienced".<p>England were chasing 256 to win in just under 4 hours, and got to 150 for 1. Then <!--del_lnk--> Ted Dexter and <!--del_lnk--> Peter May got out in quick succession to Benaud, who was pitching his <!--del_lnk--> leg breaks in the rough outside the right handers' leg stump. This brought Close to the crease. It was the last day of the Test, and the captain, May, was still asking his players to go for the runs. Close took a calculated risk, and chose to sweep Benaud. He took one six off Benaud. Then on the tenth ball he faced, he played another unorthodox sweep which O'Neill took above his head with two hands. Commentators did not appreciate what Close's approach was: to hit Benaud out of the attack and make it easier for right-handed batsmen to score runs. Purists were outraged, and as England collapsed to 201 all out and a 54 run defeat, Close alone took the blame, with some commentators saying he should never play for England again.<p><a id="Yorkshire_captaincy" name="Yorkshire_captaincy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yorkshire captaincy</span></h2>
<p>At the end of 1962, Wilson retired, and the Yorkshire committee appointed Close captain. According to Bowes "almost overnight it seemed that Brian Close matured". He wrote, "Close's field placings were as intelligent and antagonistic as any seen in the county for 25 years".<p>Close's attitude, in his own words was that "I've always believed that the team is more important than the individual", and that credo stood Yorkshire in good stead. <!--del_lnk--> Ray Illingworth noted that when he went to <!--del_lnk--> Leicestershire, the players there were surprised that, while Yorkshire were perennial Championship winners, the <!--del_lnk--> batting averages of the lead batsmen tended to languish in the 20s. The answer was that Close had honed them to play the innings required at the right time: when quick runs were required, players did not play for their averages, they played for quick runs.<p>Close was recalled to the Test squad in 1963, and played his first full series, against the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies.<!--del_lnk--> His innings in the second Test at <!--del_lnk--> Lord's remains his best known.<!--del_lnk--> Against <!--del_lnk--> Wes Hall and <!--del_lnk--> Charlie Griffith, two of the West Indies' quickest bowlers. In need of quick runs, Close took the battle to the West Indian fast bowlers, daring to advance down the wicket to them. This was an age before body protection and helmets, and time and again the ball struck Close firmly on his body. But he persevered. His 70 very nearly won the game for England, and with no other English player other than <!--del_lnk--> Ken Barrington scoring above 20, he saved the game. Set 234 to win, England ended on 228 for 9, with <!--del_lnk--> Colin Cowdrey famously coming in to bat (for two balls at the non-striker's end) with his broken arm in plaster.<p>Although he was dismissed going for runs to win the game at the end, his courage earned him many plaudits, and his shirtless torso, black and blue with where he had been hit, made the front pages of the newspapers the next day.<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> Len Hutton wrote him a congratulatory letter on his innings, and he returned to county cricket the hero. Overall in the series he made 300 runs, but Close did not get selected for the next series.<p>Close also had immediate success as Yorkshire captain, winning the County Championship in 1963. His success in 1963 saw him named as a <i><!--del_lnk--> Wisden</i> <!--del_lnk--> Cricketer of the Year in 1964, as one of the five players to make the biggest impact in the English 1963 season. Close went on to captain Yorkshire to the county championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968.<p>Brian first met his wife Vivienne, an air stewardess with <!--del_lnk--> BOAC in <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> whilst touring with Yorkshire in 1964, when she was engaged to someone else. He pursued her relentlessly, even though initially she considered him not to be her type. Brian gambled with his love life too: on New Year's Day 1965 he told her that if she didn't agree to marry him, he would never see her again. They married the following March. They went on to have one daughter, Lynn, and a son, Lance.<p><a id="England_captaincy" name="England_captaincy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">England captaincy</span></h2>
<p>After the fourth Test of their five-Test series against the West Indies in 1966, England were 3-0 down and had lost the series. Needing someone to come in to revitalise the squad, the England selectors turned to the successful Yorkshire captain, Brian Close. Close knew why he had been selected, and also why many of his men had been. At the pre-match dinner he said, "I shouldn't be here if we hadn't made such a mess of the series. What's more, neither would a few of you. You are here because you are all fighters, and we are going to keep the pressure on and keep it on for five days." What Close did was to engender a battling spirit for the <!--del_lnk--> final Test Match. So, when England were 166 for 7 in reply to the West Indies' 268 all out, they did not give up. Instead, a century from <!--del_lnk--> Tom Graveney and <!--del_lnk--> John Murray, and half-centuries from <!--del_lnk--> Ken Higgs and <!--del_lnk--> John Snow, saw England to 527. The highlight of the match was when West Indian captain <!--del_lnk--> Gary Sobers, who had a batting average in the series of well over 100, came in to bat at 137/5 with his side still 128 runs from making England bat again. Close knew that Sobers was a fine hooker, and he knew how he wanted to approach him, so he asked <!--del_lnk--> John Snow to bowl a bouncer first up. Everything went to plan: Sobers hooked, edged the ball to his body, and it rebounded to Close at his customary short leg position, close to the batsman, ready to take the catch or a full blow to the body had Sobers middled it. Sobers c. Close, b. Snow 0 off one ball. England went on to win the game by an innings and 34 runs.<p>There was no overseas tour in 1966/7, so the next game Close captained was the first Test at <!--del_lnk--> Headingley against <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_cricket_team.htm" title="Indian cricket team">India</a> in 1967.<!--del_lnk--> Of the 16 Tests India had previously played in England, England had won 12 and drawn 4, and there were no expectations that there would be anything other than an England victory in the 3-match series. But they still needed to be beaten, and England, under Close, won each game convincingly.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pakistan toured England in the second half of the summer of 1967.<!--del_lnk--> The first match of that three-Test series was a rain-affected draw. The second Test was won comfortably by England by 10 wickets. It seemed certain that Close would be selected to captain England in their 1967/8 tour to the West Indies.<p>Then on 16, 17 and 18 August, Yorkshire, captained by Close, played <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire at Birmingham.<!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire had been set 142 to win in 100 minutes. When the match ended, Warwickshire were 133/5 and the match was drawn, 9 runs short of the victory target. However Yorkshire managed to bowl only 24 overs, with only 2 being bowled in the last 15 minutes. Whilst it was wet, and Yorkshire had to dry the ball often, this was seen as unacceptable time-wasting and <!--del_lnk--> gamesmanship. Close did not help himself as he personally berated a Warwickshire spectator who he thought had called out something inopportune, though in the event, he picked on the wrong man. After the game, Close said to the Warwickshire captain, <!--del_lnk--> M. J. K. Smith, "Bad luck, Mike, you played better than we did. But I couldn't give you the game." Smith appeared to accept this when he replied, "I quite understand."<p>Brian Sellers, chairman of Yorkshire and the one who berated Close in 1949 for saying "Thank you, Billy", then made matters worse for Close by sending an apology to the <!--del_lnk--> MCC. In 1967 England touring sides were still MCC sides rather than "England" sides, and the MCC took the opportunity to overrule the selectors who picked Close as captain. Close, whose temperament had been shown lacking, would not go to the West Indies; Cowdrey would captain the MCC England squad instead. And so it was that the Wednesday before the third and final Test against Pakistan, Close was told he had been stripped of the captaincy for the upcoming tour.<p>The third Test against Pakistan<!--del_lnk--> was Close's final Test as Captain. He went on to lead England to a comprehensive 8 wicket victory and win the series 2-0. His record as captain was played 7, won 6, drawn 1, the best record of any England captain who has captained in more than 2 Tests.<p><a id="The_last_years_at_Yorkshire" name="The_last_years_at_Yorkshire"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The last years at Yorkshire</span></h2>
<p>In 1969 Close played only 18 County Championship games as he was plagued by a calf injury, although he did lead Yorkshire to victory in the <!--del_lnk--> one-day Gillette Cup for a second time, the first time being in 1965. A shoulder injury saw Close miss much of the 1970 season, and Yorkshire fell down the County Championship table, but once Close was fit again, they had an extraordinary run and finished a creditable fourth.<p>Close, however, has always opposed one-day cricket, believing that it lessens players' abilities. <!--del_lnk--> Mike Procter notes that when <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire played Yorkshire in the John Player 40-over League in 1970, with Yorkshire 3 wickets down needing 6 an <!--del_lnk--> over, word came from Close in the dressing room: "No chance of winning this one, lads — just get some batting practice."<p>Yorkshire had a policy of not offering contracts to its players, but in return they would tell cricketers by the end of July if they did not require their services the next summer. When July 1970 came and went, Close must have thought he was safe. However, Close offended the <!--del_lnk--> Lancashire president, the Honourable Lionel Lister when Lister entered the away captain's changing room to speak to Close after Lancashire, Yorkshire's arch rivals, had beaten them at <!--del_lnk--> Old Trafford to retain the one-day John Player League trophy. Close, who may not have known who Lister was, offered Lister some choice words. Then Lister immediately told Brian Sellers, his Yorkshire counterpart, of the insult.<p>Close wrote a letter to Lister apologising, and gave a copy to a Yorkshire committeeman. But the letter was never presented to the committee as a whole, which voted to sack him as the first agenda item on their next meeting. And so it was that in November 1970, Close was summoned to see Sellers, when he was given the choice of either resigning or being sacked. To begin with, he chose to resign. But later that day, and after speaking to his legal adviser, he retracted this, leaving Yorkshire to sack him. The reason, according to Yorkshire, was Close's dislike for the new 40-over one-day cricket league, that was first played in 1969 (Close thought it led to bad habits and negative play) and because Close had supposedly not brought on the younger players.<p><a id="Somerset" name="Somerset"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Somerset</span></h2>
<p>After being sacked by Yorkshire, the 40 year old Close received offers from many other counties, including <!--del_lnk--> Lancashire, <!--del_lnk--> Glamorgan, <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex and <!--del_lnk--> Leicestershire. But he turned all these down, preferring to accept a non-captain's role at <!--del_lnk--> Somerset.<p>The rest from the captaincy did Close good, he went through the 1971 season without injury and scored 1,389 runs, including a century in his first game for Somerset,<!--del_lnk--> and a century in the game against Yorkshire.<!--del_lnk--> In 1972 he was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> CBE by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">the Queen</a> for his services to <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a>. Close was also promoted to Somerset captain. He soon gained the same respect and commitment from his players he had at Yorkshire. He was also called up to the England one-day squad to captain them in a three-match <!--del_lnk--> one-day international series against Australia, which England won 2-1, when the regular England captain and his former Yorkshire team-mate, <!--del_lnk--> Ray Illingworth, injured his ankle in the last Test.<p>In 1972/3 Close led a two-match tour of the "International Wanderers" to <!--del_lnk--> Rhodesia. The next two winters he captained the <!--del_lnk--> Derrick Robins' XI tours to apartheid <!--del_lnk--> South Africa. Robins' tours were the closest thing South Africa had to <!--del_lnk--> Test match cricket at that time, and for his efforts in the first of the tours to South Africa, Close was named as one of the four <i>South African Cricket Annual</i> Cricketers of the Year in 1974.<p>During his time at Somerset, <!--del_lnk--> Viv Richards and <!--del_lnk--> Ian Botham joined the county squad, and Close's leadership and discipline helped them become the great cricketers they are. Botham said of Close, "There was a genuine enthusiasm for cricket which rubbed off on all those playing alongside him. You couldn’t help but get excited by the game."<p><a id="The_final_Test_innings" name="The_final_Test_innings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The final Test innings</span></h2>
<p>In 1976, the 45-year old Brian Close was called up for the first three Tests in England's five-Test series against the West Indies,<!--del_lnk--> who were no less ferocious than when Close was battered by them in 1963. In the second innings of the third Test at <!--del_lnk--> Old Trafford,<!--del_lnk--> Close's final Test innings, Close opened with the 39-year old <!--del_lnk--> John Edrich. <!--del_lnk--> Michael Holding, <!--del_lnk--> Andy Roberts and <!--del_lnk--> Wayne Daniel, a trio of fast bowlers pounded them for two and a half hours. It was one of the most brutal displays of fast bowling ever seen. <i>Wisden</i> said, "Close and Edrich defended their wickets and themselves against fast bowling, which was frequently too wild and hostile to be acceptable". Close himself said, "It must have been the worst wicket I experienced in Test cricket. The faster the West Indians bowled the worse it got because the balls broke through the surface of the wicket. They exploded and flew at you." And it was with this innings of 20 runs off 108 balls in 162 minutes that Close completed his Test career, under a vicious barrage, standing tall and taking the damage as he had against the West Indies at Lord's 13 years ago in 1963. After that, both Close and Edrich were dropped for the fourth Test. The interval between Close's first and last Test matches was 27 years, the second longest after <!--del_lnk--> Wilfred Rhodes. Only one man, <!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwean <!--del_lnk--> John Traicos, has played a Test match at a greater age since.<p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h2>
<p>By the time he retired from county cricket at the end of the 1977 season, Close had achieved folk hero status for Somerset. He went on to play for <!--del_lnk--> Todmorden in the <!--del_lnk--> Lancashire League. Close also had a stint as an England selector between 1979 and 1981 and in 1984 he was elected to the Yorkshire committee. He became chairman of the cricket sub-committee, which led him into more controversy and conflict with the captain, <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Boycott.<p>After his retirement from Somerset, Close continued to play at the Scarborough Festival against the touring international teams, first for TN Pearce’s XI in 1978 and then for his own XI from 1982 to 1986. In 1986, aged 55, and playing his last-ever first-class innings, Close needed 10 runs to achieve a career-total 35,000 runs. When he scored 4 he glanced a ball down leg-side to the <!--del_lnk--> wicket-keeper and walked. Afterwards, the New Zealanders said that if they'd known how near he was to the landmark, they would have let him stay, but Close would have none of it – he was out, and that was that. Close's 786 first-class matches leave him 10th on the all-time list. Only four other outfielders have taken more catches.<p>Close continued to turn out to help train Yorkshire youngsters; sometimes captaining games with them and taking the short leg position without a cap, a position he had taken so many times in the past.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Close"</div>
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Bridge
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bridge</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2145.jpg.htm" title="A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine."><img alt="A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vallorcine_footpath_bridge_2003-12-13.jpg" src="../../images/21/2123.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2145.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> log bridge in the <!--del_lnk--> French Alps near <!--del_lnk--> Vallorcine.</div>
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<p>A <b>bridge</b> is a structure built to <!--del_lnk--> span a <!--del_lnk--> gorge, <!--del_lnk--> valley, <!--del_lnk--> road, <!--del_lnk--> railroad track, <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a>, <!--del_lnk--> body of water, or any other physical obstacle. Designs may be built higher than otherwise needed in order to allow other traffic (particularly ship traffic) beneath.<p>The purpose of a bridge is to allow people or cargo easy passage over an obstacle by providing a route that would otherwise be uneven or impossible.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2124.jpg.htm" title="The Roman Bridge of Sertã was actually built during the Philippine Dynasty (1580-1640)."><img alt="The Roman Bridge of Sertã was actually built during the Philippine Dynasty (1580-1640)." height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ponrom.jpg" src="../../images/21/2124.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The first bridges were spans made of wooden <!--del_lnk--> logs or <!--del_lnk--> planks and eventually <!--del_lnk--> stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> arch was first used by the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> for bridges and <!--del_lnk--> aqueducts, some of which still stand today. The Romans also used <!--del_lnk--> cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. <!--del_lnk--> Brick and <!--del_lnk--> mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.<p><!--del_lnk--> Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the <a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" title="Inca">Inca</a> civilization in the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> mountains of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, just prior to European colonization in the <!--del_lnk--> 1500s.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a> there were many innovations in the <!--del_lnk--> design of <!--del_lnk--> timber bridges by <!--del_lnk--> Hans Ulrich, <!--del_lnk--> Johannes Grubenmann, and others. The first engineering book on building bridges was written by <!--del_lnk--> Hubert Gautier in <!--del_lnk--> 1716.<p>With the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, <!--del_lnk--> truss systems of <!--del_lnk--> wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> did not have the <!--del_lnk--> tensile strength to support large <a href="../../wp/f/Force.htm" title="Force">loads</a>. With the advent of <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of <!--del_lnk--> Gustave Eiffel.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word <i>bridge</i> to an <!--del_lnk--> Old English word <i>brycg</i>, of the same meaning, derived from a hypothetical <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Germanic root <i>brugjō</i>. There are <!--del_lnk--> cognates in other <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages (for instance <i>Brücke</i> in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, <i>brug</i> in <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> or <i>bro</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Danish and <!--del_lnk--> Swedish).<p>The word for the Pope, pontiff, comes from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>pontifex</i> meaning "bridge builder".<p><a id="Types_of_bridges" name="Types_of_bridges"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of bridges</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2125.jpg.htm" title="The Golden Gate Bridge, a suspension bridge, connects the city of San Francisco with the south-facing Marin County. The bridge carries 6 lanes of traffic, pedestrians, and bicycles."><img alt="The Golden Gate Bridge, a suspension bridge, connects the city of San Francisco with the south-facing Marin County. The bridge carries 6 lanes of traffic, pedestrians, and bicycles." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Golden_gate_San-Francisco.jpg" src="../../images/21/2125.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2125.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Golden Gate Bridge, a <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridge, connects the city of <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco with the south-facing <!--del_lnk--> Marin County. The bridge carries 6 lanes of traffic, pedestrians, and bicycles.</div>
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<p>There are four main types of bridges: <!--del_lnk--> beam bridges, <!--del_lnk--> cantilever bridges, <!--del_lnk--> arch bridges and <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridges.<p><a id="By_use" name="By_use"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">By use</span></h3>
<p>A bridge is designed for <a href="../../wp/t/Train.htm" title="Train">trains</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pedestrian or <!--del_lnk--> road traffic, a <!--del_lnk--> pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. In some cases there may be restrictions in use. For example, it may be a bridge carrying a <!--del_lnk--> highway and forbidden for <!--del_lnk--> pedestrians and <!--del_lnk--> bicycles, or a pedestrian bridge, possibly also for bicycles.<p>An <!--del_lnk--> aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a <!--del_lnk--> viaduct, which is a bridge that connects points of equal height.<p><a id="Decorative_and_ceremonial_bridges" name="Decorative_and_ceremonial_bridges"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Decorative and ceremonial bridges</span></h3>
<p>To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-asian style gardens, is called a <!--del_lnk--> Moon bridge, evoking a rising full moon.<p>Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream.<p>Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City in <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants.<p><a id="Index_to_types_of_bridges" name="Index_to_types_of_bridges"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Index to types of bridges</span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2126.jpg.htm" title="Image:NagasakiMeganebashi.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/21/2126.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Arch bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2127.jpg.htm" title="Image:UniversityBridge-1Clip.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2127.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Bascule bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2128.jpg.htm" title="Image:Small footbridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="83" src="../../images/21/2128.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Beam bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/257/25769.jpg.htm" title="Image:Saltashrab.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2129.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Brunnel Truss bridge or lenticular truss</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2130.jpg.htm" title="Image:Concrete box girder bridge.JPG"><img alt="" height="83" src="../../images/21/2130.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Box girder bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2131.jpg.htm" title="Image:Baumgardener's Covered Bridge Inside Center 3008px.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2131.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Burr Arch Truss</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2132.jpg.htm" title="Image:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2132.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Cable-stayed bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/183/18385.jpg.htm" title="Image:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2133.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Cantilever bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2134.jpg.htm" title="Image:Puente del Alamillo.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2134.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2135.jpg.htm" title="Image:Tarr steps clapper bridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="70" src="../../images/21/2135.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Clapper bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2136.jpg.htm" title="Image:Australia sydney-404.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2136.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Compression arch suspended-deck bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2137.jpg.htm" title="Image:CurlingBridgeClip.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2137.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Rolling, or curling bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2138.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fort ticonderoga drawbridge to demilune.jpg"><img alt="" height="69" src="../../images/21/2138.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Drawbridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2139.jpg.htm" title="Image:DMRC.jpg"><img alt="" height="69" src="../../images/21/2139.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Extradosed bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2140.jpg.htm" title="Image:EastbankEsplanade.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/21/2140.jpg" width="94" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Floating bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2141.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hoernbruecke.jpg"><img alt="" height="85" src="../../images/21/2141.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Folding bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2142.jpg.htm" title="Image:GirderBridge2.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2142.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Girder bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2143.jpg.htm" title="Image:Guilford vermont bridge covered bridge interior 20040820.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2143.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Lattice bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 49px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2144.jpg.htm" title="Image:BNSFBridgeClip.jpg"><img alt="" height="48" src="../../images/21/2144.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Lift bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2145.jpg.htm" title="Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/21/2145.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Log bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2146.jpg.htm" title="Image:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/21/2146.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Plate girder bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Pontoon bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2148.jpg.htm" title="Image:Uppsala Ultunabron02 2005-06-16.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2148.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Retractable bridge<br /> (Thrust bridge)</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2149.jpg.htm" title="Image:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/21/2149.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Segmental bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 42px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2150.jpg.htm" title="Image:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg"><img alt="" height="62" src="../../images/21/2150.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Self-anchored suspension bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 32px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2151.jpg.htm" title="Image:WinnepegBridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="81" src="../../images/21/2151.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Side-spar cable-stayed bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 36px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2152.jpg.htm" title="Image:CapilanoBridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="73" src="../../images/21/2152.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Simple suspension bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2153.jpg.htm" title="Image:StepStoneBridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/21/2153.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Step-stone bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2154.jpg.htm" title="Image:Holzbrücke bei Essing 1.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2154.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Stressed ribbon bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2155.jpg.htm" title="Image:BridgeSubmerging4.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2155.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Submersible bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/32/3209.jpg.htm" title="Image:Suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/21/2156.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Suspension bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2157.jpg.htm" title="Image:Railway swing bridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="84" src="../../images/21/2157.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Swing bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2158.jpg.htm" title="Image:Tournai Pont levant Notre Dame 20040520-014.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2158.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Table bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 21px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2159.jpg.htm" title="Image:FortPittBridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="104" src="../../images/21/2159.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Tied arch bridge<br /> (Bowstring bridge)</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2160.jpg.htm" title="Image:Millenium bridge close.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2160.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Tilt bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2161.jpg.htm" title="Image:Newport.transporter.750pix.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2161.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Transporter bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 34px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2162.jpg.htm" title="Image:AlhambraTrestle.jpg"><img alt="" height="78" src="../../images/21/2162.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Trestle</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/12/1293.jpg.htm" title="Image:Eastbound over SCB.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/21/2163.jpg" width="80" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Truss arch bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2164.jpg.htm" title="Image:LittleManateeRiver.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2164.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Truss bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2165.jpg.htm" title="Image:Conwy Castle 2.jpg"><img alt="" height="99" src="../../images/21/2165.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Tubular bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2166.jpg.htm" title="Image:Grammene-vierendeelbridge 20030618.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2166.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Vierendeel bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2167.jpg.htm" title="Image:BoxerwoodDotComZigZag.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2167.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Zig-zag bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Index_to_bridge_related_topics" name="Index_to_bridge_related_topics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Index to bridge related topics</span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Armoured vehicle-launched bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2169.jpg.htm" title="Image:Pont du gard.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2169.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Aqueduct</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2170.jpg.htm" title="Image:PontBailey800px.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2170.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Bailey bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2171.jpg.htm" title="Image:BalsaBridge Break.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2171.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Balsa wood bridge breaking under load</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 34px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2172.jpg.htm" title="Image:WWI bridge of boats Scheldt.jpg"><img alt="" height="78" src="../../images/21/2172.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Bridge of boats</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 14px 0;"><a href="../../images/31/3180.jpg.htm" title="Image:Claude Monet-Waterlilies.jpg"><img alt="" height="118" src="../../images/21/2173.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Bridges in art</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 17px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2174.jpg.htm" title="Image:CaissonSchematic.jpg"><img alt="" height="111" src="../../images/21/2174.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Caisson</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2175.jpg.htm" title="Image:Guilford vermont covered bridge 20040820.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2175.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Covered bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 32px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2176.jpg.htm" title="Image:IRBSideViewClip.jpg"><img alt="" height="81" src="../../images/21/2176.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Inca rope bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2177.jpg.htm" title="Image:JetwayAtVancouverBC.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2177.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Jetway</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2178.jpg.htm" title="Image:16 Bay With Link 4.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2178.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Medium Girder Bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 21px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2179.jpg.htm" title="Image:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg"><img alt="" height="104" src="../../images/21/2179.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Moon bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2180.png.htm" title="Image:Paying Toll on passing a Bridge From a Painted Window in the Cathedral of Tournay Fifteenth Century.png"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/21/2180.png" width="112" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Toll bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Water bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2182.jpg.htm" title="Image:WeighBridge5500.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/21/2182.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Weigh bridge</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/21/2183.jpg.htm" title="Image:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/21/2183.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><!--del_lnk--> Viaduct</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Bridge_structural_and_evolutionary_taxonomy" name="Bridge_structural_and_evolutionary_taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bridge structural and evolutionary taxonomy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2184.png.htm" title="A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships"><img alt="A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships" height="523" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BridgeTaxonomyBW.png" src="../../images/21/2184.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2184.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships</div>
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<p>Bridges may be classified by how the four forces of <!--del_lnk--> tension, <!--del_lnk--> compression, <!--del_lnk--> bending and <!--del_lnk--> shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principle forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right.<p><a id="Efficiency" name="Efficiency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Efficiency</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2185.jpg.htm" title="Charles Bridge in Prague"><img alt="Charles Bridge in Prague" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CharlesBridge.jpg" src="../../images/21/2185.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2185.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Charles Bridge in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a></div>
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<p>A bridge's <i>structural efficiency</i> may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge weight, given a specific set of material types. In one common challenge students are divided into groups and given a quantity of wood sticks, a distance to span, and glue, and then asked to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive addition of load at the centre of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most <i>structurally efficient</i>. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a fixed quantity of materials provided and determine the multiple of this weight that the bridge can carry, a test that emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints (see <!--del_lnk--> <i>balsa wood bridge</i>).<p>A bridge's <i>economic efficiency</i> will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of, for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. The lifetime cost is composed of materials, labor, machinery, engineering, cost of money, insurance, maintenance, refurbishment, and ultimately, demolition and associated disposal, recycling, and reuse. Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site and the cost of labor is low. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The longest spans usually require suspension bridges.<p><a id="Notable_bridges" name="Notable_bridges"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable bridges</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Albert Edward Bridge - <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, large single span cast iron railway bridge similar to <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Bridge<li><!--del_lnk--> Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge - <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, suspension bridge with the longest section span of 1.9 <!--del_lnk--> km.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bosphorus Bridge - <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, connects Asia and Europe<li><!--del_lnk--> Brooklyn Bridge - connecting the <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> boroughs of <!--del_lnk--> Manhattan and <!--del_lnk--> Brooklyn.<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Bridge - <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, famous 14th century bridge in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Chicago Skyway - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, a 7.8-mile toll bridge bypassing much of the southwest of Chicago<li><!--del_lnk--> Confederation Bridge - <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, world's longest bridge over waters that freeze.<li><a href="../../wp/f/Forth_Bridge_%2528railway%2529.htm" title="Forth Bridge (railway)">Forth Railway Bridge</a> - <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, one of the most famous <!--del_lnk--> cantilever bridges in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Golden Gate Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, one of the most famous <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridges in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Belt Fixed Link, Eastern Bridge - <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, second longest section span of 1.6 <!--del_lnk--> km<li><!--del_lnk--> Hangzhou Bay Bridge - under construction, scheduled to be completed in 2008. A cable-stayed bridge across <!--del_lnk--> Hangzhou Bay, China. It will be the second-longest bridge in the world and the longest trans-oceanic bridge<li><!--del_lnk--> Hercilio Luz Bridge - <!--del_lnk--> Florianopolis, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, longest Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridge, one of the 100 largest <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridges of the world and one of the oldest <!--del_lnk--> hanging bridges in the world.<li><a href="../../wp/t/The_Iron_Bridge.htm" title="The Iron Bridge">The Iron Bridge</a> - <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, the world's first <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> bridge.<li><!--del_lnk--> Jamuna Bridge- <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, longest rail-road bridge in south asia , 2nd longest in world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lake Pontchartrain Causeway - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, spanning <!--del_lnk--> Lake Pontchartrain in south <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana, it is the longest bridge in the world at 23.87 <!--del_lnk--> miles (38.41 km).<li><!--del_lnk--> Lupu Bridge- the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, longest single <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> arch.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mackinac Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, Opened to traffic in 1957, connecting the two <!--del_lnk--> peninsulas of <!--del_lnk--> Michigan; held the title of the world's longest two tower <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridge between anchorages until the 1990s.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mahatma Gandhi Setu - <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, the longest river bridge in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Menai Suspension Bridge - <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, first road <!--del_lnk--> suspension bridge in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Millau Viaduct - <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, the tallest vehicular bridge in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, a rare example of a segmented precast concrete arch bridge, and the first to be built in the US.<li><!--del_lnk--> Øresundbroen/Öresundsbron - <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> - <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> - Built year <!--del_lnk--> 2000. Connects Sweden with Denmark and <!--del_lnk--> Northern Europe with <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Overtoun Bridge, - <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" title="Dog">dogs</a> have leaped to their deaths from this bridge, leading to <!--del_lnk--> urban legends.<li><!--del_lnk--> Palace Bridge - <!--del_lnk--> St Petersburg, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, one of iconic images of the city<li><!--del_lnk--> Penang Bridge - <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, longest bridge in <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia.<li><!--del_lnk--> Penobscot Narrows Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, first bridge in the <!--del_lnk--> Western Hemisphere with an <!--del_lnk--> observatory,first bridge to use a nitrogen gas enclosed around each cable stay.<li><!--del_lnk--> Québec Bridge - <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, largest <!--del_lnk--> cantilever bridge in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Rio-Antirio bridge - <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>, the longest <!--del_lnk--> cable-stayed bridge in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Rio-Niterói Bridge - <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, highest central span in the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, especially for <!--del_lnk--> seismic retrofit and <!--del_lnk--> eastern span replacement.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sundial Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, a dramatic single cantilever spar cable stayed span for <!--del_lnk--> pedestrians.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sunshine Skyway Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, longest cable-stayed concrete bridge in the world. Replaced a cantilever truss structure which partially collapsed in <!--del_lnk--> 1980 as a result of collision by a freighter.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sydney Harbour Bridge - <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, arguably the best-known suspended-deck compression arch bridge, also the world's widest long span bridge (according to <!--del_lnk--> Guinness World Records).<li><!--del_lnk--> Tacoma Narrows Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, famous for its collapse due to <!--del_lnk--> aerodynamic effects.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tatara Bridge - <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, largest span cable-stayed bridge.<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tower_Bridge.htm" title="Tower Bridge">Tower Bridge</a> - <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, and a symbol of this city.<li><!--del_lnk--> Trajan's bridge - <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Roman</a> bridge over the river <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a>, only fragments visible.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tsing Ma Bridge - <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, the world's longest rail & road suspension bridge<li><!--del_lnk--> Tyne Bridge - <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, one of <!--del_lnk--> Northern England's most iconic structures.<li><!--del_lnk--> Vasco da Gama Bridge - <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, the longest bridge in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> at 17.2 km.<li><!--del_lnk--> Verrazano-Narrows Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> - longest suspension bridge in USA.<li><!--del_lnk--> Victoria Bridge - <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> large single span cast iron railway bridge similar to <!--del_lnk--> Albert Edward Bridge<li><!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls Bridge - linking <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> to <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, built in 1905 as part of the projected <!--del_lnk--> Cape-Cairo railway.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, built during <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Big Dig, the widest <!--del_lnk--> cable-stayed bridge.</ul>
<p><a id="Special_Installations" name="Special_Installations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Special Installations</span></h2>
<p>Some bridges carry special installations such as the tower of <!--del_lnk--> Nový Most bridge in <a href="../../wp/b/Bratislava.htm" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> which carries a restaurant. On other suspension bridge towers transmission antennas are installed.<p>A bridge can carry overhead powerlines as the <!--del_lnk--> Storstrøm Bridge.<p><a id="Catastrophic_collapses" name="Catastrophic_collapses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Catastrophic collapses</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Bridge</th>
<th>Town</th>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Date</th>
<th>Construction type, use of bridge</th>
<th>Reason</th>
<th>Number death/injuries</th>
<th>Damage</th>
<th>Remarks</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stirling Bridge</td>
<td>Stirling</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></td>
<td>September <!--del_lnk--> 1297</td>
<td>Beam and trestle over the <!--del_lnk--> River Forth</td>
<td>Overload by attackers during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Stirling Bridge</td>
<td>Unknown, attacking forces defeated</td>
<td>Bridge rendered unusable</td>
<td>Collapse may have been assisted by defending forces.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Bridge of <!--del_lnk--> Angers (France)</td>
<td>Angers</td>
<td>France</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1850</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Suspension bridge over <!--del_lnk--> Maine River</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Resonance of soldiers led to collapse</td>
<td>226/?</td>
<td>Bridge total damage</td>
<td>Marching columns now break step when crossing bridges.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Yarmouth Bridge</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Yarmouth.htm" title="Great Yarmouth">Great Yarmouth</a></td>
<td>England</td>
<td>May 2 1845</td>
<td>Suspension</td>
<td>People had crowded onto the bridge to see a circus clown go down the river in a barrel pulled by geese. The weight of people shifted as the barrel passed underneath, the suspension chains on the south side snapped and the bridge deck tipped over.</td>
<td>79 people drowned, mainly children.</td>
<td>Suspension chains snapped due to overload.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Tay_Rail_Bridge.htm" title="Tay Rail Bridge">Tay Rail Bridge</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" title="Dundee">Dundee</a></td>
<td>Scotland</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1879</td>
<td>Continuous girder bridge, steel framework on cast iron columns, railway bridge</td>
<td>Insufficient consideration of the wind load, inadequate construction, collapsed because of the stresses caused by a <!--del_lnk--> storm</td>
<td>75/0</td>
<td>Bridge unusable, piers partly reused, train heavily damaged</td>
<td>Locomotive was saved from the Tay and was still in use 19 years later known as "The Diver".</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Québec Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Quebec</td>
<td>Canada</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1907</td>
<td>Cantilever bridge, steel framework, railway bridge</td>
<td>Collapsed during construction</td>
<td>74/11</td>
<td>Bridge completely destroyed</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Theodor-Heuss-Rhine River Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ludwigshafen</td>
<td>Germany</td>
<td>March <!--del_lnk--> 1940</td>
<td>Bridge of concrete, Motorway bridge</td>
<td>Collapsed during construction</td>
<td> ?/?</td>
<td>Bridge totally destroyed</td>
<td>Resulted in delay in completion of the motorway crossing of the Rhine until 1953</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tacoma Narrows Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tacoma, WA</td>
<td>USA</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1940</td>
<td>Road bridge, cable suspension with plate girder deck</td>
<td>Aerodynamically poor form resulted in resonance</td>
<td>No</td>
<td>Bridge partially destroyed, one car lost, and one dog killed</td>
<td>Became known as "Galloping Gertie", in the first 4 months after opening up until its collapse under a previously unseen resonant mode. Since that time all new bridges have been modelled in wind tunnels.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The bridge at Remagen</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Remagen</td>
<td>Germany</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td>Truss railroad and pedestrian bridge</td>
<td>Collapse due to previous battle damage incurred <!--del_lnk--> March 7th, <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
<td>28 U.S. soldiers</td>
<td>Total destruction</td>
<td>Capture of intact bridge offered significant short term tactical advantage to Allied forces. Collapse was not strategically significant due to placement of parallel floating bridges during the previous week</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Harrow and Wealdstone rail crash</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wealdstone</td>
<td>England</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1952</td>
<td>Pedestrian footbridge</td>
<td>Struck by train(s) during accident</td>
<td>112 dead 340 injured</td>
<td>Total destruction</td>
<td>It is not recorded how many casualties were due to the bridge collapse</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tangiwai railway bridge</td>
<td>Tangiwai</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1953</td>
<td>Railway bridge</td>
<td>Damaged by <!--del_lnk--> lahar minutes before passenger train passed over it.</td>
<td>134/151</td>
<td>Bridge destroyed</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maracaibo</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
<td>Road bridge</td>
<td>Ship collision</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>2 section collapsed</td>
<td>Currently in Operation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Silver Bridge</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>USA</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15 December <!--del_lnk--> 1967</td>
<td>Road bridge, chain link suspension</td>
<td>Material fault and <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></td>
<td>46/9</td>
<td>Bridge and 37 vehicles destroyed</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Gate Bridge</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td>October 15, 1970</td>
<td>Road Bridge</td>
<td>Collapse during construction</td>
<td>35</td>
<td>112 metre span between piers 10 and 11 collapsed</td>
<td>Section sprung back and collapse during attempts to remove a buckle cause by a difference in camber of 4.5 inches</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Bridge Koblenz</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Koblenz</td>
<td>Germany</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 10 November <!--del_lnk--> 1971</td>
<td>Road bridge</td>
<td>Bridge bent into Rhine</td>
<td>13/?</td>
<td>Bridge completely destroyed</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Reichsbrücke</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a></td>
<td>Austria</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td>Road bridge with <!--del_lnk--> Tram</td>
<td>Column fractured</td>
<td>1/0</td>
<td>Bridge, one <!--del_lnk--> bus and a lorry destroyed, <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">ships</a> damaged</td>
<td>Concrete of the column had never been examined, was internally totally destroyed; "<!--del_lnk--> higher force"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tasman Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hobart</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tasmania, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td>Bridge of concrete, Motorway bridge</td>
<td>Ore freighter <i>Lake Illawarra</i> collided with pylons. Section of bridge collapsed onto frieghter. Four cars fell into the river.</td>
<td>7 ship crewman and 5 motorists killed</td>
<td>2 pylons and three sections of bridge collapsed, ore freighter sank, 5 cars fell into river</td>
<td>City of Hobart was split in two. Residents living in the east were forced to make a 50km trip to the CBD via the next bridge up north. Bridge was reconstructed and reopened on <!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1977</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Almö Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stenungsund</td>
<td>Sweden</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>Bridge with bow built of concrete</td>
<td>Ship collision</td>
<td>8/?</td>
<td>Bridge and several cars destroyed</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sunshine Skyway Bridge</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>USA</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>Steel Cantilever Bridge</td>
<td>Ship collision</td>
<td>35/?</td>
<td>1200 ft. of southbound span, several cars and a bus destroyed</td>
<td>Demolished and replaced with <!--del_lnk--> cable-stayed bridge</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aschaffenburg Main River Freeway Bridge</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aschaffenburg</td>
<td>Germany</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td>Bridge of <!--del_lnk--> Motorway A 3 over River Main</td>
<td>Error in construction</td>
<td>1/0</td>
<td>Bridge total damage</td>
<td>Partial collapse at <!--del_lnk--> Repetitive sliding</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Bridge over railway line at Eschede</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eschede</td>
<td>Germany</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td>Road bridge</td>
<td>Train disaster</td>
<td>101/105</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Destruction by train crashing on pillar, killed and injured people were train passengers</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Loncomilla Bridge</td>
<td>near San Javier</td>
<td>Chile</td>
<td>November 18, 2004</td>
<td>Concrete bridge for vehicle traffice over Maule River</td>
<td>The structure was not build on rock, but rather on fluvial ground.</td>
<td>0/8</td>
<td>Partial collapse</td>
<td>Bridge was later repaired</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Motorway bridge at <!--del_lnk--> Almuñecar, Province of <!--del_lnk--> Granada, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> (search correct name of bridge)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Almuñecar</td>
<td>Spain</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td>Motorway bridge</td>
<td>Construction, accident, reason unknown</td>
<td>6/3</td>
<td> </td>
<td>A 60 metre long part fell 50 metre deep</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Viaducto No.1 Caracas - La Guaira motorway <!--del_lnk--> Tacagua, <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tacagua</td>
<td>Venezuela</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>Motorway bridge</td>
<td>Various factors</td>
<td>0/0</td>
<td>Bridge rendered unusable</td>
<td>Demolished, it will be replaced with a new one</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"</div>
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Brighton
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brighton</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2"><big><b>Brighton</b></big></th>
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<div style="position:absolute;display: block; left:140px; top:225px; width:8px;height:8px;padding:0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1256.png.htm" title="Image:dot4gb.svg"><img alt="Image:dot4gb.svg" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dot4gb.svg" src="../../images/12/1256.png" width="8" /></a></div>
</div><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1257.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="259" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gb4dot.svg" src="../../images/12/1257.png" width="180" /></a></div>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Statistics</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Population:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 155,919</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Ordnance Survey</th>
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<td style="width: 50%;"><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TQ315065</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Administration</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> District:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brighton & Hove</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Region:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South East England</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Constituent country:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign state</a>:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Other</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East Sussex</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Historic county:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sussex</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Services</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Police force:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sussex Police</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Fire and rescue:</td>
<td>{{{Fire}}}</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Ambulance:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South East Coast</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Post office and telephone</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Post town:</td>
<td>BRIGHTON</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Postal district:</td>
<td>BN1, BN2</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Dialling code:</td>
<td>01273</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Politics</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> UK Parliament:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brighton Kemptown and <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Pavilion</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South East England</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15221.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="21" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" src="../../images/12/1258.png" width="35" /></a></th>
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<p><b>Brighton</b> is located on the south coast of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, and together with its immediate neighbour <!--del_lnk--> Hove forms the <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">city</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Brighton and Hove. Brighton is one of the largest and most famous <!--del_lnk--> seaside resorts in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p>With origins dating before <a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" title="Domesday Book">Domesday</a>, the ancient settlement of <i>Brighthelmston</i> emerged as an important health resort during the 18th century and a popular destination for <!--del_lnk--> day-trippers after the arrival of the <!--del_lnk--> railway in 1841. Brighton experienced rapid population growth reaching a peak of over 160,000 by 1961. Modern Brighton forms the part of a significant <!--del_lnk--> conurbation stretching along the coast West to <!--del_lnk--> Littlehampton, stretching to the east of Brighton, encompassing smaller, less built up areas like <!--del_lnk--> Rottingdean and <!--del_lnk--> Saltdean with a population of around 480,000.<p>Brighton is a popular tourist resort with numerous hotels, restaurants and entertainment facilities which additionally serve a substantial <!--del_lnk--> business conference industry. The modern city of Brighton & Hove is also an important educational centre with two <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">universities</a> and many <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a> schools.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>In the <a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, Brighton was called <i>Bristelmestune</i> and a rent of 4,000 <!--del_lnk--> herring was established. In June 1514 <i>Brighthelmstone</i> was burnt to the ground by French raiders during a war between England and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. Only part of <!--del_lnk--> St. Nicholas's Church and the street pattern of what is now <i>The Lanes</i> survived the attack. The first known drawing of <i>Brighthelmstone</i> was made in 1545 and depicts what is believed to be the raid of 1514.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2187.jpg.htm" title="Royal Pavilion"><img alt="Royal Pavilion" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Royal_Pavilion_Brighton.jpg" src="../../images/21/2187.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2187.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Royal Pavilion</div>
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<p>During the 1740s and 1750s <!--del_lnk--> Dr Richard Russell of <!--del_lnk--> Lewes began prescribing the medicinal use of the <a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" title="Seawater">seawater</a> at Brighton to his patients. By 1780, development of the <!--del_lnk--> Regency terraces had started and the fishing village quickly became the fashionable <!--del_lnk--> resort of Brighton. The growth of the town was further encouraged following the patronage of the Prince Regent (later <a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George IV of the United Kingdom">King George IV</a>) after his first visit in 1783. He spent much of his leisure time in the town and constructed the exotic and expensive <!--del_lnk--> Royal Pavilion during the early part of his <!--del_lnk--> Regency.<p>The arrival of the <!--del_lnk--> railway in 1841 brought Brighton within the reach of day-trippers from <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> and rapid population growth from around 7,000 in 1801 to over 120,000 by 1901. The <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era saw the building of many of the famous landmarks in Brighton including the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Hotel (1864), the <!--del_lnk--> West Pier (1866) and the <!--del_lnk--> Palace Pier (1899).<p>After a number of boundary changes made between 1873 and 1952, the land area of Brighton had increased significantly from 1,640 acres in 1854 to 14,347 acres in 1952. New housing estates were established in the acquired areas including <!--del_lnk--> Moulsecoomb, <!--del_lnk--> Bevendean, <!--del_lnk--> Coldean and <!--del_lnk--> Whitehawk. Closer to the centre of town, a major <!--del_lnk--> slum-clearance development was initiated in the Hanover area. The replacement <!--del_lnk--> council housing, including Tarnerland near Richmond Street, stretches from the bottom of Albion Hill to the tower blocks at Mount Pleasant, and radically changed the local street layout.<p>More recently, <!--del_lnk--> gentrification of much of Brighton has seen a return of the highly fashionable image which had characterised the growth of the Regency period. Recent housing developments in the <!--del_lnk--> North Laine, for instance, have been kept in keeping with the local make up of the area.<p>In 1997 Brighton and Hove were joined together to form the <!--del_lnk--> unitary authority of <!--del_lnk--> Brighton and Hove, which in turn was granted <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city status</a> by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Queen Elizabeth II">Queen Elizabeth II</a> as part of the <!--del_lnk--> millennium celebrations in 2000.<p><a id="Landmarks" name="Landmarks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Landmarks</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2188.jpg.htm" title="Palace Pier"><img alt="Palace Pier" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2005-07-14_-_United_Kingdom_-_England_-_Brighton_-_Brighton_Pier.jpg" src="../../images/21/2188.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2188.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Palace Pier</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Pavilion is a former Royal palace built as the home for the Prince Regent during the early 1800s and is notable for its Indian architecture and Oriental interior design. The building and surrounding grounds were purchased by the town in 1849 for £53,000.<p><!--del_lnk--> Brighton Pier (or the <i>Palace Pier</i>) was opened in 1899 and is the largest pier in Brighton. It features a large <!--del_lnk--> funfair, restaurants and arcade halls.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> West Pier was built in 1866 and has been closed since 1975 awaiting renovation. The West Pier was one of only two Grade I <!--del_lnk--> listed piers in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> until the pier burnt down in 2003. Plans for erecting a new landmark in its place – the <!--del_lnk--> i360, a 183m observation tower designed by <!--del_lnk--> London Eye architects Marks Barfield – were announced in June 2006. Plans were approved by the City council on <!--del_lnk--> 11 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006. <p>Created in 1883, <!--del_lnk--> Volk's Electric Railway runs along the inland edge of the beach from the Palace Pier to Black Rock. It is the world's oldest operating <!--del_lnk--> electric railway.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2189.jpg.htm" title="Brighton beach"><img alt="Brighton beach" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brighton_beach.jpg" src="../../images/21/2189.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2189.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brighton beach</div>
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<p><a id="Beaches" name="Beaches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Beaches</span></h3>
<p>A major tourist attraction is the pebble beach, which has a variety of bars, restaurants, night clubs and amusement arcades. Together with the attractions further inland, these contribute to Brighton being sometimes erroneously referred to as "London-by-the-sea"; it certainly offers one of the most accessible tourist beaches from London.<p>Brighton beach has a designated official <!--del_lnk--> nudist area (south of the easterly part of Kemptown). This is unusual in that very few naturist beaches in the United Kingdom are located within urban areas.<p>Since the 1978 demolition of the open-air swimming lido at Black Rock, the most easterly part of Brighton's seafront, the area has been developed considerably and now features one of Europe's largest <!--del_lnk--> marinas. However, the site of the pool itself remains empty except for a skate park and graffiti wall, and further development is planned for the area including a high-rise hotel which has aroused public and media debate, mirroring the situation with proposals for the site of the King Alfred leisure centre nearby in Hove.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2190.jpg.htm" title="July 17, 2002. The Big Beach Boutique II over 250,000 fans saw Fatboy Slim play live."><img alt="July 17, 2002. The Big Beach Boutique II over 250,000 fans saw Fatboy Slim play live." height="102" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BigBeachBoutique.jpeg" src="../../images/21/2190.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2190.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2002. The Big Beach Boutique II over 250,000 fans saw <!--del_lnk--> Fatboy Slim play live.</div>
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<p><a id="Night-life_.26_popular_music" name="Night-life_.26_popular_music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Night-life & popular music</span></h3>
<p>Brighton is associated with notable <!--del_lnk--> popular music artists including <!--del_lnk--> The Levellers and <!--del_lnk--> Fatboy Slim. There are a large number of <!--del_lnk--> pubs and <!--del_lnk--> nightclubs. There are also many live music venues including the large <i>Brighton Centre</i>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/83/8369.jpg.htm" title="Seafront display of Minis after a London to Brighton drive"><img alt="Seafront display of Minis after a London to Brighton drive" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brighton_seafront_carshow.jpg" src="../../images/21/2191.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/83/8369.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Seafront display of <a href="../../wp/m/Mini.htm" title="Mini">Minis</a> after a London to Brighton drive</div>
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<p><a id="Public_events" name="Public_events"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Public events</span></h3>
<p>Brighton hosts a number of conferences including those held annually by major <!--del_lnk--> political parties, often based around the Brighton Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Grand Hotel and Metropole Hotel.<p>A wide range of sport and leisure clubs, in particular cycling and motoring clubs, annually hold <!--del_lnk--> London to Brighton events, culminating in a display on the Madeira Drive section of the seafront, which is closed to traffic for this purpose on many Sundays throughout the summer months.<p><a id="Brighton_Festival" name="Brighton_Festival"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brighton Festival</span></h3>
<p>Each May the city of Brighton and Hove hosts an arts festival. This includes organised processions such as the <i>Childrens' Parade</i>, outdoor spectaculars often involving pyrotechnics, and theatre, music and visual arts in venues throughout the city, some of which are brought into this use exclusively for the festival. The earliest feature of the festival, "Open Houses", are homes of artists and craftspeople, opened up to the public as galleries and usually selling the work of the inhabitant and their friends.<p><a id="Museums_and_galleries" name="Museums_and_galleries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums and galleries</span></h3>
<p>Brighton has a number of museums including the City-run <i>Brighton Museum and Art Gallery</i>, the <i>Booth Museum of Natural History</i>, the <i>Brighton Fishing Museum</i> and the <i>Brighton Toy and Model Museum</i>. There are many privately run galleries, including some in the arches on the seafront. A widespread practice is to display and sell art in cafés, and even bars.<p><a id="Theatre_and_cinema" name="Theatre_and_cinema"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Theatre and cinema</span></h3>
<p>Major theatres in Brighton include the recently expanded <!--del_lnk--> Komedia and the <!--del_lnk--> Theatre Royal, and there are also several smaller theatres such as the <i>Marlborough Theatre</i> and <i>Nightingale Theatre</i>, both above pubs, which attract a variety of mostly local productions.<p>Brighton also has a long history of involvement with the film industry, and the <i>Duke of York's Picturehouse</i> has been in operation since <!--del_lnk--> 22 September <!--del_lnk--> 1910.<p><a id="Lesbian.2C_gay.2C_bisexual_and_transsexual_community" name="Lesbian.2C_gay.2C_bisexual_and_transsexual_community"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual community</span></h3>
<p>Brighton has a substantial LGBT community, served by a high number of "scene" shops, bars and night-clubs in addition to a range of support organisations. It is often referred to as "the gay capital of Britain". <p>Brighton hosts a <!--del_lnk--> Gay Pride carnival every August, which attracts thousands of participants and spectators. It consists of a carnival style parade through the city and a party and funfair in <!--del_lnk--> Preston Park.<p><a id="Ethnicity" name="Ethnicity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethnicity</span></h3>
<p>Brighton and Hove has a range of organisations supporting many of the faiths and ethnic minorities in the city, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> MOSAIC</i>, a black- and mixed-parentage family group. The City Council promotes diversity in its charter. <p><a id="Commerce" name="Commerce"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Commerce</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2192.jpg.htm" title="The Jubilee Library pictured in 2006"><img alt="The Jubilee Library pictured in 2006" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jubilleelibrary.JPG" src="../../images/21/2192.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2192.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Jubilee Library pictured in 2006</div>
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<p><i>The Lanes</i> is a retail, leisure and residential area with the seafront at its southern edge. Partly characterised by a collection of narrow alleyways following the street pattern of the original fishing-based settlement, the resident businesses in The Lanes are predominantly jewellers, antique shops, restaurants and pubs.<p>Churchill Square is an indoor <!--del_lnk--> shopping centre with a floor space of 470,000 sq ft (43,663 m²) and includes 85 shops, 5 restaurants and 1,600 car parking spaces. It was originally built in the 1960s as an open-air pedestrianised shopping centre, but was completely rebuilt in 1998. Further mainstream retail areas include Western Road and London Road.<p>The <i>North Laine</i> area (a name often confused with <i>The Lanes</i>) is a retail, leisure and residential area situated immediately north of <i>The Lanes</i>. Its name derives from the Anglo-Saxon word "Laine" meaning a type of agricultural plot. The North Laine contains a mix of businesses dominated by cafés, <i>avant-garde</i> shops, and theatres. However, its character is gradually changing. Due to property price rises and the expense of local council taxes, many small privately owned businesses are being literally "priced out" of the area and being replaced by larger entertainment chains and leisure companies. To counterbalance this, Orbit housing association and the city council have built some affordable properties in the North Laine for people on low incomes.<p>Brighton has a high density of businesses involved in media in general, particularly digital or "new media" companies, and since the 1990s has sometimes been referred to as "Silicon Beach"; there is even a suite of offices with this name. The new media community in Brighton has been supported by a number of initiatives, in particular <i><!--del_lnk--> Wired Sussex</i> – a not-for-profit business development agency for over 1,200 digital media companies across the South East of England.<p><!--del_lnk--> American Express has a distinctive (former headquarters) building in Edward Street.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p>Brighton & Hove City Council is responsible for 80 schools in Brighton and Hove of which 54 are in Brighton.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Brighton, the former <i>Brighton <!--del_lnk--> Polytechnic</i>, has a student population of 20,017 of which 80% are undergraduates. The University is located on several separate sites in Brighton, with additional buildings in <!--del_lnk--> Falmer and <!--del_lnk--> Eastbourne.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Sussex is a "<!--del_lnk--> plate glass university" based on a campus between <!--del_lnk--> Stanmer Park and <!--del_lnk--> Falmer, four miles from the city centre. It has a student population of 10,563 of which 70% are undergraduates.<p>A wide range of non-university courses for students aged over 16, mainly in <!--del_lnk--> vocational education subjects, is provided at the <!--del_lnk--> further education college, <i>City College Brighton & Hove</i>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2193.jpg.htm" title="Roedean School, Brighton"><img alt="Roedean School, Brighton" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Roedean.JPG" src="../../images/21/2193.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2193.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Roedean School, Brighton</div>
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<p>There are various <!--del_lnk--> private schools, including <!--del_lnk--> Brighton College, <!--del_lnk--> Roedean School, a <!--del_lnk--> Steiner School and a <!--del_lnk--> Montessori School. There are also numerous <!--del_lnk--> state schools, some of them <!--del_lnk--> faith schools. Notable state schools include <!--del_lnk--> Varndean and <!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Newman a large Roman Catholic secondary school, which also caters for the children of the city's large <!--del_lnk--> Coptic Orthodox community.<p>In the summer, thousands of young students from all over Europe gather in the city to attend language courses at some of the many language schools across Brighton and Hove.<p>There is also a specialist music college, <!--del_lnk--> The Brighton Institute Of Modern Music.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>The city of Brighton and Hove is covered by part of the <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Kemptown constituency, <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Pavilion constituency and <!--del_lnk--> Hove constituency in the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. All three Members of Parliament elected at the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 General Election were from the <!--del_lnk--> Labour Party. The city is within the <!--del_lnk--> European Parliament constituency of <i><!--del_lnk--> South-East England</i>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Green Party held a relatively high 22% of the vote in the Brighton Pavilion constituency in the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 general election, compared with 1% nationally, in addition to holding one of the ten <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> seats for the constituency.<p>The political campaigning group <!--del_lnk--> Justice? and its <!--del_lnk--> SchNEWS newspaper are based in Brighton, as is the <!--del_lnk--> Brighton and Hove Palestine Solidarity Campaign.<p>The presence of a British subsidiary of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> arms company <!--del_lnk--> EDO Corporation in <!--del_lnk--> Moulsecoomb, Brighton, has been the cause of ongoing protests outside their premises since 2004.<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h2>
<p>Brighton is the home of <!--del_lnk--> Brighton & Hove Albion Football Club and the <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Bears <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> team. There is also an annual <!--del_lnk--> beach soccer competition held in a temporary stadium erected on a patch of specially imported sand on the beach. The inaugural contest in June 2002 featured football stars such as <!--del_lnk--> Éric Cantona and <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Le Tissier.<p>Brighton also has a <!--del_lnk--> horse-racing course with the unusual feature that when the full length of the course is to be used, some of the grass turf of the track has to be laid over the tarmac at the top of Wilson Avenue, a public road, which therefore has to be closed for the duration of races.<p>Brighton is also home to <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Football Club (RFU) which is one of the oldest Rugby Clubs in England.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2194.jpg.htm" title="Brighton & Hove Bus showing mid-1990s non-METRO-route livery"><img alt="Brighton & Hove Bus showing mid-1990s non-METRO-route livery" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brighton_%26_Hove_Bus_and_Coach_Company_1.jpg" src="../../images/21/2194.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2194.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Brighton & Hove Bus showing mid-1990s non-METRO-route livery</div>
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<p>Railway services operate from <!--del_lnk--> Brighton Station. Destinations include <!--del_lnk--> London Victoria, <a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Bedford. Twice-daily services also operate to <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, and via <a href="../../wp/b/Bristol.htm" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> to <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. The fastest service from London Victoria takes 51 minutes.<p><!--del_lnk--> Brighton & Hove Bus and Coach Company operates a local bus service with a fleet of approximately 300 buses. There is also a limited night-bus service.<p><a id="Miscellanea" name="Miscellanea"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Miscellanea</span></h2>
<p>According to a display in Brighton Museum, Brighton has the oldest continuous electricity supply in the world, which commenced in 1882. Other towns had electricity supplies slightly earlier, but these have not been running continuously to the present day. Brighton's first power station has been listed as the first "large" power station in the world. <p>Brighton's nearby neighbour, Hove, is seen by some as a more desirable location than Brighton and it is often referred to by locals as "Hove, actually". This is because when a questioner asks a Hove resident whether they live in Brighton, they are frequently met with the response "Hove, actually!".<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Parker Brothers game, <a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" title="Monopoly (game)">Monopoly</a> has been produced in a special Brighton edition.<p>According to the Boho Britain creativity index developed by United States economic regeneration expert <!--del_lnk--> Richard Florida, the city of Brighton and Hove ranks sixth amongst the largest 40 of 66 British cities when measured against the three criteria of his creativity index. Florida states that the index measures the appeal of cities to the new "<!--del_lnk--> creative class" and are a key indicator of a city’s economic health. In forming this result he also rates the city as first in terms of sexual diversity, eight for <!--del_lnk--> patent applications, and sixteenth for ethnic diversity.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton"</div>
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Brisbane
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brisbane</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Oceania_Australasia.htm">Geography of Oceania (Australasia)</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="margin-left: inherit; background:#F9F6D2; font-size: 1.5em; text-align:center"><b>Brisbane</b><br /><span style="font-size: small;"><!--del_lnk--> Queensland</span></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/238/23875.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_locator-MJC.png" src="../../images/238/23875.png" width="250" /></a><br /><small>location of Brisbane</small></td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population:</b><br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Density:</td>
<td>1,810,943 (<!--del_lnk--> 3rd)<br /> 353.8/km²</td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b>Established:</b></td>
<td>1824</td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area:</b></td>
<td>4768 km²</td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a>:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> AEST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+10)</td>
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<p><b>Brisbane</b> (<!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈbɹɪz.bən/</span>) is the <!--del_lnk--> capital and most populous city of the <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> <!--del_lnk--> state of <!--del_lnk--> Queensland, and is the third largest city in Australia, with a population of just under 2.0 million and an urban <!--del_lnk--> agglomeration of over 2.4 million people. It is a city set close to the <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, and is situated beside the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane River on plains between <!--del_lnk--> Moreton Bay and the <!--del_lnk--> Great Dividing Range in <!--del_lnk--> south-eastern Queensland.<p>Named in honour of <!--del_lnk--> Sir Thomas Brisbane, the city grew from a harsh <!--del_lnk--> penal colony established in 1824 at <!--del_lnk--> Redcliffe, 40 km to the north. The colony was moved to Brisbane in 1825 and free settlers were permitted from 1842. It was chosen as the capital of Queensland when it was proclaimed a separate colony in 1859. The city developed slowly until after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when it played a central role in the <!--del_lnk--> Allied campaign as the <!--del_lnk--> South West Pacific headquarters for <!--del_lnk--> General Douglas MacArthur.<p>More recently, Brisbane hosted the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Commonwealth Games and <!--del_lnk--> 1988 World's Fair, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Goodwill Games in 2001.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23876.jpg.htm" title="The Windmill built by convicts in 1828 — the heritage notice at the Windmill states that it is Queensland's oldest surviving building"><img alt="The Windmill built by convicts in 1828 — the heritage notice at the Windmill states that it is Queensland's oldest surviving building" height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The-Windmill-1.JPG" src="../../images/238/23876.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23876.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> The Windmill<br /> built by convicts in 1828 — the <!--del_lnk--> heritage notice at the Windmill states that it is Queensland's oldest <!--del_lnk--> surviving building</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23877.jpg.htm" title="Queensland's first Government House located in the QUT Gardens Point Campus grounds."><img alt="Queensland's first Government House located in the QUT Gardens Point Campus grounds." height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:First-Queenslande-Government-House-2.jpg" src="../../images/238/23877.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23877.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Queensland's first Government House located in the <!--del_lnk--> QUT <!--del_lnk--> Gardens Point Campus grounds.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23878.jpg.htm" title="The AMP Building (now the MacArthur Central building), was the Allied Pacific Headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur during World War II (photograph taken in 1938)."><img alt="The AMP Building (now the MacArthur Central building), was the Allied Pacific Headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur during World War II (photograph taken in 1938)." height="331" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AMPBldg1938.jpg" src="../../images/238/23878.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23878.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> The AMP Building (now the MacArthur Central building), was the Allied Pacific Headquarters of <!--del_lnk--> General Douglas MacArthur during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> (photograph taken in 1938).</div>
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<p>The area now known as Brisbane was inhabited before European settlement by the Turrbul and Jagera people whose ancestors originally migrated to the region from across the <!--del_lnk--> Torres Strait.<p>In 1823 an exploration party led by <!--del_lnk--> John Oxley explored <!--del_lnk--> Moreton Bay and sailed up the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane River as far as <!--del_lnk--> Goodna, some 20 km upstream from what is now <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane central business district.<p>In 1824, the colonial administration of <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales established a penal settlement at what is now <!--del_lnk--> Redcliffe, on the shores of Moreton Bay. However, the Redcliffe settlement was abandoned after only one year and the colony was moved south to a peninsula on the Brisbane River (today the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane CBD), which offered a more reliable water supply. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838.<p><!--del_lnk--> Queensland was proclaimed a separate colony in June 1859 and Brisbane, which was named in honour of <!--del_lnk--> Sir Thomas Brisbane (who was, at that time, <!--del_lnk--> Governor of New South Wales), was chosen as its capital. However, Brisbane was not incorporated as a city until 1902. Over twenty small municipalities and shires were amalgamated in 1925, to form the City of Greater Brisbane which is governed by the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Council.<p>Historic buildings include <!--del_lnk--> The Windmill, which was built by convicts in 1828. According to the <!--del_lnk--> heritage notice at the Windmill, it is Queensland' oldest <!--del_lnk--> surviving building. The Windmill was originally intended for the grinding of grain. Another historic building is the <!--del_lnk--> Shrine of Remembrance, which was dedicated on <!--del_lnk--> 11 November <!--del_lnk--> 1930. The Shrine of Remembrance is Brisbane's main memorial of remembrance to Australia's war dead.<p>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Brisbane played a central role in the <!--del_lnk--> Allied campaign when the AMP Building (now called <!--del_lnk--> MacArthur Central) was used as the <!--del_lnk--> South West Pacific headquarters for <!--del_lnk--> General Douglas MacArthur, the chief of the Allied Pacific forces. Approximately 1,000,000 US troops passed through Australia during the war, as the primary coordination point for the <!--del_lnk--> South West Pacific.<p>Brisbane staged both a successful <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Games during 1982, and <!--del_lnk--> World's Fair during 1988. These events were accompanied by a scale of public expenditure, construction and development not previously seen in the state of <!--del_lnk--> Queensland.<p>In the new millennium, Brisbane is one of Australia's fastest growing centres, receiving large numbers of migrants from other <!--del_lnk--> Australian states and territories. Despite strong economic growth, Queensland government statistics show unemployment rates of over 12% amongst migrants to Brisbane statistical division from interstate and overseas.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23879.jpg.htm" title="Brisbane central business district with New Farm Park in the foreground."><img alt="Brisbane central business district with New Farm Park in the foreground." height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrisbaneSkylineFromEast15Oct06.JPG" src="../../images/238/23879.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23879.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Brisbane central business district<br /> with <!--del_lnk--> New Farm Park in the foreground.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23880.jpg.htm" title="Landsat image of the Brisbane region."><img alt="Landsat image of the Brisbane region." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_sat.jpg" src="../../images/238/23880.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23880.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Landsat image of the Brisbane region.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Brisbane city centre is situated in the southeast corner of Queensland, Australia, at a <!--del_lnk--> latitude and <!--del_lnk--> longitude of <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 27°28′S 153°02′E</span>. The city straddles the Brisbane River, and its eastern suburbs line the shores of Moreton Bay. The greater Brisbane region lies on the coastal plain east of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Dividing Range, although the urban area is dotted by large hills reaching up to 300 metres such as <!--del_lnk--> Mount Coot-tha, <!--del_lnk--> Mount Gravatt, <!--del_lnk--> Whites Hill and <!--del_lnk--> Stephens Mountain.<p>Generally, the city is a low-lying <!--del_lnk--> floodplain and susceptible to severe <!--del_lnk--> flooding. Many suburban creeks also criss-cross the city, increasing the risk of localised flooding. The city has suffered two major floods since colonisation, in 1893 and 1974. The <!--del_lnk--> 1974 Brisbane flood occurred partly as a result of "<!--del_lnk--> Cyclone Wanda". Continual non-stop heavy rain had fallen during the three weeks leading up to the flood, which occurred during the <!--del_lnk--> Australia Day weekend (26–27 January, <!--del_lnk--> 1974). The flood damaged many parts of the city, especially in the suburbs of <!--del_lnk--> Oxley, <!--del_lnk--> Bulimba, <!--del_lnk--> Rocklea, <!--del_lnk--> Coorparoo and <!--del_lnk--> New Farm. The <!--del_lnk--> City Botanic gardens were also inundated, leading to a new colony of <!--del_lnk--> mangroves to form in the City Reach of the Brisbane River.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23881.gif.htm" title="Map of Brisbane CBD."><img alt="Map of Brisbane CBD." height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_map_of_city_cbd.gif" src="../../images/238/23881.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23881.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Brisbane CBD.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane central business district is situated in a curve of a river. Covering only 2.2 square kilometres, it is easily walkable. The central streets are named for members of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Hanover. Streets named after female members (<!--del_lnk--> Adelaide, <!--del_lnk--> Alice, <!--del_lnk--> Ann, <!--del_lnk--> Charlotte, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth, <!--del_lnk--> Margaret, <!--del_lnk--> Mary) run parallel to <!--del_lnk--> Queen Street and <!--del_lnk--> Queen Street Mall (named in honour of <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>) and perpendicular to streets named after male members (<!--del_lnk--> Albert, <!--del_lnk--> Edward, <!--del_lnk--> George, <!--del_lnk--> William).<p>Brisbane has a lower <!--del_lnk--> inner city population density than Australia's two largest cities, <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, although constant population growth occurring in Brisbane is closing the gap between Brisbane and Melbourne. The lower population density reflects the fact that most of Brisbane's housing stock consists of detached houses. Early legislation decreed a minimum size for residential blocks resulting in few <!--del_lnk--> terrace houses being constructed in Brisbane. The high density housing that did exist came in the form of miniature Queenslander-style houses which resemble the much larger traditional styles but are sometimes only 1/4 the size. These miniature Queenslanders are becoming scarce but can still be seen in the inner city subrubs. Multi residence accommodations (such as apartment blocks) are relative newcomers to Brisbane, with few such blocks built before <!--del_lnk--> 1970, other than in inner suburbs such as <!--del_lnk--> New Farm. Pre-1950 housing stock was often built in a distinctive architectural style known as a <!--del_lnk--> Queenslander, featuring timber construction with large <!--del_lnk--> verandahs and high ceilings. The relative cheapness of timber in South-East Queensland meant that until recently most residences were constructed of timber, rather than brick or stone. Many of these houses are elevated on stumps (incorrectly referred to as <i>stilts</i>), that were originally timber, but are now frequently replaced by steel or concrete.<p>Overall the city has a density of 379.4 people per square kilometre, which is comparable to that of <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>. Recently the density of the city and inner city neighbourhoods has increased with the construction of apartments, with the result that the population of the central business district has doubled over the last 5 years.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Brisbane has a typical <!--del_lnk--> subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and dry, mild winters. From late Spring through to early Autumn, thunderstorms are common over the greater Brisbane area, with the more severe events accompanied by large damaging hail stones, torrential rain and destructive winds.<p>The city's highest recorded temperature was 43.2 °C (109.8 °F) on the <!--del_lnk--> 26 January <!--del_lnk--> 1940, while the lowest temperature of 2.3 °C (36.1 °F) was recorded on <!--del_lnk--> 12 July <!--del_lnk--> 1894 and <!--del_lnk--> 2 July <!--del_lnk--> 1896. Brisbane's wettest day was <!--del_lnk--> 21 January <!--del_lnk--> 1887, when 465 mm (18.3 in) of rain fell on the city, the highest maximum daily rainfall of any of Australia's capital cities.<table class="wikitable" style="width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;">
<caption><b>Climate Table</b></caption>
<tr>
<th> </th>
<th>Jan</th>
<th>Feb</th>
<th>Mar</th>
<th>Apr</th>
<th>May</th>
<th>Jun</th>
<th>Jul</th>
<th>Aug</th>
<th>Sep</th>
<th>Oct</th>
<th>Nov</th>
<th>Dec</th>
<th>Year</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mean daily maximum temperature (<!--del_lnk--> °C)</th>
<td>29.4</td>
<td>29.0</td>
<td>28.0</td>
<td>26.1</td>
<td>23.2</td>
<td>20.9</td>
<td>20.4</td>
<td>21.8</td>
<td>24.0</td>
<td>26.1</td>
<td>27.8</td>
<td>29.1</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mean daily minimum temperature (<!--del_lnk--> °C)</th>
<td>20.7</td>
<td>20.6</td>
<td>19.4</td>
<td>16.6</td>
<td>13.3</td>
<td>10.9</td>
<td>9.5</td>
<td>10.3</td>
<td>12.9</td>
<td>15.8</td>
<td>18.1</td>
<td>19.8</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Mean monthly rainfall (<!--del_lnk--> mm)</th>
<td>159.6</td>
<td>158.3</td>
<td>140.7</td>
<td>92.5</td>
<td>73.7</td>
<td>67.8</td>
<td>56.5</td>
<td>45.9</td>
<td>45.7</td>
<td>75.4</td>
<td>97.0</td>
<td>133.3</td>
<td>1146.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="15" style="text-align: center;"><small><b>Source:</b> <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of Meteorology</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Governance" name="Governance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Governance</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23882.jpg.htm" title="Brisbane City Hall houses the Museum of Brisbane and offices of the Brisbane City Council."><img alt="Brisbane City Hall houses the Museum of Brisbane and offices of the Brisbane City Council." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_City_Hall.jpg" src="../../images/238/23882.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23882.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Hall houses the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Brisbane and offices of the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Council.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="floatleft"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Brisbane City Council logo." height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bcc.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="100" /></span></div>
<p>Unlike other Australian capital cities, a large portion of the greater metropolitan area of Brisbane is controlled by a single <!--del_lnk--> local government entity, the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Council. Since the creation of the Brisbane City Council in <!--del_lnk--> 1925 the urban areas of Brisbane have expanded considerably past the City Council boundaries.<p>The City of Brisbane is divided into 26 wards, with each ward electing a Councillor as their community representative. The <!--del_lnk--> Lord Mayor of Brisbane and Councillors are elected every four years by popular vote, in which all residents must participate. The current Lord Mayor of Brisbane is <!--del_lnk--> Campbell Newman, who was elected to the position in <!--del_lnk--> March 2004.<p>Brisbane City Council is the largest local government body (in terms of population and budget) in Australia. The Council, formed by the merger of twenty smaller councils in 1925, has jurisdiction over an area of 1367 km². The Council's annual budget is approximately $1.6 billion, and it has an asset base of $13 billion.<p>The Brisbane <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area now covers parts of several adjoining <!--del_lnk--> local government areas including <!--del_lnk--> Beaudesert Shire, <!--del_lnk--> Caboolture Shire, <!--del_lnk--> Gold Coast City, <!--del_lnk--> Ipswich City, <!--del_lnk--> Logan City, <!--del_lnk--> Pine Rivers Shire, <!--del_lnk--> Redcliffe City and <!--del_lnk--> Redland Shire.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23884.jpg.htm" title="Brisbane city by night, looking north along the Brisbane River towards the CBD."><img alt="Brisbane city by night, looking north along the Brisbane River towards the CBD." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrisbaneByNight2004.jpg" src="../../images/238/23884.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23884.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brisbane city by night, looking north along the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane River towards the <!--del_lnk--> CBD.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23885.jpg.htm" title="Queen Street Mall, Brisbane CBD."><img alt="Queen Street Mall, Brisbane CBD." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:QueenStMall.jpg" src="../../images/238/23885.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23885.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Queen Street Mall, Brisbane CBD.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Brisbane's economy has <!--del_lnk--> white-collar and <!--del_lnk--> blue-collar industries. White-collar industries include <!--del_lnk--> information technology, <!--del_lnk--> financial services, <!--del_lnk--> higher education and <!--del_lnk--> public sector administration generally concentrated in and around the <!--del_lnk--> central business district and recently established office areas in the inner suburbs. Blue-collar industries include <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> refining, stevedoring, <!--del_lnk--> paper milling, <!--del_lnk--> metalworking and <!--del_lnk--> QR railway workshops tend to be located on the lower reaches of the Brisbane River and in new industrial zones on the urban fringe. <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">Tourism</a> is an important part of the Brisbane economy, both in its own right and as a gateway to other areas of Queensland.<p>Since the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Queensland State Government has been developing technology and science industries in Queensland as a whole, and Brisbane in particular, as part of its "Smart State" initative. The government has invested in several biotechnology and research facilities at several universities in Brisbane. The <!--del_lnk--> Institute for Molecular Bioscience at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Queensland (UQ) Saint Lucia Campus is a large <!--del_lnk--> CSIRO and Queensland state government initiative for research and innovation that is currently being emulated at the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Campus at Kelvin Grove with the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI).<p>Brisbane is also considered one of the major business hubs in Australia. Most major Australian and International companies have either a major or minor contact office in Brisbane. Many <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronics</a> companies also take advantage of the strategic port and airports by choosing to have distribution hubs in the city. <!--del_lnk--> LG, <!--del_lnk--> Panasonic, <!--del_lnk--> Samsung are just a few practical examples. <!--del_lnk--> DHL Global have their Oceanic distribution warehouse located in Brisbane, while <!--del_lnk--> Asia Pacific Aerospace their headquarters.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Port of Brisbane is on the lower reaches of the Brisbane River and on Fisherman's Island at the rivers mouth, and is the 3rd most important port in Australia for value of goods. <!--del_lnk--> Container freight, <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Grain">grain</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> and <!--del_lnk--> bulk liquids are the major exports. Most of the port facilities are less than three decades old and some are built on reclaimed <!--del_lnk--> mangroves and <!--del_lnk--> wetlands. The Port is a part of the <!--del_lnk--> Australia TradeCoast, the country's fastest-growing economic development area, is a marketing partnership between the Queensland Government, the city of Brisbane, Brisbane airport and its seaport, originally proposed by a UK marketer who had also developed the <!--del_lnk--> Amsterdam airport Area zone. Geographically, Australia TradeCoast occupies a huge swathe of land around the airport and port. Commercially, the area has attracted a mix of companies from throughout the Asia Pacific region.<p>Home grown major companies from Brisbane include <!--del_lnk--> Suncorp-Metway Limited, <!--del_lnk--> Flight Centre, <!--del_lnk--> SunSuper, <!--del_lnk--> Orrcon, <!--del_lnk--> Credit Union Australia, <!--del_lnk--> Donut King, <!--del_lnk--> Wotif.com, <!--del_lnk--> WebCentral, <!--del_lnk--> PIPE Networks, <!--del_lnk--> Mincom Ltd. and <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Blue are headquartered in Brisbane, while the city has regional presences of <!--del_lnk--> Alcan, <!--del_lnk--> Oracle, <!--del_lnk--> Boeing and <!--del_lnk--> Red Hat.<br clear="all" />
<p>Brisbane has many <!--del_lnk--> shopping centres. The <!--del_lnk--> Queen Street Mall has <!--del_lnk--> restaurants, souvenirs and shopping centres, including: <!--del_lnk--> Wintergarden, <!--del_lnk--> Broadway on the Mall, <!--del_lnk--> Queens Plaza, <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Arcade and <!--del_lnk--> The Myer Centre. The majority of consumer commerce is generally done within the suburbs of Brisbane, via massive shopping centre hubs which include major departments chains. There are 4 major shopping centres in Brisbane located in the suburbs of Chermside, Indooroopilly, Mt Gravatt and Carindale. Smaller, yet significant shopping centres are also littered around the other suburbs of the city. For a full listing of shopping centres in Brisbane CBD, and Brisbane suburbs, see the Brisbane, Queensland section of the <!--del_lnk--> List of shopping centres in Australia article<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right">
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="3"><b>Brisbane<br /> Population by year</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1825</td>
<td>47</td>
<td>(convict settlement)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1831</td>
<td>1,241</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1839</td>
<td>2,212</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1846</td>
<td>6,257</td>
<td>(free settlement)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1851</td>
<td>8,375</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1891</td>
<td>104,276</td>
<td>(gold rush)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1925</td>
<td>260 000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1950</td>
<td>442,000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1960</td>
<td>603,000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1970</td>
<td>798,000</td>
<td>(interstate migration)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1980</td>
<td>1,067,000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1990</td>
<td>1,303,000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2000</td>
<td>1,591,000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td>1,810,943</td>
