Datasets:

asun17904
/

wiki2017_no_bank_examples

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 4.76M rows

section_texts list	section_titles list	title stringlengths 1 182
[ "\nLudwig van Beethoven's Opus 1 is a set of three piano trios (written for piano, violin, and cello), first performed in 1795 in the house of Prince Lichnowsky, to whom they are dedicated. The trios were published in 1795.\n\nDespite the Op. 1 designation, these trios were not Beethoven's first published compositions; this \ndistinction belongs rather to his ''Dressler Variations'' for keyboard (WoO 63). Clearly he recognized these compositions as the earliest ones he had produced that were substantial enough (and marketable enough) to fill out a first major publication to introduce his style of writing to the musical public. \n", "* Allegro (E flat major)\n* Adagio cantabile (A flat major)\n* Scherzo. Allegro assai (E flat major, with a trio in A flat major)\n* Finale. Presto (E flat major)\n", "* Adagio - Allegro vivace (G major)\n* Largo con espressione (E major)\n* Scherzo. Allegro (G major, with a trio in B minor)\n* Finale. Presto (G major)\n", "* Allegro con brio (C minor)\n* Andante cantabile con Variazioni (E flat major)\n* Minuetto. Quasi allegro (C minor, with a trio in C major)\n* Finale. Prestissimo (C minor, concluding in C major)\n\nUnlike the other piano trios in this opus, the third trio does not have a scherzo as its third movement but a minuet instead.\n\nThis third piano trio was later reworked by Beethoven into the C minor string quintet, Op. 104.\n", "\n", "* \n* Performance of Piano Trio No. 1 by the Claremont Trio from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format\n* Performance of Piano Trio No. 3, I Allegro con brio\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Op. 1 No. 1 - Piano Trio No. 1 in E-flat major", "Op. 1 No. 2 - Piano Trio No. 2 in G major", "Op. 1 No. 3 - Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor", "References", "External links" ]	Piano Trios, Op. 1 (Beethoven)
[ "\nOpus 70 is a set of two '''Piano Trios''' by Ludwig van Beethoven, written for piano, violin, and cello. Both trios were composed during Beethoven's stay at Countess Marie von Erdödy's estate, and both are dedicated to her for her hospitality. They were published in 1809.\n\nThe first, in D major, known as the ''Ghost'', is one of his best known works in the genre (rivaled only by the ''Archduke Trio''). The D major trio features themes found in the second movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 2. The All-Music Guide states that \"because of its strangely scored and undeniably eerie-sounding slow movement, it was dubbed the 'Ghost' Trio. The name has stuck with the work ever since. The ghostly music may have had its roots in sketches for a Macbeth opera that Beethoven was contemplating at the time.\"\n\nThese pieces are representative of Beethoven's \"Middle\" stylistic period, which went from roughly 1803 to 1812, and which included many of his most famous works. Beethoven wrote the two piano trios while spending the summer of 1808 in Heiligenstadt, Vienna, where he had completed his Symphony No. 5 the previous summer. He wrote the two trios immediately after finishing his ''Sinfonia pastorale'', Symphony No. 6. This was a period of uncertainty in Beethoven's life, in particular because he had no dependable source of income at the time.\n\nAlthough these two trios are sometimes numbered as \"No. 5\" and \"No. 6\", the numbering of Beethoven's twelve piano trios is not standardized, and in other sources the two Op. 70 trios may be shown as having different numbers, if any.\n", "* Allegro vivace e con brio, D major, 3/4\n* Largo assai ed espressivo, D minor, 2/4 This movement is what gave the \"Ghost Trio\" its name\n* Presto, D major, 4/4\n", "* Poco sostenuto – Allegro, ma non troppo, E-flat major, 4/4 - 6/8\n* Allegretto, C major/minor, 2/4\n* Allegretto ma non troppo, A-flat major, 3/4\n* Finale. Allegro, E-flat major, 2/4\n\nThe second movement is in double variation form.\n", "\n", "\nPerformances of Piano Trio Op. 70 No. 1 and Piano Trio Op. 70 No. 2 by the Claremont Trio from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Piano Trio in D major, Op.70 No.1 \"Ghost\"", "Piano Trio in E-flat major, Op.70 No.2", "References", "External links" ]	Piano Trios, Op. 70 (Beethoven)
[ "\nThe '''Piano Trio''' in B-flat major, Op. 97, by Ludwig van Beethoven is a piano trio completed in 1811. It is commonly referred to as the '''Archduke Trio''', because it was dedicated to Archduke Rudolph of Austria, the youngest of twelve children of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolf was an amateur pianist and a patron, friend, and composition student of Beethoven. Beethoven dedicated a total of fourteen compositions to the Archduke, who dedicated one of his own to Beethoven in return.\n\nThe trio was written late in the Beethoven's so-called \"middle period\". He began composing it in the summer of 1810, and completed it in March 1811.\n\nAlthough the \"Archduke Trio\" is sometimes numbered as \"No. 7\", the numbering of Beethoven's twelve piano trios is not standardized, and in other sources the Op. 97 trio may be shown as having a different number, if any.\n", "The first public performance was given by Beethoven himself, Ignaz Schuppanzigh (violin) and Josef Linke (cello) at the Viennese hotel ''Zum römischen Kaiser'' on 11 April 1814, as his deafness continued to encroach upon his ability as a performer. After a repeat of the work a few weeks later, Beethoven did not appear again in public as a pianist.\n\nThe violinist and composer Louis Spohr witnessed a rehearsal of the work, and wrote: \"On account of his deafness there was scarcely anything left of the virtuosity of the artist which had formerly been so greatly admired. In ''forte'' passages the poor deaf man pounded on the keys until the strings jangled, and in ''piano'' he played so softly that whole groups of notes were omitted, so that the music was unintelligible unless one could look into the pianoforte part. I was deeply saddened at so hard a fate.\"\n\nThe pianist and composer Ignaz Moscheles attended the first performance, and wrote about the work: \"In the case of how many compositions is the word \"new\" misapplied! But never in Beethoven's, and least of all in this, which again is full of originality. His playing, aside from its intellectual element, satisfied me less, being wanting in clarity and precision; but I observed many traces of the grand style of playing which I had long recognized in his compositions.\"\n", "The work is in four movements:\n\n#Allegro moderato, 4/4\n#Scherzo (Allegro), 3/4\n#Andante cantabile ma però con moto. Poco piu adagio, D major, 3/4\n#Allegro moderatoPresto, 2/46/8\n\nA typical performance runs approximately 40 minutes in length.\n", "The ''Archduke'' plays a significant role in Elizabeth George's mystery ''A Traitor to Memory'' (2001)\nIn Haruki Murakami's novel ''Kafka on the Shore'' (2002), the piece and its history are used to explain the relationship between two main characters, Nakata and Hoshino, and the latter's development as a person\n", "\n", "\n BBC Discovering Music\n* Concert Podcast from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum\n* Information and digitized early editions at the Beethoven-Haus Digital Archives\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "First performance", "Structure", "References in popular culture", "Footnotes", "External links" ]	Piano Trio, Op. 97 (Beethoven)
[ "The '''Violin Sonata No. 5''' in F major, Opus 24, is a violin sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is often known as the \"Spring Sonata\" (''Frühlingssonate''), and was published in 1801. Its dedicatee was Count Moritz von Fries, a patron to whom Beethoven also dedicated two other works of the same year—the C major string quintet and the fourth violin sonata—as well as his later seventh symphony.\n\nThe work is in four movements:\n\n#''Allegro''\n#''Adagio molto espressivo''\n#''Scherzo: Allegro molto''\n#''Rondo: Allegro ma non troppo''\n\nThe ''Scherzo'' and its trio are particularly brief. The entire sonata takes approximately 22 minutes to perform. The name \"Spring Sonata\" was given to it after Beethoven's death.\n\nThe ''Allegro'' movement is featured in the stage show ''Fame''.\n", "\n", "\n\n* Performance of Violin Sonata No. 5 by Corey Cerovsek (violin) and Paavali Jumppanen (piano) from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Violin Sonata No. 5 (Beethoven)
[ "\n\n'''Barratry''' ( ) is a legal term with several meanings. In common law, barratry is the offense committed by people who are \"overly officious in instigating or encouraging prosecution of groundless litigation\" or who bring \"repeated or persistent acts of litigation\" for the purposes of profit or harassment. It is a crime in some jurisdictions. If litigation is for the purpose of silencing critics, it is known as a strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP). Jurisdictions that otherwise have no barratry laws may have SLAPP laws.\n", "\n===Australia===\nIn Australia, the term barratry is predominantly used in the first sense of a frivolous or harassing litigant. The concept has fallen into disuse in Australia.\n\n==== New South Wales ====\nThe offence of being a common barrator was abolished in New South Wales by Section 4A of the Maintenance, Champerty and Barratry Abolition Act 1993.\n\n=== Canada ===\nIn Canada, barratry, alongside all common law offences except contempt of court, were abolished by the 1953 consolidation of the Criminal Code.\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\n\n====England and Wales====\nIn England and Wales the common law offence of '''being a common barrator''' was abolished by section 13(1)(a) of the Criminal Law Act 1967.\n\n===== History =====\n\nBeing a common barrator was an offence under the common law of England. It was classified as a misdemeanor. It consisted of \"persistently stirring up quarrels in the Courts or out of them\". It is uncertain whether, in the ordinary way, persons charged with commission of the offence were dealt with by indictment.\n\nIn 1966, the Law Commission recommended for the offence to be abolished. It said that there had been no indictments for this offence for \"many years\" and that, as an indictable misdemeanor, it was \"wholly obsolete\". Its recommendation was implemented by the Criminal Law Act 1967.\n\n==== Scotland ====\nIn Scots law, barratry referred to the crime committed by a judge who is induced by bribery to pronounce judgment.\n\n===United States===\nSeveral jurisdictions in the United States have declared barratry (in the sense of a frivolous or harassing litigant) to be a crime as part of their tort reform efforts. For example, in the U.S. states of California, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington, barratry is a misdemeanor. In Texas, barratry is a misdemeanor on the first conviction, but a felony on subsequent convictions.\n\n* California Penal Code Section 158: \"Common barratry is the practice of exciting groundless judicial proceedings, and is punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding six months and by fine not exceeding one thousand dollars ($1,000).\"\n* California Penal Code Section 159: \"No person can be convicted of common barratry except upon proof that he has excited suits or proceedings at law in at least three instances, and with a corrupt or malicious intent to vex and annoy.\"\n* Revised Code of Washington 9.12.010: \"Every person who brings on his or her own behalf, or instigates, incites, or encourages another to bring, any false suit at law or in equity in any court of this state, with intent thereby to distress or harass a defendant in the suit, or who serves or sends any paper or document purporting to be or resembling a judicial process, that is not in fact a judicial process, is guilty of a misdemeanor; and in case the person offending is an attorney, he or she may, in addition thereto be disbarred from practicing law within this state.\"\n* Virginia laws on barratry, champerty, and maintenance were overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in NAACP v. Button 371 U.S. 415 (1963).\n", "\nIn his ''Inferno'', Canto XXI, Dante places barrators in the Eighth Circle, fifth bolgia of Hell.\n", "Abuse of process\nAmbulance chasing\n''Bleak House''\nChamperty\nCollegatary\nForum shopping\nIn terrorem\nLegal threat\nLegal advertising\nMalicious prosecution\nStrategic lawsuit against public participation\nVexatious litigation\nfrivolous or vexatious\nIsaac Wunder order\n*NAACP v. Button\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Barratry by country ", "Other", " See also ", "References", " External links " ]	Barratry (common law)
[ "\nB-2 Spirit in flight over the Pacific Ocean\n\nA '''bomber''' is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and naval targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry (such as bombshells), firing torpedoes and bullets or deploying air-launched cruise missiles.\n", "A Russian Tupolev Tu-160 strategic bomber.\n\n===Strategic===\n\nStrategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards, and cities themselves, in order to diminish the enemy's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output. Current examples include the strategic nuclear-armed strategic bombers: B-2 Spirit, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-95 'Bear', Tupolev Tu-22M 'Backfire'; historically notable examples are the: Gotha G.IV, Avro Lancaster, Heinkel He-111, Junkers Ju 88, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger'.\n\n===Tactical===\n\nTactical bombing, aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations, is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. This role is filled by tactical bomber class, which crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories: light bombers, medium bombers, dive bombers, interdictors, fighter-bombers, attack aircraft, multirole combat aircraft, and others.\n\nCurrent examples: F/A-18 Hornet, Xian JH-7, Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000, and the Panavia Tornado\nHistorical examples: Ilyushin Il-2 ''Shturmovik'', Junkers Ju 87 ''Stuka'', Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Hawker Typhoon and Mikoyan MiG-27.\n", "The first use of an air-dropped bomb (actually a hand grenade) was carried out by Italian Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti during the 1911 Italo-Turkish war in Libya, although his plane was not designed for the task of bombing, and his improvised attack had little impact.\n\n===The first bombers===\nAlbatros F-2, the first aircraft used as a bomberIn 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop \"bombs\" (called grenades in the Bulgarian army at this time) on Turkish positions. Captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload.\n\nOn 16 October 1912, observer Prodan Tarakchiev dropped two of those bombs on the Turkish railway station of Karağaç (near the besieged Edirne) from an Albatros F.2 aircraft piloted by Radul Milkov, for the first time in this campaign. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber.\n\nBristol T.B.8, first purpose-built British bomber, 1913\nThe first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T.B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company. They were fitted with a prismatic Bombsight in the front cockpit and a cylindrical bomb carrier in the lower forward fuselage capable of carrying twelve 10 lb (4.5 kg) bombs, which could be dropped singly or as a salvo as required.\n\nThe aircraft was purchased for use both by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and three T.B.8s, that were being displayed in Paris during December 1913 fitted with bombing equipment, were sent to France following the outbreak of war. Under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914.\n\nThe dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century. Early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and more streamlined form of airship designed by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, were outfitted to carry bombs to attack targets at long range. These were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, as well as navigational issues. German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships.\n\nCaproni Ca.3, an Italian World War I heavy bomber, 1915.\n\nThe Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a twin-boom biplane with three 67 kW (80 hp) Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, and Caproni soon adopted a more conventional approach installing three 81 kW (110 hp) Fiat A.10s. The improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915.\n\nWhile mainly used as a trainer, Avro 504s were also briefly used as bombers at the start of the First World War by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) when they were used for raids on the German airship sheds.\n\n===Strategic bombing===\n\nThe Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, an early strategic heavy bomber.\nBritish Handley Page Type O, 1918\nBombing raids and interdiction operations were mainly carried out by French and British forces during the War as the German air arm was forced to concentrate its resources on a defensive strategy. Notably, bombing campaigns formed a part of the British offensive at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, with Royal Flying Corps squadrons attacking German railway \nstations in an attempt to hinder the logistical supply of the German army. The early, improvised attempts at bombing that characterized the early part of the war slowly gave way to a more organized and systematic approach to strategic and tactical bombing, pioneered by various air power strategists of the Entente, especially Major Hugh Trenchard; he was the first to advocate that there should be \"... sustained strategic bombing attacks with a view to interrupting the enemy's railway communications ... in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies.\"\n\nWhen the war started, bombing was very crude (hand-held bombs were thrown over the side) yet by the end of the war long-range bombers equipped with complex mechanical bombing computers were being built, \ndesigned to carry large loads to destroy enemy industrial targets. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C.III and Russian \nSikorsky Ilya Muromets. The Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the early stages of the war, as the Central Powers had no comparable aircraft until much later.\n\nLong range bombing raids were carried out at night by multi-engine biplanes such as the Gotha G.IV (whose name was synonymous with all multi-engine German bombers) and later the Handley Page Type O; the majority of bombing was done by single-engined biplanes with one or two crew members flying short distances to attack enemy lines and immediate hinterland. As the effectiveness of a bomber was dependent on the weight and accuracy of its bomb load, ever larger bombers were developed starting in World War I, while considerable money was spent developing suitable bombsights.\n\n===World War II===\n\n\nAvro Lancaster with a Grand Slam bomb, 1945.\nWith engine power as a major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. By the start of the war this included:\n\n* dive bomber — ''specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy.''\n* light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — ''subjective definitions based on size.''\n* torpedo bomber — ''specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes.''\n* ground attack aircraft — ''aircraft used against targets on a battlefield such as troop or tank concentrations.\n* night bomber — ''specially equipped to operate at night when opposing defences are limited.''\n* maritime patrol — ''long range bombers that were used against enemy shipping, particularly submarines.''\n\nBombers are not intended to attack other aircraft although most were fitted with defensive weapons. World War II saw the beginning of the widespread use of high speed bombers which dispensed with defensive weapons to be able to attain higher speed, such as with the de Havilland Mosquito, a philosophy that continued with many Cold War bombers.\n\nSome smaller designs have been used as the basis for night fighters, and a number of fighters, such as the Hawker Hurricane were used as ground attack aircraft, replacing earlier conventional light bombers that proved unable to defend themselves while carrying a useful bomb load.\n\n===Cold War===\nRussian Tupolev Tu-95 ''Bear'' with American fighter escort\n\nAt the start of the Cold War, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and had the role of deterrence. With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High-speed and high-altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack. Designs such as the English Electric Canberra could fly faster or higher than contemporary fighters. When surface-to-air missiles became capable of hitting high-flying bombers, bombers were flown at low altitudes to evade radar detection and interception.\n\nOnce \"stand off\" nuclear weapon designs were developed, bombers did not need to pass over the target to make an attack; they could fire and turn away to escape the blast. Nuclear strike aircraft were generally finished in bare metal or anti-flash white to minimize absorption of thermal radiation from the flash of a nuclear explosion. The need to drop conventional bombs remained in conflicts with non-nuclear powers, such as the Vietnam War or Malayan Emergency.\n\nThe development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War because of spiraling costs and the development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) – which was felt to have similar deterrent value while being impossible to intercept. Because of this, the United States Air Force XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled in the early 1960s; the later B-1B Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s are projected to remain in use until the 2040s. Similarly, the Soviet Union used the intermediate-range Tu-22M 'Backfire'in the 1970s, but their Mach 3 bomber project stalled. The Mach 2 Tu-160 'Blackjack' was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the 1950s Tupolev Tu-16 and Tu-95 'Bear' heavy bombers to continue being used into the 21st century.\n\nThe Avro Vulcan was part of the RAF V bomber force\nThe British strategic bombing force largely came to an end when the V bomber force was phased out; the last of which left service in 1983. The French Mirage IV bomber version was retired in 1996, although the Mirage 2000N and the Rafale have taken on this role. The only other nation that fields strategic bombing forces is China, which has a number of Xian H-6s.\n\n===Modern era===\nJoint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B Lancer supersonic strategic bomber in Southwest Asia in 2007.\n\nIn modern air forces, the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred. Many attack aircraft, even ones that ''look'' like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Indeed, the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter, and vice versa. Conversely, many fighter aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks,' despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations.\n\nAt present, the U.S. and Russia are involved in developing replacements for their legacy bomber fleets, the USAF with the Northrop Grumman B-21 and the Russian Air Force with the PAK DA. A 1999 USAF report calls for the US bomber fleet to remain in service until the late 2030s-early 2040s, and the B-21 is scheduled to reach deployment in the 2020s. The U.S. is also considering another bomber in 2037. The B-21, however, required to provide an answer to the fifth generation defense systems (such as SA-21 Growlers, bistatic radar and active electronically scanned array radar). Also, it has been chosen to be able to stand against rising superpowers and other countries with semi-advanced military capability. Finally, a third reason is the role of long-term air support for areas with a low threat level (Iraq, Afghanistan), the latter referred to as close air support for the global war on terror (CAS for GWOT). The B-21 would thus be able to stay for extended periods on a same location (called persistence).\n", "* List of bomber aircraft\n* 2037 Bomber\n* Next-Generation Bomber\n* Long Range Strike Bomber\n* Carpet bombing\n* Strategic bomber\n* Aerial bombing of cities\n* Air interdiction\n* Offensive counter air\n* Fighter aircraft\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Classification", "History", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Bomber
[ "\nThe '''Big/Great Dipper''' is the American English term for the seven brightest stars of Ursa Major (The Plough in British English).\n\n'''Big Dipper''' also may refer to:\n\n", "* Big Dipper (Battersea Park), a wooden roller coaster operating in Battersea Park, London, England, from 1951 until 1972\n* Big Dipper (Blackpool), a wooden roller coaster at Blackpool Pleasure Beach, England\n* Big Dipper (Geauga Lake), a wooden roller coaster formerly at the now defunct Geauga Lake Park in Ohio, US\n* Big Dipper (Luna Park Sydney), a wooden roller coaster operating at Luna Park Sydney, Australia from 1935 until 1981\n* Big Dipper (Michigan's Adventure), a steel roller coaster in Michigan, US\n* Cyclone (Dreamworld), a steel roller coaster which operated as Big Dipper at Luna Park Sydney, Australia from 1995 to 2001\n", "* Wilt Chamberlain (1936–1999), American basketball player\n* Robert DiPierdomenico (born 1958), Australian rules footballer\n* Chris Duncan (born 1981), American baseball player\n", "* Big Dipper (band), a 1980s-1990s Boston alternative-rock band\n* Big Dipper (album), a 2003 album by Drop Trio\n* The Great Dipper (album), a 2015 album by Roy Kim\n* Big Dipper (Elton John song), a 1978 song by Elton John\n* \"Big Dipper\", a song by Jethro Tull from their 1976 album ''Too Old to Rock 'n' Roll: Too Young to Die!''\n* \"Big Dipper\", a song by Built to Spill from their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\n* \"Big Dipper\", a song by Cracker from their 1996 album ''The Golden Age (Cracker album)''\n* \"Big Dipper\", a song by Death Grips from their 2014 album ''The Powers That B''\n", "* Big Dipper Ice Arena, in Fairbanks, Alaska\n", "* Beidou (disambiguation), Chinese equivalent of the asterism\n* Little Dipper (disambiguation)\n* Starry Plough (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Entertainment", "Sport", "Music", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Big Dipper (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n'''Bursa''' is a large city in Turkey, located in northwestern Anatolia, within the Marmara Region. It is the fourth most populous city in Turkey and one of the most industrialized metropolitan centres in the country. The city is also the administrative centre of Bursa Province.\n\nBursa was the first major and second overall capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1363. The city was referred to as (Ottoman Turkish: خداوندگار, meaning \"God's gift\") during the Ottoman period, while a more recent nickname is (meaning \"Green Bursa\") in reference to the parks and gardens located across its urban fabric, as well as to the vast and richly varied forests of the surrounding region. The ski resort of Mount Uludağ towers over it. The mountain was called the Mysian Olympus by the Romans who lived there before. Bursa has rather orderly urban growth and borders a fertile plain. The mausoleums of the early Ottoman sultans are located in Bursa and the city's main landmarks include numerous edifices built throughout the Ottoman period. Bursa also has thermal baths and several museums, including a museum of archaeology.\n\nThe shadow play characters Karagöz and Hacivat are based on historic personalities who lived and died in Bursa. Bursa is also home to some of the most famous Turkish dishes such as İskender kebap, specially candied marron glacés, peaches and Turkish Delight. Bursa houses the Uludağ University, and its population can claim one of the highest overall levels of education in Turkey. The historic towns of İznik (Nicaea), Mudanya and Zeytinbağı are all situated in Bursa Province.\n\nIn 2015, Bursa had a population of 2,340,000, while Bursa Province had 2,842,000 inhabitants.\n", "\n\n\nThe earliest known human settlement near Bursa's current location was at Ilıpınar Höyüğü around 5200 BC. It was followed by the ancient Greek city of Cius, which Philip V of Macedon granted to Prusias I, the King of Bithynia, in 202 BC. Prusias rebuilt the city and renamed it '''Prusa''' (; sometimes rendered as '''Prussa'''). After 128 years of Bithynian rule, Nicomedes IV, the last King of Bithynia, bequeathed the entire kingdom to the Roman Empire in 74 BC. An early Roman Treasure was found in the vicinity of Bursa in the early 20th century. Composed of a woman's silver toilet articles, it is now in the British Museum.\nA view of Bursa in the 1890s\nA view of Bursa in 2013\n\nBursa became the first major capital city of the early Ottoman Empire following its capture from the Byzantines in 1326. As a result, the city witnessed a considerable amount of urban growth throughout the 14th century. After conquering Edirne (Adrianople) in East Thrace, the Ottomans turned it into the new capital city in 1363, but Bursa retained its spiritual and commercial importance in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan Bayezid I built the Bayezid Külliyesi (Bayezid I theological complex) in Bursa between 1390 and 1395 and the Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque) between 1396 and 1400. Bursa remained to be the most important administrative and commercial centre in the empire until Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. The population of Bursa was 45,000 in 1487.\n\nDuring the Ottoman period, Bursa continued to be the source of most royal silk products. Aside from the local silk production, the city imported raw silk from Iran, and occasionally from China, and was the main production centre for the kaftans, pillows, embroidery and other silk products for the Ottoman palaces until the 17th century.\n\nFollowing the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, Bursa became one of the industrial centres of the country. The economic development of the city was followed by population growth and Bursa became the 4th most populous city in Turkey.\n\nThe city has traditionally been a pole of attraction, and was a major centre for refugees from various ethnic backgrounds who immigrated to Anatolia from the Balkans during the loss of the Ottoman territories in Europe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The most recent arrival of Balkan Turks took place in the 1940s until the 1990s, when the communist regime in Bulgaria expelled approximately 150,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey. About one-third of these 150,000 Bulgarian Turkish refugees eventually settled in Bursa.\n", "Bursa is settled on the northwestern slopes of Mount Uludağ in the southern Marmara Region. It is the capital city of Bursa Province bordered by the Sea of Marmara and Yalova to the north; Kocaeli and Sakarya to the northeast; Bilecik to the east; and Kütahya and Balıkesir to the south.\n\n== Climate == \nBursa has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) under the Köppen classification, and dry-hot summer temperate climate (Csa) Trewartha classification. The city has hot, dry summers that last from June until September. Winters are cold and damp, also containing the most rainfall. There can be snow on the ground which will last for a week or two.\n\n\n", "Kent Meydanı AVM shopping centre\nThe glass pyramid entrance of Zafer Plaza AVM shopping centre\n\nBursa is the centre of the Turkish automotive industry. Factories of motor vehicle producers like Fiat, Renault and Karsan, as well as automotive parts producers like Bosch, Mako, Valeo, Johnson Controls, Delphi have been active in the city for decades. The textile and food industries are equally strong, with Coca-Cola, Pepsi Cola and other beverage brands, as well as fresh and canned food industries being present in the city's organized industrial zones.\n\nThe top 10 industry corporations in the Bursa province are as follows:\n\n* Oyak Renault\n* Tofaş Fiat\n* Bosch\n* Borçelik\n* Sütaş Dairy Products\n* Bursa Eczacılar Kooperatifi\n* Türk Prysmian Kablo\n* Özdilek\n* Asil Çelik\n* Componenta Döktaş\n\nApart from its large automotive industry, Bursa also produces a substantial amount of dairy products (by ), processed food (by ), and beverages (by ).\n\nTraditionally, Bursa was famous for being the largest centre of silk trade in the Byzantine and later the Ottoman empires, during the period of the lucrative Silk Road. The city is still a major centre for textiles in Turkey and is home to the Bursa International Textiles and Trade Centre (, or ). Bursa was also known for its fertile soil and agricultural activities, which have decreased in the recent decades due to the heavy industrialization of the city.\n\nBursa is a major centre for tourism. One of the most popular skiing resorts of Turkey is located at Mount Uludağ, just next to the city proper. Bursa's thermal baths have been used for therapeutical purposes since Roman times. Apart from the baths that are operated by hotels, Uludağ University has a physical therapy centre which also makes use of thermal water.\n", "Bursa has a metro (Bursaray), trams and bus system for inner-city public transport, while taxi cabs are also available. Bursa's Yenişehir Airport is away from the city centre. The citizens of Bursa also prefer Istanbul's airports such as Atatürk International Airport and Sabiha Gökçen International Airport for flights to foreign countries, due to Istanbul's proximity to Bursa. There are numerous daily bus and ferry services between the two cities.\n\nThe long Bursa Uludağ Gondola () connects Bursa with the ski resort areas high on the mountain Uludağ.\n\nThe only railway station in Bursa is the Harmancık station on the Balıkesir-Kütahya railway, which was opened in 1930.\n===Bursa Public Transportation Statistics===\nThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bursa, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 62 min. 12% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 18 min, while 31% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 8.1 km, while 17% travel for over 12 km in a single direction. \n", "Uludağ University\n\nBursa has two public universities and one private university. Uludağ University, founded in 1975, is the oldest institution of higher education in the city. Founded first as the Bursa University then renamed Uludağ University in 1982, the university has a student body of 47,000, one of the largest in Turkey. Bursa Technical University is the second public university of Bursa and was established in 2010, beginning education in the 2011–2012 academic year.\n\nThe first private university of Bursa was the Bursa Orhangazi University, which started education in the 2012–2013 academic year. However, Orhangazi University was shut down by the Turkish Government after the failed coup attempt of July 2016. Istanbul Commerce University has opened graduate programs in Bursa in 2013.\n", "\nThe city has one professional football club, Bursaspor, which competes in the Turkish Super League, the top-tier of Turkish football. As of December 21, the team plays their home games at ''The Timsah Arena'' stadium (literally meaning Crocodile Arena), which has a sitting capacity of 45,000. Bursaspor has won its first league title in the 2009–10 Turkish Super League season, becoming the second Anatolian club to ever win the league title after Trabzonspor. Today Bursaspor is considered one of the five biggest football clubs in Turkey along with Galatasaray SK, Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş, and Trabzonspor.\n\nThe city has a professional basketball team in the Turkish Basketball League, Tofaş S.K., which was among the most successful teams.\n\n", "\n===Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque)===\nUlu Cami (Grand Mosque), showing the fountain (şadırvan) for ritual ablutions.\n\nUlu Cami is the largest mosque in Bursa and a landmark of early Ottoman architecture, which carried many elements from the Seljuk architecture. Ordered by Sultan Bayezid I, the mosque was designed and built by architect Ali Neccar in 1396–1400. It is a large and rectangular building, with a total of twenty domes that are arranged in four rows of five, and are supported by 12 columns. Supposedly the twenty domes were built instead of the twenty separate mosques which Sultan Bayezid I had promised for winning the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The mosque has two minarets.\n\nInside the mosque there are 192 monumental wall inscriptions written by the famous calligraphers of that period. There is also a fountain (şadırvan) where worshipers can perform ritual ablutions before prayer; the dome over the şadırvan is capped by a skylight which creates a soft, serene light below; thus playing an important role in the illumination of the large building.\n\nThe horizontally spacious and dimly lit interior is designed to feel peaceful and contemplative. The subdivisions of space formed by multiple domes and pillars create a sense of privacy and even intimacy. This atmosphere contrasts with the later Ottoman mosques (see for example the works of Suleiman the Magnificent's chief architect Mimar Sinan.) The mosques that were built after the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and influenced by the design of the 6th century Byzantine basilica of Hagia Sophia, had increasingly elevated and large central domes, which create a vertical emphasis that is intended to be more overwhelming; in order to convey the divine power of Allah, the majesty of the Ottoman Sultan, and the governmental authority of the Ottoman State.\n\n===Places of interest===\nA brief list of places of interest in and around Bursa is presented below. For a longer list, see places of interest in Bursa.\n\n====Mosques and külliye complexes====\n\n* Bursa Grand Mosque and \n* Yeşil Mosque and \n* Bayezid I Mosque and \n* Muradiye Mosque and \n* Emir Sultan Mosque and \n* Orhan Gazi Mosque and \n* Hüdavendigar Mosque and \n* Koca Sinan Paşa Mosque and \n* İshak Paşa Mosque and \n* Karacabey Grand Mosque\n* Karabaş-i Veli Cultural Centre\n\n====Bazaars and caravanserais====\n* Yıldırım Bazaar\n* Koza Han\n* Pirinç Han\n\n====Other historic monuments====\n* Bursa Castle\n* Irgandı Bridge\n* Inkaya Sycamore, very big and impressive 600-year-old tree (Platanus Orientalis)\n\n====Museums====\nBursa Atatürk Museum\n* Bursa Archaeological Museum\n* Bursa City Museum\n* Bursa Atatürk Museum\n* Bursa Turkish Architecture Museum\n* Bursa Islamic Works Museum\n* Tofaş Museum of Cars and Anatolian Carriages\n* Armistice of Mudanya Museum\n* İznik Museum\n\n====Parks and gardens====\n* Uludağ National Park\n* Bursa Zoo and Botanical Garden\n\n====Hot springs and thermal baths====\n* Keramet hot spring\n* Çekirge hot spring\n* Armutlu hot spring\n* Oylat hot spring\n* Gemlik hot spring\n* Çelik Palas thermal bath\n\n====Beaches====\n* Armutlu beach\n* Kumla beach\n* Kurşunlu beach\n* Orhangazi beach\n* Mudanya beach\n'''Volunteer Organizations'''\n* Gönüllü Hareketi (Volunteer Movement)\n", "\n\nFile:Bursa 7055.jpg\|Statue of Atatürk and the Governorate of Bursa\nFile:Bursa Koza Han (Silk Bazaar) 2.jpg\|Koza Han (Silk Bazaar) in Bursa\nFile:Bursa001.jpg\|Entrance gate of the Yeşil Cami (Green Mosque)\nFile:Bursa Turkey 2013 1.jpg\|Bursa Castle\nFile:Muradiye Complex, exterior.jpg\|Muradiye Mosque and Külliye in Bursa\nFile:Bursa, Governorate.jpg\|Governorate of Bursa\nFile:Mudanya 13.jpg\|Ottoman era traditional houses in the Mudanya district of Bursa Province\nFile:Mudanya 10.jpg\|Port of Mudanya\nFile:Uludag range.JPG\|Mt. Uludağ is a popular winter sport destination\nFile:Sarıalan14Teleferik.JPG\|Bursa aerial tramway\nFile:Irgandi_Koprusu.jpg\|Irgandı Bridge (1442)\nFile:Bursa Atatürk Müzesi.JPG\|Atatürk Museum\nFile:Şehreküstü Mosque, Bursa.jpg\|Şehreküstü Mosque\nFile:Bursa Orhan Gazi Mosque.jpg\|Orhan Gazi Mosque\nFile:Emirsultan 1.JPG\|Emir Sultan Mosque\n\n\n", "\n\n\nBursa is twinned with:\n\n\n* Darmstadt, Germany, since 1971 (suspended by the mayor of Bursa End of March 2017)\n* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1972\n* Multan, Pakistan, since 1975\n* Oulu, Finland, since 1978\n* Tiffin, Ohio, United States, since 1983\n* Kairouan, Tunisia, since 1987\n* Denizli, Turkey, since 1988\n* Lefkoşa, Northern Cyprus, since 1990\n* Anshan, China, since 1991\n* Bitola, Macedonia, since 1996\n* Ceadîr-Lunga, Moldova, since 1997\n* Kyzylorda, Kazakhstan, since 1997\n* Muaskar, Algeria, since 1998\n* Kulmbach, Germany, since 1998\n* Pleven, Bulgaria, since 1998\n* Plovdiv, Bulgaria, since 1998\n* Tirana, Albania, since 1998\n* Košice, Slovakia, since 2000\n* Vinnytsia, Ukraine, since 2004\n* Van, Turkey, since 2008\n* Rabat, Morocco, since 2010\n* Bakhchysarai, Ukraine, since 2010\n* Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea, since 2011\n* Öskemen, Kazakhstan, since 2011\n\n", "* 1855 Bursa earthquake\n* Bursaray\n* Complex of Mehmed I\n* List of people from Bursa\n* Yenişehir Airport\n", "\n\n", ":''See also: Bibliography of the history of Bursa''\n", "\n\n* Bursa Uludag Ski Resort\n* Bursa İlçe İsimleri ve Haritası\n* Bursa Metropolitan Municipality\n* Bursa Oto Kiralama\n* Bursa Governorship\n* Bursa Kultur AS. (Bursa Metropolitan Municipality)\n* Tourism Guide of Bursa\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of Bursa", "Geography", "Economy", "Transportation", "Education", "Sports", "Main sights", "Images from Bursa", "Twin towns—Sister cities", " See also ", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Bursa