<td>(2005 estimate)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2030</td>
<td>2,597,400</td>
<td>(projected)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2100</td>
<td>5,997,400</td>
<td>(projected, Largest City In Australia)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The population of Brisbane city is estimated at 971,757 (as of June 2005). Greater Brisbane has an estimated urban population of 1.81 million. <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Council as Australia's largest (by area) predominantly urban Local Government Area, is the most populous LGA in Australia. Brisbane is claimed to have Australia's highest rate of capital city population growth. The urban population reportedly grew by 11.5% between 1999 and 2004 .<p>The last Australian Census in <!--del_lnk--> 2001 showed that 1.7% of Brisbane's population are of indigenous origins, while 21.0% were born overseas. Approximately 13.5% of households speak a language other than English, with the most common being Chinese, Vietnamese and Italian. The median age across the city is 32 years old.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23886.jpg.htm" title="Part of the Brisbane central business district"><img alt="Part of the Brisbane central business district" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_CBD.jpg" src="../../images/238/23886.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23886.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Part of the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane central business district</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23887.jpg.htm" title="The Forgan Smith Building and the Great Court University of Queensland"><img alt="The Forgan Smith Building and the Great Court University of Queensland" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:University_of_Queensland.jpg" src="../../images/238/23887.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23887.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Forgan Smith Building and the Great Court <!--del_lnk--> University of Queensland</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Brisbane has multi-campus universities and colleges including the <!--del_lnk--> University of Queensland (A member of the <!--del_lnk--> Group of Eight), <!--del_lnk--> Queensland University of Technology and <!--del_lnk--> Griffith University. Other universities which have campuses in Brisbane include the <!--del_lnk--> Australian Catholic University, <!--del_lnk--> Central Queensland University, <!--del_lnk--> James Cook University, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Canberra, the <!--del_lnk--> University of New South Wales and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Southern Queensland.<p>Brisbane also has <!--del_lnk--> TAFE colleges including the <!--del_lnk--> Bremer Institute of TAFE, <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane North Institute of TAFE, <!--del_lnk--> Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE and the <!--del_lnk--> Southbank Institute of TAFE. Other independent tertiary education providers include the <!--del_lnk--> Australian College of Natural Medicine, the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane College of Theology, <!--del_lnk--> QANTM and <!--del_lnk--> Jschool: Journalism Education & Training.<p>Brisbane is covered under the jurisdiction of <!--del_lnk--> Education Queensland regarding public primary and high schools. For information about schools in Brisbane, see the <!--del_lnk--> List of schools in Queensland article.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23888.jpg.htm" title="Brisbane skyline taken from the South Bank Parklands"><img alt="Brisbane skyline taken from the South Bank Parklands" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbaneskyline.jpg" src="../../images/238/23888.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23888.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brisbane skyline taken from the <!--del_lnk--> South Bank Parklands</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Arts_and_entertainment" name="Arts_and_entertainment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Arts and entertainment</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Brisbane has a thriving live music scene, as well as museums and theatres, performing arts and creative arts. It is the birthplace of internationally acclaimed singers, music bands, authors, actors, artists and sculptors. Many of Brisbane's singers and musicians (both popular and classical) have performed overseas, and have received international awards and recognition.<p>There are popular entertainment pubs and clubs within both the <!--del_lnk--> City and <!--del_lnk--> Fortitude Valley.<p>There is also the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Cultural Centre at <!--del_lnk--> South Bank, which includes the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Performing Arts Centre (with the Lyric Theatre, Concert Hall, Cremorne Theatre and the Playhouse), <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Art Gallery, <!--del_lnk--> State Library of Queensland, and soon to be completed <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Gallery of Modern Art. Close to the Queensland Performing arts Centre are the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Conservatorium Griffith University and <!--del_lnk--> Suncorp Piazza, which are both located at <!--del_lnk--> South Bank Parklands, and the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Convention & Exhibition Centre.<p>Major cultural events include the <!--del_lnk--> Ekka (the Royal Queensland Show) is held each year in August, at the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Exhibition Ground, <!--del_lnk--> River<i>festival</i> (which includes River<i>fire</i>), is held each year in September at <!--del_lnk--> South Bank Parklands and surrounding areas; <!--del_lnk--> Warana, (meaning <i>Blue Skies</i>), was a former <a href="../../wp/s/Spring_%2528season%2529.htm" title="Spring (season)">spring</a> festival which began in 1961 and was held in September each year. Run as a celebration of Brisbane, Warana was similar in many ways to Melbourne's <!--del_lnk--> Moomba festival. Warana was changed, in 1996, to a <!--del_lnk--> biennial <i>Brisbane Festival</i>, as a lower key event with a focus on the performing arts. Also, the <!--del_lnk--> Paniyiri festival at <!--del_lnk--> Musgrave Park (corner of Russell and Edmonstone Streets, <!--del_lnk--> South Brisbane) an annual Greek cultural festival held on the first weekend in May.<p><a id="Tourism_and_recreation" name="Tourism_and_recreation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism and recreation</span></h3>
<p>Popular areas for tourism and recreation include the <!--del_lnk--> South Bank Parklands, the <!--del_lnk--> Roma Street Parkland (which has an outdoor <!--del_lnk--> amphitheatre), the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane City Botanic Gardens (a colonial era botanic gardens founded in 1855 in the Brisbane CBD), and the <!--del_lnk--> Mount Coot-tha state forest (which includes a lookout over the city), the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Botanic Gardens (contemporary <!--del_lnk--> botanical gardens) which includes the <!--del_lnk--> Sir Thomas Brisbane Planetarium and the <!--del_lnk--> "Tsuki-yama-chisen" Japanese Garden, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Forest Park, the rock-climbing cliffs which are located at the southern approach to the Story Bridge at <!--del_lnk--> Kangaroo Point, and the more than 27 km of bicycle pathways which line both sides of the river east and west of the city centre. Another new Brisbane attraction is the Story Bridge Adventure Climb. The Story Bridge is one of only three legally climbable bridges in the world. The latest addition to Brisbane tourism is the $750 million <!--del_lnk--> Portside Wharf.<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Brisbane has teams in all interstate competitions including the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Broncos in the <!--del_lnk--> National Rugby League; the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Reds in the <a href="../../wp/s/Super_14.htm" title="Super 14">Super 14</a> competition in <!--del_lnk--> Rugby union; the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Lions in the <!--del_lnk--> Australian Football League; the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Roar FC in the <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Soccer">soccer</a> <!--del_lnk--> A-League; the <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Bulls in <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">Cricket</a>; the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Bullets in the <!--del_lnk--> National Basketball League and the <!--del_lnk--> KFC Queensland Breakers in the <!--del_lnk--> National Water Polo League .<p>With the closure of the Milton Tennis grounds in 1994, Brisbane was without major tennis facility until recently. In 2005, a new A$65 million tennis stadium, to be located in the suburb of Tennyson was approved by the State government and in conjunction with Mirvac constructions is to be constructed starting in May 2006, with a completion date scheduled for December 2008.<p>Brisbane has hosted several major sporting events including the <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Commonwealth Games and the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 <!--del_lnk--> Goodwill Games. Brisbane also hosted games during the <!--del_lnk--> 1987 Rugby World Cup, <!--del_lnk--> 2000 Sydney Olympics and the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 Rugby World Cup.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2>
<p><a id="Health" name="Health"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health</span></h3>
<p>Brisbane is covered under <!--del_lnk--> Queensland Health's "Central" and "Southern" zones. There are 8 major <!--del_lnk--> public hospitals in the greater Brisbane area, as well as 4 major <!--del_lnk--> private hospitals, and numerous smaller facilities both public and private. Specialist and GP practises are also located in most suburbs and localities in the city.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23889.jpg.htm" title="CityCat catamaran ferry on the Brisbane River."><img alt="CityCat catamaran ferry on the Brisbane River." height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CityCat-3a.jpg" src="../../images/238/23889.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23889.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> CityCat <!--del_lnk--> catamaran <!--del_lnk--> ferry on the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane River.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>As Queensland's largest city and state capital, Brisbane has an extensive transportation network within the city, as well as connections to regional centres, interstate and to overseas destinations. Public Transport in Brisbane is provided by bus, rail and ferry services. Bus services are operated by public and private operators whereas trains and ferries are operated by public agencies. The <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane central business district (CBD) is the central hub for all public transport services with services focusing on <!--del_lnk--> Queen Street Bus Station, <!--del_lnk--> Roma Street and <!--del_lnk--> Central railway stations, and various city ferries wharves. Brisbane's <!--del_lnk--> CityCat high speed ferry service, popular with tourists and commuters, operates services along the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane River and in this regard is unusual among Australian cities.<p>The CityTrain urban rail network consists of 7 suburban lines and covers mostly the west, north and east sides of the city. It also provides the route for an <!--del_lnk--> AirTrain service between the City and <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Airport (the AirTrain, itself, is owned by a company). Since 2000, Brisbane has been developing a network of <!--del_lnk--> busways to provide faster bus services. "<!--del_lnk--> TransLink", an integrated ticketing system operates across the public transport network.<p>The Brisbane River has created a barrier to transport. In total there are six road bridges, mostly concentrated in the inner city area. This has intensified the need for transport routes to focus on the inner city. There are also three railway bridges and one pedestrian bridge. The <!--del_lnk--> Eleanor Schonell Bridge is under construction between the University of Queensland and <!--del_lnk--> Dutton Park and is for use by buses, pedestrians and as a bicycle bridge. There are currently multiple tunnel and bridge projects underway as part of the <!--del_lnk--> TransApex plan. For further information about Brisbane's bridges, see the article <!--del_lnk--> Bridges of Brisbane.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23890.jpg.htm" title="Riverside Expressway. Captain Cook Bridge and Victoria Bridge"><img alt="Riverside Expressway. Captain Cook Bridge and Victoria Bridge" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brisbane_Riverside_Expressway.jpg" src="../../images/238/23890.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23890.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Riverside Expressway. <!--del_lnk--> Captain Cook Bridge and <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Bridge</div>
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<p>Brisbane is served by several <!--del_lnk--> freeways. The <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Motorway connects the central city with the <!--del_lnk--> Gold Coast to the south. The <!--del_lnk--> Ipswich Motorway connects the city with Ipswich to the west via the southern suburbs, while the <!--del_lnk--> Western Freeway provides a connection between Brisbane's inner-west and the outer south-west, connecting with the Ipswich Motorway south of the Brisbane River. The <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Highway is Brisbane's main route north of the city to the rest of the State. The Bruce Highway terminates 1700km away in <!--del_lnk--> Cairns and passes through most major cities along the Queensland coast. The <!--del_lnk--> Gateway Motorway is a private <!--del_lnk--> toll road which connects the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coasts by providing an alternate route avoiding Brisbane's inner city area. The tollroad crosses the Brisbane River to the east of the city over the <!--del_lnk--> Gateway Bridge. The Gateway Motorway connects with Bruce Highway and the Pacific Motorway. A duplicate of the bridge is planned to be built in parallel to cope with the area's growing population.<p>Brisbane's population growth placed strains on South East Queensland's transport system. The State Government and Brisbane City Council have responded with infrastructure plans and increased funding for transportation projects, such as the <!--del_lnk--> South East Queensland Infrastructure Plan and Program. Most of the focus has been placed on expanding current road infrastructure, particularly tunnels and bypasses, as well as improving the public transport system.<p>The city is served by two airports. <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Airport (IATA code: <i>BNE</i>) is the city's main airport and the third busiest in Australia. It is located at Eagle Farm, north-east of the city centre and provides domestic and international passenger services. <!--del_lnk--> Archerfield Airport (in Brisbane's southern suburbs) acts as a <!--del_lnk--> general aviation airport.<p><a id="Utilities" name="Utilities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Utilities</span></h3>
<p>Water storage, treatment and delivery for Brisbane is handled by <!--del_lnk--> SEQ Water, which sells on to <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Water for distribution to the greater Brisbane area. Water for the area is stored in one of three dams; <!--del_lnk--> Wivenhoe, <!--del_lnk--> Somerset and <!--del_lnk--> North Pine, all of which are at all time lows, causing councils in the <!--del_lnk--> South East Queenland area to devise some of the strictest water restrictions in Australia. <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Water also handles sewage treatment and recycled water distribution.<p>Electricity and Gas in Brisbane are handled by Energex, a state government organisation, and <!--del_lnk--> Origin Energy, a private company that also handles the gas line grid within the city.<p>Metropolitan Brisbane is serviced by all major and most minor telecommunications companies and their networks. Brisbane has the largest number of enabled <!--del_lnk--> DSL telephone exchanges in Queensland. An increasing number are also enabled with special hardware (<!--del_lnk--> DSLAMs) which enable ultra high speed <!--del_lnk--> ADSL2+ internet access. The Brisbane CBD also features a complete underground <!--del_lnk--> fibre optics network, with numerous connections to the inner suburbs provided by various service providers.<p>Cable via two major networks provided and serviced by <!--del_lnk--> Telstra and <!--del_lnk--> Optus. These provide both high speed internet as well as <!--del_lnk--> Pay TV services for the bulk of the city's metropolitan area. Both of these providers also host wireless networks with <!--del_lnk--> hotspots within both the inner and suburban areas.<p>In addition, <!--del_lnk--> Hutchinson, <!--del_lnk--> Telstra, <!--del_lnk--> Optus and <a href="../../wp/v/Vodafone.htm" title="Vodafone">Vodafone</a> all operate both <!--del_lnk--> 2.5G and <!--del_lnk--> 3G mobile phone networks citywide.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane"</div>
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Bristol
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bristol</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>Bristol</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;"><a class="image" href="../../images/32/3208.png.htm" title="Image:EnglandBristol.png"><img alt="Image:EnglandBristol.png" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EnglandBristol.png" src="../../images/21/2195.png" width="200" /></a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Geography</td>
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<th>Status</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county,<br /><a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Unitary district</td>
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<th>Region</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South West England</td>
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<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b><br /> - Total<br /> - District</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 47th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 110 <!--del_lnk--> km²<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 237th</td>
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<th>Admin HQ</th>
<td>Bristol</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> ISO 3166-2</th>
<td>GB-BST</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> ONS code</th>
<td>00HB</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Traditional county</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> County corporate<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire<br /> and <!--del_lnk--> Somerset)</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ST5946972550</td>
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<tr>
<th>Coordinates</th>
<td>51°27'N 2°35'W</td>
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<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NUTS 3</th>
<td>UKK11</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Demographics</td>
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<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b><br /> - Total (2005 est.)<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> Density<br /> - District</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 43rd<br /> 398,300<br /> 3,639 / km²<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 7th</td>
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<th>Ethnicity</th>
<td>91.8% White<br /> 2.9% S. Asian<br /> 2.3% Afro-Caribbean<br /> 2.08% Mixed Race</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Politics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristolarms.PNG" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" /></span></div>
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<br /> Bristol City Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> http://www.bristol-city.gov.uk/</td>
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<tr>
<th>Control</th>
<td>No overall control<br /> Lib Dem Minority</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Leadership</th>
<td>Leader & Cabinet</td>
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<th>Executive</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrats</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Members of Parliament</th>
<td>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Roger Berry<li><!--del_lnk--> Kerry McCarthy<li><!--del_lnk--> Doug Naysmith<li><!--del_lnk--> Dawn Primarolo<li><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Williams</ul>
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<p><b>Bristol</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈbrɪstəl]</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city</a>, <!--del_lnk--> unitary authority and <!--del_lnk--> ceremonial county in <!--del_lnk--> South West <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, 115 <!--del_lnk--> miles (185 <!--del_lnk--> km) west of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> and located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">51°27′14″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">2°35′48″W</span></span><p>With a population of 400,000, and <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area of 550,000, it is England's sixth, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s ninth, most populous city, and one of England's <!--del_lnk--> core cities. It received a royal charter in 1155 and was granted county status in 1373. For half a millennium it was the second or third largest English city, until the rapid rise of <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> in the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> of the 1780s. It borders on the unitary districts of <!--del_lnk--> Bath and North East Somerset, <!--del_lnk--> North Somerset and <!--del_lnk--> South Gloucestershire, and has a short coastline on the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Channel.<p>Bristol is one of the main centres of culture, employment and education in the region. From its earliest days, its prosperity has been linked to that of the <!--del_lnk--> Port of Bristol, the commercial <!--del_lnk--> port, which was in the city centre but has now moved to the Bristol Channel coast at <!--del_lnk--> Avonmouth and <!--del_lnk--> Portbury. In more recent years the economy has been built on the <!--del_lnk--> aerospace industry, and the city centre docks have been regenerated as a centre of heritage and culture. The city is famous for its unique music and film industries, and was a finalist for the 2008 <!--del_lnk--> European Capital of Culture.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>There is evidence of settlement in the Bristol area from the <!--del_lnk--> palaeolithic era, with 60,000-year-old archaeological finds at <!--del_lnk--> Shirehampton and <!--del_lnk--> St Annes. There are <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron age">iron age</a> <!--del_lnk--> hill forts near the city, at <!--del_lnk--> Leigh Woods and <!--del_lnk--> Clifton Down on the side of the <a href="../../wp/a/Avon_Gorge.htm" title="Avon Gorge">Avon Gorge</a>, and on <!--del_lnk--> Kingsweston Hill, near <!--del_lnk--> Henbury. During the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman era</a> there was a settlement, <i>Abona</i>, at what is now <!--del_lnk--> Sea Mills, connected to <!--del_lnk--> Bath by <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_road.htm" title="Roman road">Roman road</a>, and another settlement at what is now <!--del_lnk--> Inns Court. There were also isolated villas and small settlements throughout the area.<p>The town of <i>Brycgstow</i> (<a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Old English</a>, "the place at the bridge") was in existence by the beginning of the 11th century, and under Norman rule acquired one of the strongest <!--del_lnk--> castles in southern England. The River Avon in the city centre has slowly evolved into <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Harbour, and since the 12th century the harbour has been an important port, handling much of England's trade with <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. In 1247 a new bridge was built and the town was extended to incorporate neighbouring suburbs, becoming in 1373 a <!--del_lnk--> county in its own right. During this period Bristol also became a centre of shipbuilding and manufacturing. Bristol was the starting point for many important voyages, notably <a href="../../wp/j/John_Cabot.htm" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a>'s 1497 voyage of exploration to North America.<p>By the 14th century Bristol was England's third-largest town (after London and <a href="../../wp/y/York.htm" title="York">York</a>), with perhaps 15-20,000 inhabitants on the eve of the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of 1348-49. The plague inflicted a prolonged pause in the growth of Bristol's population, with numbers remaining at 10-12,000 through most of the 15th and 16th centuries. The <!--del_lnk--> Diocese of Bristol was founded in 1542, with the former <a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" title="Abbey">Abbey</a> of St Augustine becoming <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Cathedral. Traditionally this is equivalent to the town being granted <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city status</a>. During the <!--del_lnk--> 1640s Civil War the city suffered through Royalist military occupation and plague.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:291px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2197.jpg.htm" title="Bristol Bridge seen across the Harbour"><img alt="Bristol Bridge seen across the Harbour" height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol.harbour.arp.750pix.jpg" src="../../images/21/2197.jpg" width="289" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/21/2197.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bristol Bridge seen across the Harbour</div>
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<p>Renewed growth came with the 17th-century rise of England's American colonies and the rapid 18th-century expansion of England's part in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Americas. Bristol, along with <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, became a significant centre for the slave trade although few slaves were brought to Britain. During the height of the slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, more than 2000 slaving ships were fitted out at Bristol, carrying a (conservatively) estimated half a million people from <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> to the Americas and slavery. Fishermen who left Bristol were long part of the migratory fishery to the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Banks of <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland and began settling that island permanently in larger numbers around this time. Bristol's strong nautical ties meant that maritime safety was an important issue in the city, In the 19th century <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Plimsoll, "the sailor's friend", campaigned fearlessly to make the seas safer. He was shocked by the scandal of overloaded cargoes and successfully fought for a compulsory loadline on ships.<p>Competition from Liverpool from c.1760, the disruption of maritime commerce through war with <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (1793) and the abolition of the slave trade (1807) contributed to the city's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of the North and Midlands. The long passage up the heavily tidal Avon Gorge, which had made the port highly secure during the middle ages, had become a liability which the construction of a new "Floating Harbour" (designed by <!--del_lnk--> William Jessop) in 1804–9 failed to overcome. Nevertheless, Bristol's population (66,000 in 1801) quintupled during the 19th century, supported by new industries and growing commerce. It was particularly associated with the Victorian engineer <a href="../../wp/i/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel.htm" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>, who designed the <!--del_lnk--> Great Western Railway between Bristol and London, two pioneering Bristol-built steamships, and the <a href="../../wp/c/Clifton_Suspension_Bridge.htm" title="Clifton Suspension Bridge">Clifton Suspension Bridge</a>. <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley founded the very first <!--del_lnk--> Methodist Chapel, in Bristol in 1739.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3206.jpg.htm" title="Clifton Suspension Bridge"><img alt="Clifton Suspension Bridge" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Clifton.bridge.longview.750pix.jpg" src="../../images/21/2198.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3206.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clifton Suspension Bridge</div>
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<p>Bristol's city centre suffered severe damage from bombing during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The original central shopping area, near the bridge and castle, is now a park containing two bombed out churches and some tiny fragments of the castle. A third bombed church nearby, St Nicholas, has been restored and currently houses private city council offices despite containing a <!--del_lnk--> triptych by <a href="../../wp/w/William_Hogarth.htm" title="William Hogarth">William Hogarth</a>, painted for the high altar of <!--del_lnk--> St Mary Redcliffe in 1756. Like much British post-war planning, the rebuilding of <!--del_lnk--> Bristol city centre was characterised by large, cheap <!--del_lnk--> tower blocks, <!--del_lnk--> brutalist architecture and expansion of roads. Since the 1980s this trend has changed with the closure of some main roads, the restoration of the Georgian period Queen's and Portland Squares, the current demolition and rebuilding of the Broadmead shopping centre and, in 2006, one of the city centre's tallest post-war blocks was torn down. The removal of the docks to <!--del_lnk--> Avonmouth, seven miles (11 km) downstream from the city centre has also allowed substantial corporate redevelopment of the old central dock area (the "<!--del_lnk--> Floating Harbour") in recent decades, although at one time the continued existence of the docks was in jeopardy as it was viewed as a derelict industrial site rather than a potential asset.<p><a id="Economy_and_industry" name="Economy_and_industry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy and industry</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/34/3417.jpg.htm" title="The last ever flight of any Concorde, 26 November 2003. The aircraft is seen a few minutes before landing on the Filton runway from which she first flew in 1969."><img alt="The last ever flight of any Concorde, 26 November 2003. The aircraft is seen a few minutes before landing on the Filton runway from which she first flew in 1969." height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Concorde_on_Bristol.jpg" src="../../images/21/2199.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/34/3417.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The last ever flight of any <a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" title="Concorde">Concorde</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 26 November <!--del_lnk--> 2003. The aircraft is seen a few minutes before landing on the <!--del_lnk--> Filton runway from which she first flew in 1969.</div>
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<p>As well as Bristol's nautical connections, the city's economy is reliant on the <!--del_lnk--> aerospace industry, the media, information technology and financial services sectors and tourism. In 1998 Bristol's <!--del_lnk--> GDP was £6.224 billion <!--del_lnk--> GBP, and the combined GDP of South Gloucestershire, North Somerset and B&NES was £6.98 billion. The GDP per head was £15,472, making the city more affluent than the UK as a whole, at 23% above the national average. This makes it the second-highest per-capita GDP of an English city, after London, and 34th in the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, as well as the only English core city with a GDP above the national average. In December 2005, Bristol's <!--del_lnk--> unemployment rate was 5.2%, compared to 3.6% for the south west and 4.8% for the United Kingdom.<p>While Bristol's economy is no longer reliant upon its port, the city is the largest importer of cars to the UK. Since the port was leased in 1991, £330 million has been invested and the annual tonnage throughput has increased from 4m tonnes to 12m tonnes. The financial services sector employs 40,000 in the city, and the hi-tech sector is important, with 400 micro-electronics and silicon design companies, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Hewlett-Packard national research laboratories. Bristol is the UK's seventh most popular destination for foreign tourists, and the city receives nine million visitors each year.<p>In the 20th century, Bristol's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at <!--del_lnk--> Filton, by the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Aeroplane Company, and aero-engine manufacture by <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Aero Engines (later <!--del_lnk--> Rolls-Royce) at <!--del_lnk--> Patchway. The aeroplane company became famous for the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Fighter, and <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a> <!--del_lnk--> Blenheim and <!--del_lnk--> Beaufighter aircraft. In the 1950s it became one of the country's major manufacturers of civil aircraft, with the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Freighter and <!--del_lnk--> Britannia and the huge <!--del_lnk--> Brabazon airliner. The <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Aeroplane Company diversified into car manufacturing in the 1940s, building luxury hand-built cars at their factory in <!--del_lnk--> Filton, under the name <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Cars, which became independent from the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1960.<p>In the 1960s Filton played a key role in the Anglo-French <i><a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" title="Concorde">Concorde</a></i> supersonic airliner project. Concorde components were manufactured in British and French factories and shipped to the two final assembly plants, in <!--del_lnk--> Toulouse and Filton. The French manufactured the centre fuselage and centre wing and the British the nose, rear fuselage, fin and wingtips, while the Rolls-Royce/Snecma 593 engine's manufacture was split between <!--del_lnk--> Rolls-Royce (Filton) and <!--del_lnk--> SNECMA (<a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>). The British Concorde prototype made its maiden flight from Filton to <!--del_lnk--> RAF Fairford on <!--del_lnk--> 9 April <!--del_lnk--> 1969, five weeks after the French test flight. In 2003 the companies running Concorde made the decision to cease flying the aircraft and to retire them to locations (mostly museums) around the world. On <!--del_lnk--> 26 November <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Concorde 216 made the final Concorde flight, returning to Filton airfield to be kept there permanently as the centrepiece of a projected air museum. This museum will include the existing Bristol Aero Collection, which includes a <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Britannia aircraft.<p>The major <!--del_lnk--> aerospace companies in Bristol now are <a href="../../wp/b/BAE_Systems.htm" title="BAE Systems">BAE Systems</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> and Rolls-Royce, all based at Filton. Another important <!--del_lnk--> aviation company in the city is <!--del_lnk--> Cameron Balloons, the world's largest manufacturer of <a href="../../wp/h/Hot_air_balloon.htm" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloons</a>. Annually, in August, the city is host to the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, one of Europe's largest hot air balloon events.<br clear="all" />
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<div style="overflow: auto; overflow-x: scroll; width: 100%;"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2200.jpg.htm" title="Panorama over Bristol"><img alt="Panorama over Bristol" height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Panorama_of_Bristol.jpg" src="../../images/22/2200.jpg" width="1800" /></a></div>
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<div class="thumbcaption" style="margin: 5px; font-size:90%">Panorama over Bristol</div>
<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>The city has two <!--del_lnk--> League <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> clubs: <!--del_lnk--> Bristol City who play in <!--del_lnk--> League One and <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Rovers who play in <!--del_lnk--> League Two, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> number of non-league clubs. The city is also home to <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Rugby <!--del_lnk--> rugby union club, which has won promotion to the <!--del_lnk--> Guinness Premiership, a <!--del_lnk--> first-class <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a> side, <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire C.C.C. and a <!--del_lnk--> Rugby League Conference side, the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Sonics. The city also stages an annual <!--del_lnk--> half marathon, and in 2001 played host to the <!--del_lnk--> World Half Marathon Championships.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2201.jpg.htm" title="The Coopers Hall, entrance to the BOV Theatre Royal complex."><img alt="The Coopers Hall, entrance to the BOV Theatre Royal complex." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol_Old_Vic_%28750px%29.jpg" src="../../images/22/2201.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2201.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Coopers Hall, entrance to the BOV Theatre Royal complex.</div>
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<p>In summer the grounds of <!--del_lnk--> Ashton Court to the west of the city play host to the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, a major event for <a href="../../wp/h/Hot_air_balloon.htm" title="Hot air balloon">hot-air ballooning</a> in the UK. The Fiesta draws a substantial crowd even for the early morning lift that typically begins at about 6.30 am. Events and a fairground entertain the crowds during the day. A second mass ascent is then made in the early evening, again taking advantage of lower wind speeds. Ashton Court also plays host to the <!--del_lnk--> Ashton Court festival each summer, an outdoors music festival which used to be known as the Bristol Community Festival.<p>The city's principal theatre company, the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Old Vic, was founded in 1946 as an offshoot of the <!--del_lnk--> Old Vic company in London. Its premises on King Street consist of the 1766 Theatre Royal (400 seats), a modern studio theatre called the New Vic (150 seats), and foyer and bar areas in the adjacent Coopers' Hall (built 1743). The Theatre Royal is a grade I <!--del_lnk--> listed building and the oldest continuously-operating theatre in England. The Prestigious <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, which had originated in King street is now a separate company. The <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Hippodrome is a larger theatre (1981 seats) which hosts national touring productions, while the 2000-seat <!--del_lnk--> Colston Hall, named after <!--del_lnk--> Edward Colston, is the city's main concert venue. Other theatres include the Tobacco Factory, QEH and Redgrave Theatres. Bristol is home to many live music venues, of which <!--del_lnk--> The Old Duke is perhaps the best known.<p>The music scene is thriving and significant. From the late 1970s onwards it was home to a crop of cultish bands combining punk, funk, dub and political consciousness, the most celebrated being <!--del_lnk--> The Pop Group. Ten years later, Bristol was the birthplace of a type of English <a href="../../wp/h/Hip_hop_music.htm" title="Hip hop music">hip-hop</a> music called <!--del_lnk--> trip hop or the "Bristol Sound", epitomised in the work of artists such as <!--del_lnk--> Tricky, <!--del_lnk--> Portishead, <!--del_lnk--> Smith & Mighty and <!--del_lnk--> Massive Attack. It is also a stronghold of <!--del_lnk--> drum n bass with notable artists such as the Mercury Prize winning <!--del_lnk--> Roni Size<!--del_lnk--> /Reprazent and <!--del_lnk--> Kosheen as well as the pioneering <!--del_lnk--> DJ Krust and <!--del_lnk--> More Rockers. This music is part of the wider Bristol urban culture scene which received international media attention in the 1990s and still thrives today.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection of natural history, archaeology, local glassware, Chinese ceramics and art. The <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Industrial Museum, on the dockside, shows local industrial heritage and operates a steam railway, boat trips, and working dockside cranes. The City Museum also runs three preserved historic houses: the Tudor Red Lodge, the Georgian House, and <!--del_lnk--> Blaise Castle House. The <!--del_lnk--> Watershed Media Centre and <!--del_lnk--> Arnolfini gallery, both in disused dockside warehouses, exhibit contemporary art, photography and cinema.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2202.jpg.htm" title="The Llandoger Trow, an ancient public house in the heart of Bristol"><img alt="The Llandoger Trow, an ancient public house in the heart of Bristol" height="273" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Llandoger.trow.overall.arp.jpg" src="../../images/22/2202.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2202.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Llandoger Trow, an ancient public house in the heart of Bristol</div>
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<p>Stop frame animation films and commercials painstakingly produced by <!--del_lnk--> Aardman Animations and high quality television series focusing on the natural world have also brought fame and artistic credit to the city. The city is home to the regional headquarters of <!--del_lnk--> BBC West, and the <!--del_lnk--> BBC Natural History Unit. Locations in and around Bristol often feature in the BBC's natural history programmes, including the cult children's television programme <i><!--del_lnk--> Animal Magic</i>, filmed at <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Zoo.<p>In literature Bristol is noted as the birth place of <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Chatterton, chief poet of the 18th-century Gothic literary revival, England's youngest writer of mature verse, and precursor of the Romantic movement. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Southey was born in Wine Street, Bristol in 1774, <a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge.htm" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> and Southey married the Bristol Fricker sisters; and <!--del_lnk--> William Wordsworth spent time in the city where <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Cottle first published <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Ballads in 1798.<p>The 18th and 19th century portrait painter Sir <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Lawrence and 19th century architect <!--del_lnk--> Francis Greenway, designer of many of <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>'s first buildings, came from the city, and more recently the infamous <!--del_lnk--> graffiti artist <a href="../../wp/b/Banksy.htm" title="Banksy">Banksy</a>. Many famous comedians are locals, including <!--del_lnk--> Justin Lee Collins, <!--del_lnk--> Lee Evans, and writer/comedian <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Merchant. Bristol University has given us the satirist <!--del_lnk--> Chris Morris, <!--del_lnk--> Simon Pegg and <!--del_lnk--> Nick Frost of <i><!--del_lnk--> Spaced</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Shaun of the Dead</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Matt Lucas and <!--del_lnk--> David Walliams of <i><!--del_lnk--> Little Britain</i> fame. Hollywood actor <!--del_lnk--> Cary Grant was born in the city, <!--del_lnk--> Patrick Stewart, <!--del_lnk--> Jane Lapotaire, <!--del_lnk--> Pete Postlethwaite, <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Irons, <!--del_lnk--> Greta Scacchi, <!--del_lnk--> Miranda Richardson, <!--del_lnk--> Helen Baxendale, <a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Day-Lewis.htm" title="Daniel Day-Lewis">Daniel Day-Lewis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Gene Wilder and <!--del_lnk--> Tony Robinson (<i><!--del_lnk--> Blackadder</i>) are amongst the many actors who learnt their craft at the world famous <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, opened by <!--del_lnk--> Sir Lawrence Olivier in 1946 and <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Weaving (<!--del_lnk--> Agent Smith, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Matrix</i>) studied at <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth's Hospital School.<p>Bristol has a daily morning <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a>, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Western Daily Press</i>; an evening paper, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Evening Post</i>; a weekly free newspaper, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Bristol Observer</i>; and a Bristol edition of the free <i><!--del_lnk--> Metro</i> newspaper. The local weekly listings magazine, <i><!--del_lnk--> Venue</i>, covers the city's music, theatre and arts scenes. All of these papers are owned by the <!--del_lnk--> Northcliffe Group. The city has several local radio stations, including <!--del_lnk--> BBC Radio Bristol, <!--del_lnk--> GWR FM, <!--del_lnk--> Classic Gold 1260 and a university station, <!--del_lnk--> The Hub.<p>A distinctive dialect of <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is spoken in Bristol (known colloquially as <i>Brizzle</i> or <i>Bristle</i>). Unusually for an urban area of England, this is a <!--del_lnk--> rhotic dialect, in which the <i>r</i> in words like <i>car</i> is pronounced. It is perhaps this element of the dialect which has led outsiders to dub it "farmer speech". The most unusual feature of this dialect, unique to Bristol, is the <i>Bristol L</i> (or <i>terminal L</i>), in which an <i>L</i> sound is appended to words that end in a letter <i>a</i>. Thus "area" becomes "areal", etc. This is how the city's name evolved from Brycgstow to have a final 'L' sound: Bristol. Further Bristolian linguistic features are:-<ul>
<li>The addition of a superfluous "to" in questions relating to direction or orientation, or using "to" instead of "at".<li>Using male <!--del_lnk--> pronouns "he", "him" instead of "it".</ul>
<p>For example, "Where's that?" would be phrased as "Where's he to?", a feature exported to <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland English.<p><a id="Politics_and_government" name="Politics_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics and government</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2203.jpg.htm" title="St Mary Redcliffe church and the Floating Harbour, Bristol"><img alt="St Mary Redcliffe church and the Floating Harbour, Bristol" height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol1-l.jpg" src="../../images/22/2203.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2203.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> St Mary Redcliffe church and the <!--del_lnk--> Floating Harbour, Bristol</div>
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<p>Bristol City Council consists of 70 councillors representing 35 wards. They are elected in thirds with two councillors per ward, each serving a four-year term. Wards never have both councillors up for election at the same time, so effectively two-thirds of the wards are up each election. The Council has long been dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Labour Party, but recently the <a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrats</a> have grown strong in the city and took minority control of the Council in 2005. The Council Leader is Liberal Democrat Councillor <!--del_lnk--> Barbara Janke and the Lord Mayor is <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Councillor <!--del_lnk--> Peter Abraham.<p>Bristol's constituencies in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a> cross the borders with neighbouring authorities, and the city is divided into Bristol <!--del_lnk--> West, <!--del_lnk--> East, <!--del_lnk--> South and <!--del_lnk--> North-west and <!--del_lnk--> Kingswood. <!--del_lnk--> Northavon also covers some of the suburbs, but none of the administrative county. At the next General Election, the boundaries will be changed to coincide with the county boundary. Kingswood will no longer cover any of the county, and a new <!--del_lnk--> Filton and Bradley Stoke constituency will include the suburbs in South Gloucestershire. There are currently four <!--del_lnk--> Labour and one Liberal Democrat <!--del_lnk--> Members of Parliaments.<p>Bristol has a tradition of local political activism, and has been home to many important political figures. <!--del_lnk--> Tony Benn, a veteran left-wing politician, was Member of Parliament (MP) for <!--del_lnk--> Bristol South East from 1950 to 1983. <a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, MP for the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol constituency for six years from 1774, famously insisted that he was a Member of Parliament first, rather than a representative of his constituents' interests. In 1963, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Stephenson led a boycott of the city's buses after the Bristol Omnibus Co. refused to employ black drivers and conductors. The boycott is known to have influenced the creation of the UK's <!--del_lnk--> Race Relations Act in 1965. The women's rights campaigner <!--del_lnk--> Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence (1867–1954) was born in Bristol. Local support of <!--del_lnk--> fair trade issues was recognised in 2005 when Bristol was granted <!--del_lnk--> Fairtrade City status.<p>Bristol is unusual in having been a city with county status since medieval times. The county was expanded to include suburbs such as <!--del_lnk--> Clifton in 1835, and it was named a <!--del_lnk--> county borough in 1889, when the term was first introduced. However, on <!--del_lnk--> 1 April 1974, it became a local government district of the short-lived county of <!--del_lnk--> Avon. On <!--del_lnk--> 1 April 1996, it once again regained its independence and county status, when the county of Avon was abolished and Bristol became a <!--del_lnk--> Unitary Authority.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2204.jpg.htm" title="Looking across the Broadmead Shopping Centre from a balloon at 500 feet"><img alt="Looking across the Broadmead Shopping Centre from a balloon at 500 feet" height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol.broadmead.balloon.arp.jpg" src="../../images/22/2204.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2204.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Looking across the Broadmead Shopping Centre from a balloon at 500 feet</div>
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<p>In 2004 the <!--del_lnk--> Office for National Statistics estimated the county's population at 393,900, making it the 47th-largest ceremonial county in England. Using <!--del_lnk--> Census 2001 data the ONS estimated the contiguous built-up area to be 420,556, and <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area to be 550,000. This makes the city England's sixth most populous city, and seventh most populous metropolitan area. At 3,599 people per <!--del_lnk--> square kilometre it has the seventh-highest population density of any English district.<p>In the 2001 census 91.83% of the population described themselves as white, 2.85% as South Asian, 2.32% as black, 2.08% as mixed race, 0.56% as Chinese and 0.34% other. National averages were 90.92%, 4.58%, 2.3%, 1.31%, 0.45% and 0.44% for the same groups. Sixty percent of Bristol's population registered their religion as <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and 25% as not religious in the 2001 census, compared to 72% and 15% nationally. Two percent of the population follow <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> (3% nationally), with no other religion above one percent. Bristol had the ninth highest proportion of people refer to their religion in the last census as 'Jedi'.<p><a id="Physical_geography" name="Physical_geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2205.jpg.htm" title="The Avon Gorge, home to several unique plant species."><img alt="The Avon Gorge, home to several unique plant species." height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol%2C_Avon_Gorge_from_Clifton_Down.jpg" src="../../images/22/2205.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2205.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Avon Gorge, home to several unique plant species.</div>
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<p>Bristol is in a <!--del_lnk--> limestone area, which forms to the <a href="../../wp/m/Mendip_Hills.htm" title="Mendip Hills">Mendip Hills</a> to the south and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cotswolds.htm" title="Cotswolds">Cotswolds</a> to the north east. The rivers <!--del_lnk--> Avon and <!--del_lnk--> Frome cut through this limestone to the underlying clays, creating Bristol's characteristic hilly lansdscape. The Avon flows from Bath in the east, through <!--del_lnk--> flood plains and areas which were marshy before the growth of the city. To the west the Avon has cut through the limestone to form the <a href="../../wp/a/Avon_Gorge.htm" title="Avon Gorge">Avon Gorge</a>, partly aided by glacial meltwater after the last <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice age</a>. The gorge aided in the protection of Bristol Harbour, and has been quarried for stone to build the city. The land surrounding the gorge has been protected from development, as <!--del_lnk--> The Downs and <!--del_lnk--> Leigh Woods. The gorge and <!--del_lnk--> estuary of the Avon form the county's boundary with North Somerset, and the river flows into the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Channel at <!--del_lnk--> Avonmouth at the mouth of the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">River Severn</a>. There is another gorge in the city, in the <!--del_lnk--> Blaise Castle estate to the north.<p>Situated in the south of the country, Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK, with a mean annual temperature of 10.2-12°<!--del_lnk--> C. It is also amongst the sunniest, with 1541-1885 hours sunshine per year. The city is partially sheltered by <!--del_lnk--> Exmoor and the <a href="../../wp/m/Mendip_Hills.htm" title="Mendip Hills">Mendip Hills</a>, but exposed from the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Channel, and annual rainfall is similar to the national average, at 741-1060 <!--del_lnk--> mm.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14036.jpg.htm" title="The University of Bristol's Wills Memorial Building - a familiar landmark at the top of Park Street."><img alt="The University of Bristol's Wills Memorial Building - a familiar landmark at the top of Park Street." height="308" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wills_Memorial_Building_from_road_during_day.jpg" src="../../images/22/2206.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14036.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The University of Bristol's Wills Memorial Building - a familiar landmark at the top of Park Street.</div>
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<p>Bristol is home to two major institutions of higher education: the <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" title="University of Bristol">University of Bristol</a>, a "<!--del_lnk--> redbrick" chartered in 1909, and the <!--del_lnk--> University of the West of England, formerly Bristol Polytechnic, which gained university status in 1992. The city also has two dedicated <!--del_lnk--> further education institutions, <!--del_lnk--> City of Bristol College and <!--del_lnk--> Filton College, and two <!--del_lnk--> theological colleges, <!--del_lnk--> Trinity College, Bristol & <!--del_lnk--> Wesley College, Bristol. The <!--del_lnk--> Create centre is home to many sustainable development projects and life-long learning schemes. The city has 129 infants and primary schools, 17 secondary schools, and three city learning centres. There are also many independent schools of a high quality in the city, including <!--del_lnk--> Colston's Collegiate School, <!--del_lnk--> Clifton College, <!--del_lnk--> Badminton School, <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Cathedral School, <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Grammar School, <!--del_lnk--> Redland High School, <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth's Hospital - an all-boys school, the only one of its kind in the area and <!--del_lnk--> Red Maids' School, the oldest girls' school in England, founded in 1634 by John Whitson.<p>In 2005 the <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer recognised Bristol's strong ties to science and technology by naming it one of three "science cities", and promising funding for further development of science in the city, with a £300 million "Science Park" planned at <!--del_lnk--> Emerson's Green. As well as research at the two universities and <!--del_lnk--> Southmead Hospital, science education is important in the city, with <!--del_lnk--> At-Bristol, <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Zoo and <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Festival of Nature being prominent educational organisations. The city has a history of scientific achievement, including Sir <a href="../../wp/h/Humphry_Davy.htm" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, the 19th century scientist who worked in <!--del_lnk--> Hotwells and discovered <!--del_lnk--> laughing gas. <!--del_lnk--> Bishopston has given the world two <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize winning physicists: <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_Dirac.htm" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> for crucial contributions to <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> in 1933, and <!--del_lnk--> Cecil Frank Powell, for a photographic method of studying nuclear processes and associated discoveries in 1950. The city was birth place of <!--del_lnk--> Colin Pillinger, planetary scientist behind the <!--del_lnk--> Beagle 2 <!--del_lnk--> Mars lander project, and is home to <!--del_lnk--> Adam Hart-Davis, presenter of various science related television programmes, and the psychologists <!--del_lnk--> Susan Blackmore, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Gregory, and <!--del_lnk--> Derren Brown.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2207.jpg.htm" title="Bristol International Airport, Lulsgate"><img alt="Bristol International Airport, Lulsgate" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DSCF9534c_eggd.jpg" src="../../images/22/2207.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2207.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bristol International Airport, Lulsgate</div>
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<p>There are two principal <!--del_lnk--> railway stations in Bristol, <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Parkway and <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Temple Meads, and there are scheduled coach links to most major UK cities. The city is connected by road on an east-west axis from <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> to <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> by the <!--del_lnk--> M4 motorway, and on a north-southwest axis from <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Exeter by the <!--del_lnk--> M5 motorway. Also within the county is the <!--del_lnk--> M49 motorway, a shortcut between the M5 in the south and M4 <!--del_lnk--> Severn Crossing in the west. The <!--del_lnk--> M32 motorway is a spur from the M4 to the city centre. The city is also served by its own airport, <!--del_lnk--> Bristol International (BRS), at Lulsgate, which has recently seen substantial investments in its runway, terminal and other facilities.<p>Public transport in the city consists largely of its bus network, provided by <!--del_lnk--> First Group. Buses in the city have been criticised for being unreliable and expensive, and in 2005 First were fined for delays and safety violations. Use of private cars in Bristol is high, and the city suffers from congestion problems, estimated to cost the economy £350 million per year. Since 2000 the city council has included a <!--del_lnk--> light rail system in its <!--del_lnk--> Local Transport Plan, but has so far been unable to fund the project. The city was offered <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> funding for the system, but the <!--del_lnk--> Department for Transport did not provide the required additional funding. As well as support for public transport, there are several road building schemes supported by the local council, including re-routing and improving the <!--del_lnk--> South Bristol Ring Road. The central part of the city has water-based transport, operated as the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Ferry Boat, which provide both leisure and commuter services on the harbour.<p>Bristol was never well served by suburban railways, though the <!--del_lnk--> Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and <!--del_lnk--> Severn Beach survived the <a href="../../wp/b/Beeching_Axe.htm" title="Beeching Axe">Beeching Axe</a> and is still in operation. The <!--del_lnk--> Portishead Railway was closed to passengers under the Beeching Axe, but was relaid in 2000-2002 as far as the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Portbury Dock with a <!--del_lnk--> Strategic Rail Authority rail-freight grant. Plans to relay a further three miles of track to <!--del_lnk--> Portishead, a largely <!--del_lnk--> dormitory town with only one connecting road, have been discussed but there is insufficient funding to rebuild stations.<p>Despite being hilly, Bristol is one of the prominent cycling cities of England, and is home to the national cycle campaigning group <!--del_lnk--> Sustrans. It has a number of urban cycle routes, as well as links to <!--del_lnk--> National Cycle Network routes to Bath and London, to Gloucester and Wales, and to the south-western peninsula of England. Cycling has grown rapidly in the city, at 1.64% between 1991 and 2001, and 21% between 2001 and 2005.<p><a id="Twin_cities" name="Twin_cities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Twin cities</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2208.jpg.htm" title="The west front of Bristol Cathedral"><img alt="The west front of Bristol Cathedral" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bristol.cathedral.west.front.arp.jpg" src="../../images/22/2208.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2208.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The west front of Bristol Cathedral</div>
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<p>Bristol was amongst the first cities to adopt the idea of <!--del_lnk--> town twinning. In 1947 it was twinned with <!--del_lnk--> Bordeaux and <!--del_lnk--> Hanover, the first post-war twinning of British and German cities. It is currently twinned with:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Bordeaux, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, since 1947<li><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1551.png.htm" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mozambique.svg" src="../../images/15/1551.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Beira, <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, since 1990<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, <!--del_lnk--> China, since 2001<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hanover, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, since 1947<li><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2209.png.htm" title="Nicaragua"><img alt="Nicaragua" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg" src="../../images/22/2209.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Puerto Morazan, <a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, since 1989<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/557.png.htm" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Portugal.svg" src="../../images/5/557.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Porto, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, since 1984<li><a class="image" href="../../images/182/18223.png.htm" title="Georgia (country)"><img alt="Georgia (country)" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Georgia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/511.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Tbilisi, <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, since 1988</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"</div>
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British_East_India_Company
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British East India Company</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Business_Studies.Companies.htm">Companies</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>BEIC</b>, sometimes referred to as <b>"John Company"</b>, was a <!--del_lnk--> joint-stock company which was granted an English <!--del_lnk--> Royal Charter by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1600, with the intention of favouring trade privileges in India. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created <i>Honourable East India Company</i> (HEIC) a 21 year monopoly on all trade in the <!--del_lnk--> East Indies. The Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which virtually ruled <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, until its dissolution in 1858.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23891.png.htm" title="The company's flag initially had flag of England, the St. George's Cross in the corner"><img alt="The company's flag initially had flag of England, the St. George's Cross in the corner" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_East_India_Company_flag.png" src="../../images/238/23891.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23891.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The company's flag initially had <!--del_lnk--> flag of England, the <!--del_lnk--> St. George's Cross in the corner</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23892.png.htm" title="The flag had a Union Flag in the canton after the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707"><img alt="The flag had a Union Flag in the canton after the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281707%29.svg" src="../../images/238/23892.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23892.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The flag had a <a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" title="Union Flag">Union Flag</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> canton after the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23893.png.htm" title="Post 1801 the flag contains the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the canton"><img alt="Post 1801 the flag contains the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the canton" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg" src="../../images/238/23893.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23893.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Post 1801 the <!--del_lnk--> flag contains the <a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" title="Union Flag">Union Flag</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the canton</div>
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</script><a id="Impact" name="Impact"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Impact</span></h2>
<p>Based in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, the company presided over the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> British Raj. In 1617, the Company was given trade rights by the <!--del_lnk--> Mughal Emperor. 100 years later, it was granted a royal dictate from the Emperor exempting the Company from the payment of custom duties in <!--del_lnk--> Bengal, giving it a decided commercial advantage in the Indian trade. A decisive victory by <!--del_lnk--> Sir Robert Clive at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Plassey in 1757 established the British East India Company as a military as well as a commercial power. By 1760, the French were driven out of India, with the exception of a few trading posts on the coast, such as <!--del_lnk--> Pondicherry.<p>The Company also had interests along the routes to India from <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. As early as 1620, the company attempted to lay claim to the <!--del_lnk--> Table Mountain region in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, later it occupied and ruled <!--del_lnk--> St Helena. The Company also established <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>; employed <!--del_lnk--> Captain Kidd to combat <!--del_lnk--> piracy; and cultivated the production of <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. Other notable events in the Company's history were that it held <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> captive on <!--del_lnk--> St Helena, and made the fortune of <!--del_lnk--> Elihu Yale. Its products were the basis of the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Tea Party in <!--del_lnk--> Colonial America.<p>Its shipyards provided the model for <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">St Petersburg</a>, elements of its administration survive in the Indian bureaucracy, and its corporate structure was the most successful early example of a <!--del_lnk--> joint stock company. However, the demands of Company officers on the treasury of Bengal contributed tragically to the province's incapacity in the face of a <!--del_lnk--> famine which killed millions in 1770-1773.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23894.png.htm" title="British and other European settlements in India"><img alt="British and other European settlements in India" height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png" src="../../images/238/23894.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="The_foundation_years" name="The_foundation_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The foundation years</span></h3>
<p>The Company was founded as <i>The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies</i> by a coterie of enterprising and influential businessmen, who obtained the <!--del_lnk--> Crown's charter for exclusive permission to trade in the <!--del_lnk--> East Indies for a period of fifteen years. The Company had 125 shareholders, and a capital of £72,000. Initially, however, it made little impression on the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> control of the <!--del_lnk--> spice trade and at first it could not establish a lasting outpost in the East Indies. Eventually, ships belonging to the company arrived in India, docking at <!--del_lnk--> Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608. In the next two years, it managed to build its first factory (as the trading posts were known) in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Machilipatnam in the <!--del_lnk--> Coromandel Coast in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bay_of_Bengal.htm" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>. The high profits reported by the Company after landing in India (presumably owing to a reduction in overhead costs effected by the transit points), initially prompted <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">King James I</a> to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England. But, in 1609, he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period, including a clause which specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.<p><a id="Original_organization_structure" name="Original_organization_structure"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Original organization structure</span></h4>
<p>The Company was led by one Governor and 24 <!--del_lnk--> directors who made up the Court of Directors. They were appointed by, and reported to, the Court of Proprietors. The Court of Directors had ten committees reporting to it.<p><a id="Footholds_in_India" name="Footholds_in_India"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Footholds in India</span></h3>
<p>Traders were frequently engaged in hostilities with their <!--del_lnk--> Dutch and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> counterparts in the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. A key event providing the Company with the favour of Mughal emperor <!--del_lnk--> Jahangir was their victory over the Portuguese in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Swally in 1612. Perhaps realizing the futility of waging trade wars in remote seas, the English decided to explore their options for gaining a foothold in mainland India, with official sanction of both countries, and requested the Crown to launch a diplomatic mission. In 1615, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Thomas Roe was instructed by James I to visit the Mughal emperor Jahangir (who ruled over most of the <!--del_lnk--> subcontinent, along with Afghanistan). The purpose of this mission was to arrange for a commercial treaty which would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide to the emperor goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful and Jahangir sent a letter to the King through Sir Thomas Roe. He wrote:<dl>
<dd>Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure.</dl>
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<dd>For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal. <!--del_lnk--> </dl>
<p><a id="Expansion" name="Expansion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Expansion</span></h3>
<p>The company, under such obvious patronage, soon managed to eclipse the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>, who had established their bases in <a href="../../wp/g/Goa.htm" title="Goa">Goa</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Bombay (which was later ceded to England as part of the <!--del_lnk--> dowry of <!--del_lnk--> Catherine de Braganza). It managed to create strongholds in <!--del_lnk--> Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), <a href="../../wp/c/Chennai.htm" title="Chennai">Madras</a> (1639), Bombay (1668) and <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the Company had 23 factories and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of <!--del_lnk--> Fort William in Bengal, <!--del_lnk--> Fort St George in Madras and the <!--del_lnk--> Bombay Castle. In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of <!--del_lnk--> Bengal (and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for the trade). The company's mainstay businesses were by now in <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, <!--del_lnk--> silk, <!--del_lnk--> indigo, <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium_nitrate.htm" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpeter</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a>. All the while, it was making inroads into the Dutch monopoly of the spice trade in the <!--del_lnk--> Malaccan straits. In 1711, the Company established a trading post in Canton (<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>), <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, to trade <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> for <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>. In 1657, <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> renewed the charter of 1609, and brought about minor changes in the holding of the Company. The status of the Company was further enhanced by the restoration of monarchy in England. By a series of five acts around 1670, <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">King Charles II</a> provisioned it with the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. The Company, surrounded by trading competitors, other imperial powers, and sometimes hostile native rulers, experienced a growing need for protection. The freedom to manage its military affairs thus came as a welcome boon and the Company rapidly raised its own armed forces in the 1680s, mainly drawn from the indigenous local population. By 1689, the Company was arguably a "nation" in the Indian mainland, independently administering the vast presidencies of <!--del_lnk--> Bengal, <!--del_lnk--> Madras and <!--del_lnk--> Bombay and possessing a formidable and intimidating military strength. From 1698 the company was entitled to use the motto "Auspico Regis et Senatus Angliae" meaning, "Under the patronage of the King and Parliament of England".<p><a id="The_road_to_a_complete_monopoly" name="The_road_to_a_complete_monopoly"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The road to a complete monopoly</span></h3>
<p><a id="Trade_monopoly" name="Trade_monopoly"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Trade monopoly</span></h4>
<p>The prosperity that the employees of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to their country and establish sprawling estates and businesses and obtain political power. Consequently, the Company developed for itself a <!--del_lnk--> lobby in the English parliament. However, under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the Company (pejoratively termed <i>Interlopers</i> by the Company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694. This act allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that was in force for almost 100 years. By an act in 1698, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the <i>English Company Trading to the East Indies</i>) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. However, the powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade. But it quickly became evident, that in practice, the original Company scarcely faced any measurable competition. Both companies finally merged in 1702, by a tripartite indenture involving the state and the two companies. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years—after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the <i>United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies</i>.<p>What followed in the next decades was a constant see-saw battle between the Company lobby and the parliament. The Company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament would not willingly relinquish the opportunity to exploit the Company's profits by allowing it a greater autonomy. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the Company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15% of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the Company, which reasserted the influence of the Company lobby. The license was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730.<p>At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals, and there were frequent skirmishes between them for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the Company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £1 million. The skirmishes did escalate to the feared war, and between 1756 and 1763 the <!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War diverted the state's attention towards consolidation and <!--del_lnk--> defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and its <!--del_lnk--> colonies in North America. The war also took place on Indian soil, between the Company troops and the French forces. Around the same time, Britain surged ahead of its <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> rivals with the advent of the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living, and this spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The Company became the single largest player in the British global market, and reserved for itself an unassailable position in the decision-making process of the Government.<p>William Pyne notes in his book <i>The Microcosm of London</i> (1808) that<dl>
<dd><i>On the 1st March, 1801, the debts of the East India Company amounted to £5,393,989 their effects to £15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £4,988,300 to £7,602,041.</i></dl>
<p><a id="Saltpetre_.28used_to_make_gunpowder.29_Trade" name="Saltpetre_.28used_to_make_gunpowder.29_Trade"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Saltpetre (used to make gunpowder) Trade</span></h4>
<p>Sir John Banks, a businessman from <!--del_lnk--> Kent who negotiated an agreement between the King and the Company began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew <!--del_lnk--> Pepys and <!--del_lnk--> John Evelyn and founded a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades. He also became a Director and later, as Governor of the East Indian Company in 1672, he was able to arrange a contract which included a loan of £20,000 and £30,000 worth of <!--del_lnk--> saltpetre for the King 'at the price it shall sell by the candle' - that is by auction - where an inch of candle burned and as long as it was alight bidding could continue. The agreement also included with the price 'an allowance of interest which is to be expressed in tallies.' This was something of a breakthrough in royal prerogative because previous requests for the King to buy at the Company's auctions had been turned down as 'not honourable or decent.' Outstanding debts were also agreed and the Company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £37,000 between the King and the Company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the Company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The British East India Company developed a triangular commerce among China, India and Britain that enabled the English to drink tea and water silk.<p><a id="The_basis_for_the_monopoly" name="The_basis_for_the_monopoly"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The basis for the monopoly</span></h3>
<p><a id="Opium_trade" name="Opium_trade"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Opium trade</span></h4>
<p>In the eighteenth century, <!--del_lnk--> opium was highly sought after by the <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a>, and so in 1773, the Company assumed the monopoly of opium trading in <!--del_lnk--> Bengal. Company ships were not allowed officially to carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Despite the official Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799, it was smuggled into China from Bengal by traders and agency houses averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds from drug-runners at Lintin were paid into the Company’s factory at <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the opium trade. In 1838, the Chinese imposed a death penalty on opium smuggling which was then close to 1400 tons a year, and sent a new governor, <!--del_lnk--> Lin Zexu to curb smuggling. This finally resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> Opium War of 1840, eventually leading to the British seizing <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>.<p><a id="Colonial_monopoly" name="Colonial_monopoly"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Colonial monopoly</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19281.jpg.htm" title="Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, became the first British Governor of Bengal."><img alt="Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, became the first British Governor of Bengal." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Clive.jpg" src="../../images/238/23895.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19281.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, became the first British <!--del_lnk--> Governor of <!--del_lnk--> Bengal.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War (1756 – 1763) resulted in the defeat of the French forces and limited French imperial ambitions, also stunting the influence of the industrial revolution in French territories. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Clive, the Governor General, led the Company to an astounding victory against <!--del_lnk--> Joseph François Dupleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The Company took this respite to seize <a href="../../wp/m/Manila.htm" title="Manila">Manila</a> in 1762. By the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Paris (1763), the French were forced to maintain their trade posts only in small <!--del_lnk--> enclaves in <!--del_lnk--> Pondicherry, <!--del_lnk--> Mahe, <!--del_lnk--> Karikal, <!--del_lnk--> Yanam, and <!--del_lnk--> Chandernagar without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the Company. In contrast, the Company, fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of a disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in the <!--del_lnk--> Carnatic from its base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without facing any further obstacles from other colonial powers.<p><a id="Local_resistance" name="Local_resistance"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Local resistance</span></h4>
<p>However, the Company continued to experience resistance from local rulers. Robert Clive led company forces against French-backed <!--del_lnk--> Siraj Ud Daulah to victory at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Plassey in 1757, thereby snuffing out the last known resistances in Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, who had been served by Siraj as an autonomous ruler. But the Mughal empire was already on the wane after the demise of <!--del_lnk--> Aurangzeb, and was breaking up into pieces and enclaves. After the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Buxar, <!--del_lnk--> Shah Alam, the ruling emperor, gave up the administrative rights over Bengal, <!--del_lnk--> Bihar, and <!--del_lnk--> Orissa. Clive thus became the first British <!--del_lnk--> Governor of Bengal. <!--del_lnk--> Haider Ali and <!--del_lnk--> Tipu Sultan, the legendary rulers of <!--del_lnk--> Mysore (in Carnatic), also gave a tough time to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the war, the rulers of <!--del_lnk--> Mysore continued their struggle against the Company with the four <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Mysore Wars. <!--del_lnk--> Mysore finally fell to the Company forces in 1799, with the slaying of Tipu Sultan. With the gradual weakening of the <!--del_lnk--> Maratha empire in the aftermath of the three Anglo-Maratha wars, the British also secured Bombay and the surrounding areas. It was during these campaigns, both of Mysore and of the Marathas, that <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Wellesley, later <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Wellington, first showed the abilities which would lead to victory in the <!--del_lnk--> Peninsular War and at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Waterloo. A particularly notable engagement involving forces under his command was the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Assaye. Thus, the British had secured the entire region of Southern India (with the exception of small enclaves of French and local rulers), Western India and Eastern India. The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, <!--del_lnk--> Oudh, <!--del_lnk--> Rajputana, and <!--del_lnk--> Punjab, where the Company's presence was ever increasing amidst the infighting and dubious offers of protection against each other. Coercive action, threats and diplomacy aided the Company in preventing the local rulers from putting up a united struggle against it. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the <!--del_lnk--> Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the Company, which began to function more as a nation and less as a trading concern.<p><a id="Regulation_of_the_company.27s_affairs" name="Regulation_of_the_company.27s_affairs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Regulation of the company's affairs</span></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23896.jpg.htm" title="Monopolistic activity by the company triggered the Boston Tea Party."><img alt="Monopolistic activity by the company triggered the Boston Tea Party." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Boston_tea_party.jpg" src="../../images/238/23896.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23896.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Monopolistic activity by the company triggered the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Tea Party.</div>
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<p><a id="Financial_troubles" name="Financial_troubles"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Financial troubles</span></h4>
<p>Though the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The <!--del_lnk--> Bengal famine, in which one-sixth of the local population died, set the alarm bells ringing back home. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British administered regions in Bengal due to the ensuing drop in labour productivity. At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe following the lull in the post-<a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> period. Britain became entangled in the <!--del_lnk--> rebellion in America (one of the major importers of Indian tea), and France was on the brink of a <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">revolution</a>. The desperate directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the <!--del_lnk--> Tea Act in 1773, which gave the Company greater autonomy in running its trade in America. Its monopolistic activities triggered the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Tea Party in the <!--del_lnk--> Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the <!--del_lnk--> American War for Independence.<p><a id="Regulating_Acts" name="Regulating_Acts"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Regulating Acts</span></h4>
<p><a id="East_India_Company_Act_1773" name="East_India_Company_Act_1773"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">East India Company Act 1773</span></h5>
<p>By this Act (13 Geo. III, c. 63), the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms and by doing so clearly established its sovereignty and ultimate control over the Company. The Act recognized the Company's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right."<p>Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament, and from the Company's shareholders, the Act was passed. It introduced substantial governmental control, and allowed the land to be formally under the control of the Crown, but leased to the Company at £40,000 for two years. Under this provision, the governor of Bengal <!--del_lnk--> Warren Hastings was promoted to the rank of <!--del_lnk--> Governor General, having administrative powers over all of British India. It provided that his nomination, though made by a court of directors, should in future be subject to the approval of a <!--del_lnk--> Council of Four appointed by the Crown - namely <!--del_lnk--> Lt. General John Clavering, <!--del_lnk--> George Monson, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Barwell and <!--del_lnk--> Philip Francis. He was entrusted with the power of peace and war. British <!--del_lnk--> judicial personnel would also be sent to India to administer the British legal system. The Governor General and the council would have complete legislative powers. Thus, Warren Hastings became the first <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General of India. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual monopoly over trade, in exchange for the biennial sum and an obligation to export a minimum quantity of goods yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were also to be met by the company. These provisions, initially welcomed by the Company, backfired. The Company had an annual burden on its back, and its finances continued steadily to decline.<p><a id="East_India_Company_Act_.28Pitt.27s_India_Act.29_1784" name="East_India_Company_Act_.28Pitt.27s_India_Act.29_1784"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">East India Company Act (Pitt's India Act) 1784</span></h5>
<p>This Act (24 Geo. III, s. 2, c. 25) had two key aspects:<ul>
<li>Relationship to the British Government - the Bill clearly differentiated the political functions of the East India Company from its commercial activities. For its political transactions, the Act directly subordinated the East India Company to the British Government. To accomplish this, the Act created a Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India usually referred to as the Board of Control. The members of the Board of Control were the <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer, a <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State, and four <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Councillors</a>, nominated by the King. The Act specified that the Secretary of State, "shall preside at, and be <!--del_lnk--> President of the said Board".</ul>
<ul>
<li>Internal Administration of British India – the Bill laid the foundation of the British centralized bureaucratic administration of India which would reach its peak at the beginning of the twentieth century with the governor-generalship of <!--del_lnk--> George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Baron Curzon.</ul>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23897.jpg.htm" title="The expanded East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, as rebuilt 1799-1800, Richard Jupp, architect (as seen c. 1817; demolished in 1929)"><img alt="The expanded East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, as rebuilt 1799-1800, Richard Jupp, architect (as seen c. 1817; demolished in 1929)" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:East_India_House_THS_1817_edited.jpg" src="../../images/238/23897.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23897.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The expanded <!--del_lnk--> East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, as rebuilt 1799-1800, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Jupp, architect (as seen c. 1817; demolished in 1929)</div>
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<p>Pitt's Act was deemed a failure because it was immediately apparent that the boundaries between governmental control and the Company's powers were obscure and highly subject to interpretation. The government also felt obliged to answer humanitarian voices pleading for better treatment of natives in British occupied territories. <a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, a former East India Company shareholder and diplomat, felt compelled to relieve the situation and introduced before parliament a new Regulating Bill in 1783. The Bill was defeated due to intense lobbying by Company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the Bill's recommendations for the appointment of councillors.<p><a id="Act_of_1786" name="Act_of_1786"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Act of 1786</span></h5>
<p>This Act (26 Geo. III c. 16) enacted the demand of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Cornwallis, that the powers of the Governor-General be enlarged to empower him, in special cases, to override the majority of his Council and act on his own special responsibility. The Act also enabled the offices of the Governor-General and the Commander-in-Chief to be jointly held by the same official.<p>This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the Company. After this point, the Company functioned as a regularized subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the Company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the Company's rule extended across most of India, <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Burma">Burma</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Malaya Singapore and Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world's population was under its trading influence.<p><a id="Charter_Act_1813" name="Charter_Act_1813"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Charter Act 1813</span></h5>
<p>The aggressive policies of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Wellesley and the <!--del_lnk--> Marquis of Hastings led to the Company gaining control of all India, except for the Punjab, Sind and Nepal. The Indian Princes had become vassals of the Company. But the expense of wars leading to the total control of India strained the Company’s finances to the breaking point. The Company was forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the background to the Charter Act of 1813 (53 Geo. III c. 155) which, among other things:<ul>
<li>asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Indian territories held by the Company;<li>renewed the Charter of Company for a further twenty years but, <ul>
<li>deprived the Company of its Indian trade monopoly except for trade in tea and the trade with China;<li>required the Company to maintain separate and distinct its commercial and territorial accounts; and,</ul>
<li>opened India to missionaries.</ul>
<p><a id="Charter_Act_1833" name="Charter_Act_1833"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Charter Act 1833</span></h5>
<p>The Industrial Revolution in Britain, and the consequent search for markets, and the rise of laissez-faire economic ideology form the background to this act.<p>The Act:<ul>
<li>divested the Company of its commercial functions;</ul>
<ul>
<li>renewed for another twenty years the Company’s political and administrative authority;</ul>
<ul>
<li>invested the Board of Control with full power and authority over the Company. As stated by <!--del_lnk--> Kapur ‘Professor Sri Ram Sharma, thus, summed up the point: "The President of the Board of Control now became Minister for Indian Affairs".</ul>
<ul>
<li>carried further the ongoing process of administrative centralization through investing the Governor-General in Council with, full power and authority to superintend and, control the Presidency Governments in all civil and military matters.</ul>
<ul>
<li>initiated a machinery for the codification of laws;</ul>
<ul>
<li>provided that no Indian subject of the Company would be debarred from holding any office under the Company by reason of his religion, place of birth, descent or colour. However, this remained a dead letter well into the 20th century.</ul>
<p>Meanwhile, British influence continued to expand; in 1845, the Danish colony of <!--del_lnk--> Tranquebar was sold to Great Britain. The Company had at various stages extended its influence to <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Java. It had solved its critical lack of the cash needed to buy <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> by exporting Indian-grown <!--del_lnk--> opium to China. China's efforts to end the trade led to the <!--del_lnk--> First Opium War with Britain.<p><a id="Charter_Act_1853" name="Charter_Act_1853"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Charter Act 1853</span></h5>
<p>This Act provided that British India would remain under the administration of the Company in trust for the Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise.<p><a id="The_end" name="The_end"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The end</span></h3>
<p>The efforts of the company in administering India emerged as a model for the <!--del_lnk--> civil service system in Britain, especially during the 19th century. Deprived of its trade monopoly in 1813, the company wound up as a trading enterprise. In 1858, the Company lost its administrative functions to the British government following the 1857 uprising which began with the Company's Indian soldiers called the <i>Sepoy Mutiny</i> or <!--del_lnk--> Indian Rebellion of 1857. India then became a formal crown colony. In the early 1860s, all of the Company's Indian possessions were appropriated by the Crown. The Company was still managing the tea trade on behalf of the British government (and supplying Saint Helena). When the <!--del_lnk--> East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act came into effect, the Company was dissolved on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1874. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> reported, "It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other company ever attempted and as such is ever likely to attempt in the years to come."<p>In 1987, coffee merchants Tony Wild and David Hutton created a <!--del_lnk--> public limited company called "The East India Company" and in 1990 registered versions of the Company's coat of arms as a <!--del_lnk--> trademark, although the Patent Office noted 'Registration of this mark shall give no right to the exclusive use of the words "The East India Company"' <!--del_lnk--> . By December 1996, this company had a website at <!--del_lnk--> www.theeastindiacompany.com. It sold St Helena coffee branded with the Company name and also produced a book on the history of the Company. This company has no legal continuity with the original Company, even though it claims on its website to have been founded in 1600.<p><a id="East_India_Club" name="East_India_Club"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">East India Club</span></h3>
<p>On the eve of the demise of the East India Company, the <!--del_lnk--> East India Club in London was formed for current and former employees of the East India Company. The Club still exists today and its club house is situated at 16 <!--del_lnk--> St. James's Square, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h3>
<p>Officials of the rapacious British East India Company appear as villains in <!--del_lnk--> Robert Lawson's children's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Captain Kidd's Cat</i> (1956). They also appeared in the 2006 movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest</i>, despite the film being set in the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies.<p>They can also be seen in upcoming movie directed by Indian-Origin Munish Garg.<p><a id="Flags" name="Flags"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flags</span></h2>
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<p>Downman (1685)</div>
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<p>Lens (1700)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0;"><a href="../../images/239/23900.jpg.htm" title="Image:EICFlagRees.jpg"><img alt="" height="100" src="../../images/239/23900.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Rees (1820)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 18px 0;"><a href="../../images/239/23901.jpg.htm" title="Image:EICFlagLaurie.jpg"><img alt="" height="110" src="../../images/239/23901.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Laurie (1842)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 36px 0;"><a href="../../images/239/23902.jpg.htm" title="Image:NatGeog1917EastIndiaCompanyFlag.jpg"><img alt="" height="73" src="../../images/239/23902.jpg" width="76" /></a></div>
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<p>National Geographic (1917)</div>
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<p>The East India Company flag changed over time. From the period of 1600 to 1707 (<!--del_lnk--> Act of Union between <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>) the flag consisted of a <!--del_lnk--> St George's cross in the canton and a number of alternating Red and White stripes. After 1707 the canton contained the original <!--del_lnk--> Union Flag consisting of a combined St George's cross and a <!--del_lnk--> St Andrew's cross. After the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union 1800, that joined <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> into the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the canton of the East India Company's flag was altered accordingly to include the new <!--del_lnk--> Union Flag with the additional <!--del_lnk--> St Patrick's cross. There has been much debate and discussion regarding the number of stripes on the flag and the order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe being red and others showing the top stripe being white.<p>At the time of the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution the East India Company flag would have been identical to the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Union Flag. The flag probably inspired the <!--del_lnk--> Stars and Stripes (as argued by Sir <!--del_lnk--> Charles Fawcett in 1937). <!--del_lnk--> Comparisons between the Stars and Stripes and the Company's flag from historical records present some convincing arguments. The John Company flag dates back to the 1600s whereas the United States adopted the Stars and Stripes in 1777<!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Ships" name="Ships"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ships</span></h2>
<p>A ship of the East India Company can also be called an <!--del_lnk--> East Indiaman.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Earl of Abergavenny</i><br />
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Royal Captain</i></ul>
<p><a id="East_India_Company_Records" name="East_India_Company_Records"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">East India Company Records</span></h2>
<p>Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor India Office) are not in <!--del_lnk--> The National Archives at Kew, London, but are stored by the <!--del_lnk--> British Library in London as part of the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collection. The catalogue is searchable online in the <!--del_lnk--> Access to Archives catalogues. Many of The East India Company Records are freely available online under an agreement that <!--del_lnk--> FIBIS have with the British Library.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_East_India_Company"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British Empire</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.htm">British History</a></h3>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13954.jpg.htm" title="The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps."><img alt="The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps." height="304" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_Empire_1897.jpg" src="../../images/22/2210.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13954.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps.</div>
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<p>The <b>British Empire</b> was the most <!--del_lnk--> extensive empire in world history and for a substantial time was not only a <!--del_lnk--> major power but also the foremost power in the world. It was a product of the European <!--del_lnk--> age of discovery, which began with the global maritime explorations of the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian states in the late <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>, that inaugurated the era of the European <!--del_lnk--> global empires.<p>By 1913, the British Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, approximately one-quarter of the world's population. It covered about 36.6 million km² (14.2 million square miles), about a quarter of Earth's total land area. Though it has now mostly evolved into the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations, <!--del_lnk--> British influence remains strong throughout the world: in <!--del_lnk--> economic practice, <!--del_lnk--> legal and <!--del_lnk--> governmental systems, <a href="../../wp/s/Society.htm" title="Society">society</a>, sports (such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>), and the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a> itself, to name just a few.<p>Because of its size at the peak of its power, it was often said that "<!--del_lnk--> the sun never sets on the British Empire" because the empire's span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous <!--del_lnk--> colonies.<p>
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</script><a id="English_Empire" name="English_Empire"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">English Empire</span></h2>
<p><a id="Growth_of_the_overseas_empire" name="Growth_of_the_overseas_empire"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Growth of the overseas empire</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2211.jpg.htm" title="Statue of John Cabot in Newfoundland, England's first overseas colony ."><img alt="Statue of John Cabot in Newfoundland, England's first overseas colony ." height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Johncabotbonavista.jpg" src="../../images/22/2211.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2211.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of <a href="../../wp/j/John_Cabot.htm" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland, England's first overseas colony .</div>
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<p>The overseas British Empire (in the sense of British oceanic exploration and settlement outside of Europe and the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>) was rooted in the pioneering maritime policies of the English King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>, who reigned from 1485 to 1509. Building on commercial links in the <!--del_lnk--> wool trade promoted during the reign of his predecessor, King <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a>, Henry established the modern English <!--del_lnk--> merchant marine system, which greatly expanded English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant marine also supplied the basis for the mercantile institutions that would play such a crucial role in <!--del_lnk--> English and, after the union with <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1707, <!--del_lnk--> British imperial ventures, including the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Bay Company and the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>. Henry's financial reforms made the <!--del_lnk--> English Exchequer solvent, which helped to underwrite the development of the Merchant Marine. Henry also ordered construction of the first English <!--del_lnk--> dry dock, at <a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>, and made improvements to England's small <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">navy</a>. Additionally, Henry sponsored the voyages of the <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> mariner <a href="../../wp/j/John_Cabot.htm" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> in 1496 and 1497 that established England's first overseas colony - a fishing settlement - in <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland, which Cabot claimed on behalf of Henry.<p>The foundations of sea power, having been laid during <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>'s reign, were gradually expanded to protect English trade and open up new routes. King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> founded the modern English navy through plans for new docks, and the construction of the network of <!--del_lnk--> beacons and <!--del_lnk--> lighthouses that greatly facilitated coastal <!--del_lnk--> navigation for English and foreign merchant sailors. Henry thus established the <!--del_lnk--> munitions-based <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> that was able to hold off the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588, and his innovations provided the seed for the Imperial navy of later days.<p><a id="Ireland" name="Ireland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ireland</span></h3>
<p>The first substantial achievements of the colonial empire stem from the Act for Kingly Title, passed by the Irish parliament in 1541. This statute converted Ireland from a lordship under the authority of the English crown to a kingdom in its own right. It was the starting point for the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor re-conquest of Ireland.<p>By 1550 a committed policy of colonisation of the country had been adopted, which culminated in the Plantation of Ulster in 1610, following the <!--del_lnk--> Nine Years war (1595-1603). In the meantime, the <!--del_lnk--> plantations of Ireland formed the templates for the empire, and several people involved in these projects also had a hand in the early colonisation of north America e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Gilbert, <a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Raleigh.htm" title="Walter Raleigh">Walter Raleigh</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Drake.htm" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Lane.<p><a id="Elizabethan_era" name="Elizabethan_era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Elizabethan era</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2212.jpg.htm" title="Defeat of the Spanish Armada, by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796."><img alt="Defeat of the Spanish Armada, by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796." height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Loutherbourg-Spanish_Armada.jpg" src="../../images/22/2212.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2212.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Defeat of the Spanish Armada</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, <i>painted 1796.</i></div>
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<p>During the reign of the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a>, Sir <a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Drake.htm" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> <!--del_lnk--> circumnavigated the globe in the years 1577 to 1580, only the second to accomplish this feat after <a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinand_Magellan.htm" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan's</a> expedition.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1579, Drake landed somewhere in northern <!--del_lnk--> California and claimed for the <!--del_lnk--> English Crown what he named <i><!--del_lnk--> Nova Albion</i> ("New Albion", <!--del_lnk--> Albion being an ancient name for England), though the claim was not followed by settlement. Subsequent maps spell out <i>Nova Albion</i> to the north of all <!--del_lnk--> New Spain. Thereafter, England's interests outside <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> grew steadily, promoted by <a href="../../wp/j/John_Dee.htm" title="John Dee">John Dee</a>, who coined the phrase "British Empire". An expert in navigation, he was visited by many of the early English explorers before and after their expeditions. He was a <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Welshman</a>, and his use of the term <i>"British"</i> fitted with the Welsh origins of Elizabeth's Tudor family, although his conception of empire was derived from <a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante">Dante</a>'s book <i>Monarchia</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Gilbert followed on Cabot's original claim when he sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 and declared it an English <!--del_lnk--> colony on <!--del_lnk--> August 5 at <!--del_lnk--> St John's. <!--del_lnk--> Sir Walter Raleigh organised the first colony in <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina in 1587 at <!--del_lnk--> Roanoke Island. Both Gilbert's Newfoundland settlement and the Roanoke colony were short-lived, however, and had to be abandoned because of food shortages, severe weather, shipwrecks, and hostile encounters with <!--del_lnk--> indigenous tribes on the North-American continent.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan era built on the past century's imperial foundations by expanding Henry VIII's navy, promoting <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> exploration by English sailors, and further encouraging maritime trade especially with the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Hanseatic League. The nearly twenty year <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Spanish War (1585 - 1604), which started well for England with the sack of <!--del_lnk--> Cadiz and the repulse of the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>, soon turned Spain's way with a number of serious defeats which sent the Royal Navy into decline and allowed <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> to retain effective control of the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic <!--del_lnk--> sea lanes, thwarting English hopes of establishing colonies in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>. However it did give English sailors and shipbuilders vital experience.<p><a id="Stuart_era" name="Stuart_era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stuart era</span></h3>
<p>In 1604, King <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I of England</a> negotiated the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain, and the first permanent English settlement followed in 1607 at <!--del_lnk--> Jamestown, Virginia. During the next three centuries, England extended its influence overseas and consolidated its political development at home with the 1707 <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a>, where the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of England and the <!--del_lnk--> Scots Parliament were united in <!--del_lnk--> Westminster, London, as the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Great Britain, in turn giving birth to the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain.<p><a id="Scottish_role" name="Scottish_role"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scottish role</span></h3>
<p>There were several pre-union attempts at creating a <!--del_lnk--> Scottish overseas empire, with various Scottish settlements in <!--del_lnk--> North and South America. <!--del_lnk--> Nova Scotia was perhaps Scotland's greatest opportunity at establishing a permanent presence in the Americas, but its most infamous was the ill fated <!--del_lnk--> Darién scheme which attempted to establish a settlement colony and trading post in <a href="../../wp/p/Panama.htm" title="Panama">Panama</a> to foster trade between Scotland and the <!--del_lnk--> Far East.<p>After the <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a> many <!--del_lnk--> Scots, especially in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, took up posts as administrators, doctors, lawyers and teachers in what had become the new British Empire. Progressions in Scotland itself during the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish enlightenment led to advancements throughout the empire. Scots settled across the Empire as it developed and built up their own communities such as <!--del_lnk--> Dunedin in New Zealand.<p><a id="Colonisation" name="Colonisation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Colonisation</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1583 Sir <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Gilbert claimed the island of <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland as England's for Elizabeth I, reinforcing John Cabot's prior claim to the island in <!--del_lnk--> 1497, for Henry VII, as England's first overseas colony. Gilbert's shipwreck prevented ensuing settlement in Newfoundland, other than the seasonal <a href="../../wp/c/Cod.htm" title="Cod">cod</a> fishermen who had frequented the island since 1497. However, the Jamestown colonists, led by Captain <!--del_lnk--> John Smith, overcame the severe privations of the winter in 1607 to found England's first permanent overseas settlement. The empire thus took shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of the <!--del_lnk--> eastern colonies of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, which would later become the original <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> as well as <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic provinces, and the colonisation of the smaller islands of the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean such as <!--del_lnk--> Saint Kitts, <a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>.<p>The sugar-producing colonies of the Caribbean, where <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slavery</a> became central to the economy, were at first England's most important and lucrative colonies. The American colonies provided <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> in the south and naval <!--del_lnk--> materiel and <!--del_lnk--> furs in the north were less financially successful, but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2213.jpg.htm" title="The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West."><img alt="The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West." height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Death-wolfe.jpg" src="../../images/22/2213.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2213.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> The Death of General Wolfe</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin West.</div>
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<p>England's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonisation, England gaining control of <!--del_lnk--> New Amsterdam (later <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York, New York">New York</a>) via negotiations following the <!--del_lnk--> Second Anglo-Dutch War. The growing American colonies pressed ever westward in search of new agricultural lands.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War the British defeated the French at the <!--del_lnk--> Plains of Abraham and captured all of <!--del_lnk--> New France in 1760, giving Britain control over the greater part of North America. The British victory over France in Seven Years War led to a stronger pro-independence movement on the part of the North American colonies, as many colonists no longer felt the need for British protection following the ousting of the French from North America.<p>Later, settlement of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> (starting with penal colonies from 1788) and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (under the crown from 1840) created a major zone of British migration. The entire Australian continent was claimed for Britain when <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Flinders proved <!--del_lnk--> New Holland and <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales to be a single land mass by completing a circumnavigation of it in 1803. The colonies later became <!--del_lnk--> self-governing colonies and became profitable exporters of <!--del_lnk--> wool and <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>. The colonies also committed genocide of the natives, most notably in Tasmania where no viable number exist.<p>
<p><a id="Free_trade_and_.22informal_empire.22" name="Free_trade_and_.22informal_empire.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Free trade and "informal empire"</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2214.jpg.htm" title="Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (John Trumbull, 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the end of the "first British Empire"."><img alt="Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (John Trumbull, 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the end of the "first British Empire"." height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yorktown80.JPG" src="../../images/22/2214.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2214.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown</i> (<!--del_lnk--> John Trumbull, 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the end of the "first British Empire".</div>
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<p>The old British colonial system began to decline in the 18th century. During the long period of unbroken <!--del_lnk--> Whig dominance of domestic political life (1714–62), the Empire became less important and less well-regarded, until an ill-fated attempt (largely involving <!--del_lnk--> taxes, monopolies, and zoning) to reverse the resulting "salutary neglect" (or "benign neglect") provoked the <!--del_lnk--> American War of Independence (1775–83), depriving Britain of her most populous colonies, although British investment continued to play a major role in the United States economy until the First World War.<p>The period is sometimes referred to as the end of the "first British Empire", indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries to the "second British Empire" in Asia and later also Africa from the 18th century. The loss of the <!--del_lnk--> Thirteen Colonies showed that colonies were not necessarily particularly beneficial in economic terms, since Britain could still profit from trade with the ex-colonies without having to pay for their defence and administration.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Mercantilism.htm" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a>, the economic doctrine of competition between nations for a finite amount of wealth which had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, now gave way in Britain and elsewhere to the <i><!--del_lnk--> laissez-faire</i> economic <!--del_lnk--> liberalism of <a href="../../wp/a/Adam_Smith.htm" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and successors like <!--del_lnk--> Richard Cobden.<p>The lesson of Britain's North American loss — that trade might be profitable in the absence of <!--del_lnk--> colonial rule — contributed to the extension in the 1840s and 1850s of <!--del_lnk--> self-governing colony status to white settler colonies in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Australasia whose British or European inhabitants were seen as outposts of the "mother country". Ireland was treated differently because of its geographic proximity, and incorporated into the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, which was a result of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British rule.<p>During this period, Britain also outlawed the <!--del_lnk--> slave trade (1807) and soon began enforcing this principle on other nations. By the mid-19th century Britain had largely eradicated the world slave trade. <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> itself was abolished in the British colonies in 1834, though the phenomenon of <!--del_lnk--> indentured labour retained much of its oppressive character until 1920.<p>The end of the old colonial and slave systems was accompanied by the adoption of <!--del_lnk--> free trade, culminating in the repeal of the <!--del_lnk--> Corn Laws and <!--del_lnk--> Navigation Acts in the 1840s. Free trade opened the British market to unfettered competition, stimulating reciprocal action by other countries during the middle quarters of the 19th century.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/203/20370.jpg.htm" title="The Battle of Waterloo marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the Pax Britannica."><img alt="The Battle of Waterloo marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the Pax Britannica." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sadler%2C_Battle_of_Waterloo.jpg" src="../../images/22/2215.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Some argue that the rise of free trade merely reflected Britain's economic position and was unconnected with any true philosophical conviction. Despite the earlier loss of 13 of Britain's <!--del_lnk--> North American colonies, the final defeat in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> of <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleonic</a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in 1815 left Britain the most successful international <!--del_lnk--> power. While the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> at home gave her an unrivalled economic leadership, the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> dominated the seas. The distraction of rival powers by European matters enabled Britain to pursue a phase of expansion of her economic and political influence through "informal empire" underpinned by <!--del_lnk--> free trade and strategic preeminence.<p>Between the <!--del_lnk--> Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Britain was the world's sole industrialised power, with over 30% of the global industrial output in 1870. As the "workshop of the world", Britain could produce finished manufactures so efficiently and cheaply that they could undersell comparable locally produced goods in foreign markets. Given stable political conditions in particular overseas markets, Britain could prosper through free trade alone without having to resort to formal rule. In the Americas the informal British trade empire was backed by the shared interests of Britain in the tenets of the United States' <!--del_lnk--> Monroe Doctrine, which declared that the New World was no longer open to colonisation or political interference by Europeans. As the United States did not yet have the military strength to enforce this doctrine, the British were largely left with a free hand to enter the new markets in Latin America created after independence from Spain and Portugal, and British commercial supremacy lasted until the outbreak of World War I. <p><a id="British_East_India_Company" name="British_East_India_Company"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">British East India Company</span></h2>
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<p>The British East India Company was probably the most successful chapter in the British Empire's history as it was responsible for the annexation of most of the <!--del_lnk--> Indian subcontinent, which would become the British Empire's largest source of revenue, along with the conquest of <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon, <!--del_lnk--> Malaya (which was also one of the largest sources of revenue) and other surrounding Asian countries, and was thus responsible for establishing Britain's Asian empire, the most important component of the British Empire.<p>The British East India Company originally began as a joint-stock company of traders and investors based in <!--del_lnk--> Leadenhall Street, in the <!--del_lnk--> City of London, which was granted a <!--del_lnk--> Royal Charter by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a> in 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in <!--del_lnk--> India. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created <i>Honourable East India Company</i> a monopoly on all trade with the <!--del_lnk--> East Indies. The Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which virtually ruled India as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, along with a very large private army consisting of local Indian <!--del_lnk--> sepoys, who were loyal to their British commanders and were an important factor in Britain's Asian conquest. The British East India Company is regarded by some as the world's first <!--del_lnk--> multinational corporation. Its territorial holdings were subsumed by the British crown in 1858, in the aftermath of the events variously referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Sepoy Rebellion or the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Mutiny. <sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup><p>The Company also had interests along the routes to India from <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. As early as 1620, the company attempted to lay claim to the <!--del_lnk--> Table Mountain region in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, and later it occupied and ruled <!--del_lnk--> St Helena. Other events of note were The Company's colonization of <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, the employment of infamous <!--del_lnk--> Captain Kidd to combat <!--del_lnk--> piracy, the cultivation and production of <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, the sequestoring of <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> <!--del_lnk--> Buonaparte captive on <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>, and it earned the dubious distinction of having its products be the target of the <!--del_lnk--> Boston Tea Party in <!--del_lnk--> Colonial America which was a very influential factor in the minds of many colonials leading up to the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution. Company "executives" (i.e., leadership, important and influential people within the Company's structure) often amassed large personal fortunes, such <!--del_lnk--> Elihu Yale, for whom <!--del_lnk--> Yale University in <!--del_lnk--> New Haven, CT is named in gratitude for a large contribution made by Yale to the school.<p>In 1615, Sir <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Roe was instructed by <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> to visit the <!--del_lnk--> Mughal <!--del_lnk--> Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Jahangir (who ruled over most of the <!--del_lnk--> Indian subcontinent at the time, along with <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and parts of eastern <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a>). The purpose of this mission was to arrange for a commercial treaty which would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in <!--del_lnk--> Surat and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide to the emperor goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful and Jahangir sent a letter to the King through Sir Thomas. The British East India Company found itself completely dominant over the French, Dutch and Portuguese trading companies in the <!--del_lnk--> Indian subcontinent as a result. In 1634, the Mughal emperor <!--del_lnk--> Shah Jahan extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of <!--del_lnk--> Bengal, which had the world's largest textile industry at the time. In 1717, the Mughal Emperor at the time completely waived customs duties for the trade, giving the Company a decided commercial advantage in the Indian trade. By the 1680's the Company's revenues were large enough that it was able to raise its own army, comprised mainly of indigenous Indian people who were placed under the command of British officers who were primarily English or Scottish. Such Indian soldiers were called <!--del_lnk--> sepoys.<p><a id="Expansion" name="Expansion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Expansion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/192/19281.jpg.htm" title="Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the Company as a military as well as a commercial power."><img alt="Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the Company as a military as well as a commercial power." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Clive.jpg" src="../../images/22/2216.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The decline of the <!--del_lnk--> Mughal Empire, which had separated into many smaller states controlled by local rulers who were often in conflict with one another, allowed the Company to expand its territories, which began in 1757, when the Company came into conflict with the <!--del_lnk--> Nawab of <!--del_lnk--> Bengal, <!--del_lnk--> Siraj Ud Daulah. Under the leadership of <!--del_lnk--> Robert Clive, the Company troops defeated the Nawab on <!--del_lnk--> 23 June <!--del_lnk--> 1757 at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Plassey, mostly because of the treachery of the Nawab's former army chief <!--del_lnk--> Mir Jafar. Mir Jafar's treachery turned the battle into a mere skirmish. This victory, which resulted in the virtual conquest of Bengal, established the British East India Company as both a military and commercial power. However, the Company did not claim absolute authority over the territory for a long time. They preferred to rule through a puppet Nawab who could be blamed for the administrative failures caused by excessively avaricious economic exploitation of the territory by the Company. This event is widely regarded as the beginning of British rule in India. The wealth gained from the Bengal treasury allowed the Company to strengthen its military might significantly. This army (comprised mostly of Indian soldiers, called <!--del_lnk--> sepoys, and led by British officers) conquered most of India's geographic and political regions by the mid 19th century and thus the Company's territories were substantially augmented.<p>The Company fought many wars with local Indian rulers during its conquest of India, the most difficult being the four <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Mysore Wars (between 1766 and 1799) against the <!--del_lnk--> South Indian <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Mysore ruled by <!--del_lnk--> Hyder Ali, and later his son <!--del_lnk--> Tipu Sultan (<i>The Tiger of Mysore</i>) who developed the use of rockets in warfare. Mysore was only defeated in the <!--del_lnk--> Fourth Anglo-Mysore War by the combined forces of Britain and of Mysore's neighbours, for which Hyder Ali and especially Tipu Sultan are remembered in India as legendary rulers. There were a number of other states which the Company could not conquer through military might, mostly in the North, where the Company's presence was ever increasing amidst the internal conflict and dubious offers of protection against one another. Coercive action, threats and diplomacy aided the Company in preventing the local rulers from putting up a united struggle against British rule. By the 1850's the Company ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent and as a result, the Company began to function more as a nation and less as a trading concern.<p>The Company was also responsible for the illegal <!--del_lnk--> opium trade with <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> against the <!--del_lnk--> Qing Emperor's will, which later led to the two <!--del_lnk--> Opium Wars (between 1834 and 1860). As a result of the Company's victory in the <!--del_lnk--> First Opium War, it established <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> as a British territory. The Company also had a number of wars with other surrounding Asian countries, the most difficult probably being the three <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Afghan Wars (between 1839 and 1919) against <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, which were mostly unsuccessful from the British perspective.<p><a id="Collapse" name="Collapse"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Collapse</span></h3>
<p>The Company's rule effectively came to an end exactly a century after its victory at Plassey. The <!--del_lnk--> Indian Mutiny of 1857 occurred when the Company's Indian <!--del_lnk--> sepoys rebelled against their British commanders, likely because of political unrest that was triggered by several political events. One such event that surely seemed trivial to the Company at the time, but that turned out to have dire consequences, was the Company's introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. Its gunpowder containing paper cartridges were claimed to be lubricated with animal fat and had to be bitten open before the powder was poured into the muzzle. Eating cow or pig fat was forbidden for religious reasons for the vast majority of the soldiers. Beef products were forbidden for the Hindu majority, likewise pork for the large Muslim minority.<p>Although Company and Enfield representatives insisted that neither cow nor pig fat were being used, the rumour persisted and many sepoys refused to follow orders involving the use of the weapons using those particular cartridges. Indian sepoy <!--del_lnk--> Mangal Pandey was hanged as a punishment for having attacked and injured British superiors at the introduction of the rifle increasing tension at a time when Indians had come to resent decades of British rule under which they felt like second class citizens; exploited and seen as incapable of <!--del_lnk--> Home Rule.<p>In the past, Indians had feuded as much with other Indians as they did with the British. This has greatly aided the British in their conquest, for example, during The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Plassey in which they benefit from the defection of the opposing army commander. There had yet to occur any sort of unified uprising against British authority. But in 1857, a number of current events such as the Enfield cartridge issue catalysed the <!--del_lnk--> Mutiny eventually bring about the end of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>'s regime in India. Although Indians had achieved a great victory through common purpose in spite of sectional differences, their immediate situation turned for the worse.<p>The Company's failure to demonstrate effective control over its conquered Indian territories caused British financial and political entities to become uneasy about the security of their interests in India and what that meant for the future of the Empire. By 1857, India was a tremendously large part of the Empire's economy. The disaster of the Mutiny in particular had a tremendous influence on the Crown's policy regarding the most effective way to govern India. As a result, the Crown and British government assumed direct rule over the Indian sub-continent for 90 years following the dissolution of the Company.<p>The period of direct rule in India is referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> The Raj during which the nations now known as <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> were collectively known as <!--del_lnk--> British India.<p><a id="Breakdown_of_Pax_Britannica" name="Breakdown_of_Pax_Britannica"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Breakdown of <i>Pax Britannica</i></span></h2>
<p>As the first country to industrialise, Britain had been able to draw on most of the accessible world for raw materials and markets. But this situation gradually deteriorated during the 19th century as other powers began to industrialise and sought to use the state to guarantee their markets and sources of supply. By the 1870s, British manufactures in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition abroad.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2217.jpg.htm" title="Britannia became a symbol of Britain's imperial might"><img alt="Britannia became a symbol of Britain's imperial might" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Britannia2.jpg" src="../../images/22/2217.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Industrialisation progressed rapidly in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, allowing them to overtake the "old" British and French economies as world leader in some areas. By 1870, the German textile and metal industries had surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and usurped British manufactures in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would even be producing for the free trade market of the former "workshop of the world".<p>While invisible exports (banking, insurance and shipping services) kept Britain "out of the red," her share of world trade fell from a quarter in 1880 to a sixth in 1913. Britain was losing out not only in the markets of newly industrialising countries, but also against third-party competition in less-developed countries. Britain was even losing her former overwhelming dominance in trade with India, China, <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, or the coasts of Africa.<p>Britain's commercial difficulties deepened with the onset of the "<!--del_lnk--> Long Depression" of 1873–96, a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881).<p>The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe and later the US to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas subjects would provide export markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. Although she continued to adhere to free trade until <!--del_lnk--> 1932, Britain joined the renewed scramble for formal empire rather than allow areas under her influence to be seized by rivals.<p><a id="Britain_and_the_New_Imperialism" name="Britain_and_the_New_Imperialism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Britain and the New Imperialism</span></h2>
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<div style="width:225px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2218.jpg.htm" title="Queen Victoria and Benjamin Disraeli."><img alt="Queen Victoria and Benjamin Disraeli." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Old_disraeli.jpg" src="../../images/22/2218.jpg" width="223" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield">Benjamin Disraeli</a>.</div>
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<p>The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s and the outbreak of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1914 are often characterised as the "New Imperialism". The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed "empire for empire's sake", aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonising countries of doctrines of <a href="../../wp/r/Race.htm" title="Race">racial</a> superiority which denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government.<p>During this period, Europe's powers added nearly 8,880,000 square miles (23,000,000 km²) to their overseas <!--del_lnk--> colonial possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the <!--del_lnk--> Western powers as late as the <!--del_lnk--> 1880s, <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> became the primary target of the "new" imperialist expansion, although conquest took place also in other areas — notably <!--del_lnk--> south-east Asia and the <!--del_lnk--> East Asian seaboard, where <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> joined the European powers' scramble for territory.<p>Britain's entry into the new imperial age is often dated to 1875, when the <!--del_lnk--> Conservative government of <a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield">Benjamin Disraeli</a> bought the indebted <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> ruler <!--del_lnk--> Ismail's shareholding in the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> to secure control of this strategic waterway, a channel for shipping between Britain and India since its opening six years earlier under Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Napoleon III. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.<p>Fear of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>'s centuries-old southward expansion was a further factor in British policy: in 1878 Britain took control of <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> as a base for action against a Russian attack on the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, after having taken part in the <a href="../../wp/c/Crimean_War.htm" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> 1854–56 and invading <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> to forestall an increase in Russian influence there. Britain waged three bloody and unsuccessful wars in Afghanistan, as ferocious popular rebellions, invocations of <!--del_lnk--> jihad and inscrutable terrain frustrated British objectives. The <!--del_lnk--> First Anglo-Afghan War led to one of the most disastrous defeats of the Victorian military when an entire British army was wiped out by Russian-supplied Afghan <!--del_lnk--> Pashtun tribesmen during the 1842 retreat from Kabul. The <!--del_lnk--> Second Anglo-Afghan War led to the British débâcle at <!--del_lnk--> Maiwand in 1880, the siege of Kabul and British withdrawal into India. The <!--del_lnk--> Third Anglo-Afghan War of 1919 stoked a tribal uprising against the exhausted British military on the heels of World War I and expelled the British permanently from the new Afghan state. The "<!--del_lnk--> Great Game" in <!--del_lnk--> Inner Asia ended with a bloody British expedition against <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> in 1903–04.<p>At the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, later exemplified by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Chamberlain, came to view formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets. During the <!--del_lnk--> 1890s Britain adopted the new policy wholeheartedly, quickly emerging as the front-runner in the scramble for tropical African territories.<p>Britain's adoption of the New Imperialism may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital, or as a primarily strategic or pre-emptive attempt to protect existing trade links and to prevent the absorption of overseas markets into the increasingly closed imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the 1900s of Chamberlain's <!--del_lnk--> Tariff Reform campaign for Imperial protection illustrates the strength of free trade feeling even in the face of loss of international market share. Historians have argued that Britain's adoption of the "New imperialism" was an effect of her relative decline in the world, rather than of strength.<p><a id="British_colonial_policy" name="British_colonial_policy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">British colonial policy</span></h3>
<p>British colonial policy was always driven to a large extent by Britain's trading interests. While settler economies developed the infrastructure to support balanced development, some tropical African territories found themselves developed only as raw-material suppliers. British policies based on comparative advantage left many developing economies dangerously reliant on a single cash crop, which others exported to Britain or to overseas British settlements. A reliance upon the manipulation of conflict between ethnic, religious and racial identities, in order to keep subject populations from uniting against the occupying power — the classic "<!--del_lnk--> divide and rule" strategy — left a legacy of partition and/or inter-communal difficulties in areas as diverse as Ireland, India, Zimbabwe, Cyprus, Sudan, and Uganda.<p><a id="Britain_and_the_scramble_for_Africa" name="Britain_and_the_scramble_for_Africa"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Britain and the scramble for Africa</span></h2>
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<div style="width:207px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/7/755.jpg.htm" title="Cecil Rhodes- "the Colossus of Rhodes" spanning "Cape to Cairo"."><img alt="Cecil Rhodes- "the Colossus of Rhodes" spanning "Cape to Cairo"." height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rhodes.Africa.jpg" src="../../images/7/755.jpg" width="205" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>In 1875 the two most important European holdings in Africa were French controlled <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and Britain's <!--del_lnk--> Cape Colony. By 1914 only <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and the republic of <a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> remained outside formal European control. The transition from an "informal empire" of control through economic dominance to direct control took the form of a "scramble" for territory by the nations of Europe. Britain tried not to play a part in this early scramble, being more of a trading empire rather than a colonial empire; however, it soon became clear it had to gain its own African empire to maintain the balance of power.<p>As French, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> activity in the lower <a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> region threatened to undermine orderly penetration of tropical Africa, the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Conference of 1884–85 sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims, a formulation which necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples.<p>Britain's 1882 military occupation of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (itself triggered by concern over the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>) contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> valley, leading to the conquest of the neighbouring <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> in 1896–98 and confrontation with a French military expedition at <!--del_lnk--> Fashoda (September 1898).<p>In 1899 Britain completed its takeover of what is today <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. This had begun with the annexation of the <!--del_lnk--> Cape in 1795 and continued with the conquest of the <!--del_lnk--> Boer Republics in the late 19th century, following the <a href="../../wp/s/Second_Boer_War.htm" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Cecil Rhodes was the pioneer of British expansion north into Africa with his privately owned <!--del_lnk--> British South Africa Company. Rhodes expanded into the land north of South Africa and established <!--del_lnk--> Rhodesia. Rhodes' dream of a railway connecting <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria passing through a British Africa covering the continent is what led to his company's pressure on the government for further expansion into Africa.<p>British gains in southern and <a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> prompted Rhodes and <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Milner, Britain's High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a "Cape-to-<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>" empire linking by rail the strategically important Canal to the mineral-rich South, though German occupation of <!--del_lnk--> Tanganyika prevented its realisation until the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. In 1903, the <!--del_lnk--> All Red Line telegraph system communicated with the major parts of the Empire.<p>Paradoxically, Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to her long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa", reflecting her advantageous position at its inception. Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under her control, compared to 15% for France, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and 1% for <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>: <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of <!--del_lnk--> French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire.<p><a id="Home_rule_in_white-settler_colonies" name="Home_rule_in_white-settler_colonies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Home rule in white-settler colonies</span></h2>
<p>Britain's empire had already begun its transformation into the modern <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth with the extension of <!--del_lnk--> Dominion status to the already <!--del_lnk--> self-governing colonies of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> (1867), <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> (1901), <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (1907), <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland (1907), and the newly-created <!--del_lnk--> Union of South Africa (1910). Leaders of the new states joined with British statesmen in periodic Colonial (from 1907, Imperial) <!--del_lnk--> Conferences, the first of which was held in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> in 1887.<p>The foreign relations of the Dominions were still conducted through the Foreign Office of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>: Canada created a Department of External Affairs in 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to be channelled through the Governors-General, Dominion High Commissioners in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> (first appointed by Canada in 1880 and by Australia in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain's declaration of war in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> applied to all the Dominions.<p>But the Dominions did enjoy a substantial freedom in their adoption of foreign policy where this did not explicitly conflict with British interests: Canada's <!--del_lnk--> Liberal government negotiated a bilateral free-trade <!--del_lnk--> Reciprocity Agreement with the United States in 1911, but went down to defeat by the <!--del_lnk--> Conservative opposition.<p>In defence, the Dominions' original treatment as part of a single imperial military and naval structure proved unsustainable as Britain faced new commitments in Europe and the challenge of an emerging <!--del_lnk--> German High Seas Fleet after 1900. In 1909 it was decided that the Dominions should have their own navies, reversing an 1887 agreement that the then Australasian colonies should contribute to the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> in return for the permanent stationing of a squadron in the region.<p><a id="The_impact_of_the_First_World_War" name="The_impact_of_the_First_World_War"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The impact of the First World War</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2220.jpg.htm" title="British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral."><img alt="British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BritishEmpireWW1MemorialBrussel_Copyright2004KaihsuTai.jpg" src="../../images/22/2220.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2220.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral.</div>
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<p>The aftermath of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> saw the last major extension of British rule, with Britain gaining control through <!--del_lnk--> League of Nations Mandates in <!--del_lnk--> Palestine and <!--del_lnk--> Iraq after the collapse of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the Middle East, as well as in the former German colonies of <!--del_lnk--> Tanganyika, South-West Africa (now <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea (the last two actually under South African and Australian rule respectively). The British zones of occupation in the German <!--del_lnk--> Rhineland after World War I and West Germany after World War II were not considered part of the Empire.<p>But although Britain emerged among the war's victors, and her rule expanded into new areas, the heavy costs of the war undermined her capacity to maintain the vast empire. The British had suffered millions of casualties and liquidated assets at an alarming rate, which led to debt accumulation, upending of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies. Nationalist sentiment grew in both old and new Imperial territories, fuelled by pride at Empire troops' participation in the war.<p>The 1920s saw a rapid transformation of Dominion status. Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war in 1914, each was included separately among the signatories of the 1919 peace <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In 1922 Dominion reluctance to support British military action against <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement.<p>Full Dominion independence was formalised in the 1926 <!--del_lnk--> Balfour Declaration and the 1931 <!--del_lnk--> Statute of Westminster: each Dominion was henceforth to be equal in status to Britain herself, free of British legislative interference and autonomous in international relations. The Dominions section created within the Colonial Office in <!--del_lnk--> 1907 was upgraded in 1925 to a separate Dominions Office and given its own Secretary of State in <!--del_lnk--> 1930.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2221.png.htm" title="Map showing British Empire in 1921 coloured pink."><img alt="Map showing British Empire in 1921 coloured pink." height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BritishEmpire1921.png" src="../../images/22/2221.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2221.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map showing British Empire in 1921 coloured pink.</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> led the way, becoming the first Dominion to conclude an international treaty entirely independently (1923) and obtaining the appointment (1928) of a British High Commissioner in <a href="../../wp/o/Ottawa.htm" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, thereby separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the Governor-General and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the head of state and of the British Government. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in <!--del_lnk--> Washington, DC in 1927: Australia followed in <!--del_lnk--> 1940.<p><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, formally independent from <!--del_lnk--> 1922 but bound to Britain by treaty until 1936 (and under partial occupation until 1956) similarly severed all constitutional links with Britain. <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, which became a British Protectorate in 1922, also gained complete independence ten years later in 1932.<p><a id="The_end_of_British_rule_in_Ireland" name="The_end_of_British_rule_in_Ireland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The end of British rule in Ireland</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2222.jpg.htm" title="A Great War memorial in Dublin."><img alt="A Great War memorial in Dublin." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warofindep.jpg" src="../../images/22/2222.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2222.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Great War memorial in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>.</div>
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<p>Despite <!--del_lnk--> Irish home rule (but <i>not</i> Irish constitutional independence) being guaranteed under the <!--del_lnk--> Third Irish Home Rule Act in 1914, the onset of World War I delayed its implementation. On Easter Monday 1916 an initially unsuccessful armed uprising was staged in Dublin by a mixed group of nationalists, including <!--del_lnk--> Michael Collins. After his release from prison in 1919, Collins led Irish <!--del_lnk--> guerrillas, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Republican Army in a military campaign against British rule. The ensuing <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Irish Treaty. The treaty divided Ireland into two states, most of the island (26 counties) became the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State, an independent dominion nation within the <!--del_lnk--> British Commonwealth, while the six counties in the north with a largely loyalist, Protestant community remained a part of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> as <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1949 <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> became a <!--del_lnk--> republic, fully independent from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and withdrew from the Commonwealth. Ireland's <!--del_lnk--> Constitution claimed the six counties of <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> as a part of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> until 1998. The issue over whether Northern Ireland should remain in the United Kingdom or join the Republic of Ireland has divided Northern Ireland's people and led to a long and bloody conflict known as <!--del_lnk--> the Troubles.<p>However the <!--del_lnk--> Good Friday Agreement of 1998 brought about a ceasefire between most of the major organisations on both sides, creating hope for a peaceful resolution.<p><a id="Decolonisation_and_decline" name="Decolonisation_and_decline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Decolonisation and decline</span></h2>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17813.jpg.htm" title="Mahatma Gandhi, one of the leaders of the Indian independence movement."><img alt="Mahatma Gandhi, one of the leaders of the Indian independence movement." height="237" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mohandas_Gandhi_resized_for_biography.jpg" src="../../images/22/2223.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17813.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, one of the leaders of the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>.</div>
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<p>The rise of anti-colonial <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> movements in the subject territories and the changing economic situation of the world in the first half of the 20th century challenged an imperial power now increasingly preoccupied with issues nearer home. The Empire's end began with the onset of the Second World War, when a deal was reached between the British government and the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" title="Indian independence">Indian independence</a> movement, whereby the Indians would co-operate and remain loyal during the war, after which they would be granted independence. Following India's lead, nearly all of Britain's other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.<p>The end of Empire gathered pace after Britain's efforts during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> left the country all but exhausted and found its former allies disinclined to support the colonial <i>status quo</i>. Economic crisis in 1947 made many realise that the <!--del_lnk--> Labour government of <!--del_lnk--> Clement Attlee should abandon Britain's attempt to retain all of its overseas territories. The Empire was increasingly regarded as an unnecessary drain on public finances by politicians and civil servants, if not the general public.<p>Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September 1939 did not automatically commit the Dominions. All the Dominions except Australia and Ireland issued their own declarations of war. The Irish Free State had negotiated the removal of the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> from the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty Ports (Ireland) the year before, and chose to remain <!--del_lnk--> legally neutral throughout <!--del_lnk--> the war. Australia went to war under the British declaration.<p>The <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> can be best described as a <!--del_lnk--> Pyrrhic victory to the British Empire. The economical costs of WWII were far greater to British Empire than those of WWI, Britain was heavily bombed and the <!--del_lnk--> tonnage war cost the Empire almost its entire merchant fleet. World War II fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the Dominions and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> as a source of military assistance. Australian prime minister <!--del_lnk--> John Curtin's unprecedented action (1942) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> demonstrated that Dominion governments could no longer be expected to subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives.<p>After the war, Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States in the <!--del_lnk--> ANZUS regional security treaty in 1951 (although the US repudiated its commitments to New Zealand following a 1985 dispute over port access for nuclear vessels). Britain's pursuit (from 1961) and attainment (1973) of <!--del_lnk--> European Community membership weakened the old commercial ties to the Dominions, ending their privileged access to the UK market.<p>The independence of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1947 ended a 40-year struggle by the <!--del_lnk--> Indian National Congress, first for self-government and later for full sovereignty, though the land's partition into <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> entailed violence costing hundreds of thousands of lives. The acceptance by Britain, and the other Dominions, of India's adoption of republican status (1950) is now taken as the start of the modern Commonwealth. Owing to this declaration, 31 <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Republics are now members of the Commonwealth.<p>In the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, post-war decolonisation was accomplished with almost unseemly haste in the face of increasingly powerful (and sometimes mutually conflicting) nationalist movements, with Britain rarely fighting to retain any territory. Britain's limitations were exposed to a humiliating degree by the <!--del_lnk--> Suez Crisis of 1956 in which the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> opposed British, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israeli</a> intervention in Egypt, seeing it as a doomed adventure likely to jeopardise American interests in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> became independent in two stages. The British did not believe that Singapore would be large enough to defend itself against others alone. Therefore, Singapore was joined with <!--del_lnk--> Malaya, <!--del_lnk--> Sarawak and <!--del_lnk--> North Borneo to form <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> upon independence from the Empire. This short-lived union was dissolved in 1965 when Singapore left <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and achieved complete independence.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> achieved independence (1948) outside the Commonwealth; Burma being the first colony to sever all ties with the British; <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon (1948) and <!--del_lnk--> Malaya (1957) within it. Britain's <!--del_lnk--> Palestine Mandate ended (1948) in withdrawal and open warfare between the territory's <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Arab populations. In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by <!--del_lnk--> Greek Cypriot advocates of <!--del_lnk--> union with <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> ended (1960) in an independent <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, although Britain did retain two military bases - <a href="../../wp/a/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia.htm" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>.<p>The end of Britain's Empire in Africa came with exceptional rapidity, often leaving the newly-independent states ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of sovereignty: <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>'s independence (1957) after a ten-year nationalist political campaign was followed by that of <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Somaliland (1960), <a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Tanganyika (1961), <a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> (1962), <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Zanzibar (1963), <a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a> (1965), <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> (formerly Bechuanaland) and <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a> (formerly Basutoland) (1966) and <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> (1968).<p>British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was complicated by the region's white settler populations: Kenya had already provided an example in the <!--del_lnk--> Mau Mau Uprising of violent conflict exacerbated by white landownership and reluctance to concede majority rule. White minority rule in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> remained a source of bitterness within the Commonwealth until the Union of South Africa left the Commonwealth in 1961.<p>Although the white-dominated <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ended in the independence of <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> (formerly <!--del_lnk--> Nyasaland) and <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> (the former Northern Rhodesia) in 1964, Southern Rhodesia's white minority (a <!--del_lnk--> self-governing colony since 1923) declared independence with their <!--del_lnk--> UDI rather than submit to equality with <!--del_lnk--> black Africans. The support of South Africa's apartheid government kept the Rhodesian regime in place until 1979, when agreement was reached on majority rule in an independent <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>.<p>Most of Britain's Caribbean territories opted for eventual separate independence after the failure of the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies Federation (1958–62): <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Trinidad_and_Tobago.htm" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> (1962) were followed into statehood by <a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> (1966) and the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean (1970s and 1980s). Britain's Pacific dependencies such as the <!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Islands (which had seen the last attempt at human colonisation within the Empire - the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme) underwent a similar process of decolonisation in the latter decades.<p>As decolonisation and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> were gathering momentum during the 1950s, an uninhabited rock in the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="../../wp/r/Rockall.htm" title="Rockall">Rockall</a>, became the last territorial acquisition of the United Kingdom. Concerns that the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> might use the island to spy on a British missile test <!--del_lnk--> prompted the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> to land a party and officially claim the rock in the name of the Queen in 1955. In 1972 the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Rockall Act formally incorporated the island into the United Kingdom.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1982, Britain's resolve to defend her remaining overseas territories was put to the test when <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> invaded the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire. Britain's ultimately successful military response to liberate the islands during the ensuing <!--del_lnk--> Falklands War prompted headlines in the US press that "the Empire strikes back", and was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in the UK's status as a <!--del_lnk--> world power.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1997, Britain's last major overseas territory, <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, became a <!--del_lnk--> Special Administrative Region of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> under the terms of the <!--del_lnk--> Sino-British Joint Declaration agreed some thirteen years previously. The fourteen remaining <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territories, the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations and the enduring <!--del_lnk--> personal unions with the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realms constitute the remnants of the British Empire.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"</div>
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British_English
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British English</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<div style="width:267px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2233.jpg.htm" title="Diagram showing the geographical locations of selected languages and dialects of the British Isles.(dubious; discuss) The map is approximate and the areas for the Welsh and Scottish Gaelic languages are larger than on the map. Putting Scottish and Irish Gaelic as a single group is disputed."><img alt="Diagram showing the geographical locations of selected languages and dialects of the British Isles.(dubious; discuss) The map is approximate and the areas for the Welsh and Scottish Gaelic languages are larger than on the map. Putting Scottish and Irish Gaelic as a single group is disputed." height="461" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Selected_languages_and_accents_of_the_british_isles2_rjl.jpg" src="../../images/22/2233.jpg" width="265" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>British English</b> (<b>BrE</b>) is a term used to distinguish the form of the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English language</a> used in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> from forms used elsewhere. It includes all the varieties of English used within the Isles, including those found in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, and the island of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. Though the term is standard, some find it inappropriate as logically <!--del_lnk--> Scottish English is included in British English, implying the existence of English as spoken in England as a category, but "<!--del_lnk--> English English" is cumbersome, and suggests that English refers to the language as spoken in England. The term British English is used especially by those outside the British Isles, as well as by linguists and lexicographers; British people themselves generally use the term 'Standard English' or merely 'English'.<p>As with English around the world, the English language as used in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no equivalent body to the <!--del_lnk--> Académie française, and the authoritative dictionaries (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Oxford English Dictionary, <!--del_lnk--> Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, <!--del_lnk--> Chambers Dictionary, <!--del_lnk--> Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than prescribe it. As a result there is significant variation in grammar, usage, spelling, and vocabulary. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and <!--del_lnk--> neologisms are frequent.<p>While there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in formal written English in the UK and Ireland, the forms of spoken English used vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken, both geographically and socially, so the concept of "British English" is difficult to apply to the spoken language. <!--del_lnk--> Dialects and <!--del_lnk--> accents vary not only between the nations of the British Isles, for example in <!--del_lnk--> Scotland, <!--del_lnk--> Northern Ireland and <!--del_lnk--> Wales, but also within these countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. The written form of the language, as taught in schools, is the same as in the rest of the English-speaking world (except North America), with a slight emphasis on words whose usage varies amongst the different regions of the UK. For example, although the words "<!--del_lnk--> wee" and "little" are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see "wee" written by a Scottish or Northern Irish person than by an English person. In publishing, English English norms tend to be used.<p>For historical reasons dating back to the rise of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the <!--del_lnk--> East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education within the British Isles. To a great extent, modern British spelling was standardised in <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson's <i><!--del_lnk--> A Dictionary of the English Language</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1755), although previous writers had also played a significant role in this and much has changed since 1755. Scotland, which only underwent parliamentary union in 1707, still has a few independent aspects of standardisation, especially within its autonomous legal system.<p>The widespread usage of English across the world is partly attributable to the former power of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, and this is reflected in the use of British written forms in many parts of the world. The most common form of English used by the British ruling class is that of south-east England (the area around the capital, London, and the ancient English <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">university</a> towns of <!--del_lnk--> Oxford and <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>). This form of the language is associated with <!--del_lnk--> Received Pronunciation (RP), which is still regarded, incorrectly, by many people outside the UK as "the British accent". However, only approximately 5 percent of Britons speak RP, and it has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years. Moreover, there is much more tolerance of variation than there was in the past.<p>From the second half of the 20th century to the present day, the preeminence of the English language has been augmented by the economic, military, political and cultural dominance of the United States in world affairs. Nevertheless, the British Isles retains a major cultural influence in particular on the English used, as a first or additional language, in some <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth countries and former British colonies (including influence to a greater degree in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, but to a lesser degree in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and only to a limited extent in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"</div>
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British_House_of_Commons
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British House of Commons</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Politics_and_government.htm">Politics and government</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>House of Commons</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> lower house of the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. Parliament also includes the <a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" title="British monarchy">Sovereign</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> upper house, the <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>; the House of Commons is the dominant branch. The House of Commons is a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democratically</a> elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as "<!--del_lnk--> Members of Parliament" or MPs. Members are elected by the <!--del_lnk--> first-past-the-post system of election, holding office until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years). Each member is elected by, and represents, an electoral district known as a <!--del_lnk--> constituency. The House of Commons is the source of the vast majority of <!--del_lnk--> government ministers and every <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> since 1902, with the very brief exception of <!--del_lnk--> Sir Alec Douglas-Home in 1963, has been drawn from it (Home did actually rule from the House of Commons, however, taking a seat in the House shortly after being chosen as Prime Minister).<p>The House of Commons evolved at some point during the 14th century and has been in continuous existence since. The House of Commons (the "lower house") was once far less powerful than the House of Lords (the "upper house"), but is now by far the dominant branch of Parliament. The House of Commons' legislative powers exceed those of the House of Lords; under the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament Act 1911, the Lords' power to reject most bills was reduced to a mere delaying power. Moreover, the Government of the United Kingdom is answerable to the House of Commons; the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of the lower house.<p>The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is <i>The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.</i> The term "Commons" derives from the <!--del_lnk--> Norman French word <i>communes</i>, referring to the geographic and collective communities of their representatives. It is often misunderstood that "Commons" comes from the word "commoners", referring to those sitting in the House, similar to the way in which the name "House of Lords" indicates that those sitting in the "<!--del_lnk--> Other Place" are elevated to the <!--del_lnk--> Peerage. This explanation, however, is ahistorical. Both Houses, the Commons and Lords, meet in the <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a>. Both Houses have in the past met elsewhere, and retain the right to do so, provided the <!--del_lnk--> Mace is present.<p>The information resource of the House is the <!--del_lnk--> House of Commons Library.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Parliament developed from the council that advised the monarch during mediæval times. This royal council, meeting for short-term periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the <!--del_lnk--> counties (known as "<!--del_lnk--> knights of the shire"). The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown. In many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the people's grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. Thus, it developed legislative powers.<p>In the "<!--del_lnk--> Model Parliament" of 1295, representatives of the <!--del_lnk--> boroughs (including towns and cities) were also admitted. Thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. At first, the burgesses were almost entirely powerless; whilst county representation was fixed, the monarch could enfranchise or disfranchise boroughs at pleasure. Any show of independence by burgesses would have led to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament. The knights of the shire were in a better position, though less powerful than their aristocratic counterparts in the still unicameral Parliament. The division of Parliament into two houses occurred during the reign of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>: the knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons, whilst the clergy and nobility became the House of Lords.<p>Though they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. During the <!--del_lnk--> Good Parliament (1376), the <a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="Speaker of the British House of Commons">Speaker of the House of Commons</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Peter de la Mare, complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticised the King's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to <!--del_lnk--> impeach some of the King's ministers. The bold Speaker was imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of King Edward III. During the reign of the next monarch, <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_II_of_England.htm" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a>, the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but also public expenditures. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the House of Lords and the Crown.<p>The influence of the Crown was further increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great nobles. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the monarch grew even further under the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor dynasty in the sixteenth century. This trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the <!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart came to the English Throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers.<p>The bitter differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and were settled only by the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War. The King was beheaded, and the monarchy and Upper House abolished, in 1649. Although the Commons were in theory supreme, the nation was truly under the control of a military dictator, <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, who eventually abolished Parliament in 1653. However, the monarchy and the House of Lords were both restored along with the Commons in 1660, soon after Cromwell's death. The influence of the Crown had been lessened, and was further diminished when <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a> was deposed in the course of the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> (1688).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2234.jpg.htm" title="The House of Commons in the early 19th century."><img alt="The House of Commons in the early 19th century." height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:House_of_Commons_Microcosm.jpg" src="../../images/22/2234.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The eighteenth century was notable in that it was marked by the development of the office of Prime Minister. The modern notion that the Government may remain in power only as long as it retains the support of Parliament soon became established, leading to history's first-ever <!--del_lnk--> motion of no confidence, as a result of the failure of <!--del_lnk--> Lord North's government to end the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution. The modern notion that only the support of the House of Commons is necessary, however, was of much later development. Similarly, the custom that the Prime Minister is always a Member of the Lower House, rather than the Upper one, did not evolve immediately.<p>The House of Commons experienced an important period of reform during the nineteenth century. The Crown had made use of its prerogative of enfranchising and disenfranchising boroughs very irregularly, and several anomalies had developed in borough representation. Many towns that were once important but had become inconsiderable by the nineteenth century retained their ancient right of electing two Members each. The most notorious of these "<!--del_lnk--> rotten boroughs" was <!--del_lnk--> Old Sarum, which had only eleven voters; at the same time, large cities such as <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> received no separate representation, although their eligible residents were able to vote in the corresponding county seat—in the case of Manchester, <!--del_lnk--> Lancashire. Also notable were the <!--del_lnk--> pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees" were invariably elected by the voters.<p>The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the Prime Minister, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, advised King <!--del_lnk--> William IV to flood the House of Lords with several pro-Reform peers. Before the King could take such an action, the Lords passed the bill in 1832. The <!--del_lnk--> Reform Act 1832, also known as the "Great Reform Act," abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but also retained many pocket boroughs. In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been damaged by the Reform Bill Crisis, and the power of the patrons of pocket boroughs having been diminished. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the support of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a Prime Minister to remain in office.<p>Many further reforms were introduced during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The <!--del_lnk--> Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the <!--del_lnk--> Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The <!--del_lnk--> Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single-member constituencies.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2235.jpg.htm" title="The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt."><img alt="The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt." height="282" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Houseofcommons1851.jpg" src="../../images/22/2235.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2235.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt.</div>
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<p>The next important phase in the history of the House of Commons came during the early twentieth century. In 1908, the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Government under <!--del_lnk--> Herbert Henry Asquith introduced a number of <!--del_lnk--> social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive <!--del_lnk--> arms race with <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, had forced the Government to seek more funding in the form of tax increases. In 1909, the <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer, <!--del_lnk--> David Lloyd George, introduced the "People's Budget", which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were re-elected in January 1910. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. Proceedings on the bill were briefly interrupted by the death of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">King Edward VII</a>, but were soon recommenced under the new monarch, <a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George V of the United Kingdom">George V</a>. After the election in December 1910 the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister proposed, and the King agreed, that the House of Lords could be flooded by the creation of 500 new Liberal peers if it failed to pass the bill. (This was the same device used earlier to force the Upper House to consent to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.) The <!--del_lnk--> Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament Act 1949). Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has remained the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.<p>Since the 17th century, MPs had been unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgement of 1910. Consequently a clause was included in the Parliament Act 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. It should be noted, however, that government ministers had always been paid.<p><a id="Members_and_elections" name="Members_and_elections"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Members and elections</span></h2>
<p>Each Member of Parliament represents a single constituency. Prior to the reforms of the 19th century, the constituencies had little basis in population: the counties and the boroughs (whose boundaries were fixed) were, for the most part, represented by two Members each. Reforms enacted during the 19th century, starting with the <!--del_lnk--> Reform Act 1832, led to a more even distribution of seats. Moreover, the reforms of 1885 abolished most two-member constituencies; the few that remained were all abolished in 1948. <!--del_lnk--> University constituencies (the constituencies that allowed important universities such as <!--del_lnk--> Oxford, <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> ancient universities of Scotland to be represented in Parliament) were abolished in the same year. Thus, each constituency now elects only one Member of Parliament. There is still a technical distinction between <!--del_lnk--> county constituencies and <!--del_lnk--> borough constituencies, but the only effect of this difference involves the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns.<p>The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Commissions, one each for <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>. The number of constituencies assigned to the four parts of the United Kingdom is based roughly on population, but subject to certain statutory regulations. England, Wales, and Scotland must have a total of approximately 613 constituencies, and Northern Ireland between 16 and 18 constituencies, and Wales at least 35 constituencies. The Commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, as well as a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement in order to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended by Parliament. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the <!--del_lnk--> Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000. Currently the United Kingdom is divided into <!--del_lnk--> 646 constituencies, with 529 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland.<p><!--del_lnk--> General elections occur whenever <!--del_lnk--> Parliament is dissolved by the Sovereign. The timing of the dissolution is normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see relationship with the Government below); however, a parliamentary term may not last for more than five years, unless a Bill extending the life of Parliament passes both Houses and receives Royal Assent. The House of Lords, exceptionally, retains its power of veto over such a Bill.<p>The date of a <!--del_lnk--> General Election is the choice of the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister, but traditionally, it tends to be a Thursday. Each candidate must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from the constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one Member, using the <!--del_lnk--> first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a <!--del_lnk--> plurality of votes wins. Minors, Members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become Members of the House of Commons. In order to vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom as well as a citizen of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, of a <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territory, of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>, or of a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations. Also, British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency.<p>Once elected, the Member of Parliament normally continues to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament or until death. If a Member, however, ceases to be qualified (see <a href="#Qualifications" title="">qualifications</a> below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is possible for the House of Commons to expel a Member, but this power is exercised only when the Member has engaged in serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a <!--del_lnk--> by-election in the appropriate constituency. The same electoral system is used as in general elections.<p>The term "Member of Parliament" is normally used only to refer to Members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the <!--del_lnk--> post-nominal letters "MP". The annual salary of each Member is £59,095; Members may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most Members also claim between £100,000 and £150,000 for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc) and also in the case of non-London Members for the costs of maintaining a home in London.<p><a id="Qualifications" name="Qualifications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Qualifications</span></h2>
<p>There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 21 (although this is due to change to 18), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in order to be eligible. These restrictions were introduced by the <!--del_lnk--> British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Settlement 1701, only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections; however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates.<p>A person may not sit in the House of Commons if he or she is the subject of a <!--del_lnk--> Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is <!--del_lnk--> sequestered (in Scotland). Also, lunatics are ineligible to sit in the House of Commons. Under the <!--del_lnk--> Mental Health Act 1983, two specialists must report to the Speaker that a Member is suffering from mental illness before a seat can be declared vacant. There also exists a <!--del_lnk--> common law precedent from the 18th century that the "deaf and dumb" are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years, and is highly unlikely to be upheld by the courts. <!--del_lnk--> Jack Ashley continued to serve as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.<p>Anyone found guilty of <!--del_lnk--> high treason may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment, or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the <!--del_lnk--> Representation of the People Act 1983 disqualifies for ten years those found guilty of certain election-related offences. Several other disqualifications are established by the <!--del_lnk--> House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. Holders of high <!--del_lnk--> judicial offices, <!--del_lnk--> civil servants, members of the regular <!--del_lnk--> armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding members of the legislatures of the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices listed in the Act are all disqualified. The provisions of the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 largely consolidate the clauses of several previous enactments; in particular, several Crown officers had already been disqualified since the passage of the Act of Settlement 1701. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.<p>The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which Members are not permitted to resign their seats (in theory). In practice, however, they always can. Should a Member wish to <!--del_lnk--> resign from the House of Commons, he may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of <!--del_lnk--> Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of <!--del_lnk--> Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are <!--del_lnk--> sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely in order to permit the "resignation" of Members of the House of Commons. The <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a Member who desires to leave the House of Commons.<p><a id="Officers" name="Officers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Officers</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2236.jpg.htm" title="The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834."><img alt="The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_House_of_Commons_1834.jpg" src="../../images/22/2236.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2236.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834.</div>
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<p>The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term, and also whenever a vacancy arises. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker-elect cannot take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of which holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the Chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always Members of the House of Commons.<p>Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears a ceremonial black robe. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition has been abandoned by the present Speaker, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Martin, and by his predecessor, <!--del_lnk--> Betty Boothroyd. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker presides from a chair at the front of the House. The Speaker is Chairman of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the House, and controls debates by calling on Members to speak. If a Member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order," on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline Members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers at all. Customarily, the Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are non-partisan; they do not vote, or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Clerk of the House is both the House's chief adviser on matters of procedure and Chief Executive of the House of Commons. He is a permanent official, not a Member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the <!--del_lnk--> Serjeant-at-Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House's premises. The Serjeant-at-Arms carries the ceremonial <!--del_lnk--> Mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker. The Mace is laid upon the Table of the House of Commons during sittings.<p><a id="Procedure" name="Procedure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Procedure</span></h2>
<p>Like the House of Lords, the House of Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons Chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the large, lavishly furnished red Lords Chamber. There are benches on two sides of the Chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of <!--del_lnk--> St Stephen's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left.<p>In front of each set of benches, a red line is drawn on the carpet. The red lines in front of the two sets of benches are two sword-lengths apart; a Member is traditionally not allowed to cross the line during debates, for he or she is then supposed to be able to attack an individual on the opposite side. Government ministers and important Opposition leaders sit on the front rows, and are known as "frontbenchers." Other Members of Parliament, in contrast, are known as "backbenchers." Oddly, all Members of Parliament cannot fit in the Chamber, which can seat only 427 of the 646 Members. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit on Saturdays.<p>Due to recent reforms, the House of Commons sometimes meets in another chamber in the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Hall. Debates in Westminster Hall are generally uncontroversial or non-partisan; business which leads to actual votes must still be conducted in the main Chamber. Westminster Hall sittings take place each Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. On Wednesdays the sitting is suspended for a lunch break. Sittings are also suspended whenever there is a division taking place in the House itself.<p>Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, by the vote of a simple majority. (However, this has been done only twice since 1950.) Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers", and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the House wanted to keep its debate private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect. Public debates are broadcast on the <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a>, and on <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> by <!--del_lnk--> BBC Parliament, and are recorded in <!--del_lnk--> Hansard.<p>Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters who hurl objects into the Chamber from the <!--del_lnk--> Strangers Gallery and other galleries. Items which have been thrown into the House include leaflets, manure, flour (see <!--del_lnk--> Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest), and a canister of <a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" title="CS gas">chlorobenzylidene malonitrile</a> (tear gas). Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House; for instance, in 1976, Conservative MP <!--del_lnk--> Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. Perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force in order to arrest five Members of Parliament—who belonged to an anti-royalist faction—for high treason. This action, however, was deemed a grave breach of the privilege of Parliament, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch may not set foot in the House of Commons.<p>Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the <!--del_lnk--> State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address on the Government's legislative agenda. The <!--del_lnk--> Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber; when he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. The Gentleman Usher knocks on the door thrice with his Black Rod, and only then is he granted admittance. He then informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them. Then they all go to the House of Lords for the <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Speech.<p>During debates, Members may only speak if called upon by the Speaker (or the Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority when more than one Member rises to speak at the same time. Formerly, all <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Counsellors</a> were granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure led to the abolition of this tradition in 1998.<p>Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker," "Madam Speaker," "Mr Deputy Speaker," or "Madam Deputy Speaker." Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other Members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, Members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for [constituency]," or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for [constituency]." The Speaker enforces the rules of the House, and may warn and punish Members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker's instructions is considered a severe breach of the rules of the House, and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote.<p>The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a Member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may, however, be restricted by the passage of "Allocation of Time Motions", which are more commonly known as "<!--del_lnk--> Guillotine Motions". Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke the <!--del_lnk--> Closure. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority.<p>When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye" (in favour of the motion) or "No" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any Member, a recorded vote known as a <!--del_lnk--> division follows. (The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is so clear that a division is not necessary, may reject the challenge.) If a division does occur, Members enter one of two lobbies (the "Aye" lobby or the "No" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves Members of the House) who count the votes of the Members.<p>Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a <!--del_lnk--> casting vote. Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision being taken without a majority (e.g. voting No to a motion or the third reading of a bill). Ties rarely occur—the last one was in July 1993. The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote; if fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid. Formerly, if a Member sought to raise a point of order during a division, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998.<p>The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some Members of Parliament, known as <!--del_lnk--> whips, with the task of ensuring that all party Members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so are unlikely to reach higher political ranks in their parties. Errant Members may be deselected as official party candidates during future elections, and, in serious cases, may be expelled from their parties outright. Ministers, junior ministers and PPSes who vote against the whips' instructions are likely to lose their positions. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be extremely low, and "backbench rebellions" by Members discontent with their party's policies are rare. In some circumstances, however, parties announce "<!--del_lnk--> free votes", allowing Members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as <!--del_lnk--> abortion and <!--del_lnk--> capital punishment are typically free votes.<p><a id="Committees" name="Committees"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Committees</span></h2>
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<p>The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of <!--del_lnk--> bills. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the Committee of the Whole House, a body that, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House of Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber.<p>Most bills are considered by Standing Committees, which consist of between 16 and 50 members each. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflects the standing of the parties in the whole House. Though "standing" may imply permanence, the membership of Standing Committees changes constantly; new Members are assigned each time the Committee considers a new bill. There is no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but there are usually only ten. Rarely, a bill may be committed to a Special Standing Committee, which operates much like a Standing Committee, but also investigates and holds hearings on the issues raised by the bill.<p>The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties in the House of Commons. Each committee elects its own Chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular Government Department; to fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is very seldom used.<p>A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the <!--del_lnk--> Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the Members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees).<p><a id="Legislative_functions" name="Legislative_functions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legislative functions</span></h2>
<p>Although legislation may be introduced in either House, bills normally originate in the House of Commons.<p>The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented for the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.<p>By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the superiority of the House of Commons is ensured insofar as financial matters are concerned. Only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or <!--del_lnk--> Supply; furthermore, Supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election <!--del_lnk--> manifesto.<p>Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful branch of Parliament.<p><a id="Relationship_with_the_Government" name="Relationship_with_the_Government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Relationship with the Government</span></h2>
<p>Although it does not elect the Prime Minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance. By convention the Prime Minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of Prime Minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally, the leader of the largest party in the Lower House. (The leader of the second-largest party becomes the <!--del_lnk--> Leader of the Opposition.) In modern times, by convention, the Prime Minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords.<p>The Prime Minister may only stay in office as long as he or she retains the confidence of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a <!--del_lnk--> Motion of Confidence, or by passing a <!--del_lnk--> Motion of No Confidence. Confidence and No Confidence Motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance: "That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government." Many other motions are considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged to either resign, or request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election.<p>Except when compelled to do so by an adverse vote on a confidence issue, the Prime Minister is allowed to choose the timing of dissolutions with the permission of the Monarch, and consequently the timing of general elections. The timing reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune for the Prime Minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for more than five years; a dissolution is automatic upon the expiry of this period unless an act of Parliament is passed extending the maximum term as happened during both World Wars. Parliament is almost never permitted to sit for the maximum possible term, with dissolutions customarily being requested earlier.<p>Whatever the reason—the expiry of Parliament's five year term, the choice of the Prime Minister, or a Government defeat in the House of Commons—a dissolution is followed by general elections. If the Prime Minister's party retains its majority in the House of Commons, then the Prime Minister may remain in power. On the other hand, if his or her party has lost its majority, the Prime Minister is compelled to resign, allowing the Sovereign to appoint a new premier. A Prime Minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons); in such a case, the premiership goes to the new leader of the outgoing Prime Minister's party. Extraordinarily, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a leader until 1965 and when <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Eden resigned in 1957 without recommending a successor, the party was unable to nominate one. It fell to the Queen to appoint <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Macmillan.htm" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a> as the new Prime Minister, after taking the advice of ministers, and thus simultaneously appoint the leader of a political party.<p>By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who are outside Parliament but in most cases they subsequently entered Parliament either by means of a by-election or receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Home disclaimed his peerage days after becoming Prime Minister, and was elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas-Home).<p>In modern times, a vast majority of ministers belong to the Commons rather than the Lords. No major <!--del_lnk--> cabinet position (except <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chancellor and <!--del_lnk--> Leader of the House of Lords) has been filled by a Lord since <!--del_lnk--> Lord Carrington resigned as Foreign Secretary in 1982, though some of the middle rank Cabinet posts such as Defence Secretary and International Development Secretary have been filled by peers. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers from the Commons. The Prime Minister chooses the Ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.<p>The House of Commons scrutinises the Government through "<!--del_lnk--> Question Time," a period during which Members have the opportunity to ask questions of the Prime Minister and of other Cabinet Ministers. Prime Minister's Question Time occurs once each week, normally for a half-hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding Minister's official Government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.<p>In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is fairly weak. Since the first-past-the-post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Thus, during the 20th century the Government has lost confidence issues only thrice—twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions to their cause (see <!--del_lnk--> top-up fees, <!--del_lnk--> foundation hospitals). Occasionally the Government is defeated by backbench rebellions (<!--del_lnk--> Terrorism Act 2006). However, the scrutiny provided by the Select Committees is more serious.<p>The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse; the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means such as No Confidence Motions. The last impeachment was that of <!--del_lnk--> Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville in 1806.<p><a id="Latest_election" name="Latest_election"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Latest election</span></h2>
<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; text-align:right; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<caption>
<br /><b>Summary of the <!--del_lnk--> 5 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005 <strong class="selflink">House of Commons of the United Kingdom</strong> <!--del_lnk--> election results</b></caption>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Parties<br /><small>This table indicates those parties with over 500 votes nationwide</small></th>
<th>Seats</th>
<th>Gains</th>
<th>Losses</th>
<th>Net<br /> Gain/Loss</th>
<th>Seats %</th>
<th>Votes %</th>
<th>Votes</th>
<th>+/-</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CC0000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Labour</td>
<td>356</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>47</td>
<td>-47</td>
<td>55.2</td>
<td>35.3</td>
<td>9,562,122</td>
<td>-5.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#3333CC" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Conservative</td>
<td>198</td>
<td>36</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>+33</td>
<td>30.7</td>
<td>32.3</td>
<td>8,772,598</td>
<td>+0.6%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFD700" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrats</td>
<td>62</td>
<td>16</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>+11</td>
<td>9.6</td>
<td>22.1</td>
<td>5,981,874</td>
<td>+3.7%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#993366" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> UK Independence</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>2.2</td>
<td>603,298</td>
<td>+0.8%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF66" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Scottish National Party</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>+2</td>
<td>0.9</td>
<td>1.5</td>
<td>412,267</td>
<td>-0.3%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#99CC33" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Green</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>1.0</td>
<td>257,758</td>
<td>+0.4%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#D46A4C" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Democratic Unionist</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>+4</td>
<td>1.4</td>
<td>0.9</td>
<td>241,856</td>
<td>+0.2%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="navy" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> British National</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.7</td>
<td>192,746</td>
<td>+0.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#DAA520" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Plaid Cymru</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>-1</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>0.6</td>
<td>174,838</td>
<td>-0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#008800" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Sinn Féin</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>+1</td>
<td>0.8</td>
<td>0.6</td>
<td>174,530</td>
<td>-0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#9999FF" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Ulster Unionist</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>-5</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>127,414</td>
<td>-0.3%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#99FF66" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Social Democratic & Labour</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>125,626</td>
<td>-0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="white" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Independent</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>0.5</td>
<td>122,000</td>
<td>+0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FF3300" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Respect</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>+1</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>0.3</td>
<td>68,094</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#990033" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Scottish Socialist</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>43,514</td>
<td>-0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#770099" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Veritas</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>40,481</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="gold" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Alliance (NI)</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>28,291</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#009900" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Scottish Green</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>25,760</td>
<td>+0.1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#780A1F" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Socialist Labour</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>20,192</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="orange" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Liberal</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>19,068</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="white" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Health Concern</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.2</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>18,739</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#880000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> English Democrats</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>14,506</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="red" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Socialist Alternative</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>9,398</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#669966" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Legalise Cannabis</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>6,985</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#33FF33" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Community Action</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>6,557</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="hotpink" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Monster Raving Loony</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>6,311</td>