[ "\n\n\n'''Baker Island''' is an uninhabited atoll located just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean about southwest of Honolulu. The island lies almost halfway between Hawaii and Australia. Its nearest neighbor is Howland Island, to the north-northwest; both have been territories of the United States since 1857, though the United Kingdom considered them part of the British Empire between 1897 and 1936.\n\nLocated at . the island covers , with of coastline. The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall, constant wind, and strong sunshine. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef with a depressed central area devoid of a lagoon with its highest point being above sea level.\n\nThe island now forms the '''Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge''' and is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the U.S. which vouches for its defense. It is visited annually by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. For statistical purposes, Baker is grouped with the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Baker Island is also the last piece of land that experiences the New Year (earliest time zone).\n", "A cemetery and rubble from earlier settlements are located near the middle of the west coast, where the boat landing area is located. There are no ports or harbors, with anchorage prohibited offshore. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard, so there is a day beacon near the old village site. Baker's abandoned World War II runway, long, is completely covered with vegetation and is unserviceable.\n\nThe United States claims an Exclusive Economic Zone of and territorial sea of around Baker Island.\n\nDuring a 1935–1942 colonization attempt, the island was most likely on Hawaii time, which was then 10.5 hours behind UTC. Since it is uninhabited the island's time zone is unspecified, but it lies within a nautical time zone 12 hours behind UTC.\n", "Orthographic projection over Baker Island.\nBaker was discovered in 1818 by Captain Elisha Folger of the Nantucket whaling ship ''Equator'', who called the island \"New Nantucket\". In August 1825 Baker was sighted by Captain Obed Starbuck of the ''Loper'', also a Nantucket whaler. The island is named for Michael Baker, who visited the island in 1834. Other references state that he visited in 1832, and again on August 14, 1839, in the whaler ''Gideon Howland'', to bury an American seaman. Captain Baker claimed the island in 1855, then he sold his interest to a group who later formed the American Guano Company.\n\nThe United States took possession of the island in 1857, claiming it under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. Its guano deposits were mined by the American Guano Company from 1859 to 1878. On 7 December 1886, it sold all its rights to the British firm John T. Arundel and Company, which made the island its headquarters for guano digging operations in the Pacific from 1886 to 1891. Arundel applied in 1897 to the British Colonial Office for a licence to work the island on the presumption that the USA had abandoned their claim. The United Kingdom then considered Baker Island as a British territory, while never formally annexing it. The United States raised the question at the beginning of the 1920s and after some diplomatic exchanges, they launched in 1935 the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project and issued on May 1936 Executive Order 7358 to clarify their sovereignty.\n\nThis short-lived attempt at colonization, via the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project, begun when American colonists arrived aboard the USCGC ''Itasca'', the same vessel that brought colonists to neighboring Howland Island, on April 3, 1935. They built a lighthouse and substantial dwellings, and they attempted to grow various plants. The settlement was named Meyerton, after Captain H.A. Meyer of the United States Army, who helped establish the camps in 1935. One sad-looking clump of coconut palms was jokingly called King-Doyle Park after two well-known citizens of Hawaii who visited on the ''Taney'' in 1938. This clump was the best on the island, planted near a water seep, but the dry climate and seabirds, eager for anything upon which to perch, did not give the trees or shrubs much of a chance to survive. King-Doyle Park was later adopted as a geographic name by the USGS. Its population was four American civilians, all of whom were evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks. During World War II it was occupied by the U.S. military.\n", "\n\nOn August 11, 1943, a US Army defense force arrived on Baker Island as part of the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign. In September 1943 a airfield was opened and was subsequently used as a staging base by Seventh Air Force B-24 Liberator bombers for attacks on Mili Atoll. The 45th Fighter Squadron operating P-40 fighters operated from the airfield from September 1 - November 27, 1943. By January 1, 1944 the airfield was abandoned.\n", "LORAN radio navigation station Baker was a radio operations base in operation from September 1944 to July 1946. The station unit number was 91 and the radio call sign was NRN-1.\n", "U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service aerial view of Baker Island\nBaker has no natural fresh water sources. It is treeless, with sparse vegetation consisting of four kinds of grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs. The island is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.\n\nSeveral varieties of shorebirds and other species inhabit the island and nearby waters, some considered endangered. The ruddy turnstone, bar-tailed godwit, sanderling and Pacific golden plover are considered species of least concern. The bristle-thighed curlew is considered vulnerable on the national conservation priority scheme. Green turtles and hawksbill turtles, both critically endangered, can be found along the reef.\n\nSeabird species such as the lesser frigatebird, brown noddy and sooty tern use the island for nesting and roosting. The island is also believed to be a rest stop for arctic-breeding shorebirds.\n", "On June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within of the island. The refuge now includes of land and of water. Baker, along with six other islands, was administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. In January 2009, that entity was redesignated the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.\n\nEnvironmental challenges include abandoned military debris from World War II and illegal fishing offshore. Invasive exotics introduced by human activity, including cockroaches and coconut palms, have also displaced native wildlife. Feral cats, first introduced in 1937, were eradicated in 1965.\n\nPublic entry to the island is only by special use permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and it is generally restricted to scientists and educators. Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, usually coordinating transportation with a NOAA vessel.\n", "Debris from past human occupation is scattered throughout the island and in offshore waters. Most is from the U.S. military occupation of the island from 1942 to 1946. The most noticeable remnant is the airstrip. It is completely overgrown with vegetation and is unusable. In the northeast section, apparently the main camp area, are the remains of several buildings and heavy equipment. Five wooden antenna poles about in height remain standing in the camp. Debris from several crashed airplanes and large equipment such as bulldozers is scattered around the island. Numerous bulldozer excavations containing the remnants of metal, fuel and water drums are scattered about the north central portion and northern edge of the island. The Navy reported the loss of 11 landing craft in the surf during World War II.\n", "\nFile:Baker Island Coastline.jpg\|Baker Island coastline with red-footed booby\nFile:Fish and Wildlife sign on Baker Island.jpg\|Fish and Wildlife sign\nFile:Baker Island Day Beacon content.jpg\|Hermit crabs taking shade in day beacon\nFile:Baker settlement remains.jpg\|Settlement remains, radio mast in background\nFile:Baker Island Gravesite.JPG\|Masked booby on gravestone\nFile:Baker Radio Towers.jpg\|Brown noddies with radio masts in background\nFile:Baker Island wreck.JPG\|Landing craft wreckage on Baker Island coast\n\n", "\n* 64th Coast Artillery (United States)\n* Howland and Baker islands, includes coverage of the Howland-Baker EEZ\n* History of the Pacific Islands\n* List of Guano Island claims\n* List of islands of the United States\n* United States Minor Outlying Islands\n* List of lighthouses in United States Minor Outlying Islands\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge\n* Baker Island. This article incorporates material from The World Factbook 2000.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "History", "Airfield", "LORAN Station Baker", "Flora and fauna", "National Wildlife Refuge", "Ruins and artifacts", "Gallery", "See also", " References ", "External links" ]	Baker Island
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Bassas da India''' is an uninhabited, roughly circular French atoll that is part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Located in the southern Mozambique Channel, about halfway between Mozambique and Madagascar (about further east) and around northwest of Europa Island, the rim of the atoll averages around 100 m in width and encloses a shallow lagoon of depth no greater than 15 m. Overall, the atoll is about in diameter, rising steeply from the seabed 3000 m below to encircle an area (including lagoon) of . Its exclusive economic zone (EEZ), in size, is contiguous with that of Europa Island.\n\nThe atoll consists of ten barren rocky islets, with no vegetation, totalling 0.2 km² (.077 sq mi) in area. Those on the north and east sides are 2.1 to 3 m high, while those on the west and south sides are 1.2 m high. The reef, whose coastline measures , is completely covered by the sea from three hours before high tide to three hours afterward. The region is also subject to cyclones, making the atoll a long-time maritime hazard and the site of numerous shipwrecks.\n\nJaguar Seamount and Hall Tablemount lie, respectively, about 40 and 70 km further southwest.\n", "\nFile:Bassas da India atoll map-fr.png\|Detailed map.\nFile:Bassas_da_india.jpg\|ISS photograph.\nFile:Bassas da India.png\|Landsat 7 image.\nFile:Bassas da India-CIA WFB Map.png\|CIA WFB map.\nFile:Bassas da india 76.jpg\|CIA map.\nFile:Bassas da India in Sunglint.jpg\|ISS image of Bassas da India with varying degrees of sunglint.\n\n", "\nThe Bassas da India was first recorded by Portuguese explorers in the early sixteenth century as the \"'''''Baixo da'' Judia'''\" (\"''Jewess'' Shoals\"). The ''Judia'' (\"''Jewess''\", for the ancestry of its owner Fernão de Loronha) was the Portuguese ship that discovered the feature by running aground on it in 1506. The name became \"'''Bassas da India'''\" due to transcription errors by cartographers. The ''Santiago'' broke up on the shoal in 1585.\n\nIt was rediscovered by the ''Europa'' in 1774, whence the name \"Europa Rocks\". The ''Malay'' was lost 27 July 1842 on the Europa Rocks.\n\nIn 1897, the shoal became a French possession, later being placed under the administration of a commissioner residing in Réunion in 1968. Madagascar became independent in 1960 and claims sovereignty over the shoal since 1972.\n", "\nMooring at Bassas da India requires a permit from the French Government. Fishing without such a permit may result in the boat being expelled or even confiscated.\nSeveral illegal tourism charters departing from Mozambique or South Africa have been seized since 2013 by the French navy.\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n Sailing Directions: East Africa and the South Indian Ocean\n*.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Gallery", " History ", " Tourism ", " References ", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Bassas da India
[ "The '''Government of Barbados''' (GoB), is headed by the monarch, Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State. Since 1 June 2012, the Queen has been represented by the Governor-General, Sir Elliott Belgrave, G.C.M.G., K.A.\n\nThe country has a bicameral legislature and a political party system, based on universal adult suffrage and fair elections. The Senate has 21 members, appointed by the Governor-General on behalf of the monarch, 12 on the advice of the Prime Minister, two on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, and seven in the Governor-General’s sole discretion. The House of Assembly has 30 members, all elected. Both houses debate all legislation. However, the House of Assembly may override Senate's rejection of money bills and other bills except bills amending the Constitution.\n\nOfficers of each house (President and Deputy President of the Senate; Speaker, Deputy Speaker, and Chairman of Committees of the Assembly) are elected from the members of the respective houses.\n\nIn keeping with the Westminster system of governance, Barbados has evolved into an independent parliamentary democracy and Constitutional monarchy, meaning that all political power rests with the Parliament under a non-political monarch as head of state, which allows stability. Executive authority is vested in the monarch, who normally acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, who are collectively responsible to Parliament. Barbadian law is rooted in English common law, and the Constitution of Barbados implemented in 1966, is the supreme law of the land.\n\nBarbados PM Freundel Stuart announced that Barbados would become a republic before the 50th anniversary of independence in 2016. Barbados will replace the Governor General as head of state with a ceremonial president. However Barbados will still retain association with the crown through membership within the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\nFundamental rights and freedoms of the individual are set out in the Constitution and are protected by a strict legal code.\n\nThe Cabinet is headed by the Prime Minister, who must be an elected member of Parliament, and other ministers are appointed from either chamber by the Governor-General, as advised by the Prime Minister.\n\nThe Governor-General appoints as Leader of the Opposition the member of House of Assembly who commands the support of the largest number of members of that House in opposition to the ruling party's government.\n\nThe maximum duration of a Parliament is five years from the first sitting. There is a simultaneous dissolution of both Houses of Parliament by the Governor-General, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister.\n\nThere is an established non-political civil service. Also, there are separate constitutional commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service, the Public Service, and the Police Service.\n", "A simplified diagram of the Barbados government\nThe government has been chosen by elections since 1961 elections, when Barbados achieved full self-governance. Before then, the government was a Crown colony consisting of either colonial administration solely (such as the Executive Council), or a mixture of colonial rule and a partially elected assembly, such as the Legislative Council. \n\nSince independence the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) governed from 1976 to 1986, and from September 1994 – 2008. The Democratic Labour Party (DLP) held office 1966 to 1976, from 1986 to 1994, and has formed the Government January 2008 to present.\n", "The Executive Branch of government conducts the ordinary business of government. These functions are called out by the Prime Minister or president and cabinet ministers. The prime minister chooses the ministers of government they wish to have in the cabinet but they are actually appointed by the governor general.\n", "The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the nation. The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary. Historically, Barbadian law was based entirely on English common law with a few local adaptations. At the time of independence, the Parliament of the United Kingdom lost its ability to legislate for Barbados, but the existing English and British common law and statutes in force at that time, together with other measures already adopted by the Barbadian Parliament, became the basis of the new country's legal system.\n\nLegislation may be shaped or influenced by such organisations as the United Nations, the Organization of American States, or other international bodies to which Barbados has obligatory commitments by treaty. Additionally, through international co-operation, other institutions may supply the Barbados Parliament with key sample legislation to be adapted to meet local circumstances before enacting it as local law.\n\nNew acts are passed by the Barbadian Parliament and require royal assent by the Governor-General to become law.\n", "\n\nThe Judiciary is the legal system through which punishments are handed out to individuals who break the law. The Judiciary also settles disputes.\nThe Functions of The judiciary:\n°To Enforce Laws\n°To interpret Laws\n°To conduct court hearings\n°To hear court appeals\n\nThe local court system of Barbados is made up of:\nMagistrates' Courts: Covering Criminal, Civil, Domestic, Domestic Violence, and Juvenile matters. But can also take up matters dealing with Coroner's Inquests, Liquor Licences, and civil marriages. Further, the Magistrates' Courts deal with Contract and Tort law where claims do not exceed $10,000.00.\nThe Supreme Court: is made up of High Court and Court of Appeals.\nHigh Court: Consisting of Civil, Criminal, and Family law divisions.\nCourt of Appeal: Handles appeals from the High Court and Magistrates' Court. It hears appeals in both the civil, and criminal law jurisdictions. It may consist of a single Justice of Appeal sitting in Chambers; or may sit as a Full Court of three Justices of Appeals.\nThe Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), (based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago), is the court of last resort (final jurisdiction) over Barbadian law. It replaced the London-based Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC). The CCJ may resolve other disputed matters dealing with the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME).\n", "Transparency International ranked Barbados as 17th place (of 179) in the world on its corruption perceptions index in 2010, with only one nation scoring better in the Americas. ()\n", " Politics of Barbados\n* Monarchy of Barbados\n* Parliament of Barbados\n* Prime Minister of Barbados\n* Cabinet of Barbados\n* List of government budgets by country\n* List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP\n", "\n", "\n", "\nFile:Barbadian Prime Minister's Office.jpg\|Office of the Prime Minister\nFile:Government Headquarters2 (Cabinet Office), Barbados.jpg\|The Cabinet Office in the Government Headquarters complex \nFile:Government Headquarters (Cabinet Office), Barbados.jpg\|Main entrance to the Government Headquarters complex, with a statue of Sir Grantley Adams in the foreground\n\n", "\n* Barbadian Government Website\n* The Barbados Governmental System, Photius Coutsoukis\n* Barbados Government statement on the proper titles for members of Government\n* Social Security provided by the Government of Barbados\n* Laws of Barbados, The World Law Guide\n* Laws of Barbados, The World Intellectual Property Organization\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Executive branch ", "Law", "Judicial branch ", "Perception", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "Gallery", " External links " ]	Government of Barbados
[ "\n\nThe '''Government of the Republic of Belarus''' (), which consists of the '''Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus''' (), is the executive branch of state power in Belarus, and it is appointed by the President of Belarus. The head of the Government is the Prime Minister of Belarus, who manages the main agenda of the government and direct the ministers.\n\n\n", "Below are the 32 members of the Council of Ministers as of January 2016. The Prime Minister, the head of his administration, the chairman of the State Control Committee, the five deputy prime ministers and three selected ministers together form the Presidium of the Council of Ministers. These officials are highlighted in yellow.\n\n\n Prime Minister\nAndrei Kobyakov\n\n Chief of staff to the President of Belarus\nAlexander Kosinets\n\n Chairman of the State Control Committee\nLeonid Anfimov\n\n First Deputy Prime Minister\nVasily Matyushevsky\n\n Deputy Prime Minister\nAnatoly Kalinin\n\n Deputy Prime Minister\nNatalia Kochanova\n\n Deputy Prime Minister\nMikhail Rusyi\n\n Deputy Prime Minister\nVladimir Semashko\n\n Minister of Agriculture and Food\nLeonid Zayats\n\n Minister of Architecture and Construction\nAnatoly Cherny\n\n Minister of Communication and Informatization\nSergei Popkov\n\n Minister of Culture\nBoris Svetlov\n\n Minister of Defence\nAndrei Ravkov\n\n Minister of Economy\nVladimir Zinovsky\n\n Minister of Education\nMihail Zhuravkov\n\n Minister of Emergency Situations\nVladimir Vashchenko\n\n Minister of Energy\nVladimir Potupchik\n\n Minister of Finance\nVladimir Amarin\n\n Minister of Foreign Affairs\nVladimir Makei\n\n Minister of Forestry\nMikhail Amelianovich\n\n Minister of Public Health\nVasily Zharko\n\n Minister of Housing and Communal Services\nAlexandr Terekhov\n\n Minister of Industry\nVitaly Vovk\n\n Minister of Information\nLiliya Ananich\n\n Minister of Internal Affairs\nIgor Shunevich\n\n Minister of Justice\nOleg Slizhevsky\n\n Minister of Labour and Social Protection\nMarianna Shchetkina\n\n Minister of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection\nAndrei Kovkhuto\n\n Minister of Tax Collection\nSergey Nalivaiko\n\n Minister of Trade\nVladimir Koltovich\n\n Minister of Transport and Communications\nAnatoly Sivak\n\n Minister of Sports and Tourism\nAlexander Shamko\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n State Security Committee\nValery Vakulchik\n\n State Military-Industrial Committee\nSergei Gurulev\n\n State Committee on Property\nAndrey Gaev\n\n State Science and Technology Committee\nVictor Nazarenko\n\n State Border Committee\nLeonid Maltsev\n\n State Customs Committee\nYuri Senko\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n State Food Industry Concern\nAlexander Zabello\n\n State Petroleum and Chemicals Concern\nIgor Lyashenko\n\n State Light Industry Goods Production and Sales Concern\nNikolay Efimchik\n\n Production and Trade Concern of Forestry, Woodworking and Pulp-and-Paper Industry\nYuri Nazarov\n\n Republican Union of Consumer Cooperatives\nValery Ivanov\n\n Republican Centre for Sanatorium-and-Spa Treatment\nGennady Bolbatovsky\n\n Commissioner for Religions and Nationalities\nLeonid Gouliako\n\n", "Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the preceding supreme state power in Belarus\n", " Government structure, Council of Ministers of Belarus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Council of Ministers", "Chairmen of the State Committees", "Heads of the subordinate agencies", "See also", "References" ]	Government of Belarus
[ "\n'''Telecommunications in Belarus''' involves the availability and use of electronic devices and services, such as the telephone, television, radio or computer, for the purpose of communication.\n", "\n* Telephone lines in use: 3,9741 million (2011).\n* Mobile/cellular: 10.3 million (2011).\n* The phone calling code for Belarus is +375.\n\nThe Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications originating within the country through its carrier unitary enterprise, Beltelecom.\nTelephone booths in Minsk, September 2007 Minsk has a digital metropolitan network; waiting lists for telephones are long; fixed line penetration is improving although rural areas continue to be undeserved; intercity - Belarus has developed a fibre-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998). Belarus's fibre optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems.\n\n===International connection===\nBelarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fibre-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fibre-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations.\n\nIn 2006 it was announced that Belarus and Russia completed the second broadband link between the two countries, the Yartsevo-Vitebsk cable. The capacity of this high speed terrestrial link which based on DWDM and STM technology is 400Gbit/s with the ability to upgrade in the future.\n\n===Cellular communications===\nBelarus has 3 GSM/UMTS operators - Velcom, MTS, life. For 4G data operators use the infrastructure managed by state operator beCloud , VoLTE service currently is not offered.\n", "\"Mass Media in Belarus\" exhibition. \"Mass Media for Diaspora\" booth. 5 May 2005\n\n* Television broadcast stations: 100 of which 59 are privately owned.\n\nBelarus has switched from an analog to digital broadcast television. The process finished in May 2015. Belarus broadcasts according to the DVB-T2 standard with MPEG-4 compression.\n\n* Radio broadcast stations: 173 with 24 privately owned, including 30 FM stations.\n* Radios: 3.02 million (1997).\n", "* Country code: .by\n\nThe state telecom monopoly, Beltelecom, holds the exclusive interconnection with Internet providers outside of Belarus. Beltelecom owns all the backbone channels that linked to the Lattelecom, TEO LT, Tata Communications (former Teleglobe), Synterra, Rostelecom, Transtelekom and MTS ISP's. Beltelecom is the only operator licensed to provide commercial VoIP services in Belarus.\n\nUntil 2005-2006 broadband access (mostly using ADSL) was available only in a few major cities in Belarus. In Minsk there were a dozen privately owned ISP's and in some larger cities Beltelecom's broadband was available. Outside these cities the only options for Internet access were dial-up from Beltelecom or GPRS/cdma2000 from mobile operators. In 2006 Beltelecom introduced a new trademark, ''Byfly'', for its ADSL access. As of 2008 Byfly was available in all administrative centres of Belarus. Other ISPs are expanding their broadband networks beyond Minsk as well.\n\nInternet use:\n* According to a 2006 survey of 1,500 adults by Satio, a third of Belarusians use the Internet—38% of the urban population and 16% of the rural population.\n* A 2006 study by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development indicates 56.5% of Belarus' population were internet-users.\n* The International Telecommunications Union showed Internet penetration (Internet users per 100 population) in 2009 at 27% for Belarus, 42% for Serbia, 37% for Romania, 29% for Russia, and 17% for Ukraine.\n* According to Internet World Stats, Internet penetration in June 2010 was 47.5%. For comparison, Internet penetration in the Ukraine was 33.7%, in Romania 35.5%, Russia 42.8%, and Serbia 55.9%.\n\nThe most active Internet users in Belarus belong to the 17–22 age group (38 percent), followed by users in the 23–29 age group. Internet access in Belarus is predominantly urban, with 60 percent of users living in the capital Minsk. The profile of the average Internet user is male, university educated, living in the capital, and working in a state enterprise. The Ministry for Statistics and Analysis estimates that one in four families in Belarus owns a computer at home. The popularity of Internet cafés has fallen in recent years, as most users prefer to access the Internet from home or work. Russian is the most widely used language by Belarusians on the Internet, followed by Belarusian, English, and Polish.\n\nIn mid-2009 there were more than 22,300 Belarusian Web sites, of which roughly 13,500 domain names were registered with the top-level domain name \".by\".\n\nIn June 2011 E-Belarus.org listed:\n\n* 2 ISPs in the Brest region, 4 in the Gomel region, 1 in the Grodno region, 26 in the Minsk region, 1 in the Mogilev region, and 1 in the Vitebsk region\n* 4 ADSL providers\n* 3 technology parks\n* 2 educational networks\n* more than 30 Internet cafes and Wi-Fi Hotspots\n", "\nMany western human rights groups state that civil rights and free expression are severely limited in Belarus, though there are some individuals and groups that refuse to be controlled and some journalists have disappeared.\n\nBecause the Belarus government limits freedom of expression, several opposition media outlets are broadcast from nearby countries to help provide Belorussians an alternative points of view. This includes the Polish state-owned Belsat TV station and European Radio for Belarus (Eŭrapéjskaje Rádyjo dla Biełarúsi)\n\nReporters Without Borders ranked Belarus 157th out of 178 countries in its 2014 Press Freedom Index. By comparison, the same index ranked neighbor Ukraine, 126th and Russia, 148th.\n\nIn the 2011 Freedom House ''Freedom of the Press report'', Belarus scored 92 on a scale from 10 (most free) to 99 (least free), because the government allegedly systematically curtails press freedom. This score placed Belarus 9th from the bottom of the 196 countries included in the report and earned the country a \"Not Free\" status.\n", "\n\n", "* The Ministry of Information of the Republic of Belarus (Belarusian)\n* The Ministry of Communications and Informatization of the Republic of Belarus (Belarusian)\n* Media in Belarus, e-Belarus.org\n* Mass media in Belarus on the official website of the Republic of Belarus\n\n'''Major telecommunications operators in Belarus (in Belarusian)''':\n* Beltelecom\n* MTS (GSM)\n* Velcom (GSM)\n* Life (GSM)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Telephone system", "Radio and television", "Internet", " Limited free expression ", "References", "External links" ]	Telecommunications in Belarus
[ "M1 highway at Orsha\n\nA Trolleybus in Brest\nDaugava river in Vitebsk\nThe autobus station of Gomel\n\nThis article is about '''transport in Belarus'''.\n", "\nRail transport in Belarus is operated by Belarusskaya Chyhunka\n''total:''\n\n''country comparison to the world:'' 32\n''broad gauge:''\n of gauge ( electrified) (2006)\n\nCity with underground railway system: Minsk, see Minsk Metro\nFor tramway systems: see List of town tramway systems in Belarus\n", "\n\nThe owners of highways may be the Republic of Belarus, its political subdivisions, legal and natural persons, who own roads, as well as legal entities, which roads are fixed on the basis of economic or operational management.\n\nRepublican state administration in the field of roads and road activity is the Department Belavtodor under the Ministry of Transport and Communications of the Republic of Belarus.\n\nIn total, in Belarus there are more than of roads and of departmental thousand (agriculture, industry, forestry, etc.), including in cities and towns. The density of paved roads has been relatively low – 337 km per 1,000 km2 territory – for comparison, in European countries with well-developed road network, the figure is an average of .\n\n''total:''\n\n''paved:''\n (2003)\n", " (use limited by location on perimeter of country and by shallowness) (2003)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 37\n", "gas ; oil ; refined products (2008)\n", "* Mazyr - on the river Pripyat\n", "65 (2008):\n''country comparison to the world:'' 76\n\n* Minsk International Airport\n* Minsk-1\n* Gomel Airport\n\n=== Airports - with paved runways ===\n\n''total:''\n35\n''over :''\n2\n'':''\n22\n'':''\n4\n'':''\n1\n''under :''\n6 (2008)\n\n=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===\n''total:''\n30\n'':''\n1\n'':''\n1\n'':''\n2\n''under :''\n26 (2008)\n\n=== Heliports ===\n1 (2007)Heliports is where helicopter land.\n\n=== National air-carrier ===\nBelavia\n", "Transport in the Soviet Union\nVehicle registration plates of Belarus\n", "\n\n", " Automobiles, Trains And Buses - Getting Around Belarus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Railways ", " Highways ", " Waterways ", " Pipelines ", " Ports and harbors ", " Airports ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Transport in Belarus
[ "\nThe '''Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus''' (Belarusian: ''Узброеныя сілы Рэспублікі Беларусь – УС РБ'', ''Uzbrojenyja sily Respubliki Bielaruś'', Russian: ''Boopyжённыe cилы Pecпyблики Бeлapycь'', ''Vooruzhennye sily Respubliki Belarus'') consist of the Ground Forces and the Air and Air Defence Forces, all under the command of the Republic of Belarus Ministry of Defence. Being a landlocked country, Belarus has no navy.\n\nIn 2007 the IISS estimated that personnel in the armed forces numbered 72,940 (IISS 2007), although a reduction to 60,000 was planned. Most soldiers are conscripts serving for a period 12 months (with higher education) or 18 month (without).\n\nThe previous Belarusian National Republic of March 1918 to 1919 did not have time to create armed forces in its brief existence, although attempts to create a military have been documented. The Republic of Belarus has conducted effective military reforms within the last decade which have reshaped its armed forces as a relatively effective force for a small state in somewhat difficult economic conditions.\n\nThe '''Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Belarus''' (Russian: Министерство обороны Республики Беларусь, Belarusian: Мiнiстэрства абароны Рэспублікі Беларусь) is the government organisation that is charged with the duties of raising and maintaining the Armed Forces of Belarus. The formation of the ministry began in 1992, after the events of 1991 in which the Soviet Union had effectively dissolved. Seven officers have served as Minister of Defence of Belarus: Petr Chaus, Pavel Kozlovskii, Anatoly Kostenko, Leonid Maltsev (1995–96), Colonel General Alexander Chumakov, a Russian officer, (1996–2001), Yuriy Zhadobin (2009–2014), and Andrei Ravkov (2014-current).\n", "Until 1991 the Soviet Belorussian Military District comprised the 5th Guards Tank Army (HQ Bobruisk), the 7th Tank Army (HQ Borisov), the 28th Army (HQ Grodno), the 120th Guards Motor Rifle Division, the 72nd Guards United Training Center and logistical units and formations. In addition to these troops Belarus was host to centrally controlled formations, namely the 103rd Guards Airborne Division, the 38th Guards Airborne Brigade, the 11th Air Defence Corps of the 2nd Air Defence Army, the 26th Air Army and also units and formations of the Strategic Rocket Forces, Long Range Aviation, the Navy and special forces.\n\nIn late 1991 the 5th Guards Tank Army comprised the 30th Guards Motor Rifle Division, newly arrived from Czechoslovakia, and the 193rd Tank Division, plus two armament and equipment storage bases (the former 8th Guards and 29th Tank Divisions), and army troops. The 7th Tank Army comprised the 3rd Guards Tank Division, 34th, and 37th Guards Tank Divisions, plus army troops. The 28th Army comprised four divisions, one of which was a low-status mobilisation division. Also arriving from the Southern Group of Forces in Hungary was the 19th Guards Tank Division.\n\nOn September 20, 1991 the Supreme Soviet of Belarus passed resolution \"On the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus\" and on January 11, 1992 resolution \"On the Armed Forces deployed in the territory of the Republic of Belarus.\" On March 18, 1992 the parliament passed resolution \"On the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus\" that bound the government \"to start the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus as of March 20, 1992\" and \"to submit to the Supreme Soviet for approval the suggested structure of the Armed Forces, their size and order of their material and technical supplies\".\n\nOn May 6, 1992 the Belorussian Military District was abolished. The Belarusian Ministry of Defence and the Main Staff were formed from its resources. The former first deputy commander and military district Chief of Staff, Lieutenant-General P P Kozlovskiy, was appointed Minister of Defence on 22 April 1992, taking over from acting Minister of Defence Colonel-General Petr Chaus.\n\nOn November 3, 1992, Belarus passed the law \"On the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus\" defining the status, structure and guiding principles of the Armed Forces. After the introduction of presidency the law was amended twice: on September 4, 1996 and on November 9, 1999 but on the whole the law retains its initial contents.\n\nOn January 1, 1993 all service personnel on Belarusian soil were required to either take an oath of loyalty to Belarus, or leave. This oath however did not alleviate concerns regarding loyalty to Russia in time of crisis, especially since nearly 50% of all military personnel were ethnically Russian at the end of 1992.\n\nIn June 1995, President Lushenko issued a decree on the Mobile Forces. By June 1996, they comprised a headquarters in Vitebsk, two brigades drawn from the 103rd Guards Airborne Division, the 38th Independent Mobile Brigade (Brest, Belarus), an air transport regiment, and communications, logistics, and engineer units.\n\nMembership in the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as the 1996 treaty on the Union of Russia and Belarus and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State in 1999, confirmed a close partnership with Russia. Much of the air defence system is integrated into the Russian air defence network, and in 2006 the two nations signed an agreement on the creation of a unified air defence system.\n", "Belarus government websites say that the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Belarus is supported by Central Command Support Elements and the General Staff of the Armed Forces.\nCombat Support Elements of the Armed Forces included Reconnaissance, Electronic Warfare, Signals, Engineer, NBC Defence, Navigation and Topography, and Maintenance organisations. Logistic Elements of the Armed Forces provided Material Support, Logistic Support, Medical Support, Veterinarian Support, and Military Construction.\n\nIn 1995 the Military Academy of Belarus was set up on the basis of two military educational institutions – the Minsk Air Defence and Rocket School of the Soviet Air Defence Forces and the Minsk Higher Military Command School. Its 10 departments train officers of 38 specialties for practically all arms of service. Also in 1995 it was given the status of a government institution of secondary special military education for young men.\n\n===Belarus Ground Forces===\n\nThe Library of Congress said that in 1994 Belarus had ground forces of 52,500. They were organized into three corps headquarters, two motor divisions, one airborne division, the 51st Guards Artillery Division at Osipovichi, three mechanized divisions, one airborne brigade, three surface-to-surface missile brigades, two antitank brigades, one special duties brigade, and seven anti-aircraft missile brigades. Equipment included 3,108 main battle tanks (seventy-nine T-54, 639 T-55, 291 T-62, 299 T-64, eight T-80, and 1,800 T-72), 419 medium-range launchers, sixty surface to-surface missiles, and 350 surface-to-air missiles.\n\nIn 1993 the 7th Tank Army was reorganised as the 7th Army Corps. In 1994 the 7th Army Corps was redesignated as the 65th Army Corps, still located at Borisov.\n\nBy January 1, 1995, the composition of the Belarusian ground forces had changed. The Library of Congress estimated at the time that Ministry of Defence forces included the 103rd Guards Airborne Division and the 38th Separate Assault-Landing Brigade; the 28th Army Corps (Grodno Region and Brest Region), composed of headquarters at Grodno, the 6th Separate Mechanised Infantry Brigade, the 11th Guards Mechanised Infantry Brigade, the 50th Separate Mechanised Infantry Brigade, the Armament and Equipment base, and corps units (missile troops, antiaircraft, chemical and engineer troops, signals, and rear services); the 65th Army Corps (Minsk and Vitebsk Regions), composed of headquarters at Borisov, three armament and equipment bases, and corps units; and the 5th Guards Army Corps (Minsk and Mahilyow regions) made up of headquarters at Babruysk, the 30th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade, two Armament and Equipment bases, and corps units.\n\nActually, the 103rd Guards Airborne Division had been reorganized as Headquarters, Mobile Forces, in 1993.\nOn 1 August 1996 the 51st Guards Artillery Division was reorganised as the 51st Guards Central Group of Artillery, still located at Osipovichi.