<td>0.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FF66FF" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Christian Vote</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>4,004</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCC00" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Mebyon Kernow</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>3,552</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FF3333" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Forward Wales</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>3,461</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#AA00AA" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Christian Peoples</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>3,291</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFC0CB" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Rainbow Dream Ticket</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>2,463</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#808080" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Community Group</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>2,365</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Ashfield Independents</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>2,292</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#00A86B" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Alliance for Green Socialism</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,978</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Residents' Association of London</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,850</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EE0000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Workers Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,669</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#BB0000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Socialist Environmental</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,649</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#5555FF" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Scottish Unionist</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,266</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#AA0000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Workers' Revolutionary</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,143</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#2F4F4F" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> New England</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,224</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="red" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Communist</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,124</td>
<td>0.0%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> The Community (Hounslow)</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,118</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Peace and Progress</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,036</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#0000FF" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Scottish Senior Citizens</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,017</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Your Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>1,006</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> SOS! Northampton</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>932</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#0095B6" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Independent Working Class</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>892</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#E32636" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Democratic Labour</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>770</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> British Public Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>763</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Free Scotland Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>743</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Pensioners Party Scotland</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>716</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Publican Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>678</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left">English Independence Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>654</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#DD0000" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Socialist Unity</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>581</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Local Community Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>570</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#BC8F8F" style="width: 10px">
</td>
<td scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Clause 28</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>516</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> UK Community Issues Party</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0.0</td>
<td>502</td>
<td><i>N/A</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Total</th>
<th>646</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>27,110,727</th>
<th>
</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Current_composition" name="Current_composition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Current composition</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="1" valign="top"><b>Affiliation</b></td>
<td valign="top"><b>Members</b><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CC0000"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Labour Party</td>
<td>352</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="blue"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Conservative Party</td>
<td>196</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FCB825"> </td>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrats</a></td>
<td>63</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#D46A4C"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democratic Unionist Party</td>
<td>9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF00"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Scottish National Party</td>
<td>6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#00CC00"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sinn Féin</td>
<td>5 <sup>1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#00CC00"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Plaid Cymru</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#99FF66"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Social Democratic and Labour Party</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Independents<br />
</td>
<td>1 <sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>Independent Labour<br />
</td>
<td>1 <sup>3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#9999FF"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ulster Unionist Party</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#F03F35"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> RESPECT The Unity Coalition</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Health Concern<br />
</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="black"> </td>
<td>Speaker and Deputies<br />
</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="1"> <b>Total</b><br />
</td>
<td><b>646</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="1"> <b>Government Majority</b><br />
</td>
<td><b>62</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><sup>1</sup> Sinn Féin's policy of <!--del_lnk--> abstaining from participation in the House of Commons precludes its MPs from taking their seats.<li><sup>2</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Dai Davies, elected as an Independent in the <!--del_lnk--> Blaenau Gwent constituency. <!--del_lnk--> Richard Taylor is accounted for under Health Concern.<li><sup>3</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Clare Short, who resigned the Labour whip on <!--del_lnk--> 20 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006.</ul>
<p><a id="The_chamber_in_film_and_television" name="The_chamber_in_film_and_television"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The chamber in film and television</span></h2>
<p>In 1986, the British television production company <!--del_lnk--> Granada Television created a near-full size replica of the House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> for use in its adaptation of the <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey Archer novel <i><!--del_lnk--> First Among Equals</i>. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production – since then, it has been used in nearly every British <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> production that has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the <!--del_lnk--> Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set.<p>In 2002 the set was purchased by the scriptwriter <!--del_lnk--> Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> drama serial <i><!--del_lnk--> State of Play</i>. Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. He currently keeps it in storage in <a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>.<p>A stage mock-up of the House of Commons also features in the political satire <i><!--del_lnk--> Restart</i> by Komedy Kollective, about a British prime minister seeking re-election.<p>The House of Commons is also featured in the Robin Williams stand-up special "Robin Williams Live on Broadway" in which he refers to it as such, "House of Commons, like Congress, but with a two drink minimum."<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_House_of_Commons"</div>
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['Parliament of the United Kingdom', 'British monarchy', 'House of Lords', 'Democracy', 'Prime Minister of the United Kingdom', 'Palace of Westminster', 'Edward III of England', 'Speaker of the British House of Commons', 'Richard II of England', 'James I of England', 'Charles I of England', 'Oliver Cromwell', 'James II of England', 'Glorious Revolution', 'Manchester', 'Germany', 'Edward VII of the United Kingdom', 'George V of the United Kingdom', 'University of Cambridge', 'England', 'Wales', 'Scotland', 'Northern Ireland', 'United Kingdom', 'Republic of Ireland', 'Radio', 'Television', 'CS gas', 'Charles I of England', 'Privy Council of the United Kingdom', 'Harold Macmillan', 'Liberal Democrats', 'Manchester', 'Film', 'Television', 'BBC', 'Oxford']
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British_Indian_Ocean_Territory
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British Indian Ocean Territory</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.Asian_Countries.htm">Asian Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>British Indian Ocean Territory</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/261/26105.png.htm" title="Flag of British Indian Ocean Territory"><img alt="Flag of British Indian Ocean Territory" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory.svg" src="../../images/239/23908.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Coat of arms of British Indian Ocean Territory" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_Indian_Ocean_Territory_COA.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="85" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>In tutela nostra Limuria</i><br /> (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>:"<!--del_lnk--> Limuria is in our charge")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/239/23911.png.htm" title="Location of British Indian Ocean Territory"><img alt="Location of British Indian Ocean Territory" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Biot-map.png" src="../../images/239/23910.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td>n/a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Commissioner</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tony Crombie</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Administrator</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tony Humphries</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Created</th>
<td>1965 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 60 km² (<!--del_lnk--> n/a)<br /> sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>0</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>58.3/km² (<!--del_lnk--> n/a)<br /> /sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a><sup>1</sup> (<code><!--del_lnk--> GBP</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+6)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+?)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .io</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+246</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">U.S. dollar</a> accepted.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>British Indian Ocean Territory</b> (<b>BIOT</b>) is an <!--del_lnk--> overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> situated in the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, one half the way between <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The territory comprises the six <!--del_lnk--> atolls of the <!--del_lnk--> Chagos Archipelago with over 1,000 individual islands.<p>The largest island is <a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>, the site of a joint military facility of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The Islands of <!--del_lnk--> Chagos Archipelago were discovered by <a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> in the early sixteenth century, then claimed in the eighteenth century by <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> as a possession of <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>. However, in <!--del_lnk--> 1810, Mauritius was captured by the United Kingdom, and France ceded the territory in the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Paris (1814). Agricultural workers migrated to the Islands in the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, settling on the main island of <a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a> and establishing <!--del_lnk--> copra plantations.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1965, the United Kingdom split the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius, and the islands of <!--del_lnk--> Aldabra, <!--del_lnk--> Farquhar and <!--del_lnk--> Desroches (Des Roches) from the <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> to form the British Indian Ocean Territory. The purpose was to allow the construction of military facilties for the mutual benefit of the United Kingdom and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The islands were formally established as an overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> on <!--del_lnk--> November 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1965. On <!--del_lnk--> June 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1976, Aldabra, Farquhar and Desroches were returned to <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> as a result of it attaining independence. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groups comprising the <!--del_lnk--> Chagos Archipelago.<p>The creation of BIOT has been subject to legal controversy, as some legal opinions from international law experts say that the decision to separate the BIOT from Mauritius was illegal because international law does not allow the dismembering of a country before independence. However the decision was taken with the full agreement of the Mauritius Council of Ministers<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1966, the British Government purchased the privately owned copra plantations, and closed them down, and removed the entire population (known as the <!--del_lnk--> Ilois, or Chagossians) of Diego Garcia to Mauritius. In <!--del_lnk--> 1971, the United Kingdom and the United States signed a treaty, leasing the island of Diego Garcia to the <!--del_lnk--> American military for the purposes of building a large air and naval base on the Island. The deal was important to the United Kingdom, as the United States agreed to give them a substantial discount on the purchase of <!--del_lnk--> Polaris nuclear missiles in return for the lease. The strategic location of the Island was also significant at the centre of the Indian Ocean, and to counter any <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> threat in the region.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17799.jpg.htm" title="View of Diego Garcia, showing military base."><img alt="View of Diego Garcia, showing military base." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Diegogarcia.jpg" src="../../images/177/17799.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/177/17799.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View of <a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>, showing military base.</div>
</div>
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<p>Work on the military base commenced in <!--del_lnk--> 1971, with a large airbase with several long range runways constructed, as well as a harbour suitable for large naval vessels. Although classed as a joint UK/US base, in practice it is mainly staffed by the American military, although a small British garrison is maintained at all times, and <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> long range patrol aircraft are deployed there. The <!--del_lnk--> United States Air Force used the base during the 1991 <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War and the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 war in Afghanistan, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 Iraq War.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, the Mauritian Government asserted a sovereignty claim on the territory, citing the 1965 separation as illegal under international law, despite their apparent agreement at the time. The Seychelles also launched a sovereignty claim on several of the Islands.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ilois, who now reside in Mauritius and the Seychelles have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia, winning an important legal victory in the British <!--del_lnk--> High Court of Justice in 2000. However, this judgement was overturned by <!--del_lnk--> Order-in-Council in June 2004. On <!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 the British High Court ruled that these Orders-in-Council were unlawful, and consequently that the Ilois were entitled to return to the Chagos Archipelago. <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> It remains to be seen whether the British Government will appeal, and when or how the judgment might be implemented in practice.<p>The Ilois were granted the right to visit Diego Garcia on <!--del_lnk--> April 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 for humanitarian purposes, including the tending of the graves of their ancestors. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Politics_and_law" name="Politics_and_law"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics and law</span></h2>
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<p>As a territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the head of state is <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>. There is no Governor appointed to represent the Queen on the territory, as there are no native inhabitants. The head of government is the <!--del_lnk--> Commissioner, currently Tony Crombie (since January <!--del_lnk--> 2004, replacing David Ross MacLennan) and Administrator Tony Humphries (since February <!--del_lnk--> 2005, replacing Charles A. Hamilton), all of whom reside in the UK.<p>The laws of the territory are based on the constitution, set out in the British Indian Ocean Territory (Constitution) Order 2004. Applicable treaties between the United Kingdom and the United States govern the use of the military base. The United States are required to ask permission of the United Kingdom if they are using the base for offensive military action.<p>The UK has an agreement with Mauritius to return the territory in the event that they are no longer required for defence purposes.<p><a id="Geography_and_communications" name="Geography_and_communications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and communications</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23911.png.htm" title="Map of the British Indian Ocean Territory since 1976"><img alt="Map of the British Indian Ocean Territory since 1976" height="323" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Biot-map.png" src="../../images/239/23911.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23911.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the British Indian Ocean Territory since 1976</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23912.jpg.htm" title="BIOT prior to Seychelles independence in 1976. (Desroches is not shown, but is a part of the Amirante Islands)."><img alt="BIOT prior to Seychelles independence in 1976. (Desroches is not shown, but is a part of the Amirante Islands)." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SeychellesBIOT1970.jpg" src="../../images/239/23912.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23912.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> BIOT prior to Seychelles independence in 1976. (Desroches is not shown, but is a part of the <!--del_lnk--> Amirante Islands).</div>
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<dl>
<dd>
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<p>The territory is an archipelago of 2,300 islands, the largest being Diego Garcia. The total area of the territory is 60 km². The terrain is flat and low, with a typical elevation of 4 metres. The climate is tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds.<p>Most of the islands in the territory have no <!--del_lnk--> roads of any sort; Diego Garcia has a short stretch of paved road between the port and airfield; most <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transport">transport</a> is by <a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle.htm" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a>. Diego Garcia includes a major naval <!--del_lnk--> port but no other island has a port or harbour. The only <!--del_lnk--> airport is the military base on Diego Garcia, with a paved runway over 3000 metres long.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>All economic activity is concentrated on <a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Approximately 2,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or <!--del_lnk--> Ilois, were forcibly removed to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in <!--del_lnk--> 1995, there were approximately 1700 UK and US military personnel and 1500 civilian contractors living on the island. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands. The licensing of <!--del_lnk--> commercial fishing provides an annual income of about one million dollars for the Territory. <!--del_lnk--> . Separate telephone facilities for military and public needs are available, providing all standard commercial telephone services, including connection to the Internet. International telephone service is carried by satellite. The Territory has three radio broadcast stations, one AM and two FM, and one television broadcast station. Its Internet <!--del_lnk--> country code (top-level domain) is IO.<p>Postage stamps have been issued for British Indian Ocean Territory since <!--del_lnk--> 17 January <!--del_lnk--> 1968.<p>
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<div class="NavFrame" style="clear:both; margin: 0.5em 0; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#ccccff; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%; position:relative;"><b><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British overseas territories and crown dependencies</a></b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em;">
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="British overseas territories and crown dependencies"><img alt="British overseas territories and crown dependencies" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/41/4177.png" width="35" /></a></span></div><b><!--del_lnk--> Overseas territories</b>: <small><a href="../../wp/a/Anguilla.htm" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a> • <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> • <!--del_lnk--> British Antarctic Territory • <strong class="selflink">British Indian Ocean Territory</strong> • <a href="../../wp/b/British_Virgin_Islands.htm" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> • <a href="../../wp/p/Pitcairn_Islands.htm" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Ascension Island, <!--del_lnk--> Tristan da Cunha</i>) • <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/t/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.htm" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></small><br />
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Crown dependencies</b>: <small><a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> • <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></small><br />
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Sovereign base areas</b>: <small><a href="../../wp/a/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia.htm" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a></small></div>
</div>
<div class="NavFrame" style="clear:both; margin: 0.5em 0; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#ccccff; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%; position:relative;"><b>Outlying territories of <!--del_lnk--> European countries</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em;">
<div style="text-align:left;">
<table style="background:transparent;">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;"><i>Territories under <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> sovereignty but closer to continents other than Europe (see <!--del_lnk--> inclusion criteria for further information)</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;" width="100px"> <!--del_lnk--> <b>Denmark</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <b><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></b></td>
<td>
<p><a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Martinique.htm" title="Martinique">Martinique</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Pierre et Miquelon<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mayotte.htm" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/r/R%25C3%25A9union.htm" title="Réunion">Réunion</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Clipperton Island<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/New_Caledonia.htm" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/f/French_Polynesia.htm" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/w/Wallis_and_Futuna.htm" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" title="French Southern Territories">French Southern Territories</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <b><a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pantelleria<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Pelagie Islands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <!--del_lnk--> <b>Netherlands</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Aruba.htm" title="Aruba">Aruba</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands_Antilles.htm" title="Netherlands Antilles">Netherlands Antilles</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <!--del_lnk--> <b>Norway</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bouvet_Island.htm" title="Bouvet Island">Bouvet Island</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <b><a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Azores Islands<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Madeira Islands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <b><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceuta<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Melilla<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> <i>Plazas de soberanía</i><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Canary Islands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#ddddff;"> <b><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></b></td>
<td>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Anguilla.htm" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/British_Virgin_Islands.htm" title="British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <!--del_lnk--> Tristan da Cunha<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.htm" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <strong class="selflink">British Indian Ocean Territory</strong><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/p/Pitcairn_Islands.htm" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory"</div>
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['Latin', 'English language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'United Kingdom', 'Currency', 'Pound sterling', 'Time zone', 'United States dollar', 'United Kingdom', 'Indian Ocean', 'Africa', 'Indonesia', 'Diego Garcia', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Vasco da Gama', 'France', 'Mauritius', '19th century', 'Diego Garcia', 'Seychelles', 'United States', 'United Kingdom', 'Seychelles', 'Soviet Union', 'Diego Garcia', 'Royal Air Force', 'United Kingdom', 'Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom', 'Transport', 'Bicycle', 'Diego Garcia', 'Mauritius', 'Philippines', 'United Kingdom', 'Anguilla', 'Bermuda', 'British Virgin Islands', 'Cayman Islands', 'Falkland Islands', 'Gibraltar', 'Montserrat', 'Pitcairn Islands', 'Saint Helena', 'South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands', 'Turks and Caicos Islands', 'Guernsey', 'Jersey', 'Isle of Man', 'Akrotiri and Dhekelia', 'Europe', 'Greenland', 'France', 'Guadeloupe', 'Martinique', 'Mayotte', 'Réunion', 'New Caledonia', 'French Polynesia', 'Wallis and Futuna', 'French Guiana', 'French Southern Territories', 'Italy', 'Aruba', 'Netherlands Antilles', 'Bouvet Island', 'Portugal', 'Spain', 'United Kingdom', 'Anguilla', 'Bermuda', 'British Virgin Islands', 'Cayman Islands', 'Falkland Islands', 'Montserrat', 'Saint Helena', 'Turks and Caicos Islands', 'Pitcairn Islands', 'South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands']
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British_Isles
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British Isles</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>British Isles</b> are a group of islands off the northwest coast of <!--del_lnk--> continental Europe consisting of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, and a number of smaller surrounding <!--del_lnk--> islands and <!--del_lnk--> islets. The term "British Isles" can be confusing (see <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles_%2528terminology%2529.htm" title="British Isles (terminology)">British Isles (terminology)</a>) and is objectionable to some people in Ireland. See the <a href="#Terminology" title="">Terminology</a> section below for details of the controversy.<p>There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>. The group also includes the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, a United Kingdom <!--del_lnk--> crown dependency. Both states, but not the Isle of Man, are members of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Between 1801 and 1922, Great Britain and Ireland together formed the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, Ireland left the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom, except for six counties in the north east of the island, which became known as <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>.<p>The islands encompass an area south to north from <!--del_lnk--> Pednathise Head to <!--del_lnk--> Out Stack, <a href="../../wp/s/Shetland.htm" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> in the United Kingdom, and west to east from <!--del_lnk--> Tearaght Island in the Republic of Ireland to <!--del_lnk--> Lowestoft Ness in the United Kingdom, containing more than 6,000 islands, amounting to a total land area of 121,674 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (315,134 km²). The British Isles are largely low lying and fertile, though with significant mountainous areas in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the north of England. The regional geology is complex, formed by the drifting together of separate regions and shaped by glaciation.<p>The islands were named after the <!--del_lnk--> Priteni, an ancient name for the Irish and British pre-Roman inhabitants; however, on its own, the dominant modern meaning of the adjective "<!--del_lnk--> British" is "of Great Britain or of the United Kingdom or its people", so the term "British Isles" can be mistakenly interpreted to imply that the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> is part of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. The Irish government's policy is that the term is not used by the government and is without any official status, as stated by Minister for Foreign Affairs Dermot Ahern in 2005; the media in the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> also rarely use it. Irish people taking this view object to any use of the term, and avoid referring to the group of islands as a whole.<p>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2240.png.htm" title="A map of the British Isles"><img alt="A map of the British Isles" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_Isles.svg" src="../../images/22/2240.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2240.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A map of the British Isles</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2241.png.htm" title="Satellite Image of the British Isles (excluding the Shetland Islands) and part of northern Continental Europe."><img alt="Satellite Image of the British Isles (excluding the Shetland Islands) and part of northern Continental Europe." height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:United_Kingdom_satellite_image.png" src="../../images/22/2241.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2241.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite Image of the British Isles (excluding the <!--del_lnk--> Shetland Islands) and part of northern <!--del_lnk--> Continental Europe.</div>
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<p>The island-group is made up of <!--del_lnk--> more than 6,000 islands, the two biggest being <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. Great Britain, to the east, covers 83,698 square miles (216,777 km²), over half of the total landmass of the group; Ireland, to the west, covers 32,589 square miles (84,406 km²). The other larger islands are situated to the north and west of the group, in the <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrides.htm" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Shetland Islands.<p>The islands that constitute the British Isles include:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Isles (including <a href="../../wp/o/Orkney.htm" title="Orkney">Orkney</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Shetland.htm" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Fair_Isle.htm" title="Fair Isle">Fair Isle</a>)<li><a href="../../wp/h/Hebrides.htm" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a> (including the <a href="../../wp/i/Inner_Hebrides.htm" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Outer_Hebrides.htm" title="Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Small Isles)<li><!--del_lnk--> Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde (including the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Arran and <!--del_lnk--> Bute)<li><!--del_lnk--> Anglesey (in <!--del_lnk--> Welsh <i>Ynys Môn</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Farne Islands<li><a href="../../wp/i/Isles_of_Scilly.htm" title="Isles of Scilly">Isles of Scilly</a><li><a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a><li>Portsmouth Islands (including <!--del_lnk--> Portsea Island and <!--del_lnk--> Hayling Island)<li><!--del_lnk--> Islands of Furness<li><!--del_lnk--> Isle of Portland<li>See also: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> List of islands of England<li><!--del_lnk--> List of islands of Scotland<li><!--del_lnk--> List of islands of Wales</ul>
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<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ulster: <!--del_lnk--> Arranmore, <!--del_lnk--> Tory Island<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Rathlin Island</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Connacht: <!--del_lnk--> Achill Island, <!--del_lnk--> Clew Bay islands, <!--del_lnk--> Inishturk, <!--del_lnk--> Inishbofin, <!--del_lnk--> Inishark, <!--del_lnk--> Aran Islands<li><!--del_lnk--> Munster: <!--del_lnk--> Blasket Islands, <!--del_lnk--> Valentia Island, <!--del_lnk--> Cape Clear, <!--del_lnk--> Sherkin Island, <!--del_lnk--> Great Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Leinster: <!--del_lnk--> Lambay Island, <!--del_lnk--> Ireland's Eye<li>See also: <!--del_lnk--> List of islands of Ireland</ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a><ul>
<li>See also: <!--del_lnk--> List of islands of Isle of Man</ul>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> are sometimes stated as being in the British Isles <!--del_lnk--> , though geographically they are not part of the island group, being close to the coast of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>The islands are at relatively low altitudes, with central Ireland and southern Great Britain particularly low lying. The <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a> in the northern part of Great Britain are mountainous, with <a href="../../wp/b/Ben_Nevis.htm" title="Ben Nevis">Ben Nevis</a> being the highest point in the British Isles at 1,344 <!--del_lnk--> metres (4,409 <!--del_lnk--> ft). Other mountainous areas include Wales and parts of the island of Ireland, but only seven peaks in these areas reach above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft). Lakes on the islands are generally not large, although <!--del_lnk--> Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is an exception, covering 147 square miles (381 km²); the largest freshwater body in Great Britain is <!--del_lnk--> Loch Lomond at 27.5 square miles (71.1 km²). Neither are rivers particularly long, the rivers <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">Severn</a> at 219 miles (354 km) and <!--del_lnk--> Shannon at 240 miles (386 km) being the longest.<p>The British Isles have a <!--del_lnk--> temperate <!--del_lnk--> marine climate, the <!--del_lnk--> North Atlantic Drift ("Gulf Stream") which flows from the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> brings with it significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 degrees Celsius (20°<!--del_lnk--> F) above the global average for the islands' latitudes. Winters are thus warm and wet, with summers mild and also wet. Most Atlantic <!--del_lnk--> depressions pass to the north of the islands, combined with the general <!--del_lnk--> westerly circulation and interactions with the landmass, this imposes an east-west variation in climate. <p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2>
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<p>An <!--del_lnk--> interactive geological map is available.<p>The British Isles lie at the juncture of several regions with past episodes of <!--del_lnk--> tectonic mountain building. These <!--del_lnk--> orogenic belts form a complex geology which records a huge and varied span of earth history. Of particular note was the <!--del_lnk--> Caledonian Orogeny during the <a href="../../wp/o/Ordovician.htm" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> Period, ca. 488-444 <!--del_lnk--> Ma and early <a href="../../wp/s/Silurian.htm" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> period, when the <a href="../../wp/c/Craton.htm" title="Craton">craton</a> <!--del_lnk--> Baltica collided with the <!--del_lnk--> terrane <!--del_lnk--> Avalonia to form the mountains and hills in northern Britain and Ireland. Baltica formed roughly the north western half of Ireland and Scotland. Further collisions caused the <!--del_lnk--> Variscan orogeny in the <a href="../../wp/d/Devonian.htm" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Carboniferous.htm" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> periods, forming the hills of <!--del_lnk--> Munster, south-west England, and south Wales. Over the last 500 million years the land which forms the islands has drifted northwest from around 30°S, crossing the <!--del_lnk--> equator around 370 million years ago to reach its present northern latitude. <p>The islands have been shaped by numerous glaciations during the <!--del_lnk--> Quaternary Period, the most recent being the <!--del_lnk--> Devensian. As this ended, the central <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_Sea.htm" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a> was de-glaciated (whether or not there was a land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland at this time is somewhat disputed, though there was certainly a single ice sheet covering the entire sea) and the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> flooded, with sea levels rising to current levels some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, leaving the British Isles in their current form.<p>The islands' geology is highly complex, though there are large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> limestone and <!--del_lnk--> chalk rocks which formed in the <a href="../../wp/p/Permian.htm" title="Permian">Permian</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Triassic.htm" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> periods. The west coasts of Ireland and northern Great Britain that directly face the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> are generally characterized by long <!--del_lnk--> peninsulas, and headlands and bays; the internal and eastern coasts are "smoother".<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<td style="text-align:center; background:#fff;border-bottom:1px #ccc solid; font-weight:bold;"><b><!--del_lnk--> History of the British Isles</b><p><a class="image" href="../../images/176/17625.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" src="../../images/22/2242.jpg" width="100" /></a></td>
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<p><b>By chronology</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Prehistoric Britain<li><!--del_lnk--> Iron Age Britain<li><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Sub-Roman Britain<li><!--del_lnk--> Medieval Britain<li><!--del_lnk--> Early Modern Britain<li><!--del_lnk--> Modern Britain</ul>
<p><b>By nation</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> History of England<li><!--del_lnk--> History of Northern Ireland<li><!--del_lnk--> History of Ireland<li><!--del_lnk--> History of Scotland<li><!--del_lnk--> History of Wales</ul>
<p><b>By topic</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constitutional history<li><!--del_lnk--> Economic history<li><!--del_lnk--> Military history<li><!--del_lnk--> Social history</ul>
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<th style="background: #f0f0f0; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> History of Ireland<br /> series</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Early history</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Early Christian Ireland</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Early medieval and Viking era</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Norman Ireland</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Early Modern Ireland 1536–1691</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Ireland 1691–1801</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Union with Great Britain</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> History of the Republic</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> History of Northern Ireland</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Economic history</td>
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<p>The British Isles has a long and complex shared history. While this tends to be presented in terms of national narratives, many events transcended modern political boundaries. In particular these borders have little relevance to early times and in that context can be misleading, though useful as an indication of location to the modern reader. Also, cultural shifts which historians have previously interpreted as evidence of invaders eliminating or displacing the previous populations are now, in the light of genetic evidence, perceived by a number of archaeologists and historians as being to a considerable extent changes in the culture of the existing population brought by groups of immigrants or invaders who at times became a new ruling élite.<p><a id="Prehistory" name="Prehistory"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Prehistory</span></h3>
<p>At a time when the islands were still joined to continental Europe, <i><!--del_lnk--> Homo erectus</i> brought <!--del_lnk--> Palaeolithic tool use to the south east of the modern British Isles some 750,000 years ago followed (about 500,000 years ago) by the more advanced tool use of <i><!--del_lnk--> Homo heidelbergensis</i> found at <!--del_lnk--> Boxgrove. It appears that the <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciation</a> of <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> successively cleared all human life from the area, though human occupation occurred during warmer interglacial periods. Modern humans appear with the <!--del_lnk--> Aurignacian culture about 30,000 years ago, famously with the "<!--del_lnk--> Red Lady of Paviland" in modern Wales. The last ice age ended around 10,000 years ago, and <!--del_lnk--> Mesolithic <!--del_lnk--> hunter-gatherers spread to all parts of the islands by around 8,000 years ago, at a time when rising sea levels now cut off the islands from the continent. The immigrants came principally from the ice age refuge in what is now the <!--del_lnk--> Basque Country, with a smaller immigration from refuges in the modern <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Moldavia. Three quarters of the ancestors of people of the British Isles may have arrived in this wave of immigration.<p>Around 6,500 years ago farming practices spread to the area with the <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic Revolution and the western seaways quickly brought <!--del_lnk--> megalithic culture throughout the islands. The earliest stone house still standing in northern Europe is at <!--del_lnk--> Knap of Howar, in Orkney which also features such monuments as <!--del_lnk--> Maes Howe ranking alongside the <!--del_lnk--> Callanish stone circle on the Isle of Lewis, <!--del_lnk--> Newgrange in Ireland, and <a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> in southern England along with thousands of lesser monuments across the isles, often showing affinities with megalithic monuments in France and Spain. Further cultural shifts in the <!--del_lnk--> bronze age were followed with the building of numerous <!--del_lnk--> hill forts in the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron age">iron age</a>, and increased trade with continental Europe.<p><a id="Pretani.2C_Romans_and_Anglo-Saxons" name="Pretani.2C_Romans_and_Anglo-Saxons"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Pretani, Romans and Anglo-Saxons</span></h3>
<p>The oldest surviving historical records of the islands preserve fragments of the travels of the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <!--del_lnk--> Pytheas around 320 BC and describe Great Britain and Ireland as the islands of <i>Prettanike</i> with their peoples the <i>Priteni</i> or <i>Pretani</i>, a name which may have been used in <!--del_lnk--> Gaul. A later variation on this term as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Cruithne</i> would come to refer to certain groups. Ireland was referred to as <i>Ierne</i> (the <i>sacred island</i> as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of <i>Hiberni</i>", and Great Britain as <i>insula Albionum</i>, "island of the Albions". These terms without the collective name appear in the <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a> writings of <!--del_lnk--> Avienus which preserve fragments of the <!--del_lnk--> Massaliote Periplus of the <!--del_lnk--> 6th century BC. Later scholars associated these tribal societies with the <!--del_lnk--> Celts the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greeks</a> reported in what is now south-west Germany, and subgrouped their <i><!--del_lnk--> Celtic languages</i> in the British Isles into the <!--del_lnk--> Brythonic languages spoken in most of Great Britain, and <!--del_lnk--> Goidelic in Ireland and the west of modern Scotland. They perceived these languages as arriving in a series of invasions, but modern evidence suggests that these peoples may have migrated from <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia around 7000 B.C. through southern and then western Europe. Genetic evidence indicates that there was not a later large-scale replacement of these early inhabitants and that the Celtic influence was largely cultural. In the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish highlands northwards the people the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> called <!--del_lnk--> Caledonians or <a href="../../wp/p/Picts.htm" title="Picts">Picts</a> spoke a language which is now unknown. It is also possible that southern England was settled by Belgic tribes.<p>During the first century the <!--del_lnk--> Roman conquest of Britain established <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> which became a province of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> named <i>Britannia</i>, eventually extending on the island of Great Britain to <a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> with tribes forming friendly <!--del_lnk--> buffer states further north to around the <!--del_lnk--> Firth of Clyde and the <!--del_lnk--> Firth of Forth, and military expeditions beyond that into <!--del_lnk--> Caledonia. The interaction of the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> with Ireland appears to have largely been limited to some trade. From the 4th century raids on Roman Britain increased and language links have led to speculation that many Britons migrated across the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> at this time to found <!--del_lnk--> Brittany, but it has been contended that <!--del_lnk--> Armorica was already Brittonic speaking due to trade and religious links, and the Romans subsequently called it <i>Brittania</i>.<p>The departure of the Romans around 410 left numerous kingdoms across the British Isles. Settlement in <!--del_lnk--> Sub-Roman Britain by peoples traditionally called the <!--del_lnk--> Angles, <!--del_lnk--> Saxons, and <!--del_lnk--> Jutes created <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon kingdoms ("the <!--del_lnk--> Heptarchy") over much of what is now England and <!--del_lnk--> south-east Scotland. To the north, the Irish <a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25A1l_Riata.htm" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riatans</a>, also known by the name <!--del_lnk--> Scotti expanded their influence to western Scotland.<p><a id="National_formation" name="National_formation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">National formation</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> arrived in Britain and Ireland in the 790's with raids on <!--del_lnk--> Lindisfarne, <!--del_lnk--> Iona, and the west of Ireland. They provided another wave of immigration, settling in Orkney and Shetland and then <!--del_lnk--> Western Isles, <!--del_lnk--> Caithness, <!--del_lnk--> Sutherland, <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Galloway, in various places around Ireland, <!--del_lnk--> Northumbria, <!--del_lnk--> East Anglia and <a href="../../wp/m/Mercia.htm" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>. <a href="../../wp/w/Wessex.htm" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> prevented the further expansion of the Vikings, and achieved a united <!--del_lnk--> kingdom of England in 927, which was then ruled by both English and Viking kings until <!--del_lnk--> 1066. Further north, in 900 A.D. <!--del_lnk--> Donald II was the first <!--del_lnk--> king of Alba rather than king of the Picts. His successors amalgamated all the kingdoms north of England into the kingdom of Alba and fixed its southern border on the <!--del_lnk--> Tweed in <!--del_lnk--> 1018. Wales was divided into a number of British kingdoms, apart from one short period of unification, and also suffered from viking raids in the tenth century. <!--del_lnk--> Ireland was divided among around eighty to a hundred petty kingdoms grouped under larger regional kingdoms and then a weak <!--del_lnk--> High King. The Vikings founded <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> in 852 and established several other coastal strongholds around Ireland. The Viking kingdom of Dublin went on to dominate much of Ireland, but their power was broken by <!--del_lnk--> Brian Boru in <!--del_lnk--> 1014 who effectively united Ireland, but only until his death.<p><a id="Norman_immigration" name="Norman_immigration"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Norman immigration</span></h3>
<p>The next wave of immigration were Viking descendants, the <!--del_lnk--> Normans. The <!--del_lnk--> Norman Conquest of <!--del_lnk--> 1066 brought England under their rule and then extended their influence and power to the rest of the British Isles. The Normans were centralisers and expansionists. Their lands (and those of their successors, the <!--del_lnk--> Plantagenets) within the British Isles were part of more extensive land holdings in France and elsewhere, and held within a feudal framework. They controlled <!--del_lnk--> Wales by the end of the 11th century, only to partially lose it again several times owing to revolts until 1283 when <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> successfully enforced <!--del_lnk--> Plantagenet supremacy. In <!--del_lnk--> 1072 the Normans forced the Scottish king <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm III to submit to their feudal overlordship, something they would regularly assert during the mediaeval period. The Normans did not supplant the Scottish political structure, but had great influence over it, eventually supplying the <!--del_lnk--> kings of the Scots from 1150, and then <!--del_lnk--> asserting independence of the Scottish Crown from that of England. The Scottish Crown gradually gained control of Norse areas, annexing the <!--del_lnk--> kingdoms of Mann and of the Isles in 1266, and Orkney and Shetland from <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> in 1472. The Normans were initially <!--del_lnk--> invited to Ireland, here they asserted overlordship, resulting in 1184 with the Pope authorising the feudal <!--del_lnk--> Lordship of Ireland. This fell under the English crown with the accession of <!--del_lnk--> John. Formal taxation and government during the middle ages was generally restricted to an arc around Dublin called the <!--del_lnk--> Pale.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the Normans slowly intermarried with the previous populations and adopted their language and customs. In England, the anglicisation of the Norman and Plantagenet elite was driven by the slow erosion of their lands elsewhere, but it was 1362 before the <i><!--del_lnk--> Langue d'oïl</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Norman gave way to <!--del_lnk--> Middle English to become the language of the law courts.<p><a id="Protestant_reformation_and_civil_wars" name="Protestant_reformation_and_civil_wars"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Protestant reformation and civil wars</span></h3>
<p>The feudal system decayed and by the end of the sixteenth century was replaced by a system of centralised states. The English throne had come under the Welsh <!--del_lnk--> Tudors, who centralised government in England, <!--del_lnk--> Ireland, and <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Wales</a>. In 1603 <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI of Scotland</a> brought England and Scotland into <!--del_lnk--> personal union and promoted the existence of a modern British identity.<p>These changes happened at the same time as the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant reformation where the Roman Catholic church had been replaced by national churches to which all people were expected to adhere to. Failure to do so resulted in prosecution for <!--del_lnk--> recusancy and heavy fines, and recusants laid themselves open to accusations of treason and loss of land. By 1600 there was a wide range of religious belief within the islands from <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian Calvinists (who were the majority in much of Scotland) and <!--del_lnk--> Independents to episcopal Calvinists (in the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a> and parts of Scotland) to Protestant Episcopalians that retained formal liturgy (especially the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>) to Roman Catholicism (which retained a large majority in Ireland).<p>James, and his son, <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, favoured political and religious centralisation and uniformity throughout the British Isles. They favoured episcopal, <!--del_lnk--> Armininian churches with a formal liturgy, which antagonised many Protestants. In addition, James, although he followed a policy of relative religious toleration, worsened the position of Irish Catholics by expanding the policy of <!--del_lnk--> plantation in Ireland, most notably in the <!--del_lnk--> Plantation of Ulster where forfeited lands from Catholics were settled by Scottish and English Protestants and by barring Catholics from serving in pubic office. Charles tried to force central, personal government. He attempted to bypass institutions he could not control and impose a uniform non-Calivinistic settlement throughout the islands.<p>The result was the <!--del_lnk--> Bishops Wars#First Bishops War in Scotland in 1639, when the Scottish Presbyterians rebelled against Charles' religious policies. The crisis rapidly spread to Ireland, in the form of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Rebellion of 1641 and then to England, where Parliament refused to raise an army for Charles to fight in Scotland or Ireland, fearing that it would next be used against them. the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War broke out in 1642. Collectively, these conflicts are known as the <!--del_lnk--> Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a shifting series of conflicts and alliances within Britain and Ireland. The King's supporters were known as the Royalists and had forces in England, Scotland (mostly episcopalian and Catholic <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" title="Scottish Highlands">highlanders</a>), and Ireland. The English Parliamentary forces (mostly presbyterian and independents) fought against them, but were defeated in England by 1645. The Scottish presbyterians (the <!--del_lnk--> Covenanters) were allied to the English Paliament, while the Irish Catholic <!--del_lnk--> Confederates were loosely allied with the Royalists.<p>By 1649 Parliamentary forces ruled England and executed Charles and the Covenanters had secured Scotland. An alliance between the Catholic Confederates and the Royalists in Ireland resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary conquest of Ireland, followed by a brutal guerrilla campaign which officially ended in 1653. <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> repudiated the Irish alliance in 1650 in order to enter one with the Covenanters instead and invaded England. He was defeated in 1651 and the result was that the entire British Isles were brought under the English parliamentary army. There was religious toleration of Protestant denominations (though no episcopalian church), but Catholics were strongly repressed. In Ireland they were disenfranchised and dispossessed with Catholic land ownership dropping from 60% to 8% and their land was confiscated to pay off the Parliament's debts. Some of the land was given to another wave of Protestant immigrants, especially former soldiers, but these were not sufficient to replace the existing Irish, so Ireland became a land largely owned by Protestant landlords with Catholic tenants.<p><a id="The_return_of_the_Stuarts" name="The_return_of_the_Stuarts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The return of the Stuarts</span></h3>
<p>The restoration of Charles II in 1660 reversed many of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth measures: the three kingdoms were separated again, the episcopalian Churches of England and Ireland re-established, a Presbyterian Church of Scotland established, and Protestant <!--del_lnk--> nonconformism repressed. A small proportion of the confiscated lands in Ireland were restored, bringing Catholic ownership up to 20%. In1685 brought Charles' brother, <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a>, a Catholic, to the thrones. James <!--del_lnk--> suspended the laws discriminating against those not adhering to the national churches; but, he attempted personal rule with a large standing army and heavy-handedly attempted to replace Anglicans with Catholics. This alienated the English establishment who invited the Dutch <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William, Prince of Orange</a> to depose James in favour of his daughter, <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" title="Mary II of England">Mary</a>. On William's landing, James fled first to France and then to Ireland where the government remained loyal to him. Here he was defeated, and the position of the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Ascendancy cemented with the imposition of <!--del_lnk--> Penal Laws there that effectively denied nearly all Catholics (75% of the population) any sort of power or substantial property.<p>James and his descendants attempted to recover the throne <!--del_lnk--> several times over the next sixty years, but failed to gain sufficient active support and were consistently defeated.<p><a id="Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_social_revolutions" name="Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_social_revolutions"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Kingdom of Great Britain and social revolutions</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 1707 <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union united England and Scotland in the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain. The next century saw the start of great social changes. <!--del_lnk--> Enclosure had been taking place over a long period in England, but the <!--del_lnk--> agricultural revolution accelerated the process by which land was privatised, commercialised, and intensively exploited, and caused it to spread throughout the British Isles. This resulted in the displacement of large numbers of people from the land and widespread hardship. In addition, the <!--del_lnk--> industrial revolution saw the displacement of cottage industries by large-scale factories and the rapid growth of industrial towns and cities. The <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> grew substantially, stoking the growth in industrial production, bringing in wealth, giving rise to large-scale emigration, and making <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> the largest city in Europe.<p>Social unrest and repressive government accompanied these upheavals. The ideals of the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> were widely supported and led to a full-scale <!--del_lnk--> rebellion in Ireland. A result of the rebellion was the start of the end of Ascendancy hegemony in Ireland and its political <!--del_lnk--> unification with Great Britain in 1801. Unrest throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland continued well into the 19th century, but was increasingly legitimised and able to find an outlet in Parliament from the <!--del_lnk--> Great Reform Act of 1832 onwards. The role of religion in determining political markedly decreased from the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic Relief Act in 1829 onwards. The social upheavals continued with widespread migration from the countryside to towns and cities and abroad. Ireland suffered a great <!--del_lnk--> famine from 1845 until 1849 which resulted in its population dropping by a third through death and migration. This included large-scale movements to Great Britain, especially to the north west of England and western Scotland. Emigration from the whole of the British Isles overseas continued, especially to the English-speaking parts of the British Empire, the United States, and other countries such as <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>.<p><a id="The_20th_century" name="The_20th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The 20th century</span></h3>
<p>Prosperity increased through the 19th and into the 20th century, and politics became increasingly popular and democratic. The <!--del_lnk--> Irish War of Independence and subsequent <!--del_lnk--> Irish Civil War led to the <!--del_lnk--> 1922 formation of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State, which was a <!--del_lnk--> dominion until becoming a <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">republic</a> in 1949. Six Irish counties remained part of the United Kingdom as <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, initially with devolved government. Since then there have been extensive periods of <!--del_lnk--> unrest. Both the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community (now the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>) in 1973. Currently there are <!--del_lnk--> devolved governments in <!--del_lnk--> Wales and <!--del_lnk--> Scotland, though in Northern Ireland the <!--del_lnk--> devolved assembly is currently suspended.<p>Further waves of migration from Ireland to Great Britain took place during times of economic difficulty in the thirties, forties, and fifties, though since then it has grown more prosperous and its <!--del_lnk--> Gross Domestic Product <i>per capita</i> now exceeds that of the United Kingdom. The end of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in the latter half of the 20th century saw the end of large-scale emigration; instead, there was immigration to Britain, especially from the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies and the Indian sub-continent, and recently to both Britain and Ireland from eastern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<p><a id="Sport_and_Culture" name="Sport_and_Culture"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Sport and Culture</span></h2>
<p>Despite the split between the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, a limited number of sport or cultural events operate across the isles as a whole, especially where an all-Ireland team competes internationally. The <!--del_lnk--> British and Irish Lions is a <!--del_lnk--> rugby union team made up of players from the entire archipalego; they compete in tours of <!--del_lnk--> Southern Hemisphere rugby playing nations. Prior to 1979, the <!--del_lnk--> Ryder Cup was played between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the British Isles, before it was expanded to include the whole of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Bowls continues to have a British Isles championship.<p>There can also be strong links in cultural activities. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Mercury Music Prize is handed out every year to the best album from a British or Irish musician or group, though other musical awards are considered on a national basis; for example, <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a> won the best international group award at the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 Brit awards.<p>Other organisations are sometimes organised across the islands; for example the <!--del_lnk--> Samartitans.<p><a id="Terminology" name="Terminology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Terminology</span></h2>
<p>The term <i>British Isles</i> is in widespread use, and is defined as "Great Britain and Ireland and adjacent islands". However the term carries additional meanings; political, economic, cultural and geopolitical, reflecting historical divisions and the fact that the British Isles in general coincided with the geographic area of the former <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801—1922). The use of the term <i>British Isles</i> has on occasion been interpreted as implying a continued political association with Britain, an implication which causes the term to be both unacceptable and controversial to many people in Ireland, a sovereign state that became independent from the United Kingdom some eighty years ago.<p>Problems over terminology are summed up by the columnist <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Berlins, writing in <!--del_lnk--> The Guardian in 2006. He gives his opinion that "although purely a geographical definition, it is frequently mixed up with the political entities Great Britain, or the United Kingdom. Even when used geographically, its exact scope is widely misunderstood". He also acknowledges that some people view the term as representing Britain's colonial past, when it ruled the whole of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. <p><a id="Origins_of_the_term" name="Origins_of_the_term"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Origins of the term</span></h3>
<p>The prefix "Brit-" is derived from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>Britto</i> of classical times. This was itself one of several variations on the αι Βρεττανιαι, the <i>Brittanic Isles</i>, peopled by the Ρρεττανοι, <i>Priteni</i> or <i>Pretani</i>. These names were used by Greek and Roman geographers and were derived from a <!--del_lnk--> Celtic language term which is likely to have reached them from the <!--del_lnk--> Gauls.<p>Throughout Book 4 of his <i>Geography</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Strabo is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as <i>Prettanikee</i>; he uses the terms <i>Prettans</i> or <i>Brettans</i> loosely to refer to the islands as a group. On some interpretations he also included Iceland (called Thule) in the group.<br />
<p><!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his <i><!--del_lnk--> Naturalis Historia</i>. He writes of Great Britain: <i>Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.</i> ("Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; we will speak of them in a moment."). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny describes the places he considers to make up the Britannias, including Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, some of the Friesan Islands, possibly Cornwall, which was sometimes mistakenly supposed to be a separate island, and other places which are uncertain but may include the mainland of Denmark, the Faroes, and parts of the coast of Norway.<br />
<p><a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> includes Ireland, which he calls <i>Hibernia</i>, as being part of the island group he calls <i>Britannia</i>. He titles Book II, Chapter 1 of his <i>Geography</i> as <i>Hibernia, Island of Britannia</i>. Since classical times, a meaning of "British" is to refer to the <!--del_lnk--> ancient Britons, and was used in this way by the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (specifically excluding the English, Scots, Picts and Latin readers), through Early Modern times to the present day Peter Heylyn, who was to coin the term <i>British Isles</i> in English, used <i>British</i> in this way to refer to the ancient Britons, stating that <i>Britt</i> meant <i>paint</i>.<p>The classical name for all the islands associated with Great Britain and Ireland was used by continental mapmakers in Latin or French from the 16th century onwards, such as <!--del_lnk--> Gerardus Mercator (<!--del_lnk--> 1512. Ortelius makes clear his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically separate in <!--del_lnk--> 1570 by the full title of his map: <i>"Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio"</i> which translates as "England, Scotland and Ireland, that I describe [to be] the British islands".<p>The first use in English of "British Isles" was by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Heylin (or Heylyn) in his <i>Microcosmus: a little description of the great world</i> in 1621, a collection of his lectures on historical geography. He used this term for both Great Britain and Ireland (as well as the other islands) by reasoning that all the pre-Roman inhabitants of the islands would have been ancient Britons owing to the close proximity of the islands to each other, that "ancient writers call this Iland a <i>Brttiʃh Iland</i>", and a quote from <!--del_lnk--> Tacitus that the habits and disposition of the people in Ireland were not much unlike the "<i>Brittaines</i>". The use of the term as a historical term (along with others) continues to have a wide use within the United Kingdom to describe the whole of the British Isles in a geographical sense.<p><a id="Perspectives_in_Britain" name="Perspectives_in_Britain"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Perspectives in Britain</span></h3>
<p>As a general rule, the use of the term British Isles to refer to the archipalego is common and uncontroversial within <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. It is commonly understood as being a politically neutral geographical term. Despite this, many within the UK still misuse the term. This can be explained by confusion between the many similar terms in use within the islands <p><a id="Perspectives_in_Ireland" name="Perspectives_in_Ireland"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Perspectives in Ireland</span></h3>
<p>At the end of the 16th century <i>British</i> also came to mean as pertaining to the island of Great Britain, and this use grew very quickly with the accession of <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI of Scots</a> to the English throne. It was used in an Irish context to differentiate those from Great Britain from native Irish in 1641. As a result of Irish nationalism and eventual secession, the use of the name "British Isles" is highly controversial in Ireland because of the perception that its use implies a continued constitutional relationship between the sovereign states of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. This perception can lead to the incorrect belief that the United Kingdom retains sovereignty over the Republic. Due to these <!--del_lnk--> geopolitical connotations, the use of the term in the Republic of Ireland can be controversial. However such concerns rarely surface in Britain.<p>According a written answer given by the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs <!--del_lnk--> Dermot Ahern, British Isles is not an officially recognised or used term, and no branch of the Irish government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Irish Embassy in London, officially uses the term. He added that officials in the Embassy of Ireland, London, continued to monitor the media in Britain for any abuse of the official terms as set out in the Constitution of Ireland and in legislation, including the name of the State, the President, Taoiseach and others.<p>Many bodies avoid describing the Republic of Ireland as being part of the British Isles. Some believe that Ireland left the British Isles when it left the United Kingdom in 1922. The term "British Isles" is occasionally used at governmental level in Ireland, as when a cabinet minister, <!--del_lnk--> Síle de Valera, delivered a speech containing the term, contrary to stated government policy, in 2002. <i>British Isles</i> has been used in a geographical sense in Irish parliamentary debates, though not by government ministers.<p>A survey in <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> found <!--del_lnk--> unionists who considered the British Isles to be a natural geographical entity, considering themselves primarily British with a supplementary Irish identity. In contrast, <!--del_lnk--> nationalists considered their community to be that of the Irish nation as a distinct political community extending across the whole of Ireland. Identities were diverse and multi-layered and Irishness was a highly contested identity, and nationalists expressed difficulty in understanding unionist descriptions of Britishness.<p>The overall opinions of Irish people about the term have never been formally gauged. Politicians from the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Unionist and <!--del_lnk--> Northern Ireland Unionist traditions do readily use the term "British Isles" The contrast between Unionist and Nationalist approaches to the term was shown in December 1999 at a meeting of the Irish cabinet and Northern Ireland executive in <!--del_lnk--> Armagh. The <!--del_lnk--> First Minister of Northern Ireland, David Trimble, told the meeting<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>This represents the Irish government coming back into a relationship with the rest of the British Isles. We are ending the cold war that has divided not just Ireland but the British Isles. That division is now going to be transformed into a situation where all parts work together again in a way that respects each other.</td>
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<p>In contrast, the Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern, avoided any use of the term in his address to the meeting.<p>At a gathering of the <!--del_lnk--> British-Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body (15th plenary session, in 1998), the sensitivity about the term became an issue. Referring to a plan for a "Council of the Isles" which was being supported by both Nationalists and Unionists, British MP for Falkirk West <!--del_lnk--> Dennis Canavan was paraphrased by official notetakers as having said in a <!--del_lnk--> caveat:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>He understood that the concept of a Council of the Isles had been put forward by the <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Unionists and was referred to as a "Council for the British Isles" by <!--del_lnk--> David Trimble. This would cause offence to Irish colleagues; he suggested as an acronym IONA-Islands of the North Atlantic.</td>
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<p>In a series of documents issued by the United Kingdom and Ireland, from the <!--del_lnk--> Downing Street Declaration to the <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Agreement, relations in the British Isles were referred to as the <i>East-West</i> strand of the tripartite relationships defined.<p>In October 2006, Irish educational publisher Folens announced that it was removing the term British Isles from its popular school atlas from January 2007. This atlas is the Irish edition of one published in the United Kingdom by Philip's.<p><a id="Alternative_terms" name="Alternative_terms"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Alternative terms</span></h3>
<p>There have been several suggestions for replacements for the term <i>British Isles</i>.<p>Sometimes, an ambiguous phrase such as "these Isles" or "the Isles" is used, thus utilising the same logic used when referring to the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> as "the Gulf". "These Islands" was used in Strand Three of the <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Agreement to establish the <!--del_lnk--> British-Irish Council, and has been described as the favoured term of Irish politicians.<p>Probably the most common alternative term in modern usage is "<!--del_lnk--> Britain and Ireland". This is very common and almost entirely uncontroversial, although it may be felt to neglect smaller islands in the archipelago and is ambiguous concerning the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> and the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>.<p>Although somewhat less common, another widely used term is <i>The British Isles and Ireland</i>. Similary to "Great Britain and Ireland", this has been used in a variety of areas; among others the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> on occasion, <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>, nursing, zoological publications, academia, and other sources. This form of title is also used in some book titles and in various legal publications. The precise reasoning for the use of such terminology is not typically set out where it is used, nor the intended definitions of either component made explicit. Some may be using <i>British Isles</i> as a <!--del_lnk--> synonym or near synonym of "British Islands". They may simply use the expanded term to avoid causing offense, without necessarily having a distinct meaning of "British Isles" in mind. This is particularly so in areas like charities, academia, publishing, nursing or law where information is supplied or documents sold Ireland or where their publications are used by Irish people, where simply using <i>British Isles</i> might be controversial.<p>In the context of the <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> peace process the term <i><!--del_lnk--> Islands of the North Atlantic</i> (IONA), a term initially created by then <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Party MP <!--del_lnk--> Sir John Biggs-Davison, has been used as a neutral term to describe the "British Isles", but in a wider context the term might be misunderstood as including <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Azores and other islands.<p>IONA has been used by among others the <!--del_lnk--> Taoiseach, <!--del_lnk--> Bertie Ahern.<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>The Government are, of course, conscious of the emphasis that is laid on the East-West dimension by Unionists, and we are, ourselves, very mindful of the unique relationships that exist within these islands — islands of the North Atlantic or IONA as some have termed them.</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
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<p>It has also been adopted by the <!--del_lnk--> British National Party, in their 'Project-IONA', an attempt to make a collection of the cultural artefacts of the islands. The party does, however, use the term British Isles elsewhere; for example in their declared wish for a return of "Eire as well as Ulster as equal partners in[to] a federation of the nations of the British Isles" <p>Others have interpreted the term more narrowly to mean the <i>Council of the Isles</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> British-Irish Council</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Peter Luff <!--del_lnk--> MP told the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">British House of Commons</a> in 1998 that<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>In the same context, there will be a council of the isles. I think that some people are calling it IONA — the islands of the north Atlantic, from which England, by definition, will be excluded.</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
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<p>His interpretation, as Ahern's comment earlier shows, is not widely held, particularly in Ireland, where IONA is seen as a parallel to either the <i>British Islands</i> or the <i>British Isles</i>. In 1997 the leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Green Party, <!--del_lnk--> Trevor Sargent, discussing the <i>Strand Three</i> (or <i>East-West</i>) talks between the Republic and the United Kingdom, commented in <!--del_lnk--> Dáil Éireann:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
<td>I noted with interest the naming of the islands of the north Atlantic under the acronym IONA which the Green Party felt was extremely appropriate.</td>
<td valign="bottom" width="20">
<div style="position:relative; width:20px; height:20px; overflow:hidden;">
<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="British Isles"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="British Isles"><img alt="British Isles" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
</td>
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<p>His comments were echoed by <!--del_lnk--> Proinsias De Rossa, then leader of <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Left and later President of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Labour Party when both parties merged, who told the Dáil "The acronym IONA is a useful way of addressing the coming together of these two islands."<p><b>Anglo-Celtic Isles</b> has been used in academia for the isles. This reflects the supposed <!--del_lnk--> ethnic make up of the islands of the '<!--del_lnk--> Celtic' peoples — the <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_people.htm" title="Irish people">Irish</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Manx people">Manx</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Scottish, <!--del_lnk--> Cornish and <!--del_lnk--> Welsh — and the '<!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon' peoples, the <!--del_lnk--> English.<p>The British government currently uses <!--del_lnk--> British Islands (as defined in the <i>Interpretation Act, 1978</i>) to refer to the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, together with the <!--del_lnk--> Crown Dependencies: the <!--del_lnk--> Bailiwicks of <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> and of <a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> (which in turn includes the smaller islands of <!--del_lnk--> Alderney, <!--del_lnk--> Herm and <!--del_lnk--> Sark) in the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>; and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>.<p>Some academics in the 1990s and early 2000s also used the term <i>northwest European archipelago</i>. Usage however appears sporadic in historiography and rarely repeated outside it, to date.<p>The name "the West European Isles" is one translation of the islands' name in <!--del_lnk--> Irish and <!--del_lnk--> Manx Gaelic.—but explicit "British Isle" terms also exist in Irish and Manx. A somewhat similar usage exists in Iceland. "Westman" is the Icelandic name for a person from Ireland and Great Britain and "Western Lands" is the translation of the name for these islands in Icelandic.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British Isles (terminology)</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.htm">British History</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<p>The various terms used to describe the different (and sometimes overlapping) geographical and political areas of the <!--del_lnk--> islands traditionally referred to collectively as <b>the British Isles</b> are often a source of confusion. The purpose of this article is to explain the meanings of and inter-relationships among those terms.<p>In brief, the main terms and their simple explanations are:<ul>
<li>Geographical terms <ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> consist of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and many smaller surrounding islands. There are <!--del_lnk--> some problems associated with the use of this term and its definition.<li><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> is the largest island of the <!--del_lnk--> archipelago (sometimes informally referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Britain)<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> is the second largest island of the archipelago.</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Political terms <ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a <!--del_lnk--> sovereign state occupying the island of Great Britain, the small nearby islands (but not the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), and the North-Eastern part of the island of Ireland. Often shortened to 'United Kingdom', 'UK' or <!--del_lnk--> Britain.<li><a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland / Republic of Ireland</a> is a <!--del_lnk--> sovereign state occupying most of the island of Ireland.<li><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> are the <!--del_lnk--> constituent countries of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.<li><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> consists of England, Wales and Scotland<li><!--del_lnk--> England and Wales share the same legal system.<li><!--del_lnk--> British Islands consists of the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>.</ul>
</ul>
<p>These various terms can be confusing not only in themselves (partly owing to the similarity between some of the actual words used), but also because they are often used loosely or inaccurately.<p>
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</script><a id="Terminology_in_detail" name="Terminology_in_detail"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Terminology in detail</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Britain</b> is a shortened form of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. Also used very commonly to mean United Kingdom.<li><b><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></b> (abbreviation: <b>GB</b>) is the <!--del_lnk--> largest of the British Isles and the <!--del_lnk--> political union of three nations, these being:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> England and Wales</b> Is a political and administrative term referring to the two <!--del_lnk--> home countries of England and Wales, which share the same legal system. Between <!--del_lnk--> 1746 and <!--del_lnk--> 1967 the term "England" did legally include Wales.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></b> (see also the historical <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England = England (and later, Wales) prior to 1707).<li><b><a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a></b></ul>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></b> (see also the historical <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Scotland)</ul>
</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li>The historical <b><!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain</b> is Britain for the period 1707-1801.<li><b>Britannia</b> is the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman province of Britain</a>, or a poetic reference to later Britain, or a <!--del_lnk--> personification of Britain.</ul>
<dd>On the history of the name, see <!--del_lnk--> Britain.</dl>
<ul>
<li>The <b><!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</b>, usually shortened to the <b>United Kingdom</b> (abbreviation <b>UK</b>) is Great Britain plus <b>Northern Ireland</b> since 1927. (The Partition of Ireland took place in 1922, but the consequent change in the official title of the UK was only made by Act of Parliament five years later.)</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li>The historical <b><!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</b> is Great Britain plus Ireland, for the period 1801-1927.</ul>
<dd>N.B.: While "United Kingdom" is normally abbreviated <b>UK</b>, the official <!--del_lnk--> ISO 3166 two-letter country code is <b>GB</b> and the three letter code is <b>GBR</b> (<a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> has the two letter code UA and the three letter code UKR). The UK's <!--del_lnk--> internet top-level domain is <b><!--del_lnk--> .uk</b>, a break from the normal practice of following ISO 3166.<dd>See also <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom (disambiguation) for other united kingdoms and <!--del_lnk--> UK (disambiguation) for other meanings of the abbreviation.</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></b> (in <!--del_lnk--> Irish, <i><b>Éire</b></i>) refers, geographically, to the island of Ireland, or to any of the following:</ul>
<dl>
<dd><i>Historically:</i><ul>
<li>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Ireland</b> was Ireland for the period 1541-1801.<li>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Irish Republic</b> was a <!--del_lnk--> unilaterally declared 32-county republic encompassing the entire island, during the period 1919-22. During this period, Ireland legally remained part of the UK and its independence was not recognised internationally except by <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Southern Ireland</b> was a proposed <!--del_lnk--> Home Rule 26-county state under the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Ireland Act 1920. It never came into practical existence, being superseded by:<li>The <b><!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State</b> is Ireland excepting Northern Ireland during the period 1922-37.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>The terms "Irish Republic", "Southern Ireland" , "the Free State" and (in English language texts) "Éire" are still used as synonyms for the Republic of Ireland.</dl>
<dd><i>Present</i>: <ul>
<li><b>Ireland</b> (in <!--del_lnk--> Irish, <i><a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589ire.htm" title="Éire">Éire</a></i>) is the political entity consisting of the island of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1937-present. This is the name of the state according to the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Constitution.<li>The <b><a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></b> a legal "description" of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1949-present. This form is used where tact or disambiguity demands. It is also the name used by the international <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> team.<li><b><a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></b> 1922-present. That part of the island of Ireland north of the line of partition of 1922, and which is still part of the United Kingdom. It is sometimes referred to as "the North of Ireland", "the <!--del_lnk--> six counties" or (in extremist usage) the "occupied six counties," especially by <!--del_lnk--> Irish Nationalists.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ulster</b> The name of one of Ireland's four traditional <!--del_lnk--> provinces. It contains nine counties, six of which make up <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, and three of which are part of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>. It is now primarily used in sporting and cultural contexts by both communities. However, Northern Ireland itself is frequently also referred to as 'Ulster'. See <!--del_lnk--> Ulster (disambiguation).</ul>
<dd><i>In sport</i><ul>
<li>In <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Soccer">soccer</a>, the teams correspond to political entities: Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. In accordance with <!--del_lnk--> UEFA and <a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" title="FIFA">FIFA</a>'s rules, each of these countries has its own football league: the <!--del_lnk--> Football League and the <!--del_lnk--> League of Ireland respectively.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> rugby union, <!--del_lnk--> rugby league, <!--del_lnk--> field hockey , <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a>, <!--del_lnk--> boxing, <!--del_lnk--> golf, <!--del_lnk--> athletics and others the <i>Ireland</i> team is drawn from the whole island (ie. both the Republic and Northern Ireland). The Irish Olympic Council is also an All-Island organisation. Many sports organisations are subdivided along provincial lines e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Gaelic Athletic Association, <!--del_lnk--> golf</ul>
</dl>
<ul>
<li>The <b><a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a></b> is the traditional term used to mean the island of Great Britain plus the island of Ireland and many smaller surrounding islands, including the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> and, in some contexts, the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> (<a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a>). Due to the changes in the common usage of the word "British" (to mean "of the United Kingdom") it is a controversial term, and would be considered offensive by many Irish people, in 2006 the Irish minister for Education announced that school books would have this term removed.<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Britain and Ireland is an increasingly common replacement or substitute for the term <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Islands of the North Atlantic</b> is another suggested replacement term for the British Isles, without the same political connotations. However, its convolution, its vagueness, and the popularity of the older term have meant that it is not in common use. The term was used as part of the Strand 3 level of negotiations for the Belfast agreement. (Its acronym, IONA, is also the name of the small but historically important island of <!--del_lnk--> Iona off the coast of Scotland.)<li><!--del_lnk--> British Islands (a political term not in common usage) is the UK, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (which in turn includes the smaller islands of <!--del_lnk--> Alderney, <!--del_lnk--> Herm and <!--del_lnk--> Sark).<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Brittany</b>, the historical <!--del_lnk--> Duchy in the West of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, now a French <i>région</i>; for this modern administrative sense, see <!--del_lnk--> Bretagne.</ul>
<p><a id="Geographical_distinctions" name="Geographical_distinctions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geographical distinctions</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_British_Isles" name="The_British_Isles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The British Isles</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> is an archipelago in the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> off the coast of <!--del_lnk--> Continental Europe. It includes <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, but usually excludes the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>. Also included are the thousands of small islands off the coast of both the larger islands such as <a href="../../wp/s/Shetland.htm" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> and <a href="../../wp/o/Orkney.htm" title="Orkney">Orkney</a>. The earliest known usage of this term is in a <!--del_lnk--> Greek text of 325 BC in the form <i>Pretanikai nesoi</i> (Pretanic isles).<p><a id="Great_Britain" name="Great_Britain"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Great Britain</span></h3>
<p>Great Britain refers to the largest of the British Isles. The word "Great" simply means "larger" (no connection with "greatness" in other senses is intended) in contrast to <!--del_lnk--> Brittany, a historical term for a <!--del_lnk--> peninsula in modern France that largely corresponds with the present day French province of <!--del_lnk--> Bretagne. That region was settled by many British immigrants during the period of <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon migration into Britain, and named "Little Britain" by them. The <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> term "Bretagne" now refers to the French "Little Britain", not to the British "Great Britain", which in French is called <i>Grande-Bretagne</i>.<p><a id="Ireland" name="Ireland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ireland</span></h3>
<p>The second largest island in the archipelago is Ireland. That Ireland is a part of the geographical "British Isles" in no way implies that all of the island is politically British.<p><a id="Channel_Islands" name="Channel_Islands"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Channel Islands</span></h3>
<p>Although the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> are associated with the United Kingdom politically, they are an outcrop of the nearby French mainland, and historically they are the last remaining parts of the former <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Normandy still under the crown of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p><a id="Political_distinctions" name="Political_distinctions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political distinctions</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_United_Kingdom" name="The_United_Kingdom"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The United Kingdom</span></h3>
<p><i>The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</i> is usually shortened to United Kingdom, UK or Britain. <i>Great Britain</i> is also widely used as a synonym for the UK.<p>The <b>United Kingdom</b> is a sovereign <!--del_lnk--> state. Its four <!--del_lnk--> constituent countries, whilst having equal rights to elect <!--del_lnk--> Members of Parliament on (nominally) the same terms, are sometimes considered to be of different status. This view may be supported by the existence of <!--del_lnk--> devolved governments with different levels of power in Scotland and Wales (see <!--del_lnk--> Asymmetrical federalism). Due to historical precedent, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> are <!--del_lnk--> countries and <!--del_lnk--> nations in their own right (although none of these is sovereign today). Wales is also a <a href="../../wp/p/Principality.htm" title="Principality">principality</a> of the United Kingdom (<!--del_lnk--> Prince of Wales is a title usually given to the <!--del_lnk--> heir apparent to the <!--del_lnk--> British throne). <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> is sometimes described by <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> citizens as a <!--del_lnk--> province of the United Kingdom, which derives from the Irish <!--del_lnk--> province of <!--del_lnk--> Ulster, which <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> is part of. This epithet is also applied because it originally was part of the <!--del_lnk--> UK as part of the country of Ireland rather than as a constituent country or nation in its own right. Northern Ireland also had, until 1972, a far greater degree of <!--del_lnk--> self-government than the other constituent parts of the UK. In contrast to the British unionist usage, Irish nationalists consider all of <!--del_lnk--> Ulster to be the province of <!--del_lnk--> Ulster, and organise their sporting and cultural institutions accordingly.<p>The four constituent parts of the UK are also known to some as <i><!--del_lnk--> Home Nations</i> or the "Four Nations"; sporting contests between them are known as "Home internationals" (for example in <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>, see the <!--del_lnk--> British Home Championship).<p>The governing body for soccer in Northern Ireland is called the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Football Association, having been in existence since some 40 years before partition. Its counterpart in the Republic (plus <!--del_lnk--> Derry City FC) is the <!--del_lnk--> Football Association of Ireland. The Northern national team retained the name "Ireland" for some 50 years after partition. It is only since around 1970 that the two teams have been consistently referred to as "Northern Ireland" and "Republic of Ireland" respectively.<p>However, in <!--del_lnk--> Rugby Union, the four <i>Home Nations</i> are England, Ireland (the whole island, i.e. the Republic of Ireland plus Northern Ireland), Scotland and Wales.<p>Culturally, some consider the <!--del_lnk--> Cornish to be distinct from the English, but, politically, <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall is considered by the UK government to have the same status as any other <!--del_lnk--> county in England. However some have raised questions concerning the <!--del_lnk--> constitutional status of Cornwall.<p>Thus, <i>Great Britain</i> is both a geographical and a political entity. Geographically, it is one island, but politically it also contains the islands that belong to its constituent nations - England, Wales and Scotland (most notably England's <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>, Wales' <!--del_lnk--> Anglesey and Scotland's <a href="../../wp/i/Inner_Hebrides.htm" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Outer_Hebrides.htm" title="Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Orkney.htm" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney Islands</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Shetland Islands).<p>However, the abbreviation <i>GB</i> is sometimes officially used for the UK, for example in the <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympics</a> - where athletes from Northern Ireland may choose whether to represent the UK or the Republic of Ireland - and as the <!--del_lnk--> vehicle registration plate <!--del_lnk--> country identification code, however the <!--del_lnk--> internet code <i>"<!--del_lnk--> .gb",</i> although allocated to the UK, is unused (the UK uses <i>"<!--del_lnk--> .uk"</i>). UK teams in the Olympics have competed under several different names - most recently in Athens the athletes were presented at the Opening Ceremony under a banner which said simply Great Britain, rather than the full Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Good Friday Agreement, and the subsequent implementation legislation, sporting organisation (and several other organisations, e.g. <!--del_lnk--> tourism, and <!--del_lnk--> Irish Gaelic and <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Scots language boards) on the island of Ireland has increasingly been cross-border.<p>Citizens of the UK are called <i>British</i> or <i>Britons</i>. The term <i>Brits</i> may also be used, sometimes <!--del_lnk--> pejoratively, for example by supporters of <!--del_lnk--> Scottish independence when referring to supporters of the <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union</a>. Some rather dated slang names for Britons are <i>Tommy</i> (for British soldiers), <i>Pom</i>, <i>Anglo</i> and <i>Limey</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Anglo properly refers only to England, but it is sometimes used as a broader reference as an element in compound adjectives: for example, <i>"Anglo-French relations"</i> may be used in newspaper articles when referring to relations between the political entities <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and the United Kingdom. <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> may be used when referring to the whole English-speaking world, the <!--del_lnk--> Anglosphere, although ethnically very few of the world's one billion English-speakers are of <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon origin. Interestingly while the rest of the world refers to the 'English', derived from 'Angles', speakers of the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic languages refer to them as 'Saxons' (<i>Sassannach</i> in <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <i>Saeson</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Welsh).<p><a id="Ireland_2" name="Ireland_2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ireland</span></h3>
<p><b>Ireland</b> is the name since 1937 of the independent state which covers the island of Ireland apart from Northern Ireland. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Ireland Act in 1949, the term "Republic of Ireland" has been widely used, but the official name in the <!--del_lnk--> Irish constitution is <i>Ireland</i>, or, in the Irish language, <i>Éire</i>. This is also the geographical term for the entire island.<p>The Republic of Ireland gained full recognised independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Northern Ireland is sovereign British territory, and a majority of the population of <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> consider themselves British. Traditionally Ireland is divided into four <!--del_lnk--> provinces - <!--del_lnk--> Leinster, <!--del_lnk--> Connacht, <!--del_lnk--> Munster and <!--del_lnk--> Ulster. The Republic of Ireland takes up 83% of the island, while Northern Ireland takes up six of the nine counties of Ulster. However, despite the label "Northern" Ireland, the most northerly point of the island is in <!--del_lnk--> County Donegal, territory of the Republic of Ireland.<p>On the <!--del_lnk--> island of Ireland (as everywhere), the naming of places often raises political issues. The usage of "Ireland" as the official name of the state in the constitution of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> causes offence to some <!--del_lnk--> Unionists in <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> as it implies that the Republic of Ireland still has a territorial claim to the whole island - the terminology of "Republic of Ireland" or "Éire" is much preferred by Northern unionists when referring to that political state. Similarly, some <!--del_lnk--> Nationalists in Northern Ireland also prefer to reserve to usage of "Ireland" to refer to the whole island.<p>The Republic of Ireland is often referred to by <!--del_lnk--> Irish republicans by the term "the Twenty-six Counties", with the connotation that the state constituted as such forms only a portion of the ideal political unit, which would consist of all of the <!--del_lnk--> thirty-two counties into which the island is divided. From 1922 to 1937, the state comprising those 26 counties was officially known by the term "The <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State".<p>Many people object to these latter two terms, as they are seen to imply that the Republic of Ireland is not a fully independent country. Conversely, some republicans and others refer to Northern Ireland as "the Six Counties" (in reference to Northern Ireland's six counties), a name that avoids the disputed link with Great Britain. Some even call it "the occupied six counties". Some <!--del_lnk--> nationalists use the terms, "the North of Ireland" and, "the North", instead of Northern Ireland; these are terms also used by the Irish national broadcaster <!--del_lnk--> RTÉ.<p>Many people, especially some <!--del_lnk--> unionists, sometimes refer to <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> as <i>Ulster</i> - this is inaccurate as the <!--del_lnk--> Irish province of Ulster traditionally includes an additional three counties, which are in the Republic of Ireland. The term <i>Ulster</i> (and "<i>the Province</i>") are sometimes preferred by Unionists, sometimes because it can suggest an origin of the polity of Northern Ireland that pre-dates 1922, referring back to the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union 1800, the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1689, the <!--del_lnk--> Plantation of Ulster in 1610, the ancient migrations between Ulster and Scotland, and even to <!--del_lnk--> biblical tradition. So, it is understandable that certain local place names should still be in dispute: see <!--del_lnk--> Derry/Londonderry name dispute.<p><a id="British_Islands" name="British_Islands"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">British Islands</span></h3>
<p>Under the Interpretation Act <!--del_lnk--> 1978 of the United Kingdom, the political term <i><b>British Islands</b></i> (as opposed to the geographical term <i>British Isles</i>) refers to the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, together with the <!--del_lnk--> Crown Dependencies: the <!--del_lnk--> Bailiwicks of <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> and of <a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> (which in turn includes the smaller islands of <!--del_lnk--> Alderney, <!--del_lnk--> Herm and <!--del_lnk--> Sark) in the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>; and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>.<p><a id="Historical_aspects" name="Historical_aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical aspects</span></h2>
<p><a id="Origins_of_terms" name="Origins_of_terms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origins of terms</span></h3>
<p>The earliest known names for the islands come from the <!--del_lnk--> Massaliote Periplus of the <!--del_lnk--> 6th century BC, fragments of which survived in the writings of <!--del_lnk--> Avienus around <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="AD">AD</a> <!--del_lnk--> 400. Ireland was referred to as <i>Ierne</i> (<i>Insula sacra</i>, the <i>sacred island</i>, as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of <i>Hiberni</i>" (<i>gens hiernorum</i>), and Britain as <i>insula Albionum</i>, "island of the Albions". Earlier sources preserve fragments of the travel writings of the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <!--del_lnk--> Pytheas around <!--del_lnk--> 320 BC, and describe the British isles, including Ireland, as the αι Βρεττανιαι, the <i>Brittanic Isles</i>. The peoples of these islands of <i>Prettanike</i> were called the Ρρεττανοι, <i>Priteni</i> or <i>Pretani</i>.<p>These names derived from a "<!--del_lnk--> Celtic language" term which is likely to have reached Pytheas from the <!--del_lnk--> Gauls who may have used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. The Romans called the inhabitants of Gaul (modern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>) <i>Galli</i> or <i>Celtae</i>. The latter term came from the Greek name Κελτοι for a central European people, and <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> antiquarians who found language connections developed the idea of a race of <!--del_lnk--> Celts inhabiting the area, but this term was not used by the Greeks or Romans for the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland.<p><i>Priteni</i> is the source of the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh language term <!--del_lnk--> Prydain, <i>Britain</i>, and has the same source as the <!--del_lnk--> Goidelic term <!--del_lnk--> Cruithne. The latter referred to the early <!--del_lnk--> Brythonic speaking inhabitants of Ireland, the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish highlands and the north of Scotland, who are known as the Cruithne in <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Gaelic, and who the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> called <a href="../../wp/p/Picts.htm" title="Picts">Picts</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Caledonians.<p><a id="Romans" name="Romans"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Romans</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Caesar's invasions of Britain brought descriptions of the peoples of what he called <i>Britannia pars interior</i>, "inland Britain", in <!--del_lnk--> 55 BC. Throughout Book 4 of his <i>Geography</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Strabo is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as <i>Prettanikee</i>; he uses the terms <i>Prettans</i> or <i>Brettans</i> loosely to refer to the islands as a group - a common generalisation used by classical geographers. For example, in Geography 2.1.18, <i>…οι νοτιωτατοι των Βρηττανων βορηιοτηροι τουτον ηισιν</i> (…the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this). He was writing around AD 10, although the earliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century. <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his <i><!--del_lnk--> Naturalis Historia</i>. He writes of Great Britain: <i>Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.</i> (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will speak of them in a moment.). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to make up the Britannias, listing Great Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands. In his <i>Geography</i> written in the mid <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd century</a> and probably describing the position around AD <!--del_lnk--> 100, <a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> includes both Britain and Ireland – he calls it <i>Hibernia</i> – in the island group he calls <i>Britannia</i>. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of as <i>Hibernia, Island of Britannia</i>, and Chapter 2 as <i>Albion Island of Britannia</i>.<p>The name <i>Albion</i> for <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> fell from favour, and the island was described in Greek as Ρρεττανια or Βρεττανια, in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>Britannia</i>, an inhabitant as Βρεττανοζ, <i>Britannus</i>, with the adjective Βρεττανικοζ, <i>Britannicus</i>, equating to "British". With the <!--del_lnk--> Roman conquest of Britain the name <!--del_lnk--> Britannia was used for the province of <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>. The Emperor <a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> was honoured with the <!--del_lnk--> agnomen <i>Britannicus</i> as if he were the conqueror, and coins were struck from AD <!--del_lnk--> 46 inscribed <small>DE BRITAN, DE BRITANN, DE BRITANNI,</small> or <small>DE BRITANNIS</small>. With the visit of <!--del_lnk--> Hadrian in AD <!--del_lnk--> 121 coins introduced a female figure with the label <small>BRITANNIA</small> as a personification or goddess of the place. These and later Roman coins introduced the seated figure of Britannia which would be reintroduced in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>.<p>In the later years of Roman rule Britons who left Latin inscriptions, both at home and elsewhere in the Empire, often described themselves as <i>Brittanus</i> or <i>Britto</i>, and where describing their citizenship gave it as <i>cives</i> of a British tribe or of a <i>patria</i> (homeland) of <i>Britannia</i>, not <i>Roma</i>. From the 4th century, many Britons migrated from Roman Britain across the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> and founded <!--del_lnk--> Brittany.<p><a id="Medieval_period" name="Medieval_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Medieval period</span></h3>
<p>While Latin remained the language of learning, from the early <!--del_lnk--> medieval period records begin to appear in native languages. The earliest <!--del_lnk--> indigenous source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Life of Saint Columba</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> hagiography recording the <!--del_lnk--> missionary activities of the <!--del_lnk--> sixth century Irish monk <!--del_lnk--> Saint Columba among the peoples of modern Scotland. It was written in the late seventh century by <!--del_lnk--> Adomnán of <!--del_lnk--> Iona, an Irish monk living on the <!--del_lnk--> Inner Hebridean island. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is <b>Oceani Insulae</b> meaning <i>"Islands of the Ocean"</i> (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition), it is used sparingly and no <i>Priteni</i>-derived collective reference is made.<p>Another early native source to use a collective term is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</i> of <a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" title="Bede">Bede</a> written in the early eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is <i>insularum</i> meaning "islands" (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly. He stated that Britain "studies and confesses one and the same knowledge of the highest truth in the tongues of five nations, namely the Angles, the Britons, the Scots, the Picts, and the Latins", distinguishing between the <!--del_lnk--> Brythonic languages of the "ancient Britons" or <!--del_lnk--> Old Welsh speakers and other language groups.<p>Early <!--del_lnk--> Celtic, <!--del_lnk--> Saxon and <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> kingdoms such as <!--del_lnk--> Rheged, <!--del_lnk--> Strathclyde and <a href="../../wp/w/Wessex.htm" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> amalgamated, leading to the formation of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> Norman Ireland, local lords gained considerable autonomy from the <!--del_lnk--> Lordship of Ireland until it became the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Ireland under direct English rule.<p><a id="Renaissance_mapmakers" name="Renaissance_mapmakers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Renaissance mapmakers</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23915.jpg.htm" title="Ortelius: map of Ireland from 1573 titled Eryn. Hiberniae Britannicae Insulae Nova Descriptio Irlandt."><img alt="Ortelius: map of Ireland from 1573 titled Eryn. Hiberniae Britannicae Insulae Nova Descriptio Irlandt." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ortelius_-_Eryn%2C_Britannicae_Insulae.jpg" src="../../images/239/23915.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23915.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ortelius: map of Ireland from 1573 titled <i>Eryn. Hiberniae Britannicae Insulae Nova Descriptio Irlandt</i>.</div>
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<p>Continental mapmakers <!--del_lnk--> Gerardus Mercator (<!--del_lnk--> 1512), <!--del_lnk--> Balthasar Moretus (<!--del_lnk--> 1624), <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Magini (<!--del_lnk--> 1596), <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Ortelius (<!--del_lnk--> 1570) and <!--del_lnk--> Sebastian Munster (<!--del_lnk--> 1550) produced maps bearing the term "British Isles". Ortelius makes clear his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically separate in <!--del_lnk--> 1570 by the full title of his map: "Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio" which translates as "a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles", additionally many maps from this period show Wales and Cornwall as separate nations, most notably those of Mercator.<p><a id="Evolution_of_kingdoms_and_states" name="Evolution_of_kingdoms_and_states"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evolution of kingdoms and states</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23916.png.htm" title="A timeline of states in the British Isles. (Formally, Ireland continues to exist, but the term "Republic of Ireland" is more widely used)."><img alt="A timeline of states in the British Isles. (Formally, Ireland continues to exist, but the term "Republic of Ireland" is more widely used)." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nations_of_the_UK.png" src="../../images/239/23916.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23916.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A timeline of <!--del_lnk--> states in the British Isles. (Formally, <i>Ireland</i> continues to exist, but the term "Republic of Ireland" is more widely used).</div>
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<p>The diagram on the right gives an indication of the further evolution of kingdoms and states. In <!--del_lnk--> 1603 the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish King <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI</a> inherited the <!--del_lnk--> English throne as "James I of England". He styled himself as <i>James I of Great Britain</i>, although both states retained their sovereignty and independent parliaments, the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Scotland and the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of England. The <!--del_lnk--> 1707 <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union united England and Scotland in the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain under the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament of Great Britain, then in <!--del_lnk--> 1800 Ireland was brought under British government control by the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union creating the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Irish unrest culminated in the <!--del_lnk--> Irish War of Independence and the <!--del_lnk--> 1922 separation of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State which later became the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>. The mostly Protestant <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">northeast</a> continued to be part of what was now the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> British overseas territories such as <a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> British Antarctic Territory have (or have had) various relationships with the UK. The <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwealth) is a loose confederation of nations roughly corresponding to the former <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, mostly for economic co-operation, formalised in <!--del_lnk--> 1931. (This has no connection with the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of England and <!--del_lnk--> The Protectorate which were short-lived <!--del_lnk--> republics replacing the previous kingdoms during the <!--del_lnk--> Interregnum (<!--del_lnk--> 1649 - <!--del_lnk--> 1660).)<p><a id="Adjectives" name="Adjectives"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Adjectives</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> adjectives used to describe the contents and attributes of the various constituent parts of the British Isles also cause confusion.<p><i>British</i> is generally used to refer to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. However, in a specifically physical geographical sense, <i>British</i> is used to refer to the island of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. The cumbersome adjective <i>Great British</i> is very rarely used to refer to <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, other than to contrive a <!--del_lnk--> pun on the word <i>great</i>, as in "Great British Food".<p><i>Irish</i>, in a political sense, is used to refer to the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>. <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, as a constituent part of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, would be included within the umbrella of the political term <i>British</i>, though many unionists in Northern Ireland would also consider themselves Irish in a geographical sense. In order to be more specific, <i>Northern Irish</i> is therefore in common usage. The term <i>Ulster</i> can also be used as an adjective (e.g. "<!--del_lnk--> Royal Ulster Constabulary"), but this is more likely to be used by <!--del_lnk--> Unionists and has political connotations in the same fashion as its use as a proper noun (because only six of the traditional nine counties of <!--del_lnk--> Ulster, namely <!--del_lnk--> Antrim, <!--del_lnk--> Armagh, <!--del_lnk--> Down, <!--del_lnk--> Fermanagh, <!--del_lnk--> Londonderry and <!--del_lnk--> Tyrone, are included in Northern Ireland with the remaining three counties <!--del_lnk--> Cavan, <!--del_lnk--> Donegal and <!--del_lnk--> Monaghan forming part of the Republic). Likewise, <!--del_lnk--> Nationalists might describe, say, a lake in Northern Ireland as <i>Irish</i>. However, some <!--del_lnk--> Nationalists might attribute what they see as less attractive aspects of <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> to Britain or even to England (e.g. "The Northern Ireland squad is an English football team").<p>Note that the geographical term "Irish Sea" thus far appears to have escaped political connotations, even though territorial control of the waters of the Irish Sea is divided between both the Republic of Ireland and the UK, and also includes a British Crown dependency, the Isle of Man — as yet there appears to be no controversy with the term’s usage to mirror that of "British Isles".<p>The "Northern" in "Northern Ireland" is not completely accurate. A large portion of Northern Ireland lies to the south of <!--del_lnk--> County Donegal, which is in the Republic. The northern tip of the island, <!--del_lnk--> Malin Head, is on Donegal's <!--del_lnk--> Inishowen Peninsula.<p><i>Scottish</i>, <i>English</i> and <i>Welsh</i> are self-explanatory but the term <i>English</i> is sometimes used to mean <i>British</i> as well.<p><a id="Problems_with_use_of_terms" name="Problems_with_use_of_terms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Problems with use of terms</span></h2>
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<p>There is considerable sensitivity about some of the terms, particularly in relation to <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<p><a id="British_Isles" name="British_Isles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">British Isles</span></h3>
<p>The term <i><a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a></i> itself can be considered irritating or offensive by those who find that the association of the term <i><!--del_lnk--> British</i> with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> leads to a mistaken presumption that the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> is still in some way under British rule, or think that it implies that the UK has continuing territorial claims to that country. No branch of the Irish government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Irish Embassy in London, uses the term, although it is on occasion used in a geographical sense in Irish parliamentary debates. In <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> nationalists reject the term and use <i>these islands</i> as an alternative, whereas <!--del_lnk--> unionists, when countering nationalist insistence on the territorial integrity of the island of Ireland, change the geographical frame of reference to that of the whole archipelago of what they call the <i>British Isles</i>.<p>Contemporary usage of the term "The <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>" is also often inconsistent and confusing. Even highly regarded major media sources like the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> and <!--del_lnk--> The Times use the term "The <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>" in widely varied ways. Using the dictionary definition the term refers to the whole of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> as well as the surrounding islands. However, it is sometimes used as being identical to the UK, i.e. covering only a part of the island of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> while in other contexts it is used to refer to <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and the surrounding islands but excluding the island of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> entirely.<p>There have been several suggestions for replacements for the term <i>British Isles</i>. Although there is no single accepted replacement, both <i>Great Britain and Ireland</i> and <i>The British Isles and Ireland</i> are widely used. .<p><a id="Ireland_3" name="Ireland_3"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ireland</span></h3>
<p>The term <i>Ireland</i> is also a matter of sensitivity. It is the official name of the Republic of Ireland as well as being a geographical term for the whole island. In Northern Ireland, Irishness is a highly contested identity, with fundamentally different perceptions between unionists who perceive themselves as being both British and Irish, and nationalists who consider both communities to be part of the Irish nation.<p><a id="Further_information" name="Further_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Further information</span></h2>
<p><a id="Isle_of_Man_and_Channel_Islands" name="Isle_of_Man_and_Channel_Islands"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isle of Man and Channel Islands</span></h3>
<p>The Isle of Man and the two <!--del_lnk--> bailiwicks of the Channel Islands are <!--del_lnk--> Crown Dependencies; that is, non-sovereign <!--del_lnk--> nations, self-governing but whose sovereignty is held by the British <!--del_lnk--> Crown. They control their own politics, but not their defence. They are not part of the United Kingdom nor part of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<ul>
<li>The <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Man.htm" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> is part of the British Isles, situated in the <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_Sea.htm" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a> between Great Britain and Ireland.<li>The <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> consist politically of two self-governing <!--del_lnk--> bailiwicks: the <!--del_lnk--> Bailiwick of Guernsey and the <!--del_lnk--> Bailiwick of Jersey. They are the remnants of the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Normandy, which was once in <!--del_lnk--> personal union with the Kingdom of England. They are sometimes, despite their location next to mainland <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, considered part of the British Isles.</ul>
<p><a id="Celtic_names" name="Celtic_names"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Celtic names</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Celtic languages in the region — <!--del_lnk--> Cornish, <!--del_lnk--> Irish, <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Welsh and <!--del_lnk--> Manx— each have names for the various countries and subdivisions of the British Isles.<p>Some of the above are:<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4">
<tr>
<td>
<dl>
<dt>England<dd>Cornish: <i>Pow an Sawson</i>, <i>Pow Saws</i> ('Saxon country'), <i>Inglond</i><dd>Irish: <i>Sasana</i> ('Saxony')<dd>Manx: <i>Sostyn</i> ('Saxony')<dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>Sasainn</i> ('Saxony')<dd>Welsh: <i>Lloegr</i></dl>
<dl>
<dt>Scotland<dd>Cornish: <i>Alban</i>, <i>Scotlond</i><dd>Irish: <i>Albain</i><dd>Manx: <i>Nalbin</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>Alba</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Yr Alban</i></dl>
</td>
<td>
<dl>
<dt>Wales<dd>Cornish: <i>Kembra</i><dd>Irish: <i>An Bhreatain Bheag</i> ('Little Britain')<dd>Manx: <i>Bretin</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>A' Chuimrigh</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Cymru</i></dl>
<dl>
<dt>Cornwall<dd>Cornish: <i>Kernow</i><dd>Irish: <i>Corn na Breataine</i>, <i>An Chorn</i><dd>Manx: <i>Yn Chorn</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>A' Chòrn</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Cernyw</i></dl>
</td>
<td>
<dl>
<dt>Ireland<dd>Cornish: <i>Wordhen</i>, <i>Ywerdhon</i><dd>Irish: <i>Éire</i>, <i>Éirinn</i><dd>Manx: <i>Nerin</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>Èirinn</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Iwerddon</i></dl>
<dl>
<dt>Republic of Ireland<dd>Cornish: <i>Republyk Wordhen</i><dd>Irish: <i>Poblacht na hÉireann</i><dd>Manx: <i>Pobblaght Nerin</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>Poblachd na h-Èirinn</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Gweriniaeth Iwerddon</i></dl>
</td>
<td>
<dl>
<dt>Northern Ireland<dd>Cornish: <i>Wordhen North</i><dd>Irish: <i>Tuaisceart Éireann</i>, <i>Tuaisceart na hÉireann</i><dd>Manx: <i>Nerin Twoaie</i><dd>Scottish Gaelic: <i>Èirinn a Tuath</i><dd>Welsh: <i>Gogledd Iwerddon</i></dl>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Note: In Irish there are actually several terms for Northern Ireland: <i>An Tuaisceart</i>, meaning "the North", is usually used, but a more recent term for official use is <i>Tuaisceart Éireann</i>. <i>Ulaidh</i>, the Irish word for Ulster, is also sometimes used, though the traditional region of Ulster also includes 3 counties which are not included in the political region of Northern Ireland. Ironically the most northern point in Ireland is 'down South', that is ruled from Dublin, not London.<p>The English word <i>Welsh</i> is from a common <!--del_lnk--> Germanic root meaning "foreigner" (<!--del_lnk--> cognate with <!--del_lnk--> Wallonia and <!--del_lnk--> Wallachia, and also cognate with the word used in Mediaeval German to refer to the French and <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italians</a>). The English names <i><!--del_lnk--> Albion</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Albany</i> are related to <i>Alba</i> and used poetically for either England or Scotland, or the whole island of Great Britain. English <i><!--del_lnk--> Erin</i> is a poetic name for Ireland derived from <i>Éire</i> (or rather, from its dative form <i>Éirinn</i>)<p><a id="The_term_.22Oile.C3.A1in_Bhriotanacha.22_for_.27British_Isles.27_in_the_Irish_language" name="The_term_.22Oile.C3.A1in_Bhriotanacha.22_for_.27British_Isles.27_in_the_Irish_language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The term "Oileáin Bhriotanacha" for 'British Isles' in the Irish language</span></h3>
<p>In Irish, the term <i>Oileáin Bhriotanacha</i> is attested as a version of the English term 'British Isles'. The 1937 book <i>Tír-Eóluíocht na h-Éireann</i> ('The Geography of Ireland') by T. J. Dunne, translated by Toirdhealbhach Ó Raithbheartaigh and published in Dublin by the Government Publications Office, states: <i>Tá Éire ar cheann de na h-oileáin a dtugar na <b>h-Oileáin Bhreataineacha</b> ortha agus atá ar an taobh Thiar-Thuaidh de'n Eóraip. Tá siad tuairim a's ar chúig mhíle oileán ar fad ann. (<b>Oileánradh</b> an t-ainm a bheirtear ar áit ar bith i n-a bhfuil a lán oileán agus iad i n-aice a chéile mar seo.) Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór (Sasain, an Bhreatain Bheag, agus Alba) an dá oileán is mó de na h-Oileáin Bhreataineacha.</i> 'Ireland is one of the islands which are called the <b>British Isles</b> and which are on the North-Western side of Europe. It is thought that there are five thousand islands in total there. (<b>Archipelago</b> is the name which is borne by a place in which there are many islands next to each other like these.) Ireland and Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) are the two largest islands of the British Isles.'<p><a id="Other_terms_in_the_Irish_language" name="Other_terms_in_the_Irish_language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other terms in the Irish language</span></h3>
<p>Dineen's 1927 Irish-English dictionary gives <i>Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa</i> 'the British or West European Isles'. Most often the term is avoided and <i>Éire agus an Bhreatain</i> is used, though this ignores the thousands of small islands.<p><a id="Rockall" name="Rockall"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rockall</span></h3>
<p>The island of <a href="../../wp/r/Rockall.htm" title="Rockall">Rockall</a> is a disputed territory in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a small, uninhabited island lying some 301.4 km (187.3 miles) west of <!--del_lnk--> St Kilda (<a href="../../wp/o/Outer_Hebrides.htm" title="Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a>) and 424 km (229.1 miles) north-west of Ireland. It is claimed by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Harris), whilst its surrounding <!--del_lnk--> continental shelf (but not the island itself) is claimed by the Republic of Ireland, <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> (through the <a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>). Its remote position, however, means that it is open to question whether or not, geographically, it belongs to the British Isles. In any event The <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, states <i>Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf</i>.<p><a id="Slang" name="Slang"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Slang</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Blighty is a slang word for Britain derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Hindustani word <i>bilāyatī</i> ("foreign"). Depending on the user, it is meant either affectionately or archly. It was often used by British soldiers abroad in the First World War to refer to home.<p><a id="Europe" name="Europe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Europe</span></h3>
<p>The term "<a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>" may be used in one of several different contexts by British people; either to refer to the whole of the European continent, to refer to only to <!--del_lnk--> Mainland Europe, sometimes called <i>"continental Europe"</i> or simply <i>"the Continent"</i> by some people in the archipelago — as in the apocryphal newspaper headlining "Fog shrouds Channel, continent cut off."<p>Europe and the adjective European may also be used in reference to the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, particularly in a derogative context such as "The new regulations handed out by Europe".<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles_%28terminology%29"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British Virgin Islands</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;">
<caption><big><b>British Virgin Islands</b></big></caption>
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<td align="center" width="140px"><a class="image" href="../../images/82/8211.png.htm" title="Flag of the British Virgin Islands"><img alt="Flag of the British Virgin Islands" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands.svg" src="../../images/22/2243.png" width="125" /></a></td>
<td align="center" width="140px"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2244.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands"><img alt="Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands.svg" src="../../images/22/2244.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<td align="center" width="140px">(<small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small>)</td>
<td align="center" width="140px">(<small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of Arms</small>)</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><font size="-1"><i>National <!--del_lnk--> motto:<br /> Vigilate (Be Watchful)</i></font></td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2245.png.htm" title="Image:LocationBritishVirginIslands.png"><img alt="Image:LocationBritishVirginIslands.png" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBritishVirginIslands.png" src="../../images/22/2245.png" width="250" /></a></td>
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<td width="115px"><!--del_lnk--> Official language</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Political status</td>
<td>Non-<!--del_lnk--> sovereign, <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territory</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Road Town</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Monarch</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Governor</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> David Pearey</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Chief Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orlando Smith</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Area<br /> - Total<br /> - % water</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 216th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 153 km²<br /> 1.6%</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Population<br /> - Total (2005)<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 215th<br /> 22,016<br /> 260/km²</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> US dollar</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UTC -4</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> National anthem</td>
<td>"<!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen"</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .vg</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Calling Code</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1-284</td>
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</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2246.png.htm" title="Map of British Virgin Islands"><img alt="Map of British Virgin Islands" height="322" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BritishVirginIsland_map.png" src="../../images/22/2246.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2246.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of British Virgin Islands</div>
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</div>
<p>The <b>British Virgin Islands</b> (<b>BVI</b>) is a <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territory, located in the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean to the east of <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. The islands make up part of the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Islands archipelago (the remainder constituting the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Virgin Islands; see also <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Virgin Islands).<p>The British Virgin Islands consist of the main islands of <!--del_lnk--> Tortola, <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Gorda, <!--del_lnk--> Anegada and <!--del_lnk--> Jost Van Dyke, along with over 50 other smaller islands and cays. Around 15 of the islands are inhabited. The largest island, Tortola, is approximately 12 miles (19 km) long and 3 miles (5 km) wide. The islands have a total population of about 22,000. <!--del_lnk--> Road Town, the capital, is situated on Tortola.<p>
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<p>The Virgin Islands were first settled by <!--del_lnk--> Arawak Indians from <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> around 100 BC (though there is some evidence of <!--del_lnk--> Amerindian presence on the islands as far back as 1500 BC <!--del_lnk--> ). The Arawaks inhabited the islands until the 15th century when they were displaced by the more aggressive <!--del_lnk--> Caribs, a tribe from the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Antilles islands, after whom the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> is named. (Some historians, however, believe that this popular account of warlike Caribs chasing peaceful Arawaks out of the Caribbean islands is rooted in simplistic European stereotypes, and that the true story is more complex.)<p>The first European sighting of the Virgin Islands was by <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> in 1493 on his second voyage to the Americas. Columbus gave them the fanciful name <i>Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Vírgenes</i> (Saint Ursula and her 11,000 Virgins), shortened to <i>Las Vírgenes</i> (The Virgins), after the legend of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Ursula.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Empire acquired the islands in the early 16th century, mining <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> on <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Gorda, and subsequent years saw the English, Dutch, French, Spanish and Danish all jostling for control of the region, which became a notorious haunt for pirates. During the process of colonisation the native Amerindian population was decimated.<p>The <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> established a permanent settlement on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Tortola in 1648. In 1672, the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> captured Tortola from the Dutch, and the British annexation of <!--del_lnk--> Anegada and <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Gorda followed in 1680. Meanwhile, over the period 1672–1733, the Danish gained control of the nearby islands of <!--del_lnk--> St. Thomas, <!--del_lnk--> St. John and <!--del_lnk--> St. Croix.<p>The British islands were considered principally a strategic possession, but were planted when economic conditions were particularly favourable. The British introduced <!--del_lnk--> sugar cane which was to become the main crop and source of foreign trade, and slaves were brought from <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> to work on the sugar cane plantations. The islands prospered economically until the growth in the <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar_beet.htm" title="Sugar beet">sugar beet</a> crop in Europe and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> significantly reduced sugar cane production.<p>In 1917, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> purchased St. John, St. Thomas and St. Croix from Denmark for US$17 million, renaming them the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Virgin_Islands.htm" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>. Subsequently, the British renamed the islands they controlled as the British Virgin Islands.<p>The British Virgin Islands were administered variously as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Leeward Islands Colony or with <!--del_lnk--> St. Kitts and Nevis, with an Administrator representing the British Government on the Islands. Separate colony status was gained for the Islands in 1960 and the Islands became autonomous in 1967. Since the 1960s, the Islands have diversified away from their traditionally agriculture-based economy towards tourism and financial services, becoming one of the richest areas in the Caribbean.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Executive authority in British Virgin Islands is invested in <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">The Queen</a> and is exercised on her behalf by the <!--del_lnk--> Governor of the British Virgin Islands. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the <!--del_lnk--> British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom.<p>The Constitution of the Islands was introduced in 1971. The Head of Government is the <!--del_lnk--> Chief Minister, who is elected in a general election along with the other members of the ruling government as well as the members of the opposition. An Executive Council is nominated by the Chief Minister and appointed by the Governor. There is a <!--del_lnk--> unicameral <!--del_lnk--> Legislative Council made up of 13 seats.<p>The current Governor is <!--del_lnk--> David Pearey (since 2006). The current Chief Minister is <!--del_lnk--> Orlando Smith (since June 17, 2003) who is a member of ruling National Democratic Party (NDP). The main opposition is the Virgin Islands Party (VIP).<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2247.jpg.htm" title="Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands"><img alt="Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Roadtown%2C_Tortola.jpg" src="../../images/22/2247.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2247.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2248.jpg.htm" title="Tortola, British Virgin Islands"><img alt="Tortola, British Virgin Islands" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tortola.jpg" src="../../images/22/2248.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2248.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tortola, British Virgin Islands</div>
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<p>The British Virgin Islands comprise around 60 semi-tropical Caribbean islands, ranging in size from the largest, Tortola (approximately 12 miles by 3 miles), to tiny uninhabited islets. They are located in the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Islands archipelago, a few miles east of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Virgin Islands. The <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> lies to the north of the islands, and the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> lies to the south. Most of the islands are volcanic in origin and have a hilly, rugged terrain. Anegada is geologically distinct from the rest of the group and is a flat island composed of limestone and coral.<p>In addition to the four main islands of <!--del_lnk--> Tortola, <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Gorda, <!--del_lnk--> Anegada, and <!--del_lnk--> Jost Van Dyke, other islands include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Beef Island<li>Cooper Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Ginger Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Camanoe<li>Great Thatch<li>Guana Island<li>Mosquito Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Necker Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Norman Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter Island<li><!--del_lnk--> Salt Island</ul>
<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<p>The British Virgin Islands enjoy a sub-tropical climate, moderated by trade winds. Temperatures vary little throughout the year: typical daily maxima are around 29°C (84°F) in the summer and 25°C (77°F) in the winter. Rainfall averages about 115 cm (45 in) per year, higher in the hills and lower on the coast. Rainfall can be quite variable, but the wettest months on average are September to December. Hurricanes occasionally hit the islands, with the hurricane season running from June to October.<p><a id="Subdivisions" name="Subdivisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Subdivisions</span></h2>
<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>The British Virgin Islands enjoys one of the more prosperous economies of the Caribbean region, with a per capita <!--del_lnk--> GDP of around $38,500 (2004 est.) <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The British Virgin Islands is highly dependent on <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, which accounts for 45% of national income. The islands are a popular destination for U.S. citizens, with around 350,000 tourists visiting annually (1997 figures). Tourists frequent the numerous white sand <a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" title="Beach">beaches</a>, visit The Baths on Virgin Gorda, <!--del_lnk--> snorkel the <!--del_lnk--> coral reefs near Anegada, experience the well-known bars of Jost Van Dyke, or charter <!--del_lnk--> yachts to explore the less accessible islands.<p>Substantial revenues are also generated by the registration of <!--del_lnk--> offshore companies. As of 2004, over 550,000 companies were so registered. In 2000 KPMG reported in its survey of <!--del_lnk--> offshore jurisdictions for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> government that over 41% of the world's offshore companies were formed in the British Virgin Islands. Since 2001, financial services in the British Virgin Islands have been regulated by the independent <!--del_lnk--> Financial Services Commission.<p>Agriculture and industry account for only a small proportion of the islands' GDP. Agricultural produce includes fruit, vegetables, sugar cane, livestock and poultry, and industries include rum distillation, construction and boatbuilding.<p>Since 1959, the official currency of the British Virgin Islands has been the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US dollar</a>, also used by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Virgin_Islands.htm" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<p>The population of the Islands is around 21,730 at 2003. The majority of the population (83%) are <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Caribbean, descended from the slaves brought to the Islands by the British. Other large ethnic groups include those of British and European origin.<p>The 1999 census reports:<dl>
<dd>Black 83.36%<dd>White 7.28% (includes British, Portuguese, & Syrian/Lebanese)<dd>Mixed 5.38%<dd>East Indian 3.14%<dd>Others 0.84%</dl>
<p>The islands are predominantly <!--del_lnk--> Protestant <!--del_lnk--> Christian (86%). The largest individual denominations are <!--del_lnk--> Methodist (33%), <!--del_lnk--> Anglican (17%), and <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> (10%).<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Being a small group of islands, <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transportation">transportation</a> is limited. There are 113km of roads. The main airport (Terrence B. Lettsome Airport, also known as <!--del_lnk--> Beef Island Airport) is located on Beef Island, which lies off the eastern tip of Tortola. Virgin Gorda and Anegada have their own smaller airports. The main harbour is in <!--del_lnk--> Road Town.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands"</div>
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British_monarchy
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">British monarchy</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Politics_and_government.htm">Politics and government</a></h3>
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<div class="dablink"><i>The British Monarchy is a shared monarchy. This article describes the Monarchy from the perspective of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. In the other <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realms, the constitutional role of the Monarchy is similar, but the historical and cultural significance may differ. For information on the Monarchy in the other Realms, see <!--del_lnk--> Other Realms below.</i></div>
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<p>The <b>British monarch</b> or <b>Sovereign</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> head of state of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and in the <!--del_lnk--> British overseas territories. The current British <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> can trace its line back to the <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.htm" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon period</a>, but derives its most ancient pedigree by tracing its line through the <!--del_lnk--> Kings of Scots. During the ninth century, <a href="../../wp/w/Wessex.htm" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> came to dominate other kingdoms in England, especially as a result of the extinction of rival lines in England during the First <!--del_lnk--> Viking Age, and during the <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">tenth century</a> <!--del_lnk--> England was consolidated into a single realm. The English and <!--del_lnk--> Scots crowns were united in the person of a single monarch in 1603 when <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI of Scots</a> acceded to the throne of England. The kingdoms themselves were joined in the <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union 1707</a>, to form <!--del_lnk--> Great Britain.<p>The powers of the monarchy, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Prerogative, are still very extensive. Most prerogative powers are exercised not by the monarch personally, but by ministers acting on his or her behalf; examples such as the power to regulate the civil service and the power to issue passports. Some major powers are exercised nominally by the monarch herself, acting on the advice of the <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet, and according to <!--del_lnk--> constitutional convention. An example is the power to dissolve Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers".<p>It has long been established in the uncodified <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of the United Kingdom that political power is ultimately exercised by the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>, of which the Sovereign is a non-partisan component, along with the <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> and the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a>, and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Thus, as the modern British monarchy is a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional</a> one, the Sovereign's role is in practice limited to non-partisan functions (such as being the <!--del_lnk--> fount of honour). This role has been recognised since the 19th century; <!--del_lnk--> Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government in <i>The English Constitution</i> (1867). In practice, political power is exercised today through Parliament and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The sovereign also holds the title of <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Governor of the <!--del_lnk--> established <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, although in practice the spiritual leadership of the Church is the responsibility of the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>.<p>The present sovereign is <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>, who has reigned since <!--del_lnk--> February 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1952. The <!--del_lnk--> heir apparent is her eldest son, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Charles, Prince of Wales and <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Rothesay. The Prince of Wales undertakes various public ceremonial functions, as does the queen's husband, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. There are several other members of <!--del_lnk--> Royal Family besides those aforementioned, including the Queen's other children, grandchildren and cousins.<p>The British monarch is also <!--del_lnk--> Head of the Commonwealth, and the same person is also separately monarch of 15 other <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realms; each nation–including the UK–being sovereign and independent of the others.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="English_monarchy" name="English_monarchy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">English monarchy</span></h3>
<p>Monarchs had existed in the island of Britain since before Roman times; many of these "Celtic" rulers were to ally with or fall to the Romans who made the province of <!--del_lnk--> Britannia (roughly modern England and Wales) part of their empire. Rome withdrew from <!--del_lnk--> Britannia in the early fifth century, and a period of history followed that has been referred to as the <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Angles, <!--del_lnk--> Saxons, and <!--del_lnk--> Jutes settled in Britain, and formed many kingdoms, the seven most powerful of which have been referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Heptarchy. This term, however, is somewhat misleading, as it does not truly convey the complicated political make-up of Britain at the time. Each kingdom had its own "monarch," and at times one powerful king would have dominance over several others: there was no "British monarchy", however, and the idea that the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Bretwalda was some official royal title is rather fanciful. This was a ceremonial figure as opposed to a supreme ruler.<p>Following the Viking raids and settlement of the ninth century, the kingdom of <a href="../../wp/w/Wessex.htm" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> emerged as the dominant English kingdom. <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> secured Wessex and achieved dominance over western <a href="../../wp/m/Mercia.htm" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, but he did not become King of England; the nearest title he assumed was "King of the Anglo-Saxons". It was Alfred's successors of the tenth century who built the kingdom now recognised as England, though even by the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Edgar the Peaceful England was not beyond fracturing into its constituent parts. The eleventh century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes which resulted in a Danish monarchy for some years. When <a href="../../wp/w/William_I_of_England.htm" title="William I of England">William, Duke of Normandy</a> conquered England in 1066 he became monarch of a kingdom with probably the strongest royal authority in Europe. The <!--del_lnk--> Norman Conquest was crucial in British history, in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralization of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the <!--del_lnk--> Feudal System also continued to develop.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/168/16898.jpg.htm" title="The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest."><img alt="The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bayeuxtap1.jpg" src="../../images/239/23917.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/168/16898.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest.</div>
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<p>William I was succeeded by two of his sons: <a href="../../wp/w/William_II_of_England.htm" title="William II of England">William II</a>, and then <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_I_of_England.htm" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a>. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter <!--del_lnk--> Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_of_England.htm" title="Stephen of England">Stephen</a>, laid claim to the Throne, and took power with the support of most of the barons. Stephen's weak rule, however, allowed Matilda to challenge his reign; as a result, England soon descended into a period of disorder known as <a href="../../wp/t/The_Anarchy.htm" title="The Anarchy">the Anarchy</a>. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power for the rest of his life; however, he agreed to a compromise under which he would be succeeded by Matilda's son <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" title="Henry II of England">Henry</a>, who accordingly became the first monarch of the <!--del_lnk--> Angevin or <!--del_lnk--> Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.<p>The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_I_of_England.htm" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/John_of_England.htm" title="John of England">John</a>. Nevertheless, Henry did manage to achieve an expansion of his empire; most notable was the conquest of Ireland, which had previously consisted of a multitude of rival kingdoms. Henry granted Ireland to his younger son John who ruled as "Lord of Ireland".<p>Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; Richard, however, was absent from England for most of his reign, as he was fighting the <a href="../../wp/c/Crusades.htm" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Near East. When Richard died, John succeeded him, thereby uniting England and Ireland under a single monarch. John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, who in 1215 coerced him into issuing the <a href="../../wp/m/Magna_Carta.htm" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "Great Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, John repealed the charter, plunging England into a civil war known as the <!--del_lnk--> First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_III_of_England.htm" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a>. The barons, led by <!--del_lnk--> Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, again rebelled later in Henry's reign, beginning the <!--del_lnk--> Second Barons' War. The war, however, ended in a clear royalist victory, and in the execution of many rebels.<p>The next monarch, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, was far more successful in maintaining royal power, and was responsible for the conquest of Wales and the attempt to establish English domination in Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_II_of_England.htm" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a>, who was also occupied with a disastrous conflict with the nobility. Edward II was, in 1311, forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and executed by his wife <!--del_lnk--> Isabella and by his son, who became <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>. The new monarch soon also claimed the French Crown, setting off the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> between England and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. Edward III's campaigns were largely successful, and culminated in the conquest of much French territory. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses for the first time. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his ten year-old grandson <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_II_of_England.htm" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a>. The new monarch, like many of his predecessors, conflicted with the nobles, especially by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, whilst he was away in Ireland, his cousin <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_IV_of_England.htm" title="Henry IV of England">Henry Bolingbroke</a> seized power; Richard was then forced to abdicate and was murdered.<p>Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of <!--del_lnk--> John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the <!--del_lnk--> House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Henry V was victorious in his conquest; however, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> on the Throne, and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule. The unpopularity of Henry's regents, and afterwards, Henry's own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was <!--del_lnk--> Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" title="Edward IV of England">Edward</a> led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The <a href="../../wp/w/Wars_of_the_Roses.htm" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, nevertheless, continued intermittently during the reigns of the Yorkists Edward IV, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a>, and <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a>. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch, led by <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a> (Henry VII), in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Bosworth Field.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/174/17411.jpg.htm" title="The above portrait of Elizabeth I was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background)."><img alt="The above portrait of Elizabeth I was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background)." height="289" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Elizabeth_I_%28Armada_Portrait%29.jpg" src="../../images/44/4486.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/174/17411.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The above portrait of Elizabeth I was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> (depicted in the background).</div>
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<p>The end of the Wars of the Roses formed a major turning point in the history of the monarchy. Much of the nobility was either decimated on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Hence, the Tudor monarchs easily re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The power of the Crown reached its zenith during the reign of the second Tudor king, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>. Henry VIII's reign was one of great political change; England was transformed from a weak kingdom into one of the powers of Europe. Religious upheaval also occurred, as disputes with the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a> led the monarch to break away from the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and to establish the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (the Anglican Church). Another important result of Henry VIII's reign was the annexation of Wales (which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion) to England under the <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542</a>.<p>Henry VIII's son and successor, the young <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI</a>, continued with further religious reforms. Edward VI died in 1553, precipitating a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a> to succeed to the Throne, and therefore drew up a will designating the <!--del_lnk--> Lady Jane Grey as his heiress, even though no woman had ever reigned over England. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her, revoked her proclamation as Queen, and declared herself the lawful Sovereign. Mary I attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, in the process burning numerous Protestants at the stake as heretics. Mary I died in 1558, to be succeeded by her half-sister <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a>, who once again returned England to Protestantism. The Elizabethan era involved the growth of England as a <!--del_lnk--> world power, as evidenced by England's success in the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Spanish War (especially the celebrated defeat of the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588) and by <!--del_lnk--> English colonies in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>. The era is often referred to as a "<!--del_lnk--> golden age" for England, especially due to the cultural achievements of <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Francis Bacon, and others.<p><a id="Scottish_monarchy" name="Scottish_monarchy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scottish monarchy</span></h3>
<p>In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of Rome in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the <a href="../../wp/p/Picts.htm" title="Picts">Picts</a> (who inhabited the kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Pictavia), the <!--del_lnk--> Britons (who lived in several kingdoms in southern Scotland, including the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Strathclyde), and the <!--del_lnk--> Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland) of <a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25A1l_Riata.htm" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Cináed I is traditionally viewed as the founder of united Scotland (or <!--del_lnk--> kingdom of Alba). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were subjugated or obtained through dynastic marriage.<p>Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of alternating segments was followed, as in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and previously among the Picts. The monarchy alternated between two, sometimes three, branches of the House of Alpín. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. The problems relating to succession were especially illustrated by the period from 942 to 1005, during which seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. The rotation of the monarchy between different lines were abandoned after <a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_II_of_Scotland.htm" title="Malcolm II of Scotland">Máel Coluim II</a> ascended the throne in 1005 having killed many rivals. Thus, when <!--del_lnk--> Donnchad I succeeded Máel Coluim II in 1034, he did so as <!--del_lnk--> tanist, with no opposition.<p>In 1040, Donnchad suffered defeat in battle at the hands of <a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth_of_Scotland.htm" title="Macbeth of Scotland">Macbeth</a>, the subject of <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s famous play (<i><a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth.htm" title="Macbeth">The Tragedy of Macbeth</a></i>). Later, in 1057, Donnchad's son <a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_III_of_Scotland.htm" title="Malcolm III of Scotland">Máel Coluim</a> avenged his father's death by defeating and killing Macbeth. A few months later, after the murder of Macbeth's son <!--del_lnk--> Lulach, Máel Coluim ascended the throne as Máel Coluim III, becoming the first monarch of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Dunkeld.<p>From 1107, Scotland was briefly partitioned under the will of <!--del_lnk--> Edgar, who divided his dominions between his eldest surviving brother <!--del_lnk--> Alexander I (who ruled northern Scotland as a king) and his younger brother <!--del_lnk--> David (who ruled southern Scotland as an earl). After Alexander's death in 1124, David inherited his dominions, and Scotland became unified once more. David was succeeded by the ineffective <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm IV, and then by <!--del_lnk--> William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the <!--del_lnk--> Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England; however, the rebellion failed, and William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son <!--del_lnk--> Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor <!--del_lnk--> Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.<p>Alexander III's death in 1286 brought his three year-old Norwegian granddaughter <!--del_lnk--> Margaret to the throne. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, precipitating a major succession crisis, during which there were <!--del_lnk--> thirteen rival claimants. Several Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England to settle the dispute. A court was set up with the Balliol and Bruce "factions" each nominating "assessors". Contrary to popular opinion, Edward did not choose <!--del_lnk--> John Balliol to be king. Balliol won the overwhelming support of the majority of assessors. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert considerable influence over Scottish affairs. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded and conquered Scotland. During the first ten years of the ensuing <!--del_lnk--> Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch present; however, it was informally led by <!--del_lnk--> William Wallace. After Wallace's execution in 1305, <!--del_lnk--> Robert the Bruce took over and declared himself king. Robert's efforts culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died, and the English again invaded under the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Balliol, to the throne. Nonetheless, during further military campaigns, Scotland once again won its independence under Robert the Bruce's son <!--del_lnk--> David II.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23919.jpg.htm" title="James IV attempted to invade England in 1513, but was killed in the process."><img alt="James IV attempted to invade England in 1513, but was killed in the process." height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:James_IV_of_Scotland.jpg" src="../../images/239/23919.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23919.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> James IV attempted to invade England in 1513, but was killed in the process.</div>
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<p>In 1371, David II was succeeded by <!--del_lnk--> Robert II, the first Scottish monarch from the <!--del_lnk--> House of Stewart (later Stuart). The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, <!--del_lnk--> Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son <!--del_lnk--> James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; in order to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. <!--del_lnk--> James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen. At the same time, however, the <!--del_lnk--> Estates of Scotland (the Scottish Parliament) became increasingly powerful, often openly defying the King. Parliamentary power reached its zenith during the reign of the ineffective <!--del_lnk--> King James III. As a result, <!--del_lnk--> James IV and his successors tended to avoid calling parliamentary sessions, thereby checking the power of the Estates.<p>In 1513, James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at <!--del_lnk--> Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and over ten thousand soldiers were killed. As James IV's son and successor, <!--del_lnk--> James V, was an infant, the government was taken over by regents. After he reached adulthood, James ruled successfully until another disastrous war with the English in 1542. James's death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_Scotland.htm" title="Mary I of Scotland">Mary</a>; once again, a regency was established. Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. Due to the efforts of reformers such as <!--del_lnk--> John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused considerable alarm by marrying a fellow Catholic, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate and to flee to England (where she was imprisoned and later executed by Elizabeth I). The Crown went to her infant son <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI</a>, who was brought up as a Protestant. James VI would later become King of England upon the death of Queen Elizabeth I.<p><a id="Personal_Union_and_republican_phase" name="Personal_Union_and_republican_phase"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Personal Union and republican phase</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23920.jpg.htm" title="James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together."><img alt="James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together." height="344" longdesc="/wiki/Image:JamesIEngland.jpg" src="../../images/239/23920.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23920.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together.</div>
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<p>Elizabeth's death in 1603 brought about the end of the rule of the House of Tudor; she had no children, so was succeeded by the Scottish monarch <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James VI</a> whose maternal great-grandmother was <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s older sister. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Union of the Crowns". Although England and Scotland were in <!--del_lnk--> personal union under one monarch - James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604 - they remained separate kingdoms. James belonged to the <!--del_lnk--> House of Stuart, a royal house whose monarchs experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament. The disputes frequently related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. The conflict was especially pronounced during the reign of James I's successor <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, who provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640 (the "<!--del_lnk--> Eleven Years Tyranny"), unilaterally levying taxes, and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterians and the English <!--del_lnk--> Puritans). In about 1642, the conflict between King and Parliament reached its climax as the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War began. The war culminated in the execution of the king, the overthrow of the monarchy, and the establishment of a <!--del_lnk--> republic known as the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of England. In 1653, however, <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself <!--del_lnk--> Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator). Oliver Cromwell continued to rule until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son <!--del_lnk--> Richard Cromwell. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon abdicated, allowing the brief re-establishment of the Commonwealth. The lack of clear leadership, however, led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. The <!--del_lnk--> Restoration came about in 1660, when Charles I's son <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> was declared king. The establishment of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was deemed illegal; Charles II was declared to have been the <i>de jure</i> king since his father's death in 1649.<p>Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James, Duke of York</a>. There arose a parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession; the "Abhorrers," who opposed it, became the Tory Party, whereas the "Petitioners," who supported it, became the Whig Party. The Exclusion Bill, however, failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled as an absolute monarch until his death in 1685. The Catholic James II accordingly succeeded Charles (who himself converted to Catholicism on his deathbed). James pursued policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies (see <!--del_lnk--> Seven Bishops). As a result, a group of Protestant nobles and other notable citizens known as the <!--del_lnk--> Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</a> and her husband <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on <!--del_lnk--> 5 November <!--del_lnk--> 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm on <!--del_lnk--> 23 December of the same year. On <!--del_lnk--> 12 February <!--del_lnk--> 1689, the <!--del_lnk--> Convention Parliament declared that James's flight constituted an abdication, and that William III and Mary II (not James II's Catholic son <!--del_lnk--> James Francis Edward Stuart) were joint Sovereigns of England and Ireland. The Scottish Estates soon followed suit.<p>James's overthrow is normally known as the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, and was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The <!--del_lnk--> Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights also required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister <a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="Anne of Great Britain">Anne</a> would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of the Princess Anne's children had died, leaving Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament, afraid that the former James II or his Roman Catholic relatives might attempt to reclaim the Throne, passed the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Settlement 1701, which placed William's distant Protestant cousin <!--del_lnk--> Sophia, Electress of Hanover, in the line of succession. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to his sister-in-law Anne.<p><a id="After_the_Union_of_the_Crowns" name="After_the_Union_of_the_Crowns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">After the Union of the Crowns</span></h3>
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<div style="width:146px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52071.jpg.htm" title="England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne."><img alt="England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne." height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen_anne_england.jpg" src="../../images/234/23403.jpg" width="144" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/520/52071.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne.</div>
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<p>After Anne's accession, the succession issue quickly re-emerged; the Scottish Estates, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia of Hanover, passed the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Security, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the <!--del_lnk--> Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by cutting free trade. As a result, the Scottish Estates acquiesced to the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession to be determined under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.<p>Accordingly, in 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by the son of the deceased Sophia of Hanover, <a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a>, who consolidated his position by defeating <!--del_lnk--> Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was much less active in government than many of his predecessors, preferring to devote much of his time to the affairs of his German kingdoms. Instead, George left much of his power to his ministers, especially to <!--del_lnk--> Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first (unofficial) <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of Great Britain</a>. The decline of the influence of the monarch and the rise of the power of the Prime Minister and <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet continued during the reign of the next monarch, <a href="../../wp/g/George_II_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a>, but was halted during that of <a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a>. George III attempted to recover much of the power given up by his Hanoverian predecessors; he also acted to keep the Tories (who favoured royal control in government more than the Whigs) in power whenever possible. George III's reign was also important because of the union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom under the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Union 1800. At the same time, George III also dropped the claim to the French Throne, which had been nominally made by all English monarchs since <!--del_lnk--> Edward III.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23921.jpg.htm" title="King George III asserted his political authority on several occasions, in contrast with his two Hanoverian predecessors."><img alt="King George III asserted his political authority on several occasions, in contrast with his two Hanoverian predecessors." height="277" longdesc="/wiki/Image:George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom-e.jpg" src="../../images/239/23921.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23921.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> King George III asserted his political authority on several occasions, in contrast with his two Hanoverian predecessors.</div>
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<p>From 1811 to 1820, George III was insane, forcing his son, the future <a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George IV of the United Kingdom">George IV</a>, to rule as Prince Regent. During the Regency, and later during his own reign, George IV continued to maintain what remained of royal authority, instead of ceding it to Parliament and the Cabinet. His successor, <a href="../../wp/w/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>, attempted to do the same, but met with much less success. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, <!--del_lnk--> William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, over policy differences, and instead appointed a Tory, <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Peel.htm" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a>. In the ensuing elections, however, the Whigs maintained a large majority in the House of Commons; they forced Peel to resign by blocking most of his legislation, thus leaving the King with no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. Since 1834, no monarch has appointed or dismissed a Prime Minister contrary to the will of the democratically chosen House of Commons. William IV's reign was also marked by the passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Reform Act, which reformed parliamentary representation and abolished many <!--del_lnk--> rotten boroughs. The act, together with others passed later in the century, led to an expansion of the electoral franchise, and the rise of the increasingly legitimate House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.<p>The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Victoria</a>. As a woman, Victoria could not rule <!--del_lnk--> Hanover; thus, the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The <!--del_lnk--> Victorian Era was an historic one for the United Kingdom, and was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared <!--del_lnk--> Empress of India in 1876. However, the reign was also marked by increased support for the <!--del_lnk--> republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.<p>Victoria's son, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">Edward VII</a>, became the first monarch of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1901. However, in 1917, the next monarch, <a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George V of the United Kingdom">George V</a>, replaced "Saxe-Coburg-Gotha" with "Windsor" due to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>. George V's reign was also marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland (which remained a part of the United Kingdom) and the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Free State (an independent nation) in 1922.<p><a id="Monarchy_in_Ireland" name="Monarchy_in_Ireland"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Monarchy in Ireland</span></h3>
<p>In the twelfth century Pope <!--del_lnk--> Adrian IV gave a papal bull authorizing King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</a> to take possession of Ireland. This was because the Irish Christian church at the time was not following the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Church and had various heretical beliefs. So the pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into the Catholic Church. The pope granted Ireland to the king of England as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship.<p>Around 1170 King <!--del_lnk--> Dermot MacMurrough of <!--del_lnk--> Leinster was deposed and his country taken by his archenemy King <!--del_lnk--> Rory O'Connor of Connaught. Dermot escaped to England and asked Henry for help. Henry refused but agreed to allow him to use a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, the earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Dermot and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. As a reward Dermot let de Clare marry his daughter. Because of this when Dermot died in 1171 de Clare inherited his throne and became King of Leinster. This made Henry afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman state or a place of refuge for Anglo-Saxons, so he took advantage of the papal bull giving him possession of Ireland and went to the island with his English armies and forced de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and some of the Gaelic Irish chieftains to recognize him as their overlord. Henry was thus <!--del_lnk--> Lord of Ireland under nominal papal overlordship after this.<p>This remained the status of Ireland until 1541. By then King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Catholic Church and made England Protestant. This made the pope's granting of Ireland to the English monarch invalid. So he summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament that year to change his title of sovereignty over the island. There his title was changed from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland, thus making the island a kingdom in <!--del_lnk--> personal union with the kingdom of England.<p>Ireland continued to have this status until 1800, when the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into one kingdom called the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland continued to be an integral part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when much of it was granted independence as the Irish Free State. Ireland was a separate kingdom with the same monarch as Great Britain in a personal union from its independence in 1922 until 1949, when what had become Southern Ireland became a republic and severed all ties with the monarchy, while Northern Ireland remained loyal to the Union and the Crown, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.<p><a id="Empire_to_Commonwealth" name="Empire_to_Commonwealth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Empire to Commonwealth</span></h3>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23922.png.htm" title="Map of the Commonwealth Realms where once the British Monarch reigned over all but now the Crown is 'divided' so that one shared Sovereign reigns as Monarch of each nation separately."><img alt="Map of the Commonwealth Realms where once the British Monarch reigned over all but now the Crown is 'divided' so that one shared Sovereign reigns as Monarch of each nation separately." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Commonwealth_Realms_map.png" src="../../images/239/23922.png" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23922.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Commonwealth Realms where once the British Monarch reigned over all but now the Crown is 'divided' so that one shared Sovereign reigns as Monarch of each nation separately.</div>
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<p>Formerly, the Crown operated over the entire <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> as a single entity. The British Crown was seen as a unitary one, to which all Dominions and colonies were subordinate. However, the <!--del_lnk--> Balfour Declaration of 1926 stated that the Dominions were "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs." In 1931, the <!--del_lnk--> Statute of Westminster was passed, ending the right of the government in London to advise the King on actions to take regarding the individual Dominions. As a result, the unitary British Crown that operated over the entire empire was replaced by separate Crowns for each Dominion. Thus, the institution of the Monarchy ceased to be exclusively British, the particular British Monarchy only existing within the Crown's British jurisdiction - the UK. Reflecting this, while the George VI was one person, he was separately King of the United Kingdom, <!--del_lnk--> King of Australia, <!--del_lnk--> King of Canada, and so forth. This "division" was further enhanced with the subsequent patriation of each Realm's constitution from the UK over the ensuing decades.<p>One Canadian constitutional scholar, Dr. Richard Toporoski, stated on this: "I am perfectly prepared to concede, even happily affirm, that the British Crown no longer exists in Canada, but that is because legal reality indicates to me that in one sense, the British Crown no longer exists in Britain: the Crown transcends Britain just as much as it does Canada. One can therefore speak of "the British Crown" or "the Canadian Crown" or indeed the "Barbadian" or "Tuvaluan" Crown, but what one will mean by the term is the Crown acting or expressing itself within the context of that particular jurisdiction."<p>Formerly every member of the <!--del_lnk--> British Commonwealth was a <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realm. However, when <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> became a republic in 1950, it was decided that it should be permitted to remain in the Commonwealth, even though they would no longer share a common monarch with the other Commonwealth Realms. It was nevertheless decided that the British monarch would be acknowledged as "<!--del_lnk--> Head of the Commonwealth" in all Commonwealth member states, whether realms or not. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not accompanied by political power.<p><a id="After_the_Empire" name="After_the_Empire"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">After the Empire</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23923.jpg.htm" title="The reign of Queen Victoria was the longest in the history of the United Kingdom."><img alt="The reign of Queen Victoria was the longest in the history of the United Kingdom." height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Queen_Victoria_bw.jpg" src="../../images/239/23923.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23923.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The reign of Queen Victoria was the longest in the history of the United Kingdom.</div>
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<p>George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of the celebrated <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">King Edward VIII</a>, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry a divorced American woman, <!--del_lnk--> Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcés. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to <!--del_lnk--> abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth realms granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were to be excluded from the line of succession; instead, the Crown went to his brother, <a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George VI of the United Kingdom">George VI</a>. The new monarch served as a rallying figure for the British people during the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. George VI was also the last British monarch to hold the title "Emperor of India," a title relinquished when India was granted independence in 1947.<p>George VI's death in 1952 was followed by the accession of the present monarch, <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Elizabeth II</a>. Like her recent predecessors, Elizabeth II continues to function as a constitutional monarch. During her reign, there has been some support for the republican movement, especially due to negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, the divorce of <!--del_lnk--> Charles, Prince of Wales and <!--del_lnk--> Diana, Princess of Wales). Nevertheless, a large majority of the British public supports the continuation of the monarchy.<p><a id="Succession" name="Succession"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Succession</span></h2>
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<p>Succession is governed by several enactments, the most important of which are the <!--del_lnk--> Bill of Rights 1689 and <!--del_lnk--> Act of Settlement 1701. The rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by an <!--del_lnk--> Act of Parliament. However, the United Kingdom is in <!--del_lnk--> personal union with other <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realms; if the UK changes the rules of succession without the consent of the other Realms, the shared monarchy may come to an end.<p>Succession is according to the rules of <!--del_lnk--> male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and under which elder children inherit before younger ones of the same sex. The Act of Settlement, however, restricts the succession to the natural (ie non-<!--del_lnk--> adopted) legitimate descendants of <!--del_lnk--> Sophia, Electress of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/273/27342.png.htm" title="The Sovereign is crowned at Westminster Abbey, as depicted in the above portrait of King Charles II."><img alt="The Sovereign is crowned at Westminster Abbey, as depicted in the above portrait of King Charles II." height="299" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charles_II_of_England.png" src="../../images/239/23924.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/273/27342.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Sovereign is crowned at Westminster Abbey, as depicted in the above portrait of King <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>.</div>
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<p>The Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement also include certain religious restrictions, which were imposed because of the English people's mistrust of <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism during the late seventeenth century. Most importantly, only individuals who are <!--del_lnk--> Protestants at the time of the succession may inherit the Crown. Moreover, a person who has at any time professed Roman Catholicism, or has ever married a Roman Catholic, is also prohibited from succeeding. One who is thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead" for succession purposes; the disqualifications do not extend to the individual's descendants. In recent years, there have been some efforts to remove the religious restrictions (especially the specific rules relating to Roman Catholicism), but the provisions remain in effect.<p>Upon a "demise in the Crown" (the death of a Sovereign) his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. (Hence arises the phrase "<!--del_lnk--> The King is dead. Long live the King!") Nevertheless, it is customary for the accession of the Sovereign to be publicly proclaimed by an <!--del_lnk--> Accession Council that meets at <!--del_lnk--> St. James's Palace. After an appropriate period of mourning has passed, the Sovereign is also <!--del_lnk--> crowned in <a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, normally by the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>. A coronation is not necessary for a Sovereign to rule; for example, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">Edward VIII</a> was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short reign.<p>After an individual ascends the Throne, he or she continues to reign until death. Monarchs are not allowed to unilaterally abdicate; the only monarch to voluntarily abdicate, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">Edward VIII</a> (1936), did so with the authorisation of a special Act of Parliament (<!--del_lnk--> His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936). Historically, however, numerous reigns ended due to irregular or extralegal procedures; several monarchs have been killed, deposed, or forced to abdicate, chiefly during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a>, who fled the realm in 1688 during the <a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>; Parliament interpreted his flight as an abdication.<p><a id="Regency" name="Regency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Regency</span></h2>
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<p>Under the <!--del_lnk--> Regency Act 1937 and Regency Act 1953, the powers of a monarch who has not reached the age of eighteen, or of a monarch who is physically or mentally incapacitated, must be exercised by a <!--del_lnk--> regent. A physical or mental incapacity must be certified by at least three of the following people: the Sovereign's spouse, the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Speaker, the <a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="Speaker of the British House of Commons">Speaker of the House of Commons</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, and the <!--del_lnk--> Master of the Rolls. The declaration of three or more of the same persons is also necessary to terminate the regency and to allow the monarch to resume power.<p>When a Regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession becomes Regent; no special parliamentary vote or other confirmation procedure is necessary. The Regent must be aged at least twenty-one years (eighteen years in the case of the <!--del_lnk--> heir apparent or <!--del_lnk--> heir presumptive), be a British citizen, and be <!--del_lnk--> domiciled in the United Kingdom. However, special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the <!--del_lnk--> Regency Act 1953, which states that <!--del_lnk--> The Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) may act as Regent in certain circumstances. The only individual to have acted as Regent was the future <a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George IV of the United Kingdom">George IV</a>, who took over the government of the realm whilst his father, <a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a>, was insane (1811–1820).<p>During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the Sovereign may temporarily delegate his or her functions to <!--del_lnk--> Counsellors of State, the Sovereign's spouse and the first four qualified people in the line of succession. The qualifications for Counsellors of State are the same as those for Regents. The present Counsellors of State are: <!--del_lnk--> The Duke of Edinburgh, <!--del_lnk--> The Prince of Wales, <!--del_lnk--> Prince William of Wales, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Harry of Wales and <!--del_lnk--> The Duke of York.<p><a id="Political_role" name="Political_role"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political role</span></h2>
<p>Although the monarch's powers are vast in theory, they are limited in practice. As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, almost always exercising the Royal Prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers. The Prime Minister and ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Commons, and through it, to the people.<p>Whenever necessary, the Sovereign is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister; the appointment is formalised at a ceremony known as <!--del_lnk--> Kissing Hands. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons: usually, the leader of the party which has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority (an unlikely occurrence given the United Kingdom's <!--del_lnk--> First Past the Post electoral system), two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader is then appointed Prime Minister. In a "<!--del_lnk--> hung parliament," in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch obtains an increased degree of latitude in his or her choice of Prime Minister. Still, however, the individual most likely to command the support of the Commons, usually the leader of the largest party, must be appointed. Thus, for example, <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Wilson.htm" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a> was appointed Prime Minister soon after the <!--del_lnk--> February 1974 general election, even though his Labour Party did not have a majority. It has also been suggested that in the same situation, if a minority government tried to dissolve Parliament to call an election early to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and instead allow opposition parties to form a coalition government. However, Harold Wilson's minority government elected in February 1974 successfully called an early election in <!--del_lnk--> October 1974 which gave it a majority.<p>The Sovereign appoints and dismisses Cabinet and other ministers on the Prime Minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, exercises control over the composition of the Cabinet. The monarch may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action. The last monarch to unilaterally remove a Prime Minister was <a href="../../wp/w/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>, who dismissed <!--del_lnk--> Lord Melbourne in 1834. In practice, a Prime Minister's term comes to an end only with death or resignation. (In some circumstances, the Prime Minister is required to resign; see <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a>.)<p>The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister, as well as regular audiences with other members of the Cabinet. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the Prime Minister's and Cabinet's decisions. Walter Bagehot, the nineteenth century constitutional writer, summarises this concept, "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn."<p>The monarch has a similar relationship with <!--del_lnk--> devolved governments of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. (<a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> presently has no devolved government; its Assembly and executive have been suspended.) The Sovereign appoints the <!--del_lnk--> First Minister of Scotland, but on the nomination of the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Parliament. The <!--del_lnk--> First Minister of Wales, on the other hand, is directly elected by the <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Executive. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom in Welsh matters.<p>The Sovereign also plays the role of Head of State in the United Kingdom. <!--del_lnk--> Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, not to Parliament or to the nation. Moreover, <i><!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen</i> (or, if the Sovereign is male, <i>God Save the King</i>) is used as the British <!--del_lnk--> national anthem. The monarch's visage appears on <a href="../../wp/p/Postage_stamp.htm" title="Postage stamp">postage stamps</a>, on <a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" title="Coin">coins</a>, and on <a href="../../wp/b/Banknote.htm" title="Banknote">banknotes</a> issued by the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of England. Banknotes issued by other British banks, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of Scotland and the <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Bank, do not depict the Sovereign.<p><a id="Royal_Prerogative" name="Royal_Prerogative"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Royal Prerogative</span></h2>
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<p>The powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Prerogative. The Royal Prerogative includes many powers (such as the powers to make treaties or send ambassadors) as well as certain duties (such as the duties to defend the realm and to maintain the <!--del_lnk--> Queen's peace). As the British monarchy is a constitutional one, however, the monarch exercises the Royal Prerogative on the advice of ministers. Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative; moreover, the Consent of the Crown must be obtained before either House may even debate a bill affecting the Sovereign's prerogatives or interests. Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive, it is not unlimited. For example, the monarch does not have the prerogative to impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament.<p>The Sovereign is one of the three components of Parliament; the others are the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon, <!--del_lnk--> prorogue, and <!--del_lnk--> dissolve Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the <!--del_lnk--> State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the <!--del_lnk--> Speech from the Throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of five years), and is followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons. These powers, however, are always exercised on the Prime Minister's advice. The timing of a dissolution is affected by a variety of factors; the Prime Minister normally chooses the most politically opportune moment for his or her party. The Sovereign may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. (See <!--del_lnk--> Lascelles Principles.) No parliamentary term may last more than five years; at the end of this period, a dissolution is automatic under the <!--del_lnk--> Parliament Act 1911.<p>All laws are enacted in the monarch's name. The words "BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows," known as the <!--del_lnk--> enacting formula, form a part of each Act of Parliament. Before a bill can become law, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Assent (the monarch's approval) is required. The Sovereign may, in theory, either <i>grant</i> the Royal Assent (make the bill law) or <i>withhold</i> the Royal Assent (veto the bill). In practice, however, the Royal Assent is always granted; the last monarch to withhold Assent was Anne, who rejected a Scots militia bill in 1708.<p>The Royal Prerogative with respect to domestic affairs is extensive. The Crown is responsible for the appointment and dismissal of ministers, Privy Counsellors, members of various executive agencies, and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister, or, for less important offices, by other ministers. In addition, the monarch is the head or <!--del_lnk--> commander in chief of the Armed Forces (the <!--del_lnk--> British Army, the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a>). It is the Sovereign's prerogative to declare war, make peace, and direct the actions of the military, although the Prime Minister holds <i>de facto</i> decision-making power over the British armed forces. Many of the Sovereign's prerogative powers are exercised through the <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a>.<p>The Royal Prerogative, in addition, extends to foreign affairs. The Sovereign may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The Sovereign also accredits British <!--del_lnk--> High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states. In addition, all British <!--del_lnk--> passports are issued in the monarch's name.<p>Furthermore, the Sovereign is deemed the <i>fount of justice</i>, and is responsible for rendering justice for all subjects. The Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases; instead, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences. The <!--del_lnk--> Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government); however, lawsuits against the monarch personally are not cognizable. The Sovereign also exercises the "prerogative of mercy," and may <!--del_lnk--> pardon offences against the Crown. Pardons may be awarded before, during, or after a trial.<p>Similarly, the monarch is also the <i><!--del_lnk--> fount of honour</i>, or the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. Thus, the Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the <!--del_lnk--> orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods, and awards other honours. In practice, peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister. Some honours, however, are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. Thus, the monarch alone appoints members of the <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" title="Order of the Garter">Order of the Garter</a>, the <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Thistle.htm" title="Order of the Thistle">Order of the Thistle</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Victorian Order, and the <!--del_lnk--> Order of Merit.<p>Finally, the Sovereign is the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Governor of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, the officially <!--del_lnk--> established church in England. As such, the monarch has the power to appoint archbishops and bishops. The Prime Minister, however, chooses the appointee, though he or she must select from a list of nominees prepared by the Crown Nominations Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, is seen as the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. The monarch is only an ordinary member, and not the head or leader, of the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Scotland; however, he or she does hold the power to appoint the <!--del_lnk--> Lord High Commissioner to the Church's <!--del_lnk--> General Assembly. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales and the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a>, neither of which is an established church.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Great Seal of the Realm is the device used to authenticate important official documents, including <!--del_lnk--> letters patent, <!--del_lnk--> proclamations, and <!--del_lnk--> writs of election. The Great Seal of the Realm is in the custody of the <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chancellor. For matters relating exclusively to Scotland or Northern Ireland, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Seal of Scotland or the <!--del_lnk--> Great Seal of Northern Ireland is used, as the case may be.<p>The monarch also has the power to claim any <!--del_lnk--> sturgeons, <!--del_lnk--> porpoises, <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a>, or <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> that are either washed ashore, or captured within 3 miles of the British coast. This power comes from a statute from <!--del_lnk--> King Edward II in 1324. Today, if you purchase a sturgeon, you still request the honour as an act of loyalty to the crown.<p><a id="Finances" name="Finances"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Finances</span></h2>
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<p>Parliament meets much of the Sovereign's official expenditure from public funds. The <!--del_lnk--> Civil List is the sum that covers most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. The size of the Civil List is fixed by Parliament every ten years; however, any money saved may be carried forward to the next ten year period. Thus, the Sovereign's Civil List expenditure in 2003 was approximately £9.9 million. In addition, the Sovereign receives an annual Property Services Grant-in-Aid (£15.3 million for <!--del_lnk--> FY 2003–2004) to pay for the upkeep of the royal residences, as well as an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid (£5.9 million for <!--del_lnk--> FY 2003–2004). The Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid are paid from public funds.<p>Formerly, the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, including the profits of the <!--del_lnk--> Crown Estate. In 1760, however, King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List; this arrangement still persists. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate have by far exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid provided to the monarch. For example, the Crown Estate produced over £170 million for the Treasury in the financial year 2003–2004, whereas parliamentary funding for the monarch was less than £40 million during the same period. The monarch continues to own the Crown Estate, but cannot sell it; instead, the estate must continue to pass from one Sovereign to the next.<p>Aside from the Crown Estate, the Sovereign also owns the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Lancaster. The Duchy is the monarch's private inherited property, unlike the Crown Estate, which belongs to the monarch in an official capacity. Like the Crown Estate, however, the Duchy is held in trust, and cannot be sold by the monarch. The revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster need not be surrendered to the Treasury; instead, they form a part of the <!--del_lnk--> Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the Civil List. The <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son.<p>The Sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as the <!--del_lnk--> value added tax (VAT), but is exempt from <!--del_lnk--> income tax and <!--del_lnk--> capital gains tax. Since 1993, however, the Queen has voluntarily paid taxes on personal income. As the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are used solely for official expenditure, they are not taken into account when calculating taxes.<p><a id="Residences" name="Residences"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Residences</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10306.jpg.htm" title="Buckingham Palace is the monarch's principal residence."><img alt="Buckingham Palace is the monarch's principal residence." height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Buckingham_Palace%2C_London%2C_England%2C_24Jan04.jpg" src="../../images/239/23925.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10306.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Buckingham Palace is the monarch's principal residence.</div>
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<p>The Sovereign's primary official residence is <a href="../../wp/b/Buckingham_Palace.htm" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> City of Westminster. Buckingham Palace is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings, and other ceremonies. Moreover, visiting heads of state usually reside in Buckingham Palace. Another principal residence is <a href="../../wp/w/Windsor_Castle.htm" title="Windsor Castle">Windsor Castle</a>, the largest occupied castle in the world. Windsor Castle, located in <!--del_lnk--> Windsor, Berkshire, is used principally as a weekend retreat; the monarch also resides there during the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that forms a major part of the <!--del_lnk--> social calendar. The Sovereign's principal official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse, more commonly called <!--del_lnk--> Holyrood Palace, in <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>. The monarch stays at Holyrood Palace for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.<p>There also exist a number of other palaces not used as residences by the monarch. The <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> was originally the Sovereign's primary residence until 1530; although it is still officially a royal palace, it serves as the home to both Houses of Parliament. Thereafter, the Sovereign's principal London residence was the <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Whitehall, which was destroyed by fire in 1698, to be replaced by <!--del_lnk--> St. James's Palace. Although it was replaced as the monarch's primary residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still used for various official functions. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the <!--del_lnk--> Court of St. James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the <!--del_lnk--> Accession Council. However, St James's Palace is not one of the Sovereign's official residences; instead, it is used by other members of the Royal Family. Other residences used by the Royal Family include <!--del_lnk--> Clarence House (presently the home of the heir-apparent, <!--del_lnk--> The Prince of Wales) and <!--del_lnk--> Kensington Palace.<p>The aforementioned residences belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. However, the monarch does own certain homes in a private capacity. <a href="../../wp/s/Sandringham_House.htm" title="Sandringham House">Sandringham House</a>, a privately owned <!--del_lnk--> country house near the village of <!--del_lnk--> Sandringham, <a href="../../wp/n/Norfolk.htm" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a>, is typically used from <!--del_lnk--> Christmas to the end of January. Similarly, during parts of August and September, the monarch resides in <!--del_lnk--> Balmoral Castle, a privately owned castle in <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeenshire in Scotland.<p><a id="Style" name="Style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Style</span></h2>