\n\nOn 21 December 2001, a major reorganisation of the Ground Forces produced two operational-territorial commands, formed from two former corps headquarters. All Belarus ground forces were now grouped within these two commands, the Western Operational Command at Grodno, former from the previous 28th Army Corps, the former Soviet 28th Army, and the North Western Operational Command, the former 65th Army Corps, at Barysaw (Borisov).\n\nSince about 2001, territorial defence forces, which as of 2002 number around 150,000, have been forming, organised into battalions, companies, and platoons spread across Belarus.\n\nIn 2007, the Land Forces consisted of 29,600 soldiers (6th Guards Mechanised Brigade (Grodno), 11th Guards Mechanized Brigade at Slonim, the 120th Guards Mechanised Brigade (Minsk), 38th and 103rd Mobile Brigades (organized similarly to Soviet airborne regiments, not all of them are equipped with BMD-1), 5th Spetsnaz Brigade (Maryina Horka), five artillery brigades and four regiments, two MRL regiments, 15th, 29th, 115th, 120th and 302nd SAM Brigades, two SSM brigades, two brigades and one regiment of engineers, 8th independent NBC Brigade, two signals brigades, 40th independent NBC battalion. Army equipment includes 1800 main battle tanks (MBT) and 2600 AFV/APC. The weapons and equipment storage bases include the 50th (Brest), 19th, 34th & 37th (former tank divisions), 3rd, and 28th (Baranovichi). Weapons storage bases that have been disbanded include the 29th, 30th, 193rd, and the storage base that used to be the 8th Guards Tank Division at Marina Gorka.\n\nIn 2012, it is reported that there are six mechanised brigades in the Ground Forces: three full-strength, the 6th (Grodno), 11th (Slonim), and 120th Guards Mechanised Brigade at Minsk. The others are at reduced strength, where there is one battalion, the 19th (Zaslonova), 37th, and 50th (Baranovichi).\n\n===Air Force and Air Defence Forces===\nIn 2007 the Air Force and Air Defence Force of Belarus (AF & ADF) consisted of 18,170 personnel (two fighter/interceptor bases, four FGA/reconnaissance squadrons, one transport air base, training aircraft, and attack and support helicopters, SAM units). Air Force equipment included in 2004 260 fighter-ground attack/training aircraft and 80 attack helicopters. According to Belarus government websites, the Air Forces now have two commands, the Western Operational-Tactical Command and the North-Western Operational-Tactical Command.\n\nThe 61st and 927th Air Bases have now merged into the 61st (fighter) Air Base at Baranovichi, flying MiG-29s and Su-27s, and the 206th Air Base (Ross) has merged into the 116th Guards Assault Air Base at Lida, flying Su-25s.\n\n===Internal Troops===\nThe Internal Troops were formed from the former Soviet Internal Troops after the collapse of the Soviet Union. They consist of three independent brigades and seven independent battalions (consecutively numbered). Among the Internal Troop formations is the 3rd Red Banner separate special purpose Brigade (V/Ch 3214, located in Minsk, in the district Uruchcha, \"Uruchenskaya Brigade\"). This brigade performs crowd control, combating terrorism tasks, and can assist border guards in case of complications. In addition, the brigade has been training for combined arms operations in the event of armed conflict. It was formed in the 1990s on the base of the 334th Regiment of the 120th 'Rogachev' Guards Motor Rifle Division.\n", "The Government Directive of 20 March 1992 ‘On the Establishment of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus’ founded the Belarusian army. The Soviet troops of the BMD were smoothly converted into Belarusian military units. Yet one of the first tasks of the Belarusian government was a reduction in its numbers. 240,000 soldiers and officers were serving in the Belarusian Military District. By early 2013 the numbers of military personnel had been scaled down nearly fourfold since 1991. In February 2014, Belorusskaya Voyennaya Gazeta, the official publication of the\nMinistry of Defense revealed that the Belarusian Armed Forces contains about 59,500 personnel, including 46,000 soldiers and 13,000 civilians.\n", "BTR-D\nThe military forces of Belarus are exclusively armed with Soviet-era equipment inherited from the Soviet Union. Although large in numbers, some Western experts consider some of it outdated. The MBTs are of Russian type T-72, T-62, and T-55, the APCs and IFVs are of Russian type MT-LB, BMP-2, BMP-1, and the BMD-1, and Russian type trucks are the GAZ-66 and the KAMAZ-6560. The Air Force is equipped with MiG-29 fighters, Su-25 bombers, as well as Mi-8, Mi-24, and some old, Polish built Mi-2 helicopters. In December 2005, Belarus bought 10 L-39C jet trainer aircraft from the Ukraine, and plans have been announced to buy around 18 used Su-30K fighters that were originally sent to India for a time. In 2006, four batteries (''divizions'' in Russian terminology; about 6 systems each) of S-300 anti-aircraft systems were acquired from Russia to reinforce the Joint CIS Air Defense System.\n\n===Tanks===\n\n\n Name\n Type\n Country of origin\n Quantity\nPhoto\n Notes\n\n T-80 \n Main Battle Tank \n \n 69 \nframeless\n T-80B Version.\n\n T-72 \n Main Battle Tank \n \n 446 \nframeless \n Mainly T-72B version. Four mechanized brigades. \n\n\n\n===Infantry Fighting Vehicles===\n\n\n Name\n Type\n Country of origin\n Quantity\n Photo\n Notes \n\n BMP-2 \n Infantry Fighting Vehicle \n \n 875 \nframeless\n Four mechanized brigades.\n\n BMP-1 \n Infantry Fighting Vehicle \n \n 136 \nframeless \n BRM-1 version\n\n\n\n===Armored Personal Carrier===\n\n\n\n Name\n Type\n Country of origin\n Quantity\nPhoto\n Notes\n\n BTR-80 \n Armoured Personnel Carrier \n \n 153 \nframeless\n In Special Forces.\n\n BTR-70 \n Armoured Personnel Carrier \n \n 39 \nframeless\nIn Special Forces.\n\n MT-LB \n Amphibious Tracked Armoured Carrier \n \n 50 \nframeless\n\n\n\n===Artillery===\n\n\n Name\n Type\n Country of origin\n Quantity\nPhoto\n Notes\n\n OTR-21 Tochka \n Tactical ballistic missile \n \n 36 \nframeless\n\n\n Scud \n Tactical ballistic missile \n \n 60 \n frameless \n\n\n BM-30 Smerch \n Multiple rocket launcher \n \n 36 \nframeless\n\n\n BM-21 Grad \n Multiple rocket launcher \n \n 126 \n frameless \n Partially upgraded to BM-21A \"Belgrad\".\n\n BM-27 Uragan \n Multiple rocket launcher \n \n 72 \n frameless\n\n\n\n Polonez (weapons system) \n MLRS \n \n 4 \n\n\n 2S19 Msta \n self-propelled howitzer \n \n 12 \nframeless\n\n\n 2S3 Akatsiya \n self-propelled howitzer \n \n 108 \n frameless\n\n 2S1 Gvozdika \n self-propelled howitzer \n \n 198 \n\n\n\n 2S5 Giatsint-S \n self-propelled gun \n \n 116 \n\n\n\n 2S9 Nona \n self-propelled mortar \n \n 48 \n\n\n\n 2A65 Msta-B \n towed howitzer \n \n 132 \n\n\n\n 2A36 Giatsint- B \n towed howitzer \n \n 48 \n\n\n\n 2S12 Sani \n towed mortar \n \n 61 \n\n\n\n D-30 \n towed howitzer \n \n 48 \n\n\n\n\n===Air Defence===\n\nName\nType\nCountry of origin\nQuantity\nPhoto\nNotes\n\n9K33 Osa (SA-8 Gecko)\n\n\n24 batteries\nframeless\n\n\n9K35 Strela-10 (SA-13 Gopher)\n\n\n\nframeless\n\n\n9K22 Tunguska (SA-19 Grison)\n\n\n\nframeless\n\n\n9K332 Tor M2E (SA-15 Gauntlet)\n\n\n8 units\nframeless\n4 ordered \n\n9K37 Buk (SA-11 Gadfly)\nBuk M1\nBuk M2\n\nBuk BM\n\n\n\n12 batteries\nframeless\n\n\nS-300PS (SA-10 Grumble)\n\n\n\nframeless\n\n\nS-300V (SA-12 Giant/Gladiator)\n\n\n\nframeless\n\n\nS-400 (SA-21 Growler)\n\n\n2 batteries\nframeless\n\n\n\n===Other===\n* Dongfeng EQ2058s\n\n=== Military Academies ===\nMinsk Suvorov Military School\n\nBelarusian Military Academy\n\nBelarusian State Medical School\n", "\n", "* Official Website of the Ministry of Defence of Belarus\n* Belarus Air Force pictures\n* Belarusian Army: Capacity And Its Role In The Region\n* Military exercise code-named \"Union Shield 2006\"\n* wiki on Belarusian Air Force at Scramble.nl\n* Armed Forces of Belarus.Uniform\n* Belarus Digest on security issues\n* OSGEOINT on Belarus\n* OSGEOINT on 120th ADMB Receives TOR-M2 from Russia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Structure", "Manpower", " Equipment ", "References", "External links" ]	Armed Forces of Belarus
[ "\n\n3G mobile data network speed test in downtown Brussels, September 2012. After 2 years of bans on new mobile basestations, the mobile network download speed is down at 0.25 Mbit/s.\n\n'''Communications in Belgium''' are extensive and advanced. Belgium possesses the infrastructure for both mobile and land-based telecom, as well as having significant television, radio and internet infrastructure. The country code for Belgium is '''BE'''.\n", "\n===Mail===\n\n\nMail regulation is a national competency. Postal service in Belgium is in many cases performed by Belgian Post Group, a semi-private public company. Competitors include DHL and UPS.\n\nPostal codes in Belgium consist of four digits which indicate regional areas, e.g. \"9000\" is the postal code for Ghent.\n\n===Telephone===\n\n\nThe telephone system itself is highly developed and technologically advanced, with full automation in facilities that handle domestic and international telecom. Domestically speaking, the county has a nationwide cellular telephone system and an extensive network of telephone cables. Telephone regulation is a national competency.\n\nThe country code for Belgium is '''32''' and the international call prefix is '''00'''.\n\nA telephone number in Belgium is a sequence of nine or ten numbers dialled on a telephone to make a call on the telephone network in Belgium. Belgium is under a closed telephone numbering plan, but retains the trunk code, \"0\", for all national dialling.\n\n====Fixed telephones====\nThere were 4.668 million land telephone lines in use in Belgium in 2007, a slight decrease on the 4.769 million in use in 1997.\n\nThe majority state-owned public telephone company of Belgium is Proximus. Some other or private operators exist, as Scarlet (Proximus) and BASE (KPN).\n\n====Mobile telephones====\nMobile telephone ownership has increased by nearly one thousand percent in the period 1997-2007, from 974,494 to 10.23 million.\n\nThere are three licensed mobile network operators (MNO) in Belgium, Proximus (Belgacom), Mobistar (Orange S.A.) and BASE (Telenet (Belgium)) and numerous mobile virtual network operators (MVNO).\n\nA fourth license will be auctioned off by the government in January 2010.\n\n===Internet===\nThere were 61 (2003) internet service providers in Belgium, serving 8.113 million internet users in 2009. The country code for Belgian websites is .be.\n\nIn September 2009 in Flanders there were 3,048,260 broadband internet customers (DSL and cable), of which 2,520,481 were residential users and 527,779 business users. Only 65,175 dial-up internet access accounts remained in the residential market and 9,580 in the business market.\n\n====Internet providers====\n\n=====xDSL Internet Providers=====\n\nBelgium has numerous copper cable internet providers:\n* Altercom End service 2011\n BASE (KPN)\n* Proximus\n* Destiny\n* Digiweb\n* EDPnet\n* Evonet\n* Full Telecom\n* Interxion\n* iPFix\n* LCL\n* Mobistar (Orange S.A.) End service : 2013\n Numericable (France Numericable)\n* Perceval\n* Portima\n* Proximedia Group\n* Scarlet (Belgacom)\n* Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)\n* Ergatel\n\nOnly Belgacom and Numericable currently offers fixed telephony and digital television in a triple play formula. All other companies offer also fixed telephony in a duo play formula.\n\n=====Cable Internet Providers=====\n\nBelgium has three major fiberglas cable internet providers:\n* Numéricable for the Brussels region (Ypso Holding)\n* Telenet for the Flanders and Brussels regions (Liberty Global)\n* VOO for the Walloon and Brussels regions (TECTEO)\n* Mobistar use Telenet and VOO network combined)\nThese companies all offer fixed telephony and digital television in a triple play formula.\n\n* Interoute Managed Services\n* Interxion\n* LCL\n* Nucleus\n* Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)\n\nThese companies all offer specialised services.\n\n=====Terrestrial Internet Providers=====\n\n* Clearwire in Brussels, Ghent, Leuven, Aalst, Halle and Vilvoorde (Sprint Nextel)\n* Perceval\n\n=====Satellite Internet Providers=====\n\n* Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)\n\n=====ISP for public services=====\n\n* The Brussels Regional Informatics Center (BRIC, Centre d'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise in French)offers Internet access to public administrations in the Brussels-Capital Region, relying directly on the national Belnet network and the IRISnet network.\n\n=====Not categorized=====\n\nOther ISP are Chat.be, Combell, Connexeon, HostIT, Microsoft Belgium, Netlog, Ulysse, Ven Brussels, Rack66 (EUSIP bvba), WSD Hosting.\n\n===Other===\n\nThe microwave relay network is, however, more limited. For international communications, Belgium has 5 submarine cables and a number of satellite earth stations, two of which are Intelsat, and one Eutelsat.\n", "\n", "\n* BIPT - Belgian Institute for Postal Services and Telecommunications\n* ISPA - Internet Service Providers Association of Belgium\n* DNS - Domain Name System Belgium\n* MAVISE - Belgian TV market\n* Agoria - Federation of Belgian IT Employers\n* Beltug - Federation of Belgian ICT Professionals\n* UPP - Union of Belgian Periodical Press Publishers\n* Febelma - Belgian Federation of Magazines\n* VRM - Flemish Media Regulator (Dutch community)\n* CSA - High Council for the Audiovisual Media (French community)\n* MDGB - Germanic Media Council of Belgium (Germanic community)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Services", "References", "External links" ]	Telecommunications in Belgium
[ "\nEurostar trains in Brussel Zuid-Bruxelles Midi station.\n'''Transport in Belgium''' is facilitated with well-developed road, air, rail and water networks. The rail network has of electrified tracks. There are of roads, among which there are of motorways, of main roads and of other paved roads. There is also a well-developed urban rail network in Brussels, Antwerp and Charleroi. The ports of Antwerp and Bruges-Zeebrugge are two of the biggest seaports in Europe. Brussels Airport is Belgium's biggest airport.\n", " \n\nA common Belgian train.\nHigh-speed trains in the Brussels-South railway station.\nRail transport in Belgium was historically managed by the National Railway Company of Belgium, known as SNCB in French and NMBS in Dutch. In 2005, the public company was split into 2 companies: Infrabel, which manages the rail network and SNCB/NMBS itself, which manages the freight and passenger services. Both companies are held by a third company, named SNCB/NMBS Holding. There is a total of , ( double track (as of 1998)), of which are electrified, mainly at 3,000 volts DC but with at 25 kV 50 Hz AC (2004) and all on standard gauge of . In 2004 the National Railway Company of Belgium, carried 178.4 million passengers a total of 8,676 million passenger-kilometres. Due to the high population density, operations are relatively profitable, so tickets are cheap and the frequency of services is high. The SNCB/NMBS is continually updating its rolling stock.\n\nThe network currently includes four high speed lines, three operating up to , and one up to . HSL 1 runs from just south of Brussels to the French border, where it continues to Lille, and from there to Paris or London. HSL 2 runs from Leuven to Liège. HSL 3 continues this route from Liège to the German border near Aachen. HSL 4 runs from Antwerp to Rotterdam by meeting HSL-Zuid at the border with Netherlands.\n\nElectrification is at 3 kV DC, with the exception of the new high-speed lines, and of two recently electrified lines in the south of the country which are at 25 kV AC. Trains, contrary to tram and road traffic, run on the left.\n\n===Rail links with adjacent countries===\n* France — voltage change 3 kV DC – 25 kV AC\n LGV 1 — voltage remains at 25 kV AC.\n via France to the UK on HSL 1, LGV 1, Channel Tunnel and CTRL (Channel Tunnel Rail Link) — voltage remains at 25 kV AC.\n* Germany — voltage change 3 kV DC – 15 kV AC\n** HSL 3 — voltage remains at 25 kV AC.\n* Netherlands — voltage change 3 kV DC – 1500 V DC\n** HSL-Zuid — voltage remains at 25 kV AC.\n* Luxembourg — no voltage change at the border (the line Arlon-Luxembourg is at 3 kV DC and the line Gouvy-Luxembourg is at 25 kV AC)\n\n===Urban rail===\n\nAn urban commuter rail network, Brussels RER (, ), is currently being set up the capital. It was initially supposed to be in service in 2012, but some observers expect it not to be ready before 2019.\n\n===Metros and light rail===\n\nIn Belgium an extensive system of tram-like local railways called ''vicinal or buurtspoor'' lines crossed the country in the first half of the 20th century, and had a greater route length than the main-line railway system. The only survivors of the vicinal/buurtspoor system are the Kusttram (covering almost the entire coast from France to the Netherlands, being the longest tram line in the world) and some sections of the Charleroi Pre-metro. Urban tram networks exist in Antwerp (the Antwerp Pre-metro), Ghent and Brussels (the Brussels trams), and are gradually being extended. The only rapid transit system in Belgium is the Brussels Metro. Some heavy metro infrastructures were built in Brussels, Antwerp and the Charleroi area, but these are currently used by light rail vehicles, and their conversion to full metro is not envisaged at present due to lack of funds.\n\nRegional transport in Belgium is operated by regional companies: De Lijn in Flanders operates the Kusttram and the Antwerp pre-metro as well as a bus network, TEC in Wallonia operates the Charleroi pre-metro as well as a bus network and MIVB/STIB in the Brussels Capital-Region operates the Brussels metro as well as the Brussels tram and bus network. Despite this regional organization, some bus and tram routes operated by STIB/MIVB go beyond the regional border, and some bus routes operated by TEC or De Lijn transport passengers from the Flemish or Walloon regions to the capital city or in the other regions.\n", "\n===Road network===\nA12 with a railway in the centre.\nThe road network in Belgium is managed by regional authorities, meaning that a road section in Flanders is managed by the Flemish Government, a road section in Brussels by the Brussels government and a road section in Wallonia by the Walloon Government. This explains that road signs in Flanders are written in Dutch, even when referring to a Walloon region, and conversely, which can be confusing for foreigners who do not know the different translations of Flemish or Walloon cities in the other language. The road network in Belgium is made of highways, national (or regional) roads (the secondary network) and communal roads (or streets). Communal roads are managed at the municipal level. There are also a number of orbital roads in Belgium around major cities.\n\n* ''total:'' 152,256 km (2006)\n* ''country comparison to the world:'' 35\n* ''paved:'' 119,079 km (including 1,763 km of expressways)\n* ''unpaved:'' 33,177 km\n\nBelgian road numbering evolved during the middle decades of the twentieth century, in a relatively inconsistent way. Road number allocations became less systematic during the surge in road building that took place in the 1960s and 70s. Frequently downgraded and deteriorating older national roads retained two digit numbers while newer major roads were identified with less instantly memorable three digit numbers, if only because the shorter numbers were already taken. 1985 saw a comprehensive renumbering of the \"N\" (National) roads which now followed the scheme described below.\n\n====Highways====\n\n\nThe highways in Belgium are marked with a letter '''A''' and a number. Most often however the European numbering system for the international E-road network is used. There is however not always a one-on-one relationship between the two numbering systems along the whole length of the highways.\n\nA1 (E19): Brussels - Antwerp - Breda\nA2 (E314): Leuven - Lummen - Genk\nA3 (E40): Brussels - Leuven - Liège - Aachen\nA4 (E411): Brussels - Wavre - Namur - Arlon - Luxembourg\nA10 (E40): Brussels - Ghent - Bruges - Ostend\nA12 (Brussels - Boom - Antwerp - ''Netherlands'' (Bergen op Zoom):''(includes a section not yet fully upgraded to motorway standard)''\nA13 (E313): Antwerp - Beringen - Hasselt - Liège\nA14 (E17): Lille - Kortrijk - Ghent - Antwerp\nA15 (E42): Charleroi - Namur - Huy - Liège\nA17 (E403): Bruges - Kortrijk - Tournai\nA18 (E40): Bruges - Veurne - Dunkerque\n\n====Ringways====\nThe ringways (or orbital roads) around bigger cities have their own series of numbers. The names start with a '''R''' then a first digit indicating the (old) province, and sometimes a second digit to further differentiate in between different ringways.\n\nSome major examples are:\nR0 is the outer ringway around Brussels. The R20 and R22 are (parts of) inner ringways around Brussels.\nR1 is the southern half ringway and R2 is the northern half ringway around Antwerp.\nR3 is the outer ringway and R9 is the inner ringway around Charleroi. The inner ring is counterclockwise-only.\nR4 is the outer ringway and R40 is the inner ringway around Ghent.\nR6 is the outer ringway and R12 is the inner ringway around Mechelen.\nR8 is the outer ringway and R36 is the inner ringway around Kortrijk.\nR23 is the ringway around Leuven.\nR30 is the inner ringway around Bruges.\n\n====National roads====\n\nThe national roads were renumbered in 1985 according to a national scheme and are identified with the letter '''N''' followed by a number.\n\nThe principal national roads fan out from Brussels, numbered in clockwise order:\nN1: Brussels - Mechelen - Antwerp\nN2: Brussels - Leuven - Diest - Hasselt - Maastricht\nN3: Brussels - Leuven - Tienen - Sint-Truiden - Liège - Aachen\nN4: Brussels - Wavre - Namur - Marche-en-Famenne - Bastogne - Arlon\nN5: Brussels - Charleroi - Philippeville\nN6: Brussels - Halle - Soignies - Mons\nN7: Halle - Ath - Tournai\nN8: Brussels - Ninove - Oudenaarde - Kortrijk - Ypres - Veurne - Koksijde\nN9: Brussels - Aalst - Ghent - Eeklo - Bruges - Ostend\n\nSecondary national roads intersect these.\n\nNational roads have an N plus 1, 2 or 3 digits. National roads numbered with 3 digits are provincial roads, their first number indicating the province in which the road begins:\n* N1xx Province of Antwerpen\n* N2xx Provinces of Flemish Brabant and Walloon Brabant\n* N3xx Province of West Flanders\n* N4xx Province of East Flanders\n* N5xx Province of Hainaut\n* N6xx Province of Liège\n* N7xx Provinve of Limburg\n* N8xx Province of Luxembourg\n* N9xx Province of Namur\n\n===Cars===\n====Changes====\nBetween 1993 and 2012 the average age of the passengers cars registered as running in Belgium increased from just over 6 years and 4 months to 8 years and 17 days. 2012 data for other European countries are not yet available, but in 2010 the average age of car Belgium was 7.9 years against a European Union average of 8.3 years. Government policy provides an important clue as to one reason for the relative newness of the national car parc. Despite recent high-profile plant closures by Ford and Renault, Belgium remains an important centre for automobile component and passenger car production, with important plants operated by Volvo and Audi, and this is reflected in a relatively benign taxation environment whereby company cars are a still a popular and relatively tax efficient element in many remuneration packages.\n", "\n===Ports and harbours===\nThe Port of Antwerp is one of the largest in Europe and the world\n\n====Sea ports====\nAntwerp - Port of Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports)\nBruges (Zeebrugge) - Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge (one of the busiest in Europe)\nGhent - Port of Ghent \nOstend - Port of Ostend \n\n====Main inland ports====\nBrussels - Port of Brussels (also accessible for ocean-going ships)\nLiège - Port of Liège (one of the busiest in Europe)\n\n====European portuary context====\nEuropean Sea Ports Organisation ESPO\nEuropean Federation of Inland Ports FEPI\nInland Navigation Europe INE\n2002 ranking of world ports by tonnage and by container volume (in TEU) Port ranking\n\n===Merchant marine===\n\n\n===Waterways===\nThe Belgian waterway network has 2,043 km, 1,532 km of which in regular commercial use. The main waterways are the Albert Canal connecting Antwerp to Liège, the Ghent–Terneuzen Canal through the port of Ghent connecting Ghent with the Westerschelde, the Boudewijn Canal through the port of Bruges-Zeebrugge connecting Bruges with the North Sea, the Brussels-Charleroi Canal, Brussels-Scheldt Maritime Canal and Scheldt connecting Charleroi to Antwerp, the Nimy-Blaton-Péronnes Canal and Scheldt connecting the Borinage to Antwerp, the connection between the North Sea and Antwerp and the connection between Dunkerque and Liège via the Nimy-Blaton-Péronnes Canal, the Canal du Centre, the lower Sambre and the Meuse. Waterways are managed on a regional level in Belgium. The region of Brussels only managed 14 km of waterways from the Anderlecht lock to the Vilvoorde bridge. In Flanders, the management of waterways is outsourced to 4 companies: NV De Scheepvaart, Département Mobiliteit en Openbare Werken, Agentschap voor Maritieme Dienstverlening en Kust and Waterwegen en Zeekanaal NV.\n", "\n\nBrussels Airport is the main airport in Belgium.\nAccording to the 2009 CIA World Factbook, there are a total of 43 airports in Belgium, 27 of which have paved runways. Airplane passengers in Belgium can use 5 airports, the largest of which being the Brussels Airport. The other airports are the Ostend-Bruges International Airport, the Brussels-South Charleroi Airport, the Liège Airport and the Antwerp International Airport. Other airports are military airports or small civil airports with no scheduled flights. Well-known military airports include the Melsbroek Air Base and the Beauvechain Air Base. Belgium has also 1 heliport.\n\nThe Belgian national airline used to be Sabena from 1923 to 2001, until it went into bankruptcy. A new Belgian airline named SN Brussels Airlines was subsequently founded by business man Étienne Davignon. The company was then renamed as Brussels Airlines in 2006. In 2009, Brussels Airlines was taken over by German airline Lufthansa.\n", "* Transport in France\n* Transport in Germany\n* Transport in the Netherlands\n* List of tunnels in Belgium\n", "\n\n", "\n\n\n", " Transport at Belgium.be\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Railways", "Road transport", "Water", "Air transport", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Transport in Belgium
[ "\nThe '''Lhop''' or '''Doya people''' are a little-known tribe of southwest Bhutan. The Bhutanese believe them to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. The Lhop are found in the low valleys of Samtse and near Phuntsholing in the Duars. They are also known as the Lhops, Lhopu, or Lhokpu and speak a Tibeto-Burman language. They total approximately 2,500 persons.\n\nThe dress of the Lhop resembles the Lepcha, but they bear little similarity with the Bhutia in the North and the Toto in the west. The Doya trace their descent matrilineally, marry their cross cousins, and embalm the deceased who are then placed in a foetal position in a circular sarcophagus above the ground. They follow a blend of Tibetan Buddhism mixed with animism.\n", "Ethnic groups in Bhutan\nSharchop\n", "\n", "* RAOnline Bhutan: The Lhop\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Lhop people
[ "\n\nDifferent cultures through history have depicted blindness in a variety of ways; among the Greeks, for example, it was a punishment from the gods, for which the afflicted individual was often granted compensation in the form of artistic genius. Judeo-Christian literature positioned blindness as a flaw; only through a cure could God’s love be made manifest, when the scales would fall away from the eyes of an afflicted individual upon contact with a holy man or relic. Almost without exception in early literature, blind people could bring this condition down upon themselves through sin or trespasses against the gods, but were never the sole instruments of its reversal.\n", "\n\nIt is impossible to make a blanket generalization about how the blind were treated in literature beyond that point – they were marvelous, gifted, evil, malicious, ignorant, wise, helpless, innocent, or burdensome depending upon who wrote the story – except to say that blindness is perceived to be such a loss that it leaves an indelible mark on a person’s character.\n\nEven pioneers in training the blind, such as Dorothy Harrison Eustis, harboured negative stereotypes about them. Blind people had, in her opinion, grown so accustomed to waiting on others as to be passive and 'whiney.'\n\nFather Thomas Carroll, who founded the Carroll Centre for the Blind, wrote ''Blindness: What It Is, What It Does and How to Live with It'' in 1961. In it, he characterized blindness in terms of 20 losses, and as the 'death' of the sighted individual.\n\n\nIn \"Moumoku Monogatari\", Junichiro Tanizaki retells the well-known tale of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi from the perspective of a blind servant. The character is portrayed as demonstrating a number of traditional Japanese virtues, but ultimately falls prey to his own human flaws.\n\n\"The Country of the Blind\", a short story by H. G. Wells, is one of the most well-known stories featuring blind characters. A sighted man finds himself in a country that has been isolated from the rest of the world for centuries, wherein all the inhabitants are blind even as their ancestors had been. These people are depicted as self-sufficient, having developed their other senses, but they are ultimately closed-minded and insular to the point of xenophobia. As they themselves have no sight, they wish to deprive the traveler of his own eyes in this allegorical tale of stagnation.\n\n''All the Light We Cannot See,'' a Pulitzer prize winning novel by Anthony Doerr, tells the story of Marie-Laure LeBlanc, a young girl who has gone completely blind due to cataracts at the age of 6. She keeps her mind sharp with intricate puzzle boxes, which her father carves for her, and Braille novels.\n", "While blind and visually impaired people had contributed to the body of common literature for centuries, one notable example being the author of ''Paradise Lost'', John Milton, the creation of autobiographical materials, or materials specific to blindness, is relatively new.\n\nMost people are familiar with Helen Keller, who was both blind and deaf, but there has been considerable progress since the publication of her work.\n\n* Blind author Tom Sullivan has written several inspirational books, including ''If You Could See What I Hear'', about his life and accomplishments.\n* Jorge Luis Borges, who suffered from a congenital condition that caused him to become blind by middle age, discussed his condition in many autobiographical and semi-autobiographical works.\n* Stephen Kuusisto wrote about his experiences as a visually impaired person in ''Planet of the Blind,'' and his upcoming memoir, ''Eavesdropping: A Life By Ear''.\n* John Hull, a university lecturer, wrote about going blind in ''Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness''.\n* Reinmar von Zweter 13th century German writer of Gnomic poetry, featured in the ''Codex Manesse''. \n* Georgina Kleege, visually impaired since age 11, wrote about her life and how it was affected by cultural perceptions of blindness in ''Sight Unseen''.\nSally Hobart Alexander became blind when she was about 25 and a schoolteacher, during the 1970s, because of an eye disease. She wrote at least three autobiographical books about adapting to blindness.\nFrench author Jacques Lusseyran, who was visually impaired at the age of 7 when he injured his eyes on the sharp corner of a teacher's desk, became part of the French resistance during World War II. He spent a year in concentration camps, surviving the experience and writing several books. \"And There Was Light\" chronicles his experiences from early childhood until his liberation from a concentration camp.\n", "* On His Blindness by John Milton\n* Blindness and education\n* :Category:Blindness organizations\n* ''Nico'' (also known as ''Nicholas''), a TV series for educating children about blind people (considering television a sort of literature)\nThérèse-Adèle Husson\n", "\n", " Blindness: Is Literature Against Us?\n* The Country of the Blind and Other Stories, by H. G. Wells\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Blind people in literature written by visually able authors", "Literature by blind people", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Blindness in literature
[ "\n\nthumb\nBosnia and Herzegovina is located in Southeastern Europe, in the western Balkans. It has a 932 km border with Croatia to the north and southwest, a 357 km border with Serbia to the east, and a 249 km border with Montenegro to the southeast. It borders the Adriatic Sea along its 20 km (12.42 mi) coastline.\n\nThe most striking features of the local terrain are valleys and mountains which measure up to 2386 m in height. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic sea.\n\nThe country's natural resources include: coal, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, nickel, clay, gypsum, salt, sand, timber and hydropower\n", "\nThe country's name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the southern part of the country.\n\nThe major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina.\n\nThe south part of Bosnia has Mediterranean climate and a great deal of agriculture. Central Bosnia is the most mountainous part of Bosnia featuring prominent mountains Vlašić, Čvrsnica, and Prenj. Eastern Bosnia also features mountains like Trebević, Jahorina, Igman, Bjelašnica and Treskavica. It was here that the 1984 Winter Olympics were held.\n\nEastern Bosnia is heavily forested along the river Drina, and overall close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighbouring Croatia and Serbia. The river Sava and corresponding Posavina river basin hold the cities of Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanski Brod and Bosanska Gradiška.\n\nThe northwest part of Bosnia is called Bosanska Krajina and holds the cities of Banja Luka, Prijedor, Sanski Most, Jajce, Cazin, Velika Kladuša and Bihać. Kozara National Park and Mrakovica World War II monument is located in this region.\n\nThe country has only of coastline, around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although surrounded by Croatian peninsulas it is possible to get to the middle of the Adriatic from Neum. By United Nations law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea. Neum has many hotels and is an important tourism destination.\n\n", "Drainage basins in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia\nBosna river, Ilidža\nThere are seven major rivers in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina:\n\nThe Una in the northwest part of Bosnia flows along the northern and western border of Bosnia and Croatia and through the Bosnian city of Bihać. It is a very beautiful river and popular for rafting and adventure sports.\nThe Sana flows through the city of Sanski Most and Prijedor and is a tributary of the river Una in the north.\nThe Vrbas flows through the cities of Gornji Vakuf – Uskoplje, Bugojno, Jajce, Banja Luka, Srbac and reaches the river Sava in the north. The Vrbas flows through the central part of Bosnia and flows outwards to the North.\nThe River Bosna is the longest river in Bosnia and is fully contained within the country as it stretches from its source near Sarajevo to the river Sava in the north. It gave its name to the country.\nThe Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, at many places in the border between Bosnia and Serbia. The Drina flows through the cities of Foča, Goražde Višegrad and Zvornik.\nThe Neretva river is a large river in Central and Southern Bosnia, flowing from Jablanica south to the Adriatic Sea. The river is famous as it flows through the famous city of Mostar.\nPercent of population affected by Flood Disasters in Europe by country from 2005–2015.The Sava river is the largest river in Bosnia and Herzegovina but not the largest river that is flowing through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Sava river flows through Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Sava is used as a natural border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia and towns like Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanska Gradiška lies on the river.\n", "\nPhytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.\n", "\n\nThe southern parts of the country have a Mediterranean climate. The Western and the Central parts experience hot and arid summers reaching up to 40 °C while in the winter, temperatures are below freezing with lots of snow. The north-eastern region has a typical continental climate.\n", " Calcite Crystal found at Trebević mountain around Sarajevo; Bosnia and Herzegovina on display at National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina. \nVarious archaeological artifacts including relicts of mining activities and tools belonging to similar age groups, provide an indication of the geographical distribution, scale and methods of mining activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Paleolithic to Roman era.\n\nMost important of these is the so-called area of “central Bosnian mountains” located between the rivers Vrbas, Lašva, Neretva, Rama and their tributaries. The second one is the area of western Bosnia, bordered by the Vrbas and Una rivers, with its main orebearing formations found in the river-valleys of Sana and Japra, and their tributaries. The third area is eastern Bosnia, around the river Drina between the towns of Foča and Zvornik, the principal mining activity centered around Srebrenica.\n\nOres of various metals, including iron, are found in these areas and exploitation has been going on for more than 5000 years – from the period of prehistoric human settlers, through Illyrian, Roman, Slavic, Turkish and Austrian rulers, into the present.\n", "'''Arable land:''' 19.73%\n'''Permanent crops:''' 2.06%\n'''Other:''' 78.22% (2012 est.)\n\n'''Irrigated land:'''\n30 km² (2003)\n\n'''Total renewable water resources:'''\n37.5 km3 (2011)\n", "\n'''Natural hazards:'''\nDestructive earthquakes\n\n'''Current issues:'''\nAir pollution from metallurgical plants\nSites for disposing of urban waste are limited\nWidespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992–95 war\nDeforestation\n\n'''International agreements:'''\nParty to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands\nSigned, but not ratified: none\n", "\n\nFile:Mountain Vlašić - Bosnia and Herzegovina.jpg\|Vlašić, part of Dinaric Alps\nFile:KozarackiKamen.jpg\|A part of Kozara National Park near Prijedor in Bosanska Krajina.\n\n\n", "Geography of Europe\n*List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Regions", "Rivers", "Phytogeography", " Climate ", " Mining industry ", " Land use ", " Environment ", " Gallery ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
[ "Population density in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipality, early data from the 2013 census\n\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n", "\n\n\n\nAverage population (x 1000)\nLive births\nDeaths\nNatural change\nCrude birth rate (per 1000)\nCrude death rate (per 1000)\nNatural change (per 1000)\nTotal fertility rate\nInfant mortality rate (per 1000 births)\nLife expectancy males\nLife expectancy females\n\n 1947\n 2 532\n 84 600\n 38 900\n 45 700\n 33.4\n 15.4\n 18.0\n\n 1948\n 2 586\n 90 700\n 41 600\n 49 100\n 35.1\n 16.1\n 19.0\n\n 1949\n 2 642\n 98 200\n 42 200\n 56 000\n 37.2\n 16.0\n 21.2\n\n 1950\n 2 661\n 102 680\n 35 991\n 66 689\n 38.6\n 13.5\n 25.1\n\n 1951\n 2 721\n 92 330\n 46 358\n 45 972\n 33.9\n 17.0\n 16.9\n\n 1952\n 2 779\n 112 216\n 34 817\n 77 399\n 40.4\n 12.5\n 27.9\n\n 1953\n 2 836\n 110 373\n 41 199\n 69 174\n 38.9\n 14.5\n 24.4\n\n 1954\n 2 891\n 115 854\n 35 158\n 80 696\n 40.1\n 12.2\n 27.9\n\n 1955\n 2 944\n 110 866\n 40 513\n 70 353\n 37.7\n 13.8\n 23.9\n\n 1956\n 2 994\n 111 561\n 38 320\n 73 241\n 37.3\n 12.8\n 24.5\n\n 1957\n 3 042\n 102 649\n 36 830\n 65 819\n 33.7\n 12.1\n 21.6\n\n 1958\n 3 089\n 110 332\n 30 123\n 80 209\n 35.7\n 9.8\n 26.0\n\n 1959\n 3 135\n 108 123\n 32 507\n 75 616\n 34.5\n 10.4\n 24.1\n\n 1960\n 3 180\n 110 499\n 33 360\n 77 139\n 34.7\n 10.5\n 24.3\n\n 1961\n 3 225\n 108 076\n 29 413\n 78 663\n 33.5\n 9.1\n 24.4\n\n 1962\n 3 271\n 106 826\n 31 087\n 75 739\n 32.7\n 9.5\n 23.2\n\n 1963\n 3 315\n 104 240\n 29 161\n 75 079\n 31.4\n 8.8\n 22.6\n\n 1964\n 3 357\n 101 147\n 29 846\n 71 301\n 30.1\n 8.9\n 21.2\n\n 1965\n 3 396\n 101 351\n 27 814\n 73 537\n 29.8\n 8.2\n 21.7\n\n 1966\n 3 433\n 97 689\n 25 138\n 72 551\n 28.5\n 7.3\n 21.1\n\n 1967\n 3 466\n 92 972\n 26 195\n 66 777\n 26.8\n 7.6\n 19.3\n\n 1968\n 3 498\n 89 134\n 26 031\n 63 103\n 25.5\n 7.4\n 18.0\n\n 1969\n 3 531\n 87 687\n 27 805\n 59 882\n 24.8\n 7.9\n 17.0\n\n 1970\n 3 564\n 79 296\n 26 355\n 52 941\n 22.2\n 7.4\n 14.9\n\n 1971\n 3 600\n 82 694\n 24 915\n 57 779\n 23.0\n 6.9\n 16.0\n\n 1972\n 3 637\n 82 068\n 26 844\n 55 224\n 22.6\n 7.4\n 15.2\n\n 1973\n 3 675\n 77 896\n 24 672\n 53 224\n 21.2\n 6.7\n 14.5\n\n 1974\n 3 712\n 77 833\n 23 661\n 54 172\n 21.0\n 6.4\n 14.6\n\n 1975\n 3 747\n 78 844\n 25 571\n 53 273\n 21.0\n 6.8\n 14.2\n\n 1976\n 3 781\n 79 061\n 25 178\n 53 883\n 20.9\n 6.7\n 14.3\n\n 1977\n 3 813\n 75 669\n 24 821\n 50 848\n 19.8\n 6.5\n 13.3\n\n 1978\n 3 844\n 73 306\n 26 016\n 47 290\n 19.1\n 6.8\n 12.3\n\n 1979\n 3 878\n 71 120\n 25 370\n 45 750\n 18.3\n 6.5\n 11.8\n\n 1980\n 3 914\n 70 928\n 26 115\n 44 813\n 18.1\n 6.7\n 11.4\n\n 1981\n 3 950\n 71 031\n 26 222\n 44 809\n 18.0\n 6.6\n 11.3\n\n 1982\n 3 986\n 73 375\n 26 775\n 46 600\n 18.4\n 6.7\n 11.7\n\n 1983\n 4 025\n 74 296\n 29 999\n 44 297\n 18.5\n 7.5\n 11.0\n\n 1984\n 4 070\n 74 539\n 29 046\n 45 493\n 18.3\n 7.1\n 11.2\n\n 1985\n 4 122\n 72 722\n 28 966\n 43 756\n 17.6\n 7.0\n 10.6\n\n 1986\n 4 189\n 71 203\n 29 127\n 42 076\n 17.0\n 7.0\n 10.0\n\n 1987\n 4 267\n 70 898\n 29 382\n 41 516\n 16.6\n 6.9\n 9.7\n\n 1988\n 4 332\n 70 711\n 29 559\n 41 152\n 16.3\n 6.8\n 9.5\n\n 1989\n 4 353\n 66 809\n 30 383\n 36 426\n 15.3\n 7.0\n 8.4\n\n 1990\n 4 308\n 66 952\n 29 093\n 37 859\n 15.5\n 6.8\n 8.8\n\n 1991\n 4 163\n 64 769\n 31 411\n 33 358\n 15.6\n 7.5\n 8.0\n\n 1992\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 1993\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 1994\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 1995\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 1996\n 3 645\n 46 594\n 25 152\n 21 442\n 12.8\n 6.9\n 5.9\n1.65\n\n 1997\n 3 738\n 48 397\n 27 875\n 20 522\n 12.9\n 7.5\n 5.5\n1.68\n\n 1998\n 3 653\n 45 007\n 28 679\n 16 328\n 12.3\n 7.9\n 4.5\n1.56\n\n 1999\n 3 725\n 42 464\n 28 637\n 13 827\n 11.4\n 7.7\n 3.7\n1.36\n\n 2000\n 3 781\n 39 563\n 30 482\n 9 081\n 10.5\n 8.1\n 2.4\n1.30\n\n 2001\n 3 798\n 37 717\n 30 325\n 7 392\n 9.9\n 8.0\n 1.9\n1.40\n\n 2002\n 3 828\n 35 587\n 30 155\n 5 432\n 9.3\n 7.9\n 1.4\n1.20\n\n 2003\n 3 833\n 35 234\n 31 757\n 3 477\n 9.2\n 8.3\n 0.9\n1.22\n\n 2004\n 3 843\n 35 151\n 32 616\n 2 535\n 9.2\n 8.5\n 0.7\n1.22\n\n 2005\n 3 843\n 34 627\n 34 402\n 225\n 9.0\n 9.0\n 0.1\n1.20\n\n 2006\n 3 843\n 34 033\n 33 221\n 812\n 8.9\n 8.6\n 0.2\n1.18\n\n 2007\n 3 843\n 33 835\n 35 044\n -1 209\n 8.8\n 9.1\n -0.3\n1.26\n\n 2008\n 3 842\n 34 176\n 34 026\n 150\n 8.9\n 8.9\n 0.0\n1.29\n\n 2009\n 3 843\n 34 617\n 33 983\n 634\n 9.0\n 9.0\n 0.0\n1.30\n\n 2010\n 3 843\n 33 820\n 34 772\n 48\n 8.8\n 8.8\n 0.0\n1.27\n\n 2011\n 3 840\n 33 779\n 34 633\n -854\n 8.8\n 9.0\n -0.2\n1.21\n\n 2012\n 3 836\n 31 875\n 35 522\n -3 647\n 8.3\n 9.3\n -1.0\n1.349\n\n 2013\n3 531\n 32 072\n 35 629\n -3 620\n 9.1\n 10.1\n -1.0\n 1.276\n\n 2014\n 3 526\n 31 103\n 35 837\n -4 734\n 8.8\n 10.2\n -1.4\n 1.258\n\n 2015\n3 517\n 28 906\n 37 070\n -8 164\n 8.2\n 10.4\n - 2.2\n\n 2016 \n \n 29 276 \n 35 530 \n -6 254 \n\n \n\n\n", "According to data from 2013 census published by the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks constitute 50.11% of the population, Bosnian Serbs 30.78%, Bosnian Croats 15.43%, and others form 2.73%, with the remaining respondents not declaring their ethnicity or not answering. The census results are contested by the Republika Srpska statistical office and by Bosnian Serb politicians, who oppose the inclusion of non-permanent Bosnian residents in the figures. The European Union's statistics office, Eurostat, however concluded the methodology used by the Bosnian statistical agency to be in line with international recommendations.\n\nIn Bosnia and Herzegovina, religion is often linked to ethnicity, i.e. (with the exception of agnostics and atheists) most Bosniaks are Muslim, Serbs are Orthodox Christian, and Croats are Roman Catholic.\n\n\n+\n'''Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina according to ethnic group 1948–1996'''\n\n Ethnicgroup\n census 1948\n census 1953\n census 1961\n census 1971\n census 1981\n census 1991\n census UNHCR 1996\n census 2013\n popul.change 1991-2013\n\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n\n Bosniaks\n 788,403\n 30.7\n 891,800\n 31.3\n 842,248\n 25.7\n 1,482,430\n 39.6\n 1,629,924\n 39.5\n 1,902,956\n 43.5\n 1,805,910\n 46.1\n 1,769,592 \n 50.11\n -133,364\n +6.64%\n\n Serbs\n 1,136,116\n 44.3\n 1,264,372\n 44.4\n 1,406,057\n 42.9\n 1,393,148\n 37.2\n 1,320,644\n 32.0\n 1,366,104\n 31.2\n 1,484,530\n 37.9\n 1,086,733 \n 30.78\n -279,371 \n -0.43%\n\n Croats\n 614,123\n 23.9\n 654,229\n 23.0\n 711,665\n 21.7\n 772,491\n 20.6\n 758,136\n 18.4\n 760,852\n 17.4\n 571,317\n 14.6\n 544,780 \n 15.43\n -216,072\n -1.95%\n\n Yugoslavs\n \n \n \n \n 275,883\n 8.4\n 43,796\n 1.2\n 326,280\n 7.9\n 242,682\n 5.5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Montenegrins\n 3,094\n 0.1\n 7,336\n 0.3\n 12,828\n 0.4\n 13,021\n 0.3\n 14,114\n 0.3\n 10,071\n 0.2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Roma\n 442\n 0.0\n 2,297\n 0.1\n 588\n 0.0\n 1,456\n 0.0\n 7,251\n 0.2\n 8,864\n 0.2\n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n Albanians\n\n\n\n\n3,642\n0.1\n3,764\n0.1\n4,396\n0.1\n4,925\n0.1\n\n\n \n \n \n \n\n Others/undeclared\n 23,099\n 0.9\n 27,756\n 1.0\n 28,679\n 0.8\n 36,005\n 1\n 63,263\n 1.5\n 80,579\n 1.9\n 58,196\n 1.5\n 130,054\n 3.62\n \n \n\n Total\n 2,565,277\n 2,847,790\n 3,277,948\n 3,746,111\n 4,124,008\n 4,376,403\n 3,919,953\n 3,531,159\n \n \n\n \n\n\n \nFile:Etnička struktura Bosne i Hercegovine 1895. godine.png\|Ethnic structure in 1895\nImage:BiH_-_Etnicki_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_1.gif\|Ethnic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH_-_Etnicki_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_2.gif\|Ethnic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo Bosnjaka po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo Srba po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo Hrvata po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\n\n", "Bosnia's constitution does not specify any official languages. However, academics Hilary Footitt and Michael Kelly note that the Dayton Agreement states that it is \"done in Bosnian, Croatian, English and Serbian\", and they describe this as the \"de facto recognition of three official languages\" at the state level. The equal status of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian was verified by the Constitutional Court in 2000. It ruled that the provisions of the Federation and Republika Srpska constitutions on language were incompatible with the state constitution, since they only recognised \"Bosniak\" and Croatian (in the case of the Federation) and Serbian (in the case of Republika Srpska) as official languages at the entity level. As a result, the wording of the entity constitutions was changed and all three languages were made official in both entities. The three languages are mutually intelligible and are also known collectively as Serbo-Croatian. Use of one of the three varieties has become a marker of ethnic identity. Michael Kelly and Catherine Baker argue: \"The three official languages of today's Bosnian state...represent the symbolic assertion of national identity over the pragmatism of mutual intelligibility\". All standard varieties are based on the Ijekavian varieties of the Shtokavian dialect (non-standard spoken varieties including, beside Ijekavian, also Ikavian Shtokavian). Serbian is written in both Latin and Cyrillic, whereas Croatian and Bosnian are written only in Latin alphabet. There are also some speakers of Italian, German, Turkish and Ladino. Yugoslav Sign Language is used with Croatian and Serbian variants.\n\nAccording to the results of the 2013 census, 52.86% of the population consider their mother tongue to be Bosnian, 30.76% Serbian, 14.6% Croatian and 1.57% another language, with 0.21% not giving an answer.\n\n \nImage:BiH_-_Jezicki_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_1.gif\|Linguistic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH_-_Jezicki_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_2.gif\|Linguistic structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH_-_Udeo_bosanskog_jezika_po_naseljima_2013.gif\|Share of the Bosnian language in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo srpskog jezika po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of the Serbian language in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo hrvatskog jezika po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of the Croatian language in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\n\n", "\n\nAccording to the 2013 census, 50.7% of the population identify religiously as Muslim, 30.75% as Serbian Orthodox Christian, 15.19% as Roman Catholic, 1.15% as other, 1.1% as agnostic or atheist, with the remainder not declaring their religion or not answering. A 2012 survey found that 54% of Bosnia's Muslims are non-denominational Muslims, while 38% follow Sunnism.\nIn Bosnia and Herzegovina religion is strongly linked to ethnicity.\n\n \nFile:BosniaHerzegovina1879Census.tif\|Religious structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1879\nImage:BiH_-_Verski_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_1.gif\|Religious structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH_-_Verski_sastav_po_opstinama_2013_2.gif\|Religious structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo muslimana po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo pravoslavaca po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Orthodox Christians in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\nImage:BiH - Udeo katolika po opstinama 2013.gif\|Share of Catholics in Bosnia and Herzegovina by municipalities in 2013\n\n", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\n===Population===\n:3,871,643 (July 2014 est.)\n\n===Age structure===\n:0-14 years: 13.7% (male 272,812/female 256,152)\n:15-24 years: 12.7% (male 255,074/female 238,428)\n:25-54 years: 46.7% (male 906,265/female 899,870)\n:55-64 years: 13.7% (male 253,045/female 276,769)\n:65 years and over: 13.3% (male 199,515/female 313,713) (2014 est.)\n\n===Median age===\n:Total: 40.8 years\n:Male: 39.4 years\n:Female: 42.2 years (2014 est.)\n\n===Sex ratio===\n:At birth: 1.07 male(s)/female\n:0-14 years: 1.07 male(s)/female\n:15-24 years: 1.07 male(s)/female\n:25-54 years: 1.01 male(s)/female\n:55-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female\n:65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female\n:Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2014 est.)\n\n===Infant mortality rate===\n:Total: 5.84 deaths/1,000 live births\n:Male: 5.91 deaths/1,000 live births\n:Female: 5.78 deaths/1,000 live births (2014 est.)\n\n===Life expectancy at birth===\n:Total population: 76.33 years\n:Male: 73.33 years\n:Female: 79.55 years (2014 est.)\n\n===HIV/AIDS===\n:Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2007 est.)\n:People living with HIV/AIDS: 900 (2007 est.)\n:Deaths: 100 (2001 est.)\n\n===Literacy===\n:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write\n:Total population: 98%\n:Male: 99.5%\n:Female: 96.7% (2011 est.)\n", "* Demographic history of Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* List of Bosnians and Herzegovinians\n\n'''Religion:'''\n* Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Serbian Orthodox Church\n* Roman Catholicism in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n\n'''Groups:'''\n* Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Roma in Bosnia and Herzegovina\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n* Living standard measurement survey 2001\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Vital statistics", "Ethnic groups", "Languages", "Religion", " Demographic statistics ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
[ "\n'''Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy, whereby executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Legislative power is vested in both the Council of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Members of the Parliamentary Assembly are chosen according to a proportional representation system.\n\nThe judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The system of government established by the Dayton Accord is an example of consociationalism, as representation is by elites who represent the country's three major ethnic groups termed ''constituent peoples'', with each having a guaranteed share of power.\n\nBosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two ''Entities'' – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, which are politically autonomous to an extent, as well as the district of Brčko, which is jointly administered by both. The Entities have their own constitutions.\n:''See Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina''\n", "Due to the Dayton Agreement, signed on 14 December 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina forms an undeclared protectorate with elements of hegemony by neighboring Croatia and Serbia as co-signatories to the Agreement, where highest power is given to the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The intention of the Agreement was to retain Bosnia's exterior border, while creating a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government based on proportional representation similar to the former socialist régime, and charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy.\n\nThe Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.\n", "\n\nThe highest political authority in the country is the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected Parliamentary Assembly or to remove officials from office without due process. The methods selected by the High Representative are often seen as dictatorship. Even the symbols of Bosnian statehood (flag, coat of arms) have been chosen by the High Representative rather than by the Bosnian people. The source of the authority of the High Representative is in international law while his role is essentially contractual. His mandate derives from the Dayton Agreement, as confirmed by the Peace Implementation Council, a body with a Steering Board composed of representatives of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, the presidency of the European Union, the European Commission, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.\n", "The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates amongst three members (a Bosniak, a Serb, and a Croat) every 8 months within their 4-year term. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people, with Federation voters electing both the Bosniak and the Croat member, and Republika Srpska voters electing the Serb member. The Presidency serves as a collective head of state. The Presidency is mainly responsible for the foreign policy and proposing the budget.\n\nThe Prime Minister, formally titled Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He appoints the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister of Foreign Trade and other ministers as may be appropriate (no more than two thirds of the ministers may be appointed from the territory of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), who assume the office upon the approval by the House of Representatives; also, the Chair appoints deputy ministers (who may not be from the same constituent people as their ministers), who assume the office upon the approval by the House of Representatives.\n\nThe Council is responsible for carrying out policies and decisions in the fields of diplomacy, economy, inter-entity relations and other matters as agreed by the entities.\n\nThe two Entities have Governments that deal with internal matters not dealt with by the Council of Ministers.\n\n=== Principal Government Officials ===\nPresident of USA\n\n=== History ===\nPast international high representatives: Carl Bildt, Carlos Westendorp, Wolfgang Petritsch, Paddy Ashdown, Christian Schwarz-Schilling, Miroslav Lajčák.\n\nMembers of the Presidency who stepped down under pressure from the Office of the High Representative: Mirko Šarović, Ante Jelavić, Dragan Čović. Alija Izetbegović also withdrew from the Presidency.\n\nIn February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated.\n\nFederation president and vice-president in 1999: Ejup Ganić\nand Ivo Andrić-Lužanski.\n\nPast RS presidents: Radovan Karadžić, Biljana Plavšić, Nikola Poplašen, Mirko Šarović, Dragan Čavić, Milan Jelić.\n\nRS president Nikola Poplašen was removed by the OHR on 5 March 1999.\n", "The Parliamentary Assembly or ''Parliamentarna skupština'' is the main legislative body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two chambers:\n* the House of Peoples or ''Dom naroda''\n* the National House of Representatives or ''Predstavnički dom/Zastupnički dom''\n\nThe Parliamentary Assembly is responsible for:\n* enacting legislation as necessary to implement decisions of the Presidency or to carry out the responsibilities of the Assembly under the Constitution.\n* deciding upon the sources and amounts of revenues for the operations of the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and international obligations of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n* approving the budget for the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n* deciding ratify treaties and agreements.\n* other matters as are necessary to carry out its duties of as are assigned to it by mutual agreement of the Entities.\n\nBosnia and Herzegovina did not have a permanent election law until 2001, during which time a draft law specified four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures. The final election law was passed and publicized on 9 September 2001.\n\n=== House of Peoples ===\nThe House of Peoples includes 15 delegates who serve two-year terms. Two-thirds of delegates come from the Federation (5 Croats and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). Nine constitutes a quorum in the House of Peoples, provided that at least three delegates from each group are present. Federation representatives are selected by the House of Peoples of the Federation, which has 58 seats (17 Bosniak, 17 Croat, 17 Serb, 7 others), and whose members are delegated by cantonal assemblies to serve four-year terms. Republika Srpska representatives are selected by the 28-member Republika Srpska Council of Peoples, which was established in the People's Assembly of Republika Srpska; each constituent people has eight delegates, while four delegates are representatives of \"others\".\n\n=== House of Representatives ===\nThe House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina comprises 42 members elected under a system of proportional representation (PR) for a four-year term. Two thirds of the members are elected from the Federation (14 Croats; 14 Bosniaks) and one third from the Republika Srpska (14 Serbs).\n\nFor the 2010 elections, Voters in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina elected twenty-one members in five multi-member constituencies by PR, while the remaining seven seats were allocated by compensatory PR. Voters in the Republika Srpska elected nine members in three multi-member constituencies by PR, while the five other seats were allocated by compensatory PR.\n", "\n\nCandidate\nParty\nVotes\n%\n\nBosniak member\n\nBakir Izetbegović\nParty of Democratic Action (SDA)\n247,235\n32.87\n\nFahrudin Radončić\nUnion for a Better Future of BiH\n201,454\n26.78\n\nEmir Suljagić\nDemocratic Front\n114,334\n15.20\n\nBakir Hadžiomerović\nSocial Democratic Party\n75,369\n10.02\n\nSefer Halilović\nBosnian-Herzegovinian Patriotic Party-Sefer Halilović\n66,230\n8.80\n\nMustafa Cerić\nIndependent\n33,882\n4.50\n\nDžebrail Bajramović\nDiaspora Party\n5,041\n0.67\n\nMirsad Kebo\nIndependent\n3,893\n0.52\n\nHalil Tuzlić\nIndependent\n3,162\n0.42\n\nAdil Žigić\nIndependent\n1,637\n0.22\n\nCroat member\n\nDragan Čović\nCroatian Democratic Union\n128,053\n52.20\n\nMartin Raguž\nCroatian Democratic Union 1990\n94,695\n38.61\n\nŽivko Budimir\nParty of Justice and Trust\n15,368\n6.27\n\nAnto Popović\nDemocratic Front\n7,179\n2.93\n\nSerb member\n\nMladen Ivanić\nPDP–SDS\n318,196\n48.71\n\nŽeljka Cvijanović\nSNSD–DNS–SP\n310,658\n47.56\n\nGoran Zmijanjac\nFair Policy Party\n24,334\n3.73\n\nInvalid/blank votes\n137,473\n–\n\n'''Total'''\n'''1,788,193'''\n'''100'''\n\nRegistered voters/turnout\n \n\n\nSource: CEC\n\n\n=== House of Representatives ===\n\nParty\nFederation\nRepublika Srpska\nTotal\n\nVotes\n%\nSeats\nVotes\n%\nSeats\nVotes\n%\nSeats\n+/–\n\nParty of Democratic Action\n274,057\n27.87\n9\n31,658\n4.88\n1\n305,715\n18.74\n10\n+3\n\nAlliance of Independent Social Democrats\n5,842\n0.59\n0\n249,314\n38.46\n6\n255,156\n15.64\n6\n–2\n\nSerb Democratic Party\n–\n–\n–\n211,603\n32.64\n5\n211,603\n12.97\n5\n+1\n\nDemocratic Front\n150,767\n15.33\n5\n–\n–\n–\n150,767\n9.24\n5\nNew\n\nUnion for a Better Future of BiH\n142,003\n14.44\n4\n–\n–\n–\n142,003\n8.70\n4\n0\n\nHDZ–HSS–HKDU–HSP-AS BiH–HSP HB\n119,468\n12.15\n4\n3,555\n0.55\n–\n123,023\n7.54\n4\n–\n\nSocial Democratic Party\n92,906\n9.45\n3\n15,736\n2.43\n–\n108,642\n6.66\n3\n–5\n\nPDP–NDP\n194\n0.02\n0\n50,338\n7.76\n1\n50,532\n3.10\n1\n0\n\nCroatian Democratic Union 1990\n40,113\n4.08\n1\n–\n–\n–\n40,113\n2.46\n1\n–\n\nBosnian-Herzegovinian Patriotic Party-Sefer Halilović\n35,866\n3.65\n1\n2,452\n0.38\n0\n38,318\n2.35\n1\n+1\n\nDemocratic People's Alliance\n–\n–\n–\n37,072\n5.72\n1\n37,072\n2.27\n1\n0\n\nParty for Bosnia and Herzegovina\n25,677\n2.61\n0\n–\n–\n–\n25,677\n1.57\n0\n–2\n\nParty of Democratic Activity\n22,088\n2.25\n1\n–\n–\n–\n22,088\n1.35\n1\nNew\n\nSocialist Party\n–\n–\n–\n18,732\n2.89\n0\n18,732\n1.15\n0\n0\n\nSPP–SDU–DNZ\n12,885\n1.31\n0\n3,429\n0.53\n0\n16,314\n1.00\n0\n–1\n\nPeople's Party for Work and Betterment\n12,927\n1.31\n0\n–\n–\n–\n12,927\n0.79\n0\n–1\n\nSerbian Progressive Party\n–\n–\n–\n11,421\n1.76\n0\n11,421\n0.70\n0\n0\n\nOur Party\n10,913\n1.11\n0\n–\n–\n–\n10,913\n0.67\n0\n0\n\nParty of Justice and Trust\n–\n–\n–\n9,763\n1.51\n0\n9,763\n0.60\n0\nNew\n\nBosnian Party\n7,518\n0.76\n0\n–\n–\n–\n7,518\n0.46\n0\n0\n\nSocial Democratic Union\n5,881\n0.6\n0\n853\n0.13\n0\n6,734\n0.41\n0\n0\n\nLabour Party\n5,731\n0.58\n0\n–\n–\n–\n5,731\n0.35\n0\nNew\n\nHSP–DSI\n5,475\n0.56\n0\n–\n–\n–\n5,475\n0.34\n0\n–\n\nCommunist Party\n3,075\n0.31\n0\n1,976\n0.30\n0\n5,051\n0.31\n0\nNew\n\nHKDU\n4,718\n0.48\n0\n–\n–\n–\n4,718\n0.29\n0\nNew\n\nDiaspora Party\n3,371\n0.34\n0\n–\n–\n–\n3,371\n0.21\n0\nNew\n\nNew Movement\n1,830\n0.19\n0\n–\n–\n–\n1,830\n0.11\n0\nNew\n\nTomo Vukić\n–\n–\n–\n397\n0.06\n0\n397\n0.02\n0\nNew\n\nInvalid/blank votes\n97,720\n–\n–\n58,857\n–\n–\n156,577\n–\n–\n–\n\n'''Total'''\n'''1,081,025'''\n'''100'''\n'''28'''\n'''701,156'''\n'''100'''\n'''14'''\n'''1,782,181'''\n'''100'''\n'''42'''\n'''–'''\n\nRegistered voters/turnout\n \n \n–\n \n \n–\n \n \n–\n–\n\nSource: CEC\n\n\n=== Election history ===\nNational House of Representatives:\n* elections held 12–13 September 1998:\n** seats by party/coalition – KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1\n* elections held 5 October 2002:\n percent of vote by party/coalition - SDA 21.9%, SDS 14.0%, SBiH 10.5%, SDP 10.4%, SNSD 9.8%, HDZ 9.5%, PDP 4.6%, others 19.3%\n seats by party/coalition – SDA 10, SDS 5, SBiH 6, SDP 4, SNSD 3, HDZ 5, PDP 2, others 7\n\nHouse of Peoples:\n* constituted 4 December 1998\n* constituted in fall 2000\n* constituted in January 2003\n* next to be constituted in 2007\n\nFederation House of Representatives:\n* elections held fall 1998:\n** seats by party/coalition – KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1\n* elections held 5 October 2002:\n** seats by party/coalition – SDA 32, HDZ-BiH 16, SDP 15, SBiH 15, other 20\n\nFederation House of Peoples:\n* constituted November 1998\n* constituted December 2002\n\nRepublika Srpska National Assembly:\n* elections held fall 1998\n** seats by party/coalition – SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1\n* elections held fall 2000\n* elections held 5 October 2002\n** seats by party/coalition – SDS 26, SNSD 19, PDP 9, SDA 6, SRS 4, SPRS 3, DNZ 3, SBiH 4, SDP 3, others 6\n", "=== Constitutional Court ===\nThe Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is supposedly the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters, however its decisions are largely ignored. The court is composed of nine members: four selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the People's Assembly of Republika Srpska, and three are foreign citizens appointed by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after courtesy-consultation with the Presidency.\n\nThe initial term of appointee is 5 years, unless they resign or are removed by consensus of other judges. Appointed judges are not eligible for reappointment. Judges subsequently appointed will serve until the age of 70, unless they resign sooner or are removed. Appointments made 5 years into the initial appointments may be governed by a different regulation for selection, to be determined by the Parliamentary Assembly.\n\nProceedings of the Court are public, and decisions are published. Court rules are adopted by a majority in the Court. Court decisions are final and supposedly binding though this is not always the case, as noted.\n\nThe Constitutional Court has jurisdiction over deciding in constitutional disputes that arise between the Entities or amongst Bosnia and Herzegovina and an Entity or Entities. Such disputes may be referred only by a member of the Presidency, the Chair of the Council of Ministers, the Chair or Deputy Chair of either of the chambers of the Parliamentary Assembly, or by one-fourth of the legislature of either Entity.\n\nThe Court also has appellate jurisdiction within the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\n=== State Court ===\nThe State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three divisions – Administrative, Appellate and Criminal – having jurisdiction over cases related to the state-level law and executive, as well as appellate jurisdiction over cases initiated in the entities.\n\nA War Crimes Chamber was introduced in January 2005, and has adopted two cases transferred from the ICTY, as well as dozens of war crimes cases originally initiated in cantonal courts.\n\nThe State Court also deals with organized crime, and economic crime including corruption cases. For example, the former and 2014 member-elect of the Presidency Dragan Čović is currently on trial for alleged involvement in organized crime.\n\n=== Human Rights Chamber ===\nThe Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina (''Dom za ljudska prava za Bosnu i Hercegovinu'') existed between March 1996 and 31 December 2003. It was a judicial body established under the Annex 6 to the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Dayton Peace Agreement).\n\n=== Entities ===\nThe two Entities have Supreme Courts. Each entity also has a number of lower courts. There are 10 cantonal courts in the Federation, along with a number of municipal courts. The Republika Srpska has five municipal courts.\n", "* Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina\n", "\n", "\n* Office of the High Representative\n* Election Commission of Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Government of the Republic of Srpska\n* Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Bosnia: a single country or an apple of discord?, Bosnian Institute, 12 May 2006\n* Bertelsmann Stiftung – Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Report\n* Balkaninsight – The future of Bosnia\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Dayton Agreement ", " High Representative ", " Executive branch ", " Legislative branch ", " Political parties and elections ", " Judicial branch ", " See also ", " Notes ", " External links " ]	Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
[ "\n\nRoads in BiH\n", "''total'': 21,846 km\n''paved'': 11,425 km (4,686 km of interurban roads)\n''unpaved'': 10,421 km (2006)\n\n===Roads===\n\n====International====\nE65\nE73 (Pan-European corridor Vc), A1 highway\nE661\nE761\nE762\n\n====State Highways====\nRoute 1\nRoute 1-8\nRoute 5\nRoute 6\nRoute 6-1\nRoute 14\nRoute 14-1\nRoute 14-2\nRoute 15\nRoute 16\n*Route 16-2\nRoute 17\nRoute 18\nRoute 19\nRoute 19-2\nRoute 19-4\nRoute 20\n", "\nTotal: 1032\nStandard gauge: 1032 km (2006)\n\n===Rail links with adjacent countries===\n* Same gauge: \n Croatia - yes\n Serbia - yes\n** Montenegro - no\n", "Sava River (northern border) open to shipping but use limited (2008)\n", "Gradiška, Brod, Šamac, and Brčko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orašje, Bosnia\n", "none (1999 est.)\n", "25 (2008)\n\n===Airports - with paved runways===\n''total:''\n7\n''2,438 to 3,047 m:''\n4\n''1,524 to 2,437 m:''\n1\n''under 914 m:''\n2 (2008)\n\n===Airports - with unpaved runways===\n''total:''\n18\n''1,524 to 2,437 m:''\n1\n''914 to 1,523 m:''\n7\n''under 914 m:''\n10 (2008)\n", "\nBosnia & Herzegovina is well connected to other countries in Europe. The main bus station of Sarajevo has its own website. The main provider of international bus connection in Bosnia & Herzegovina is Eurolines. There are routes to Croatia, Germany, Austria, France, Netherlands, Montenegro, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and Serbia. Despite Bosnia & Herzegovina's geographical closeness to Serbia, there is only one bus a day, which takes more than 8 hours due to the lack of proper roads.\n", "5 (2007)\n", "* Bosnia and Herzegovina\n", "\n\n", "\nWe recommend to use for travel shuttle bus transfers in Bosnia and Hercegovina. It is one of the easiest ways to travel here.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Roadways", "Railways", "Waterways", "Ports and harbours", "Merchant marine", "Airports", "National & International Buses", "Heliports", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' (Serbo-Croat-Bosnian: ''Oružane snage Bosne i Hercegovine, OSBIH''/Оружане снаге Босне и Херцеговине, ОСБИХ) is the official military force of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The BiH Armed forces were officially unified in 2005 and are composed of two founding armies: the Bosniak-Croat Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska.\n\nThe Ministry of Defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina, founded in 2004, is in charge of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n", "In accordance with the BiH Constitution (Article 5.5a), BiH Law of defense and BiH Law of service the supreme civilian commander of the Armed Forces Bosnia and Herzegovina is the collective Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The collective Presidency directs the Ministry of defense BiH and the Armed Forces. Former Bosnia and Herzegovina ministers of defense include H.E. Nikola Radovanović, H.E. Selmo Cikotić and H.E. Muhamed Ibrahimović. The current Minister of defense BiH is H.E. Marina Pendeš. Former Chiefs of Joint Staff AF BiH include LGEN Sifet Podžić and Lieutenant General Miladin Milojčić. The current BiH Chief of Joint Staff is Lieutenant General Anto Jeleč. Conscription was completely abolished in Bosnia and Herzegovina effective on and from 1 January 2006.\n", "The Bosnia and Herzegovina Defence Law addresses the following areas: the Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Government Institutions, Entity Jurisdictions and Structure, Budget and Financing, Composition of Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, War Declaration, natural disasters, conflict of interests and professionalism, Oath to Bosnia-Herzegovina, flags, anthem and military insignia, and transitional and end orders.\n", "The AFBiH was formed from three armies of the Bosnian War period: the Bosnian (dominantly Bosniak with numbers of Serbs and Croats) Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska, and the Croat Defence Council.\n\nThe Army of the Republic of Bosnia And Herzegovina was created on 15 April 1992 during the early days of the Bosnian War. Before the ARBiH was formally created, there existed Territorial Defence, an official military force of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a number of paramilitary groups such as the Green Berets, Patriotic League, and civil defense groups, as well as many criminal gangs and collections of police and military professionals. The army was formed under poor circumstances, with a very low number of tanks, APCs and no military aviation assets. The army was divided into Corps, each Corp was stationed in a territory. The first commander was Sefer Halilović.\n\nThe Army of Republika Srpska was created on 12 May 1992. Before the VRS was formally created, there were a number of paramilitary groups such as the Srpska Dobrovoljačka Garda, Beli Orlovi, as well as some Russian, Greek and other volunteers. The army was equipped with ex-JNA inventory. It had about 200 tanks, mostly T-55s and 85 M-84s, and 150 APCs with several heavy artillery pieces. The Air Defense of VRS has shot down several aircraft, like F-16, Mirage 2000, F-18 and one Croatian Air Force MiG-21. The VRS received support from the Yugoslav Army and FRY.\n\nThe Croatian Defence Council was the main military formation of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War. It was first organized military force to with the aim to control the Croat populated areas, created on 8 April 1992. They ranged from men armed with shotguns assigned to village defense tasks to organized, uniformed, and well-equipped brigade-sized formations that nevertheless employed part-time soldiers. As time went on, the HVO forces became increasingly better organized and more \"professional\", but it was not until early 1994, that the HVO began to form the so-called guards brigades, mobile units manned by full-time professional soldiers.\n\nIn 1995–96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia and Herzegovina, beginning on December 21, 1995 to implement and monitor the military aspects of the Dayton Peace Agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or SFOR. The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000 and then to 7,000. SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, European Union-led European Union Force, EUFOR Althea. , EUFOR Althea numbered around 7,000 troops.\n\nThe restructuring of the three armies into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina represents part of a wider process of 'thickening' the central state institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In order to mitigate some of the potential controversy around restructuring, the Office of the High Representative (OHR) made use of evidence of malpractice in Republika Srpska military institutions. Firstly, from 2002 onwards, OHR utilised a scandal around the provision of parts and assistance to Iraq in breach of a UN embargo (the so-called Orao affair) to support the cause for bringing governance of the armies under the level of central institutions. Following this, in 2004, the process was accelerated, drawing its justification from new evidence of material and other forms of support flowing from Republika Srpska armed forces to ICTY indictee Ratko Mladić. OHR condemned the ‘systematic connivance of high-ranking members of the RS military’ and noted that measures to tackle such systematic deficiencies were under consideration. This was quickly followed by the expansion of the mandate for a Defence Reform Commission, which ultimately resulted in the consolidation of three armed forces into one, governed at the level of the central state.\n\nAs the joint AFBiH began to develop, troops began to be sent abroad. Bosnia and Herzegovina deployed a unit of 37 men to destroy munitions and clear mines, in addition to 6 command personnel as part of the Multinational force in Iraq. The unit was first deployed to Fallujah, then Talil Air Base, and is now located at Camp Echo. In December 2006, the Bosnian government formerly extended its mandate through June 2007. Bosnia and Herzegovina is planning to send another 49 soldiers from the 6th Infantry Division to Iraq in August 2008, their mission will be to protect/guard Camp Victory in Baghdad.\n", "ISAF Bosnian troops display their national flag.\nISAF Bosnian troops line up, awaiting for the general march of the Lt. Anto Jeleč.\nThe Military units are commanded by the '''Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina Joint Staff''' in Sarajevo. There are two major commands under the Joint Staff: Operational Command and Support Command.\n\nThere are three regiments that are each formed by soldiers from the three ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs and trace their roots to the armies that were created during the war in BiH. These regiments have their distinct ethnic insignias and consist of three active battalions each. Headquarters of Regiments have no operational authority. On the basis of the Law on Service in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the regimental headquarters have the following tasks: to manage the regimental museum, monitor financial fund Regiment, prepare, investigate and cherish the history of the regiment, the regiment publish newsletters, maintain cultural and historical heritage, give guidance on holding special ceremonies, give guidance on customs, dress and deportment Regiment, conduct officer, NCO and military clubs. Each regiments three battalions divided evenly between the three active brigades of the Army.\n\n===Joint Staff of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina===\n\n\nName !! Headquarters !! Information !! Chief\n\n'''Operational Command'''\nSarajevo\nThe main command center of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nAnto Jeleč\n\n\nOrBat Operational Command\n\n===Brigades under the Operational Command control===\n\n\nName !! Headquarters !! Information \n Chief\n\n100px '''4th Infantry Brigade'''\nČapljina\n\n* (Croat) Infantry Battalion (Livno)\n* (Bosniak) Infantry Battalion (Goražde)\n* (Serb) Infantry Battalion (Bileća)\n* Artillery Battalion (Mostar)\n* Reconnaissance Company\n* Signals Platoon\n* Military Police Platoon\nTomo Kolenda\n\n100px '''5th Infantry Brigade'''\nTuzla\n\n* (Bosniak) Infantry Battalion (Tuzla)\n* (Serb) Infantry Battalion (Bijeljina)\n* (Croat) Infantry Battalion (Kiseljak)\n* Artillery Battalion (Žepče)\n* Reconnaissance Company\n* Signals Platoon\n* Military Police Platoon\nKenan Dautović\n\n100px '''6th Infantry Brigade'''\nBanja Luka\n\n* (Serb) Infantry Battalion (Banja Luka)\n* (Croat) Infantry Battalion (Orašje)\n* (Bosniak) Infantry Battalion (Bihać)\n* Artillery Battalion (Doboj)\n* Reconnaissance Company\n* Signals Platoon\n* Military Police Platoon\nRadovan Ilić\n\n'''Tactical Support Brigade'''\nSarajevo\n\n* Armored Battalion (Tuzla)\n* Engineer Battalion (Derventa)\n* Military Intelligence Battalion (Rajlovac)\n* Military Police Battalion (Rajlovac)\n* De-mining Battalion (Rajlovac)\n* Signals Battalion (Pale)\n* NBC Defense Company (Tuzla)\nAmir Čorbo\n\n'''Air Force & Anti-Air Defense Brigade'''\nRajlovac Banja Luka \n\n* 1st Helicopter Squadron (Banja Luka)\n* 2st Helicopter Squadron (Rajlovac)\n* Air Defense Battalion (Rajlovac)\n* Early Warning & Surveillance Battalion (Banja Luka)\n* Flight Support Battalion (Sarajevo, Banja Luka)\nDragan Nakić\n\n\n===Brigades under the Support Command control===\n\n\nName !! Headquarters !! Information \n\n'''Personnel Command'''\nBanja Luka\n\n '''Training and Doctrine Command''' (Travnik)\n* Combat Training Center (Manjača)\n** Armored Mechanized Battalion\n* Combat Simulation Center (Manjača)\n* Professional Development Center (Pazarić)\n Officers School\n NCO School\n Military Police School\n** Foreign Language Center\n\n'''Logistics Command'''\nTravnik Doboj\n\n* Center for Movement Control\n* Center for Material Management\n* Main Logistics Base (Doboj and Sarajevo)\n* 1st Logistics Support Battalion\n* 2nd Logistics Support Battalion\n* 3rd Logistics Support Battalion\n* 4th Logistics Support Battalion\n* 5th Logistics Support Battalion\n\n\n\nWithin the armed forces, there are a number of services. These include a Technical Service, Air Technology service, Military Police service, Communications service, Sanitary service, a Veterans service, Civilian service, Financial service, Information service, Legal service, Religious service, and a Musical service.\n", "\nArmed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified in 2005 and at that time they needed a uniform for the newly founded army. MARPAT was designated as the future uniform of AFBIH.\n\nInsignia is found on military hats or berets, on the right and left shoulder on the uniform of all Soldiers of the Armed Forces. All, except for generals, wear badges on their hats or berets with either the land force badge or air force badge. Generals wear badges with the coat of arms of Bosnia surrounded with branches and two swords.All soldiers of the armed forces have on their right shoulder a flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina. All members of the three regiments wear their regiment insignia on the left shoulder. There are other insignias, brigades or other institution are worn under the regiment insignia. The name of the soldiers is worn on the left part of the chest while the name \"Armed Forces of BiH\" is worn on the right part of the chest.\n", "\n===Small arms===\nA M16A4 similar to this one is used by Bosnia and Herzegovina\n\nName\nOrigin\nType\nVariant\nNotes\n\n M16 \n United States\n Assault rifle\n M16A4, M16A1\n \n\n AR-15\n United States\n Assault rifle\n SP1, A3\n \n\nM4 carbine\n United States\n Assault rifle\nM4A1, M4A2\n\n\nHeckler & Koch G36\nGermany\n Assault rifle\nG36\n \n\nHK33\nGermany\n Assault rifle\nHK33KA3, SG/1, A2, HK13\n\n\nHK G3\nGermany\nAssault rifle\nG3KA4A1, G3A1, G3A3\n\n\nAK-47\nRussia\n Assault rifle\nAK-103, AK-12, RPK-74\n\n\nZastava M-70\nYugoslavia\nAssault rifle\nM-70AB3, M-70A, M-70B1N, M-70AB2N, M-70A1\n\n\nZastava M72\nYugoslavia\nAssault rifle\nM72B1, M72\n\n\nFN FAL\nBelgium\nAssault rifle\nM964A1 MD3, M964, M964A1\n\n\nT-91\nRepublic of China\nAssault rifle\nT-91\n\n\nBizon SMG\nRussia\nSubmachine gun\n\n2-01, 2-06, 2-07\n \n\nMP5\n Germany\nSubmachine gun\nM5, MP5A5, MP5KA1, MP5SFA2, MP5SFA3\n\n\n Škorpion vz. 61\nYugoslavia\nSubmachine gun\n\n\n\n\n===Machine guns===\nA Zastava M84 machine gun\n\nName\nOrigin\nType\nVariant\nNotes\n\n M60\n United States\n General-purpose machine gun\n M60E3, M60E4, M60E6\n \n\n M2 Browning\n United States\n Heavy machine gun\n M2HB, M2HB-QCB\n \n\nM240\n United States\n General-purpose machine gun\n\n\n\nZastava M84\nYugoslavia\n General-purpose machine gun\nM84, M86\n\n\nUltimax 100\nSingapore\nLight machine gun\nMark 3/3A, Mark 2\n\n\nM249\n United States\n Light machine gun\nM249 PIP\n\n\nDShK\nSoviet Union\nHeavy machine gun\n DŠK, DŠKM, Type 54 \n\n\nNSV\nSoviet Union\nHeavy machine gun\n\n\n\n\n===Armor===\nBVP M-60P of the Bosnia and Herzegovina armed forces.\n A M77 similar to this one is used by Bosnia and Herzegovina\n\nName\nOrigin\nType\nIn service\nNotes\n\n Armored fighting vehicle\n\n M-84\nYugoslavia\n Main battle tank\n 71\n \n\n AMX-30\n France\n Main battle tank\n 50\n \n\n M60A3\n United States\n Main battle tank\n45\n1996, US aid program – training included \n\nT-54/55\nSoviet Union\n Main battle tank\n155\n15 of them are second hand from Egypt \n\n Type 92\n China\nAnti-armor vehicle\n10\n\n\n AML 60/90\n France\nArmored car\n 10 \n\n\n AMX-10P\n France\n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 25 \n\n\n BVP M-80A\nYugoslavia\n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 103\n\n\n M113\n United States\n APC\n 80\n Aid from US\n\n BOV 3/30/VP /M\nYugoslavia\n APC\n 3 (BOV 3) 49 (30) 39 (VP) 8 (M)\n \n\n BTR-50PK\nSoviet Union\n APC\n 2\n \n\n BTR-70\nSoviet Union\n APC\n 3\n\n\n Artillery\n\n D-30/D-30J\nSoviet Union\n Howitzer\n 258\n12 of these are second hand from Egypt \n\n D-20/M84 NORA\nSoviet Union\n Howitzer\n 13 (D-20) 15 (M84)\n12 of these are second hand from Egypt \n\n M-46/M-82\nSoviet Union \n Howitzer\n 61 (M-46) 13 (M-82)\n12 of these are second hand from Egypt \n\n M2A1\n United States\n Howitzer\n 24\n \n\n M-56\n Bosnia and Herzegovina\n Howitzer\n 101 \n\n\n M114A1/114A2\n United States\n Howitzer\n 126\n 1997, US aid program – training included\n\n Self-Propelled Artillery\n\n 2S1 Gvozdika\nSoviet Union\n Self-propelled howitzer\n 24\n \n\n ZSU-57-2\nSoviet Union\n Self-propelled anti-aircraft gun\n 33\n \n\n MLRS\n\n Type 63\n China\n Multiple Rocket Launcher\n\n \n\n BM-21 Grad\nSoviet Union\n Multiple rocket launcher\n 5 (BM-21) 36 (APR-40)\n\n\n M-63 Plamen\nYugoslavia\n Multiple rocket launcher\n 27 \n\n\n M-77 Oganj\nYugoslavia\n Multiple rocket launcher\n 34\n\n\n", "\nThe Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence Brigade of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed when elements of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska Air Force were merged in 2006. The status of the Air Force in the last couple of years, has merged a great success. While saying so, it includes aircraft repairs, funds for professional and proper cooperation with the Ground Forces, as well as to the citizens of the country. The Ministry of Defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina is in great interest of buying new aircraft's, that include mostly helicopters and perhaps even fighter jets.\n\n===Squadrons===\n\n''1st Helicopter Squadron'' - Sarajevo Airport\n''2nd Helicopter Squadron'' - Banja Luka Airport\n''3rd Helicopter Squadron'' - Tuzla Airport\n''Air Defense Battalion''\nBosnian UH-1H\n'' 1st Air Defence Battalion'' - Sarajevo Airport\n'' 2nd Air Defence Battalion'' - Banja Luka Airport\n'' 3rd Air Defence Battalion'' - Tuzla Airport\n''Early Warning and Surveillance Battalion''\n''Flight Support Battalion\n\n===Aircraft===\n\n==== Current inventory ====\n\nAircraft\nOrigin\nType\nVariant\nIn service\nNotes\n\nHelicopters \n\nMil Mi-8\nRussia\nutility / transport\nMi-8/17\n6\n\n\nBell UH-1\nUnited States\nutility\nUH-1H\n \n5\n\n\nAérospatiale Gazelle\nFrance\nutility \nSA341/342\n9\n\n\n", "\n \n", "* Jim Dorschner, 'Endgame in Bosnia,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 18 April 2007, p. 24–29\n", "* Ministry of Defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* MILITARY INDUSTRY – Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* European Union Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina – EUFOR \n* OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina \n* NATO Headquarters Sarajevo Security Sector Reform information\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Chain of command", "Defence law", "History", "Structure", " Uniform and Insignia ", "Weapons", "Air Force", " References ", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