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<p>The present Sovereign's full style and title is: <b>Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.</b> The title <i><!--del_lnk--> Head of the Commonwealth</i> is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. (However, her father, <a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George VI of the United Kingdom">George VI</a>, was also recognised as such.) <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo X first granted the title <i><!--del_lnk--> Defender of the Faith</i> to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the <!--del_lnk--> Defence of the Seven Sacraments. However, Henry VIII later broke from the Roman Catholic Church and established the Church of England; <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.<p>The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty" or "Her Majesty," though, in certain formal circumstances, "Most Gracious Majesty" or "Most Excellent Majesty" is used instead. The form "Britannic Majesty" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. Queens Consort (wives of Kings) and Queens Dowager (widows of Kings) are also entitled to the style "Majesty," but husbands of female monarchs are not. Thus, the husband of the present Queen, the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Edinburgh, is only styled <i>Royal Highness.</i><p>The monarch chooses his or her <!--del_lnk--> regnal name, which is not necessarily his or her first name - <a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George VI of the United Kingdom">King George VI</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VII of the United Kingdom">King Edward VII</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> did not use their first names.<p>The ordinal used for the monarch only takes into account monarchs since the <!--del_lnk--> Norman Conquest. If only one monarch has used a particular name, then no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is never known as "Victoria I." After the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, numbering was based solely on previous English monarchs, and not on Scottish ones. In 1953, however, Scottish nationalists challenged the right of the Queen to style herself "Elizabeth II," on the grounds that there had never before been an "Elizabeth I" in Scotland. In <i><!--del_lnk--> MacCormick v. Lord Advocate</i>, the Scottish <!--del_lnk--> Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. Nevertheless, it was announced that future monarchs would use the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals. Retroactively applying this policy yields no change in numbering.<p>Traditionally, a monarch's signature includes his or her regnal name (but not ordinal) followed by the letter <i><!--del_lnk--> R</i>. The letter stands for <i>rex</i> or <i>regina</i> ("king" and "queen", respectively, in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>). Hence, the present Queen signs "Elizabeth R". From 1877 until 1948, the reigning King or Queen also signed an <i><!--del_lnk--> I</i>, due to his or her status as <!--del_lnk--> Emperor or Empress of India; thus Queen Victoria would sign her name "Victoria RI".<p><a id="Arms_of_Dominion" name="Arms_of_Dominion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arms of Dominion</span></h2>
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<div style="width:203px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2357.png.htm" title="The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales and Northern Ireland."><img alt="The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales and Northern Ireland." height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Royal_Standard_of_England.svg" src="../../images/239/23927.png" width="201" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/23/2357.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.</div>
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<div style="width:203px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23928.png.htm" title="A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland."><img alt="A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland." height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Royal_Standard_of_Scotland.svg" src="../../images/239/23928.png" width="201" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23928.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland.</div>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" title="Heraldry">coat of arms</a> used by the Sovereign, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Arms of Dominion, are: <i>Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).</i> The supporters are <!--del_lnk--> the lion and the unicorn; the motto is <i><!--del_lnk--> Dieu et mon Droit</i> (<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> for "God and my Right"). Ireland is represented even though most of the island is not a part of the United Kingdom, but instead forms the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> – only <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> remains part of the UK.<p>In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the Arms of Dominion in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The motto is <i>Nemo me impune lacessit</i> (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "No-one provokes me with impunity"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion.<p>The monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Standard, and depicts the Arms of Dominion. (The Royal Standard used in Scotland depicts the Scottish version of the arms.) This flag is only flown from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present; elsewhere, the <!--del_lnk--> Union Flag is flown. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_monarchy"</div>
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Britney_Spears
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Britney Spears</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Actors_models_and_celebrities.htm">Actors, models and celebrities</a></h3>
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: #f0e68c;"><big>Britney Spears</big></th>
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<td colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/153/15312.jpg.htm" title="Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in Washington, D.C. in 2003."><img alt="Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in Washington, D.C. in 2003." height="310" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Britney_Spears.jpg" src="../../images/153/15312.jpg" width="220" /></a><br />
<div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">Britney Spears performing at the <!--del_lnk--> National Mall in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> in 2003.</div>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: #f0e68c;">Background information</th>
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<td><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Britney Jean Spears</td>
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<td><b>Born</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> December 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 (age 24)</td>
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<td><b>Origin</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kentwood, <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Pop, <!--del_lnk--> dance, <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="Rhythm and blues">urban pop</a></td>
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<td><b>Years active</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1998–present</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Jive <small>(1998–present)</small></td>
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<td><b>Website</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Official website (Jive)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Britney Jean Spears</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> December 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1981) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> pop singer, generational icon, occasional <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a>, <!--del_lnk--> author and <!--del_lnk--> songwriter. She is best known for her <!--del_lnk--> studio albums, <!--del_lnk--> music videos, and songs such as "<!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time", "<!--del_lnk--> Oops!...I Did It Again" and "<!--del_lnk--> Toxic".<p>Spears has sold over seventy-six million records worldwide according to <i><!--del_lnk--> TIME</i> magazine. Having sold over 31 million albums in the U.S., Spears ranks as the eighth best-selling female artist in American music history.<p>Spears first came to fame as a member of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse Club</i> in the early 1990s, after which she took a five-year break from entertainment. She subsequently emerged at the forefront of the <!--del_lnk--> pop music scene in late 1998, thanks to her chart-topping debut album, <i><!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time</i>, which was crafted by <!--del_lnk--> producer-<!--del_lnk--> songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Max Martin. Her second album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Oops!...I Did It Again</i>, which was released the following year, was a similarly huge hit.<p>In the early 2000s, Spears' success as a singer led her way to high-profile <a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" title="Advertising">advertising</a> deals, most notably for <!--del_lnk--> Pepsi, as well as forays into other forms of media, including <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> and <!--del_lnk--> reality television. Along with her highly-publicized relationship with <!--del_lnk--> 'N Sync's <!--del_lnk--> Justin Timberlake, her third and fourth albums were released during this era and included more artistic input from Spears, but yielded lower sales.<p>In 2004, she married dancer and aspiring <!--del_lnk--> rap <!--del_lnk--> artist <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Federline and the following year she gave birth to their son, Sean Preston. Their second son, Jayden James, was born in 2006. Eight weeks after the birth of her second child, Spears filed for divorce from Federline, citing <!--del_lnk--> irreconcilable differences. Spears' fifth studio album is due to be released in early 2007.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Childhood_and_discovery" name="Childhood_and_discovery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood and discovery</span></h3>
<p>Spears was born in <!--del_lnk--> McComb, <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi and raised <!--del_lnk--> Southern Baptist in <!--del_lnk--> Kentwood, <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana. Her parents are James Parnell Spears, a building <!--del_lnk--> contractor, and Lynne Irene Bridges (born 1956), a former grade school <!--del_lnk--> teacher. Spears' brother, Bryan (born 1977), is one of her <!--del_lnk--> managers, and her sister, <!--del_lnk--> Jamie-Lynn (born 1991), is an <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a> and singer. Her maternal grandmother, Lillian Woolmoore (1924–1993), was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> war-bride, who met Spears's maternal grandfather, Barnett O'Field Bridges (1919–1978), in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> during WWII, and subsequently moved with him to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a>. Her paternal grandparents were June Austin Spears (born 1930) and Emma Jean Forbes (1934–1966).<p>Spears was an accomplished gymnast, attending <!--del_lnk--> gymnastics classes until age nine and competing in state-level competitions. She performed in local dance revues and her local Baptist church choirs, and was auditioning for the <!--del_lnk--> Disney Channel's <i><!--del_lnk--> The New Mickey Mouse Club</i> by the time she was eight. Although she was considered too young to join the series at the time, a producer on the show introduced her to a <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a> agent. Spears subsequently spent three summers at NYC's <!--del_lnk--> Professional Performing Arts School and also appeared in a number of <!--del_lnk--> off-Broadway productions, including 1991's <i>Ruthless!</i>. In 1992, she landed a spot on <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Search</i>, and though she won the first round, she lost in the second (her opponent would later appear on a 2001 episode of the game show <i><!--del_lnk--> I've Got a Secret</i> with his "secret" being the win against Spears). Spears then returned to the Disney Channel for a spot on the <i>New Mickey Mouse Club</i> and was accepted. She was featured in the 1993–1994 seasons from the ages of 11–13. She performed several backflips for the <i><!--del_lnk--> New Mickey Mouse Club</i>, which she would later repeat for the "<!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time" video. Other performers on the show included <!--del_lnk--> Justin Timberlake, future boyfriend of Spears, and <!--del_lnk--> Joshua Chasez (both of whom later became members of the pop group <!--del_lnk--> 'N Sync), <!--del_lnk--> Keri Russell (star of the TV show <i><!--del_lnk--> Felicity</i>), fellow pop singer <a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" title="Christina Aguilera">Christina Aguilera</a>, and actor <!--del_lnk--> Ryan Gosling. After the show ended, Spears and her five friends (<!--del_lnk--> Jenny Morris, <!--del_lnk--> Veronica Finn, <!--del_lnk--> Mandy Ashford, <!--del_lnk--> Danay Ferrer, and her <!--del_lnk--> MMC co-star <!--del_lnk--> Nikki DeLoach) co-formed <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> pop-dance <!--del_lnk--> group <!--del_lnk--> Innosense. Finally, once Spears was not part of the group, she could go as a <!--del_lnk--> solo <!--del_lnk--> artist in 1997. A few years later, Spears recorded a <!--del_lnk--> demo <!--del_lnk--> tape, which landed in the hands of <!--del_lnk--> Jive Records. She was signed to their label and began touring American venues for a series of concerts sponsored by <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> teen magazines, before joining <!--del_lnk--> *NSYNC and becoming their opening act.<p><a name="1998.E2.80.932000:_Early_commercial_success"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1998–2000: Early commercial success</span></h3>
<p>Towards the end of 1998, Spears' debut <!--del_lnk--> single "<!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time" began to appear on MTV. Led by a <!--del_lnk--> music video that featured the 1.63 m (5 ft 4 in) pop princess in a <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> Schoolgirl outfit, the song became an international success, earning <!--del_lnk--> platinum sales and going to number two in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, as well as going number one in a large number of countries throughout the world. Released in early 1999, her <!--del_lnk--> debut album <i><!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time</i> topped the charts in several countries, including Ireland (where it is certified 15x Platinum ).<p>Spears was featured on the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stone</i> magazine in April 1999. The photo shoot triggered widespread speculation (denied by her representatives) that the still-seventeen-year-old had opted to have <!--del_lnk--> breast implants. That summer, she kicked off her first headlining tour, the <i><!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time Tour</i>. By late 1999, Spears had become one of the year's biggest stars, a claim backed-up by the amount of award nominations she received that season. In December, she took home four <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Music Awards including one for Female Artist of the Year, and the next month won for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist at the <!--del_lnk--> American Music Awards. At the <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards, held in February 2000, Spears received two nominations, including one for <!--del_lnk--> Best New Artist, losing out to <a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" title="Christina Aguilera">Christina Aguilera</a>. The other was for <!--del_lnk--> Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for <!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time but she lost that to <!--del_lnk--> Sarah McLachlan.<p>Following the short-lived <i><!--del_lnk--> Crazy 2K Tour</i>, the lead single from Spears' second album, "<!--del_lnk--> Oops!... I Did It Again", was released. The song broke a record for most radio station adds in a single day and quickly became a U.S. top ten hit and number one single in other countries. Released in May 2000, the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Oops!... I Did It Again</i> debuted at number one in the U.S., where it sold over 1.3 million units during its first week (breaking the record for biggest first-week sales of an album by a female artist). Concerning both musical content and sales, the album was very similar to Spears' debut, although it fared better with critics. "Oops..." also had input from country queen <!--del_lnk--> Shania Twain, who penned the track <!--del_lnk--> Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know with husband <!--del_lnk--> Mutt Lange. Twain, arguably the most successful female in terms of album sales and exposure in the late 90s, contributed her adult-40 brand of country-crossover infusion to the record. The lyrics of the song also pay homage to fellow blonde superstar <!--del_lnk--> Madonna, as in "come on baby, come on darling," an obvious ode to Madonna's "<!--del_lnk--> Borderline."<p>Spears kicked off her first world tour (titled the <i>Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour</i>) in the summer of 2000, and co-wrote the book <i><!--del_lnk--> Britney Spears' Heart-to-Heart</i> with her mother, Lynne which was a bestseller. During a performance at the 2000 <!--del_lnk--> MTV Video Music Awards, she ripped off a black suit to reveal a provocative nude-colored and crystal-adorned outfit that generated controversy due to her young age. In late 2000, she won two Billboard Music Awards, and in early 2001, she was nominated for two <!--del_lnk--> American Music Awards. At the Grammys, her two nominations were for <i>Oops!... I Did It Again</i> in the categorys of <!--del_lnk--> Best Pop Vocal Album and <!--del_lnk--> Best Female Pop Vocal Performance but again she did not win.<p><a name="2001.E2.80.932003:_Career_development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">2001–2003: Career development</span></h3>
<p>In early 2001, Spears struck a <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">USD$</a>7–8 million promotional deal with the soft drink giant <!--del_lnk--> Pepsi. In September of the same year, she performed at the MTV Video Music Awards, and in addition to criticism for being scantily clad, she angered animal rights organization <!--del_lnk--> PETA for the use of animals, including an albino <!--del_lnk--> python, in her performance.<p>In November, she released her third album <i><!--del_lnk--> Britney</i>. It debuted at number one on both the U.S. and Canadian charts, selling over 740,000 units during its first week in the U.S. The success of this album made Spears the only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Although four million copies of the record have been sold in the U.S. , it was a decline from the sales of her first two albums, and the lead single "<!--del_lnk--> I'm a Slave 4 U" was the album's only hit in the U.S. <i>Britney</i> was the first album on which Spears assumed some creative control; she co-wrote five of the album's tracks. To help promote the album, Spears embarked on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Dream Within a Dream Tour</i> during the same year. Spears was nominated for two <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards, <!--del_lnk--> Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for <!--del_lnk--> Overprotected and <!--del_lnk--> Best Pop Vocal Album for <!--del_lnk--> Britney which she lost both to <!--del_lnk--> Norah Jones.<p>Britney recorded a Christmas song for <!--del_lnk--> Now That's What I Call Christmas! called <!--del_lnk--> My Only Wish (This Year).<p>In 2001, <!--del_lnk--> Fort Worth, <!--del_lnk--> Texas <!--del_lnk--> KEGL-FM DJs Kramer and Twitch on created a panic for her fans when they falsely reported that she and her then-boyfriend, 'NSYNC's Justin Timberlake, were in a car accident involving a pretzel truck and that she had died in the crash. In reality, they were both alive and well and had not been in any car wreck. Later, in October 2001, a website spoofing CNN also stated that she had been killed in a car crash. <p>In February 2002, Spears had her first starring role in the film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Crossroads</i>. The next month, Spears' four-year relationship with <!--del_lnk--> Justin Timberlake ended. The break-up was publicized, with rumors circulating that Spears had been unfaithful. Timberlake himself left the impression that she had cheated on him through his song "<!--del_lnk--> Cry Me a River", and its subsequent music video. In response to this, Spears later said, "I'm not technically saying he's wrong, but I'm not technically saying he's right, either." Afterward, despite Spears' claims that she had remained a <!--del_lnk--> virgin ― and wished to remain one until <!--del_lnk--> marriage ― Timberlake insisted they had <!--del_lnk--> sex during their relationship. Spears later acknowledged this to be true, saying, "It was two years into my relationship with Justin, and I thought he was the one. But I was wrong!" <p>In June 2002, Spears branched out as a restaurateur with the opening of a <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> eatery, NYLA, which was named for its mix of <!--del_lnk--> New York and <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana <!--del_lnk--> cuisine. It was not a success and closed the following year but Spears apparently had very little to do with management. In 2002 Spears received at least some good news when <i><!--del_lnk--> Forbes</i> named her the most powerful celebrity in the world. <p>Spears returned to the spotlight in August 2003 when she performed at the MTV Video Music Awards with her idol <!--del_lnk--> Madonna, pop singer <a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" title="Christina Aguilera">Christina Aguilera</a> and rapper <!--del_lnk--> Missy Elliott. Spears and Aguilera performed Madonna's song "<!--del_lnk--> Like a Virgin", danced suggestively and each locked lips with Madonna (see <!--del_lnk--> Madonna at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards). Spears' kiss with Madonna attracted publicity that lasted several months, while Aguilera's kiss with Madonna attracted less publicity.<p>In 2003, Britney Spears began studying <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> mysticism, also called <!--del_lnk--> Kabbalah, and became a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Kabbalah Centre after having been introduced to Jewish mysticism by friend and mentor Madonna. Soon after joining, Britney's mother Lynne became a member, and Britney had a <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <!--del_lnk--> tattoo inked onto her neck (מהש) representing one of the seventy-two names of <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> in Kabbalah. Britney previously had a Kabbalah-inspired Hebrew tattoo inked onto her neck that was proved to be meaningless in an incident that was her second tattoo-related mishap; in the first, she had Japanese characters inked onto her leg that she thought to mean "mysterious" - it actually said "strange."<p>November 2003 saw the release of Spears' fourth studio album, <i><!--del_lnk--> In the Zone</i>. Jettisoning the <!--del_lnk--> Max Martin-produced <!--del_lnk--> synthpop of her earlier releases, the album took in lesser-known producers such as <!--del_lnk--> RedZone and big names including <!--del_lnk--> Moby and <!--del_lnk--> R. Kelly. Spears co-wrote nine of the album's thirteen songs and co-produced some of her material for the first time. <i>In the Zone</i> went to the top of the U.S. charts in its debut week, selling over 609,000 copies. This made Spears the only female in music history to have her first four albums debut at number one. The album spawned the international number one and U.S. top ten hit, "<!--del_lnk--> Toxic", which won Spears her first Grammy in the category of <!--del_lnk--> Best Dance Recording.<p><a name="2004.E2.80.932006:_Career_hiatus.2C_children_and_divorce"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">2004–2006: Career hiatus, children and divorce</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Spears <!--del_lnk--> married her childhood friend <a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" title="Jason Allen Alexander">Jason Allen Alexander</a> at <!--del_lnk--> The Little White Wedding Chapel on the <!--del_lnk--> Las Vegas Strip in <a href="../../wp/l/Las_Vegas%252C_Nevada.htm" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas, Nevada</a>. Spears wore jeans and a baseball cap and the bellhop walked her down the aisle. An <!--del_lnk--> annulment was promptly arranged (at the behest of manager Larry Rudolph and her family) and was granted on <!--del_lnk--> January 5, ending their fifty-five hour marriage. The annulment request stated that Spears "lacked understanding of her actions to the extent that she was incapable of agreeing to marriage because before entering into the marriage the Plaintiff and Defendant did not know each others likes and dislikes, each others desires to have or not have children, and each others desires as to State of residency". Spears later explained, "Honestly, I really wanted to see what it was like to be married".<p>In 2004, Spears embarked on her fourth world tour, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Onyx Hotel Tour</i>. The tour grossed over US$37 million and was seen by over 650,000 fans in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, but the remaining dates were cancelled in June, after Spears injured her <!--del_lnk--> knee during the filming of the video for the single "<!--del_lnk--> Outrageous". She was taken to an undisclosed hospital, where she received an <!--del_lnk--> MRI that showed floating <!--del_lnk--> cartilage in her knee. The following thirty-seven stops on the tour were canceled, costing Spears US$750,000 to US$1,000,000 a night in guaranteed fees from concert promoters. <p>In July 2004, Spears announced her <!--del_lnk--> engagement to <a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" title="Dance">dancer</a> <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Federline, three months after they met at a club in <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood. Their whirlwind romance sparked criticism due to the fact that Federline had very recently been in a relationship with <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a> <!--del_lnk--> Shar Jackson, who was still pregnant with their second child. On the night of <!--del_lnk--> September 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Spears married Federline before twenty-seven guests in a surprise, non-denominational ceremony at a residence in <!--del_lnk--> Studio City, California. The legitimacy of the marriage was initially questioned, but on <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, a representative of the Los Angeles County registrar's office confirmed Spears and Federline had successfully filed their <!--del_lnk--> marriage license with the county within ten days of their ceremony, and were therefore legally married.<p>The exact sequence of events surrounding the marriage took a further turn for the unusual when it was later revealed by the website <!--del_lnk--> The Smoking Gun that the wedding ceremony that occurred on <!--del_lnk--> September 18 was a "faux" ceremony, and that the real date of the start of their wedding was <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2004.<p>According to some reports, Spears initially refused to sign a <!--del_lnk--> prenuptial agreement with Federline but her family and manager Larry Rudolph forced her to sign the prenup. A short time after the wedding, Spears fired Rudolph for allegedly interfering with her marital affairs. After initially spending their <!--del_lnk--> honeymoon in Spears' hometown of <!--del_lnk--> Kentwood, Louisiana, Spears wrote on her official site that, "Unfortunately, we couldn't take our honeymoon right after the wedding because of the closing on our new house." In October 2004, they flew to <a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>.<p>During the later half of 2004, Spears announced she would be taking another career break in order to start a family. Immediately after her marriage to Federline, she had told <i><!--del_lnk--> People</i>, "I want to be a young mom. Next year, at 23, I'm so there." Although she made few public appearances, the 'Britney Spears industry' continued to run itself.<p>Spears fragrance, "<!--del_lnk--> Curious", for which she earned a reported US$12 million. After one year of sales, the product netted more than US$100 million. <i>Curious</i> was named the best selling perfume of 2004. Following the success of "Curious", Spears released her next <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Arden fragrance, "<!--del_lnk--> Fantasy", in September 2005 which was another big hit at department stores. In <!--del_lnk--> April <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Spears released a third fragrance <i>Curious: In Control</i>. The perfume was limited edition and has sold moderately well since its release. Spears will launch another perfume, <i>Midnight Fantasy</i>, in the near future.<p>Spears' first hits collection, <i><!--del_lnk--> Greatest Hits: My Prerogative</i>, was released in late 2004. The album debuted at number four on the U.S. charts with 240,000 copies sold. In addition to her biggest hits, it featured three new songs, including "<!--del_lnk--> My Prerogative" and "<!--del_lnk--> Do Somethin'". During the spring of 2005, Spears' <!--del_lnk--> reality show with husband Kevin Federline, <i><!--del_lnk--> Britney and Kevin: Chaotic</i>, premiered on <!--del_lnk--> MTV in the U.S. The five-episode series credited Spears and Federline as <!--del_lnk--> executive producers. <i>Chaotic</i> was panned by most critics and between 2-3 million people watched the shows 5 episodes. The series was later released on <a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" title="DVD">DVD</a> in September 2005. The DVD included a bonus music disc which featured her newest song and <!--del_lnk--> music video at that point in her career, "<!--del_lnk--> Someday (I Will Understand)".<p>Spears announced her <!--del_lnk--> pregnancy via her official website in April 2005. That month she was rushed to a hospital in <!--del_lnk--> Destin, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, where she spent forty-eight hours under a doctor's surveillance. Spears later told <i>People</i>, "There was just a little bit of bleeding, but we went there, and everything was fine." Despite her eagerness to have a baby, she admitted to <i><!--del_lnk--> ELLE</i> magazine that, "I have a feeling I'm going to have an operation. I don't know why. But I hope so. I don't want to go through the pain". On <!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, 6 lb. 11oz. baby boy Sean Preston Federline was born in the Santa Monica UCLA Medical Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Monica, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, by a scheduled <!--del_lnk--> caesarean section. Two days later, Spears and her son were released from the hospital and back at home in their 9,000-sq.-ft. <!--del_lnk--> Malibu, California mansion. The birth of Spears' son was the inspiration behind a <!--del_lnk--> statue by <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Edwards, <i>Monument to Pro-Life: The Birth of Sean Preston</i>, which was unveiled in March 2006. The statue features an idealised Spears giving birth in a provocative pose while hunched on all fours and clutching a bearskin rug. Controversy was further stoked by it being partly supported by the Manhattan Right to Life Committee. The statue has in no way been recognized by Spears and is therefore unofficial. It has also sparked controversy as Spears gave birth by <!--del_lnk--> caesarean section, unlike the natural birth depicted in the statue.<p>Since the birth of her first child, Spears' career had remained relatively low-profile. In late 2005, Jive released a <!--del_lnk--> remix album entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> B in the Mix: The Remixes</i>. It lacked promotion of any kind in the U.S. and debuted outside the top one hundred, with about 16,000 copies sold in its first week of release. The remix album spawned the international and <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> <!--del_lnk--> Hot Dance Airplay hit single, "<!--del_lnk--> And Then We Kiss", and a remix of Spears' most recent single "Someday (I Will Understand)". The remix album was more successful overseas and has since sold over a million copies.<p>Spears made a guest appearance on <i><!--del_lnk--> Will & Grace</i> in April 2006. In May 2006, she announced her second pregnancy with a surprise appearance on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Late Show with David Letterman</i>. <p>Spears appeared on <i><!--del_lnk--> Dateline NBC</i> in June 2006 to discuss <!--del_lnk--> tabloid rumors about an impending <!--del_lnk--> divorce from her husband, future career plans, her emotional state and motherhood. In response to the controversy over her driving with her infant son unrestrained in her lap, Spears told <i><!--del_lnk--> The Today Show'</i>s <!--del_lnk--> Matt Lauer that, "I did it with my dad. I'd sit on his lap and I drive. We're country." She also addressed the concerns over her parenting skills, saying, "I know I'm a good mom." It was confirmed in the interview that she will not release a studio album for at least another year, saying that she would like to wait until her children get older. She also confirmed a new <!--del_lnk--> baby clothes line, entitled "Baby's All Rock 'n' Roll". <p>Following <i>Dateline NBC</i>, Spears posed <!--del_lnk--> nude for the August 2006 cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Harper's Bazaar</i>. In the interview with the magazine, Spears stated that she is not ready to retire from performing, saying, "I can't wait to do that again." Spears also plans to get back in shape after the birth of her second child, saying, "After this baby, I'm going to get really intense with it." In the <!--del_lnk--> August 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 issue of <i>People</i>, Spears confirmed that <!--del_lnk--> her next studio album is due in 2007 and described it as "cooler than ever—fun, upbeat, and sexy." In the article Spears had also commented that her impending <!--del_lnk--> childbirth, a second scheduled <!--del_lnk--> caesarean section, "[would] be a piece of cake." <p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Spears introduced her husband, <!--del_lnk--> Kevin Federline, at the <!--del_lnk--> Teen Choice Awards. This was her first appearance at an awards show in almost two years. Spears and Federline also appeared via satellite at the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 MTV Video Music Awards to present the award for Best R&B Video. They performed a quick skit, though, in subsesquent replays of the VMA's on MTV, the skit is completely edited out and goes right from <!--del_lnk--> Jack Black introducing Spears and Federline to them announcing the nominees.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Spears gave birth to their second son, Jayden James Federline. He was born at the <!--del_lnk--> Cedars-Sinai Medical Centre in <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a>, again by a scheduled <!--del_lnk--> caesarean section. <p>Spears was featured on Federline's debut album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Playing with Fire</i>, on a song entitled "Crazy", which leaked onto the internet three days before its release. The album ended up debuting poorly at number 151 on the Billboard charts On <!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Spears filed for <!--del_lnk--> divorce from her husband Kevin Federline, citing <!--del_lnk--> irreconcilable differences and asking for both physical and legal <!--del_lnk--> custody of their two children, with <!--del_lnk--> visitation rights for Federline. The following day Federline filed a response to Spears' divorce petition, seeking both physical and legal custody of their two children. <!--del_lnk--> Laura Wasser has been hired to represent Spears in the case. According to a rep for Federline's lawyer, the divorce filing "caught Kevin totally by surprise." <p><a id="Public_image" name="Public_image"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Public image</span></h2>
<p>Britney Spears' personal life has attracted considerable media attention. Some people feel that she has courted it by cultivating, in her early years at least, a chaste, God-fearing and "wholesome" image. It was somewhat at odds, not only with the traditional pressures, temptations and opportunities of "pop 'n' roll," but with the increasingly sexualized content of her own image and songs. Spears' kiss with <!--del_lnk--> Madonna at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards received much media attention, as have her romantic relationships.<p>It began in April 1999 when a then 17 year-old Spears was featured on the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stone</i> magazine in a sexually suggestive <i><!--del_lnk--> Lolita</i>-themed photo shoot which triggered widespread speculation (denied by her representatives) that the singer had opted to have <!--del_lnk--> breast implants.<p>In August 2003 the artist reached more controversy with a photoshoot by photographer Michael Thompson which appeared on <i><!--del_lnk--> W Magazine</i>. The photos display Britney in a heavy dominatrix inspired shoot, and sexually suggestive poses. In the interview by Rob Haskell which accompanied the photos, Spears admitted to having lost her virginity to <!--del_lnk--> Justin Timberlake two years into their relationship. She also stated that she in fact smokes, and she did kiss <!--del_lnk--> Colin Farrell but had no relationship with him. <p>The sexualized public image of Spears once again became a topic of debate as a result of her November 2003 semi-<!--del_lnk--> nude photo spread for the men's magazine, <i><!--del_lnk--> Esquire</i>. Prompted by this, <i><!--del_lnk--> Playboy</i> reportedly offered the star over one million USD to pose nude for their magazine, but Spears publicly declined. In an interview with <!--del_lnk--> Diane Sawyer, she was asked if she had ever gone further than she wished she had with the sexualized photo shoots. Spears responded, "No, I don't think so, no." After the <i>Esquire</i> photos were held up in front of her, she said, "Okay. Now those are a little much. Yeah, those are a little much. That's one picture, I must say, that I felt kind of weird about, yeah."<p>The 2004 <i>Onyx Hotel Tour</i> brought new criticism. While Spears and her on-stage dancers performed her songs "<!--del_lnk--> Touch of My Hand" and "<!--del_lnk--> Breathe on Me", they were seemingly nude and were performing routines simulating <!--del_lnk--> gay sex, <!--del_lnk--> orgies and <!--del_lnk--> masturbation. As there were underage fans in the audience, there was some outrage at the alleged lack of decency of the performances, as well as reports of adult chaperones angrily storming out with children they brought to the concert. Spears has responded to parents' concerns by stating she is "not their babysitter. It's the parents' responsibility. If you don't like it, then just change the channel. The only person I want to be a role model to is my sister, <!--del_lnk--> Jamie Lynn." (<i>From <!--del_lnk--> ABC's Primetime interview with <!--del_lnk--> Diane Sawyer</i>)<p>In December 2005, Spears sued <!--del_lnk--> US Weekly for a story the magazine published in the column "HOTstuff" of their October 2005 publication. The column, with the headline <i>"Brit & Kev: Secret Sex Tape? New parents have a new worry: racy footage from 2004."</i> claimed that Spears and her husband had made a <!--del_lnk--> sex video and feared it would be distributed. Spears denies the existence of any such tape while the magazine claims to have a credible source, which they failed to mention in the article. In November 2006 it was reported that the case was dismissed.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, after her televised <i><!--del_lnk--> Dateline</i> interview a pregnant (and brunette) Spears posed <!--del_lnk--> nude for the August 2006 cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Harper's Bazaar</i>, in a photo similar to <!--del_lnk--> Demi Moore's September 1991 cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Vanity Fair</i>. In one photo, Spears is shown with only a <!--del_lnk--> g-string and open fur coat, and in another she is completely nude with her hands covering her breasts. Her son, Sean, is also featured in the photospread.<p>In August 2006, a video of Britney began circulating the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>. In the 3-minute video, which was already released as a bonus on the <!--del_lnk--> Britney & Kevin: Chaotic DVD, Britney is seen having a conversation with her husband Kevin, who is filming Spears as she is sitting at a table eating. In the video, Spears seems very disoriented and confused. She also casually burps throughout the clip. The video begins with Spears making random comments about herself before she instructs Kevin to put the camera down and to "stop acting like a cameraman". She then begins to ask to go to the movie theatre to see a film which, according to Kevin, has already been out on DVD for 4 months and has already been played "on the bus". Spears then begins to claim that she is "missing out on life" and that she is generally behind everyone else. Kevin tells her it is because of all the partying, to which Spears strongly disagrees with and begins to bang the table. Britney then begins to try and legitimately convince Kevin that the concept of time travel that is portrayed in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Back to the Future</i> series is real. Kevin says that if it's possible, that the people responsible wouldn't tell anyone.<p>At the end of September 2006, Britney was one of 20 influential music acts chosen to pose for the covers of music magazine 'Q's 20th Birthday edition. The magazine released 20 different collectible covers featuring each act. Britney's cover showed the then-pregnant superstar sporting long blonde hair, a red and white polka-dot bikini and licking a red lollipop. The magazine contained new photos of the pop princess and an exclusive new interview in which she talked of her favourite artists, songs and moments of the past 20 years. She also mentioned that she would be returning to the spotlight next year, stating 'It's been two years since I've performed, but next year I'm going to try and get it on again. So we'll see...'.<p><a id="With_Paris_Hilton" name="With_Paris_Hilton"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">With Paris Hilton</span></h2>
<p>In late <!--del_lnk--> November <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Britney has been spotted hanging with socialite <!--del_lnk--> Paris Hilton and A-List actress <!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Lohan. Spears and Hilton were seen partying in <!--del_lnk--> Las Vegas at a club in the Tryst in the Wynn hotel where Britney was spotted getting down and dirty on the dance floor to several Paris Hilton songs.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="In_pop_culture" name="In_pop_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In pop culture</span></h2>
<p>Spears is the highest selling female artist of the 2000s, with over 85 million albums sold worldwide. In 2002, she was ranked as the most powerful celebrity in the world by <!--del_lnk--> Forbes Magazine. Spears was ranked number 20 out of the 200 top pop culture icons of all time by <!--del_lnk--> VH1 and <i><!--del_lnk--> People</i>. She topped <i><!--del_lnk--> FHM</i> magazine's 2004 "FHM-U.S.'s 100 Sexiest Women 2004" and "FHM 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2004" polls for sexiest woman. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Spears was a notable trend-setter within the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> and the world, inspiring several fashion crazes and <!--del_lnk--> fads, such as the use of <!--del_lnk--> low-rise jeans <!--del_lnk--> lower back tattoos, <!--del_lnk--> navel piercings, and the <!--del_lnk--> whale tail among young women. She has also topped <!--del_lnk--> Yahoo!'s annual list of the most-searched names three times in the past four years.<p><a id="Discography" name="Discography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discography</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Albums" name="Albums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Albums</span></h3>
<ol>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time</i> (<!--del_lnk--> January 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1999)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oops!... I Did It Again</i> (<!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2000)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Britney</i> (<!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2001)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> In the Zone</i> (<!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2003)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Greatest Hits: My Prerogative</i> (<!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2004)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> B in the Mix: The Remixes</i> (<!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2005)</ol>
<p><a id="Number-one_singles" name="Number-one_singles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Number-one singles</span></h3>
<p><i>The following singles reached number one in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and/or <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></i><table class="wikitable">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th align="center" rowspan="2">Year</th>
<th align="center" rowspan="2">Single</th>
<th align="center" colspan="5">Peak positions</th>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<th width="60"><small>U.S.</small></th>
<th width="60"><small>UK</small></th>
<th width="60"><small>CAN</small></th>
<th width="60"><small>AUS</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="1">1998</td>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> ...Baby One More Time"</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="1">1999</td>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> Born to Make You Happy"</td>
<td align="center">–</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">21</td>
<td align="center">–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="1">2000</td>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> Oops!...I Did It Again"</td>
<td align="center">9</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="1">2003</td>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> Me Against the Music" <small>(feat. <!--del_lnk--> Madonna)</small></td>
<td align="center">35</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" rowspan="2">2004</td>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> Toxic"</td>
<td align="center">9</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">"<!--del_lnk--> Everytime"</td>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<td align="center">
</td>
<td align="center">Total</td>
<td align="center"><b>1</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>5</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>2</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>5</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Filmography" name="Filmography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Filmography</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Title</th>
<th>Role</th>
<th>Other notes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Crossroads</i></td>
<td>Lucy Ann Wagner</td>
<td>Soundtrack</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Austin Powers in Goldmember</i></td>
<td>Robot/Herself</td>
<td>
<p>Soundtrack</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Longshot</i></td>
<td>Flight Attendant</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Products" name="Products"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Products</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Britney Spears has had four books published including <i><!--del_lnk--> A Mother's Gift</i>. She has also had seven DVDs including her 2005 reality series <i><!--del_lnk--> Britney and Kevin: Chaotic</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> Doll, one <!--del_lnk--> video game, and participated in seven tours including <i><!--del_lnk--> The Onyx Hotel Tour</i> in 2004. She has grossed over $145 million USD from tour ticket sales and over $35 million USD in merchandise from her tours.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britney_Spears"</div>
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Broadcasting
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Broadcasting</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Media.htm">Media</a></h3>
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<p><b>Broadcasting</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> distribution of <a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">audio</a> and/or <a href="../../wp/v/Video.htm" title="Video">video</a> <!--del_lnk--> signals which transmit programs to an audience. The audience may be the general public or a relatively large sub-audience, such as children or young adults.<p>There are wide variety of broadcasting systems, all of which have different capabilities. The smallest broadcasting systems are institutional <!--del_lnk--> public address systems, which transmit verbal messages and music within a school or hospital, and low-powered broadcasting systems which transmit radio stations or television stations to a small area. National radio and television broadcasters have nationwide coverage, using retransmitter towers, satellite systems, and cable distribution. Satellite radio and television broadcasters can cover even wider areas, such as entire continents, and <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> channels can distribute text or streamed music worldwide.<p>The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a <!--del_lnk--> schedule. As with all technological endeavors, a number of technical terms and slang have developed. A list of these terms can be found at <!--del_lnk--> list of broadcasting terms. <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">Television</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a> programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or <!--del_lnk--> cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having <!--del_lnk--> decoding equipment in <!--del_lnk--> homes, the latter also enables <!--del_lnk--> subscription-based channels and <!--del_lnk--> pay-per-view services.<p>The term "broadcast" was coined by early radio engineers from the midwestern United States. Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">mass media</a>. Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called <!--del_lnk--> narrowcasting.<p>Economically there are a few ways in which stations are able to continually broadcast. Each differs in the method by which stations are funded:<ul>
<li>in-kind donations of time and skills by volunteers (common with community broadcasters)<li>direct <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> payments or operation of public broadcasters<li>indirect government payments, such as radio and <!--del_lnk--> television licenses<li><!--del_lnk--> grants from <!--del_lnk--> foundations or <a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" title="Business">business</a> entities<li>selling <a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" title="Advertising">advertising</a> or sponsorships<li>public <!--del_lnk--> subscription or <!--del_lnk--> membership<li><!--del_lnk--> fees charged to all owners of TV sets or radios, regardless of whether they intend to receive that program or not (an approach used in the UK)</ul>
<p>Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these <!--del_lnk--> business models. For example, <!--del_lnk--> National Public Radio, a non-commercial network within the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, receives grants from the <!--del_lnk--> Corporation for Public Broadcasting (which in turn receives funding from the U.S. government), by public membership, and by selling "extended credits" to <a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" title="Corporation">corporations</a>.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Recorded_broadcasts_and_live_broadcasts" name="Recorded_broadcasts_and_live_broadcasts"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Recorded broadcasts and live broadcasts</span></h2>
<p>One can distinguish between recorded and live broadcasts. The former allows correcting errors, and removing superfluous or undesired material, rearranging it, applying <!--del_lnk--> slow-motion and repetitions, and other techniques to enhance the program. However some live events like sports telecasts can include some of the aspects including slow motion clips of important goals/hits etc in between the live telecast.<p>American radio network broadcasters habitually forbade prerecorded broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s, requiring radio programs played for the Eastern and Central <a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">time zones</a> to be repeated three hours later for the Pacific time zone. This restriction was dropped for special occasions, as in the case of the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Airship.htm" title="Dirigible">dirigible</a> airship <i><!--del_lnk--> Hindenburg</i> at <!--del_lnk--> Lakehurst, New Jersey in 1937. During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, prerecorded broadcasts from war correspondents were allowed on U.S. radio. In addition, American radio programs were recorded for playback by <!--del_lnk--> Armed Forces Radio stations around the world.<p>A disadvantage of recording first is that the public may know the outcome of an event from another source, which may be a <!--del_lnk--> spoiler. In addition, prerecording prevents live <!--del_lnk--> announcers from deviating from an officially-approved <!--del_lnk--> script, as occurred with <a href="../../wp/p/Propaganda.htm" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> broadcasts from Germany in the 1940s and with <!--del_lnk--> Radio Moscow in the 1980s.<p>Many events are advertised as being live, although they are often "recorded live" (sometimes this is referred to as "live-to-tape"). This is particularly true of performances of musical artists on radio when they visit for an in-studio <!--del_lnk--> concert performance. This intentional blurring of the distinction between live and recorded media is viewed with chagrin among many music lovers. Similar situations have sometimes appeared in television ("<i><!--del_lnk--> The Cosby Show</i> is recorded in front of a live studio audience").<p><a id="Distribution_methods" name="Distribution_methods"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Distribution methods</span></h2>
<p>A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly from the <!--del_lnk--> studio at a single <!--del_lnk--> radio or <!--del_lnk--> tv station, it is simply sent through the <!--del_lnk--> air chain to the <!--del_lnk--> transmitter and thence from the <!--del_lnk--> antenna on the <!--del_lnk--> tower out to the world. Programming may also come through a <!--del_lnk--> communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later transmission. Networks of stations may <!--del_lnk--> simulcast the same programming at the same time, originally via <!--del_lnk--> microwave link, and now mostly by satellite.<p>Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as analogue or digital <!--del_lnk--> videotape, <a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" title="CD">CD</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" title="DVD">DVD</a>, and sometimes other formats. Usually these are included in another broadcast, such as when <!--del_lnk--> electronic news gathering returns a story to the station for inclusion on a <!--del_lnk--> news programme.<p>The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer. It may come over the air as with a <!--del_lnk--> radio station or <!--del_lnk--> TV station to an <!--del_lnk--> antenna and <!--del_lnk--> receiver, or may come through <!--del_lnk--> cable TV <!--del_lnk--> or <!--del_lnk--> cable radio (or "<!--del_lnk--> wireless cable") via the station or directly from a network. The <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> may also bring either radio or TV to the recipient, especially with <!--del_lnk--> multicasting allowing the signal and <!--del_lnk--> bandwidth to be shared.<p>The term "broadcast network" is often used to distinguish networks that broadcast an over-the-air television signal that can be received using a television antenna from so-called networks that are broadcast only via cable or satellite television. The term "broadcast television" can refer to the programming of such networks.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting"</div>
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Bromine
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bromine</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">35</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/s/Selenium.htm" title="Selenium">selenium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">bromine</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">krypton</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">Cl</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Br</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">I</a></span></td>
<td>
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<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2249.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Br-TableImage.png" src="../../images/22/2249.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>bromine, Br, 35</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> halogens</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 17, <!--del_lnk--> 4, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>gas/liquid: red-brown<br /> solid: metallic luster<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2250.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="64" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Br%2C35.jpg" src="../../images/22/2250.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 79.904<!--del_lnk--> (1) g/mol</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" title="Argon">Ar</a>] 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 4p<sup>5</sup></td>
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<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 7</td>
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<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> liquid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>(liquid) 3.1028 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>265.8 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (-7.3 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 19 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>332.0 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (58.8 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 137.8 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Critical point</td>
<td>588 <!--del_lnk--> K, 10.34 MPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>(Br<sub>2</sub>) 10.57 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>(Br<sub>2</sub>) 29.96 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) (Br<sub>2</sub>)<br /> 75.69 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>185</td>
<td>201</td>
<td>220</td>
<td>244</td>
<td>276</td>
<td>332</td>
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</table>
</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>orthorhombic</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>±1, 5<br /> (strongly <!--del_lnk--> acidic oxide)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>2.96 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 1139.9 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<tr>
<td>2nd: 2103 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 3470 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 115 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 94 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 114 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Van der Waals radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 185 pm</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>nonmagnetic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 7.8×10<sup>10</sup> Ω·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 0.122 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound</td>
<td>(20 °C) ? 206 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7726-95-6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of bromine</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>79</sup>Br</td>
<td>50.69%</td>
<td colspan="4">Br is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 44 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>81</sup>Br</td>
<td>49.31%</td>
<td colspan="4">Br is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 46 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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</table>
</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffff99; color:blue"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bromine</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈbrəʊmiːn/</span>, <!--del_lnk--> Greek: <span lang="gr" xml:lang="gr">βρωμος, <i>brómos</i></span>, meaning "stench"), is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Br</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 35. A <!--del_lnk--> halogen element, bromine is a red <!--del_lnk--> volatile liquid at standard room temperature which has a reactivity between <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">iodine</a>. This element is <!--del_lnk--> corrosive to human <!--del_lnk--> tissue in a liquid state and its vapors irritate eyes and throat. Bromine vapors are very <!--del_lnk--> toxic upon inhalation.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Bromine is the only liquid <!--del_lnk--> nonmetallic element at room temperature and one of five elements on the period table that are liquid at or close to room temperature. The pure chemical element has the physical form of a <!--del_lnk--> diatomic molecule, <b>Br<sub>2</sub></b>. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that evaporates easily at <!--del_lnk--> standard temperature and pressures in a red vapor (its colour resembles <!--del_lnk--> nitrogen dioxide) that has a strong disagreeable odour resembling that of <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>. A <!--del_lnk--> halogen, bromine resembles chlorine chemically but is less active. It is more active than <a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, however. Bromine is slightly <!--del_lnk--> soluble in <!--del_lnk--> water, and highly soluble in <!--del_lnk--> carbon disulfide, <!--del_lnk--> aliphatic <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohols</a> (such as <!--del_lnk--> methanol), and <a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>. It <!--del_lnk--> bonds easily with many elements and has a strong <!--del_lnk--> bleaching action.<p>Bromine is highly reactive and is a powerful <!--del_lnk--> oxidizing agent in the presence of water. It reacts vigorously with <!--del_lnk--> amines, <!--del_lnk--> alkenes and <!--del_lnk--> phenols as well as aliphatic and <!--del_lnk--> aromatic <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbons, <!--del_lnk--> ketones and <!--del_lnk--> acids (these are brominated by either <!--del_lnk--> addition or <!--del_lnk--> substitution reactions). With many of the metals and elements, <!--del_lnk--> anhydrous bromine is less reactive than wet bromine; however, dry bromine reacts vigorously with <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> as well as <!--del_lnk--> alkaline earth metals and <!--del_lnk--> alkaline metals.<p>Due to its contribution to <a href="../../wp/o/Ozone_depletion.htm" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a> in Earth's atmosphere, bromine has been evaluated to have an ozone depletion potential of 60 when compared to <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Elemental bromine is used to manufacture a wide variety of bromine compounds used in <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industry</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Traditionally the largest use of bromine was in the production of <!--del_lnk--> 1,2-dibromoethane which in turn was used as a <!--del_lnk--> gasoline anti-<!--del_lnk--> knock agent for <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">leaded</a> gasolines before they were largely phased out due to environmental considerations.<p>Bromine is also used in the manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> fumigants, <!--del_lnk--> brominated flame-retardants, <a href="../../wp/w/Water_purification.htm" title="Water purification">water purification</a> compounds, <!--del_lnk--> dyes, <!--del_lnk--> medicines, <!--del_lnk--> sanitizers, <!--del_lnk--> inorganic bromides for photography, etc. It is also used to form intermediates in organic synthesis, where it is preferred to <a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">iodine</a> due to its much lower cost.<p>Bromine is used to make <!--del_lnk--> brominated vegetable oil, which is used as an <!--del_lnk--> emulsifier in many <a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">citrus</a>-flavored <!--del_lnk--> soft drinks.<p>Aqueous bromine is orange and can be used in tests for <!--del_lnk--> alkenes and <!--del_lnk--> phenols.<ul>
<li>When added to an alkene it will lose its colour as it reacts forming a colorless <!--del_lnk--> bromoalkane. For example, reaction with <!--del_lnk--> ethylene will produce <!--del_lnk--> 1,2-dibromoethane.<li>When added to phenol a white <!--del_lnk--> precipitate, <!--del_lnk--> 2,4,6-tribromophenol, will form. With aniline, 2,4,6 tribromoaniline will precipitate (even in water)</ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bromine was discovered by <!--del_lnk--> Antoine Balard at the <!--del_lnk--> salt marshes of <!--del_lnk--> Montpellier in <!--del_lnk--> 1826 but was not produced in quantity until <!--del_lnk--> 1860. The French chemist and physicist <!--del_lnk--> Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac suggested the name bromine due to the characteristic smell of the vapors.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Bromine occurs in nature as <!--del_lnk--> bromide salts in very diffuse amounts in <a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" title="Crust (geology)">crustal</a> rock. Due to <!--del_lnk--> leaching, bromide salts have accumulated in sea water (85 <!--del_lnk--> ppm), and may be economically recovered from brine wells and the <a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea.htm" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a> (up to 5000 ppm).<p>Approximately 500 million kilograms ($350 million USD) of bromine are produced per year (2001) worldwide with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> being the primary producers. The largest bromine reserve in the United States is located in <!--del_lnk--> Columbia and <!--del_lnk--> Union County, Arkansas.<p><a id="Safety" name="Safety"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Safety</span></h2>
<p>Elemental bromine is a strong <!--del_lnk--> irritant and, in concentrated form, will produce painful <!--del_lnk--> blisters on exposed <!--del_lnk--> skin and especially <!--del_lnk--> mucous membranes. Even low concentrations of bromine vapor (from 10 ppm) can affect breathing, and inhalation of significant amounts of bromine can seriously damage the <!--del_lnk--> respiratory system.<p>Accordingly, one should always wear <!--del_lnk--> safety goggles and ensure adequate ventilation when handling bromine.<p><a id="Compounds" name="Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compounds</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Aluminium bromide (AlBr<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> ammonium bromide (NH<sub>4</sub>Br), <!--del_lnk--> bromine monofluoride (BrF), <!--del_lnk--> bromine pentafluoride (BrF<sub>5</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> bromine trifluoride (BrF<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> tetrabromomethane (CBr<sub>4</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> hydrobromic acid (HBr), <!--del_lnk--> iron(III) bromide (FeBr<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> lithium bromide (LiBr), <!--del_lnk--> phosphorus pentabromide (PBr<sub>5</sub>), <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus_tribromide.htm" title="Phosphorus tribromide">phosphorus tribromide</a> (PBr<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> potassium bromide (KBr), <!--del_lnk--> potassium bromate (KBrO<sub>3</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> silver bromide (AgBr), <!--del_lnk--> sodium bromide (NaBr), <!--del_lnk--> sodium bromate (NaBrO<sub>3</sub>).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine"</div>
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['Selenium', 'Krypton', 'Chlorine', 'Iodine', 'List of elements by name', 'Color', 'Argon', 'Electron', 'Phase (matter)', 'Magnetism', 'Neutron', 'Neutron', 'Chemical element', 'Periodic table', 'Chlorine', 'Iodine', 'Chlorine', 'Iodine', 'Alcohol', 'Acetic acid', 'Aluminium', 'Titanium', 'Mercury (element)', 'Ozone depletion', 'Chlorine', 'Industry', 'Agriculture', 'Lead', 'Water purification', 'Iodine', 'Citrus', 'Crust (geology)', 'Dead Sea', 'United States', 'Israel', 'Phosphorus tribromide']
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>Bronze Age</b> is a period in a <a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" title="Civilization">civilization</a>'s development when the most advanced <!--del_lnk--> metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) consisted of techniques for <!--del_lnk--> smelting <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> from naturally occurring outcroppings of ore, and then <!--del_lnk--> alloying those metals in order to cast <!--del_lnk--> bronze. The Bronze Age is part of the <!--del_lnk--> three-age system for <!--del_lnk--> prehistoric societies. In that system, it follows the <!--del_lnk--> neolithic in some areas of the world. In many parts of <a href="../../wp/s/Sub-Saharan_Africa.htm" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> neolithic is directly followed by the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>The earliest evidence of bronze <!--del_lnk--> metalworking dates to the mid <!--del_lnk--> 4th millennium BCE <!--del_lnk--> Maykop culture in the <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus. From there, the technology spread rapidly to the <!--del_lnk--> Near East and after some time to the <a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> (see <!--del_lnk--> Meluhha).<p><a id="Near_Eastern_Bronze_Age" name="Near_Eastern_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Near Eastern Bronze Age</span></h2>
<p>The Bronze Age in the Near East is divided into three main periods (the dates are very approximate):<ul>
<li>EBA - Early Bronze Age (c.3500-2000 BC)<li>MBA - Middle Bronze Age (c.2000-1600 BC)<li>LBA - Late Bronze Age (c.1600-1200 BC)</ul>
<p>Each main period can be divided into shorter subcategories such as EB I, EB II, MB IIa etc.<p>Metallurgy developed first in <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia, modern <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. The mountains in the Anatolian highland possessed rich deposits of copper and tin. Copper was also mined in <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Negev desert, <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> and around the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. Copper was usually mixed with arsenic, yet the growing demand for tin resulted in the establishment of distant trade routes in and out of Anatolia. The precious copper was also imported by sea routes to the great kingdoms of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<p>The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the <!--del_lnk--> Uruk period in the fourth millennium BC). In the Middle Bronze Age movements of people partially changed the political pattern of the Near East (<!--del_lnk--> Amorites, <!--del_lnk--> Hittites, <!--del_lnk--> Hurrians, <!--del_lnk--> Hyksos and possibly the <!--del_lnk--> Israelites). The Late Bronze Age is characterized by competing powerful kingdoms and their vassal states (<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Assyria.htm" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Babylonia.htm" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Hittites, <!--del_lnk--> Mitanni). Extensive contacts were made with the <!--del_lnk--> Aegean civilization (<!--del_lnk--> Ahhiyawa, <!--del_lnk--> Alashiya) in which the copper trade played an important role. This period ended in a widespread <!--del_lnk--> collapse which affected much of the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.<p>Iron began to be worked already in Late Bronze Age Anatolia. The transition into the Iron Age c.1200 BC was more of a political change in the Near East rather than of new developments in metalworking.<p><a id="Indian_Bronze_Age" name="Indian_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Indian Bronze Age</span></h2>
<p>The Bronze Age on the <!--del_lnk--> Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>.<p><a id="East_Asian_Bronze_Age" name="East_Asian_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">East Asian Bronze Age</span></h2>
<p>Bronze artifacts were exhumed in historic site of <!--del_lnk--> Majiayao culture (3100 BC to 2700 BC) of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. However, it is commonly accepted that China's bronze age began from around 2100 BC during the <!--del_lnk--> Xia dynasty.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Ban Chiang, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, (<!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia) bronze <!--del_lnk--> artifacts have been discovered dating to <!--del_lnk--> 2100 BC <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Erlitou culture, <!--del_lnk--> Shang Dynasty and <!--del_lnk--> Sanxingdui culture of early <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> used bronze vessels for rituals as well as farming implements and weapons <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The Middle <!--del_lnk--> Mumun pottery period culture of the southern <!--del_lnk--> Korean Peninsula gradually adopted bronze production circa [700-600?] BC after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artifacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula (circa 900-700 B.C.). The bronze daggers lent prestige and authority to the personages who wielded and were buried with them in high-status megalithic burials at south-coastal centres such as the <!--del_lnk--> Igeum-dong site <!--del_lnk--> . Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary offerings until AD 100.<p><a id="Aegean_Bronze_Age" name="Aegean_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aegean Bronze Age</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2251.jpg.htm" title="Bronze Age copper ingot found in Crete."><img alt="Bronze Age copper ingot found in Crete." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Copper_Ingot_Crete.jpg" src="../../images/22/2251.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2251.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bronze Age copper ingot found in <!--del_lnk--> Crete.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Aegean bronze age civilizations established a far-ranging <!--del_lnk--> trade network. This network imported <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> and charcoal to <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, where <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. <!--del_lnk--> Isotopic analysis of the tin in some <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> bronze objects indicates it came from as far away as <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>.<p>Knowledge of <!--del_lnk--> navigation was well developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded until a method was discovered (or perhaps rediscovered) to determine <!--del_lnk--> longitude around <!--del_lnk--> 1750 AD, with the notable exception of the <!--del_lnk--> Polynesian sailors.<p>The <a href="../../wp/m/Minoan_civilization.htm" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a> based from <!--del_lnk--> Knossos appears to have coordinated and defended its bronze-age trade.<p>One crucial lack in this period was that modern methods of accounting were not available. Numerous authorities believe that ancient empires were prone to misvalue <!--del_lnk--> staples in favour of <!--del_lnk--> luxuries, and thereby perish by famines created by <!--del_lnk--> uneconomic trading.<p>How the bronze age ended in this region is still being studied. There is evidence that <!--del_lnk--> Mycenaean administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy. Evidence also exists that supports the assumption that several Minoan <!--del_lnk--> client states lost large portions of their respective populations to extreme famines and/or pestilence, which in turn would indicate that the trade network may have failed at some point, preventing the trade that would have previously relieved such famines and prevented some forms of illness (by nutrition). It is also known that the <!--del_lnk--> breadbasket of the Minoan empire, the area north of the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, also suddenly lost significant portions of its population, and thus probably some degree of cultivation in this era.<p>Recent research has discredited the theory that exhaustion of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cypriot</a> forests caused the end of the bronze trade. The Cypriot forests are known to have existed into later times, and experiments have shown that <!--del_lnk--> charcoal production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late bronze age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years.<p>One theory says that as <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> tools became more common, the main justification of the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as it once did. The individual colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of these three factors, and thus they had no access to the far-flung resources of an empire by which they could easily recover.<p>Another family of theories looks to Knossos itself. The <!--del_lnk--> Thera eruption occurred at this time, 40 miles north of Crete. Some authorities speculate that a <a href="../../wp/t/Tsunami.htm" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> from Thera destroyed Cretan cities. Others say that perhaps a tsunami destroyed the Cretan <!--del_lnk--> navy in its home harbour, which then lost crucial naval battles; so that in the LMIB/LMII event (c. 1450 BC) the cities of <!--del_lnk--> Crete burned and the <!--del_lnk--> Mycenaean civilization took over Knossos. If the eruption occurred in the late 17th century BC (as most chronologists now think), then its immediate effects belong to the Middle Bronze to Late Bronze Age transition, and not to the end of the Late Bronze Age; but it could have triggered the instability which led to the collapse first of Knossos and then of Bronze Age society overall. One such theory looks to the role of Cretan expertise in administering the empire, post-Thera. If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, then the <!--del_lnk--> Mycenaeans may have made crucial political and commercial mistakes when administering the Cretans' empire.<p>More recent archeological findings, including on the island of Thera (more commonly known today as Santorini), suggest that the center of Minoan Civilization at the time of the eruption was actually on this island rather than on Crete. Some think that this was the fabled Atlantis (a map drawn on a wall of a Minoan palace in Crete depicts an island similar to that described by Plato and similar too to the form Thera very likely had prior to its explosion). According to this theory, the catastrophic loss of the political, administrative and economic centre by the eruption as well as the damage wrought by the tsunami to the coastal towns and villages of Crete precipitated the decline of the Minoans. A weakened political entity with a reduced economic and military capability and fabled riches would have then been more vulnerable to human predators.<p>Each of these theories is persuasive, and aspects of all of them may have some validity in describing the end of the bronze age in this region.<p><a id="Central_European_Bronze_Age" name="Central_European_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Central European Bronze Age</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2252.jpg.htm" title="Bronze age weaponry"><img alt="Bronze age weaponry" height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bronze_age_weapons_Romania.jpg" src="../../images/22/2252.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2252.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bronze age weaponry</div>
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</div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Central Europe, the early Bronze Age <!--del_lnk--> Unetice culture (<!--del_lnk--> 1800-<!--del_lnk--> 1600 BC) includes numerous smaller groups like the <!--del_lnk--> Straubingen, <!--del_lnk--> Adlerberg and <!--del_lnk--> Hatvan cultures. Some very rich burials, such as the one located at <!--del_lnk--> Leubingen with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle Bronze Age (<!--del_lnk--> 1600-<!--del_lnk--> 1200 BC) <!--del_lnk--> Tumulus culture, which is characterised by inhumation burials in <!--del_lnk--> tumuli (barrows). In the eastern <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> <!--del_lnk--> Körös tributaries, the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> Mako culture, followed by the <!--del_lnk--> Ottomany and <!--del_lnk--> Gyulavarsand cultures.<p>The late Bronze Age <!--del_lnk--> urnfield culture, (<!--del_lnk--> 1300 BC-<!--del_lnk--> 700 BC) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the <!--del_lnk--> Lusatian culture in eastern <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> ((<!--del_lnk--> 1300-<!--del_lnk--> 500 BC) that continues into the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. The Central European bronze age is followed by the iron age <!--del_lnk--> Hallstatt culture (<!--del_lnk--> 700-<!--del_lnk--> 450 BC).<p><!--del_lnk--> Important sites include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Biskupin (Poland)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nebra (Germany)<li>Zug-Sumpf, <!--del_lnk--> Zug, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></ul>
<p><a id="Nordic_Bronze_Age_.281500-500_BC.29" name="Nordic_Bronze_Age_.281500-500_BC.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nordic Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)</span></h2>
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<p>In northern <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, Bronze Age inhabitants manufactured many distinctive and beautiful artifacts, such as the pairs of <!--del_lnk--> lurer horns discovered in Denmark. Some linguists believe that a <!--del_lnk--> proto-Indo-European language was probably introduced to the area around <!--del_lnk--> 2000 BC, which eventually became the ancestor of the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages. This would fit with the evolution of the Nordic bronze age into the most probably Germanic <!--del_lnk--> pre-Roman iron age.<p>The age is divided into the periods I-VI according to <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Montelius. Period Montelius V already belongs to the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in other regions.<p><a id="British_Bronze_Age" name="British_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">British Bronze Age</span></h2>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around <!--del_lnk--> 2100 to <!--del_lnk--> 700 BC. <!--del_lnk--> Immigration brought new people to the islands from the continent. Recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around <a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> indicate that at least some of the immigrants came from the area of modern <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Beaker people displayed different behaviours from the earlier <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic people and cultural change was significant. Integration is thought to have been peaceful as many of the early <!--del_lnk--> henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. The rich <!--del_lnk--> Wessex culture developed in southern Britain at this time. Additionally, the climate was deteriorating, where once the weather was warm and dry it became much wetter as the bronze age continued, forcing the population away from easily-defended sites in the hills and into the fertile <!--del_lnk--> valleys. Large livestock ranches developed in the lowlands which appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances. The <!--del_lnk--> Deverel-Rimbury culture began to emerge in the second half of the 'Middle Bronze Age' (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1400-<!--del_lnk--> 1100 BC) to exploit these conditions. <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall was a major source of <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> for much of western Europe and <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> was extracted from sites such as the <!--del_lnk--> Great Orme mine in northern <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent.<p>Also, the burial of dead (which until this period had usually been communal) became more individual. For example, whereas in the Neolithic a large <!--del_lnk--> chambered cairn or <!--del_lnk--> long barrow was used to house the dead, the 'Early Bronze Age' saw people buried in individual <!--del_lnk--> barrows (also commonly known and marked on modern British <!--del_lnk--> Ordnance Survey maps as Tumuli), or sometimes in <!--del_lnk--> cists covered with <!--del_lnk--> cairns.<p><a id="Bronze_Age_boats" name="Bronze_Age_boats"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bronze Age boats</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> North Ferriby<li><!--del_lnk--> Dover - see also <!--del_lnk--> Dover Museum<!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Langdon Bay hoard - see also <!--del_lnk--> Dover Museum</ul>
<p><a id="Irish_Bronze_Age" name="Irish_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Irish Bronze Age</span></h2>
<p>The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced in the centuries around 2000 B.C. when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture <!--del_lnk--> Ballybeg type flat axes and associated metalwork. The preceding period is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Copper Age and is charcaterised by the production of <!--del_lnk--> flat axes, <!--del_lnk--> daggers, <!--del_lnk--> halberds and <!--del_lnk--> awls in copper. The period is divided into three phases <!--del_lnk--> Early Bronze Age 2000-1500 B.C.; <!--del_lnk--> Middle Bronze Age 1500-1200 B.C. and <!--del_lnk--> Late Bronze Age 1200-c.500 B.C. <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, is also known for a relatively large number of <!--del_lnk--> Early Bronze Age Burials.<ol class="references">
</ol>
<p>Waddell, J. 1998. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. Galway.<p>Eogan, G. 1983. The Hoards of the Irish Later Bronze Age. Dublin<p><a id="Andean_Bronze_Age" name="Andean_Bronze_Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Andean Bronze Age</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2253.jpg.htm" title="An Andean bronze bottle made by Chimú artisans from circa 1300 A.D."><img alt="An Andean bronze bottle made by Chimú artisans from circa 1300 A.D." height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Andean_Bronze_Age_Bottle.jpg" src="../../images/22/2253.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2253.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An <!--del_lnk--> Andean bronze bottle made by <!--del_lnk--> Chimú artisans from circa <!--del_lnk--> 1300 A.D.</div>
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<p>The bronze age in the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a> region of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> is thought to have begun at about <!--del_lnk--> 900 B.C. when <!--del_lnk--> Chavin artisans discovered how to alloy copper with tin. The first objects produced were mostly utilitarian in nature, such as axes, knives, and agricultural implements. Later on, However, as the Chavin became more experienced in bronze-working technology they produced many ornate and highly decorative objects for administrative, religious, and other ceremonial purposes, as well as household use, as decorative work in gold, silver and copper was a highly developed tradition that had already long been known to the Chavin.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"</div>
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Brothers_Grimm
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brothers Grimm</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1076.jpg.htm" title="Wilhelm (left) and Jacob Grimm (right) from an 1855 painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann"><img alt="Wilhelm (left) and Jacob Grimm (right) from an 1855 painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grimm.jpg" src="../../images/10/1076.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>Brothers Grimm</b> (<i>Brüder Grimm</i>, in their own words, not <i>Gebrüder</i> - for there were five surviving brothers, among them <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Emil Grimm, the painter) were <!--del_lnk--> Jacob and <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Grimm, <!--del_lnk--> Hessian <!--del_lnk--> professors who were best known for publishing collections of <!--del_lnk--> folk tales and <!--del_lnk--> fairy tales, and for their work in linguistics, relating to how the sounds in words shift over time (<!--del_lnk--> Grimm's Law).<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p>Jakob Ludwig Carl Grimm and Wilhelm Karl Grimm were born in <!--del_lnk--> 1785 and <!--del_lnk--> 1786, respectively, in <!--del_lnk--> Hanau near Frankfurt in <!--del_lnk--> Hesse. They were educated at the Friedrichs-<!--del_lnk--> Gymnasium in <!--del_lnk--> Kassel and later both read law at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Marburg.<p>The two brothers were in their early twenties when they began the linguistic and philological studies that would culminate in both <!--del_lnk--> Grimm's Law and their collected editions of fairy and folk tales. Though their collections of tales became immensely popular, they were essentially a byproduct of the linguistic research which was the Brothers' primary goal.<p>In 1830, they formed a household in <!--del_lnk--> Göttingen where they were to become professors.<p>In 1837, the Brothers Grimm joined five of their colleague professors at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Göttingen to protest against the abolition of the liberal <!--del_lnk--> constitution of the state of <!--del_lnk--> Hanover by King <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Augustus I of Hanover. This group came to be known in the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> states as <i>Die Göttinger Sieben</i> (<i>The Göttingen Seven</i>). Invoking their right to resist on reasons of natural and constitutional justice, they protested against the King's hubris to abrogate the <!--del_lnk--> constitution. For this, all professors were fired from their university posts and some even deported. Though politically divided by borders of duchies and kingdoms at that time, public opinion and academia in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> realms almost unanimously supported the Grimms and their colleagues against the monarch.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1078.jpg.htm" title="Graves of the Brothers Grimm in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin."><img alt="Graves of the Brothers Grimm in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gebr%C3%BCder_Grimm.JPG" src="../../images/10/1078.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1078.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Graves of the Brothers Grimm in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Schöneberg, <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.</div>
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<p>Wilhelm died in 1859; his elder brother Jacob died in 1863. They are buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Schöneberg, <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. The Grimms helped foment a nationwide democratic public opinion in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and are cherished as the progenitors of the German democratic movement, whose <a href="../../wp/r/Revolution.htm" title="Revolution">revolution</a> of 1848/1849 was crushed brutally by the Kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Prussia, where there was established a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>.<p><a id="The_Tales" name="The_Tales"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The <i>Tales</i></span></h2>
<p>The Brothers Grimm began collecting folk tales around 1807, in response to a wave of awakened interest in German folklore that followed the publication of <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Achim von Arnim and <!--del_lnk--> Clemens Brentano's folksong collection <i><!--del_lnk--> Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i> ("The Boy's Magic Horn"), 1805-8. By 1810 the Grimms produced a manuscript collection of several dozen tales, which they had recorded by inviting storytellers to their home and transcribing what they heard.<p>In 1812, the Brothers published a collection of 86 German fairy tales in a volume titled <i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen</i> (<!--del_lnk--> "Children's and Household Tales"). They published a second volume of 70 stories in 1814 ("1815" on the title page), which together make up the first edition of the collection, containing 156 stories. A second edition followed in 1819-22, expanded to 170 tales. Five more editions were issued during the Grimms' lifetimes, in which stories were added or subtracted, until the seventh edition of 1857 contained 211 tales. (It has long been recognized that many of these later-added stories were derived from printed rather than oral sources.)<p>These editions, equipped with scholarly notes, were intended as serious works of folklore. The Brothers also published the <i>Kleine Ausgabe</i> or "small edition," containing a selection of 50 stories expressly designed for children (as opposed to the more formal <i>Grosse Ausgabe</i> or "large edition"). Ten printings of the "small edition" were issued between 1825 and 1858.<p>The Grimms were not the first to publish collections of folktales. The 1697 French collection by <!--del_lnk--> Charles Perrault is the most famous, though there were various others, including a German collection by Johann Karl August Musäus published in 1782-7. The earlier collections, however, made little pretense to strict fidelity to sources. The Brothers Grimm were the first workers in this genre to present their stories as faithful renditions of the kind of direct folkloric materials that underlay the sophistications of an adapter like Perrault. In so doing, the Grimms took a basic and essential step toward modern <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a> studies, leading to the work of <!--del_lnk--> folklorists like <!--del_lnk--> Peter and Iona Opie and others.<p>A century and a half after the Grimms began publishing, however, a sweeping, skeptical, and highly critical re-assessment disproved the Grimms' basic claims about their work. The Brothers did not in fact use exclusively German sources for their collection; and far from maintaining fidelity to those sources, they rewrote and revised and adapted their stories, just as Perrault and their other predecessors had done. The different printed versions of the tales display the latter fact; and the 1810 manuscripts, published in 1924, 1927, and 1974, accentuate the Brothers' consistent habit of changing and adapting their original materials. The irony is that the Brothers Grimm helped create a serious scholarly discipline that they themselves never practiced.<p>(In fairness, it should be noted that the Grimms' method was common in their historical era. Arnim and Brentano edited and adapted the folksongs of <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn;</i> in the early 1800s Brentano collected folktales in much the same way as the Grimms. The good academic practices violated by these early researchers had not yet been codified in the period in which they worked. The Grimms have been criticized for a basic dishonesty, for making false claims about their fidelity—for saying one thing and doing another; whether and to what degree they were deceitful, or self-deluding, is perhaps an open question.)<p><a id="Linguistics" name="Linguistics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Linguistics</span></h2>
<p>In the very early 19th century, the time in which the Brothers Grimm lived, the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> had just met its fate, and <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> as we know it today did not yet exist; it was basically an <!--del_lnk--> area of hundreds of principalities and small or mid-sized countries. The major unifying factor for the German people of the time was a common language. There was no significant German literary history. So part of what motivated the Brothers in their writings and in their lives was the desire to help create a German identity.<p>Less well known to the general public outside Germany is the Brothers' work on a German dictionary, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>. Indeed, the <i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i> was the first major step in creating a standardized "modern" German language since <!--del_lnk--> Martin Luther's translation of the Bible to German; being very extensive (33 volumes, weighing 84 kg) it is still considered the standard reference for German <!--del_lnk--> etymology.<p>The brother Jacob is recognized for enunciating <!--del_lnk--> Grimm's law, Germanic Sound Shift, that was first observed by the Danish philologist <!--del_lnk--> Rasmus Christian Rask. Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic <!--del_lnk--> sound change ever to be discovered.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Selection of fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The Almond Tree<li><!--del_lnk--> The Blue Light<li><!--del_lnk--> The Valiant Little Tailor<li><!--del_lnk--> Brother and Sister<li><!--del_lnk--> Cinderella<li><!--del_lnk--> The Bremen Town Musicians<li><!--del_lnk--> The Elves and the Shoemaker<li><!--del_lnk--> The Fisherman and His Wife<li><!--del_lnk--> The Five Servants<li><!--del_lnk--> The Frog Prince<li><!--del_lnk--> The Gallant Sailor<li><!--del_lnk--> The Golden Bird<li><!--del_lnk--> The Golden Goose<li><!--del_lnk--> The Goose Girl<li><!--del_lnk--> The Grateful Beasts<li><!--del_lnk--> Hansel and Gretel<li><!--del_lnk--> Iron John<li><!--del_lnk--> Jorinde and Joringel<li><!--del_lnk--> The Juniper Tree<li><!--del_lnk--> King Thrushbeard<li><!--del_lnk--> The Little Peasant<li><!--del_lnk--> Little Red Riding Hood<li><!--del_lnk--> Mother Hulda<li><!--del_lnk--> Old Sultan<li><!--del_lnk--> The Pied Piper of Hamelin<li><!--del_lnk--> Rumpelstiltskin<li><!--del_lnk--> Rapunzel<li><!--del_lnk--> The Raven<li><!--del_lnk--> The Salad<li><!--del_lnk--> Simeli mountain<li><!--del_lnk--> Six Soldiers of Fortune<li><!--del_lnk--> The Six Swans<li>(<!--del_lnk--> Sleeping Beauty) <!--del_lnk--> Briar Rose<li><!--del_lnk--> Snow White<li><!--del_lnk--> Snow White and Rose Red<li><!--del_lnk--> The Spirit in the Bottle<li><!--del_lnk--> The Three Little Men in the Woods<li><!--del_lnk--> The Three Spinners<li><!--del_lnk--> Tom Thumb<li><!--del_lnk--> The Twelve Brothers<li><!--del_lnk--> The Twelve Dancing Princesses<li><!--del_lnk--> The Water of Life<li><!--del_lnk--> The White Snake<li><!--del_lnk--> The Wonderful Musician</ul>
<p><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">The Brothers Grimm (1982). <i>Fairy Tales</i>. Julian Messner. <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-671-45648-2.</cite><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_Grimm"</div>
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Brown_trout
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brown trout</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Brown Trout and Sea Trout</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2254.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bachforelle_Zeichnung.jpg" src="../../images/22/2254.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2255.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_LC.svg" src="../../images/22/2255.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least concern (LR/lc)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Actinopterygii<br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Salmoniformes<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Salmonidae<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Salmo</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>S. trutta</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Salmo trutta</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758</small></td>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Morphs</center>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i>Salmo trutta</i> morpha <i>trutta</i><br /><i>Salmo trutta</i> morpha <i>fario</i><br /><i>Salmo trutta</i> morpha <i>lacustris</i></td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2256.gif.htm" title="Fishes in the Faroe Islands:Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario)Faroese stamp issued: 7 Feb 1994Artist: Astrid Andreasen"><img alt="Fishes in the Faroe Islands:Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario)Faroese stamp issued: 7 Feb 1994Artist: Astrid Andreasen" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Faroe_stamp_250_brown_trout_%28salmo_trutta_fario%29.gif" src="../../images/22/2256.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2256.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fishes in the <a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>:<br /> Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario)<br /> Faroese stamp issued: 7 Feb 1994<br /> Artist: <!--del_lnk--> Astrid Andreasen</div>
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<p>The <b>Brown Trout</b> (<i>Salmo trutta</i> <!--del_lnk--> morpha <i>fario</i> and <i>S. trutta</i> morpha <i>lacustris</i>) and the <b>Sea Trout</b> (<i>S. trutta</i> morpha <i>trutta</i>) are <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> of the same species distinguished chiefly by the fact that the brown trout is largely a <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> fish, while the sea trout shows <!--del_lnk--> anadromous reproduction, migrating to the <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a> for much of its life and returning to freshwater only to <!--del_lnk--> spawn. The <!--del_lnk--> lacustrine <!--del_lnk--> morph of brown trout is most usually <!--del_lnk--> potamodromous, migrating from lakes into rivers or streams to spawn, although there is some evidence of stocks which spawn on wind-swept shorelines of lakes. <i>S. trutta</i> morpha <i>fario</i> form stream-resident populations, typically in alpine streams but sometimes in larger rivers, as well. There is evidence that anadromous and non-anadromous morphs coexisting in the same river can be genetically identical <!--del_lnk--> . In common usage, the name "Brown Trout" is often applied indiscriminately to the various morphs.<p>The brown trout is normally considered to be native to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> but the natural distribution of the migratory forms may be, in fact, circumpolar. There are also landlocked populations far from the oceans, for example in <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>. The fish is not considered to be <!--del_lnk--> endangered although, in some cases, individual <!--del_lnk--> stocks are under various degrees of stress mainly through habitat degradation, <!--del_lnk--> overharvest and artificial propagation leading to <!--del_lnk--> introgression. <i>S. trutta</i> morpha <i>fario</i> prefers cold, well-<!--del_lnk--> oxygenated upland waters, especially large streams in mountainous areas. Cover is important to trout, and they are more likely to be found where there are submerged rocks, undercut banks, and overhanging vegetation.<p>The brown trout is a medium sized fish, growing to 20 <!--del_lnk--> kg or more in some localities although in many smaller rivers a mature weight of 1 kg (2 lb) or less is common. The current International Game Fish Association (IGFA) world "all tackle" record brown trout, 18.25 kg (40 pounds, 4 ounces), was caught in May of <!--del_lnk--> 1992 from the <!--del_lnk--> Little Red River, <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas by Howard "Rip" Collins. <!--del_lnk--> (Story with images)<p>Brown trout may live for several years although, as with the <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic salmon, there is a high proportion of death of males after spawning and probably fewer than 20% of female kelts recover from spawning. The migratory forms grow to significantly larger sizes and may live longer. Brown trout are active both by day and by night and are opportunistic feeders. While in fresh water, the diet will frequently include invertebrates from the <!--del_lnk--> streambed, small fish, <a href="../../wp/f/Frog.htm" title="Frog">frogs</a>, and insects flying near the water's surface. The high dietary reliance upon insect larvae, pupae, nymphs and adults is what allows trout to be a favoured target for <!--del_lnk--> fly fishing. Sea trout are especially fished for at night using <!--del_lnk--> wet flies.<p>The spawning behaviour of brown trout is similar to that of the closely related Atlantic salmon. A typical female produces about 2000 eggs per kilogram (900 eggs per pound) of body weight at spawning.<p>Trout is a favourite <!--del_lnk--> food fish, and is used both fresh and smoked; there are many <!--del_lnk--> recipes for it, and it may be eaten fried, grilled, baked or <!--del_lnk--> microwaved.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> specific epithet <i>trutta</i> derives from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>trutta</i>, meaning, literally, "trout".<p><a id="Stocking.2C_farming_and_non-native_brown_trout" name="Stocking.2C_farming_and_non-native_brown_trout"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Stocking, farming and non-native brown trout</span></h2>
<p>The species has been widely <!--del_lnk--> introduced for purposes of <!--del_lnk--> sport into <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. Brown trout have had serious negative impacts on <!--del_lnk--> upland native fish species in some of the countries where they have been introduced, particularly Australia. Because of the trout's importance as a food and game fish, it has been <!--del_lnk--> artificially propagated and stocked in many places in its range, and fully natural populations (uncontaminated by <!--del_lnk--> allopatric <!--del_lnk--> genomes) probably exist only in isolated places, for example in <!--del_lnk--> Corsica or in high alpine valleys on the European mainland.<p>Farming of brown trout has included the production of infertile <!--del_lnk--> triploid fish by increasing the water temperature just after fertilisation of eggs, or more reliably by a process known as pressure shocking. Triploids are favoured by <!--del_lnk--> anglers because they grow faster and larger than <!--del_lnk--> diploid trout. Proponents of the stocking of triploids argue that, because they are infertile, they can be introduced into an environment that contains wild brown trout without the negative effects of cross-breeding. However, it is possible that stocking triploids may damage wild stocks in other ways. Triploids certainly compete with diploid fish for food, space and other resources. They could also be more aggressive than diploid fish and they may disturb spawning behaviour.<p>Sea trout populations in recent years have seriously declined due to infestation by <!--del_lnk--> sea lice from salmon farms. <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_trout"</div>
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Bruce_Lee
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bruce Lee</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Actors_models_and_celebrities.htm">Actors, models and celebrities</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; background-color:#ed8; color:#000;"><b>Bruce Lee</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt=" " height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BruceLee1.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="220" /><br /><small>Bruce Lee in <i>Enter the Dragon</i></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="85px"><b>Born</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1940<br /><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Died</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1973<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Height</b></td>
<td>5'7 1/2" (1.72 m.)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Official site</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.bruceleefoundation.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Notable roles</b></td>