[ "\n\n\nThe Batswana, a term also used to denote all citizens of Botswana, refers to the country's major ethnic group (called the Tswana in Southern Africa). Prior to European contact, the Batswana lived as herders and farmers under tribal rule.\n", "\nSometime between 200-500 AD, the Bantu-speaking people who were living in the Katanga area (today part of the DRC and Zambia) crossed the Limpopo River, entering the area today known as South Africa as part of the Bantu expansion.\n\nThere were 2 broad waves of immigration to South Africa; Nguni and Sotho-Tswana. The former settled in the eastern coastal regions, while the latter settled primarily in the area known today as the Highveld — the large, relatively high central plateau of South Africa.\n\nBy 1000AD the Bantu colonization of the eastern half of South Africa had been completed (but not Western Cape and Northern Cape, which are believed to have been inhabited by Khoisan people until Dutch colonisation). The Bantu-speaking society was highly a decentralized feudal society organized on a basis of kraals (an enlarged clan), headed by a chief, who owed a very hazy allegiance to the nation's head chief. According to Neil Parsons's online \"Brief History of Botswana\":\n\n\n", "\nGerman map in use in 1905 still showing the undivided Bechuanaland area\nA map of 1887 showing the Protectorate and British Bechuanaland\nModern Botswana. The country's borders have been stable since independence in 1966\nIn the late 19th century, hostilities broke out between the Shona inhabitants of Botswana and Ndebele tribes who were migrating into the territory from the Kalahari Desert. Tensions also escalated with the Boer settlers from the Transvaal. After appeals by the Batswana leaders Khama III, Bathoen, and Sebele I for assistance, the British Government on 31 March 1885 put \"Bechuanaland\" under its protection. The northern territory remained under direct administration as the Bechuanaland Protectorate and is today's Botswana, while the southern territory became part of the Cape Colony and is now part of the northwest province of South Africa; the majority of Setswana-speaking people today live in South Africa. The Tati Concessions Land, formerly part of the Matabele kingdom, was administered from the Bechuanaland Protectorate after 1893, to which it was formally annexed in 1911.\n\nWhen the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 out of the main British colonies in the region, the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Swaziland (the \"High Commission Territories\") were not included, but provision was made for\ntheir later incorporation. However, a vague undertaking was given to consult their inhabitants, and although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred, Britain kept delaying, and it never occurred. The election of the\nNational Party government in 1948, which instituted apartheid, and South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, ended any prospect of incorporation of the territories into South Africa. \n\nAn expansion of British central authority and the evolution of tribal government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils representing Africans and Europeans. Proclamations in 1934 regularized tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.\n", "In June 1966, Britain accepted proposals for democratic self-government in Botswana. The seat of government was moved from Mafikeng in South Africa, to newly established Gaborone in 1965. The 1965 constitution led to the first general elections and to independence on 30 September 1966. Seretse Khama, a leader in the independence movement and the legitimate claimant to the Ngwato chiefship, was elected as the first president, re-elected twice, and died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice president, Ketumile Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. The presidency passed to the sitting vice president, Festus Mogae, who was elected in his own right in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. In April 2008, Excellency the President Lieutenant General Dr Seretse Khama Ian Khama (Ian Khama), son of Seretse Khama the first president, succeeded to the presidency when Festus Mogae retired.\n", "All citizens of Botswana-regardless of colour, ancestry or tribal affiliation are known as Batswana (plural) or Motswana (singular). In the lingua franca of Tswana, tribal groups are usually denoted with the prefix 'ba', which means 'the people of...'.Therefore, the Herero are known as Baherero, and the Kgalagadi as Bakgalagadi, and so on. Botswana's eight major tribes are represented in the house of chiefs, the country's second legislative body.\n", "Kalanga female\nBotswana's second largest ethic group are the Bakalanga,another powerful land-owning group who are thought to descend from Rozwi- the culture responsible for building Great Zimbabwe.In the colonial reshuffle the Bakalanga were split into two and now some 75% of them live in Western Zimbabwe.In Botswana they are based mainly, although not exclusively, around Francistown.\n", "Herero woman in Otjinene village.\nThe Herero probably originated from the eastern or central Africa and migrated across the Okavango River into northeastern Namibia in the early 16th century. In 1884 the Germans took possession of German south west Africa (Namibia) and systematically appropriated Herero grazing lands. The ensuing conflict between the Germans and the Herero was to last for years, only ending in a calculated act of genocide which saw the remaining of the tribe flee across the border into Botswana. The refugees settled among the Batawana and were initially subjugated, but eventually regained their herds and independence. These days the Herero are among the wealthiest herders in Botswana.\n", "The Basubiya, Wayeyi and Mbukushu are all riverine peoples scattered around the Chobe and Linyanti rivers and across the Okavango pan-handle.Their histories and migrations are a text book example of the ebb and flow of power and influence. For a long time, the Basubiya were the dominant force, pushing the wayeyi from the Chobe river and into the Okavango after a little spat over a lion skin, so tradition says. The Basubiya were agriculturists and as such proved easy prey for the growing Lozi Empire (from modern Zambia), which in turned collapsed in 1865. They still live in the Chobe district.\n", "Originally from the same areas in Namibia and Angola as the Mbukushu, the Wyeyi moved south from the Chobe river into the Okavango Delta in the mid-18 century to avoid the growing conflict with the Basubiya.\n", "Colonial heads of Botswana (Bechuanaland)\nHeads of government of Botswana\nHistory of Africa\nHistory of Southern Africa\nHistory of Gaborone\n Timeline of Gaborone\nList of Presidents of Botswana\nPolitics of Botswana\nPostage stamps and postal history of Bechuanaland Protectorate\n", "\n", " Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. \"An African success story: Botswana.\" (2002). online\n* Cohen, Dennis L. \"The Botswana Political Elite: Evidence from the 1974 General Election,\" ''Journal of Southern African Affairs,'' (1979) 4, 347-370.\n* Colclough, Christopher and Stephen McCarthy. ''The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Income Distribution'' (Oxford University Press, 1980) \n* \n* Edge, Wayne A. and Mogopodi H. Lekorwe eds. ''Botswana: Politics and Society'' (Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1998)\n* Fawcus, Peter and Alan Tilbury. ''Botswana: The Road to Independence'' (Pula Press, 2000) \n* Good, Kenneth. \"Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana,\" ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' (1992) 30, 69-95.\n* Good, Kenneth. \"Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example?\" ''Journal of Modern African Studies,'' (1994) 32, 499-521. \n* Parsons, Neil. ''King Khama, Emperor Joe and the Great White Queen'' (University of Chicago Press, 1998) \n* Parsons, Neil, Thomas Tlou and Willie Henderson. ''Seretse Khama, 1921-1980'' (Bloemfontein: Macmillan, 1995) \n* Samatar, Abdi Ismail. ''An African miracle: State and class leadership and colonial legacy in Botswana development'' (Heinemann Educational Books, 1999)\n* Thomas Tlou & Alec Campbell, ''History of Botswana'' (Gaborone: Macmillan, 2nd edn. 1997) \n* Chirenje, J. Mutero, Church, State, and Education in Bechuanaland in the Nineteenth Century, International Journal of African Historical Studies, (1976)\n* Chirenje, J. Mutero, Chief Kgama and His Times, 1835-1923\n", "* Brief History of Botswana\n* Bibliography of Botswana History\n* University of Botswana History Department - various resources\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Before European contact", "Bechuanaland Protectorate", "Independent Botswana", " People of Botswana ", " Bakalanga ", " Herero ", " Basubiya ", " Wayeyi (Bayei) ", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	History of Botswana
[ "\n\nBotswana map of Köppen climate classification.\n\nElevation map of Botswana\n\n'''Botswana''' is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, north of South Africa. Botswana occupies an area of , of which are land. Botswana has land boundaries of combined length , of which the constituent boundaries are shared with Namibia, for ; South Africa ; Zimbabwe, and Zambia, . Much of the population of Botswana is concentrated in the eastern part of the country.\n\nSunshine totals are high all year round although winter is the sunniest period. The whole country is windy and dusty during the dry season.\n", "\n\n\nBotswana is semi-arid, due to the short rain season. However, the relatively high altitude of the country and its continental situation gives it a subtropical climate. The country is remote from moisture-laden air flows for most of the year. The dry season lasts from April to October in the south and to November in the north where, however, rainfall totals are higher. The south of the country is most exposed to cold winds during the winter period (early May to late August) when average temperatures are around . The whole country has hot summers with average temperatures around . Sunshine totals are high all year round although winter is the sunniest period. The whole country is windy and dusty during the dry season.\n", "The land is predominantly flat to gently undulating tableland, although there is some hilly country, where mining is carried out. The Kalahari Desert is in the central and the southwest. The Okavango Delta, one of the world's largest inland deltas, is in the northwest and the Makgadikgadi Pans, a large salt pan lies in the north-central area. The Makgadikgadi has been established as an early habitation area for primitive man; This large seasonal wetland is composed of several large component pans, the largest being Nwetwe Pan, Sua Pan and Nxai Pan. Botswana's lowest elevation point is at the junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers, at a height of . The highest point is Monalanong Hill, at .\nThe country is divided into four drainage regions, which are sometimes indistinct due to the arid nature of the climate:\n* the Chobe River on the border with the Caprivi Strip of Namibia together with a small adjacent swampy area is part of the Zambezi basin;\n* most of the north and central region of the country is part of the Okavango inland drainage basin;\n* the easternmost part of the country falls into the Limpopo drainage basin;\n* the southern and southwestern regions, which are the driest of all, are drained by the Molopo river along the South African border and the Nossob river through the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, and are technically part of the basin of the Orange River. None of these rivers normally flows as far as the Orange, however. (The last recorded confluence was in the 1880s.)\nExcept for the Chobe, Okavango, Boteti and Limpopo rivers, most of Botswana's rivers cease to flow during the dry and early rainy seasons.\n", "Botswana is affected by periodic droughts, and seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust, which can obscure visibility.\n", "\nCurrent environmental issues in Botswana are overgrazing, desertification and the existence of only limited fresh water resources.\n\nResearch from the University of Botswana has found that the common practice of overstocking cattle to cope with drought losses actually depletes scarce biomass, making ecosystems more vulnerable. The study of the Kgatleng district predicts that by 2050 the cycle of mild drought is likely to become shorter —18 months instead of two years—due to climate change.\n", "Botswana is a party to the following international agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection and Wetlands.\n", "\nThis is a list of the extreme points of Botswana, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.\n\n* Northernmost point - the tripoint with Zambia and Namibia, Ngamiland District\n* Easternmost point - the tripoint with South Africa and Zimbabwe, Central District\n* Southernmost point - Bokspits, Kgalagadi District\n* Westernmost point - the western section of the border with Namibia\n ''Note: Botswana does not have a westernmost point as the western section is formed by the 22nd meridian of longitude east of Greenwich.''\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Climate", "Geography", "Natural hazards", "Environment", "International agreements", " Extreme points ", " References " ]	Geography of Botswana
[ "This article is about the demographic features of the population of Botswana, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n\nFAO, year 2008; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\nBotswana house\n\nBotswana, like many nations in southern Africa, suffers from a high HIV infection rate, estimated among adults ages 15 to 49 to be 24.8%.\n", "\n===Census results===\n\n\n====Bechuanaland Protectorate====\nThe seven censuses of Botswana before its independence happened irregularly. Due to the Anglo-Boer War, the first census of Bechuanaland Protectorate, originally set to occur in 1901, took place on 17 April 1904. The 1931 census was postponed to 1936 because of the Great Depression. The early censuses were unreliable and took several years to tabulate; the results were outdated by the time they were calculated.\n\n====Post-independence====\nThere have been five censuses after the independence of Botswana, each occurring every ten years in the year ending in 1 (i.e. 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2011). The 1971 census was the first census in Botswana to use de facto enumeration; this method counts people based on how many people spent census night at a specific location. Previously, the citizens were counted based on their usual place of residence. The 2001 census was the first census in Botswana to comply with the SADC 2000 Census Project, the guidelines of which unify the demographic statistics in southern Africa. The most recent census was the 2011 Botswana Population and Housing Census, which occurred in August 2011.\n\n===UN estimates===\nAccording to the total population was in , compared to only 413,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 32.6%, 63.4% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4% was 65 years or older.\nPopulation pyramid\n\n\n\nTotal population (x 1000)\nPopulation aged 0–14 (%)\nPopulation aged 15–64 (%)\nPopulation aged 65+ (%)\n\n 1950\n 413\n40.9\n54.8\n4.4\n\n 1955\n 470\n42.4\n53.4\n4.2\n\n 1960\n 524\n45.6\n50.4\n4.0\n\n 1965\n 596\n48.4\n48.2\n3.5\n\n 1970\n 693\n47.9\n48.9\n3.2\n\n 1975\n 822\n47.1\n50.1\n2.8\n\n 1980\n 996\n46.5\n51.0\n2.5\n\n 1985\n1 183\n46.3\n51.2\n2.4\n\n 1990\n1 382\n44.8\n52.6\n2.6\n\n 1995\n1 586\n41.6\n55.7\n2.7\n\n 2000\n1 758\n37.9\n59.0\n3.0\n\n 2005\n1 876\n34.9\n61.6\n3.5\n\n 2010\n2 007\n32.6\n63.4\n4.0\n\n", "Registration of vital events is in Botswana not complete. The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.\n\n\n\nPeriod\nLive births per year\nDeaths per year\nNatural change per year\nCBR\nCDR\nNC\nTFR\nIMR\n\n 1950–1955 \n 21 000\n 8 000\n 12 000\n47.0\n18.8\n28.2\n6.50\n135\n\n 1955–1960 \n 23 000\n 9 000\n 15 000\n47.3\n17.3\n29.9\n6.58\n124\n\n 1960–1965 \n 26 000\n 9 000\n 17 000\n46.6\n15.6\n31.0\n6.65\n113\n\n 1965–1970 \n 30 000\n 9 000\n 21 000\n46.1\n14.0\n32.1\n6.70\n104\n\n 1970–1975 \n 34 000\n 9 000\n 25 000\n45.5\n12.0\n33.4\n6.55\n90\n\n 1975–1980 \n 41 000\n 9 000\n 32 000\n45.0\n9.9\n35.1\n6.37\n75\n\n 1980–1985 \n 46 000\n 9 000\n 37 000\n42.5\n8.4\n34.1\n5.97\n63\n\n 1985–1990 \n 48 000\n 9 000\n 39 000\n37.2\n7.0\n30.2\n5.11\n54\n\n 1990–1995 \n 48 000\n 11 000\n 37 000\n32.2\n7.2\n25.0\n4.32\n51\n\n 1995–2000 \n 48 000\n 18 000\n 30 000\n28.6\n11.0\n17.7\n3.70\n61\n\n 2000–2005 \n 46 000\n 27 000\n 19 000\n25.5\n14.9\n10.6\n3.18\n59\n\n 2005–2010 \n 47 000\n 25 000\n 23 000\n24.2\n12.6\n11.6\n2.90\n41\n\n CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)\n\n\n'''Births and deaths''' \n\n\nYear\nPopulation\nLive births\nDeaths\nNatural increase\nCrude birth rate\nCrude death rate\nRate of natural increase\nTFR\n\n 2012\n \n 40 856\n 12 270\n 28 586\n \n\n \n \n\n\n\nSource: Vital Statistics Report 2012.\n", ":Tswana or Setswana 79%, Kalanga 11%, Basarwa 3%, other 7% (including Kgalagadi and White )\n", "\n:Setswana 77.3%, Sekalanga 7.4%, Shekgalagadi 3.4%, English (official) 2.8%, Zezuru/Shona 2%, Sesarwa 1.7%, Sembukushu 1.6%, Ndebele 1%, other 2.8% (2011 est.) \n", "\n: Christian 79.1%, Badimo 4.1%, Other 1.4% (includes Baha'i, Hindu, Islam, Rastafarian), None 15.2%, Unspecified 0.3% (2011 est.)\n", "\nThe following demographic statistics are from the 2011 CIA World Factbook.\n\n===Median age===\n:total: 22.3 years\n:male: 22.2 years\n:female: 22.4 years (2011 est.)\n\n===Net migration rate===\n:5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.) \n:''note'': there is an increasing flow of Zimbabweans into Botswana and South Africa in search of better economic opportunities.\n\n===Urbanization===\n:Urban population: 60% of total population (2008)\n:Rate of urbanization: 2.5% annual rate of change (2005–10 est.)\n\n===Sex ratio===\n:at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female\n:under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female\n:15–64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female\n:65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female\n:total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2011 est.)\n\n===Life expectancy at birth===\n:Total population: 60.93 years\n:Male: 61.12 years\n:Female: 60.75 years (2010 est.)\n\n===HIV/AIDS===\n\n:Adult prevalence rate: 23.9% (2007 est.)\n:People living with HIV/AIDS: 300,000 (2007 est.)\n:Deaths due to AIDS: 11,000 (2007 est.)\n\n===Major infectious diseases===\n:Degree of risk: high\n:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever\n:Vectorborne disease: malaria (2009)\n\n===Nationality===\n:Noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)\n:Adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)\n\n===Literacy===\n:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write\n:Total population: 81.2%\n:Male: 80.4%\n:Female: 81.8% (2007 est.)\n\n===Education expenditure===\n:8.7% of total GDP (2007)\n", "\n\n\n* Botswana Demographics 2001 Central Statistics Office (Botswana), Census and Demographic Statistics for the year 2001.\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Population", "Vital statistics", "Ethnic groups", "Languages", "Religions", " CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ", "References" ]	Demographics of Botswana
[ "\n\n\n'''Politics of Botswana''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Botswana is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Botswana. The party system has been dominated by the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), which has never lost power since independence. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nBotswana is formally a multiparty constitutional democracy. Each of the elections since independence in September 1966 has been freely and fairly contested and has been held on schedule. The country's small white minority and other minorities participate freely in the political process. There are two main rival parties and a number of smaller parties. General elections are held at least every five years.\n", "\nNational Assembly of Botswana.\nThe National Assembly has 57 elected and 4 appointed members ; it is expanded following each census (every 10 years). After elections, the party that wins the majority elects the State President. The President then appoints the Vice President, but the appointment is subject to endorsement by the National Assembly. \n\nThere are 57 parliamentary constituencies in Botswana.\n\nThe advisory House of Chiefs represents the eight principal subgroups of the Batswana people, and four other members are elected by the subchiefs of four of the districts. A draft of any National Assembly bill of tribal concern must be referred to the House of Chiefs for advisory opinion. Chiefs and other leaders preside over customary, traditional courts, though all persons have the right to request that their case be considered under the formal British-based legal system.\n", "\nThe President appoints Ministers to head the different government Ministries. The President and Ministers form the Cabinet (Executive). The Cabinet is headed by the President, who is also head of government.\n\n\n Office !! Incumbent\n\nPresident\nH.E. Lieutenant General Dr Seretse Khama Ian Khama\n\nVice President\nMokgweetsi Masisi\n\nMinister of Presidential Affairs and Public Administration\nEric Molale\n\nMinister of Local Government\nSlumber Tsogwane\n\nMinister of Trade and Industry\nVincent Seretse\n\nMinister of Finance and Development Planning\nKenneth Matambo\n\nMinister of Youth, Sports and Culture\nThapelo Olopeng\n\nMinister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources\nKitso Mokaila\n\nMinister of Infrastructure, Science and Technology\nNonofo Molefhi\n\nMinister of Defence, Justice and Security\nShaw Kgathi\n\nMinister of Agriculture\nPatrick Ralotsia\n\nMinister of Works and Transport\nTshenolo Mabeo\n\nMinister of Labour and Home Affairs\nEdwin Batshu\n\nMinister of Health\nDorcus Makgatho\n\nMinister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation\nPelonomi Venson-Moitoi\n\nMinister of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism\nTshekedi Khama\n\nMinister of Education and Skills Development\nHis Honour the Vice President Mokgweetsi Masisi\n\nMinister of Lands and Housing\nPrince Maele\n\n\nSource: \n\nSource: \nAccessed 14/01/2015\n", "\nLocal government is administered by nine district councils and five town councils. District commissioners have executive authority and are appointed by the central government and assisted by elected and nominated district councilors and district development committees. There has been ongoing debate about the political, social, and economic marginalization of the San (Bushmen). The government's policies for remote area dwellers continue to spark controversy and may be revised in response to domestic and donor concerns.\n", "\n\n", "The highest court of Botswana is the Court of Appeal, which is constituted under section 99 of the Constitution and consists of a President and such number of Justices of Appeal as may be prescribed by Parliament. There are currently eight judges of the Court of Appeal, who are all expatriates drawn from different parts of the Commonwealth. To date, no Motswana has ever been appointed to the Court of Appeal.\n\nThe High Court is a superior court of record with unlimited original jurisdiction to hear and determine any criminal and civil cases under any law. The High Court is constituted under section 95 of the Constitution, and consists of a Chief Justice and such number of other judges of the High Court as may be prescribed by Parliament. There are currently sixteen permanent judges of the High Court. Until 1992, the judges of the High Court were expatriate judges who were appointed on short-term contracts of two to three years. In 1992 the first citizen judges were appointed to the bench. There are two High Court divisions in Lobatse and Francistown.\n\nThere are also Magistrates' Courts in Botswana. These courts are subordinate to the High Court and hear a range of civil, criminal and family law matters. There are nineteen Magistrates' Courts in the country, with fifty magistrates of whom seventeen are expatriate.\n\nJudges are appointed by the president and may be removed only for cause and after a hearing. \n\n Judgments of the Botswana Court of Appeal\n\n Judgments of the Botswana High Court\n", "ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WT\n", "\n* Botswana Prison Service\n* Republic of Botswana - Government portal\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Legislative branch", "Current Cabinet", "Local government", "Political parties and elections", "Judicial branch", "International organization participation", "See also", "References" ]	Politics of Botswana
[ "'''Telecommunications in Botswana''' include newspapers, radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.\n\nIn addition to the government-owned newspaper and national radio network, there is an active, independent press (six weekly newspapers). Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana. Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. Botswana's first national television station, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV), was launched in July 2000. It began broadcasting with three hours of programming on weekdays and five on weekends, offering news in Setswana and English, entertainment, and sports, with plans to produce 60% of its programming locally. The cellular phone providers Orange and MTN cover most of the country.\n\n'''Radio stations:'''\n* 2 state-owned national radio stations; 3 privately owned radio stations broadcast locally (2007); \n* AM 8, FM 13, shortwave 4 (2001).\n\n'''Television stations:''' 1 state-owned and 1 privately owned; privately owned satellite TV subscription service is available (2007).\n\n'''Television sets:'''\n* 80,000 (2006);\n* 31,000 (1997).\n\n'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''\n* 160,500 lines, 134th in the world (2012); \n* 136,900 (2006).\n\n'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''\n* 3.1 million lines, 129th in the world (2012); \n* 1.4 million lines (2007).\n\n'''Telephone system:'''\n* ''general assessment'': Botswana is participating in regional development efforts; expanding fully digital system with fiber-optic cables linking the major population centers in the east as well as a system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relays links, and radiotelephone communication stations (2011);\n* ''domestic'': fixed-line teledensity has declined in recent years and now stands at roughly 7 telephones per 100 persons; mobile-cellular teledensity now pushing 140 telephones per 100 persons (2011);\n* ''international'': country code - 267; international calls are made via satellite, using international direct dialing; 2 international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2011).\n\n'''Internet top-level domain:''' .bw\n\n'''Internet users:'''\n* 241,272 users, 148th in the world; 11.5% of the population, 166th in the world (2012);\n* 120,000 users, 154th in the world (2009);\n* 80,000 users (2007).\n\n'''Internet broadband''':\n* 16,407 fixed broadband subscriptions, 134th in the world; 0.8% of the population, 143rd in the world;\n* 348,124 wireless broadband subscriptions, 102nd in the world; 16.6% of the population, 76th in the world.\n\n'''Internet hosts:'''\n* 1,806 hosts (2012);\n* 6,374 hosts (2008).\n\n'''Internet IPv4 addresses''': 100,096 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 47.7 addresses per 1000 people (2012).\n\n'''Internet Service Providers:'''\n* 11 ISPs (2001);\n* 2 ISPs (1999).\n\nADSL has been introduced in the following areas:\nGaborone, Tlkokweng, Mogoditsane, Phakalane, Francistown, Lobatse, Palapye, Maun, Kasane, Selibe-Phikwe, Letlhakane, Jwaneng, and Orapa.\n", "\n* Botswana Internet Exchange\n* Botswana Telecommunications Authority\n* Botswana TV\n* Internet in Botswana\n* Media of Botswana\n* Telephone numbers in Botswana\n", "\n\n* \n\n", "* Botswana Communications Regulatory Authority (BOCRA).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Telecommunications in Botswana
[ "\nMap of Botswana\nA sparsely populated, arid country, '''Botswana''' has nonetheless managed to incorporate much of its interior into the national economy. An \"inner circle\" highway connecting all major towns and district capitals is completely paved, and the all-weather Trans-Kalahari Highway connects the country (and, through it, South Africa's commercially dominant Gauteng Province) to Walvis Bay in Namibia.\n", "\nBR Express Train from Gaborone to Francistown\nBotswana possesses 888 km of gauge railway, by 2019 figures, serving a number of towns and connecting the country to its neighbours.\n\n=== Towns served by rail ===\n\n\nAll passenger services were discontinued in 2009, with the only remaining service being an international link to Zimbabwe from Francistown. Freight trains still operate. Passenger service was expected to resume in late 2015. Passenger services were later re-introduced in March 2016. Botswana Railways run 2 nightly passenger trains, one from Lobatse to Francistown, and the other from Francistown to Lobatse, with stops in Gaborone, Mahalapye, Palapye, and Serule. The passenger train is termed the \"BR Express\" (Botswana Railways Express).\n", "Botswana \"caution curves\" sign.\nBotswana possesses 10,217 km of highway, of which 5,620 km are paved. Since 1996 estimates, there has been a significant reduction in the total length of unpaved highway in Botswana - between 1996 and 1999 total length of unpaved highway fell from 14,139 km to 4,597 km.\n\nTraditionally, road signs in Botswana used blue backgrounds rather than the yellow, white, or orange which the rest of the world uses on traffic warning signs. In the early 2010s, officials announced plans to begin phasing out the distinctive blue signs in favor of more typical signs in order to be more in line with the neighboring Southern African Development Community member states.\n", "\nSir Seretse Khama International Airport in Gaborone, Botswana\nIn 2004 there were an estimated 85 airports, 10 of which (as of 2005), were paved. The country's main international airport is Sir Seretse Khama International Airport in Gaborone. The government-owned Air Botswana operates scheduled flights to Francistown, Gaborone, Maun, and Selebi-Phikwe. There is international service to Johannesburg, South Africa; Mbabane, Swaziland; and Harare, Zimbabwe. A new international airport near Gaborone was opened in 1984. Air passengers arriving to and departing from Botswana during 2003 totalled about 183,000.\n", "* Sprint Couriers\n", "* UN Map of Botswana\n* Air Botswana UK - The national airline of Botswana\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Railways", "Highways", "Airports", " See also ", "External links", " References " ]	Transport in Botswana
[ "\n\n\n\nBotswana has put a premium on economic and political integration in southern Africa. It has sought to make the Southern African Development Community (SADC) a working vehicle for economic development, and it has promoted efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. The SADC headquarters are located in Gaborone, the capital of Botswana. It has welcomed post-apartheid South Africa as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African consensus on most major international matters and is a member of international organizations such as the United Nations and the African Union. Botswana is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).\n\nBotswana has a small number of diplomatic missions abroad.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable sortable\" style=\"width:100%; margin:auto;\"\n\n Country\n Formal Relations Began\nNotes\n\n\n28 February 2008\n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on February 28, 2008.\n\n\n\n9 September 2005\n\nDiplomatic relations between Botswana and Croatia were established on September 9, 2005.\n\n\n\n22 February 2005\n\nDiplomatic relations between Botswana and Cyprus were established on February 22, 2005.\n\n\n\n23 July 2007\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 July 2007.\n\n\n\n5 November 2015\n\nDiplomatic relations between Georgia and Botswana were established on November 5, 2015.\n\n\n\n\n\nBotswana is represented in Greece through its Permanent Representation to the United Nation Office in Geneva, Switzerland, and Greece is represented in Botswana through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.\n\n\n\n22 March 2010\n\n\nBotswana and Guinea-Bissau established diplomatic relations on 22 March 2010.\n\n\n\n28 October 1975\n\nBoth countries have established diplomatic relations on 28 October 1975. \nGuyana is covered through the Botswana Mission in New York, USA. \nBoth countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n\n\n\nSee Botswana–India relations\n\n\n\n\nSee Botswana–Israel relations\n\n\n\n\n\nBoth countries are full members of the Southern African Development Community, Commonwealth of Nations and of the Non-Aligned Movement.\n\n\n\n5 December 1965\n\n\n Botswana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.\n* Mexico is accredited to Botswana from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa and maintains an honorary consulate in Gaborone.\n\n\n\nSee Botswana–Namibia relations\n\nBotswana–Namibia relations are friendly, with the two neighbouring countries cooperating on economic development. Botswana gained independence from Britain in September 1966. Namibia gained independence from South Africa in 1990 following the Namibian War of Independence. Botswana has a high commission in Windhoek. Namibia has a high commission in Gaborone.\n\n\n\n15 December 2009\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 2009.\n\n\n\n7 October 1971\n\nDiplomatic relations between Botswana and Romania were established on October 7, 1971.\n\n\n\n6 March 1940\nSee Botswana–Russia relations\n\nBotswana and the Soviet Union initiated diplomatic relations on March 6, 1970. Despite its pro-Western orientation, Botswana participated in the 1980 Summer Olympics. The present-day relations between the two countries are described as friendly and long standing. In March, the two countries also celebrated the 35th anniversary of establishing diplomatic relations. According to the minister of Foreign Affairs, Russia was one of the first countries to establish full diplomatic relations with Botswana.\n\nTrade and economic cooperation between Russia and Botswana are stipulated by the Trade Agreement of 1987 and the Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation of 1988. The Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Botswana signed the Agreement on Cultural, Scientific and Educational Cooperation in September 1999. Russia and Botswana have had fruitful cooperation in a variety of fields, particularly in human resource development. And Russia is still offering more scholarship in key sectors such as health, which is currently experiencing a critical shortage of manpower. Botswana also is one of the countries where Russian citizens do not require a visa. Russia has an embassy in Gaborone, while Botswana covers Russia from its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Moscow.\n\n\n\n2007\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on February 22, 2007. \nBoth countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n\n\n18 March 2010\n\nBotswana and Samoa established diplomatic relations on 18 March 2010.\n\n\n\n1970\n\nDiplomatic relations between Botswana and Serbia were established in 1970.\n\n\n\n17 November 2010\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on November 17, 2010. \nBoth countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n\n\n\nSee Botswana–South Africa relations\n\n\n\n18 April 1968\n\n\nEstablishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of Botswana is April 18, 1968. In 2011 the number of South Koreans living in Botswana amounted to 163. Since 2014, the government of Botswana recognized ROK as the sole legitimate government of Korea.\n\n\n\n1981\n\nDiplomatic relations between Botswana and Turkey were established in 1981.\n\n\n\n\nSee Botswana–United States relations\nEmbassy of Botswana in Washington, D.C.\n\nThe United States considers Botswana an advocate of and a model for stability in Africa and has been a major partner in Botswana's development since its independence. The U.S. Peace Corps returned to Botswana in August 2002 with a focus on HIV/AIDS-related programs after concluding 30 years of more broadly targeted assistance in 1997. Similarly, the USAID phased out a long-standing bilateral partnership with Botswana in 1996, after successful programs emphasizing education, training, entrepreneurship, environmental management, and reproductive health. Botswana, however, continues to benefit along with its neighbours in the region from USAID's Initiative for Southern Africa, now based in Pretoria, and USAID's Southern Africa Global Competitiveness Hub, headquartered in Gaborone. The United States International Board of Broadcasters (IBB) operates a major Voice of America (VOA) relay station in Botswana serving most of the African continent.\n\nIn 1995, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) started the BOTUSA Project in collaboration with the Botswana Ministry of Health in order to generate information to improve tuberculosis control efforts in Botswana and elsewhere in the face of the TB and HIV/AIDS co-epidemics. Under the 1999 U.S. Government's Leadership and Investment in Fighting an Epidemic (LIFE) Initiative, CDC through the BOTUSA Project has undertaken many projects and has assisted many organizations in the fight against the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Botswana. Botswana is one of the 15 focus countries for PEPFAR, the President's Emergency Plan for Aids Relief, and has received more than $230 million since the program began in January 2004 through September 2007. PEPFAR assistance to Botswana, which totalled $76.2 million in FY 2007, is contributing to HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, and care interventions.\n\nThe Governments of Botswana and the United States entered into an agreement in July 2000 to establish an International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Gaborone. The academy, jointly financed, managed and staffed by the two nations, provides training to police and government officials from across the Sub-Saharan region. The academy's permanent campus, in Otse outside of Gaborone, opened March 2003. Over 3,000 law enforcement professionals from Sub-Saharan Africa have received training from ILEA since it began offering classes in 2001.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBotswana still struggles to seal its border from thousands of Zimbabweans who flee economic collapse and political persecution. \n\n", "\nBotswana has been a Commonwealth republic since independence in 1966.\n", "\n", "\n* List of diplomatic missions in Botswana\n* List of diplomatic missions of Botswana\n", "\n", "* Embassy of the Russian Federation in Gaborone\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Bilateral Relations", "Botswana and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]", "Notes", "See also", " References ", "External links" ]	Foreign relations of Botswana