<td>Lee in <!--del_lnk--> Enter the Dragon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Spouse(s)</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Linda Lee Cadwell</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bruce Jun Fan Lee</b> (<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 李振藩 <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese: Lee Jun Fan <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: <i>Lǐ Zhènfān</i>); <!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1940 - <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1973) was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a>-born <!--del_lnk--> Chinese <!--del_lnk--> martial artist, <!--del_lnk--> instructor, actor, father of the combat philosophy known as <!--del_lnk--> Jeet Kune Do and originator of the martial art called Jun Fan Gung Fu. Bruce Lee is widely regarded as one of the most influential and famous martial artists of all time. He is also widely known as the greatest icon of martial arts cinema and a key figure of modern popular culture <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Lee's films elevated the traditional <!--del_lnk--> Hong Kong martial arts film to a new level and sparked a greater interest in <!--del_lnk--> Chinese martial arts in the West. Lee also became iconic to <!--del_lnk--> Chinese, as he portrayed <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> national pride and <!--del_lnk--> Chinese nationalism in his movies. His pioneering efforts paved the way for future martial artists and martial arts actors such as <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Chan, <!--del_lnk--> Jet Li and <!--del_lnk--> Chuck Norris, bringing martial arts films and actors to the mainstream <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Bruce Lee's evaluation of <!--del_lnk--> traditional martial arts doctrines is nowadays seen as one of the first steps into the modern style of <!--del_lnk--> mixed martial arts. Dana White, President of <!--del_lnk--> UFC, has referred to Lee as the "father of mixed martial arts".<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Bruce Lee was an <!--del_lnk--> American Born Chinese (ABC) born at the <i>Chinese Hospital</i> in <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a> in 1940 to his Chinese father <!--del_lnk--> Lee Hoi-Chuen and Chinese-<!--del_lnk--> German mother Grace Lee. Lee's parents were on a one-year U.S. tour with the <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese Opera Company.<p><a id="Names" name="Names"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Names</span></h3>
<p>Bruce's <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese given name, <b>振藩</b> (Jun Fan <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese: <i>Janfàan</i> <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: <i>Zhènfán</i>), literally means "invigorate <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a>." At birth, he was given the English name "Bruce" by Dr. Mary Glover. Mrs. Lee had not initially planned on an American name but deemed it appropriate and concurred with Dr. Glover. Interestingly the name "Bruce" was never used within his family until he enrolled in <!--del_lnk--> La Salle College, a <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> <!--del_lnk--> high school, at 12 years of age, and then again at another Catholic boys' school, <!--del_lnk--> St Francis Xavier's College.<p>In addition, Lee initially had a birth name <b>李炫金</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Cantonese: <i>Léi Yùngām</i> <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: <i>Lǐ Xuànjīn</i>) given by his mother, as at the time Lee's father was away on a <!--del_lnk--> Chinese opera tour. After several months, when Lee's father returned, the name was abandoned because of a conflict with the name of Lee's grandfather. Lee was then renamed <i>Jun Fan</i>. Finally, Lee was also given a feminine name, <b>李細鳳</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Cantonese: <i>Léi Saifung</i> <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: <i>Lǐ Xìfèng</i>), literally "small <!--del_lnk--> phoenix". It was used throughout his early childhood in keeping with a Chinese custom traditionally thought to hide the child from evil spirits.<p>Bruce Lee's screen name was <b>李小龍</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Cantonese: <i>Léi Síulùng</i> <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: <i>Lǐ Xiǎolóng</i>) which literally means "Lee Little Dragon". He was commonly known by this name in Asia. These were first used by the directors of the early Cantonese movies in which Lee performed. It is possible that the name "little dragon" was chosen based on his childhood name "small phoenix". In Chinese tradition, the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese dragon and phoenix come in pairs to represent the male and female genders. However, it is more likely that he was called Little Dragon because he was born in the <!--del_lnk--> Year of the Dragon in the Hour of the Dragon, according to the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese zodiac.<p><a id="Education_and_family" name="Education_and_family"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Education and family</span></h3>
<p>At age 14, Bruce Lee entered <!--del_lnk--> La Salle College in <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> high school, under the wing of Brother Henry. Then, he attended St Francis Xavier's College from 1957-1959.<p>In 1959, Bruce got into a fight with a feared <!--del_lnk--> Triad gang member's son. His father became concerned about his safety and Bruce was sent to the United States to live with an old friend of his father's. All he had was $100 and the title of 1958 <!--del_lnk--> Crown Colony <!--del_lnk--> Cha Cha Champion of Hong Kong. After living in San Francisco, he moved to <!--del_lnk--> Seattle to work for Ruby Chow, another friend of his father's. In 1959, Lee completed his high school education in Seattle and received his diploma from <!--del_lnk--> Edison Technical School. He enrolled at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Washington as a Philosophy Academic major. There he met his future wife <!--del_lnk--> Linda Emery.<p>Bruce and Linda married in 1964 and had two children together, <!--del_lnk--> Brandon Lee (born 1965) and <!--del_lnk--> Shannon Lee (born 1969). Brandon, an actor like his father, died on a movie set while filming <i><!--del_lnk--> The Crow</i> on <!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1993.<p><a id="Acting_career" name="Acting_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Acting career</span></h3>
<p>Lee's father was a famous opera star. Through his father he was introduced into films at a very young age.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1964 at a demonstration in <!--del_lnk--> Long Beach, California, Lee met <!--del_lnk--> Karate champion <!--del_lnk--> Chuck Norris. In 1972, Lee introduced Norris to the big screen, as an opponent in <i>Return of the Dragon</i> (aka <i><!--del_lnk--> Way of the Dragon</i>).<p>Lee went on to star as <!--del_lnk--> Kato in the TV series <i><!--del_lnk--> The Green Hornet</i>, which ran from 1966 to 1967. Lee often used film cameras to teach and demonstrate his martial arts fighting techniques and theories.<p>He also appeared in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Marlowe</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1969 and a few episodes of the TV series <i><!--del_lnk--> Longstreet</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1971.<p><!--del_lnk--> Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a student of Bruce Lee, starred in <!--del_lnk--> Game of Death, Lee's last film. In the film, Lee, wearing the now famous yellow track suit, took on the 7 foot 2 giant basketball player in a climatic fight scene. Unfortunately, Lee died before the film was finished. However, the film was finished using a Bruce Lee <!--del_lnk--> look-alike in 1978.<p><a id="Filmography" name="Filmography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Filmography</span></h2>
<p>Lee starred in a number of films that were released in the U.S., three of which (<i><!--del_lnk--> Enter the Dragon</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Way of the Dragon</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Game of Death</i>) premiered after his death.<table border="border" cellpadding="5" class="prettytable">
<tr>
<th>Released</th>
<th>Chinese and English title of original release</th>
<th>U.S. title</th>
<th>Note</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1941</td>
<td>Golden Gate Girl</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Plays an infant</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1946</td>
<td>The Birth of Mankind</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1948</td>
<td>Fu gui fu yun, aka Wealth is Like a Dream</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1949</td>
<td>Meng li xi shi, aka Sai See in the Dream</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Yam Lee</b>"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1950</td>
<td>Xi lu xiang, aka The Kid</td>
<td>My Son, Ah Chung</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Lee Siu Lung</b>"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1951</td>
<td>Ren zhi cue aka Infancy</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Ngau</b>".</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1953</td>
<td>Qian wan ren jia</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1953</td>
<td>Fu zhi guo aka Blame it on Father</td>
<td>Father's Fault</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1953</td>
<td>Ku hai ming deng aka The Guiding Light</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1953</td>
<td>Ci mu lei aka A Mother's Tears</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1953</td>
<td>Wei lou chun xiao aka In the Face of Demolition</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1955</td>
<td>Gu xing xue lei</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1955</td>
<td>Gu er xing</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1955</td>
<td>Ai aka Love</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1955</td>
<td>Ai xia ji aka Love Part 2</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1955</td>
<td>Er nu zhai aka We Owe It to Our Children</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1956</td>
<td>Zhia dian na fu</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1957</td>
<td>Lei yu aka The Thunderstorm</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1960</td>
<td>Ren hai gu hong aka The Orphan</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Ah San</b>".</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1971</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The Big Boss</td>
<td>Fists of Fury</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Cheng Chao-an</b>". Fights against a drug lord in <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1972</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fist of Fury</td>
<td>The Chinese Connection</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Chen Zhen</b>" 陳真. Fights against Japanese tyrants to avenge his master in <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1972</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Way of the Dragon</td>
<td>Return of the Dragon</td>
<td>Plays "<b>Tang Long</b>". Fights crime in <!--del_lnk--> Rome, Italy. Released after 'Enter the Dragon' in the U.S.; hence the title.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1973</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Enter the Dragon</td>
<td><i>same</i></td>
<td>Plays Shaolin martial arts master "<b>Mr. Lee</b>". Sent as a spy into a tournament, hosted by a rogue-monk-turned-drug-lord.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1979</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Game of Death</td>
<td><i>same</i></td>
<td>Plays "<b>Billy Lo</b>". Lee acts only in the last third of the movie, due to it being pieced together after his death.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Note: The title <i>The Chinese Connection</i> (a play on the then-recently-released <i>The French Connection</i>) was originally intended for <i>The Big Boss</i> due to the drugs theme of the story.<p><!--del_lnk--> Yuen Lo, known later as <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Chan, was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Seven Little Fortunes. He also was a stunt double for the villain Mr. Suzuki in Lee's <i>Fist of Fury</i>. In the film <i>Enter the Dragon</i>, Chan was one of the henchmen disposed of in the underground lair.<p><!--del_lnk--> Yuen Wah, also a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Seven Little Fortunes, and later to become a well known actor in his own right (notably starring in <!--del_lnk--> 2005's <i><!--del_lnk--> Kung Fu Hustle</i>), was Lee's stunt double in Lee's last few films.<p>Bruce Lee's first formal, organized bout came as a teenager at his high school in Hong Kong. He was to fight a young <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> boxer, a reigning two-time boxing champion. Bruce knocked his opponent out with repeated strikes, using the <!--del_lnk--> Wing Chun technique <i>jik chung chuy</i>.<p><a id="Jun_Fan_Gung_Fu" name="Jun_Fan_Gung_Fu"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jun Fan Gung Fu</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Lee began the process of creating his own martial arts system after his arrival in the United States in 1959. Lee called his martial arts <i><!--del_lnk--> Jun Fan Gung Fu</i> (literally Bruce's Gung Fu), which consisted mostly of <!--del_lnk--> Wing Chun, with elements of Western <!--del_lnk--> Boxing and <a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" title="Fencing (sport)">fencing</a>. Lee taught friends he met in Seattle, starting with <!--del_lnk--> Judo practitioner <!--del_lnk--> Jesse Glover as his first student and who later became his first assistant instructor. Before moving to <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> Lee opened his first martial arts school, named the Lee Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute, in Seattle.<p>At the invitation of <!--del_lnk--> Ed Parker, Lee appeared in the 1964 <!--del_lnk--> Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed repetitions of two-finger pushups (using the thumb and the index finger) with feet approximately shoulder-width apart. At the same Long Beach event he also performed the "<!--del_lnk--> One inch punch". The description of which is as follows: Lee stood upright, his right foot forward with knees bent slightly, in front of a standing, stationary partner. Lee's right arm was partly extended and his right fist approximately an inch away from the partner's chest. Without retracting his right arm, Lee then forcibly delivered the punch to his partner while largely maintaining his posture, sending the partner backwards and falling into a chair placed behind the partner (to prevent injury), though the force of the impact caused his partner to soon after fall onto the floor.<p>In 1964, Lee was challenged by <!--del_lnk--> Wong Jack Man, a practitioner of <!--del_lnk--> Northern Shaolin. Lee claimed that, after arriving in San Francisco, his theories about martial arts and his teaching of "secret" Chinese martial arts to non-Asian students gave him enemies in the martial arts community. In contrast, Wong stated that he requested a bout with Lee as a result of Lee's open challenge during a demonstration at a Chinatown theatre; Lee had claimed to be able to defeat any martial artist in San Francisco, according to Wong. The two fought in December, 1964, at a kung fu school in <!--del_lnk--> Oakland, California. Lee and Wong provided significantly different accounts of the private bout, which was not filmed. Afterwards, Lee stated in an interview, without naming Wong as the loser, that he had defeated an unnamed challenger. In response, Wong wrote his description of the fight as well as an invitation to Lee for a public match, which was printed on the front page of Chinese Pacific Weekly, a Chinese-language newspaper in San Francisco. Lee did not fight Wong again.<p><a id="Jeet_Kune_Do" name="Jeet_Kune_Do"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jeet Kune Do</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The match with Wong influenced Lee's philosophy on fighting. Lee believed that the fight had lasted too long and that he had failed to live up to his potential. He took the view that traditional martial arts techniques were too rigid and formalistic to be practical in scenarios of chaotic street fighting. Lee decided to develop a system with an emphasis on "<i>practicality</i>, <i>flexibility</i>, <i>speed</i>, and <i>efficiency</i>". He started to use different methods of training such as <a href="../../wp/w/Weight_training.htm" title="Weight training">weight training</a> for strength, running for endurance, stretching for flexibility, and many others which he constantly adapted.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1095.jpg.htm" title="The Jeet Kune Do Emblem. The Chinese characters around the Taijitu symbol indicate: "Using no way as way" & "Having no limitation as limitation" The arrows represent the endless movement and change of the universe."><img alt="The Jeet Kune Do Emblem. The Chinese characters around the Taijitu symbol indicate: "Using no way as way" & "Having no limitation as limitation" The arrows represent the endless movement and change of the universe." height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:JKD.jpg" src="../../images/10/1095.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1095.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Jeet Kune Do Emblem. The <!--del_lnk--> Chinese characters around the <!--del_lnk--> Taijitu symbol indicate: "<i>Using no way as way</i>" & "<i>Having no limitation as limitation</i>" The arrows represent the endless movement and change of the universe.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Lee emphasized what he called "<i>the style of no style</i>". This consisted of utilizing a non-formalized approach which Lee claimed was not indicative of traditional styles. Because Lee felt the system he called Jun Fan Gung Fu was too restrictive, it was transformed to what he would come to describe as <i>Jeet Kune Do</i> or the <i>Way of the Intercepting Fist</i>, a term he would later regret because <i>Jeet Kune Do</i> implied specific parameters that styles connotate whereas the whole point of the system was to exist outside of parameters and limitations. Some confuse the Jeet Kune Do system with the personal version that Bruce Lee practised. Jeet Kune Do can be seen as both a process and a product, the latter deriving from the former.<p>Bruce Lee certified three instructors: <!--del_lnk--> Taky Kimura, <!--del_lnk--> James Yimm Lee (no relation to Bruce Lee) and <!--del_lnk--> Dan Inosanto. James Yimm Lee, a close friend of Bruce Lee, died without certifying additional students. Taky Kimura, to date, has certified one person in <!--del_lnk--> Jun Fan Gung Fu: his son and heir <!--del_lnk--> Andy Kimura. Not all other instructors are certified, although Dan Inosanto has certified some (e.g. Dwight Woods and others). Prior to his death, Lee told his then only two living instructors Inosanto and Kimura (James Yimm Lee had died in 1972.) to dismantle his schools. Both Taky Kimura and Dan Inosanto were allowed to teach small classes thereafter without using the name Jeet Kune Do.<p>As a result of a lawsuit between the estate of Bruce Lee (also known as Concord Moon) and the Inosanto Academy, the name "Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do" was legally trademarked, and the rights were given solely to the Lee estate. "The name is made up of two parts: 'Jun Fan' (Bruce's given Chinese name) and 'Jeet Kune Do' (the Way of the Intercepting Fist). The development of Bruce Lee's art from 1961 until the end of his life was one smooth and indivisible path. In the beginning, he referred to his teachings simply as <i>Jun Fan Gung Fu</i>.<p>Some martial arts instructors, in an effort to promote themselves or their martial arts schools, make dubious claims about learning from or teaching Bruce Lee. Yet, only three were certified by Lee.<p><a id="Physical_fitness_and_nutrition" name="Physical_fitness_and_nutrition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physical fitness and nutrition</span></h2>
<p>Bruce Lee felt that many martial artists of his day did not spend enough time on physical conditioning. He at first resorted to traditional <!--del_lnk--> bodybuilding techniques to build mass, then upon further education realised that a different sort of training was needed to increase his speed and power.<p>The weight training program that Lee used during a stay in Hong Kong in 1965 indicated biceps curls of 36kg (79 lbs) and eight repetitions for endurance. This translates to an estimated <!--del_lnk--> one repetition maximum of 50kg, (110 lbs) placing Lee in approximately the 100th percentile for the 55 to 64 kilogram weight class (121-141 Lbs).<p>Lee believed that the <!--del_lnk--> abdominal muscles were one of the most important muscle groups for a martial artist, since <i>virtually every movement</i> requires some degree of abdominal work. Perhaps more importantly, the "abs" are like a shell, protecting the ribs and vital organs. Bruce Lee's washboard abs did not come from mere abdominal training; he was also a proponent of cardiovascular conditioning and would regularly run, jump rope, and ride a stationary bicycle. A typical exercise for Lee would be running two to six <!--del_lnk--> miles in fifteen to forty-five minutes.<p>Another element in Bruce Lee's quest for abdominal definition was nutrition. According to Linda Lee, soon after he moved to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, Bruce started to take nutrition seriously and developed an interest in health foods and high-protein drinks. He ate lean meat sparingly and consumed large amounts of fruits and vegetables.<p><a id="Bruce_Lee.27s_feats" name="Bruce_Lee.27s_feats"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bruce Lee's feats</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Bruce Lee's striking <!--del_lnk--> speed from 60cm (24 inches) away was five hundredths of a second. (Glover)<li>Bruce did one-hand <!--del_lnk--> push ups using only 2 fingers.<li>Bruce was able to break a 70 kg (154 lbs) bag with a sidekick. (Coburn)<li>Bruce's famous "One Inch Punch" was able to knock back and off balance a 200lb man into a chair, using only 1 inch of striking distance. The target stands with their feet squared and is unable to turn to a sideways stance because of the chair being in the way, thus being knocked off balance.<li>Bruce's last movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Enter the Dragon</i> was made for <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a>850,000 in 1973 ($3.74 million in 2005 currency. BLS). To date, <i>Enter the Dragon</i> has grossed over $100,000,000. (IMDB.com)<li>Bruce was able to hold a 57 kg (125 lb) <!--del_lnk--> barbell at arms length in front of him (with elbows locked) for several seconds. (Little)</ul>
<p><a id="Quotes" name="Quotes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Quotes</span></h3>
<p>These are some quotes from Bruce Lee's students and people who trained with him, about his feats of strength:<ul>
<li><b>Leo Fong</b><ul>
<li>"Yes, I was on the receiving end of his side kick. It was like getting hit with a truck."</ul>
<li><b>Mito Uhera</b><ul>
<li>"Bruce always felt that if your stomach wasn't developed, then you had no business doing any hard sparring."</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Philosophy" name="Philosophy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophy</span></h2>
<p>Although Bruce Lee is best known as a martial artist and actor, Lee majored in <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Washington. Lee's books on martial arts and fighting philosophies are well-known both for their philosophical assertions both inside and outside of martial arts circles. His philosophy often mirrored his fighting beliefs, though he was quick to claim that his martial arts were solely a metaphor for such teachings. His influences include <a href="../../wp/t/Taoism.htm" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and the writings of <!--del_lnk--> Krishnamurti.<p>The following are some of Bruce Lee's quotes that reflect his fighting philosophy.<ul>
<li>"Be formless... shapeless like water. If you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle; it becomes the bottle. You put it into a teapot; it becomes the teapot. Water can flow, and it can crash. Be water, my friend..."<li>"The more relaxed the muscles are, the more energy can flow through the body. Using muscular tensions to try to 'do' the punch or attempting to use brute force to knock someone over will only work to opposite effect."<li>"Mere technical knowledge is only the beginning of Kung Fu. To master it, one must enter into the spirit of it."<li>"There are lots of guys around the world that are lazy. They have fat guts. They talk about chi power and things they can do, but don't believe it."<li>"I'm not a master. I'm a student-master, meaning that I have the knowledge of a master and the expertise of a master, but I'm still learning. So I'm a student-master. I don't believe in the word 'master.' I consider the master as such when they close the casket."<li>"Do not deny the classical approach, simply as a reaction, or you will have created another pattern and trapped yourself there."<li>"Jeet Kune Do: it's just a name; don't fuss over it. There's no such thing as a style if you understand the roots of combat."<li>"Unfortunately, now in boxing people are only allowed to punch. In Judo, people are only allowed to throw. I do not despise these kinds of martial arts. What I mean is, we now find rigid forms which create differences among clans, and the world of martial art is shattered as a result."<li>"I think the high state of martial art, in application, must have no absolute form. And, to tackle pattern A with pattern B may not be absolutely correct."<li>"True observation begins when one is devoid of set patterns."<li>"The other weakness is, when clans are formed, the people of a clan will hold their kind of martial art as the only truth and do not dare to reform or improve it. Thus they are confined in their own tiny little world. Their students become machines which imitate martial art forms."<li>"Some people are tall; some are short. Some are stout; some are slim. There are various different kinds of people. If all of them learn the same martial art form, then who does it fit?"<li>"Ultimately, martial art means honestly expressing yourself. It is easy for me to put on a show and be cocky so I can show you some really fancy movement. But to express oneself honestly, not lying to oneself, and to express myself honestly enough; that my friend is very hard to do."<li>"Use no way as way; use no limitation as limitation."<li>"The Most powerful fighter, is an ordinary man with laser precision focus."<li>"One great cause of failure is lack of concentration."<li>"If you spend too much time thinking about a thing, you'll never get it done."</ul>
<p>See <!--del_lnk--> Wikiquotes for more quotes by Bruce Lee.<p><a id="Bruce_Lee_and_popular_culture" name="Bruce_Lee_and_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bruce Lee and popular culture</span></h2>
<p>There exists many references to Bruce Lee in <a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, which are covered in a <!--del_lnk--> separate article.<p><a id="Awards_and_honours" name="Awards_and_honours"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and honours</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1098.jpg.htm" title="Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong"><img alt="Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HK_Star_Bruce_Lee_16.jpg" src="../../images/10/1098.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1098.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong</div>
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<ul>
<li>With his ancestral roots coming from Gwan'on in <!--del_lnk--> Seundak, <!--del_lnk--> Guangdong province of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> (广东顺德均安, Guangdong Shunde Jun'An), <b>a street in the village is named after</b> him where his ancestral home is situated. The home is open for public access.<li>Bruce Lee was named <i><!--del_lnk--> TIME Magazine</i> 's <b>100 Most Important People of the Century</b> and as one of the <i>greatest heroes & icons</i> and among the influential <!--del_lnk--> martial artists of the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The 1993 <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story</i> is a fictionalized biographical film about Bruce Lee.</ul>
<ul>
<li>On July 21, 2003, to his 30th year of death, "Things Asian" published an article: Lee´s Legend remains strong 30 years after his death and in the process establish his place in martial arts as "<b>the greatest martial artist of all time</b>"<!--del_lnk--> <li>In 2004, <!--del_lnk--> UFC president <!--del_lnk--> Dana White credited Bruce Lee as the <b>"<i>father of <!--del_lnk--> mixed martial arts</i></b>".</ul>
<ul>
<li>In September <!--del_lnk--> 2004, a <!--del_lnk--> a BBC story stated that the <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnian</a> city of <!--del_lnk--> Mostar was to honour Lee with a statue on the Spanish Square, as a <b>symbol of solidarity</b>. After many years of war and religious splits, Lee's figure is to commend his work: to successfully bridge culture gaps in the world. The statue, placed in the city park, was unveiled on <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 (One day before the unveiling of the statue in Hong Kong, below).</ul>
<ul>
<li>In 2005, Lee was remembered in <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> with a bronze statue to mark his sixty-fifth birthday. The bronze statue, unveiled on <!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, honored Lee as <b>Chinese film's bright star of the century</b>. <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<ul>
<li>Lee has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the category Motion Picture, at 6933 Hollywood Blvd <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<ul>
<li>On <!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, it was announced that Bruce Lee will get his own theme park that will be located in his Chinese ancestral home of <!--del_lnk--> Shunde. It will contain a statue, memorial hall, martial arts academy, and conference centre. Actress <!--del_lnk--> Betty Ting Pei donated a set of <!--del_lnk--> nunchaku that Lee once used. <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<p><a id="Martial_arts_lineage" name="Martial_arts_lineage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Martial arts lineage</span></h2>
<table border="border" cellpadding="5" class="prettytable">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">Lineage in <!--del_lnk--> Wing Chun / <!--del_lnk--> Jeet Kune Do</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sifu in <!--del_lnk--> Wing Chun</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yip Man (葉問)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Other instructors</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sihing <b><!--del_lnk--> Wong Shun Leung</b> (黃淳樑) <!--del_lnk--> Sihing <!--del_lnk--> William Cheung (張卓興)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Notable Sparring partner</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Toe Dai <!--del_lnk--> Hawkins Cheung Note: He was Bruce Lee's friend at the time.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><b>Bruce Lee</b> (李小龍)<br /> Creator of Jeet Kune Do<br /> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Known students in Jun Fan<br /> Gung Fu/Jeet Kune Do</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jesse Glover<br /><!--del_lnk--> Steve Golden<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dan Inosanto<br /><!--del_lnk--> Taky Kimura<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jerry Poteet<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ted Wong<br /><!--del_lnk--> James Yimm Lee<br /> Numerous others...</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Famous students taught<br /> Jun Fan/Jeet Kune Do</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kareem Abdul-Jabbar<br /><!--del_lnk--> James Coburn<br /><!--del_lnk--> Joe Lewis<br /><!--del_lnk--> Roman Polanski<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lee Marvin<br /><!--del_lnk--> Steve McQueen<br /><!--del_lnk--> Chuck Norris<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stirling Silliphant<br /> Numerous others...</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Death_by_.22misadventure.22" name="Death_by_.22misadventure.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death by "misadventure"</span></h2>
<p>Bruce Lee's death was officially attributed to <!--del_lnk--> cerebral edema.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Lee was in Hong Kong, due to have dinner with former <a href="../../wp/j/James_Bond.htm" title="James Bond">James Bond</a> star <!--del_lnk--> George Lazenby, with whom he intended to make a film. According to Lee's wife Linda, Bruce met producer <!--del_lnk--> Raymond Chow at 2 P.M. at home to discuss the making of the movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Game of Death</i>. They worked until 4 P.M. and then drove together to the home of <!--del_lnk--> Betty Ting Pei, a <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwanese</a> actress (claimed by some to be Lee's mistress) who was to have a leading role in the film. The three went over the script at her home, and then Chow left to attend a dinner meeting.<p>A short time later, Lee complained of a headache, and Ting Pei gave him a prescription <!--del_lnk--> analgesic known as <!--del_lnk--> Equagesic.<p>At around 7:30 P.M., he laid down for a nap. After Lee didn't turn up for the dinner, Chow came to the apartment but could not wake Lee up. A doctor was summoned, who spent ten minutes attempting to revive him before sending him by ambulance to <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth Hospital. However, Lee was dead by the time he reached the hospital. There was no visible external injury; however, his brain had swollen considerably, from 1,400 to 1,575 grams (13%). Lee was 32 years old. The medical staff examining him concluded that the immediate cause of death was Cerebral Edema. Dr. R. R. Lycette of Queen Elizabeth Hospital determined that the swelling in the brain, and Lee's untimely death, was the result of an adverse reaction to one of the compounds in the prescription equagesic tablet. On <!--del_lnk--> October 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Chow stated in an interview that Lee was allergic to Equagesic. When the physicians announced Bruce Lee's death officially, it was pronounced "death by misadventure". However, the exact details of Lee's death were controversial from the moment it was announced. Bruce Lee's iconic status and unusual death at a young age led to several <!--del_lnk--> conspiracy theories about Lee's death, such as a murder involving <!--del_lnk--> Triads seeking <!--del_lnk--> protection money, vengeful rival martial artists, or other enemies like Chinese and American directors and producers — but none of these is supported by any evidence. His sudden death has since passed into the realm of legend, with one legend claiming that Lee faked his death, and will return when he has perfected his martial arts.<p><a id="Burial" name="Burial"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Burial</span></h2>
<p>Bruce Lee is interred in Lake View Cemetery, Seattle, Washington, USA.<p>Plot: Lot 276, east side of the circular driveway in the centre of the cemetery.<p>GPS coordinates: 47.6333, -122.3158 <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Books_authored" name="Books_authored"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Books authored</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee's Fighting Method 1-4</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chinese Gung-Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self Defense</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Tao of Jeet Kune Do</i></ul>
<p><a id="Books_about_Bruce_Lee_and.2For_JKD" name="Books_about_Bruce_Lee_and.2For_JKD"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Books about Bruce Lee and/or JKD</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee Between Wing Chun and JKD</i> - written by Jesse Glover<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee: Dynamic Becoming</i> - a book about Bruce Lee's philosophy<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit</i> - a biography by Bruce Thomas<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Tao of Bruce Lee</i> - written by Davis Miller mostly about Bruce Lee.</ul>
<p><a id="Bruce_Lee_documentaries" name="Bruce_Lee_documentaries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bruce Lee documentaries</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee: The Curse of the Dragon - Includes interviews with Bruce Lee students, and cast and crew members.<li>Bruce Lee: The Immortal Dragon - Documentary from the Biography Channel<li><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Lee: The Man, the Myth - Biographical film.<li>Jeet Kune Do - Documentary by Wah Chan. More about JKD but contains much Bruce Lee footage.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Lee"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bruce Springsteen</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; background: #f0e68c;"><big>Bruce Springsteen</big></th>
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<td colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/759.jpg.htm" title=""The Boss" in Asbury Park, New Jersey on April 20, 2005"><img alt=""The Boss" in Asbury Park, New Jersey on April 20, 2005" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Springsteen.jpg" src="../../images/7/759.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">"The Boss" in <!--del_lnk--> Asbury Park, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey on <!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</div>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: #f0e68c;">Background information</th>
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<td><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Bruce Frederick Joseph Springsteen</td>
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<td><b>Also known as</b></td>
<td colspan="2">"The Boss"</td>
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<td><b>Born</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> September 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1949<br /><small><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/106/10674.png" width="25" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Long Branch, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></small></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Rock<br /><!--del_lnk--> Heartland rock<br /><a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">Folk</a></td>
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<td><b>Occupation(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Singer-songwriter, <!--del_lnk--> guitarist</td>
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<td><b><a href="../../wp/m/Musical_instrument.htm" title="Musical instrument">Instrument(s)</a></b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">Guitar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Harmonica, and <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">Piano</a></td>
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<td><b>Years active</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1972–present</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Columbia</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b>Associated<br /> acts</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> E Street Band</td>
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<td><b>Website</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> brucespringsteen.net</td>
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<p><b>Bruce Springsteen</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> September 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1949) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> rock <!--del_lnk--> singer-songwriter and <!--del_lnk--> guitarist. Springsteen has frequently recorded and toured with the <!--del_lnk--> E Street Band, in addition to recording and performing as a solo artist and with other musicians. An heir to <a href="../../wp/e/Elvis_Presley.htm" title="Elvis Presley">Elvis Presley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Woody Guthrie, <!--del_lnk--> Pete Seeger, <!--del_lnk--> Eddie Cochran and <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>, but also influenced by early 1960s rock and <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="R&B">R&B</a>, Springsteen is most widely known for his brand of <!--del_lnk--> heartland rock infused with <!--del_lnk--> pop hooks, poetic lyrics, and <!--del_lnk--> Americana sentiments centered around his native <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey.<p>His eloquence in expressing ordinary, everyday problems has earned him numerous awards, including several <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards, an <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award, and induction into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, along with a very large, devoted, and long-lasting <!--del_lnk--> fan base. His most famous albums, <i><!--del_lnk--> Born to Run</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Born in the U.S.A.</i>, epitomize his penchant for finding grandeur in the struggles of daily life.<p>Springsteen's lyrics often concern men and women struggling to make ends meet. He has gradually become identified with <!--del_lnk--> progressive politics. Springsteen is also noted for his support of various relief and rebuilding efforts in New Jersey and elsewhere and for his response to the <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>, on which his album <i><!--del_lnk--> The Rising</i> reflects.<p>Springsteen's recordings have tended to alternate between commercially accessible rock albums and somber folk-oriented works. Much of Springsteen's iconic status in America as well as his popularity abroad stems from his concert performances—marathon shows, up to four hours in length, in which he and the E Street Band energetically perform intense ballads, rousing anthems, and party rock and roll songs, with Springsteen telling long whimsical or deeply emotional stories in between.<p>Springsteen has long had the nickname <b>The Boss</b>, a term which he was initially reported to dislike but now seems to have come to terms with — he sometimes jokingly refers to himself as such on stage.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_years" name="Early_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early years</span></h3>
<p>Bruce Springsteen was born in <!--del_lnk--> Long Branch, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, and grew up in <!--del_lnk--> Freehold. His father, Douglas, was a bus driver of <!--del_lnk--> Dutch and <!--del_lnk--> Irish ancestry and his mother, Adele Zirilli Springsteen, an <!--del_lnk--> Italian-American legal <!--del_lnk--> secretary.<p>Growing up, Springsteen attended the St. Rose of Lima parochial school in Freehold, where he was at odds with both the nuns and other students. In ninth grade he transferred to the public <!--del_lnk--> Freehold High School, where again he failed to fit in. He completed high school but felt so uncomfortable that he skipped his own graduation ceremony. He then attended <!--del_lnk--> Ocean County Community College briefly but dropped out.<p>He was inspired to become a musician when he saw <a href="../../wp/e/Elvis_Presley.htm" title="Elvis Presley">Elvis Presley</a> on the <i><!--del_lnk--> Ed Sullivan Show</i>. At the age of 13, he bought his first <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a> for $18, then began studying with a local, relatively unknown guitarist. When he was 16, his mother took out a loan to buy him a $60 Kent guitar, an event he memorializes in his song "The Wish." In 1965, he went to the house of Tex and Marion Vinyard, who sponsored young bands in his town. They helped him become the lead guitarist of The Castiles, and later became the lead singer of the group. The Castiles recorded two original songs at a public <!--del_lnk--> recording studio in <!--del_lnk--> Brick, New Jersey, and played a variety of venues, including <!--del_lnk--> Cafe Wha? in <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich Village. Marion Vinyard said that even when Springsteen was a young man, she believed him when he said he was going to make it big. Bruce's sister, Pamela Sue Springsteen, had a brief film career, but walked away from acting for good to pursue her still photography career full time.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15319.jpg.htm" title="Areas such as Asbury Park, New Jersey inspired the themes of ordinary life in Bruce Springsteen's music."><img alt="Areas such as Asbury Park, New Jersey inspired the themes of ordinary life in Bruce Springsteen's music." height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DSCN0373_beachtickets.JPG" src="../../images/153/15319.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15319.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Areas such as <!--del_lnk--> Asbury Park, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey inspired the themes of ordinary life in Bruce Springsteen's music.</div>
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<p>He began performing in <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, in 1969 and through 1971 with <!--del_lnk--> Steve Van Zandt, <!--del_lnk--> Danny Federici and <!--del_lnk--> Vini Lopez in a band called Child, later renamed Steel Mill. They went on to perform some memorable shows at <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond. Before being discovered nationally, he returned to <!--del_lnk--> Asbury Park and performed regularly at small nightclubs there and along the <!--del_lnk--> Jersey shore. His New Jersey shows quickly gathered cult-like appeal for their energy, passion and longevity, most lasting in excess of three hours.<p>Even after gaining international acclaim, Springsteen's New Jersey roots would reverberate in his music, with him routinely praising "the great state of New Jersey" in his live shows. Drawing on his extensive local appeal, his appearances in major New Jersey and <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> venues routinely would sell out for consecutive nights and, much like the <!--del_lnk--> Grateful Dead, his show's song lists would vary significantly from night to night. He would also make many surprise appearances at <!--del_lnk--> The Stone Pony and other shore nightclubs over the years. As a result, Springsteen is considered the foremost exponent of the <!--del_lnk--> Jersey Shore sound.<p><a name="1972_-_1974"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1972 - 1974</span></h3>
<p>Springsteen signed a solo record deal with <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Records in 1972 with the help of <!--del_lnk--> John Hammond, who had signed <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> to the same <!--del_lnk--> record label a decade earlier. Springsteen brought many of his New Jersey-based musician friends, including guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Steven Van Zandt, into the studio with him, many of them forming the E Street Band. His debut album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.</i>, from January 1973, established him as a critical favorite , though sales were slow. Because of his lyrics-heavy, <!--del_lnk--> folk rock-rooted music on tracks such as "<!--del_lnk--> Blinded by the Light" and "For You" and the Columbia and Hammond connections, critics frequently compared Springsteen to Bob Dylan in the early days of his recording career. "He sings with a freshness and urgency I haven't heard since I was rocked by '<!--del_lnk--> Like a Rolling Stone'," wrote Peter Knobler in <!--del_lnk--> Crawdaddy, March 1973. <!--del_lnk--> Van Morrison was even more strongly an influence on "Spirit in the Night", and "Lost in the Flood" presented the first of his <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam veteran tales.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15320.jpg.htm" title=""Well the cops finally busted Madame Marie for tellin' fortunes better than they do / This boardwalk life for me is through / You know you ought to quit this scene too""><img alt=""Well the cops finally busted Madame Marie for tellin' fortunes better than they do / This boardwalk life for me is through / You know you ought to quit this scene too"" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Madame_Marie.jpg" src="../../images/153/15320.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15320.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Well the cops finally busted Madame Marie for tellin' fortunes better than they do / This boardwalk life for me is through / You know you ought to quit this scene too"</div>
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<p>Later in 1973 his second album, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wild, the Innocent and the E Street Shuffle</i>, came out again to critical acclaim but no commercial profit. Now the music was more operatic in form, although weakly recorded. "4th of July, Asbury Park (Sandy)" and "Incident on 57th Street" would later became fan favorites, and the long, full-of-life "<!--del_lnk--> Rosalita (Come Out Tonight)" would go on to become one of Springsteen's most beloved concert numbers.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1974 issue of <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> The Real Paper</i>, music critic <!--del_lnk--> Jon Landau wrote after seeing a club performance, "I saw rock and roll's future, and its name is Bruce Springsteen. And on a night when I needed to feel young, he made me feel like I was hearing music for the very first time." Landau subsequently became Springsteen's <!--del_lnk--> manager and then <!--del_lnk--> producer, helping to finish Springsteen's epic new album that was under way. This was Springsteen's last-ditch effort to make a commercially viable record; its <!--del_lnk--> wall of sound production had an enormous budget and had become bogged down in the recording process.<p>Fed by the release of an early mix of exciting new song "<!--del_lnk--> Born to Run" to <!--del_lnk--> progressive rock radio, anticipation built toward the new album's release.<p><a name="1975_-_1981"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1975 - 1981</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1975, Springsteen and the E Street Band began a five-night, 10-show stand at New York's <!--del_lnk--> Bottom Line club; it attracted major media attention, was broadcast live on <!--del_lnk--> WNEW-FM, and convinced many skeptics that Springsteen was for real. (Decades later, <i><!--del_lnk--> Rolling Stone</i> magazine would name the stand as one of the 50 Moments That Changed Rock and Roll.) With the release of <i><!--del_lnk--> Born to Run</i> on <!--del_lnk--> August 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1975, Springsteen finally found success: while there were no real hit singles, "<!--del_lnk--> Born to Run", "<!--del_lnk--> Thunder Road" and "<!--del_lnk--> Jungleland" all received massive <!--del_lnk--> FM radio airplay and remain perennial favorites on many <!--del_lnk--> classic rock stations to this day. To cap off the triumph, Springsteen appeared on the covers of both <i><!--del_lnk--> Time</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Newsweek</i> in the same week, on <!--del_lnk--> October 27 of that year. So great did the wave of publicity become that Springsteen eventually rebelled against it during his first venture overseas, tearing down promotional posters before a <!--del_lnk--> concert appearance in London.<p>A legal battle with former manager <!--del_lnk--> Mike Appel kept Springsteen out of the <!--del_lnk--> studio for over two years, during which time he kept The E Street Band together through <!--del_lnk--> extensive touring across the U.S. Despite the optimistic fervor with which he often performed, the new songs he was writing and often debuting on stage had taken a more somber tone than much of his previous work. Reaching settlement with Appel in 1977, Springsteen finally returned to the studio, and the subsequent sessions produced <i><!--del_lnk--> Darkness on the Edge of Town</i> (1978). Musically, this album was a turning point of Springsteen's career. Gone were the rapid-fire lyrics, outsized characters and long, multi-part musical compositions of the first three albums; now the songs were leaner and more carefully drawn and began to reflect Springsteen's growing intellectual and political awareness. Many fans consider <i>Darkness</i> Springsteen's best and most consistent record; tracks such as "Badlands" and "The Promised Land" became concert staples for decades to come, while the track "Prove it All Night" received a significant amount of radio airplay. Other fans would always prefer the work of the adventurous early Springsteen. The cross-country <!--del_lnk--> 1978 tour to promote the album would become legendary for the intensity of its shows.<p>By the late 1970s, Springsteen had earned a reputation in the pop world as a songwriter whose material could provide hits for other bands. <!--del_lnk--> Manfred Mann's Earth Band had achieved a U.S. No. 1 pop hit with a heavily rearranged version of <i>Greetings'</i> "<!--del_lnk--> Blinded by the Light" in early 1977. <!--del_lnk--> Patti Smith reached number 13 with her take on Springsteen's unreleased "<!--del_lnk--> Because the Night" in 1978, while <!--del_lnk--> The Pointer Sisters hit No. 2 in 1979 with Springsteen's also-unreleased "<!--del_lnk--> Fire".<p>Springsteen continued to consolidate his thematic focus on <!--del_lnk--> working-class life with the <!--del_lnk--> double album <i><!--del_lnk--> The River</i> in 1980, which finally yielded his first hit single of his own, "<!--del_lnk--> Hungry Heart", but he likes guys also included an intentionally paradoxical range of material from party rockers to intense piano ballads. The album sold well, and a <!--del_lnk--> long tour in 1980 and 1981 followed, featuring Springsteen's first extended playing of Europe and ending with a series of multi-night arena stands in major cities in the U.S.<p><a name="1982_-_1989"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1982 - 1989</span></h3>
<p>Springsteen suddenly veered off the normal rock career course, following <i>The River</i> with the stark solo <!--del_lnk--> acoustic <i><!--del_lnk--> Nebraska</i> in 1982. According to the <!--del_lnk--> Marsh biographies, Springsteen was in a <!--del_lnk--> depressed state when he wrote this material, and the result is a brutal depiction of <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> life. The title track on this album is about the murder spree of <!--del_lnk--> Charles Starkweather. The album actually started (according to Marsh) as a demo tape for new songs to be played with the E Street Band - but during the recording process, Springsteen and producer Landau realized they worked better as solo acoustic numbers; several attempts at re-recording the songs in a studio led them to realize that the original versions, recorded on a simple, low-tech four-track cassette deck in Springsteen's kitchen, were the best versions they were going to get.<p>While <i><!--del_lnk--> Nebraska</i> did not sell especially well, it garnered widespread critical praise (including being named "Album of the Year" by <i>Rolling Stone</i> magazine's critics). It also helped inspire the musical genre known as <!--del_lnk--> lo-fi music and became a cult favorite among indie-rockers and other listeners who might be averse to Springsteen's more mainstream work. Springsteen did not tour in conjunction with <i>Nebraska'</i>s release.<p>Springsteen probably is best known for his album <i><!--del_lnk--> Born in the U.S.A.</i> (1984), which sold 15 million copies in the U.S. alone and became one of the best-selling albums of all time with seven singles hitting the top 10, and the massively successful world tour that followed it. The <!--del_lnk--> title track was a bitter commentary on the treatment of <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam veterans, some of whom were Springsteen's friends and bandmates. The song was misinterpreted by some as <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalistic</a>, and in connection with the <!--del_lnk--> 1984 presidential campaign became the <!--del_lnk--> subject of considerable folklore. Springsteen also turned down several million dollars offered by <!--del_lnk--> Chrysler Corporation for using the song in a car commercial. (In later years, Springsteen performed the song accompanied only with acoustic guitar to more explicitly make clear the song's original meaning.) "<!--del_lnk--> Dancing in the Dark" was the biggest of seven hit singles from <i>Born in the U.S.A.</i>, peaking at No. 2 on the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard music charts. The <!--del_lnk--> music video for the song featured a young <!--del_lnk--> Courteney Cox dancing on stage with Springsteen, an appearance which helped kickstart Cox's career.<p>The <i>Born in the U.S.A.</i> period represented the height of Springsteen's visibility in popular culture and the broadest audience demographic he would ever reach (this was further helped by releasing <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Baker <!--del_lnk--> dance mixes of three of the singles). <i><!--del_lnk--> Live/1975-85</i>, a five-record box set (also released on three cassettes or three CDs), was released near the end of 1986 and also became a huge success, selling 13 million units in the U.S. and becoming the first box set to debut at No. 1 on the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. album charts. It is one of the best selling live albums of all time. It summed up Springsteen's career to that point and displayed some of the elements that made his shows so powerful to his fans: the switching from mournful dirges to party rockers and back; the communal sense of purpose between artist and audience; the long emotionally intense spoken passages before songs, including those describing Springsteen's difficult relationship with his father; and the instrumental prowess of the E Street Band, such as in the long <!--del_lnk--> coda to "Racing in the Street". Some fans and critics felt the song selection on this album could have been better, but in any case, Springsteen concerts are the subjects of frequent <!--del_lnk--> bootleg recording and trading among fans.<p>After this commercial peak, Springsteen released the much more sedate and contemplative <i><!--del_lnk--> Tunnel of Love</i> (1987), a mature reflection on the many faces of love found, lost and squandered. It presaged the breakup of his first marriage to actress <!--del_lnk--> Julianne Phillips. Reflecting the challenges of love, on <i>Tunnel of Love'</i>s title song, Springsteen famously sang:<dl>
<dd><i>Ought to be easy, ought to be simple enough. Man meets woman, and they fall in love. But the house is haunted, and the ride gets rough. You got to learn to live with what you can't rise above.</i></dl>
<p>The subsequent <!--del_lnk--> Tunnel of Love Express tour shook up fans with changes to the stage layout, favorites dropped from the set list, and horn-based arrangements; during the European leg in 1988, Springsteen's relationship with E Street Band backup singer <!--del_lnk--> Patti Scialfa became public. Later in 1988, Springsteen headlined the truly worldwide <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Now! Tour for <!--del_lnk--> Amnesty International. In the fall of 1989, Springsteen dissolved the E Street Band, and he and Scialfa relocated to California.<p><a name="1990s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1990s</span></h3>
<p>Springsteen married Scialfa in 1991; they had three children born between 1990 and 1994.<p>In 1992, after risking charges of "going Hollywood" by moving to <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles (a radical move for someone so linked to the blue-collar life of the Jersey Shore) and working with <!--del_lnk--> session musicians, Springsteen released two albums at once. <i><!--del_lnk--> Human Touch</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Lucky Town</i> were even more introspective than any of his previous work. Also different about these albums was the confidence he displayed. As opposed to his first two albums, which dreamed of happiness, and his next four, which showed him growing to fear it, at points during the <i>Lucky Town</i> album, Springsteen actually claims happiness for himself.<p>Some E Street Band fans voiced (and continue to voice) a low opinion of these albums, due to a noticeable country "twang" in Bruce's voice. (especially <i>Human Touch</i>) and did not follow <!--del_lnk--> the subsequent "Other Band" Tour. For other fans, however, who had only come to know Springsteen after the 1975 consolidation of the E Street Band, the "Other Band" Tour was an exciting opportunity to see Springsteen develop a working onstage relationship with a different group of musicians, and to see him explore the Asbury Park soul-and-gospel base in some of his classic material.<p>It was also during this tour that fans generally became aware of Springsteen using a <!--del_lnk--> teleprompter so as to not forget his lyrics, a practice that he may have begun on the Tunnel of Love Express but in any case has continued ever since. An electric band appearance on the acoustic <i><!--del_lnk--> MTV Unplugged</i> television program (that was later released as <i><!--del_lnk--> In Concert/MTV Plugged</i>) further cemented fan dissatisfaction.<p>Springsteen seemed to realize this dissatisfaction a few years hence when he spoke humorously of his late father during his <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame acceptance speech:<dl>
<dd>I've gotta thank him because — what would I conceivably have written about without him? I mean, you can imagine that if everything had gone great between us, we would have had disaster. I would have written just happy songs – and I tried it in the early '90s and it didn't work; the public didn't like it.</dl>
<p>A multiple <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Award winner, Springsteen also won an <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award in <!--del_lnk--> 1994 for his song "<!--del_lnk--> Streets of Philadelphia", which appeared in the soundtrack to the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia</i>. The song, along with the film, was applauded by many for its sympathetic portrayal of a <!--del_lnk--> gay man dying of <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, particularly coming from a mainstream, <!--del_lnk--> homosexual musician. The <!--del_lnk--> music video for the song shows Springsteen's actual vocal performance, recorded using a hidden microphone, to a prerecorded vocal track. This was a technique developed on the "Brilliant Disguise" video.<p>In 1995, after temporarily re-organizing the E Street Band for a few new songs recorded for his first <i><!--del_lnk--> Greatest Hits</i> album (a recording session that was chronicled in the documentary <i>Blood Brothers</i>), he released his second (mostly) solo guitar album, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Ghost of Tom Joad</i>. This was less well-received than the similar <i>Nebraska</i>, due to the minimal <!--del_lnk--> melody, twangy vocals, and <!--del_lnk--> didactic nature of most of the songs. The lengthy, worldwide, small-venue solo acoustic <!--del_lnk--> Ghost of Tom Joad Tour that followed successfully featured many of his older songs in drastically reshaped acoustic form, although Springsteen had to explicitly remind his audiences to be quiet during the performances.<p>In 1998, another precursor to the E Street Band's upcoming re-birth appeared in the form of a sprawling, four-disc <!--del_lnk--> box set of out-takes, <i><!--del_lnk--> Tracks</i>.<p>In 1999, Springsteen and the E Street Band officially came together again and went on the extensive <!--del_lnk--> Reunion Tour, lasting over a year. Highlights included a record sold-out, 15-show run at <!--del_lnk--> Continental Airlines Arena in <!--del_lnk--> East Rutherford, New Jersey to kick off the American leg of the tour.<p><a name="2000s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">2000s</span></h3>
<p>Springsteen's Reunion Tour with the E Street Band ended with a triumphant 10-night, sold-out engagement at <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Madison Square Garden in mid-2000 and controversy over a new song, "<!--del_lnk--> American Skin (41 Shots)", about the police shooting of <!--del_lnk--> Amadou Diallo. The final shows at Madison Square Garden were recorded and resulted in an <!--del_lnk--> HBO Concert, with corresponding DVD and album releases as <i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band: Live In New York City</i>.<p>In 2002, Springsteen released his first studio effort with the full band in 18 years, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Rising</i>, produced by <!--del_lnk--> Brendan O'Brien. The album, mostly a reflection on the <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, was a critical and popular success and hailed the return of "The Boss". The title track gained airplay in several radio formats, and the record became Springsteen's best-selling album of new material in 15 years. <!--del_lnk--> The Rising Tour commenced at the same time, barnstorming through a series of single-night arena stands in the U.S. and Europe to promote the album in 2002, then returning for large-scale, multiple-night stadium shows in 2003. While Springsteen had maintained a loyal hardcore fan base everywhere (and particularly in Europe), his general popularity had dipped over the years in some southern and midwestern regions of the U.S. But it was still strong in Europe and along the U.S. coasts, and he played an unprecedented 10 nights in <!--del_lnk--> Giants Stadium in New Jersey, a ticket-selling feat to which no other musical act has come close. During these shows Springsteen thanked those fans who were attending multiple shows and those who were coming from long distances or another country; the advent of robust Bruce-oriented <!--del_lnk--> online communities had made such practices more common. The Rising Tour came to a final conclusion with three nights in <!--del_lnk--> Shea Stadium, highlighted by renewed controversy over "American Skin" and a guest appearance from <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>.<p>During the 2000s, Springsteen became a visible advocate for the revitalization of <!--del_lnk--> Asbury Park, and he's played an annual series of winter holiday concerts there to benefit various local businesses, organizations and causes. These shows are explicitly intended for the faithful, featuring numbers such as the unreleased (until <i>Tracks</i>) <i>E Street Shuffle</i> outtake "Thundercrack", a rollicking group-participation song that would mystify casual Springsteen fans. He also frequently rehearses for tours in Asbury Park; some of his most devoted followers even go so far as to stand outside the building to hear what fragments they can of the upcoming shows.<p>At the <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards of 2003, Springsteen performed <!--del_lnk--> The Clash's "<!--del_lnk--> London Calling" along with <!--del_lnk--> Elvis Costello, <!--del_lnk--> Dave Grohl, and E Street Band member <!--del_lnk--> Steven van Zandt in tribute to the late <!--del_lnk--> Joe Strummer; Springsteen and the Clash had once been considered multiple-album-dueling rivals at the time of the double <i><!--del_lnk--> The River</i> and the triple <i><!--del_lnk--> Sandinista!</i>.<p>In 2004, Springsteen announced that he and the E Street Band would participate in a politically motivated "<!--del_lnk--> Vote for Change" tour, in conjunction with <!--del_lnk--> John Mellencamp, <!--del_lnk--> John Fogerty, the <!--del_lnk--> Dixie Chicks, <!--del_lnk--> R.E.M., <!--del_lnk--> Jurassic 5, <!--del_lnk--> Dave Matthews Band, <!--del_lnk--> Jackson Browne and other musicians. All concerts were to be held in <!--del_lnk--> swing states, to benefit <!--del_lnk--> MoveOn.org and to encourage people to vote against <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>. A finale was held in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, bringing many of the artists together. Several days later, Springsteen held one more such concert in New Jersey, when polls showed that state surprisingly close. While in past years Springsteen had played benefits for causes in which he believed – against <!--del_lnk--> nuclear energy, for <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam veterans, <!--del_lnk--> Amnesty International and the <!--del_lnk--> Christic Institute – he had always refrained from explicitly endorsing candidates for political office (indeed he had rejected the efforts of <!--del_lnk--> Walter Mondale to attract an endorsement during the 1984 Reagan "Born in the U.S.A." flap). This new stance led to criticism and praise from the expected partisan sources. Springsteen's "No Surrender" became the main campaign theme song for <!--del_lnk--> John Kerry's unsuccessful <!--del_lnk--> presidential campaign; in the last days of the campaign, he performed acoustic versions of the song and some of his other old songs at Kerry rallies. Springsteen's stance coincided with a reduction in his fan base (now an older, more affluent demographic) over the next two years, but how much was due to his politics versus his uncommercial music choices was unclear.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Devils & Dust</i> was released on <!--del_lnk--> April 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, and was recorded without the E Street Band. It is a low-key, mostly acoustic album, in the same vein as <i>Nebraska</i> and <i>The Ghost of Tom Joad</i> although with a little more instrumentation. Some of the material was written almost 10 years earlier during, or shortly after, the Ghost of Tom Joad Tour, a couple of them being performed then but never released. <!--del_lnk--> . The title track concerns an ordinary soldier's feelings and fears during the <!--del_lnk--> Iraq War. <!--del_lnk--> Starbucks rejected a co-branding deal for the album, due in part to some sexually explicit content but also because of Springsteen's anti-corporate politics. Nonetheless, the album entered the album charts at No. 1 in 10 countries (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>).<p>Springsteen began the solo <!--del_lnk--> Devils & Dust Tour at the same time as the album's release, playing both small and large venues. Attendance was disappointing in a few regions, and everywhere (other than in Europe) tickets were easier to get than in the past. Unlike his mid-1990s solo tour, he performed on piano, <!--del_lnk--> electric piano, <!--del_lnk--> pump organ, <!--del_lnk--> autoharp, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukulele.htm" title="Ukulele">ukulele</a>, <!--del_lnk--> banjo, electric guitar and stomping board, as well as acoustic guitar and harmonica, adding variety to the solo sound. (Offstage <a href="../../wp/s/Synthesizer.htm" title="Synthesizer">synthesizer</a>, guitar and percussion also are used for some songs.) Unearthly renditions of "Reason to Believe", "The Promised Land", and <!--del_lnk--> Suicide's "Dream Baby Dream" jolted audiences to attention, while rarities, frequent <!--del_lnk--> set list changes, and a willingness to keep trying even through audible piano mistakes kept most of his loyal audiences happy.<p>In November 2005, New Jersey Senators <!--del_lnk--> Frank Lautenberg and <!--del_lnk--> Jon Corzine sponsored a U.S. Senate resolution to honour Springsteen on the 30th anniversary of the release of his <i>Born to Run</i> album. In general, resolutions honoring native sons are passed with a simple voice vote. For unstated reasons, this resolution was killed in committee. <!--del_lnk--> Eonline story, 11/2005 Also in November 2005, <!--del_lnk--> Sirius Satellite Radio started a 24-hour, seven-day-a-week radio station on Channel 10 called "E Street Radio." This channel, which has since been discontinued, featured commercial-free Bruce Springsteen music, including rare tracks, interviews and daily concerts of Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band recorded throughout their career.<p>In April 2006, Springsteen released his latest album, <i><!--del_lnk--> We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions</i>, an American roots music project focused around a big folk sound treatment of 15 songs popularized by <!--del_lnk--> Pete Seeger. It was recorded with a large ensemble of musicians, including only Patti Scialfa, Soozie Tyrell, and the <!--del_lnk--> Miami Horns from past efforts. In contrast to previous albums, this was recorded in only three one-day sessions, and frequently one can hear Springsteen calling out key changes live as the band explores its way through the tracks. The <!--del_lnk--> Bruce Springsteen with The Seeger Sessions Band Tour began the same month, featuring the 18-strong ensemble of musicians dubbed the Seeger Sessions Band. <i>Seeger Sessions</i> material was heavily featured, as well as a handful of (usually drastically rearranged) Springsteen numbers. The tour proved very popular in Europe, selling out everywhere and receiving some excellent reviews <!--del_lnk--> , but newspapers have reported that attendance at U.S. shows has often been sparse. <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="E_Street_Band" name="E_Street_Band"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">E Street Band</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The E Street Band is considered to have started in October 1972, even though it wasn't officially billed and known as such until September 1974. The E Street Band was inactive from the end of 1988 through early 1999, except for a brief reunion in 1995.<p><a id="Current_members" name="Current_members"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Current members</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Danny Federici - <!--del_lnk--> organ, <!--del_lnk--> glockenspiel, <!--del_lnk--> accordion, <!--del_lnk--> keyboards<li><!--del_lnk--> Garry Tallent - <!--del_lnk--> bass guitar, <!--del_lnk--> tuba<li><!--del_lnk--> Clarence "Big Man" Clemons - <a href="../../wp/s/Saxophone.htm" title="Saxophone">saxophone</a>, <!--del_lnk--> percussion, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals, larger-than-life persona and Springsteen <!--del_lnk--> foil<li><!--del_lnk--> Max Weinberg - <!--del_lnk--> drums, <!--del_lnk--> percussion (joined September 1974)<li><!--del_lnk--> Roy Bittan - <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Synthesizer.htm" title="Synthesizer">synthesizer</a> (joined September 1974)<li><!--del_lnk--> Steven Van Zandt - <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitars</a>, <!--del_lnk--> mandolin, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals (officially joined July 1975 after playing in previous bands; left in 1984 to go solo; rejoined in early 1995)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nils Lofgren - <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitars</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pedal steel guitar, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals (replaced Steven van Zandt in June 1984; remained in group after van Zandt returned)<li><!--del_lnk--> Patti Scialfa - <!--del_lnk--> backing and <!--del_lnk--> duet <!--del_lnk--> vocals, <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a> (joined June 1984; became Springsteen's wife in 1991; they have a daughter and two sons)<li><!--del_lnk--> Soozie Tyrell - <!--del_lnk--> violin, <!--del_lnk--> percussion, <!--del_lnk--> backing vocals (joined 2002, occasional appearances before that)</ul>
<ul>
<li>Springsteen himself does all lead vocals, most <!--del_lnk--> lead guitar, <!--del_lnk--> harmonica, occasional piano, and even more rarely bass guitar.</ul>
<p><a id="Former_members" name="Former_members"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Former members</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Vinnie "Mad Dog" Lopez - drums (inception through February 1974, when asked to resign)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Sancious - keyboards (June 1973 to August 1974)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ernest "Boom" Carter - drums (February to August 1974)<li><!--del_lnk--> Suki Lahav - violin, backing vocals (September 1974 to March 1975)</ul>
<p><a id="Discography" name="Discography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Studio_albums" name="Studio_albums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Studio albums</span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>1. <i><!--del_lnk--> Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> January 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1973)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>2. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wild, the Innocent and the E Street Shuffle</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1973)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>3. <i><!--del_lnk--> Born to Run</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> August 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1975)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>4. <i><!--del_lnk--> Darkness on the Edge of Town</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> June 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1978)</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>5. <i><!--del_lnk--> The River</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> October 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1980)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>6. <i><!--del_lnk--> Nebraska</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> September 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1982)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>7. <i><!--del_lnk--> Born in the U.S.A.</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> June 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1984)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>8. <i><!--del_lnk--> Tunnel of Love</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1987)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>9. <i><!--del_lnk--> Human Touch</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1992)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>10. <i><!--del_lnk--> Lucky Town</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1992)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>11. <i><!--del_lnk--> Greatest Hits</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> February 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1995)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>12. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Ghost of Tom Joad</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> November 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1995)</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>13. <i><!--del_lnk--> Tracks</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> November 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1998)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>14. <i><!--del_lnk--> 18 Tracks</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1999)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>15. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Rising</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> July 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2002)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>16. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Essential Bruce Springsteen</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2003)</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>17. <i><!--del_lnk--> Devils & Dust</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> April 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>18. <i><!--del_lnk--> We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> April 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2006)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Live_albums" name="Live_albums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Live albums</span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>1. <i><!--del_lnk--> Live/1975-85</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> November 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1986)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>2. <i><!--del_lnk--> Chimes of Freedom</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> May 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1988)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>3. <i><!--del_lnk--> In Concert/MTV Plugged</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> April 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1993)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>4. <i><!--del_lnk--> Live in New York City</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> April 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2001)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="gallerytext">
<center><b>5. <i><!--del_lnk--> Hammersmith Odeon London '75</i></b><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> February 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006)<br />
</center>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and recognition</span></h2>
<p><a id="Grammy_Awards" name="Grammy_Awards"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Grammy Awards</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>Springsteen has won 13 <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards, as follows (years shown are the year the award was given <i>for</i>, not the year in which the ceremony was held):</dl>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, 1984, "Dancing in the Dark"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, 1987, "Tunnel of Love"<li><!--del_lnk--> Song of the Year, 1994, "Streets of Philadelphia"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Song, 1994, "Streets of Philadelphia"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solo, 1994, "Streets of Philadelphia"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television, 1994, "Streets of Philadelphia"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Contemporary Folk Album, 1996, <i>The Ghost of Tom Joad</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Album, 2002, <i>The Rising</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Song, 2002, "The Rising"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Male Rock Vocal Performance, 2002, "The Rising"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, 2003, "Disorder in the House" (with <!--del_lnk--> Warren Zevon)<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance, 2004, "Code of Silence"<li><!--del_lnk--> Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance, 2005, "Devils & Dust"</ul>
<p>Only one of these awards has been one of the cross-genre "major" ones (Song, Record, or Album of the Year); he has been nominated a number of other times for the majors, but failed to win.<p><a id="Academy_Awards" name="Academy_Awards"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Academy Awards</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Song, 1993, <i><!--del_lnk--> Streets of Philadelphia</i> from <i><!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia</i></ul>
<p><a id="Emmy_Awards" name="Emmy_Awards"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Emmy Awards</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band: Live In New York City</i> <!--del_lnk--> HBO special won two technical <!--del_lnk--> Emmy Awards in 2001.</ul>
<p><a id="Other_recognition" name="Other_recognition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other recognition</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Polar Music Prize in <!--del_lnk--> 1997.<li>Inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, 1999<li>Inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Songwriters Hall of Fame, 1999<li>"Born to Run" named "The unofficial youth anthem of New Jersey" by the New Jersey state legislature (something Springsteen always found to be <!--del_lnk--> ironic, considering that the song "is about leaving New Jersey")<li>The minor planet 23990, discovered Sept. 4 1999 by I. P. Griffin at Auckland, New Zealand, was officially named in his honour </ul>
<p><a id="Web_domain_dispute" name="Web_domain_dispute"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Web domain dispute</span></h2>
<p>In November <!--del_lnk--> 2000, Springsteen filed legal action against Jeff Burgar which accused him of registering the domain brucespringsteen.com (along with several other celebrity domains) in bad faith to funnel web users to his Celebrity 1000 portal site. Once the legal complaint was filed, Burgar pointed the domain to a Springsteen biography and message board. Burgar claims to be running a Springsteen fan club.<p>In February <!--del_lnk--> 2001, Springsteen lost his dispute with Burgar. A <!--del_lnk--> WIPO panel ruled 2 to 1 in favour of Burgar.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen"</div>
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Brunei
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<body class="mediawiki ns-0 ltr page-Brunei">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brunei</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.Asian_Countries.htm">Asian Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>برني دارالسلام</b><br /><b>Negara Brunei Darussalam</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/593.png.htm" title="Flag of Brunei Darussalam"><img alt="Flag of Brunei Darussalam" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brunei.svg" src="../../images/22/2257.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2258.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Brunei Darussalam"><img alt="Coat of arms of Brunei Darussalam" height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brunei_coa.png" src="../../images/22/2258.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: "Always in service with God's guidance" (translation)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <!--del_lnk--> Allah Peliharakan Sultan<br /> ("God Bless the Sultan")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2259.png.htm" title="Location of Brunei Darussalam"><img alt="Location of Brunei Darussalam" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBrunei.png" src="../../images/22/2259.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bandar Seri Begawan<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 4°55′N 114°55′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Malay (national), <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Absolute monarchy</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Sultan</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hassanal Bolkiah</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - from British protectorate</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1984 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 5,765 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 170th)<br /> 2,226 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>8.6</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>374,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 174th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2001 census</td>
<td>332,844</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>65/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 127th)<br /> 168/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$9.009 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 138th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$24,826 (<!--del_lnk--> 26th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>0.866 (<font color="#009900">high</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 33rd)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brunei ringgit (<code><!--del_lnk--> BND</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+8)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bn</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+673<sup><small>1</small></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Also 080 from <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Brunei</b>, officially the <b>Sultanate of Brunei</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Malay: <span lang="ms" xml:lang="ms"><i>Negara Brunei Darussalam</i></span>, <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span dir="rtl" lang="ar" style="white-space: nowrap;" xml:lang="ar">سلطنة بروناي</span>‎, <!--del_lnk--> Jawi: برني دارالسلام), is a country located on the <!--del_lnk--> island of <!--del_lnk--> Borneo, in <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the <a href="../../wp/s/South_China_Sea.htm" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a>, it is completely surrounded by the state of <!--del_lnk--> Sarawak, <!--del_lnk--> East Malaysia. Brunei, the remnant of a very powerful <!--del_lnk--> sultanate, became independent from <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1984.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Sultanate of Brunei was very powerful from the 14th through the 16th century. Its realm covered the whole island of <!--del_lnk--> Borneo and the southern <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> influence gradually brought an end to this <!--del_lnk--> regional power. Later, there was a brief war with <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, in which Brunei was victorious. The decline of the <!--del_lnk--> Bruneian Empire culminated in the 19th century when Brunei lost much of its territory to the <!--del_lnk--> White Rajahs of <!--del_lnk--> Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts. Brunei was a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> protectorate from 1888 to 1984.<p>There was a small <!--del_lnk--> rebellion against the <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> during the 1960s, which was prevented by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. This event became known as the <!--del_lnk--> Brunei Revolt and was partly responsible for the failure to create the <!--del_lnk--> North Borneo Federation. The rebellion also affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysian Federation</a> and was the first stage of the <!--del_lnk--> Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2260.jpg.htm" title="Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei"><img alt="Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei" height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hassanal_Bolkiah_2002.jpg" src="../../images/22/2260.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei, whose <!--del_lnk--> title has passed within the same dynasty since the 15th century, is the head of state and head of government in Brunei. The Sultan is advised by several <!--del_lnk--> councils and a cabinet of <!--del_lnk--> ministers although he is effectively the supreme ruler. The <!--del_lnk--> media is extremely pro-government and the Royal family retains a venerated status within the country. There is no elected <!--del_lnk--> legislative body. In September 2004, the Sultan convened an appointed <!--del_lnk--> Parliament which had not met since independence in 1984, although it lacks any capacity beyond advising the monarch. Due to the absolute rule of the Sultan, Brunei is one of the most politically stable countries in Asia.<p>The country has been under hypothetical <!--del_lnk--> martial law since a rebellion occurred in the early 1960s and was put down by <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> troops from <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>.<p>Brunei claims territory in <!--del_lnk--> Sarawak, such as <!--del_lnk--> Limbang, and is one of many nations to lay claim to the disputed <!--del_lnk--> Spratly Islands. Several small islands situated between Brunei and <!--del_lnk--> Labuan, including <!--del_lnk--> Kuraman island, are contested between Brunei and Malaysia. However, they are internationally recognised as part of the latter.<p>
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<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2261.gif.htm" title="Administrative division."><img alt="Administrative division." height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brunei.geohive.gif" src="../../images/22/2261.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Brunei is divided into four <!--del_lnk--> districts, called <i>daerah</i>. These are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Belait<li><!--del_lnk--> Brunei and Muara<li><!--del_lnk--> Temburong<li><!--del_lnk--> Tutong</ul>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> districts are sub-divided into 38 <i><!--del_lnk--> mukims</i>.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<p>Brunei consists of two unconnected parts; 97% of the population lives in the larger western part, only about 10,000 live in the mountainous eastern part, the district of Temburong. The total population of Brunei is 383,000 and out of that number about 46,000 people live in the capital <!--del_lnk--> Bandar Seri Begawan. Some major towns are the capital Bandar, the port town <!--del_lnk--> Muara, the oil producing town of Seria and its neighboring town, Kuala Belait (K.B). In the Belait district, the Panaga area is home to large numbers of expatriates due to Royal Dutch Shell and British Army housing and recreational facilities. The well-known Panaga Club is situated here.<p>The climate in Brunei is equatorial Tropical climate tropical, with high temperatures, a high humidity , sunshine and heavy rainfall throughout the year.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>This small, <!--del_lnk--> wealthy <!--del_lnk--> economy is a mixture of <!--del_lnk--> foreign and <!--del_lnk--> domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation, <!--del_lnk--> welfare measures, and <!--del_lnk--> village <!--del_lnk--> tradition. Crude <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> production account for nearly half of <!--del_lnk--> GDP. Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all <!--del_lnk--> medical services and subsidizes <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> and housing. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal <!--del_lnk--> social cohesion although it became a more prominent player by serving as <!--del_lnk--> chairman for the 2000 <!--del_lnk--> APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Stated plans for the future include upgrading the <!--del_lnk--> labour force, reducing <!--del_lnk--> unemployment, strengthening the <!--del_lnk--> banking and <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourist</a> sectors, and, in general, further widening the economic base. The national airline, <!--del_lnk--> Royal Brunei is trying to make Brunei a hub for international travel between Europe and Australia/New Zealand. It also has services to major Asian destinations.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>About two-thirds of the Brunei population are of <!--del_lnk--> Malay origin. The most important <!--del_lnk--> ethnic minority group who dominated the nation's economy are the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese, with about 15%. These groups also reflect the most important <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">languages</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Malay (Malay: <i>Bahasa Melayu</i>), which is the official language, and <a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>. <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is also widely spoken and there is a relatively large <!--del_lnk--> expatriate community with large numbers of British and Australian citizens.<p><a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> is the official <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a> of Brunei, and the sultan is the head of the religion in the country. Other faiths practised are <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (mainly by the Chinese), <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and (in very small communities) <!--del_lnk--> indigenous religions.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>The culture of Brunei is predominantly <!--del_lnk--> Malay, with heavy influences from <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, but is seen as more conservative than <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>. The sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned, with foreigners and non-Muslims allowed to bring in 12 cans of beer and two bottles of spirits every time they enter the country. After the introduction of prohibition in the early 1990's, all pubs and nightclubs were forced to close.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei"</div>
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Brush
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brush</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Art.Art.htm">Art</a></h3>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/102/10215.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Different styles of paintbrushes.</div>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10355.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Different styles of cleaning brushes.</div>
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<p>The term <b>brush</b> refers to a variety of devices mainly with <!--del_lnk--> bristles, wire or other filament of any possible material used mainly for <!--del_lnk--> cleaning, grooming <!--del_lnk--> hair, <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a>, deburring and other kinds of surface finishing, but also for many other purposes like (but not limited to) seals, alternative traction systems and any other use imaginable for this tool.<p>In the industry it is possible to find many configurations such as twisted in wire (like the ones used to wash baby feeding bottles), cylinders, disks (with bristles spread in one face or radially) or in any other shape needed. There are many ways of setting the bristle in the brush: the most common is the staple or anchor set brush, in which the filament is forced with a staple by the middle into a hole with a special driver and held there by the pressure against the walls of the hole and the portions of the staple nailed to the bottom of the hole. The staple can be substituted with a kind of anchor, which is a piece of rectangular profile wire that, instead of nailing itself to the bottom of hole, is anchored to the wall of the hole, like in most toothbrushes. Another way to set the bristles to the surface can be found in the fused brush, in which instead of being inserted into a hole, a plastic fibre is welded to another plastic surface, giving the additional advantage of optionally using different diameters of tufts in the same brush, and a considerably thinner surface (sometimes the bristles can be set this way to the outer surface of a plastic bottle).<p>See below for some other common kinds of brushes.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Brushes_for_cleaning" name="Brushes_for_cleaning"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Brushes for cleaning</span></h2>
<p>Brushes used for cleaning come in various forms and sizes, such as very small brushes for cleaning a fine instrument, <!--del_lnk--> toothbrushes, the larger household version that usually comes with a dustpan, or the <!--del_lnk--> broomstick. Some brushes, usually used for professional cleaning could be even bigger, such as some hallbrooms, used for cleaning wider areas. Thousands of different cleaning brushes can be found, including brushes for cleaning vegetables, <!--del_lnk--> cleaning the toilet, washing glass, finishing tiles, or even sanding doors. Many brushes are unique, made specifically for a given machine by the manufacturer of the machines or a few special companies dedicated to make custom designs.<p><a id="Paintbrushes" name="Paintbrushes"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Paintbrushes</span></h2>
<p>Paintbrushes are used for applying <!--del_lnk--> ink or <!--del_lnk--> paint. These are usually made by clamping the bristles to a handle with a <!--del_lnk--> ferrule.<p>Paintbrushes can have many shapes. Their names and styles may vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer, there are certain consistencies. Traditionally, short handled brushes are for watercolor or ink painting while the long handled brushes are for oil or acrylic paint. The styles of brush tip seen most commonly are as follows:<ul>
<li><b>Round:</b> The long closely arranged bristles of these brushes make them useful for detail<li><b>Flat:</b> These are used for spreading paint quickly and evenly over a surface. They will have longer hairs than their Bright counterpart.<li><b>Bright:</b> These are flat brushes with short stiff bristles and can be useful driving paint into the weave of a canvas in thinner paint applications, as well as thicker painting styles like <!--del_lnk--> impasto work.<li><b>Filbert:</b> Flat brushes with domed ends. They allow good coverage and the ability to perform some detail work.<li><b>Fan:</b> These are used for blending broad areas of paint.<li><b>Angle:</b> These, like the Filbert, are versatile and can be applied in both general painting application as well as some detail work.<li><b>Mop:</b> A larger format brush with a rounded edge for broad soft paint application as well as for getting thinner glazes over existing drying layers of paint without damaging lower layers.<li><b>Rigger:</b> Round brushes with longish hairs, traditionally used for painting the rigging in pictures of ships. They are useful for fine lines and are versatile for both oils and watercolors.</ul>
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/103/10386.jpg.htm" title="Image:brushtypes.jpg"><img alt="Image:brushtypes.jpg" height="261" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brushtypes.jpg" src="../../images/103/10386.jpg" width="656" /></a><p>Some other styles of brush which may be more specialized in their uses include:<ul>
<li><b>Sumi:</b> Similar in style to certain watercolor brushes, with a generally thick wooden or bamboo handle and a broad soft hair brush that when wetted should form a fine tip.<li><b>Hake:</b> These are an Asian style of brush with a large broad wooden handle and an extremely fine soft hair used in counterpoint to traditional Sumi brushes for covering large areas. Often made of goat hair.<li><b>Spotter:</b> Round brushes with just a few short bristles. These brushes are commonly used in spotting photographic prints.</ul>
<p><a id="Brush_care" name="Brush_care"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Brush care</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>A brush utilized in one medium (oil paint, acrylic, etc.) may not be used again in a different medium. The paints once applied will alter the composition of the natural oils in the bristles of the brush. Switching between solvents and mediums will not only destroy these oils but will also damage the effectiveness of the bristles eventually. Given that it is impossible to completely clean a brush once it has been used, this process will be on going throughout the life of the tool regardless of maintenance. Because of the nature of these oils in the hairs of the brush, oil brushes will be the longest lived of any brush type if properly cared for.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Paint must be cleaned from brushes immediately after use. This is especially true for <!--del_lnk--> ink and <!--del_lnk--> acrylic paint because removing dry, set residue can take bristles off or ruin a brush's shape. Use a suitable cleaner such as a brush conditioner, sometimes available in a bar, which must be lathered before use with water, or a liquid conditioner. Some manufacturer's produce a paste-based conditioner that works to remove oil paint from brushes, but can be washed off with water - ideally you will remove most of the residue paint using a suitable solvent, such as turpentine for oil, or water for acrylics and watercolor, and then wash the brush using brush conditioner. Some painters use the bar or paste-based conditioners to reshape the bristles at the end of their session, leaving it in the hair to keep the point sharp. Remember if you do this to remove the soap at the start of the next session with water. These conditioners contain natural oils that allow the brush to remain soft and workable for a longer period than just washing the brush out will. Never use the wrong type of conditioner on the wrong type of brush as this may cause damage. At a push, natural bristle brushes can be washed out and conditioned with a fragrance free hair conditioner intended for our own hair, and some student artists use this method as a cost-saving measure. Some alcohols such as isopropanol or denatured alcohol can be used to remove stubborn acrylic from a brush, but note that this may warp the bristles if it comes into contact with the glue under the ferrule and will remove natural oils from the bristle, and so you should never leave a brush in alcohol for more than a few minutes. Always recondition the brush afterwards with a suitable brush conditioner, <b>do not use brush soap for this</b>, only a brush conditioner, such as a bar soap for acrylics, or a water washable oil brush cleaner for oils.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Never leave brushes bristle-end down in a container of water, turpentine, or any other solvent (if you want to clean them, do it by hand or with a wet cloth). This is because the bristles of the brush spread out against the bottom of the container and, will, if left too long, set that way (like <!--del_lnk--> hair). Some artists use a metal container that has a spring, suspended on an upside-down U above the container, to soak brushes overnight. Doing this may wash natural oils from the bristle and so it should only be used where a brush is severely coated in paint that will not or cannot be removed naturally by hand. Ensure that the container is on a flat surface, place the paintbrush, bristle end down into the container using the spring to keep it away from the bottom of the container and pour enough solvent in, that it just covers the bristles - don't use that much that it reaches the ferrule as it may warp the glue holding the bristles in and will damage the brush. Naturally, you will need some form of ventilation, or you may cover the container if you are using a solvent other than water such as turpentine, and always keep pets and children away from open, dangerous solvents.</ul>
<p><a id="Sizes_and_materials" name="Sizes_and_materials"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Sizes and materials</span></h3>
<p><a id="Decorators.27_brushes" name="Decorators.27_brushes"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Decorators' brushes</span></h4>
<p>The sizes of brushes used for <!--del_lnk--> painting and decorating, usually given in mm or inches, refer to the width of the head.<p>Common sizes are:<ul>
<li>⅛ in, ¼ in, ⅜ in, ½ in, ⅝ in, ¾ in, ⅞ in, 1 in, 1¼ in, 1½ in, 2 in, 2½ in, 3 in, 3½ in, 4 in.</ul>
<ul>
<li>10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, 70 mm, 80 mm, 90 mm, 100 mm.</ul>
<p>Bristles may be natural or synthetic. Natural bristles are preferred for oil-based paints and varnishes, while synthetic brushes are better for water-based paints as the bristles do not expand when wetted.<p>Handles may be wood or plastic; ferrules are metal (usually <a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-plated <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>).<p><a id="Artists.27_brushes" name="Artists.27_brushes"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Artists' brushes</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Artists' brushes are usually given numbered sizes, although there is no exact standard for their physical dimensions.<p>From smallest to largest, the sizes are:<ul>
<li>10/0, 7/0 <i>(also written</i> 0000000<i>)</i>, 6/0, 5/0, 4/0, 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30. Brushes as fine as 30/0 are manufactured by major companies, but are not a common size.</ul>
<p>Sizes <i>000</i> to <i>20</i> are most common.<p>Artists' brushes are most commonly categorized by type and by shape.<p>Types include: <!--del_lnk--> watercolor brushes which are usually made of <!--del_lnk--> sable, synthetic sable or <!--del_lnk--> nylon; <!--del_lnk--> oil painting brushes which are usually made of sable or bristle; and <!--del_lnk--> acrylic brushes which are almost entirely nylon or <!--del_lnk--> synthetic. <!--del_lnk--> Turpentine or <!--del_lnk--> thinners used in oil painting can destroy synthetic brushes, so synthetics are avoided by oil painters. Natural hair, squirrel, badger or sable are used by watercolorists due to their superior ability to absorb and hold water.<p>Shapes are quite varied and often watercolor brushes come in the most variety of shapes. Rounds (pointed), flats, brights (shorter than flats) and <!--del_lnk--> filbert are the most common. Other shapes include stipplers (short, stubby rounds), deer-foot stipplers, liners (elongated rounds), daggers, scripts (highly elonged rounds), eggberts, fans, among others.<p>Bristles may be natural -- either soft hair or <a href="../../wp/p/Pig.htm" title="Hog (swine)">hog</a> bristle -- or synthetic.<ul>
<li>Soft hair brushes are made from <!--del_lnk--> Kolinsky sable or <!--del_lnk--> ox hair (sabeline); or more rarely, <!--del_lnk--> squirrel, <a href="../../wp/p/Pony.htm" title="Pony">pony</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goat</a>, or <a href="../../wp/b/Badger.htm" title="Badger">badger</a>. Cheaper hair is sometimes called <b>camel hair</b>... but doesn't come from <a href="../../wp/c/Camel.htm" title="Camel">camels</a>.<li>Hog bristle (often called china bristle or Chunking bristle) is stiffer and stronger than soft hair. It may be bleached or unbleached.<li>Synthetic bristles are made of special multi-diameter extruded <!--del_lnk--> nylon filament.</ul>
<p>Artists' brush handles are commonly <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wooden</a>, but the cheapest brushes may have moulded <!--del_lnk--> plastic handles. Many mass-produced handles are made of unfinished raw wood; better quality handles are of seasoned hardwood. The wood is sealed and <!--del_lnk--> lacquered to give the handle a high-gloss, waterproof finish that reduces soiling and swelling.<p>Metal ferrules may be of <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminum">aluminium</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, or nickel-plated <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Quill ferrules are also found: these give a different "feel" to the brush. The top of the range brushes, however, usually have ferrules made from transparent plastic tightened in place by thin wire.<!--
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brussels</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>City of Brussels</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2263.jpg.htm" title="Brussels skyline seen from the Kunstberg or Mont des Arts"><img alt="Brussels skyline seen from the Kunstberg or Mont des Arts" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brusselsskyline.jpg" src="../../images/22/2263.jpg" width="210" /></a></span></div><small>Brussels skyline seen from the <i>Kunstberg</i> or <i>Mont des Arts</i></small></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="width: 100%; background: none; text-align: center;">
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<td style="vertical-align: middle;">
<center><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2264.png.htm" title="Official flag of City of Brussels"><img alt="Official flag of City of Brussels" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BEL_Brussels_flag.svg" src="../../images/22/2264.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></center>
</td>
<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2265.png.htm" title="Official seal of City of Brussels"><img alt="Official seal of City of Brussels" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belgium_brussels_iris.png" src="../../images/22/2265.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<tr>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Flag</b></small></td>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