[ "\n\n'''Brazil''' has both modern technologies in the center-south portion, counting with LTE, 3G HSPA, DSL ISDB based Digital TV. Other areas of the country, particularly the North and Northeast regions, lack even basic analog PSTN telephone lines. This is a problem that the government is trying to solve by linking the liberation of new technologies such as WiMax and FTTH) only tied with compromises on extension of the service to less populated regions.\n", "\n=== Landline===\nThe Brazilian landline sector is fully open to competition and continues to attract operators. The bulk of the market is divided between four operators: Telefónica, América Móvil, Oi (controlled by Brazilian investors and Portugal Telecom), and GVT. Telefónica operates through Telefónica Brasil, which has integrated its landline and mobile services under the brand name Vivo. The América Móvil group in Brazil comprises long distance incumbent Embratel, mobile operator Claro, and cable TV provider Net Serviços. The group has started to integrate its landline and mobile services under the brand name Claro, previously used only for mobile services. Oi offers landline and mobile services under the Oi brand name. GVT is the country’s most successful alternative network provider, offering landline services only.\n\n''National:''\nextensive microwave radio relay system and a national satellite system with 64 earth stations.\n\n''International:''\ncountry code - 55; landing point for a number of submarine cables, including Atlantis 2, that provide direct links to South and Central America, the Caribbean, the US, Africa, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to Mercosur Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station (2007)\n\n'''Statistics'''\n\nServed locations: 37,355\nInstalled terminals: 43,626,836\nIn service: 33,800,370\nPublic terminals: 1,128,350\nDensity: 22,798 Phones/100 Hab\n\n===Mobile===\nThe history of mobile telephony in Brazil began on 30 December 1990, when the Cellular Mobile System began operating in the city of Rio de Janeiro, with a capacity for 10,000 terminals. At that time, according to Anatel (the national telecommunications agency), there were 667 devices in the country. The number of devices rose to 6,700 in the next year, to 30,000 in 1992. In November 2007 3G services were launched, and increased rapidly to almost 90% of the population in 2012 and the agreements signed as part of the auction specify a 3G coverage obligation of 100% of population by 2019. After the auction that took place in June 2012, LTE tests were undertaken in several cities, tourist locations and international conference venues. The first LTE-compatible devices became available in the local market and LTE services was commercially launched in 2013. Under the 4G licence terms, operators were required to have commercial networks in all twelve state capitals which are acting as host cities for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.\n\nThe mobile market is ruled by 4 companies:\n\n'''Vivo''', controlled by the Spanish Telefónica, is the leading wireless and fixed company in Brazil.\n'''TIM''', controlled by the Italian Telecom Italia. It recently overcame Claro as the second wireless company in Brazil.\n'''Claro''', controlled by the Mexican América Móvil (owned by Carlos Slim), ranks third in Brazilian wireless.\n'''Oi''', which is the second landline company in Brazil, is the smallest wireless player of the big four.\n\n'''Statistics'''\nNumber of devices: 161,922,375\nPercentage of prepaid lines: 81.91%\nDensity: 84.61 phones/100 hab\n\n'''Technology distribution'''\n\n\n\n Technology\n 2008 (Dec)\n 2009 (Jul)\n\n Phone Number\nMonth growth\nAnnual growth\n\n AMPS\n 11,546\n 6,240\n 0.00%\n -75\n -45.96%\n\n TDMA\n 1,153,580\n 541,802\n 0.33%\n -39,020\n -53.03%\n\n CDMA\n 12,732,287\n 9,527,796\n 5.88%\n -425,018\n -25.17%\n\n GSM\n 133,925,736\n 145,840,175\n 90.07%\n 2,497,642\n 8.90%\n\n WCDMA\n 1,692,436\n 2,010,740\n 1.24%\n 107,710\n -\n\n CDMA 2000\n 452,816\n 218,166\n 0.13%\n -9,994\n -\n\n Data Terminals\n 673,002\n 3,777,456\n 2.28%\n 177,623\n -\n\n '''Total'''\n '''150,641,403'''\n '''161,922,375'''\n '''100.00%'''\n '''2,308,868'''\n '''10.00%'''\n\n", "\n===Submarine cables===\n\nSeveral submarine cables link Brazil to the world:\n'''Americas II''' cable entered operations on September 2000, connecting Brazil (Fortaleza) to United States.\n'''ATLANTIS-2''', with around 12 thousand kilometers in extension, operating since 2000, it connects Brazil (Rio de Janeiro and Natal) to Europe, Africa and South America. This is the only cable that connects South America to Africa and Europe.\n'''EMERGIA – SAM 1''' cable connects all three Americas, surrounding it with a total extension of more than 25 thousand kilometers.\n'''GLOBAL CROSSING - SAC''' Connects all Americas, surrounding them with a total extension of more than 15 thousand kilometers.\n'''GLOBENET/360 NETWORK''' Another link from North America to South America.\n'''UNISUR''' Interconnects Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.\n\nAll these cables have a bandwidth from 20 Gbit/s to 80 Gbit/s, and some have a projected final capacity of more than 1 Tbit/s.\n\n===Satellite connections===\n\nList of business and satellites they operate (Brazilian Geostationary Satellites)\n\n\nSatellite operator\nSatellite\nBands\nOrbital positions\nOperational\n\nHispamar\n Amazonas 1\nC e Ku\n61.0° W\nYes\n\nAmazonas 2\n\nLoral Skynet\nEstrela do Sul 1\nKu\n63.0° W\nYes\n\nEstrela do Sul 2\nKu\n63.0° W\nNo\n\nStar One\nBrasilsat B1\nC and X\n70.0° W\nYes\n\nBrasilsat B2\nC and X\n65.0° W\nYes\n\nBrasilsat B3\nC\n84.0° W\nYes\n\nBrasilsat B4\nC\n92.0° W\nYes\n\nStar One C1\nC and Ku\n65.0° W\nYes\n\nStar One C2\nC and Ku\n70.0° W\nYes\n\nStar One C3\nC and Ku\n75.0° W\nNo\n\nStar One C4\nC, L, S\n75.0° W\nNo\n\nStar One C5\nC and Ku\n68.0° W\nNo\n\n", "\nUnder the Brazilian constitution, television and radio are not treated as forms of telecommunication, in order to avoid creating problems with a series of regulations that reduce and control how international businesses and individuals can participate. It is worth mentioning that Brazil has the 2nd largest media conglomerate in the world in terms of revenue, Rede Globo.\n", "\n\n\nThe Internet has become quite popular in Brazil, with steadily growing numbers of users as well as increased availability. Brazil holds the 6th spot in number of users worldwide. Many technologies are actually used to bring broadband Internet to consumers, with DSL and its variants being the most used, and 3G technologies. 4G technologies were introduced in April 2013 but with limited range, being compatible with only a few smartphones models.\n", "* List of telecommunications companies in Brazil\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Telephone system", "International backbones", "Television and radio", "Internet", "See also", "References" ]	Telecommunications in Brazil
[ "\n'''Transport infrastructure''' in Brazil is characterized by strong regional differences and lack of development of the national rail network. Brazil's fast-growing economy, and especially the growth in exports, will place increasing demands on the transport networks. However, sizeable new investments that are expected to address some of the issues are either planned or in progress.\n", "Rodovia dos Imigrantes\n\n\n\n'''Total actual network:''' 29,303 km\n:Broad gauge: 4,932 km gauge (939 km electrified)\n:Narrow gauge: 23,773 km gauge (581 km electrified)\n:Dual gauge: 396 km 1000 mm and 1600 mm gauges (three rails)\n:Standard gauge: 202.4 km gauge (2006)\n\n\n Estrada de Ferro do Amapá in the middle of the Amazon Rainforest also used standard gauge.\n* A 12 km section of the former gauge Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas is retained as a heritage railway.\n\n===Cities with metros===\nPorto Alegre Metro\n\n\n\n\n* Belo Horizonte (28.2 km)\n* Brasília (42.4 km) \n* Fortaleza (24.1 km)\n* Porto Alegre (43.4 km) \n* Sobral (11.0 km) \n\n\n* Juazeiro do Norte (13.9 km) \n* Recife (71 km) \n* Rio de Janeiro (40.9 km)\n* São Paulo (75.5 km)\n* Salvador (7.3 km)\n* Teresina (13.5 km) \n\n\n===Railway links with adjacent countries===\n\nInternational rail links exist between Brazil and Argentina, Bolivia and Uruguay.\n\n===Tramways===\nBrazil had a hundred tramway systems. Currently, there are vintage tramways operating in Belém, Campinas, Campos do Jordão, Itatinga, Rio de Janeiro and Santos.\n\n===High-speed rail===\n\nA high-speed rail connecting São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro is currently under development.\n", "divided highways highlighted in red. The São Paulo state, which has state control of federal roads in their territory, make their road network the best in the country, thanks to this fact.\n''''\nBrazil has 1,751,868 kilometers of roads, 96,353 km of them paved and 1,655,515 km unpaved. That means that only 5.5% of the roads are paved and that 94.5% are unpaved. The most important highway of the country is BR-116 and the second is BR-101.\n\nThe country has a low rate of car ownership of 140 per 1000 population, however in comparison to the other developing economies of the BRIC group Brazil exceeds India and China.\n", "50,000 km navigable (most in areas remote from industry or population) (2008)\n", "* condensate/gas 62 km\n* natural gas 9,892 km\n* liquid petroleum gas 353 km\n* crude oil 4,517 km\n* refined products 4,465 km (2008)\n", "\n=== Atlantic Ocean ===\nPort of Natal\n\n\n\n* Fortaleza\n* Ilheus\n* Imbituba\n* Paranaguá\n* Porto Alegre\n\n\n* Recife\n* Rio de Janeiro\n* Rio Grande\n* Salvador\n* Santos\n\n\n* São Francisco do Sul\n* São Sebastião\n* ES\n* Itajaí\n* Natal\n\n\n===Amazon river===\n* Belém\n* Manaus\n\n===Paraguay River (international water way)===\n* Corumbá\n", "''total:'' 136 ships ( or over) totaling /\n\n''ships by type:'' (1999 est.)\n\n\n\n* bulk carriers 19\n* cargo ships 22\n* carrier ships 1\n* chemical tankers 7\n* container ships 11\n* gas carrying tankers 12\n\n\n* multi-functional large load carrier 1\n* passenger/cargo ships 12\n* petroleum tanker 45\n* roll-on/roll-off 7\n\n", "\nSão Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport.\nRio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport.\nMost international flights must go to São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport or Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport. Belo Horizonte is the main international airport outside Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. A few go to Brasília, Recife, Natal, and just recently Fortaleza has accepted international flights. With South American integration, more airports can be expected to open to international flights.\n\nIn 2013 Brazil had the sixth largest passenger air market in the world.\n\n=== Airports - with paved runways ===\n''total:'' 734\n''over 3,047 m:'' 7\n''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 26\n''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 169\n''914 to 1,523 m:'' 476\n''under 914 m:'' 56 (2008)\n\n=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===\n''total:'' 3,442\n''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 85\n''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1,541\n''under 914 m:'' 1,816 (2008)\n", "\nAzul Linhas Aéreas Brasileiras\nGol Transportes Aéreos\nAvianca\nTAM Airlines (TAM Linhas Aéreas)\n", "16 (2007)\n13 (2010)\n", "* Rail transport by country\n", "* CIA - The World Factbook - Brazil - Transportation\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Railways", "Highways", "Waterways", "Pipelines", "Seaports and harbors ", "Merchant marine", " Airports ", " National airlines ", " Heliports ", " See also ", " References " ]	Transport in Brazil
[ "\n:''See also:'' British Virgin Islands\nMap of British Virgin Islands\nBritish Virgin Islands - NASA ALI Earth Observing-1 (Visible Color) Satellite Image\nThe '''British Virgin Islands''' are located in the Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico.Its geographic coordinates are . Map references include Central America and the Caribbean. The area totals 151 km² (about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC) and comprises 16 inhabited and more than 20 uninhabited islands; includes the islands of Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda and Jost van Dyke. There are no bodies of water on the land.\nThere are no land boundaries. There is 80 km of coastline. Maritime claims include of territorial sea and exclusive a fishing zone. It has a tropical, humid climate, with temperatures moderated by trade winds. Its terrain consists of coral islands, and is relatively flat. It has volcanic islands and is steep and hilly. Its lowest point is the Caribbean Sea and its highest point is Mount Sage at above sea level. Its natural resources are negligible. In terms of land use, it is 20% arable land, 6.67% permanent crops and 73.33% other as of a 2005 figure. Its natural hazards consist of hurricanes and tropical storms from July to October.\nThere is limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchments). It has strong ties to nearby U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.\n", "\nThe British Virgin Islands have tropical rainforest climate, moderated by trade winds. Temperatures vary little throughout the year. In the capital, Road Town, typical daily maxima are around in the summer and in the winter. Typical daily minima are around in the summer and in the winter. Rainfall averages about per year, higher in the hills and lower on the coast. Rainfall can be quite variable, but the wettest months on average are September to November and the driest months on average are February and March. Hurricanes occasionally hit the islands, with the hurricane season running from June to November.\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Climate ", "References" ]	Geography of the British Virgin Islands
[ "\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of the British Virgin Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and various other aspects.\n\n\n", "A July 2009 estimate placed the population of the British Virgin Islands at 24,491. In 2003, 21.9% of the population was under 15 (male 2,401; female 2,358), 73.1% between 15 and 64 (male 8,181; female 7,709), and 5% over 64 (male 578; female 503). 40% of the total population lived in urban areas, with an estimated 1.7% annual rate of urbanization. In 2014, the average woman produced 1.25 children.\nThe estimated population of is ().\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align: right;\"\n\n\nAverage population (x 1000)\nLive births\nDeaths\nNatural change\nCrude birth rate (per 1000)\nCrude death rate (per 1000)\nNatural change (per 1000)\nTFR\n\n 1950\n 7\n 227\n 68\n 159\n30.5\n9.1\n21.4\n\n 1951\n 8\n 282\n 84\n 198\n37.6\n11.2\n26.4\n\n 1952\n 8\n 311\n 70\n 241\n41.1\n9.3\n31.9\n\n 1953\n 8\n 318\n 84\n 234\n41.8\n11.0\n30.8\n\n 1954\n 8\n 305\n 85\n 220\n39.9\n11.1\n28.8\n\n 1955\n 8\n 292\n 74\n 218\n38.0\n9.6\n28.4\n\n 1956\n 8\n 317\n 87\n 230\n41.0\n11.3\n29.8\n\n 1957\n 8\n 319\n 106\n 213\n41.0\n13.6\n27.4\n\n 1958\n 8\n 315\n 93\n 222\n40.1\n11.8\n28.3\n\n 1959\n 8\n 306\n 84\n 222\n38.6\n10.6\n28.0\n\n 1960\n 8\n 279\n 67\n 212\n34.7\n8.3\n26.4\n\n 1961\n 8\n 257\n 79\n 178\n31.5\n9.7\n21.8\n\n 1962\n 8\n 277\n 70\n 207\n33.4\n8.4\n24.9\n\n 1963\n 8\n 264\n 67\n 197\n31.2\n7.9\n23.3\n\n 1964\n 9\n 225\n 75\n 150\n26.1\n8.7\n17.4\n\n 1965\n 9\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 1966\n 9\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 1967\n 9\n 225\n 70\n 155\n24.4\n7.6\n16.8\n\n 1968\n 9\n 288\n 63\n 225\n30.6\n6.7\n23.9\n\n 1969\n 10\n 238\n 74\n 164\n24.7\n7.7\n17.0\n\n 1970\n 10\n 313\n 67\n 246\n31.9\n6.8\n25.1\n\n 1971\n 10\n 297\n 66\n 231\n29.8\n6.6\n23.2\n\n 1972\n 10\n 307\n 67\n 240\n30.3\n6.6\n23.7\n\n 1973\n 10\n 252\n 71\n 181\n24.6\n6.9\n17.6\n\n 1974\n 10\n 247\n 79\n 168\n23.8\n7.6\n16.2\n\n 1975\n 10\n 221\n 65\n 156\n21.1\n6.2\n14.9\n\n 1976\n 11\n 243\n 62\n 181\n23.0\n5.9\n17.2\n\n 1977\n 11\n 206\n 62\n 144\n19.4\n5.9\n13.6\n\n 1978\n 11\n 203\n 65\n 138\n19.0\n6.1\n12.9\n\n 1979\n 11\n 216\n 63\n 153\n20.0\n5.8\n14.2\n\n 1980\n 11\n 272\n 69\n 203\n24.7\n6.3\n18.4\n\n 1981\n 11\n 231\n 53\n 178\n20.4\n4.7\n15.7\n\n 1982\n 12\n 235\n 67\n 168\n20.1\n5.7\n14.3\n\n 1983\n 12\n 281\n 61\n 220\n23.0\n5.0\n18.0\n\n 1984\n 13\n 225\n 66\n 159\n17.7\n5.2\n12.5\n\n 1985\n 13\n 241\n 65\n 176\n18.1\n4.9\n13.2\n\n 1986\n 14\n 213\n 82\n 131\n15.3\n5.9\n9.4\n\n 1987\n 15\n 263\n 83\n 180\n18.0\n5.7\n12.3\n\n 1988\n 15\n 237\n 59\n 178\n15.5\n3.9\n11.7\n\n 1989\n 16\n 244\n 77\n 167\n15.3\n4.8\n10.5\n\n 1990\n 16\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 1991\n 17\n 303\n 77\n 226\n17.9\n4.5\n13.3\n\n 1992\n 17\n 290\n 90\n 200\n16.7\n5.2\n11.5\n\n 1993\n 18\n 318\n 76\n 242\n18.0\n4.3\n13.7\n\n 1994\n 18\n 298\n 105\n 193\n16.5\n5.8\n10.7\n\n 1995\n 18\n 287\n 90\n 197\n15.6\n4.9\n10.7\n\n 1996\n 19\n 287\n 88\n 199\n15.2\n4.7\n10.6\n\n 1997\n 19\n 350\n 97\n 253\n18.2\n5.0\n13.1\n\n 1998\n 20\n 278\n 87\n 191\n14.1\n4.4\n9.7\n\n 1999\n 20\n 315\n 94\n 221\n15.6\n4.7\n10.9\n\n 2000\n 21\n 325\n 91\n 234\n15.7\n4.4\n11.3\n\n 2001\n 21\n 314\n 101\n 213\n14.9\n4.8\n10.1\n\n 2002\n 22\n 253\n 97\n 156\n11.8\n4.5\n7.2\n\n 2003\n 22\n 269\n 104\n 165\n12.2\n4.7\n7.5\n\n 2004\n 23\n 316\n 120\n 196\n14.0\n5.3\n8.7\n\n 2005\n 25.422\n 285\n 106\n 179\n10.9\n4.1\n6.8\n\n1.3\n\n 2006\n 26.108\n 264\n 79\n 185\n9.8\n3.0\n6.8\n\n1.2\n\n 2007\n 27.007\n 283\n 104\n 179\n10.1\n3.8\n6.4\n\n1.3\n\n 2008\n 28.084\n 313\n 100\n 213\n10.9\n3.54\n7.36\n\n1.45\n\n 2009\n 28.020\n 323\n 109\n 214\n11.2 \n 3.77\n7.43\n\n1.5\n\n 2010\n 28.037\n 303\n 104\n 199 \n10.1 \n3.52 \n6.58\n\n1.4\n\n 2011\n 28.103\n333 \n 98\n 235\n 11.8\n 3.49\n8.31\n\n1.3\n\n 2012\n 28.280\n 286\n122\n 164\n10.1\n4.3\n5.8\n\n1.1\n\n 2013\n 28.514\n 277\n113\n 114\n9.7\n4.0\n5.8\n\n\n\n 2014\n 29.804\n 280\n111\n 169 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2015\n 29.151\n 266\n136\n 130\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "In 2009, the infant mortality rate in the British Virgin Islands was 14.65/1000 births (16.61/1000 for females and 12.58/1000 for males). Life expectancy at birth was 77.26 years: 76.03 years for males and 78.55 years for females.", "The official language of the British Virgin Islands is English. In 1991, 97.8% of people aged 15 and over could read and write. Education expenditures represented 3.7% of total GDP in 2006.\n", "\n", " \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Population", "Vital statistics", "Health", "Education", "Ethnicity", "Religion", "References" ]	Demographics of the British Virgin Islands
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''economy of the British Virgin Islands''' is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean. Although tiny in absolute terms, because of the very small population of the British Virgin Islands, in 2010 the Territory had the 19th highest GDP per capita in the world according to the CIA World factbook. In global terms the size of the Territory's GDP measured in terms of purchasing power is ranked as 215th out of a total of 229 countries. The economy of the Territory is based upon the \"twin pillars\" of financial services, which generates approximately 60% of government revenues, and tourism, which generates nearly all of the rest.\n\nHistorically the British Virgin Islands has normally produced a Government budget surplus, but during the financial crisis of 2007–2008 the Territory began to run at a deficit, which continued after the global recession receded. In 2011 the Territory had its largest ever budget deficit, of US$29 million (approximately 2.6% of GDP). By 2012 public debt had quadrupled from pre-crisis levels to approximately US$113 million (approximately 10.3% of GDP). Nearly 84% of that public debt was attributable to a new public hospital built in Road Town between 2003 and 2014. ''The Economist'' argued that deteriorating economic conditions in the British Virgin Islands were caused \"not by sagging revenues but public-sector profligacy\". By 2014 public debt had been reduced to US$106 million and the annual deficit reduced to US$25 million (including budgeted capital expenditure).\n\nBy 2016, the Government had returned to a primary budget surplus, but public debt had increased to approximately US$141 million and debt service accounted for over US$12 million of the primary surplus. However, because of an ongoing aggressive capital investment programme, and budget overruns on key public projects, the Government ran dangerously low on available cash. Cash in the consolidated fund fell below US$7 million (with average monthly expenditure at nearly US$30 million), and Government accrued over US$13 million in due but unpaid invoices.\n", "In 2015, British Virgin Islands has been assessed as the 34th in terms of global financial centres. This was the highest ranking of any offshore financial centre, and of any Latin American country. The Territory scored strongly in areas such as local taxation, rule of law, regulatory environment and quality of law for human resources. It scored less highly on infrastructure, access to capital and access to labour.\nThe G-20 considers it a tax haven and its banking system is described as 'opaque'.\n", "In 2006, a total of 825,603 people visited the islands (of whom 443,987 were cruise ship passengers), mainly from the United States. The bulk of the tourism income in the British Virgin Islands is generated by the yacht chartering industry. The Territory has relatively few large hotels compared to other tourism centres in the Caribbean. The British Virgin Islands also entertain cruise ships, although these generate relatively little revenue. However, cruise ship passengers are an important source of revenue for taxi drivers, who represent a politically important voice in the Territory.\n\nBetween 2007 and 2011, tourist visitors to be the British Virgin Islands declined by approximately 12.4%, largely due to the global recession which particularly affected North America, a key source of visitors for the Territory. However, by November 2013 tourist numbers had begun to recover.\n\nAccording to the World Travel and Tourism Council:\n\n* In 2013, the ''direct'' contribution of travel and tourism to the Territory's GDP was US$274 million (accounting for 27.0% of total GDP), and was forecast to rise by 2.8% in 2014, and to rise by 2.7% per annum for the period 2014-2024.\n* The ''total'' contribution of travel and tourism to GDP was US$780.8 million (76.9% of GDP) in 2013, and is forecast to rise by 3.2% in 2014, and to rise by 2.6% per annum for the period 2014-2024.\n* In 2013, travel and tourism ''directly'' supported 3,300 jobs in the Territory (33.2% of total employment). This was expected to remain unchanged in 2014 and fall by 0.3% per annum to 3,000 jobs (29.6% of total employment) by 2024.\n* The ''total'' contribution to employment in 2013 (which includes jobs indirectly supported by the industry, was 90.1% of total employment (8,850 jobs). This was expected to rise by 1.9% in 2014 to 9,050 jobs, but fall by 0.2% per annum to 9,000 jobs in 2024 (80.9% of total).\n* Travel and tourism investment in 2013 was US$35.8 million, or 14.8% of total investment. This was expected to rise by 10.1% in 2014, and rise by 2.0% per annum over the next ten years to a total of US$48.2 million in 2024.\nHowever, these statistics include travel as well as tourism, and so non-tourist related travel (i.e. travel relating to domestic consumption and other industries and services) are included and inflate the figures.\n", "In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate an estimated 51.4% of Government revenues.\n\nAccording to official statistics 447,801 BVI companies were 'active' (i.e. incorporated and not yet struck-off, liquidated or dissolved) as at 30 June 2012. There are no recent official statistics on total numbers of incorporations (including struck, liquidated and dissolved companies) but these are estimated at approximately 950,000. Many of these companies were originally formed under the International Business Companies Act, 1984, but have now been consolidated into the BVI Business Companies Act, 2004. In 2000, KPMG were commissioned by the British Government to produce a report on the offshore financial industry generally, and the report indicated that nearly 45% of the offshore companies in the world were formed in the British Virgin Islands. The British Virgin Islands is now one of the world's leading offshore financial centres, and boasts one of the highest incomes per capita in the Caribbean.\n\nIn addition to basic company incorporations, the British Virgin Islands also forms limited partnerships and trusts (including signature \"VISTA\" trusts) but these have not proved to be as popular as companies.\n\nOn 12 April 2007, the ''Financial Times'' reported that the British Virgin Islands was the second largest source of foreign direct investment in the world (behind Hong Kong) with over US$123,000,000,000. Almost all of these sums are directly attributable to investment through the Territory's offshore finance industry.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands also promotes a number of regulated financial services products. The most important of these is the formation and regulation of offshore investment funds. The Territory is also the second largest domicile for formation of offshore investment funds (behind the Cayman Islands) with 2,422 licensed open-ended funds as at 30 June 2012 (there is no official statistics for closed-ended funds which are not regulated in the British Virgin Islands).\n\nThe British Virgin Islands also operates as a domicile for captive insurance services, but a prolonged period of overzealous Government regulation combined with the Government's increasing pressure to hire only locals (\"belongers\") in the insurance industry decimated the industry. Official reports from the Financial Services Commission reflect as of 30 June 2012 only 161 captives remain registered in the jurisdiction.\n\n===History of financial services===\nFormer president of the BVI's Financial Services Commission, Michael Riegels, recites the anecdote that the offshore finance industry commenced on an unknown date in the 1970s when a lawyer from a firm in New York telephoned him with a proposal to incorporate a company in the British Virgin Islands to take advantage of a double taxation relief treaty with the United States. Within the space of a few years, hundreds of such companies had been incorporated.\n\nThis eventually came to the attention of the United States government, who unilaterally revoked the Treaty in 1981.\n\nIn 1984, the British Virgin Islands, trying to recapture some of the lost offshore business, enacted a new form of companies legislation, the International Business Companies Act, under which an offshore company which was exempt from local taxes could be formed. The development was only a limited success until 1991, when the United States invaded Panama to oust General Manuel Noriega. At the time Panama was one of the largest providers of offshore financial services in the world, but the business fled subsequent the invasion, and the British Virgin Islands was one of the main beneficiaries.\n", "Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Fewer than 0.6% are estimated to work in agriculture. Despite its tiny economic impact, agriculture has its own dedicated Government minister (unlike financial services).\n", "\n\nBecause of traditionally close links with the U.S. Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the US dollar as its currency since 1959.\n", "\n", "* List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\n* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)\n* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Business environment", "Tourism", "Financial services", "Agriculture", "Dollarisation", "Footnotes", " See also " ]	Economy of the British Virgin Islands
[ "\n\n\n'''Country Code: +1284'''\n'''International Call Prefix: 011''' (outside NANP)\n\nCalls from the British Virgin Islands to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialled as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from the British Virgin Islands to non-NANP countries are dialled as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code. \n\n'''Number Format''': nxx-xxxx\n\n'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''\n11,700 (2002)\n\n'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''\n8,000 (2002)\n\n'''Telephone system:'''\nworldwide telephone service\n''general assessment:''\nworldwide telephone service\n''domestic:''\nNA\n''international:''\nConnected via submarine cable to Bermuda; the East Caribbean Fibre System (ECFS) submarine cable provides connectivity to 13 other islands in the eastern Caribbean (2007)\n\n'''Radio broadcast stations:'''\nAM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (2004)\n\n* ZBVI 780 Tortola\n* ZJKC-FM 90.9 Tortola (repeats WJKC 95.1 Christiansted, USVI)\n* ZGLD-FM 91.7 Tortola\n* ZCCR-FM 94.1 Todman's Peak\n* ZWVE-FM 97.3 Tortola\n* ZKNG-FM 100.9 Chalwell\n* ZROD-FM 103.7 Tortola\n* ZVCR-FM 106.9 Chalwell\n\n'''Television broadcast stations:'''\n1 (ZBTV), (plus one cable company) (1997)\n\n'''Internet service providers (ISPs):'''\n1 (1999)\n\n'''Internet country code:'''\n.vg\n\n'''Internet hosts:'''\n465 (2008)\n\n'''Internet users:'''\n4,000 (2002)\n\n:''See also :'' British Virgin Islands\n", "''b''mobile's headquarters in the BVI.\nIn 2006, the British Virgin Islands government undertook a deregulation of the telephone industry. Prior to 2006, in common with many other Caribbean countries, Cable & Wireless (Caribbean) had a statutory monopoly on telephone and other electronic communications services. However, in the 1990s, a local company called CCT Boatphone, which had previously provided radio boatphones to tourists on charter boats, expanded into cellular (mobile) telecommunications for land-based users. Although technically in breach of the statutory monopoly, CCT Boatphone was backed by a powerful collection of local interests known as the BVI Investment Club. Negotiations between Cable & Wireless and CCT Boatphone led to a split of the monopolies, with Cable & Wireless retaining a monopoly over fixed line and internet services, and CCT Boatphone keeping a ''de facto'' monopoly over cellular telephones.\n\nIn 2007 the government abolished the previously existing monopolies under an order made pursuant to the new legislation. The process proved politically fraught, and the government's Minister for Communications and Works, Alvin Christopher, ended up leaving the government and joining the opposition party as a result of the furore. The process was also criticised as cumbersome and slow, the initial deregulation having been announced in 2004, and taking no less than three years to come to fruition through delays in legislation and regulation.\n\nAlthough there have been no new entrants into the fixed line industry, the government issued three licences under the new regime to cellular telephone service providers. The existing provider, CCT Boatphone, obtained one licence. ''B''mobile, the cellular arm of Cable & Wireless, obtained a second. The third licence was obtained by BVI Cable TV, a local cable television service. The licence in favour of BVI Cable was controversial, as the Regulator had announced in advance that only three licences in total would be issued, and BVI Cable TV had crumbling cable television infrastructure, and was in no position to office cellular telephone services (and to date, has not offered any cellular telephone services, or anything other than simple cable television). However, ''b''mobile's main regional competitor, Digicel, was rejected for a licence. The decision was regarded as highly controversial in the local media.\n\nDigicel then issued court proceedings against the Regulator, arguing that he had acted improperly by imposing an arbitrary limit of three licences (although interestingly no complaint was made about the decision to prefer BVI Cable TV's improbable licence over Digicel). ''B''mobile was joined to the suit as an interested party. High Court Judge Rita Joseph-Olivetti found in favour of Digicel and quashed the original decision. Digicel commenced separate proceedings against Cable and Wireless (as ''b''mobile's parent company) in the English courts, claiming that Cable & Wireless has unfairly stifled competition in several Caribbean jurisdictions. During the intervening period, ''b''mobile has obtained a virtual stranglehold on the cellular telecommunications market in the British Virgin Islands by a combination of low prices and aggressive advertising, as well as significant investment in infrastructure and technology.\n\nDigicel was finally granted a licence on 17 December 2007 and started operations in the BVI on 28 November 2008.\n", "\n\n}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Deregulation of the telephone market", "References" ]	Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands
[ "\n\n\nThe systems of '''transport in the British Virgin Islands''' include 113 kilometres of highway and a harbour at Road Town.\n", "* total: 200 km\n* paved: 200 km\n* unpaved: 0 km (2007)\n", "* Road Town\n", "\n\n* 4 (2008)\n\n===Paved runways===\n* total: 2\n914 to 1,523 m: 1\n under 914 m: 1 (2008)\n\n===Unpaved runways===\n* total: 2\n*914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2008)\n", " registered in other countries: 1 (Panama) (2008)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Roads ", "Ports and terminals", "Airports", " Merchant Marine ", "References" ]	Transport in the British Virgin Islands
[ "\n150px\n\nBrunei is a country in Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and East Malaysia. Its geographical coordinates are .\n\nBrunei shares a border with Malaysia and has a coastline.\n", "\n\nThe climate in Brunei is tropical equatorial and humid subtropical at higher altitudes with heavy rainfall. Bandar Seri Begawan's climate is tropical equatorial with two seasons. Dry season is extremely hot (). Wet or rainy season is generally warm and wet (). Most of the country is a flat coastal plain with mountains in the east and hilly lowland in the west. The lowest point is at sea level and the highest is Bukit Pagon ().\n\n=== Climatic regions ===\nBrunei-Muara District and Bandar Seri Begawan are humid tropical on the coastal and lower altitude north and Humid subtropical in central Brunei-Muara District. ()\nTutong District is tropical, Hot on the north and warm on the south. ()\nBelait District is tropical, Hot on the north and slight warm on the south. ()\nTemburong District is humid subtropical on the higher altitude south and humid tropical on the coastal and lower altitude north. ()\n", "'''Area:'''\nTotal: \nLand: \nWater: \n\n'''Area - comparative:'''\nsimilar to Norfolk, United Kingdom and slightly smaller than Delaware\n\n'''Land boundaries:'''\n (all with Malaysia)\n\n'''Coastline:'''\n\n\n'''Maritime claims:'''\n''territorial sea:''\n\n''exclusive economic zone:''\n or to median line\n\n'''Terrain:'''\nflat coastal plain, rises to mountain in east; hilly lowland in west\n\n'''Elevation extremes:'''\n''lowest point:''\nSouth China Sea 0m\n''highest point:''\nBukit Pagon 1,850 m\n\n'''Natural resources:'''\npetroleum, natural gas, timber\n\n'''Land use:'''\n''arable land:''\n0.76%\n''permanent crops:''\n1.14%\n''other:''\n98.10% (2012)\n\n'''Irrigated land:'''\n (2003)\n\n'''Total renewable water resources:'''\n\n\n'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)'''\n''total:''\n0.09 km3/yr (97%/0%/3%)\n''per capital:''\n301.6 m3/yr (2009)\n\n'''Natural hazards:'''\nTyphoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are quite rare, but Brunei is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire.\n\n'''Environment - current issues:'''\nseasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia\n\n'''Environment - international agreements:'''\n''party to:''\nBiodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution\n''signed, but not ratified:''\nnone of the selected agreements\n\n'''Geography - note:'''\nclose to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave within Malaysia\n", "Brunei\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Climate ", " Statistics ", "See also" ]	Geography of Brunei