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</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nickname: "<i>The Capital Of Europe, Comic City</i><p>City of a 100 Museums<i>"</i></td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2266.png.htm" title="Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium"><img alt="Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BelgiumBrussels.png" src="../../images/22/2266.png" width="200" /></a></span></div><small>Map showing the location of Brussels in Belgium</small></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller; padding-bottom: 0.7em;">Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">50°50′37″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">4°21′27″E</span></span></th>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" title="List of countries">Country</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Region</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Capital Region</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th>Founded</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 797</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th>Founded (<!--del_lnk--> Region)</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Mayor (<!--del_lnk--> Municipality)</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Freddy Thielemans</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>162 (<!--del_lnk--> Region) <!--del_lnk--> km² (62.5 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>13 <!--del_lnk--> m (43 <!--del_lnk--> ft)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City (<!--del_lnk--> 2005)</th>
<td>140,000 (<!--del_lnk--> Municipality)</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>200/km² (656/sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Metro</th>
<td>1,975,000</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CET (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CEST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.bruxelles.irisnet.be</td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2267.jpg.htm" title="Brussels City Hall"><img alt="Brussels City Hall" height="376" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Luc_Viatour_Hotel_de_ville_Bruxelles_1.JPG" src="../../images/22/2267.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2267.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Brussels City Hall</div>
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<p><b>Brussels</b> (<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Bruxelles</i></span>, <!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[bʁysɛl]</span>, and sometimes <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[bʁyksɛl]</span> by non-Belgian speakers of French; <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl"><i>Brussel</i></span>, pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[brʏsəl]</span>; <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Brüssel</i></span>) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> French Community of Belgium, the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Community and the main seat of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s institutions (and thus often considered 'The Capital of Europe').<p>Brussels is, first of all, a city located in the centre of Belgium and is its capital, but it sometimes also refers to the largest municipality of the <!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Capital Region. This municipality inside Brussels is correctly named <!--del_lnk--> The City of Brussels (French: <i>Bruxelles-Ville</i> or <i>Ville de Bruxelles</i>, Dutch: <i>Stad Brussel</i>), which is one of 19 <!--del_lnk--> municipalities that make up the Brussels-Capital Region (<i>see also</i>: <!--del_lnk--> Municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region). The municipality has a population of about 140,000 while the Brussels-Capital Region has 1,018,804 inhabitants (<!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006). The Metropolitan area has about 2,090,000 inhabitants. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside <!--del_lnk--> Wallonia and the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a (bilingual) <!--del_lnk--> enclave in the (unilingual) Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's complex institutions, the three communities being the other component: the Brussels inhabitants must deal with either the <!--del_lnk--> French (speaking) community or the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education.<p>Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium (<i>Communauté française Wallonie-Bruxelles</i> in French) and of <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> (<i>Vlaanderen</i>); all Flemish capital institutions are established here: <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Parliament, <!--del_lnk--> Flemish government and its administration (though <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> is considered the cultural capital of <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>).<p>Two of the main institutions of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> - the <!--del_lnk--> European Commission and the <!--del_lnk--> Council of the European Union - have their headquarters in Brussels: the Commission in the <!--del_lnk--> Berlaymont building and the Council in the <!--del_lnk--> Justus Lipsius building facing it. The third institution, the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>, also has a parliamentary chamber in Brussels in which its committee meet and some of its plenary sessions are held (the other plenary sessions are held in <!--del_lnk--> Strasbourg, and its administrative headquarters are in <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>).<p>Brussels is also the political seat of <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a>, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the <!--del_lnk--> Western European Union (WEU) and <!--del_lnk--> EUROCONTROL, the European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation<p>Due to this, some countries have three ambassadors present in Brussels: the normal bi-lateral ambassador, the EU-ambassador, and finally the NATO-ambassador.<p>The "language border" divides Belgium into a northern, Dutch-speaking region, and a southern, French-speaking region. Although the real language border and the official one are largely identical, there are bilingual pockets on both sides with, in certain cases, no specific linguistic rights for the population speaking the other language. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially <!--del_lnk--> bilingual, while the majority of its residents speak French (see the linguistic history of Brussels in this article: <!--del_lnk--> linguistic situation section).<p>The highest building in Brussels is the <!--del_lnk--> South Tower (150 m); the most famous probably the <!--del_lnk--> Atomium, which is a remnant from the <!--del_lnk--> 1958 World Exposition.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The name Brussels comes from the old Dutch <i>Bruocsella</i>, <i>Brucsella</i> or <i>Broekzele</i>, which means "marsh (<i>bruoc</i>, <i>bruc</i> or <i>broek</i>) home (<i>sella</i> or <i>zele</i>)" or "home consisting of one room, in the marsh". "Broekzele" was spelt "Bruxelles" in French. In <!--del_lnk--> Belgian French <!--del_lnk--> pronunciation as well as in Dutch, the "k" eventually disappeared and "z" became "s", as reflected in the current Dutch spelling (<span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">(French)</span> /bʀy.ˌsel/ ; Dutch /ˈbry.s(ɘ)l/ or /ˈbrɘ.s(ɘ)l/). The names of all other municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except for <!--del_lnk--> Evere, which is of <!--del_lnk--> Celtic origin.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2268.jpg.htm" title="Saint Michael and Gudula's Cathedral"><img alt="Saint Michael and Gudula's Cathedral" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Luc_Viatour_Bruxelles_Catedrale_ST-Michel.JPG" src="../../images/22/2268.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2268.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Saint Michael and Gudula's Cathedral</div>
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<p>In 977 AD, the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> emperor <!--del_lnk--> Otto II gave the duchy of <!--del_lnk--> Lower Lotharingia on the empire's western frontier to <!--del_lnk--> Charles, the banished son of King <!--del_lnk--> Louis IV of France. Mention was already made of Brussels at the time: Bishop Saint-Gery of Cambrai-Arras settled a chapel on a small island (695). A century later <!--del_lnk--> Saint Vindicianus, also a monk of Cambrai-Arras, lived on that island. However, the founding of Brussels is usually said to be when a small castle was built by Charles around 979 on Saint-Géry island in the <!--del_lnk--> Zenne or <!--del_lnk--> Senne river. The donation by Emperor Otto II the Great is recorded. Duke Charles had a shrine built for the relics of Saint Gudula in the Saint Gery chapel.<p>In 1041 the county of Brussels was taken over by <!--del_lnk--> Lambert I of <!--del_lnk--> Leuven, one of the <!--del_lnk--> Counts of Leuven who ruled the surrounding county, later the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Brabant. Under <!--del_lnk--> Lambert II of Leuven, a new <!--del_lnk--> castrum and the first city walls were built. In the <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> the small town became an important stop on the trade route from <!--del_lnk--> Brugge and <!--del_lnk--> Ghent to <a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>. The village benefited from this favourable position and, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became <!--del_lnk--> Dukes of Brabant at about this time (1183/1184).<p>From 1357 to 1379, a new city wall was constructed as the former one was already proving to be too small: the inner ring or 'pentagon' now follows its course.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>, by means of the wedding of heiress <!--del_lnk--> Margaret III of Flanders with <!--del_lnk--> Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, a new Duke of Brabant emerged from the House of <!--del_lnk--> Valois (namely <!--del_lnk--> Antoine, their son), with another line of descent from the Habsburgs (Maximilian of Austria, later <!--del_lnk--> Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, married <!--del_lnk--> Mary of Burgundy, who was born in Brussels).<p>Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries, and flourished.<p><!--del_lnk--> Charles V, heir of the Low Countries since 1506, though (as he was only 6 years old) governed by his aunt <!--del_lnk--> Margaret of Austria until <!--del_lnk--> 1515, was declared King of the unified <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, in 1516, in the Cathedral of Saint Gudule in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, <!--del_lnk--> Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1519, Charles became also the new archduke of the Austrian Empire and thus the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor of the Empire "<!--del_lnk--> in which the sun does not set". It was in the <!--del_lnk--> Palace complex at the Brussels' Coudenberg, that <!--del_lnk--> Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded a lot since it was first the seat of the dukes of Brabant, but was sadly destroyed in 1731 in a huge fire (all that now remains is an archaeological site).<p>In 1695 Brussels was attacked by general Villeroy of King <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a>. A bombardment destroyed the city's heart: more than 4,000 houses were set on fire, including the medieval buildings on the Grote Markt or <!--del_lnk--> Grand Place.<p>In 1830, the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian revolution took place in Brussels after a performance of <!--del_lnk--> Auber's opera <i><!--del_lnk--> La Muette de Portici</i> at <!--del_lnk--> De Munt or <!--del_lnk--> La Monnaie theatre. On <!--del_lnk--> July 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1831, <!--del_lnk--> Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Under <!--del_lnk--> Léopold II, the city underwent many more changes: the Zenne was culverted (as it brought diseases), the <!--del_lnk--> North-South Junction was built, and the <!--del_lnk--> Tervuren Avenue was laid out.<p>From <!--del_lnk--> May 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1940, Brussels was bombed by the German army however most of the damage was done in 1944-1945. The <!--del_lnk--> Heysel Stadium disaster took place in Brussels on <!--del_lnk--> May 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1985. The Brussels Capital Region was founded on June 18, 1989.<p>Brussels is famous for celebrating its history, as well as history in general. This is most evident in the fact that Brussels has well over 100 museums.<p><a id="Brussels_as_capital_of_Belgium" name="Brussels_as_capital_of_Belgium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Brussels as capital of Belgium</span></h2>
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<p>Although some misbelieve that the capital of Belgium is Brussels at large, according to the Belgian Constitution (Art. 194) the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels municipality. Arguments that the use of lower case in "<i>ville</i>" and "<i>stad</i>" in Article 194 for "<i>ville de Bruxelles</i>" (French), "<i>stad Brussel</i>" (Dutch) makes a subtle difference and means that Brussels at large is the capital cannot be defended on a legal basis. However, although the City of Brussels is the official capital, the by the federation and region delegated funds for the representative role of the capital are divided among the 19 municipalities and in practice, national Belgian institutions are indeed not only located in the City of Brussels, although many are, but also in most of the other 18 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital region. Meaning that <i>de facto</i> the entire Region serves as capital, but <i>de jure</i> only the City of Brussels is entitled to the title of capital city of Belgium.<p><a id="Places_of_interest" name="Places_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Places of interest</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2270.jpg.htm" title="Old houses on Brussels' Grand' Place or Grote Markt"><img alt="Old houses on Brussels' Grand' Place or Grote Markt" height="277" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bruxelles_Grande-Place.jpg" src="../../images/22/2270.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2270.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Old houses on Brussels' Grand' Place or Grote Markt</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2271.jpg.htm" title="The royal palace in Brussels"><img alt="The royal palace in Brussels" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RoyalPalaceBrussel_Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg" src="../../images/22/2271.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2271.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The royal palace in Brussels</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2272.jpg.htm" title="The most famous statue: Manneken Pis"><img alt="The most famous statue: Manneken Pis" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Manneke_pis_2_Sept2005.jpg" src="../../images/22/2272.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2272.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The most famous statue: <!--del_lnk--> Manneken Pis</div>
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<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Grand-Place</i> (Dutch: <i>Grote Markt</i>), the central market square and the jewel in Brussels' crown. The Grand-Place is Brussels' top tourist attraction justified by the <!--del_lnk--> Gothic magnificence of the <!--del_lnk--> Hôtel de Ville (Town Hall) and the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> exuberance of the late seventeenth-century <a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" title="Guild">guildhouses</a> surrounding the square.</ul>
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<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Palace of Laeken and the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Palace of Brussels.</ul>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium <!--del_lnk--> (French: <i>Musées Royaux des Beaux Arts</i>, Dutch: <i>Koninklijke Musea voor Schone Kunsten</i>) combining four interconnected sections of old masters and modern art collections. Together they make up Belgium's most complete collection of fine art with works by, amongst many, <!--del_lnk--> Pieter Bruegel, <!--del_lnk--> Rubens, <!--del_lnk--> Delvaux and <!--del_lnk--> Magritte.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Brussels is famous for being home to many <!--del_lnk--> Belgian comics characters, including <!--del_lnk--> The Smurfs, <!--del_lnk--> Largo Winch, <!--del_lnk--> Tintin and <!--del_lnk--> Lucky Luke to name but a few. Throughout Brussels, (also nicknamed Comic City) there are many murals and frescos celebrating the city's many cartoon heroes.</ul>
<ul>
<li>On the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Heysel/Heizel are the atomium, one of the symbols of Belgium, a remnant of the 1958 World exposition in Brussels, and <!--del_lnk--> Mini-Europe, a park which hosts miniature models of famous European buildings.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Manneken Pis (and <!--del_lnk--> Jeanneke Pis): a small bronze fountain sculpture depicting a little boy urinating into the fountain's basin.</ul>
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<li>Several churches, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg, and the <!--del_lnk--> Saint Michael and Saint Gudula Cathedral.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The Jubilee Arch (French: <i>Les Arcades du Cinquantenaire</i>, Dutch: <i>Triomfboog van het Jubelpark</i>)</ul>
<ul>
<li>La Bourse/De Beurs, the location of the stock market <!--del_lnk--> Euronext in Belgium.<li><!--del_lnk--> De Munt/La Monnaie, an <!--del_lnk--> opera house.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The Floral Carpet (not permanent)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tour and Taxis: a former stockhouse of the <!--del_lnk--> Thurn and Taxis family.<li><!--del_lnk--> Palais Stoclet/Stoclethuis<li><!--del_lnk--> Maison Horta/Hortahuis<li><!--del_lnk--> Avenue Louise/Louisalaan, an avenue in the fashionable part of Brussels.</ul>
<p><a id="Folklore" name="Folklore"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Folklore</span></h2>
<p>Brussels’ identity owes much to its rich folklore and traditions, among the liveliest in the country:<ul>
<li>A good introduction to the <i>brusseleir</i> local dialect and way of life can be obtained at the <i>House of Toone</i>. This theatre of <!--del_lnk--> marionettes, originally located in the Marolles area, is now delivering its slapstick comedy in a <!--del_lnk--> 1696 estaminet a stone throw away from the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Place.<li>The <i>Ommegang</i> (from old Dutch: <i>walking around</i>) started in the <!--del_lnk--> 14th-century as a religious <!--del_lnk--> procession. Taking place every year in July, it now commemorates Charles V’s <!--del_lnk--> Joyous Entry in the city in <!--del_lnk--> 1549. The colourful parade includes floats, traditional giant puppets, such as <!--del_lnk--> Saint Michael and <!--del_lnk--> Saint Gudula, and scores of folkloric groups, either on foot or on horseback, dressed in medieval garb. The parade ends in a <!--del_lnk--> pageant on the Grand Place.<li>The <i>Meyboom</i> (<i>tree of May</i>) is an even older Brussels tradition (<!--del_lnk--> 1308), which takes place paradoxically on <!--del_lnk--> August 9. After parading a young <!--del_lnk--> beech in the city, it is planted in a joyful spirit involving lots of music, <i>brusseleir</i> songs, and giant puppets.</ul>
<p><a id="Linguistic_situation" name="Linguistic_situation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Linguistic situation</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2273.jpg.htm" title="Bilingual signs in Brussels."><img alt="Bilingual signs in Brussels." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brussels_signs.jpg" src="../../images/22/2273.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2273.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bilingual signs in Brussels.</div>
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<p>Brussels Capital Region is officially bilingual French-Dutch, although French, mother tongue of the majority of the population, is the <!--del_lnk--> lingua franca and is most widely used. Every public institution in Brussels, however, has to be bilingual.<p>For most centuries of its history, Dutch, (Brabantian variant), or more precisely the linguistic predecessor of it, was the common vernacular. French was only used by upper classes (less than 5% of the population). Research in the city's archives indicates that Dutch was by far the most widely used of the two as a vernacular and in its local administration, until the French occupation in <!--del_lnk--> 1793, even though French had been the language of the governors since the Burgundian era (probably some governors also spoke Dutch). <!--del_lnk--> <p>During the 19th and the 20th century, Belgium was completely dominated by the French-speaking bourgeoisie. Although the majority (about 60%) of the Belgian population spoke Dutch, it was French that became the official language. Civil administration, justice, education and even socio-economic business were for a long time conducted in French, even in the Dutch-speaking areas of the country. Brussels, naturally, attracted far more French-speaking immigrants than any other part of the country since it was there that the apparatus of the central government of the French-only speaking state was installed. In the capital Brussels, it was even more obvious that French rather than Dutch was the language of chances and prestige and more useful, as higher education and the better jobs all required French. Moreover, the Belgian state (founded in 1830) recognised Dutch, the language of the majority of its population, as an official language only in 1878.<p>According to a 2001 study by Rudi Janssens, a sociolinguist at the <!--del_lnk--> VUB, 80% of the population are more or less native French-speakers, 8.5% are native Dutch-speakers and 10.2% have both Dutch and French as a mother tongue (often mixed-language parents). Allophones, who speak neither Dutch nor French at home, are a small but growing segment of the population. One third of Brussels' inhabitants has a foreign origin and does not have Belgian nationality. Since Brussels is completely surrounded by Flemish territory, the number of Dutch speakers is quite large during working hours and in cultural consumption time. In a survey conducted by the <!--del_lnk--> Universite Catholique de Louvain in <!--del_lnk--> Louvain-La-Neuve and published in June 2006, 51% of respondents from Brussels claimed to be bilingual. <p>It should be noted that due to the growth of the city of Brussels, the periphery, which is institutionally part of Dutch-speaking Flanders, attracts an important French-speaking population. In some of the municipalities immediately bordering the Brussels Capital Region, the majority of the population has become French-speaking, in a few cases numbering over 70%. The often minimal knowledge of Dutch of some French speakers and the perceived unwillingness of some to learn Dutch, although they live in Flanders, along with the increasingly nationalistic agenda of most flemish politicians, have led to friction between the two communities. One way of quickly identifying whether you are in Brussels or in Flanders is by looking at the colors on the pilars of the traffic lights: they are red and white in Brussels, and yellow and black in Flanders.<p>A curiosity is the "Marollien" dialect, heavily influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Walloon which used to be spoken mostly in a central section of the city. Today, the Brussels dialects are on the verge of extinction, although some try to revive them (see links).<p><a id="Universities_and_colleges" name="Universities_and_colleges"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Universities and colleges</span></h2>
<p>Brussels has several <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">universities</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), the <!--del_lnk--> Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), the <!--del_lnk--> Facultés Universitaires Saint Louis (FUSL), the <!--del_lnk--> Katholieke Universiteit Brussel (KUB) and the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Military Academy (RMA). A satellite campus of the <!--del_lnk--> Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL) is also located in Brussels: it is called "Louvain-en-Woluwe" or "UCL-Brussels", and hosts the faculty of Medicine of the university.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Koninklijk Conservatorium is a <a href="../../wp/d/Drama.htm" title="Drama">drama</a> school in the city attended by many of the top actors and actresses to come out of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2274.jpg.htm" title="Brussels metro (actually here premetro), de Brouckère station"><img alt="Brussels metro (actually here premetro), de Brouckère station" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Metro_bruxelles_station_debrouckere.jpg" src="../../images/22/2274.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2274.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brussels metro (actually here <i>premetro</i>), <i>de Brouckère</i> station</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2275.jpg.htm" title="Platforms at Brussels North station"><img alt="Platforms at Brussels North station" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gare_du_Nord_Nr_2.jpg" src="../../images/22/2275.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2275.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Platforms at Brussels North station</div>
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<p><a id="Connections" name="Connections"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Connections</span></h3>
<p><b>Brussels</b> is served by <!--del_lnk--> Brussels National Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of <!--del_lnk--> Zaventem, and by <!--del_lnk--> Brussels South Airport, located near <!--del_lnk--> Charleroi (Wallonia), some 80km from Brussels. Brussels' major train stations link the city to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Eurostar, and to other major European cities by high speed rail links (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Thalys).<p><a id="Public_transport" name="Public_transport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Public transport</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Brussels metro dates back to <!--del_lnk--> 1976 (but underground lines known as <i>premetro</i> have been serviced by tramways since <!--del_lnk--> 1968). A comprehensive bus and <!--del_lnk--> tram network also covers the city. Brussels also has its own port on the <!--del_lnk--> Willebroek canal located in the northwest of the city.<p>There are four companies managing public transport inside Brussels:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> STIB/MIVB (metro, bus, tram; Brussels' Regional services)<li><!--del_lnk--> NMBS/SNCB (train, organised on a Belgian scale)<li><!--del_lnk--> De Lijn (buses based in Flanders)<li><!--del_lnk--> TEC (buses based in Wallonia)</ul>
<p>An interticketing system means that a STIB/MIVB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the city. The commuter services operated by De Lijn, TEC and SNCB/NMBS will in the next few years be augmented by an <a href="../../wp/r/RER.htm" title="RER">RER</a> rail network around Brussels.<p><a id="Railway_stations" name="Railway_stations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Railway stations</span></h3>
<p>The major stations in Brussels are on the <!--del_lnk--> North-South Junction:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Brussels North (Dutch: <i>Brussel-Noord</i>, French: <i>Gare du Nord</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Brussels Central (Dutch: <i>Brussel-Centraal</i>, French: <i>Gare Centrale</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Brussels Midi (Dutch: <i>Brussel-Zuid</i>, French: <i>Gare du Midi</i> or <i>Bruxelles-Midi</i>) (the <!--del_lnk--> Eurostar, <!--del_lnk--> Thalys, HST or <a href="../../wp/t/TGV.htm" title="TGV">TGV</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ICE international terminal)</ul>
<p>Two more stations serve the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">EU</a> district in Brussels. Trains towards <!--del_lnk--> Namur and <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> call at:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Brussels Luxembourg/Luxemburg<li><!--del_lnk--> Brussels Schuman</ul>
<p>The last two stations located in the centre of Brussels (they also are on the North-South Junction and operate only in rush hours) are:<ul>
<li>Brussels Congress (French: <i>Bruxelles-Congrès</i>, Dutch:<i>Brussel-Congres</i>)<li>Brussels Chapel (French: <i>Bruxelles-Chapelle</i>, Dutch: <i>Brussel-Kapellekerk</i>)</ul>
<p>Other railway stations in other Brussels municipalities include:<ul>
<li><i>Schaerbeek</i> (Dutch: Schaarbeek)<li>Etterbeek<li><i>Uccle Stalle</i> (Dutch: Ukkel Stalle)<li><i>Uccle Calevoet</i>(Dutch: Ukkel Kalevoet)<li>Jette<li><!--del_lnk--> Merode<li><!--del_lnk--> Delta<li><i>Saint-Job</i> (Dutch: Sint-Job)<li><i>Forest Est</i> (Dutch: Vorst Oost)<li><i>Forest Midi</i> (Dutch: Vorst Zuid)<li><i>Berchem Sainte-Agathe</i> (Dutch: Sint-Agatha-Berchem)<li><i>Watermael</i> (Dutch: Watermaal)<li><i>Boitsfort</i> (Dutch: Bosvoorde)<li><i>Boondael</i> (Dutch: Boondaal)<li>Meiser</ul>
<p><a id="Road_network" name="Road_network"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Road network</span></h3>
<p>In mediaeval times Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north-south (the modern Hoogstraat/Rue Haute) and east-west (Gentsesteenweg/Chaussée de Gand-Grasmarkt/Rue du Marché aux Herbes-Naamsestraat/Rue de Namur). The ancient pattern of streets radiating from the <i>Grote Markt/Grand'Place</i> in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the River <!--del_lnk--> Zenne/Senne, the city walls and the railway junction between the North and South Stations.<p>As one expects of a capital city, Brussels is the hub of the fan of old national roads, the principal ones being clockwise the N1 (N to <!--del_lnk--> Breda), N2 (E to <!--del_lnk--> Maastricht), N3 (E to <a href="../../wp/a/Aachen.htm" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>), N4 (SE to <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>) N5 (S to <!--del_lnk--> Rheims), N6 (SW to <!--del_lnk--> Maubeuge), N8 (W to <!--del_lnk--> Koksijde) and N9 (NW to <!--del_lnk--> Ostend) . Usually named <i>steenwegen/chaussées</i>, these highways normally run straight as a die, but on occasion lose themselves in a <!--del_lnk--> labyrinth of narrow shopping streets.<p>As for motorways, the town is skirted by the <!--del_lnk--> European route E19 (N-S) and the <!--del_lnk--> E40 (E-W), while the <!--del_lnk--> E411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has an <!--del_lnk--> orbital <!--del_lnk--> motorway, numbered <i>R0</i> (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the "ring" (French: <i>ring</i> Dutch: <i>grote ring</i>). It is pear-shaped as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.<p>The city centre, sometimes known as "the pentagon", is surrounded by the "small ring" (Dutch: <i>kleine ring</i>, French: <i>petite ceinture</i>), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered <i>R20</i>. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. Metro line 2 runs under much of these.<p>On the eastern side of the city, the <i>R21</i> (French: <i>grande ceinture</i>, no particular name in Dutch) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laken (<!--del_lnk--> Laeken) to Ukkel (<!--del_lnk--> Uccle). Some <i>premetro</i> stations (see <!--del_lnk--> Brussels metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to <!--del_lnk--> Sint-Job.<p><a id="Conferences_and_world_fairs" name="Conferences_and_world_fairs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conferences and world fairs</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2276.jpg.htm" title="Photograph of the fifth conference in 1927."><img alt="Photograph of the fifth conference in 1927." height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" src="../../images/22/2276.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2276.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photograph of the fifth conference in 1927.</div>
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<p>Brussels hosted the famous fifth <!--del_lnk--> Solvay Conference in <!--del_lnk--> 1927, where physicists like <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Max_Planck.htm" title="Max Planck">Planck</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Marie_Curie.htm" title="Marie Curie">Curie</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lorentz, <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_Dirac.htm" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a>, <!--del_lnk--> De Broglie, <a href="../../wp/n/Niels_Bohr.htm" title="Niels Bohr">Borh</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Schrödinger, <!--del_lnk--> Pauli and <!--del_lnk--> Heisenberg discussed about the path of the <!--del_lnk--> modern physics, specifically the new <!--del_lnk--> Quantum Theory. Einstein, disenchanted with Heisenberg's "<!--del_lnk--> Uncertainty Principle", remarked "God does not play dice". Bohr replied, "Einstein, stop telling God what to do." (See <!--del_lnk--> Bohr-Einstein debates). Seventeen of the twenty-nine attendees were or became <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize laureates.<p>Brussels hosted the third <i><!--del_lnk--> Congrès international d'architecture moderne</i>(Dutch:Internationaal Congres voor Moderne Architectuur) in <!--del_lnk--> 1930.<p>Two world fairs took place in Brussels, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Exposition universelle et internationale</i> (1935) and the World <!--del_lnk--> Expo '58 in <!--del_lnk--> 1958. The <!--del_lnk--> Atomium, a 103 metre representation of an <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> crystal was built for the Expo '58, and is still there, now renovated.<p>Throughout <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Brussels celebrated native son <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Brel on the 25th anniversary of his death.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Twin cities</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>: <a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta, Georgia</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>: <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="Flag of People's Republic of China"><img alt="Flag of People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a>: <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/587.png.htm" title="Macau"><img alt="Macau" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Macau.svg" src="../../images/22/2279.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Macau.htm" title="Macau">Macau</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>: <a href="../../wp/m/Macau.htm" title="Macau">Macau</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Flag of Spain"><img alt="Flag of Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>: <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>: <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/745.png.htm" title="Flag of Ukraine"><img alt="Flag of Ukraine" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg" src="../../images/7/745.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>: <a href="../../wp/k/Kiev.htm" title="Kiev">Kiev</a></ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"</div>
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Brute_force_attack
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Brute force attack</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Cryptography.htm">Cryptography</a></h3>
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<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17159.jpg.htm" title="The EFF's US$250,000 DES cracking machine contained over 1,800 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photograph shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips"><img alt="The EFF's US$250,000 DES cracking machine contained over 1,800 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photograph shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips" height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Board300.jpg" src="../../images/171/17159.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17159.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> EFF's US$250,000 DES <!--del_lnk--> cracking machine contained over 1,800 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photograph shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> cryptanalysis, a <b>brute force attack</b> is a method of defeating a <!--del_lnk--> cryptographic scheme by trying a large number of possibilities; for example, exhaustively working through all possible <!--del_lnk--> keys in order to decrypt a message. In most schemes, the theoretical possibility of a brute force attack is recognized, but it is set up in such a way that it would be computationally infeasible to carry out. Accordingly, one definition of "breaking" a cryptographic scheme is to find a method faster than a brute force attack.<p>The selection of an appropriate <!--del_lnk--> key length depends on the practical feasibility of performing a brute force attack. By <!--del_lnk--> obfuscating the data to be encoded, brute force attacks are made less effective as it is more difficult to determine when one has succeeded in breaking the code.<p>
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</script><a id="Symmetric_ciphers" name="Symmetric_ciphers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symmetric ciphers</span></h2>
<p>For symmetric-key ciphers, a brute force attack typically means a <!--del_lnk--> brute-force search of the <!--del_lnk--> key space; that is, testing all possible <!--del_lnk--> keys in order to recover the <!--del_lnk--> plaintext used to produce a particular <!--del_lnk--> ciphertext.<p>In a brute force attack, the expected number of trials before the correct key is found is equal to half the size of the key space. For example, if there are 2<sup>64</sup> possible keys, a brute force attack would, on average, be expected to find a key after 2<sup>63</sup> trials.<p>For each trial of a candidate key the attacker needs to be able to recognise when he has found the correct key. The most straightforward way is to obtain a few corresponding plaintext and ciphertext pairs, that is, a <!--del_lnk--> known-plaintext attack. Alternatively, a <!--del_lnk--> ciphertext-only attack is possible by decrypting ciphertext using each candidate key, and testing the result for similarity to plaintext language — for example, <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> encoded in <a href="../../wp/a/ASCII.htm" title="ASCII">ASCII</a>.<p>In general, a <!--del_lnk--> symmetric key cipher is considered secure if there is no method less expensive (in time, memory requirements, etc) than brute force; <!--del_lnk--> Claude Shannon used the term "work factor" for this.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17160.jpg.htm" title="The COPACOBANA machine is a reprogrammable and cost-optimized hardware for cryptanalytical applications such as exhaustive key search. It was built for US$10,000 by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel and contains 120 low-cost FPGAs."><img alt="The COPACOBANA machine is a reprogrammable and cost-optimized hardware for cryptanalytical applications such as exhaustive key search. It was built for US$10,000 by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel and contains 120 low-cost FPGAs." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Copacobana.jpg" src="../../images/171/17160.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/171/17160.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The COPACOBANA machine is a reprogrammable and cost-optimized hardware for cryptanalytical applications such as exhaustive key search. It was built for US$10,000 by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel and contains 120 low-cost FPGAs.</div>
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<p>Symmetric ciphers with keys of length up to 64 bits have been broken by brute force attacks. <a href="../../wp/d/Data_Encryption_Standard.htm" title="Data Encryption Standard">DES</a>, a widely-used <!--del_lnk--> block cipher which uses 56-bit keys, was broken by custom hardware in <!--del_lnk--> 1998 (see <!--del_lnk--> EFF DES cracker), and a message encrypted with <!--del_lnk--> RC5 using a 64-bit key was broken more recently by <!--del_lnk--> Distributed.net. More recently, the <!--del_lnk--> COPACOBANA (Cost-Optimized Parallel COde Breaker) was built, which is a reconfigurable code breaker that is suited for key searching of many different algorithms, including DES. In addition, it is commonly speculated that government intelligence agencies (such as the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> <!--del_lnk--> NSA) can successfully attack a symmetric key cipher with long key lengths, such as a 64-bit key, using brute force. For applications requiring long term security, 128 bits is, <!--del_lnk--> as of 2004, currently thought a sufficient key length for new systems using symmetric key algorithms. <!--del_lnk--> NIST has recommended that 80-bit designs be phased out by <!--del_lnk--> 2015.<p>If keys are generated in a weak way, for example, derived from a guessable-<!--del_lnk--> password, it is possible to exhaustively <!--del_lnk--> search over a much smaller set, for example, keys generated from passwords in a dictionary. See <!--del_lnk--> password cracking and <!--del_lnk--> passphrase for more information.<p>Ciphers with proven perfect secrecy, such as the <!--del_lnk--> one-time pad, can not be broken using brute force.<p><a id="Theoretical_limits" name="Theoretical_limits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theoretical limits</span></h2>
<p>There is a physical argument that a 128 bit key is secure against brute force attack. It is argued that, by the laws of physics, in order to simply flip through the possible values for a 128-bit key (ignoring doing the actual computing to check it), one would need a device consuming at a minimum 10 <!--del_lnk--> gigawatts (about the equivalent of eight large, dedicated <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors) running continuously for 100 years. The full actual computation—checking each key to see if you have found a solution—would consume many times this amount.<p>However, this argument assumes that the register values are changed using conventional set and clear operations which inevitably generate entropy. It has been shown that computational hardware can be designed not to encounter this theoretical obstruction: see <!--del_lnk--> reversible computing.<p>A more pragmatic approach to increasing the computational efficiency per unit of power utilized involves the recent trends toward multi-core processor technologies. Multi-core processors are able to boost computational performance for many types of computations while minimizing power utilization. (which would include the kind of computations required for cryptanalysis using brute force techniques) Though the current state of this technology is far from providing the reversible computatitive capability that would be required to make a brute force attack of a 128 bit key feasible, future innovations may significantly improve the estimated crack time and power requirements. This becomes more likely as multi-core processors are combined into innovative SMP (symetrically multi processor) architectures that by using well designed algorithms, optimize utilization of each core per unit of power across a massive array of processors.<p><a id="Some_codes_are_provably_unbreakable_by_brute_force" name="Some_codes_are_provably_unbreakable_by_brute_force"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Some codes are provably unbreakable by brute force</span></h2>
<p>Certain types of encryption, by their mathematical properties, cannot be defeated by brute force. An example of this is <!--del_lnk--> one-time pad cryptography, where every bit has a corresponding key bit. A brute force attack would eventually reveal the correct decoding, but also every other possible combination of bits, and would have no way of distinguishing one from the other.<p>A small 100 byte one-time pad encoded string given to brute force would eventually reveal every 100 byte string possible, including famous quotes, peoples names, and undiscovered wisdom, but mostly nonsense.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute_force_attack"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bryce Canyon National Park</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;">Bryce Canyon National Park</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #CDE5B2; line-height: 1.2;"><!--del_lnk--> IUCN Category II (<!--del_lnk--> National Park)</td>
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<div style="position: absolute; left: 60px; top: 89px; padding: 0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17100.png.htm" title="Bryce Canyon National Park"><img alt="Bryce Canyon National Park" height="9" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locator_Dot.svg" src="../../images/171/17100.png" width="9" /></a></div><a class="image" href="../../images/199/19924.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_Locator_Blank.svg" src="../../images/171/17101.png" width="288" /></a></div>
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<td><b>Location:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Utah, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<td><b>Nearest city:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tropic, UT</td>
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<td><b>Coordinates:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">37°34′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">112°11′0″W</span></span></td>
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<td><b>Area:</b></td>
<td>35,835 acres (145 km²)</td>
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<td><b>Established:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1928</td>
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<td><b>Visitation:</b></td>
<td>1,017,681 (in 2005)</td>
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<td style="white-space:nowrap;"><b>Governing body:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Park Service</td>
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</table>
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<div style="width:294px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23929.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Canyon National Park"><img alt="Bryce Canyon National Park" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_1_md.jpg" src="../../images/239/23929.jpg" width="292" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23929.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bryce Canyon National Park</div>
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<div style="width:294px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23930.jpg.htm" title="Winter at Bryce"><img alt="Winter at Bryce" height="292" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BRYCEWINTER_UT9.jpg" src="../../images/239/23930.jpg" width="292" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23930.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Winter at Bryce</div>
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<p><b>Bryce Canyon National Park</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> national park located in southwestern <!--del_lnk--> Utah in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Contained within the park is <b>Bryce Canyon</b>. Despite its name, this is not actually a <!--del_lnk--> canyon, but rather a giant natural <!--del_lnk--> amphitheater created by <!--del_lnk--> erosion along the eastern side of the <!--del_lnk--> Paunsaugunt Plateau. Bryce is distinctive due to its unique <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geological</a> structures, called <i><!--del_lnk--> hoodoos</i>, formed from wind, water, and ice erosion of the river and lakebed <!--del_lnk--> sedimentary rocks. The red, orange and white colors of the <!--del_lnk--> rocks provide spectacular views.<p>Bryce is at a much higher elevation than nearby <a href="../../wp/z/Zion_National_Park.htm" title="Zion National Park">Zion National Park</a> and the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>. The rim at Bryce varies from 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2400 to 2700 m), whereas the south rim of the Grand Canyon sits at 7,000 feet (2100 m) above <!--del_lnk--> sea level. The area therefore has a very different <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a>, and thus offers a contrast for visitors to the region (who often visit all three parks in a single vacation).<p>The canyon area was settled by <a href="../../wp/m/Mormon.htm" title="Mormon">Mormon</a> pioneers in the 1850s and was named after <!--del_lnk--> Ebenezer Bryce, who homesteaded in the area in 1875. The area around Bryce Canyon became a United States national monument in 1924 and was designated as a national park in 1928. The park covers 56 mi² (145 km²). The park receives relatively few visitors compared to Zion Canyon and the Grand Canyon, largely due to its remote location. The town of <!--del_lnk--> Kanab, Utah is situated at a central point between these three parks.<p>The national park also lends its name to <!--del_lnk--> Bryce, the 3D modeling software which specialises in rendering this kind of rugged landscape.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23931.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Canyon, seen here from Bryce Point, is a giant natural amphitheater. Ebenezer Bryce, the "discoverer" of the canyon is said to have described it as "a helluva place to lose a cow."."><img alt="Bryce Canyon, seen here from Bryce Point, is a giant natural amphitheater. Ebenezer Bryce, the "discoverer" of the canyon is said to have described it as "a helluva place to lose a cow."." height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Amphitheater_from_Bryce_Point-2000px.jpeg" src="../../images/239/23931.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23931.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Bryce Canyon</b>, seen here from Bryce Point, is a giant natural <!--del_lnk--> amphitheater. Ebenezer Bryce, the "discoverer" of the canyon is said to have described it as "a helluva place to lose a cow.".</div>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23932.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Canyon follows a meandering course, oriented roughly north-south."><img alt="Bryce Canyon follows a meandering course, oriented roughly north-south." height="261" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_road_map.jpg" src="../../images/239/23932.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23932.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bryce Canyon follows a meandering course, oriented roughly north-south.</div>
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<p>Bryce Canyon National Park is located in southern <!--del_lnk--> Utah about 50 miles (80 km) northeast and 1000 feet (300 m) higher than <a href="../../wp/z/Zion_National_Park.htm" title="Zion National Park">Zion National Park</a>. The <a href="../../wp/w/Weather.htm" title="Weather">weather</a> in Bryce Canyon is therefore cooler and the park receives more <!--del_lnk--> precipitation. A nearby example very similar to Bryce Canyon but at a higher elevation is in <!--del_lnk--> Cedar Breaks National Monument.<p>The national park lies within the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateau geographic <!--del_lnk--> province of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> and straddles the southeastern edge of the Paunsagunt Plateau west of the Paunsagunt Fault (<i>Paunsagunt</i> is Paiute for "home of the <a href="../../wp/b/Beaver.htm" title="Beaver">beaver</a>"). Park visitors arrive from the plateau part of the park and look over the plateau's edge toward a valley containing the fault and the <!--del_lnk--> Paria River just beyond it (<i>Paria</i> is Paiute for "muddy or elk water"). The edge of the <!--del_lnk--> Kaiparowitz Plateau bounds the opposite side of the valley.<p>Bryce Canyon was not formed from <!--del_lnk--> erosion initiated from a central <!--del_lnk--> stream, meaning it technically is not a <!--del_lnk--> canyon. Instead <!--del_lnk--> headward erosion has excavated large <!--del_lnk--> amphitheater-shaped features in the <!--del_lnk--> Cenozoic-aged rocks of the Paunsagunt Plateau. This erosion exposed delicate and colorful pinnacles called <!--del_lnk--> hoodoos that are up to 200 feet (60 m) high. A series of amphitheaters extend more than 20 miles (30 km) within the park. The largest is <!--del_lnk--> Bryce Amphitheater, which is 12 miles long (19 km), 3 miles wide (5 km) and 800 feet deep (240 m).<p>The highest part of the park at 9,105 feet (2,775 m), <!--del_lnk--> Rainbow Point, is at the end of this scenic drive. From there <!--del_lnk--> Aquarius Plateau, Bryce Amphitheater, <!--del_lnk--> Henry Mountains, the <!--del_lnk--> Vermilion Cliffs, and the <!--del_lnk--> White Cliffs can be seen. Cope Canyon, where it exits the park in the north-east section is the lowest part of the park at 6,600 feet (2,011 m).<p><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h2>
<p><a id="Native_American_habitation" name="Native_American_habitation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Native American habitation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:149px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23933.jpg.htm" title="Petroglyphs in Bryce Canyon indicate the presence of people in the area several thousand years ago, but little is known about them."><img alt="Petroglyphs in Bryce Canyon indicate the presence of people in the area several thousand years ago, but little is known about them." height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Petroglyphs_in_Bryce_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/239/23933.jpg" width="147" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23933.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Petroglyphs in Bryce Canyon indicate the presence of people in the area several thousand years ago, but little is known about them.</div>
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<p>Little is known about early <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> habitation in the Bryce Canyon area. Archaeological surveys of Bryce Canyon National Park and the <!--del_lnk--> Paunsaugunt Plateau show that people have been in the area for at least 10,000 years. Several-thousand-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Basketmaker-period <!--del_lnk--> Anasazi artifacts have been found south of the park. Other artifacts from the <!--del_lnk--> Pueblo-period Anasazi and the <!--del_lnk--> Fremont culture (up to the mid-12th century) have also been found.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Paiute Indians moved into the surrounding valleys and plateaus in the area around the same time that the other cultures left. These <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans hunted and gathered for most of their food but also supplemented their diet with some cultivated products. The Paiute in the area developed a <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">mythology</a> surrounding the hoodoos (pinnacles) in Bryce Canyon. They believed that hoodoos were the Legend People whom the trickster <!--del_lnk--> Coyote turned to stone. At least one older Paiute said his culture called the hoodoos <i>Anka-ku-wass-a-wits</i>, which is <!--del_lnk--> Paiute for "red painted faces".<p><a id="White_exploration_and_settlement" name="White_exploration_and_settlement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">White exploration and settlement</span></h3>
<p>It was not until the late 18th and the early 19th century that the first <!--del_lnk--> Caucasians explored the remote and hard to reach area. <a href="../../wp/m/Mormon.htm" title="Mormon">Mormon</a> scouts visited the area in the 1850s to gauge its potential for <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> development, use for <!--del_lnk--> grazing, and settlement.<p>The first major scientific expedition to the area was led by U.S. Army Major <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley Powell in 1872. Powell, along with a team of mapmakers and geologists, surveyed the Sevier and Virgin River area as part of a larger survey of the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateaus. His mapmakers kept many of the Paiute place names.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23934.jpg.htm" title="Ebenezer Bryce and his family lived in Bryce Canyon, in this cabin, here photographed circa 1881."><img alt="Ebenezer Bryce and his family lived in Bryce Canyon, in this cabin, here photographed circa 1881." height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Cabin_circa_1881.jpg" src="../../images/239/23934.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23934.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ebenezer Bryce and his family lived in Bryce Canyon, in this cabin, here photographed circa 1881.</div>
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<p>Small groups of Mormon pioneers followed and attempted to settle east of Bryce Canyon along the <!--del_lnk--> Paria River. In 1873 the <!--del_lnk--> Kanarra Cattle Company started to use the area for <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> grazing.<p><!--del_lnk--> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints sent <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> immigrant Ebenezer Bryce and his wife Mary to settle land in the Paria Valley because they thought Ebenezer's carpentry skills would be useful in the area. The Bryce family chose to live right below Bryce Canyon Amphitheater. Bryce grazed his cattle inside what are now park borders and reputedly thought that the amphitheaters were a "helluva place to lose a cow." He also built a road to the plateau to retrieve firewood and timber and a <a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" title="Canal">canal</a> to irrigate his crops and water his <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>. Other settlers soon started to call the unusual place "Bryce's canyon", which was later formalized into Bryce Canyon.<p>A combination of <a href="../../wp/d/Drought.htm" title="Drought">drought</a>, <!--del_lnk--> overgrazing, and <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a> eventually drove the remaining Paiutes from the area and prompted the settlers to attempt construction of a water diversion channel from the <!--del_lnk--> Sevier River drainage. When that effort failed most of the settlers, including the Bryce family, left the area. Bryce moved his family to <!--del_lnk--> Arizona in 1880. The remaining settlers did manage to dig a 10 mile (16 km) long ditch from the Sevier's east fork into Tropic Valley.<p><a id="Creation_of_the_park" name="Creation_of_the_park"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Creation of the park</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23935.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Amphitheater and the nearby forest form a spectacular view."><img alt="Bryce Amphitheater and the nearby forest form a spectacular view." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_Hoodoos_Amphitheater.jpg" src="../../images/239/23935.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23935.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bryce Amphitheater and the nearby forest form a spectacular view.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>People like Forest Supervisor <!--del_lnk--> J.W. Humphrey promoted the scenic wonders of Bryce Canyon's amphitheaters, and by 1918 nationally distributed articles also helped to spark interest. However, poor access to the remote area and the lack of accommodations kept visitation to a bare minimum.<p><!--del_lnk--> Ruby Syrett, <!--del_lnk--> Harold Bowman, and the Perry brothers later built modest lodging and set up "touring services" in the area. Syrett later served as the first <!--del_lnk--> postmaster of Bryce Canyon. Visitation steadily increased, and by the early 1920s the <!--del_lnk--> Union Pacific Railroad became interested in expanding <a href="../../wp/r/Rail_transport.htm" title="Rail transport">rail</a> service into southwestern Utah to accommodate more tourists.<p>At the same time, <!--del_lnk--> conservationists became alarmed by the damage <!--del_lnk--> overgrazing and <!--del_lnk--> logging on the plateau along with unregulated visitation were having on the fragile features of Bryce Canyon. A movement to have the area protected was soon started, and <!--del_lnk--> National Park Service Director <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Mather responded by proposing that Bryce Canyon be made into a state park. The <!--del_lnk--> governor of Utah and the <!--del_lnk--> Utah Legislature, however, lobbied for national protection of the area. Mather relented and sent his recommendation to President <a href="../../wp/w/Warren_G._Harding.htm" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a>, who on <!--del_lnk--> June 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1923, declared Bryce Canyon National Monument into existence.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23936.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Canyon Lodge was built between 1924 and 1925 from local materials."><img alt="Bryce Canyon Lodge was built between 1924 and 1925 from local materials." height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_Lodge.jpg" src="../../images/239/23936.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23936.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bryce Canyon Lodge was built between 1924 and 1925 from local materials.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A road was built the same year on the plateau to provide easy access to outlooks over the amphitheaters. From 1924 to 1925, <!--del_lnk--> Bryce Canyon Lodge was built from local timber and stone.<p>In 1924, members of <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Congress decided to start work on upgrading Bryce Canyon's protection status from a <!--del_lnk--> U.S. National Monument to a <!--del_lnk--> National Park to establish Utah National Park. A process of transferring ownership of private and state-held land in the monument to the federal government started, the <!--del_lnk--> Utah Parks Company negotiating much of the transfer. The last of the land in the proposed park's borders was sold to the federal government four years later, and on <!--del_lnk--> February 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1928, the renamed Bryce Canyon National Park was established.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23937.jpg.htm" title="In 1928 the canyon became a National Park. It now has this visitors' center."><img alt="In 1928 the canyon became a National Park. It now has this visitors' center." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_visitors_center.jpg" src="../../images/239/23937.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23937.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In 1928 the canyon became a <!--del_lnk--> National Park. It now has this visitors' centre.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 1931, President <a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> annexed an adjoining area south of the park, and in 1942 an additional 635 acres (2.57 km²) was added. This brought the park's total area to the current figure of 35,835 acres (145.02 km²). Rim Road, the scenic drive that is still used today, was completed in 1934 by the <!--del_lnk--> Civilian Conservation Corps. Administration of the park was conducted from neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Zion Canyon National Park until 1956, when Bryce Canyon's first superintendent started work.<p><a id="More_recent_history" name="More_recent_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">More recent history</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> USS <i>Bryce Canyon</i> was named for the park and served as a supply and repair ship in the U.S. Pacific Fleet from <!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1947, to <!--del_lnk--> June 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1981. She was the only ship in the <!--del_lnk--> United States Navy to be decorated with the Gold E, having won five consecutive efficiency awards.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Bryce Canyon Natural History Association (BCNHA)</b> was established in 1961. It runs the bookstore inside the park visitor centre and is a non-profit organization created to aid the interpretive, educational and scientific activities of the National Park Service, at Bryce Canyon National Park. A portion of the profits from all bookstore sales are donated to public land units. Since BCNHA's inception in 1961, donations have exceeded $3.5 million.<p>Responding to increased visitation and <!--del_lnk--> traffic congestion, the <!--del_lnk--> National Park Service implemented a voluntary, <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summer</a>-only, in-park shuttle system in June 2000. In 2004, reconstruction began on the aging and inadequate road system in the park.<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23938.jpg.htm" title="Erosion of sedimentary rocks has created natural arches, as well as hoodoos and other features."><img alt="Erosion of sedimentary rocks has created natural arches, as well as hoodoos and other features." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Natural_bridge_in_Bryce_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/239/23938.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23938.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Erosion of <!--del_lnk--> sedimentary rocks has created natural arches, as well as <!--del_lnk--> hoodoos and other features.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Bryce Canyon area shows a record of deposition that spans from the last part of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period and the first half of the <!--del_lnk--> Cenozoic era. The ancient depositional environment of region around what is now the park varied:<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Dakota Sandstone and the <!--del_lnk--> Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm, shallow waters of the advancing and retreating <!--del_lnk--> Cretaceous Seaway (outcrops of these rocks are found just outside park borders).<li>The colorful <!--del_lnk--> Claron Formation that the park's delicate <!--del_lnk--> hoodoos are carved from was laid down as sediments in a system of cool <!--del_lnk--> streams and <!--del_lnk--> lakes that existed from 63 to about 40 million years ago (from the <a href="../../wp/p/Paleocene.htm" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a> to the <a href="../../wp/e/Eocene.htm" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> epochs). Different sediment types were laid down as the lakes deepened and became shallow and as the shoreline and <!--del_lnk--> river deltas migrated.</ul>
<p>Several other formations were also created but were mostly <!--del_lnk--> eroded away following two major periods of uplift:<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Laramide orogeny affected the entire western part of what would become <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> starting about 70 million years ago and lasting for many millions of years after. This event helped to build the ancestral <a href="../../wp/r/Rocky_Mountains.htm" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> and in the process closed the Cretaceous Seaway. The Straight Cliffs, Wahweap, and Kaiparowits formations were victims of this uplift.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateaus were uplifted 10 to 15 million years ago and were segmented into different <!--del_lnk--> plateaus — each separated from its neighbors by <!--del_lnk--> faults and each having its own uplift rate. The <!--del_lnk--> Boat Mesa Conglomerate and the <!--del_lnk--> Sevier River Formation were removed following this uplift.</ul>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23939.jpg.htm" title="Hoodoos can form strange shapes due to random fluctuations in erosion patterns and variations between the rock strata."><img alt="Hoodoos can form strange shapes due to random fluctuations in erosion patterns and variations between the rock strata." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bryce_Canyon_Hoodoos.jpg" src="../../images/239/23939.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23939.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hoodoos can form strange shapes due to random fluctuations in erosion patterns and variations between the rock <!--del_lnk--> strata.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Vertical joints were created by this uplift, which were eventually (and still are) preferentially eroded. The easily eroded Pink Cliffs of the Claron Formation respond by forming freestanding pinnacles in <!--del_lnk--> badlands called hoodoos, while the more resistant White Cliffs formed monoliths. The pink colour is from <!--del_lnk--> iron oxide and <a href="../../wp/m/Manganese.htm" title="Manganese">manganese</a>. Also created were arches, <!--del_lnk--> natural bridges, walls, and windows. Hoodoos are composed of soft sedimentary rock and are topped by a piece of harder, less easily eroded stone that protects the column from the elements. Bryce Canyon has one of the highest concentrations of hoodoos of any place on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<p>The formations exposed in the area of the park are part of the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Staircase. The oldest members of this supersequence of rock units are exposed in the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>, the intermediate ones in <a href="../../wp/z/Zion_National_Park.htm" title="Zion National Park">Zion National Park</a>, and its youngest parts are laid bare in Bryce Canyon area. A small amount of overlap occurs in and around each park.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Biology" name="Biology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23940.jpg.htm" title="Mule Deer are the most common large animals found in the park."><img alt="Mule Deer are the most common large animals found in the park." height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mule_Deer_in_Bryce_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/239/23940.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23940.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Mule Deer are the most common large animals found in the park.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forests</a> and <!--del_lnk--> meadows of Bryce Canyon provide the <!--del_lnk--> habitat to support diverse <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> life, from <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a> and small <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> to <a href="../../wp/f/Fox.htm" title="Fox">foxes</a> and occasional <a href="../../wp/b/Bobcat.htm" title="Bobcat">bobcats</a>, <!--del_lnk--> mountain lions, and <!--del_lnk--> black bears. <!--del_lnk--> Mule deer are the most common large mammals in the park. <!--del_lnk--> Elk and <!--del_lnk--> pronghorn antelope, which have been reintroduced nearby, sometimes venture into the park. More than 160 <!--del_lnk--> species of birds visit the park each year, including <a href="../../wp/s/Swift.htm" title="Swift">swifts</a> and <!--del_lnk--> swallows.<p>Most <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> species migrate to warmer regions in winter, but <!--del_lnk--> jays, <a href="../../wp/r/Raven.htm" title="Raven">ravens</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nuthatch.htm" title="Nuthatch">nuthatches</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, and <a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">owls</a> stay. In winter, the mule deer, mountain lion, and <!--del_lnk--> coyotes will migrate to lower elevations. <!--del_lnk--> Ground squirrels and <!--del_lnk--> marmots pass the winter in <!--del_lnk--> hibernation.<p>There are three life zones in the park based on elevation:<ul>
<li>The lowest areas of the park are dominated by dwarf forests of <!--del_lnk--> pinyon pine and <!--del_lnk--> juniper with <!--del_lnk--> manzanita, <!--del_lnk--> serviceberry, and <!--del_lnk--> antelope bitterbrush in between. <!--del_lnk--> Aspen <!--del_lnk--> cottonwoods, <!--del_lnk--> Water birch, and <!--del_lnk--> willow grow in along streams.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ponderosa Pine forests cover the mid-elevations with <!--del_lnk--> Blue Spruce and <!--del_lnk--> Douglas-fir in water-rich areas and manzanita and bitterbrush as underbrush.<li><!--del_lnk--> Douglas-fir and <!--del_lnk--> White Fir along with Aspen and <!--del_lnk--> Engelmann Spruce make up the forests on the Paunsaugunt Plateau. The harshest areas have <!--del_lnk--> Limber Pine and ancient <!--del_lnk--> Great Basin Bristlecone Pine holding on.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23941.jpg.htm" title="Bryce Canyon has extensive fir forests."><img alt="Bryce Canyon has extensive fir forests." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Winter_storm_at_Bryce_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/239/23941.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23941.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bryce Canyon has extensive <!--del_lnk--> fir <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forests</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Also in the park are the black, lumpy, very slow-growing colonies of <!--del_lnk--> cryptobiotic soil, which are a mix of <!--del_lnk--> lichens, <!--del_lnk--> algae, <!--del_lnk--> fungi, and <!--del_lnk--> cyanobacteria. Together these <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> slow erosion, add <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> to <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> and help it to retain moisture.<p>While <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a> have greatly reduced the amount of habitat that is available to wildlife in most parts of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the relative scarcity of water in southern Utah restricts human development and helps account for the region's greatly enhanced diversity of wildlife.<p><a id="Activities" name="Activities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Activities</span></h2>
<p>Most park visitors sightsee using the 18 mile (29 km) scenic drive, which provides access to 13 viewpoints over the amphitheaters.<p>Bryce Canyon has eight marked and maintained <!--del_lnk--> hiking trails that can be hiked in less than a day (round trip time, trailhead):<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23942.jpg.htm" title="There are marked trails for hiking, for which snowshoes are required in winter."><img alt="There are marked trails for hiking, for which snowshoes are required in winter." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Snowshoers_in_Bryce_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/239/23942.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23942.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> There are marked trails for <!--del_lnk--> hiking, for which <!--del_lnk--> snowshoes are required in winter.</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Mossy Cave (one hour, <!--del_lnk--> Utah State Route 12 northwest of Tropic), Rim Trail (5–6 hours, anywhere on rim), Bristlecone Loop (one hour, Rainbow Point), and Queens Garden (1–2 hours, Sunrise Point) are easy to moderate hikes.<li>Navajo Loop (1–2 hours, Sunset Point) and Tower Bridge (2–3 hours, north of Sunrise Point) are moderate hikes.<li>Fairyland Loop (4–5 hours, Fairyland Point) and Peekaboo Loop (3–4 hours, Bryce Point) are strenuous hikes.</ul>
<p>Several of these trails intersect, allowing hikers to combine routes for more challenging hikes.<p>The park also has two trails designated for overnight hiking; the 9 mile (14 km) long Riggs Loop Trail and the 23-mile-long (37 km) Under the Rim Trail. Both require a backcountry camping permit. In total there are 50 miles (80 km) of trails in the park.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23943.jpg.htm" title="Horse riding is available in the park from April through October."><img alt="Horse riding is available in the park from April through October." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Horseriders_in_Bryce_Canyon-NPS_photo.jpg" src="../../images/239/23943.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23943.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Horse riding is available in the park from April through October.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>More than 10 miles (16 km) of marked but ungroomed <a href="../../wp/s/Skiing.htm" title="Skiing">skiing</a> trails are available off of Fairyland, Paria, and Rim trails in the park. Twenty miles of connecting groomed ski trails are in nearby <!--del_lnk--> Dixie National Forest and <!--del_lnk--> Ruby's Inn.<p>The air in the area is so clear that on most days from Yovimpa and Rainbow points, <!--del_lnk--> Navajo Mountain and the Kaibab Plateau can be seen 90 miles (140 km) away in <!--del_lnk--> Arizona. On a really clear day the Black Mesas of eastern Arizona and western <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico can be seen some 200 miles (320 km) away. The park also has a 7.3 magnitude night sky, making it the one of the darkest in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>. Stargazers can therefore see 7500 <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a> with the naked <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eye</a>, while in most places fewer than 2000 can be seen due to <!--del_lnk--> light pollution (in many large cities only a few dozen can be seen). Park rangers host several public stargazing events and evening programs on astronomy, nocturnal animals, and night sky protection. The Bryce Canyon Astronomy Festival, typically held in June, attracts thousands of visitors.<p>There are two campgrounds in the park, North Campground and Sunset Campground. Loop A in North Campground is open year-round. Additional loops and Sunset Campground are open from late spring to early autumn. The 114 room <!--del_lnk--> Bryce Canyon Lodge is another way to overnight in the park.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryce_Canyon_National_Park"</div>
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<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="40" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pervasive_logo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" /></span></div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> computing, <b>Btrieve</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> transactional database based on <!--del_lnk--> Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM), which is a way of storing <!--del_lnk--> data for fast retrieval. Btrieve was modularised in version 6.15 and became one of two database <!--del_lnk--> backends that plugged into a standard <!--del_lnk--> software interface called the <!--del_lnk--> Micro-Kernel Database Engine (the other product is <!--del_lnk--> Scalable SQL, a <!--del_lnk--> relational database product that uses <!--del_lnk--> Structured Query Language, otherwise known as SQL). There have been several versions of the product for <!--del_lnk--> DOS, <a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" title="Linux">Linux</a>, older versions of <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Windows 98, <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT, <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_2000.htm" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Windows_XP.htm" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Windows Server 2003 and for <!--del_lnk--> Novell NetWare.<p>It was originally a record manager that was shipped by SoftCraft at around the same time as the release of the first <!--del_lnk--> IBM PCs. After gaining market share and popularity, it was purchased by Novell for integration into their Netware <!--del_lnk--> operating system. The product failed to gain significant market share and, after some reorganisation within Novell, the product was spun off to be developed by a new company known as Btrieve Technologies, Inc. (or BTI). After several new versions were released the company was renamed to <!--del_lnk--> Pervasive Software and they now sell a product called <!--del_lnk--> Pervasive PSQL that can use both Btrieve and SQL.<p>
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</script><a id="Architecture" name="Architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<div style="width:225px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23946.png.htm" title="The MKDE model allows for different database backends to be plugged in to Pervasive's software product."><img alt="The MKDE model allows for different database backends to be plugged in to Pervasive's software product." height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MKDE_model.png" src="../../images/239/23946.png" width="223" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23946.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The MKDE model allows for different database backends to be plugged in to Pervasive's software product.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Btrieve is not a <!--del_lnk--> relational database management system (RDBMS). Early descriptions of Btrieve referred to it as a <i>record manager</i> (though Pervasive initially used the term <!--del_lnk--> navigational database but later changed this to transactional database) because it only deals with the underlying record creation, data retrieval, record updating and data deletion primitives. It uses <!--del_lnk--> ISAM as its underlying <!--del_lnk--> indexing and storage mechanism. A key part of Pervasive's architecture is the use of a <!--del_lnk--> MicroKernel Database Engine, which allows different database <!--del_lnk--> backends to be modularised and integrated easily into their DBMS package, Pervasive.SQL. This has allowed them to support both their Btrieve navigational database engine and an SQL-based engine, Scalable SQL.<p>Current versions of Btrieve support <!--del_lnk--> system transactions and user transactions, where system transactions are a bundle of non-transactional operations and/or user transactions, while user transactions are transactions that work on actual data in the database. System transactions were developed to allow multiple transactions to be done in a batch and to allow the ability to recover data more easily.<p>The Btrieve file format consists entirely of <!--del_lnk--> pages, which are the data that moves between memory and storage media when the engine performs an I/O operation. Versions prior to 6.0 merely used data pages, index pages and a <!--del_lnk--> file control record (FCR). The file had an index for searching that linked to physical pages. Beginning with version 6.0 logical pages started to be used, which are pages that are mapped to physical pages (pages at a fixed location in the file) on the disk through the use of a set of <!--del_lnk--> page allocation tables (PATs). The FCR is a record that contains important information about Btrieve files, such as the number of pages in current use. In order to avoid corruption in the database Btrieve uses two methods of updating records: <i>pre-image paging</i> in Btrieve versions before 6.0 and <i>shadow paging</i> in subsequent versions. It was mainly the change-over from pre-image paging to shadow-paging that caused radical file format changes that broke compatibility between previous versions of Btrieve and version 6.x of the product.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Btrieve has been owned and developed by three different companies: SoftCraft, Novell and Btrieve Technologies, Inc. (later renamed Pervasive Software). They have a committed and loyal developer-base and in all the company's literature they remain fully committed to the product; in fact, Pervasive have even set up a <!--del_lnk--> Btrieve Society that recognises existing developers.<p><a id="SoftCraft_years" name="SoftCraft_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">SoftCraft years</span></h3>
<p>The product was launched in February 1982 by SoftCraft, a firm located in <!--del_lnk--> Austin, <!--del_lnk--> Texas, by Doug and Nancy Woodward. Doug became the vice-president and handled software development, and Nancy became the president of the company. They released a number of versions over the next few years: in February 1983 they released the Btrieve 2.x series, and when <!--del_lnk--> MS-DOS 2.x developed support for file and directory handles they released Btrieve 3.0. When MS-DOS 3.1 standardised its internal interfaces in March 1985 they released Btrieve 3.1 C/S one month later, which had <!--del_lnk--> network and <!--del_lnk--> client/server support. In February 1986 Btrieve 4.0 was released, and when the 4.1 upgrade was released it gained support for extended key types and supplemental indexes.<p>Although Btrieve was fairly popular, it was not strongly differentiated from the <!--del_lnk--> killer-app database on the PC, <!--del_lnk--> dBase, and never gained the same sort of popularity. However, the known developer base had grown to over 5,000 users and it was widely used in the financial area. The company took some time to create a <!--del_lnk--> user-interface for the product, however in 1984 they released <b>Xtrieve</b>, a menu-driven program that used a new <!--del_lnk--> .DDF <!--del_lnk--> data dictionary to enforce <!--del_lnk--> relational database rules.<p><a id="Novell_acquisition" name="Novell_acquisition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Novell acquisition</span></h3>
<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Novell_Logo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="76" /></span></div>
<p>In 1987 <!--del_lnk--> Novell started diversifying and buying companies to add to their <!--del_lnk--> NetWare <!--del_lnk--> operating system. One of the companies they purchased was SoftCraft. Nancy Woodward became the Vice-President and General Manager of Novell's Austin operations while Doug Woodward became the Vice-President of Advanced Database Technologies. Early the next year Btrieve 5.0 was released to run as a native NetWare application, or VAP (Value Added Process). According to Jim Kyle, "it had auto-increment key types, the BROUTER network process server, data-only and key-only files, and optional data compression". Version 5.1 was released in 1990 with increased file-handling transaction capability, logging and roll-forward operations, along with several API enhancements. Several versions were created for <!--del_lnk--> DOS, <!--del_lnk--> OS/2 and <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>. Version 6.0 was released in June 1992, however it was not promoted extensively by Novell, and due to enhancements (such as the change from pre-imaging to shadow-paging) it was incompatible with previous versions of Btrieve. The market did not increase much for Btrieve and it did not see wide adoption due to these issues.<p>When the company was acquired by Novell, SoftCraft had been working on a product called <b>XQL</b>, which was an <!--del_lnk--> SQL interpreter that was designed to better deal with industry standard SQL, which the Xtrieve package was not fully compliant with. This became the basis for <b>NetWare SQL</b>, which was initially released in 1989, and was a bare-bones SQL interpreter which implemented the base IBM version of SQL.<p><a id="Btrieve_Technologies.2C_Inc." name="Btrieve_Technologies.2C_Inc."></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Btrieve Technologies, Inc.</span></h3>
<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Btrieve_logo.PNG" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="109" /></span></div>
<p>By 1994 Novell had largely given up on attempting to make NetWare into a complete alternative operating system, and started selling off many of the companies it had acquired only a few years earlier. They had also done minimal promotion of Btrieve, largely due to the long time (24 months) it took to release version 6. Negotiations between Nancy and Doug Woodward with Novell were entered into and after two years Novell announced (on <!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1994) that it was going to transfer ownership of Btrieve to Btrieve Technologies, Incorporated (also known as BTI). On <!--del_lnk--> April 29, 1994 the transfer was completed and Nancy Woodward became the <!--del_lnk--> Chairman of BTI and Doug Woodward was made the <!--del_lnk--> Chief Technical Officer. The <!--del_lnk--> CEO position was taken up by Ron Harris, former employee of <!--del_lnk--> Texas Instruments and one of the founding employees of <!--del_lnk--> Citrix Systems, Inc. where he was employed first as Director of Strategic Planning, then as Vice-President of Marketing, and finally as the Product Group Vice President.<p>Btrieve was totally rewritten and on <!--del_lnk--> July 1 1994 Btrieve 6.15 was released for DOS, Windows and OS/2. Novell SQL was renamed to <b>Scalable SQL</b> to reflect the change in ownership of the company. In 1995 version 6.15 was released for Novell <!--del_lnk--> NetWare, <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT Server and for Windows NT/<!--del_lnk--> 95, and thus became a <!--del_lnk--> cross-platform database product. The concept of a Micro Kernel Database Engine (MKDE) was introduced in this version.<p><a id="Pervasive_Software" name="Pervasive_Software"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive Software</span></h3>
<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="40" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pervasive_logo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" /></span></div>
<p>In 1997 the company renamed itself to <!--del_lnk--> Pervasive Software, and their product Pervasive.SQL. They did this in order to allow greater penetration of the relational database market and to re-align as an SQL vendor, though they are still marketing and developing Btrieve. Pervasive completed its <!--del_lnk--> IPO in September. The company continued using the MKDE in version 6.30. In 1997 Pervasive released ScalableSQL 4.0, a relational database product, and Btrieve 7.0.<p>In 2000, Novell was criticized after it ceased bundling Pervasive.SQL with NetWare (5.1 was the first version affected). Instead, it shipped with a trial version that shut down after 90-days.<p>The latest version, Pervasive PSQL v9, was released in 2005.<p><a id="Versions" name="Versions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Versions</span></h2>
<p><a id="Btrieve_for_DOS" name="Btrieve_for_DOS"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Btrieve for DOS</span></h3>
<p>There was one DOS client-based configuration of Btrieve created by SoftCraft. SoftCraft's definition of a client-based version was a "Btrieve engine running on a particular workstation." This meant that the record-management engine connected directly to the files via operating system functions and modified the records accordingly, whether the files were local or on a network. The client-based engine allowed five <!--del_lnk--> concurrent users to access the database at any one time. All processing of the records were done on the local workstation the engine was installed on. Btrieve for DOS used the SEFS and MEFS modes for file sharing.<p><a id="Btrieve_for_Netware" name="Btrieve_for_Netware"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Btrieve for Netware</span></h3>
<p>Btrieve for Netware was essentially the same as Btrieve for DOS with some extra features only available on Netware at the time. It ran a server process, called <code>BSERVER</code>, on the file-sharing server and this managed data <!--del_lnk--> I/O in conjunction with the network file system. The server process was first implemented as a Netware <i><!--del_lnk--> Value Added Process</i> (VAP) called <code>BSERVER.VAP</code>, but was switched to a Netware <i><!--del_lnk--> NetWare Loadable Module</i> (NLM) soon after. Basically, <code>BSERVER</code> was the database engine that dealt with access to records, however it also accepted requests from the transmittal of requested data to another server via the <code>BROUTER</code> process.<p>Btrieve used <i>requesters</i> to make database I/O requests from the client workstation. These requesters were available for DOS, OS/2, Microsoft Windows, and <!--del_lnk--> UnixWare. The program <code>BREQUEST.EXE</code> accepted I/O requests via the Btrieve API and relayed them to <code>BSERVER</code>. It then handled the responses from <code>BSERVER</code> and relayed them back to the appropriate applications.<p>The <code>BROUTER</code> process allowed for incoming requests to be "routed" to a copy of the database on another server. It was loaded on the Netware server and dealt with communication between multiple server processes running on the one file-server through the use of two <i>File Server Tables</i> (FSTs). According to Pervasive, these provide a list of "server names and addresses, and the <i>Server Routing Table</i> (SRT)". BROUTER also allowed communication requests to be routed to the correct server via SPX by looking up the <code>BSPXCOM</code> NLM and coordinated locks and other mechanisms that controlled access to the data in the Btrieve database.<p>Btrieve for DOS used the SEFS and MEFS modes for file sharing, and because it was able to run on a network it was able to use exclusive and concurrent transactions.<p><a id="Btrieve_for_Windows" name="Btrieve_for_Windows"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Btrieve for Windows</span></h3>
<p>Btrieve for Windows was created before the company rewrote the codebase to use the MKDE. It featured SEFS and MEFS file sharing mechanisms; used shadow-paging and allowed for exclusive and concurrent locks. It handled version 6.x and 6.1 files differently: version 6.x files could handle operations on “chunks” of records rather than locking up the whole record; it handled records that were over 64KB; implemented VATs, ACSs, new data types; allowed for percentage operations (where the record could be located and manipulated by the physical location in the file) and handled duplicate keys. Version 6.x was capable of dropping or adding any index on the fly (version 6.0 and below could only drop supplemental indexes). Version 6.1 files allowed for concurrent and system transactions; the optional renumbering of keys; case insensitive ACS tables and enhanced locking operations.<p>Btrieve for Windows could run as a client to the database that utilized SEFS or MEFS modes, or it could directly access the Btrieve server.<p><a id="Client-based_Btrieve" name="Client-based_Btrieve"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Client-based Btrieve</span></h4>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/239/23950.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Btrieve_for_Windows_95NT_Workstation_config.PNG" src="../../images/239/23950.png" width="230" /></a></span></div>
<p>The client-based version of Btrieve has all the database files either directly on the local computer or via a mapped network drive (setup using DOS’s <code>NET USE</code> command).<p>Applications make a function call to <code>WBTRCALL.DLL</code>, a loader and requester interface. The loader and requester module checks the <code>BTI.INI</code> configuration file is correctly setup to load the client-based Btrieve engine. In turn, this loads the local interface to the btrieve engine (<code>WBTRLOCL.DLL</code>). If necessary, this local interface loads the Btrieve engine (<code>WBTR32.EXE</code>) into memory and sends the necessary database requests to it. The database engine then calls various Win32 system libraries to perform file operations on the database files.<p><a id="Client-based_Btrieve_accessing_server-based_Btrieve" name="Client-based_Btrieve_accessing_server-based_Btrieve"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Client-based Btrieve accessing server-based Btrieve</span></h4>
<p>The client-based version of Btrieve for Windows could access sever-based versions of Btrieve via a DOS-based "requester". The requestor required the use of <!--del_lnk--> DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) which allows the program access to DOS's <!--del_lnk--> extended memory which could only accessed using the <!--del_lnk--> Protected Mode functionality of the CPU's <!--del_lnk--> x86 architecture.<p>As with the client-based interface, the Btrieve-based application makes a call to the <code>WBTRCALL.DLL</code> loader and requester interface library. This library checks the <code>BTI.INI</code> file to see if it needs to access data on the local system or whether it needs to access data on a remote server. If it needs to access the server then it uses the Windows version of DPMI to access a DOS-based requester named <code>BREQUEST.EXE</code>. The requester then establishes a network connection to the server, which processes the request and passes back a message to the requester when the database request is completed.<p><a id="Btrieve_for_Windows_NT.2FWindows_95" name="Btrieve_for_Windows_NT.2FWindows_95"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Btrieve for Windows NT/Windows 95</span></h3>
<p>Btrieve for Windows NT and Windows 95 was released in 1995 along with Btrieve for Netware and Btrieve for Windows NT Server. It had reached version 6.15 and started using the <!--del_lnk--> MKDE. The file sharing mechanisms remained the same as it still used SEFS and MEFS file sharing modes; used shadow-paging and allowed for exclusive and concurrent locks. This version of Btrieve allowed for <!--del_lnk--> null values in keys, which meant that a record could be entered into the database when information on the key was not available. It meant that the key would not be included into the index, and this helped decrease unnecessary searching of the database via the index. It also introduced the concept of a <i>system transaction</i> and a <i>user transaction</i>. (see <i><!--del_lnk--> System and user transactions</i>). The MKDE also allowed gaps between auto-incremented keys. <!--del_lnk--> Variable-tail allocation tables were introduced in version 6.15, so they were included in the Windows NT/95 build of Btrieve.<p>There are two configurations of Btrieve for Windows NT/95: standalone workstation and client/server.<p><a id="Standalone_Workstation" name="Standalone_Workstation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Standalone Workstation</span></h4>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/239/23950.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Btrieve_for_Windows_95NT_Workstation_config.PNG" src="../../images/239/23950.png" width="230" /></a></span></div>
<p>When using the <i>standalone workstation</i> configuration of Btrieve, all processing of records is done on the local <!--del_lnk--> workstation. The workstation relies on the underlying mechanisms of Windows to allow the MKDE (the <code>W32MKDE.EXE</code> program) to gain direct access to the database files, and uses lock files to deal with concurrency issues.<p>In this configuration the application makes calls to the Btrieve API, or Microkernel Interface (<code>WBTRV32.DLL</code>). The call is then processed by this interface and passed along to the MKDE (<code>W32MKDE.EXE</code>) which then uses the underlying operating system <!--del_lnk--> file system (whether it be network or local) to directly access the database files.<p>This leads to some peculiar issues. If Btrieve uses <!--del_lnk--> Windows file sharing and has the database engine open files directly on a file share, for instance, and there is network instability (or even if a network cable is unplugged) during an update the fields used to link one Btrieve file to another can become unsynchronized (to all intents and purposes the data loses its relationships or links to other data) and the database file itself can get corrupted (though the chance of this is reduced due to pre-image paging).<p><a id="Client.2FServer" name="Client.2FServer"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Client/Server</span></h4>
<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="257" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MKDE_server.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="493" /></span></div>
<p>When using the <i>client/server</i> (or <i>Server edition</i>) configuration of Btrieve, processing of records is generally done on a Windows file server via a mapped drive (a way of mapping a file share to a "virtual" disk drive in Windows via the <code>NET USE</code> command). It utilises the permissions that you are assigned when authenticating, either from when logging on or via the permissions given for the <code>NET USE</code> is utilised.<p>On Windows 95 the MKDE interface (a Windows <!--del_lnk--> dynamic link library (DLL) called <code>WBTRV32.DLL</code>) actually determines what database access method is in use via the configuration file. If it detects that both the client/server and workstation engines are installed on the one machine it checks whether the target is set to workstation or server. If running on Windows NT and the server process <code>NTMKDE.EXE</code> is running along with the standalone workstation process <code>W32MKDE.EXE</code> it looks in the registry to determine if the target is either server or workstation. In both cases, if the MKDE interface is set to workstation (the "Standalone workstation" configuration) it uses the MKDE (<code>W32MKDE.EXE</code>) to directly access the file. If it is set to server then the MKDE interface on the client uses a communications module (on <!--del_lnk--> Windows 95 this is <code>W32BTICM.DLL</code>, on <!--del_lnk--> Windows NT this is <code>NTBTICM.DLL</code>) that "talks" to the <!--del_lnk--> server. The server itself has its own matching communications module (again either <code>W32BTICM.DLL</code> or <code>NTBTICM.DLL</code>) that resides on the mapped drive. The server DLL then communicates with the server MKDE (<code>NTMKDE.EXE</code>) which updates records, then sends a confirmation that the operation succeeded back through the communications module to the client.<p>The advantage of this system is that if a network connection failure occurs the MKDE on the server will be able to detect this and recover in a more graceful manner than the workstation configuration is able to.<p><a id="Configuration" name="Configuration"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Configuration</span></h4>
<p>A configuration utility was included with Btrieve to alter MKDE settings. The settings that could be changed were:<ul>
<li><b>File settings:</b> this category contains settings related to files, file handles, record locks, indexes, and log files. The number of open files and logical file handles was set in here, as well as the number of record locks per client; index balancing and an option to create files in pre 6.x format are in this category. It also controlled whether the Microkernel kept a log of operations executed on selected files. In this section the method of file sharing could be set to either MEFS or SEFS. The system transaction hold limit sets the number of system transactions performed during write operations for shared files.<li><b>Memory organisation:</b> this category contained settings related to the size of buffers the Microkernel needed to allocate for various purposes.<li><b>Client/System transactions:</b> this category contains settings related to transactions, including the number supported and how and when they will be logged.<li><b>System resources/directories:</b> this category contains settings related to the number of clients and threads supported as well as the location of various system files.<li><b>Trace operations:</b> this category contains settings related to tracing various Btrieve operations. Tracing is an advanced feature used mainly for <!--del_lnk--> debugging purposes.</ul>
<p><a id="Pervasive.SQL_7" name="Pervasive.SQL_7"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive.SQL 7</span></h3>
<p>Pervasive SQL 7 was released in March, 1998, and included Scalable SQL 4 and Btrieve 7.0. Btrieve 7.0 ran on the same platforms as Btrieve 6.x: Windows 95, Windows NT 3.51 & 4, Netware and DOS. However, the company changed to a component-based architecture called SmartComponents to resolve compatibility issues with upgrades. This used a component identification scheme both embedded into the file and encoded into the file name, along with <!--del_lnk--> dynamic binding of "glue files" (DLLs loaded into memory only when needed). The dynamic binding of components was done using a new "Abstract OS Services DLL" that looked for the latest version of the appropriate needed component via the file name encoding. This "glue module" is then loaded into memory and used. The old log file format of Btrieve 6.x was also replaced with a new centralised log called <code>PVSW.LOG</code> and that had a unified and enhanced log file format. They also improved their error messages and error message reporting mechanisms.<p>The MKDE was retained in Pervasive.SQL 7 however, due to the new component architecture's dynamic binding, the internal architecture was modified. The application using Btrieve calls a services manager which then searches through various configured directories for specific encoded filename. The file name loaded for Btrieve files in <!--del_lnk--> Backus-Naur form is:<pre>
<filename> ::= <platform-code> "BIF" <major-functional-level> <minor-functional-level>
<platform-code> ::= "W1" | "W2" | "W3" | "W9" | "WT" | "NW" | "O3"
<major-functional-level> ::= <number>
<minor-functional-level> ::= <number> <number>
<number> ::= "0" | "1" | "2" | "3" | "4" | "5" | "6" | "7" | "8" | "9"
</pre><table class="wikitable">
<caption>Embedded filename platform codes</caption>
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th><b>Platform code</b></th>
<th><b>Platform</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>W1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Windows 3.1x, incl. Windows for Workgroups (Win16)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>W2</td>
<td>Extended Windows (32-bit <!--del_lnk--> Watcom Extender)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>W3</td>
<td>Windows 95, Windows NT (Win32)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>W9</td>
<td>Windows 95</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>WT</td>
<td>Windows NT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NW</td>
<td>Netware 3.x and 4.x</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>O3</td>
<td>OS/2 (32-bit)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The "glue" module, which is a DLL, is loaded into memory and becomes the interface to the MKDE. The MKDE then determines whether it is configured to be a workstation based configuration or a server based configuration. It then passes requests via its communications "requester" module onto the database server, or directly modifies the database files if configured in workstation mode.<p><a id="Pervasive.SQL_2000.2F2000i" name="Pervasive.SQL_2000.2F2000i"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive.SQL 2000/2000i</span></h3>
<p>Pervasive.SQL 2000 and Pervasive.SQL 2000i uses essentially the same architecture as Pervasive.SQL 7, though 2000i includes i*Net server. It uses the same component model, has the ability to use the Btrieve or Scalable SQL engines and continues using an MKDE. In this version for <!--del_lnk--> Red Hat Linux, <!--del_lnk--> Caldera OpenLinux, <!--del_lnk--> SUSE and <!--del_lnk--> Solaris was developed. It also had better integration with <!--del_lnk--> Terminal Services, though only one instance of the database engine may run on any terminal server platform. You cannot run separate copies of the database engine within two or more terminal sessions.<p><a id="Pervasive.SQL_V8" name="Pervasive.SQL_V8"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive.SQL V8</span></h3>
<p>Introduced in December 2002, Pervasive.SQL V8 improves the performance of both Btrieve and SQL applications using a number of new technologies.<ul>
<li>Client side caching greatly improves read performance by maintaining a portion of the database's contents on the local PC.<li>Turbo Write Acceleration (TWA) groups disk writes into groups, minimizing interactions with disk.<li>Transaction Logging provides a slightly less failure protection than transaction durability, but improves overall performance.</ul>
<p>The V8 Security Feature Pack (a mid-release product update designated 8.5) added important new security features designed to lock down Pervasive.SQL data files. Prior to 8.5, access to Btrieve data was controlled by the operating system's security mechanism. This meant that any user who needed read/write access to the database, also needed read/write access to the underlying data files. 8.5 introduced new security models, which allow administrators to control access to the Btrieve data using database security. Once activated, database security no longer requires that the user has access to the underlying files. In addition, client/server configurations no longer require the use of network shares or mapped drives. Applications can reference secure Btrieve data using a URI connection string.<p><a id="Pervasive_PSQL_v9" name="Pervasive_PSQL_v9"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive PSQL v9</span></h3>
<p>The current version of PSQL includes new Java GUIs, built on the Eclipse framework. These GUIs are available for both Microsoft Windows and Linux. In addition, v9 included many SQL performance and syntax updates, improving both the speed and flexibility of all of the SQL interfaces - ADO.Net, JDBC, ODBC, and OLE DB. Finally, PSQL v9 expanded the Btrieve maximum file size to 128 GB.<p>In conjunction with PSQL v9 Pervasive reintroduced the DDF Builder utility and added support for text searching with the Full Text Search (FTS) add-on. DDF Builder provides a mechanism for Btrieve users to define the meta data for existing Btrieve files, thus allowing Btrieve data to be accessible via SQL tools and utilities.<p>All versions of the MKDE retain full backward compatibility with earlier versions of Btrieve, including those that pre-date introduction of the MKDE itself, and do not change the file's version unless specifically requested to do so.<p><a id="Pervasive_PSQL_Ecosystem" name="Pervasive_PSQL_Ecosystem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pervasive PSQL Ecosystem</span></h3>
<p>Pervasive now offers a number of add-on products which extend the basic features of the PSQL DBMS.<ul>
<li>Pervasive AuditMaster provides real-time auditing of all database interactions, whether Btrieve or SQL. Logs of data events can be queried to track changes to sensitive data. Alerts can also be created to notify the appropriate personnel or launch the associated process.<li>Pervasive Backup Agent manages PSQL's continuous operations mode and allows backup software to reliably copy online databases.<li>Pervasive DataExchange provides data synchronization and replication between two or more PSQL engines, ensuring that critical data is always available.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Btrieve"</div>
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['Linux', 'Microsoft Windows', 'Windows 2000', 'Windows XP', 'Microsoft Windows']
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