[ "\n\n'''Brunei''' is a country with a small, wealthy economy that is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is high, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 was estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.\n\nBrunei is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, averaging about . It also is the fourth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world.\n", "This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Brunei Darussalam at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Bruneian dollars.\n\n\n year \n Gross Domestic Product \n US Dollar Exchange \n Inflation Index (2000=100)\n\n 1985 \n 7,777 \n 2.20 Bruneian Dollars \n 76\n\n 1990 \n 6,509 \n 1.81 Bruneian Dollars \n 82\n\n 1995 \n 7,394 \n 1.41 Bruneian Dollars \n 95\n\n 2000 \n 7,441 \n 1.72 Bruneian Dollars \n 100\n\n 2005 \n 10,400 \n 1.62 Bruneian Dollars \n 100\n\nFor purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at 1.52 Bruneian dollars only. Mean wages were $25.38 per man-hour in 2009.\n\nThe government regulates the immigration of foreign labor out of concern it might disrupt Brunei's society. Work permits for foreigners are issued only for short periods and must be continually renewed. Despite these restrictions, foreigners make up a significant portion of the work force. The government reported a total work force of 122,800 in 1999, with an unemployment rate of 5.5%.\nBrunei Exports Treemap (2009)\nOil and natural gas account for almost all exports. Since only a few products other than petroleum are produced locally, a wide variety of items must be imported. Brunei statistics show Singapore as the largest point of origin of imports, accounting for 25% in 1997. However, this figure includes some transshipments, since most of Brunei's imports transit Singapore. Japan and Malaysia were the second-largest suppliers. As in many other countries, Japanese products dominate local markets for motor vehicles, construction equipment, electronic goods, and household appliances. The United States was the third-largest supplier of imports to Brunei in 1998.\n\nBrunei's substantial foreign reserves are managed by the Brunei Investment Agency (BIA), an arm of the Ministry of Finance. BIA's guiding principle is to increase the real value of Brunei's foreign reserves while pursuing a diverse investment strategy, with holdings in the United States, Japan, western Europe, and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries.\n\nThe Brunei Government actively encourages more foreign investment. New enterprises that meet certain criteria can receive pioneer status, exempting profits from income tax for up to 5 years, depending on the amount of capital invested. The normal corporate income tax rate is 30%. There is no personal income tax or capital gains tax.\n\nOne of the government's most important priorities is to encourage the development of Brunei Malays as leaders of industry and commerce. There are no specific restrictions of foreign equity ownership, but local participation, both shared capital and management, is encouraged. Such participation helps when tendering for contracts with the government or Brunei Shell Petroleum.\n\nCompanies in Brunei must either be incorporated locally or registered as a branch of a foreign company and must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Public companies must have a minimum of seven shareholders. Private companies must have a minimum of two but not more than 50 shareholders. At least half of the directors in a company must be residents of Brunei.\n\nThe government owns a cattle farm in Australia that supplies most of the country's beef. At , this ranch is larger than Brunei itself. Eggs and chickens are largely produced locally, but most of Brunei's other food needs must be imported. Agriculture and fisheries are among the industrial sectors that the government has selected for highest priority in its efforts to diversify the economy.\n", "Brunei Shell Petroleum (BSP), a joint venture owned in equal shares by the Brunei Government and the Royal Dutch/Shell group of companies, is the chief oil and gas production company in Brunei. It also operates the country's only refinery. BSP and four sister companies constitute the largest employer in Brunei after the government. BSP's small refinery has a distillation capacity of . This satisfies domestic demand for most petroleum products.\n\nThe French oil company Elf Aquitaine became active in petroleum exploration in Brunei in the 1980s. Its affiliate Elf Petroleum Asia BV has discovered commercially exploitable quantities of oil and gas in three of the four wells drilled since 1987, including a particularly promising discovery announced in early 1990. Recently, UNOCAL, partnered with New Zealand's Fletcher Challenge has been granted concessions for oil exploration. Brunei is preparing to tender concessions for deep water oil and gas exploration.\n\nBrunei's oil production peaked in 1979 at over . Since then it has been deliberately cut back to extend the life of oil reserves and improve recovery rates. Petroleum production is currently averaging some . Japan has traditionally been the main customer for Brunei's oil exports, but its share dropped from 45% of the total in 1982 to 19% in 1998. In contrast, oil exports to South Korea increased from only 8% of the total in 1982 to 29% in 1998. Other major customers include Taiwan (6%), and the countries of ASEAN (27%). Brunei's oil exports to the United States accounted for 17% of the total exported.\n\nAlmost all of Brunei's natural gas is liquefied at Brunei Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant, which opened in 1972 and is one of the largest LNG plants in the world. Over 82% of Brunei's LNG produced is sold to Japan under a long-term agreement renewed in 1993. The agreement calls for Brunei to provide over 5 million tons of LNG per year to three Japanese utilities. The Japanese company, Mitsubishi, is a joint venture partner with Shell and the Brunei Government in Brunei LNG, Brunei Coldgas, and Brunei Shell Tankers, which together produce the LNG and supply it to Japan. Since 1995, Brunei has supplied more than 700,000 tons of LNG to the Korea Gas Corporation as well. In 1999, Brunei's natural gas production reached 90 cargoes per day. A small amount of natural gas is used for domestic power generation. Brunei is the fourth-largest exporter of LNG in the Asia-Pacific region behind Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia.\n\nBrunei's proven oil and gas reserves are sufficient until at least 2015, and planned deep sea exploration is expected to find significant new reserves. The government sought in the past decade to diversify the economy with limited success. Oil and gas and government spending still account for most of Brunei's economic activity. Brunei's non-petroleum industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing, and banking.\n\nIn 2015, Brunei registered its third year of economic recession, the only ASEAN nation to do so. Declining oil prices and a drop in production due to maintenance and repair work at major oil wells have dented the country’s budget which will see a deficit in the fiscal years 2015-16 and 2016-17.\n", "\nIn the western part of the country, Liang is currently experiencing a major development with the establishment of SPARK\n, which is a 271 hectare site developed to be a world class petrochemical hub. The first major investment at SPARK is the USD450 million Methanol plant developed by the Brunei Methanol Company, a joint venture between Petroleum Brunei and two leading Japanese companies, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings and Itochu. The plant design will give an output of 2,500t of methanol per day (850,000t annually). The plant was officially launched by Sultan of Brunei Hassanal Bolkiah on the 25th of May 2010.\n", "Brunei Darussalam in July 2009 launched its national halal branding scheme Brunei Halal which allows manufacturers in Brunei and in other countries to use the premium Brunei Halal trademark to help them penetrate lucrative markets in countries with significant numbers of Muslim consumers. The Brunei Halal brand is said to be the first proper attempt to put together a global halal brand that will reap the potential commercial returns of catering to the consumption needs of Muslims worldwide.\n\nAs envisioned by the Sultanate, the use of the Brunei Halal brand would signify to Muslim consumers the manufacturers' strict compliance with laws relating to Islamic teachings. Brunei also aims to build confidence in the brand through strategies that will both ensure the halal integrity of the products and unfaltering compliance with set rules governing the sourcing of raw materials, manufacturing process, logistics and distribution.\n\nA new company, government-owned Brunei Wafirah Holdings Sdn Bhd, has been established as the owner of the Brunei Halal brand. Wafirah has entered into a joint venture with Brunei Global Islamic Investment and Hong Kong-based logistics firm Kerry FSDA Limited to form Ghanim International Food Corporation Sdn Bhd. Ghanim International manages the use of the Brunei Halal trademark. Producers that want to use the brand are required to first acquire the Brunei halal label (or the certification for compliance with accepted manufacturing and slaughtering practices under Islam) through the Department of Syariah Affairs' Halal Food Control Section. They can then approach Ghanim for their application to use the brand.\n", "This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Brunei Darussalam at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Bruneian Dollars.\n\nIn the 1970s, Brunei invested sharply increasing revenues from petroleum exports and maintained government spending at a low and constant rate. Consequently, the government was able to build its foreign reserves and invest them around the world to help provide for future generations. Part of the reserve earnings were reportedly also used to help finance the government's annual budget deficit. Since 1986, however, petroleum revenues have decreased, and government spending has increased. The government has been running a budget deficit since 1988. The disappearance of a revenue surplus has made Brunei's economy more vulnerable to petroleum price fluctuations.\n\nBrunei's gross domestic product (GDP) soared with the petroleum price increases of the 1970s to a peak of $5.7 billion in 1980. It declined slightly in each of the next 5 years, then fell by almost 30% in 1986.\n\nThis drop was caused by a combination of sharply lower petroleum prices in world markets and voluntary production cuts in Brunei. The GDP recovered somewhat since 1986, growing by 12% in 1987, 1% in 1988, and 9% in 1989. In recent years, GDP growth was 3.5% in 1996, 4.0% in 1997, 1.0% in 1998, and an estimated 2.5% in 1999. However, the 1999 GDP was still only about $4.5 billion, well below the 1980 peak.\n\nThe Asian financial crisis in 1997 and 1998, coupled with fluctuations in the price of oil have created uncertainty and instability in Brunei's economy. In addition, the 1998 collapse of Amedeo Development Corporation, Brunei's largest construction firm whose projects helped fuel the domestic economy, caused the country to slip into a mild recession.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Macro-economic trend", "Oil and gas industry", "Petrochemical industry", "Halal brand", "Macroeconomic trend", "References" ]	Economy of Brunei
[ "\n\nThis article covers telecommunication in Brunei.\n", "\n===Telephone===\nTelephone service throughout Brunei is excellent. International service is good to Europe, United States, and East Asia\n\n* Main lines in use: 79,200 (2007)\n* Mobile phones: 339,800 (2007)\n* Mobile Subscribers: 177,300 (2007)\n* Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean).\n* Digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines.\n", "Internet Service Providers: 2 (2017), Telbru and Go!Broadband of DSTCom\n Country code: .bn\nInternet hosts: 14,950 (2008)\nInternet users: 199,532 (2007)\n\n===Broadband===\nBrunei's internet service is monopolized by Telekom Brunei ADSL speeds ranging from 512 kbit/s to the maximum speed of 1 Mbit/s through ADSL2+ broadband. 1 Mbit/s was only recently introduced in 2006 and priced at BND$128 per month (Equivalent to Singapore currency). It is known that the Brunei's broadband ranging from 512 kbit/s to 1 Mbit/s is one of the most expensive in the world. The limited market in Brunei means that new developments in the telecommunications sector is stagnant. Currently only about 110,000 users out of a population of 380,000 have any connection to the Internet.\n\nIn 2002, Telekom Brunei was incorporated become Telekom Brunei Berhad (TelBru). In 2008, the internet were improved with speed ranges from 1Mbit/s to maximum speed of 5Mbit/s. Price starting from B$65 to B$105 per month respectively.\n\n\n Bandwidth !! Plan !! Charges (BND)\n\n 1Mbit/s \n Value Surf \n $39/month\n\n 2Mbit/s \n Lite Surf \n $59/month\n\n 3.5Mbit/s \n Super Surf \n $79/month\n\n 5Mbit/s \n Premium Surf \n $105/month\n\n\nCurrently as of 2012, Telekom Brunei is deploying its FTTH network capable of 100Mbit/s through a contract awarded to Huawei. It aims to provide FTTH coverage to around 85% of the population by 2017.\n\nIn 2016 Telbru drastically reduced the price and increased the speeds of its broadband plans.\n179x179px\n", "Terrestrial TV Stations (Free to air) 4\nPay TV (Satellite TV) 1 - Kristal Astro\n", "* Broadcast stations: FM 2 (transmitting on 18 different frequencies), shortwave 0 (2006)\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Telecommunications", "Internet", "Television", "Radio", "References" ]	Telecommunications in Brunei
[ "\n\n\nBrunei joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, one week after resuming full independence, and gives its ASEAN membership the highest priority in its foreign relations. Brunei joined the United Nations in September 1984. It also is a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum and the Commonwealth of Nations. Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000. In 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.\n\nBrunei has a number of diplomatic missions abroad and has close relations with Singapore, sharing an interchangeable currency regime as well as close military relations with the latter island-state. Aside from relations with other ASEAN states, of which the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia are key partners, Brunei also has extensive relations with the Islamic and Arab world outside its region.\n", "Brunei became a member state of the United Kingdom Commonwealth in 1984, ASEAN, the United Nations and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in 1984, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, a major player in BIMP-EAGA in 1994., a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, Since 2009 Brunei and the Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral co-operation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments.\n\n===Brunei and the Commonwealth of Nations===\nBrunei has been a fully independent member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1 January 1984, when it regained independence, having been under British protection and suzerainty since 1888.\n\nBrunei is, along with Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland, and Tonga, a monarchy with its own monarch, the Sultan of Brunei.\n\nBruneians can take an appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London in civil cases only. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council reports back to the Sultan in cases originating from the courts of Brunei.\n", "\n===Australia===\n\n\nAustralia and Brunei Darussalam enjoy a warm, and increasingly diverse bilateral relationship. Australian servicemen liberated Brunei from Japanese occupation in June 1945. A memorial marking this event can be found at Muara Beach and is the venue for the annual ANZAC Day ceremony organised by the High Commission. Both countries are also participating in the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations which commenced in 2010, with participants aiming to conclude an agreement which will serve as a building block for Asia Pacific economic integration.\n\nBrunei has a high commission in Canberra, and Australia has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Relations between the two countries were established in 1984 when Australia became one of the first countries to establish diplomatic relations with Brunei.\n\n===Armenia===\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 2012.\n\n===Bangladesh===\n\n\nBilateral relations are excellent between the two predominantly moderate Muslim nations. They are both members of OIC, the Commonwealth and NAM and share common views on regional and international issues. Brunei recognised Bangladesh quickly with other Southeast Asian countries and Bangladesh established a residential High Commission in 1985, although it was closed down from 1988 to 1997 due to financial constraints. Brunei has a High Commission located in Dhaka. Brunei actively supports Bangladesh's candidacy for different regional and international organisations.\n\n===Burma===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Yangon, and Burma has an embassy in Gadong. Relations were established on 21 September 1993.\n\n===Cambodia===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Phnom Penh, and Cambodia has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations were established on 9 June 1992.\n\n===Canada===\n\n\nCanada established diplomatic relations with Brunei Darussalam on 7 May 1984, following Brunei's independence. Brunei has a High Commission in Ottawa, and Canada has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Like Brunei, Canada is a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n===China===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Beijing, and China has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations can be traced back to over 2,000 years ago as early as the Western Han periods.\n\n===France===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Paris, and France has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations between the two countries has been established since 8 May 1984.\n\n===Germany===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Berlin, and Germany has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations between the two countries has been established since 1 May 1984.\n\n===India===\n\n\nBrunei has a High Commission in New Delhi, and India has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Relations have been established since 10 May 1984.\n\n===Indonesia===\n\n\nRepublic of Indonesia established diplomatic relations with Brunei Darussalam on 1 January 1984. Brunei Darussalam was recognised by Jakarta on independence in 1984, with Indonesia dropping any claims on the Sultanate in the process.\n\n===Japan===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Tokyo, and Japan has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations were established on 2 April 1984.\n\n===Laos===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Vientiane, and Laos has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations were established on 27 July 1993.\n\n===Malaysia===\n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations since January 1984 with Brunei has a High Commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Like Brunei, Malaysia is a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n===New Zealand===\n\n\nThe Bruneian High Commission in Kuala Lumpur is accredited to New Zealand, while the New Zealand High Commission in Kuala Lumpur is cross-accredited to Brunei. Relations has been established since 5 May 1984 and have always been friendly and positive with such co-operation in education trade and defence.\n\n===North Korea===\n\n\nIn August 2013 Brunei's Foreign Affairs and Vice-Minister, Prince Mohamed Bolkiah arrived in Pyongyang.\nBrunei is represented in North Korea, through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. North Korea established diplomatic relations with Brunei on 7 January 1999\n\n===Oman===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Muscat, and Oman has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations has been established since 24 March 1984.\n\n===Pakistan===\n\n\nPakistan has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan and Brunei has a High Commission in Islamabad. Pakistan initially hesitated to recognise the country at first since its close relations with Malaysia which what they considered as part of the Federation of Malaysia but later established relations on 9 February 1984 when Malaysia established relations with the country.\n\n===Philippines===\n\n\nRelations between Brunei and the natives of a then divided Philippines under a classical era started since the 10th to 13th centuries and continued even under the colonial regimes. Relations continued through the Sultanate of Sulu. Post World War II relations between the two countries has been re-established since January 1984. In April 2009, Brunei and The Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral co-operation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments. The MOU further strengthened bilateral co-operation between the two Southeast Asian countries, particularly in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments. The two countries have agreed to co-operate in plant science, crops technology, vegetable and fruit preservation, biotechnology, post-harvest technology, livestock, organic agriculture, irrigation and water resources and Halal industry. Brunei is viewed by the Philippines as a key ASEAN and Islamic ally. While Brunei view the Philippines as an ASEAN and Christian ally with a Muslim minority. \n\n\n===Qatar===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Doha, and Qatar has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations between the two countries has been established since 2 October 1991.\n\n===Russia===\n\n\nBrunei maintains an embassy in Moscow, the Russian embassy in Brunei was established in March 2010.\n\n===Singapore===\n\n\nThe official relations between the two countries has been established since 1984. Brunei and Singapore agreed to have Singapore train its armed forces with Brunei. Like Brunei, Singapore is a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\nBrunei and Singapore have a currency agreement that the currencies of both countries can be used in either of the two countries. The Brunei dollar and the Singapore dollar are maintained at par.\n\nIn August 2005, Brunei's Foreign Affairs and Trade Minister, Prince Mohamed Bolkiah arrived in Singapore for a three-day visit during which the two countries signed an agreement to eliminate double taxation, paving the way for further bilateral trade and investment.\n\nThe Royal Brunei Navy and the Republic of Singapore Navy conduct an annual Exercise Pelican signifying strong ties between the two navies.\n\n===South Korea===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Seoul South Korea, which has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. South Korea established diplomatic relations with Brunei on 1 June 1984 right after the country gained independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January on that year.\n\n===Thailand===\n\n\nBrunei has an embassy in Bangkok, and Thailand has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. The relations have always been close and cordial.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n\n\nIn 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British protection less than 100 years later in 1984.\n\nThe UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei’s oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006-07. The Brunei Royal family have strong ties to the UK, more specifically 'Birchwood' a small dingy suburb of Warrington.\n\nThe United Kingdom has a High Commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a High Commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\n===United States===\n\n\nThe US welcomed Brunei Darussalam's full independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984, and opened an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan on that date. Brunei opened its embassy in Washington, D.C. in March 1984. Brunei's armed forces engage in joint exercises, training programs, and other military co-operation with the USA memorandum of understanding on defence co-operation was signed on 29 November 1994. The Sultan of Brunei visited Washington in December 2002.\n\n===Vietnam===\n\n\nRelations between the two countries has been established since 29 February 1992. Brunei has an embassy in Hanoi, and Vietnam has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan. Relations between the two countries have always been friendly especially in the political field.\n", "* List of diplomatic missions in Brunei\n* List of diplomatic missions of Brunei\n* Visa requirements for Bruneian citizens\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "International organizations", "Bilateral relations", "See also", " References " ]	Foreign relations of Brunei
[ "\n\n\n'''Bulgaria''' is a country situated in south-eastern Europe, bordering Romania to the north, Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, and the Black Sea to the east. The northern border with Romania follows the river Danube until the city of Silistra. The land area of Bulgaria is , slightly larger than that of Iceland or the U.S. state of Tennessee. Considering its relatively small size, Bulgaria has a great variety of topographical features. Even within small parts of the country, the land may be divided into plains, plateaus, hills, mountains, basins, gorges, and deep river valleys. The geographic center of Bulgaria is located in Uzana.\n\nBulgaria features notable diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped peaks in Rila, Pirin and the Balkan Mountains to the mild and sunny Black Sea coast; from the typically continental Danubian Plain (ancient Moesia) in the north to the strong Mediterranean climatic influence in the valleys of Macedonia and in the lowlands in the southernmost parts of Thrace. Most of the country is situated within the humid continental climate region, with Alpine climate in the highest mountains and subtropical climate in the southernmost regions.\n\nThe country has a dense river network but with the notable exception of the river Danube, they are mostly short and with low water flow. The average annual precipitation is 670 mm; the rainfall is lower in the lowlands and higher in the mountains. The driest region is Dobrudzha in the north-eastern part of the Danubian Plain (450 mm), while the highest rainfall has been measured in the upper valley of the river Ogosta in the western Balkan Mountains (2293 mm).\n\nPhytogeographically, Bulgaria straddles the Illyrian and Euxinian provinces of the Circumboreal region within the Boreal kingdom. The country falls within six terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic ecozone: Balkan mixed forests, Rodope montane mixed forests, Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests, East European forest steppe and Pontic–Caspian steppe.\n", "The borders of Bulgaria have a total length of 1,867 km; of them 1,181 km are land boundary and 686 km are formed by rivers. The coastline is 378 km.\n\nThe northern border with Romania is 609 km. Most of the frontier (470 km) is formed by the river Danube from the mouth of the river Timok in the west to the city of Silistra in the east. The land border from Silistra to Cape Sivriburun at the Black Sea is 139 km long. The Danube, with steep bluffs on the Bulgarian side and a wide area of swamps and marshes on the Romanian side, is crossed by two bridges — New Europe Bridge between Vidin and Calafat, and Danube Bridge between Ruse and Giurgiu. There are 48 Bulgarian and 32 Romanian islands along the river Danube; the largest one, Belene (41 km2), belongs to Bulgaria. The land frontier has three border crossings at Silistra, Kardam and Durankulak at the Black Sea. It is also crossed by a major gas pipeline transporting natural gas from Russia to Bulgaria. \nA winter view of the Vlahina Mountain near the border with the Republic of Macedonia\nThe eastern border (378 km) is maritime and encompasses the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast from Cape Sivriburun in the north to the mouth of the Rezovo River in the south. Bulgaria's littoral forms 1/10 of the total Black Sea coastline, and includes two important gulfs, the Gulf of Varna and the Gulf of Burgas, harbouring the country's two major ports.\n\nThe southern border is 752 km long, of them 259 km are with Turkey and 493 km are with Greece. The Bulgaria–Turkey frontier runs from the mouth of the Rezovo River in the east through the Strandzha Mountains and the Dervent Heights, crosses the river Tundzha at the village of Matochina and ends at the river Maritsa at the village of Kapitan Andreevo. There are three border crossings at Malko Tarnovo, Lesovo and Kapitan Andreevo. The border with Greece runs from Kapitan Andreevo through several ridges of the Rhodope Mountains, generally following the watershed of the rivers Arda and Vacha on the Bulgarian side, runs through the Slavyanka Mountain, crosses the river Struma at the village of Kulata and runs through the crest of the Belasitsa Mountain to the Tumba Peak. There are six border checkpoints at Svilengrad, Ivaylovgrad, Makaza, Zlatograd, Ilinden and Kulata.\n\nThe western border is 506 km long, of them 165 km are with the Republic of Macedonia and 341 km are with Serbia. The frontier with the former runs from the Tumba Peak in the south through the mountains of Ograzhden, Maleshevo, Vlahina and Osogovo up to mount Kitka. There are three border crossings near the town of Petrich and at the villages of Logodazh and Gyueshevo. The border with Serbia runs from Kitka through the mountainous region Kraishte, including the Ruy Mountain, crosses the valley of the river Nishava, runs through the main watershed of the western Balkan Mountains and follows the river Timok for 15 km until its confluence with the Danube. There are five border checkpoints at Dolno Uyno, Strezimirovtsi, Kalotina, Vrashka Chuka and Bregovo.\n", "Topographic map of Bulgaria highlighting the main mountain ranges\nThe relief of Bulgaria is varied. In the relatively small territory of the country there are extensive lowlands, plains, hills, low and high mountains, many valleys and deep gorges. The main characteristic of Bulgaria's topography is four alternating bands of high and low terrain that extend east to west across the country. From north to south, those bands, called geomorphological regions, are the Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Transitional region and the Rilo-Rhodope region. The easternmost sections near the Black Sea are hilly, but they gradually gain height to the west until the westernmost part of the country is entirely high ground.\n\nTable, showing the distribution of the height zones in Bulgaria:\n\n\n Height zones\n Height (m)\n Area (km2)\n Area (%)\n\n Lowlands \n 0–200 \n 34,858 \n 31,42\n\n Hills \n 200–600 \n 45,516 \n 41,00\n\n Low mountains \n 600–1000 \n 16,918 \n 15,24\n\n Medium-high mountains \n 1000–1600 \n 10,904 \n 9,82\n\n High mountains \n 1600–2925 \n 2,798 \n 2,52\n\n\nMore than two-thirds of the country is plains, plateaus, or hilly land at an altitude less than 600 m. Plains (below 200 m) make up 31% of the land, plateaus and hills (200 to 600 m) 41%, low mountains (600 to 1,000 m) 10%, medium-high mountains (1,000 to 1,500 m) 10%, and high mountains (over 1,500 m) 3%. The average altitude of Bulgaria is 470 m.\n\nThe contemporary relief of Bulgaria is a result of continuous geological evolution. The Bulgarian lands were often submerged by ancient seas and lakes, some land layers rose others sank. Volcanic eruptions were common both on land and in the water basins. All three main groups of rocks, magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic, are found in the country. The oldest rock formations in Bulgaria date from the Precambrian period than 500 million years ago. During the Archean, Proterozoic and Paleozoic eras (4.0 billion to 252 million years ago) the magmatic rocks were formed. Throughout most of that period the only land areas were Rila, Pirin and the western Rhodope Mountains. The Mesozoic era (252 million to 66 million years ago) saw the beginning of the Alpine orogeny that has formed the mountain ranges of the Alpide belt, including the Balkan Mountains and Sredna Gora. The Cenozoic era (since 66 million years ago) is characterized with active tectonic processes, the definitive formation of the Balkan Mountains, the formation of grabens and horsts in Rila, Pirin and Kraishte region.\n\nExamples of rock formations in Bulgaria:\n\nFile:Белоградчишки скали 07.JPG\|Belogradchik Rocks in the western Balkan Mountains\nFile:Devetashka pestera lqto 2009 1.JPG\|Devetashka cave\nFile:Bulgarian Pyramid.jpg\|Melnik Rock Pyramids\nFile:Bulgaria-Pobiti Kamani-04.jpg\|Pobiti Kamani in Varna Province\nFile:Слънчеви лъчи.JPG\|Marvelous Bridges in the Rhodope Mountains\n\nExogenous processes such as weathering, erosion and sedimentation have an important impact on modelling the land surface and creating rock formations. The exogenous processes have formed stone rivers in Vitosha; screes in the Balkan Mountains, Rila and Pirin; earth pyramids in Melnik, Stob and Katina; landslides, mainly along the Danube banks and the northern Black Sea coast; fluvial terraces; aeolian forms, such as dunes; karst forms, including numerous caves, sinkholes, ponors, etc.\n\n=== Danubian Plain ===\n\nThe Danubian Plain encompasses the Moesian plate and extends from the river Timok in the west to the Black Sea in the east and from the river Danube in the north to the Balkan Mountains in the south, covering 31,520 km2, or almost 1/3 of Bulgaria's total area. Its width varies from 25–30 km in the west to 120 km in the east. The highest point is Tarnov Dyal (502 m) in the Shumen Plateau; the average altitude is 178 m. As a result of the rock weathering processes the relief is uneven with fertile alluvial plains along the Danube (Vidinska, Chernopolska, Zlatia, Belenska, Pobrezhie, Aidemirska), and hilly terrain in the remaining area, including plateaus in the east. The altitude rises from west to east. The valleys of the rivers Vit and Yantra divide the Danubian Plain into three parts — western, central and eastern. The topography of the plain is characterized with hilly heights and plateaus. Most of the heights and all plateaus are situated in the eastern parts. There are 14 basalt mounds between Svishtov and the village of Dragomirovo.\n\nThe predominant soil types are loess in the north, reaching a depth of up to 100 m at the banks of the Danube, and chernozem in the south. The climate is temperate. The flat relief and the openness of plain to the north facilitate arrival of moist air masses in spring, summer and autumn. In winter the Danubian Plain falls under the influence of the Eastern European anticyclone, which brings cold Arctic air masses. The mean temperature in January is –1 °C and in July is 24 °C, making it the geomorphological region with the highest average annual amplitude in Bulgaria — 25 °C.\n\n=== Balkan Mountains ===\nA view of the central Balkan Mountains\nThe Balkan Mountains range is a geological continuation of the Carpathian Mountains, forming part of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt. This region is subdivided into two geomorphological units, the Pre-Balkan and the Balkan Mountains, also known in Bulgarian as ''Стара Планина'' — \"Old Mountain\". Their average altitude is 370 m and 735 m, respectively. Its total area is 26,720 km2, of them the Pre-Balkan spans 15,730 km2 and the Balkan Mountains — almost 11,000 km2. The mountain range stretches from the valley of the river Timor in the west to Cape Emine at the Black Sea coast in the east, spanning a length of 555 km and width between 20 and 70 km. The Balkan Mountains are divided into western, central and eastern part by the Zlatistsa and Vratnik Passes. The range is highest in its central part, which includes Botev Peak at 2,376 m; the altitude drops slowly to the east until it reaches the sea. The relief is varied, with many mountain passes, gorges and landforms. The southern slopes are steeper than the northern. For the most part the Balkan Range defines the most important watershed in Bulgaria with rivers draining north to the Danube or south to the river Maritsa and the Aegean Sea. Several rivers in the east drain directly into the Black Sea. In the west, the river Iskar forms a 97-km long gorge that runs north through the mountains.\n\n=== Transitional region ===\nThe Rose Valley\nThe Transitional geomorphological region encompasses the territory between the Balkan Mountains and the Rilo-Rhodope Massif and has complex, mosaic relief composed mainly of medium-high and low mountains, valleys and plains. The altitude decreases from west to east. This region includes the Sub-Balkan valleys; the mountains and valleys of the Kraishte region, such as Ruy Mountain, Miloslavska Planina and Milevska Planina; the mountains Lyulin, Vitosha, Sredna Gora, Strandzha and Sakar; the Dervent Heights; as well as the fertile Upper Thracian Plain. The highest point is Cherni Vrah in Vitosha at 2,290 m.\n\nThe Sub-Balkan valleys includes nine valleys, situated between the Balkan Mountains in the north and Vitosha and Sredna Gora in the south. With an area of 1,186 km2 and an average altitude, Sofia Valley is the largest of the nine and contains the nation's capital, Sofia. The Rose Valley encompasses the valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlak and is renowned for its rose-growing industry, which have been thriving there for centuries, producing 85% of the world's rose oil. The Kazanlak Valley is also known as the Valley of the Thracian Kings due to the extremely high concentration and variety of monuments of the Thracian culture.\n\nSrednogorie region stretches between the Sub-Balkan valleys in the north and the Rilo-Rhodope Massif in the south and from west to east includes the mountains Zavalska, Viskyar, Lyulin, Vitosha, Plana and Sredna Gora. The largest of these, Sredna Gora, is 280 km and reaches a maximum width of 50 km. Kraishte region covers the western parts of the Transitional geomorphological region and consists of two almost parallel mountain groups, Ruysko–Verilska and Konyavsko–Milevska, as well as numerous valleys.\n\nThe Upper Thracian Plain encompasses the middle valley of the river Maritsa and has a roughly triangular shape, situated between Sredna Gora in the north, the Rhodope Mountains in the south and Sakar Mountain in the east. The lowland is 180 km long and up to 50 km wide, spanning an area of 6,000 km2. To the east are located the Burgas Plain, Svetliyski Heights, Manastirski Heights, Dervent Heights, and the low mountains Sakar and Strandzha.\n\n=== Rilo-Rhodope region ===\nA view of Pirin\nThe Rilo-Rhodope geomorphological region covers the south-western regions of Bulgaria and includes the Rhodope Mountains, Rila, Pirin, Osogovo, Vlahina, Maleshevo, Ograzhden and Belasitsa, as well as the valleys of the rivers Struma and Mesta. The Rhodopes are the most extensive mountain range in Bulgaria, spanning an area of 14,730 km2 with an average altitude of 785 m, characterized with gentle and densely forested slopes. Their length from west to east is 249 km and reach width of 100 km. The altitude decreases from west to east.\n\nTo the west are located Rila and Pirin, Bulgaria's two highest mountains. Rila includes Mount Musala, whose 2,925 m peak is the highest in the Balkan Peninsula, while Pirin's highest peak Vihren at 2,915 m is the third-highest in the Balkans. Both Rila and Pirin have rocky peaks, stony slopes, extensive Alpine zone and hundreds glacial lakes. Further west is the Osogovo–Belasitsa mountain group along the border with the Republic of Macedonia, whose highest peak is Ruen in Osogovo at 2,251 m.\n\n=== Black Sea coast ===\nThe coastline at the river Ropotamo\nThe Bulgarian Black Sea coast has a total length of 378 km from Durankulak in the north to the mouth of the river Rezovska in the south. The northernmost section between the Bulgarian-Romanian border to Shabla has extensive sandy beaches and several coastal lakes, then the elevation rises as the coast reaches Cape Kaliakra, with 70 m high vertical cliffs. Near Balchik and Kavarna the limestone rocky coast is cut by wooded valleys. The landscape around the coast resorts of Albena and Golden Sands is hilly, with a clearly expressed landslides. Dense forests at the mouth of the river Batova mark the beginning of Frangensko plateau. South of Varna the coastline is densely wooded, especially at the alluvial longose groves of the Kamchia Biosphere Reserve. Cape Emine marks the end of the Balkan Mountain and divides the Bulgarian Black Sea coast in northern and southern parts. The southern section has wide and long beaches, with a number of small bays and headlands. All Bulgarian Black Sea islands are situated in the southern coast: St. Anastasia, St. Cyricus, St. Ivan, St. Peter and St. Thomas. Sandy beaches occupy 34% of the Bulgarian coastline. The two most important gulf are the Gulf of Varna in the north and the Gulf of Burgas in the south, which is the largest in the Bulgarian Black Sea coast.\n", "\nConsidering its relatively small area, Bulgaria has variable and complex climate. The country occupies the southernmost part of the continental climatic zone, with small areas in the south falling within the Mediterranean climatic zone. The continental zone is predominant, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the second half of summer and produces hot and dry weather. Bulgaria is subdivided into five climatic zones: continental zone (Danubian Plain, Pre-Balkan and the higher valleys of the Transitional geomorphological region); transitional zone (Upper Thracian Plain, most of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the lower Sub-Balkan valleys); continental-Mediterranean zone (the southernmost areas of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, Sakar and Strandzha); Black Sea zone along the coastline with an average length of 30–40 km inland; and alpine zone in the mountains above 1000 m altitude (central Balkan Mountains, Rila, Pirin, Vitosha, western Rhodope Mountains, etc.).\n\nDespite the large distance, the most important climate-forming factor is the Atlantic Ocean through the atmospheric circulation of the Icelandic cyclone and the Azores anticyclone, which bring cool and rainy weather in summer and relatively mild weather with abundant snowfall in winter. The influence of the Mediterranean Sea is strongest in the southern parts of Bulgaria, mainly through the Mediterranean cyclones. Due to its small area, the influence of the Black Sea only affects a 30–40 km long strip along the coastline, mainly in summer, when the daily breeze circulation is most pronounced.\n\nAnother important factor is the relief. The Bulgarian mountains and valleys act as barriers or channels for air masses, causing sharp contrasts in weather over relatively short distances. The Balkan Mountains form a barrier which effectively stops the cool air masses coming from the north and the warm masses from the south. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains is felt throughout the country: on the average, northern Bulgaria is about one degree cooler and receives about 192 mm more rain than lowlands of southern Bulgaria. The Rilo-Rhodope Massif bars the warm Mediterranean air masses and limits the Mediterranean influence to the southern valleys of the rivers Struma, Mesta, Maritsa and Tundzha, despite the close proximity of the Aegean Sea.\n\nThe mean annual temperature in Bulgaria is 10.6 °C and varies from –2.9 °C at the nation's highest peak Musala to 13.9 °C at the town of Sandanski in the southern Struma valley. The average temperature in the Danubian Plain is 11.4 °C, in the Upper Thracian Plain — 13.9 °C, in the lower mountains — 8.1 °C and in the higher mountains — 2.4 °C. The highest absolute temperature was measured at the town of Sadovo in 1916 — 45.2 °C; the lowest absolute temperature was measured at the town of Tran in 1947 — –38.3 °C. The highest temperature in the lowlands and the hilly regions is in June, while in the higher mountains the warmest month is August. The lowest temperature is measured in January and February, respectively. Many valleys experience regular temperature inversions and fogs in winter. The country's lowest absolute temperature was measured during an inversion in the Tran valley.\n\nThe average precipitation in Bulgaria is about 670 mm. It is uneven in terms of seasons and territory. In northern Bulgaria the highest precipitation is in May–June, while in southern Bulgaria it is in winter. The average amount of precipitation also varies in term of altitude — from 450–850 mm in the plains to 850–1200 mm. The lowest mean precipitation is in the eastern part of Dobrudzha and the Burgas Plain (450 mm) and in the area between Plovdiv and Pazardzhik (500 mm); the highest rainfall falls in the mountains — the Petrohan Pass in the western Balkan Mountains and Zlatograd in the Rhodope Mountains. The highest annual rainfall was measured in 1957 in the upper valley of the river Ogosta in the western Balkan Mountains (2293 mm); the highest daily rainfall was recorded at Saints Constantine and Helena resort (342 mm) near Varna in 1951. The total annual amount of the rainfall is 74 billion km3; of them 70% evaporate, 20% flow into the rivers and 10% soak into the soil. Most of the country is affected by droughts in June and August. The snow cover lasts from 20–30 days in the lowlands to 9 months in the highest mountains.\n\n\n", "Map of drainage systems and drainage divide in Bulgaria\nBulgaria has a dense network of about 540 rivers, but with the notable exception of the Danube, most have short length and low water-level. The density is highest in the mountain areas and lowest in Dobrudzha, the Danubian Plain and the Upper Thracian Plain. There are two catchment basins: the Black Sea (57% of the territory and 42% of the rivers) and the Aegean Sea (43% of the territory and 58% of the rivers) basins.\n\nThe Balkan Mountains divide Bulgaria into two nearly equal drainage systems. The larger system drains northward to the Black Sea, mainly by way of the Danube. This system includes the entire Danubian Plain and a stretch of land running 48–80 km inland from the coastline in the south. The Danube gets slightly more than 4% of its total volume from its Bulgarian tributaries. As it flows along the northern border, the Danube averages 1.6 to 2.4 km in width. The river's highest water levels usually occur during the May floods; it is frozen over an average of 40 days per year. The longest river located entirely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, with a length of 368 km and a catchment area of 8,640 km2, is the only Bulgarian Danubian tributary that does not rise in the Balkan Mountains. Instead, the Iskar has its origin in the Rila Mountains. It passes through Sofia's eastern suburbs and crosses the Balkan Mountains through a spectacular 163 km–long gorge. Other important tributaries of the Danube include the rivers Lom, Ogosta, Vit, Osam and Yantra. The longest river flowing directly to the Black Sea is the Kamchiya (254 km), while other rivers include the Batova, Provadiya, Aheloy, Ropotamo, Veleka and Rezovo.\n\nThe Aegean Sea catchment basin drains the Thracian Plain and most of the higher lands to the south and southwest. Several major rivers flow directly to the Aegean Sea. Most of these streams fall swiftly from the mountains and have cut deep, scenic gorges. The 480 km–long Maritsa (of them 321 km in Bulgaria) and its tributaries drain all of the western Thracian Plain, all of Sredna Gora, the southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains, and the northern slopes of the eastern Rhodopes. After it leaves Bulgaria, the Maritsa forms most of the Greco-Turkish border. Maritsa's major tributaries are the Tundzha, Arda, Topolnitsa, Vacha, etc. The other Bulgarian rivers flowing directly to the Aegean are the Struma and the Mesta.\n\nBulgaria has around 400 natural lakes with a total area of 95 km2 and volume of 278 million km3. The limans and lagoons along the Black Sea coast include from north to south Lake Durankulak, Lake Shabla, Lake Varna, Lake Beloslav, Lake Pomorie, Lake Atanasovsko, Lake Burgas and Lake Mandrensko. Of them, Lake Burgas is the most extensive with 27,6 km2 and Lake Varna has the largest volume with 165,5 million km3. The lakes along the Danube were dried to clear land for agriculture with the notable exception of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Lake Srebarna. There are 170 glacial lakes in Rila and 164 in Pirin. They are an important tourist asset. The most renown lakes include the Seven Rila Lakes, Popovo Lake, Banderishki Lakes, Vasilashki Lakes, Vlahini Lakes, etc. Swamps and marshes include Alepu, Arkutino, Aldomirovtsi marsh, Dragoman marsh, etc. There are around 2,200 reservoirs with a total volume of c. 7 billion km3. The largest ones are Iskar Reservoir, Ogosta Reservoir, Dospat Reservoir, Batak Reservoir, Kardzhali Reservoir, Ivaylovgrad Reservoir, Studen Kladenets, Koprinka Reservoir, Ticha Reservoir, etc.\n\n\nFile:Veleka-river-dinev.jpg\|River Veleka\nFile:Shabla 02.jpg\|Lake Shabla\nFile:Dolno vasilashko ezero.jpg\|Dolno Vasilashko Lake\nFile:Vucha PAN-HDR.jpg\|Vacha Reservoir\nFile:Arda Meanders.jpg\|River Arda at Kardzhali Reservoir \n\nBulgaria is rich in mineral waters, with 225 mineral springs and a total discharge of 5000 l/s, mainly in the south-western and central parts of the country along the faults between the mountains. Most of them, 148, are situated in southern Bulgaria, while the other 77 are in the northern part of the country. The springs in the north tend to be with cool water, while those to the south are mainly warm and hot. The hottest spring in Bulgaria and the Balkans is situated in Sapareva Banya and reaches 101.4 °C. The Bulgarian word for spa, ''баня'', transliterated as ''banya'', appears in some of the names of more than 50 spa towns and resorts. They are located in several zones: ''Balkan Mountains zone'' (Varshets, Shipkovo, Voneshta Voda), ''Srednogorie zone'' (Sofia, Ovcha kupel, Bankya, Pancharevo, Strelcha, Hisarya, Banya, Pavel Banya), ''Maritsa zone'' (Kostenets (town), Kostenets (village), Dolna Banya, Momin Prohod), ''Rilo-Rhodope zone'' (Devin, Velingrad, Banite, Beden, Mihalkovo, Sapareva Banya), ''Struma zone'' (Kyustendil, Sandanski, Ognyanovo, Marikostinovo, Dobrinishte).\n", "\nThe soil cover of Bulgaria is diverse. The soil resources of the country are adequately researched and include 17 soil types and 28 sub-types. Of them, six types form 88,7% of the soil cover: cinnamon soils (22,0%); chernozem (20,4%); grey forest soils (17,0%); brown forest soils (14,8%); alluvial soils (9,0%) and smolnitsi (5,4%).\n\nThere are three soil zones. The ''Northern forest-steppe zone'' covers the Danubian Plain and the Pre-Balkan up to 600–700 m altitude. The Danubian Plain is characterised by the fertile black earth chernozem, that accounts for 54% of the zone's area, while the Pre-Balkan is dominated by grey forest soils (39%), which have good physical characteristics but are low in organic matter and phosphorus. The ''Southern xerothermal zone'' encompasses Southern Bulgaria up to 700–800 m altitude and includes several specific soil types due to the more diverse topography and climate. The most common soil types are the cinnamon forest soils with acidic (cinnamonic) traces, smolnitsi and yellow-podzolic soils. The ''Mountain zone'' covers the mountainous regions above 700–800 m altitude and has a zonal soil cover. The brown forest soils are distributed at altitudes of 1000–2000 m, the dark mountain forest soils can be found at 1700–2200 m altitude and the mountain meadow soils — above 1700 m. These soils are typically shallow and prone to erosion and are usually acid to strongly acid.\n\n\n+Soil types in Bulgaria\nType!!1000 ha\n\ncinnamon \n 2,430\n\nchernozem \n 2,240\n\ngrey forest \n 1,960\n\nbrown forest \n 1,640\n\nmeadow, alluvial and diluvial \n 995\n\nsmolnitsi \n 595\n\nyellow-podzol \n 0.026\n\nsalty \n 0.025\n\nmountain meadow \n 173\n\nother\n 1,016\n\n", "Bulgaria has substantial land in agriculture and forest. In 2006 land use and land cover was 5% intensive human use, 52% agriculture including pasture, 31% forest, 11% woodland-shrub, grassland, and non-vegetated, and 1% water. The table to the right above lists the 36 classes of land use and land cover along with the percent of total land, the number of hectares, and the colour for the class in the map above the table. When the map and legend are enlarged to their full size individual polygons of land use and land colour are detectable and the type of land use or cover can be determined by matching the colour to the colour of the class in the legend.\n", "There are approximately 60 types of minerals that are extracted commercially in Bulgaria. The mineral resources are divided into three groups: fossil fuels, metals and industrial minerals.\n\nThe fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas. Bulgaria possesses significant reserves of coal estimated at 4,8 billion tons. More than 92% of them, or 4,5 billion tons, is lignite, which is the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low heat content but is widely used for electricity generation. With reserves of 2,856 billion tons Maritsa Iztok, situated in the Upper Thracian Plain, is by far the largest coal basin in the country which powers Maritsa Iztok Complex, the largest energy complex in South-Eastern Europe. Other lignite basins include Sofia valley (reserves of 870 million tons), Elhovo (656 million tons), Lom (277 million tons), Maritsa Zapad (170 million tons). The reserves of sub-bituminous coal are 300 million tons, situated mainly near Bobov Dol, Pernik and Burgas. The recoverable reserves of bituminous coal and anthracite are insignificant — only 10 and 2,5 million tons respectively. However, there is a huge basin of bituminous coal in Southern Dobruja with estimated reserves of over 1 billion tons but its large depth (1370–1950 m) is an obstacle for its commercial exploitation. \nA copper mine near Elshitsa, Pazardzhik Province. Bulgaria is an important producer of copper.\nPetroleum and natural gas are found in northern Bulgaria and within the Bulgarian exclusive economic zone in the Black Sea. Crude oil is extracted in Dolni Dabnik and Gigen in Pleven Province and in Tyulenovo, Dobrich Province. The proven reserves are 20 million tons but there are prospects for new discovering in the EEZ. Gas fields have been discovered off cape Kaliakra (reserves of 3 billion m3), Deventsi (6 billion m3), between Lovech and Etropole (est. 22 billion m3), as well as near Devetaki and Butan. It is estimated that the 14,220 m2 ''Khan Asparukh'' Block in the northern section of the Bulgarian EEZ has natural gas reserves of 100 billion m3.\n\nBulgaria has significant reserves of metal ores, especially copper, zinc and lead, situated mainly in the southern half of the country. The two largest iron ore mines are located in Kremikovtsi near Sofia and Krumovo, Yambol Province with total reserves of 430 million tons. Manganese ore is extracted near Obrochishte in Dobrich Province (reserves of 85 million tons), as well as in the provinces of Sofia and Varna. The reserves of chromium are small and are scattered in the Rhodope Mountains. Bulgaria possesses important reserves of lead and zinc, of them 60% are situated in the southern reaches of the Rhodope Mountains along the border with Greece at Madan, Zlatograd, Madzharovo, Rudozem, Laki, etc. Other mines are located near Ustrem and Gyueshevo. The reserves of copper ore are also significant, situated mainly at Asarel Medet near Panagyurishte, Elatsite mine near Etropole (650 million tons), Elshitsa, Medni Rid near Burgas, etc. There is gold near Tran, Chelopech and Madzharovo, as well as small quantities of platinum, silver, molybdenum, nickel and tungsten.\n\nBulgaria is rich in industrial minerals, with 70 types being mined. There are important reserves of rock salt near the town of Provadia (4,4 billion tons). Solnitsata, an ancient town located nearby is believed by Bulgarian archaeologists to be the oldest in Europe and was the site of a salt production facility approximately six millennia ago. The reserves of kaolinite are estimated at 70 million tons, situated mainly in north-eastern Bulgaria — Kaolinovo, Todor Ikonomovo, Senovo and Vetovo. Marble is extracted in the mountainous regions — Pirin, Rhodopes, Strandzha, the western Balkan Mountains. There are important quantities of limestone, gypsum, baryte, perlite, feldspar, granite, etc.\n", "A forest habitat near Strandzha Nature Park, southeastern Bulgaria.\nThe interaction of complex climatic, hydrological, geological and topographical conditions make Bulgaria one of the most biologically diverse countries of Europe. Phytogeographically, Bulgaria straddles the Illyrian and Euxinian provinces of the Circumboreal region within the Boreal kingdom. The country falls within six terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic ecozone: Balkan mixed forests, Rodope montane mixed forests, Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests, East European forest steppe and Pontic–Caspian steppe. Around 35% of Bulgaria's land area consists of forests, which include some of the oldest trees in the world, such as Baikushev's pine and the Granit oak. Bulgaria's flora contains between 3,800 and 4,200 vascular plant species of which 170 are endemic and 150 are considered endangered. There more than 6,500 species of non-vascular plants and fungi.\nThe Eurasian lynx has a growing population in Bulgaria.\nBulgaria's vertebrate fauna is among the most diverse in Europe. The zoogeograhical regions are three: the Eurosiberian region, encompassing the Danubian Plain and the mountainous regions of the country; the Irano-Turanian region encompassing Southern Dobrudzha; and the Mediterranean region that includes the Upper Thracian Plain, the lower Struma valley and the Black Sea coast. Bulgaria is inhabited by around 100 mammal species, including brown bears, grey wolves, Eurasian lynxes, golden jackals, red deer and roe deer among other. The avian fauna is represented by 426 species of birds, which is the second highest number in Europe. Important conservation species are the eastern imperial eagle, the cinereous vulture, the great white pelican, the Dalmatian pelican, etc. The reptiles and the amphibians found in Bulgaria are 38 and 20 species respectively. The ichtyofauna of the country has not been fully researched. As of 2000 there are 207 fish species. There are an estimated 27,000 species of insects and other invertebrates.\n\nConcern about biodiversity conservation remains strong within the country. In 1998 the Government of Bulgaria approved the National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy, which was inspired by the Pan European Strategy for Biological and Landscape Diversity. Bulgaria has some of the largest Natura 2000 areas in the European Union covering 33.8% of its territory. The national policy for governing and management of the protected areas is implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Water. Bulgaria's biodiversity is conserved in three national parks, 11 nature parks and 54 nature reserves. Of them, Pirin National Park and Srebarna Nature Reserve are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Spanning a territory of 1,161 square kilometres Strandzha Nature Park is the largest protected area in the country. Established in 1936 Vitosha Nature Park is the oldest in Bulgaria and in the Balkan Peninsula.\n", "\n\n* Bulgaria\n* Extreme points of Bulgaria\n* Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria\n* Rivers of Bulgaria\n* List of cities in Bulgaria\n* List of islands of Bulgaria\n* Geography of Europe\n", "\n=== Citations ===\n\n", "\n=== Sources ===\n* \n\n=== External links ===\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Boundaries and territory ", " Topography ", " Climate ", " Hydrography ", " Soils ", " Land use and land cover ", " Mineral resources ", " Biodiversity ", " See also ", " Footnotes ", " References " ]	Geography of Bulgaria
[ "\n\nThe '''politics of Bulgaria''' take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nAfter 1989, after forty-five years of single party system, Bulgaria had an unstable party system, dominated by democratic parties and opposition to socialists - the Union of Democratic Forces and several personalistic parties and the post-communist Bulgarian Socialist Party or its creatures, which emerged for a short period of time in the past decade, personalistic parties could be seen as the governing Simeon II's NDSV party and Boyko Borisov's GERB party. Today, the president is Rumen Radev\n\nBulgaria has generally good freedom of speech and human rights records as reported by the US Library of Congress Federal Research Division in 2006, while Freedom House listed it as \"free\" in 2011, giving it scores of 2 for political rights and 2 for civil liberties. However, in 2014, there is some concern that the proposed new Penal Code would limit freedom of the press and assembly, and as a consequence freedom of speech.\n", "\n=== Parliamentary ===\nAfter the fall of the communism in 1989, the former communist party was restructured and succeeded by the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), which won the first post-communist elections for the Constitutional Assembly in 1990 with a small majority. Meanwhile, Zhelyu Zhelev, a communist-era dissident from the new democratic party - Union of Democratic Forces (abbreviated in Bulgarian as SDS), was elected President by the Assembly in 1990. In the first years after the change of regime, Bulgarian politics had to (re)establish the foundations of a democratic society in the country after nearly fifty years of de facto totalitarian communism. The so-called period of transition (from a Soviet socialist model to an economic structure focused on development through economic growth) began in the early 1990s. The politics of Bulgaria was aimed at joining the European Union and the NATO fold, as the alliances were recognised to have political agendas similar to the goals of the new Bulgarian democracy.\n\nIn contemporary Bulgaria, the government and its leader - the Prime Minister, have more political influence and significance than the President. Thus, the parliamentary elections set the short-term social and political environment in the country since the cabinet (chosen by the Prime Minister and approved by the parliament) decides how the country is governed while the President can only make suggestions and impose vetoes.\n\nIn the first parliamentary elections held under the new constitution of Bulgaria, in October 1991, the Union of Democratic Forces (SDS) party won a plurality of the seats, having won 110 out of the 240 seats, and created a cabinet alone with the support of the Movement for Rights and Freedoms — a liberal party (in Bulgarian abbreviated: DPS) which is widely perceived as a party of the ethnic Turks minority in Bulgaria. Yet, their government collapsed in late 1992, and was succeeded by a technocratic team put forward by the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), which served until 1994 when it also collapsed. The President dissolved the government and appointed a provisional one to serve until early parliamentary elections could be held in December.\n\nBSP won convincingly these elections in December 1994 with a majority of 125 seats out of the 240. Due to the severe economic crisis in Bulgaria during their government, BSP's cabinet collapsed and in 1997 a caretaker cabinet was appointed by the President, again, to serve until early parliamentary elections could be held in April 1997.\n\nThe April 1997 elections resulted in a landslide victory for the SDS, winning a majority of 137 seats in parliament, and allowing them to form the next government. This proved to be the first post-communist government that did not collapse and served its full 4-year term until 2001.\n\nIn 2001, the former monarch of Bulgaria Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha returned to power, this time as Prime Minister with his National Movement Simeon II (in Bulgarian abbreviated: NDSV), having won half (120) of the seats. His party entered a coalition with the DPS and invited two functionaries of the BSP (who sat as independents). In opposition were the two previously governing parties - the Socialist Party and the Union of Democratic Forces. In the four years in opposition the SDS suffered the defection of numerous splinter groups. The ruling party NDSV itself ruptured into a pro-right core and a pro-liberal fringe group. Bulgarian entered NATO in 2004.\n\nIn the aftermath, the BSP won the parliamentary elections in 2005 with 82 out of the 240 seats, but as it didn't get the majority of the seats, a coalition government was formed by the three biggest parties - BSP, NDSV and DPS. The elections also put in parliament some of the right-wing parties, as well as the extreme-right nationalist coalition led by the party Ataka as an answer to the former coalition government of NDSV with DPS. Bulgarian entered the European Union in 2007.\n\nIn the parliamentary elections of 2009 the centre-right party of the mayor of Sofia won GERB picking up 117 seats. The party formed a minority government with the support of the right-wing parties. Once the governing party - the National Movement Simeon II did not amass enough votes to enter the parliament. The austerity measures required in the stagnation of the Global Financial Crisis led to massive protests and the resignation of the cabinet in early 2013, months before the end of GERB's term.\n\nIn the early elections the former leading party GERB received highest vote from the people. This was the first time since 1989 that a ruling party was re-elected; in the past painful and unpopular reforms had to be implemented. However, as GERB received only 97 of the 240 seats, and failed to make a coalition, they refused the mandate, handing it down to the next party BSP. The socialist party chose the non-party former Minister of Finance Plamen Oresharski to form a cabinet. His cabinet was supported by the BSP and the DPS, opposed by GERB, while Ataka was absent.\n\nOnly two weeks after its initial formation the Oresharski government came under criticism and had to deal with large-scale protests some with more than 11 000 participants. One of the main reasons for these protests was the controversial appointment of media mogul Delyan Peevski as a chief of the National Security State Agency. The protests continued over the lifetime of the Oresharski government. In all, the government survived 5 votes of no-confidence before voluntarily resigning. Following an agreement from the three largest parties (GERB, BSP and DPS) to hold early parliamentary elections for 5 October 2014, the cabinet agreed to resign by the end of July, with the resignation of the cabinet becoming a fact on 23 July 2014. The next day parliament voted 180-8 (8 abstained and 44 were absent) to accept the government's resignation. Following the vote, President Plevneliev offered the mandate to GERB to try and form government, but it was refused. The next day the BSP returned the mandate as well. On 30 July, the DPS refused the mandate as well. Finally, on 6 August, a caretaker government led by Georgi Bliznashki was sworn into office and the Oresharski government was officially dissolved.\n\nAs agreed, parliamentary elections were held on 5 October 2014 to elect the 43rd National Assembly. GERB remained the largest party, winning 84 of the 240 seats with around a third of the vote. A total of eight parties won seats, the first time since the beginning of democratic elections in 1990 that more than seven parties entered parliament. After being tasked by President Rosen Plevneliev to form a government, Borisov's GERB formed a coalition with the Reformist Bloc, had a partnership agreement for the support of the Alternative for Bulgarian Revival, and also had the outside support of the Patriotic Front. The cabinet of twenty ministers was approved by a majority of 136-97 (with one abstention). Borisov was then chosen as prime minister by an even larger vote of 149-85. Borisov become the first person to be elected twice as Prime Minister in the recent history of Bulgaria. With the support of the coalition partner (the Reformist Bloc) members of the parties in the Bloc (Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria (DSB), Union of Democratic Forces (SDS), Bulgaria for Citizens Movement (DBG) and Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS)) were chosen for Minister positions. The vice chairman of the Alternative for Bulgarian Revival party Ivaylo Kalfin was voted for Depute Prime Minister and Minister of Labor and Social Policy.\n\n=== Presidential ===\nIn 1992 Zhelev won Bulgaria's first presidential elections and served as President until 1997. The second President was another member of the Union of Democratic Forces - Petar Stoyanov, who served until 2002. In 2001 leader of the Bulgarian Socialist Party - Georgi Parvanov defeated Stoyanov and took office in 2002 and served until 2012; becoming the only president to be reelected after his successful 2006 campaign. In 2011 GERB candidate Rosen Plevneliev was elected to serve as President from 2012 until January, 2017.\n", "The president of Bulgaria is directly elected for a 5-year term with the right to one re-election. The president serves as the head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The President's main duties are to schedule elections and referendums, represent Bulgaria abroad, conclude international treaties, and head the Consultative Council for National Security. The President may return legislation to the National Assembly for further debate—a kind of veto—but the legislation can be passed again by an absolute majority vote.\n\nThe Council of Ministers is the principal organ of the executive branch. It is usually formed by the majority party in Parliament, if one exists, or by the largest party in Parliament along with coalition partners. Chaired by the Prime Minister, it is responsible for carrying out state policy, managing the state budget, and maintaining law and order. The Council must resign if the National Assembly passes a vote of no confidence in the Council or the Prime Minister or rejects a vote of confidence.\nThe current government is a coalition between the left-wing Bulgarian Socialist Party and the liberal Movement for Rights and Freedoms.\n", "The National Assembly\nThe Bulgarian unicameral parliament, the National Assembly or Narodno Sabranie, consists of 240 deputies who are elected for 4-year-terms by popular vote. The votes are for party or coalition lists of candidates for each of the 28 administrative divisions. A party or coalition must garner a minimum of 4% of the vote in order to enter parliament. Parliament is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the prime minister and other ministers, declaration of war, deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements.\n", "\nDistribution of votes by constituency\n\n\n", "The Bulgarian judicial system consists of regional, district and appeal courts, as well as a Supreme Court of Cassation and one Specialized Criminal Court. In addition, there is a Supreme Administrative Court and a system of military courts. The Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation and the Supreme Administrative Court as well as the Prosecutor General are elected by a qualified majority of two-thirds from all the members of the Supreme Judicial Council and are appointed by the President of the Republic. The Supreme Judicial Council is in charge of the self-administration and organisation of the Judiciary.\n\nA qualified majority of two-thirds of the membership of the Supreme Judicial Council elects the Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation and of the Supreme Administrative Court, as well as the Prosecutor General, from among its members; the President of the Republic then appoints those elected.\n\nThe Supreme Judicial Council has charge of the self-administration and organization of the Judiciary.\n\nThe Constitutional Court of Bulgaria supervises the review of the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it, as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the Government has signed. Parliament elects the 12 members of the Constitutional Court by a two-thirds majority. The members serve for a nine-year term.\n", "The territory of the Republic of Bulgaria is divided into provinces and municipalities. In all Bulgaria has 28 provinces, each headed by a provincial governor appointed by the government. In addition, there are 263 municipalities.\n", "{\|\n\n\n* ACCT\n* Australia Group\n* BSEC\n* CE\n* CEI\n* CERN\n* EAPC\n* EBRD\n* ECE\n* EU\n* FAO\n* G-9\n* IAEA\n* IBRD\n* ICAO\n* ICCt\n* ICRM\n* IFC\n* IFRCS\n* IHO (pending member)\n* ILO\n* IMF\n* IMO\n* Interpol\n* IOC\n* IOM\n* ISO\n* ITU\n* ITUC\n\n* NAM (guest)\n* NATO\n* NSG\n* OAS (observer)\n* OPCW\n* OSCE\n* PCA\n* PFP\n* SECI\n* UN\n* UNCTAD\n* UNESCO\n* UNIDO\n* UNMEE\n* UNMIBH\n* UNMIK\n* UNMOP\n* UPU\n* WCO\n* WEU (associate partner)\n* WFTU\n* WHO\n* WIPO\n* WMO\n* WToO\n* WTrO\n* ZC\n\n", "'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''\n* Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB\n* Confederation of Labour Podkrepa\n* numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas\n", "* Prime Minister of Bulgaria\n* List of Prime Ministers of Bulgaria\n* List of heads of state of Bulgaria\n* List of ministries of Bulgaria\n* Foreign relations of Bulgaria\n* Flag of Bulgaria\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Developments since 1990 ", " Executive branch ", " Legislative branch ", " Elections ", " Judicial branch ", " Administrative divisions ", " International relations ", " Other data ", " See also ", " References " ]	Politics of Bulgaria
[ "\nBlaw-Knox tower and two mast antennae, Vakarel radio transmitter\n\n'''Telecommunications in Bulgaria''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.\n", "\n* Radio broadcast stations: AM 31, FM 63, shortwave 2 (2001).\n* Radio broadcast hours: 525,511 (2003).\n* Television broadcast stations: 39 (2001).\n* Television broadcast hours: 498,091 (2003).\n", "\n* Main lines in use: 2.3 million (2007).\n* Mobile cellular: 9.87 million lines, 110% penetration rate (2007).\n* Telephone system:\n ''General assessment:'' an extensive but antiquated telecommunications network inherited from the Soviet era; quality has improved; the Bulgaria Telecommunications Company's fixed-line monopoly terminated in 2005 when alternative fixed-line operators were given access to its network; a drop in fixed-line connections in recent years has been more than offset by a sharp increase in mobile-cellular telephone use fostered by multiple service providers; the number of cellular telephone subscriptions now exceeds the population\n ''Domestic:'' a fairly modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions; the others are connected by digital microwave radio relay\n** ''International:'' country code – 359; submarine cable provides connectivity to Ukraine and Russia; a combination submarine cable and land fiber-optic system provides connectivity to Italy, Albania, and Macedonia; satellite earth stations – 3 (1 Intersputnik in the Atlantic Ocean region, 2 Intelsat in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions) (2007).\n", "\n\n* Top-level domains: .bg and .бг (proposed, Cyrillic).\n* Internet users: \n 3.9 million users, 72nd in the world; 55.1% of the population, 74th in the world (2012); \n 3.4 million users, 63rd in the world (2009);\n** 1.9 million users (2007).\n* Fixed broadband: 1.2 million subscriptions, 52nd in the world; 17.6% of population, 53rd in the world (2012).\n* Wireless broadband: 2.8 million, 55th in the world; 40.3% of the population, 41st in the world (2012).\n* Internet hosts: \n 976,277 hosts, 47th in the world (2012);\n 513,470 (2008).\n* IPv4: 4.2 million addresses allocated, 0.1% of the world total, 589.7 addresses per 1000 people, 51st in the world (2012).\n", "\n* Internet Society – Bulgaria\n* List of internet service providers in Bulgaria\n* Bulgaria\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Radio and television", "Telephones", "Internet", "See also", "References" ]	Telecommunications in Bulgaria
[ "Siemens Desiro train on the Sofia–Lakatnik line\n\n'''Transport in Bulgaria''' is dominated by road transport, despite nearly half of all paved roads belonging to the lowest category of roads. As of December 2015, the country had 774 kilometers of highways.\n\nBuses play a significant role in long distance public transport, coaches are operated by public and private companies. Sofia has three major national bus terminals, the Central, the Western and the Southern Terminals, and a separate terminal for international routes. In the countryside share taxis are in operation between smaller settlements.\n\nRailway systems are mostly outdated, the average speed is very low, however, upgrading projects are underway. The national railways company is BDŽ, but private freight operators are also present. The Sofia Metro has two lines, and a third is being built as of 2016. \n\nAir traffic has been growing since the 2000s, which was facilitated by the opening of a second terminal at Sofia Airport, as well as the implementation of new destinations and routes. The flag carrier is Bulgaria Air, but a number of private charter companies also exist, operating domestic and international flights.\n\nPorts along the Danube and the Black Sea are the most important concerning Bulgaria's water transport system. The two largest ports are in Varna and in Burgas.\n", "\n\nAfter the second terminal of International Airport Sofia was built the total number of passengers for the country rose and reached 6,595,790 in 2008, and in April 2011 Airport Sofia serviced 282 694 passengers, 13% more than the same period of 2009, when the record was 250 000 passengers. In 2011 passenger traffic at Bulgaria's three major airports - Sofia, Varna and Bourgas - grew up to near 10% on the year to 3.89 million in the first half of 2011, due to rise of customers using international routes and launch of new destinations. In 2014, Bulgarian airports served 7,728,612 passengers and handled 23,101 tons of goods.\n\nIn the past aviation compared with road and railroad transport used to be a minor mode of freight movement, and only 860,000 passengers used Bulgarian airlines in 2001. In 2013 Bulgaria had 68 airports, 57 of which had paved runways. Two airports, Sofia Airport and Burgas Airport, had a runway longer than 3,000 meters, and there were four heliports. The second- and third-largest airports, Varna Airport and Burgas Airport, serve mainly charter flights and have regular domestic links with the capital. In the early 2000s, Sofia Airport received substantial renovation, with aid from a Kuwaiti-led consortium, in anticipation of increased air connections with Europe. A three-phase expansion was scheduled for completion in 2010. The communist-era state airline, Balkan Airlines, was replaced by Bulgaria Air, which was privatised in 2006. In 2004 Bulgaria Air transported 365,465 passengers to international destinations, including all major European cities, while in 2014 this number was at 897,422.\n", "BDZ Desiro train\n\n\nIn 2005 Bulgaria had some 6,238 kilometers of open access track owned by the state company \"National Company Railway Infrastructure\", including a 125 kilometers long 760 mm narrow gauge railway - the Septemvri-Dobrinishte narrow gauge line and 4,316 km were considered main lines. Sofia, Plovdiv and Gorna Oriahovitsa are the hubs of the domestic system and of international rail connections. \nMap of Bulgaria's railroad network\nBulgaria's rail system has not expanded since the 1980s, in 2014 there were 4,023 kilometers of main lines. There are upgrading projects underway. After the completion of the Plovdiv - Dimitrovgrad high-speed line on 1 July 2012 the top operating speed was raised to 200 km/h and the national top speed record of 197 km/h set between Iskar and Elin Pelin with a leased Siemens Taurus electric locomotive is soon expected to be broken. There are also plans for upgrading for high speed operation and doubling (where needed) of the Plovdiv - Burgas railway. By the end of 2013, a total of 461 km of high-speed lines were expected to be built.\n\nIn the mid-2000s, railways remained a major mode of freight transportation, but with increasing problems with the maintenance of the infrastructure and lowering speeds, highways carried a progressively larger share of freight. The national passenger and freight operator is called Bulgarian State Railways, but there are also a number of private operators including Bulgarian Railway Company and DB Schenker Rail Bulgaria.\n\nIn 2014 the Bulgarian railways carried 14,225,000 tons of freight and 21,433,000 people.\n\n=== Sofia Metro ===\nLavov Most metro station\n\nIn 1998 the first six kilometres of an often-interrupted 52 km standard gauge subway project (the Sofia Metro) opened in Sofia. Additional stations were later built, and in 2012 a second line opened. By April 2015 the total length was 36 km with 31 stations and Line 1 serving Sofia Airport (SOF). In 2016 the expansion of the network continued, as construction works on the third line commenced, and the system reached a total length of 40 km, with 35 stations along its two lines.\n", "\n\n\nIn the early 2000s, Bulgaria had some 37,300 kilometers of roads, but nearly half of which (18,000 kilometers) fell into the lowest international rating for paved roads. 324 kilometers of high-speed highways were in service in 2000. As of December 2014, of national roads and of motorways are in service and 98% of all national roads are paved. Another of highways are under various stages of construction. Roads have overtaken the railroads as the chief mode of freight transportation.\n\nLong-term plans call for upgrading higher-quality roads and integrating the road system into the European grid. The focus is on improving road connectors with the neighbouring countries and domestic connections linking Sofia, Plovdiv, Burgas and Varna. Bulgaria has delayed building some key highway connections since the 1990s, but European Union membership is a strong incentive for completion. A 114-kilometer link between eastern Bulgaria and the Turkish border is scheduled for completion in 2013. As of 2004, two international highways passed through Bulgaria, and a major highway ran from Sofia to the Black Sea coast. Proposed international corridors would pass from north to south, from Vidin to the border with Greece and from Ruse to the border with Greece, and west to east, from Serbia through Sofia to Burgas, Varna, and Edirne (Turkey). The Vidin-Calafat bridge was completed in 2013, relieving road and railroad traffic to Romania.\n\n=== Motorways and expressways ===\nMotorways construction timeline\n\n25px Trakia motorway - Sofia - Plovdiv - Stara Zagora - Yambol - Karnobat - Burgas ''(completed)''\n25px Hemus motorway - Sofia - Yablanitsa - Shumen - Varna ''(Yablanitsa to Shumen remaining)''\n25px Struma motorway - (Sofia) Pernik to Kulata (Greece) ''(under construction)''\n25px Maritsa motorway - Chirpan to Kapitan Andreevo (Turkey) ''(''completed'')''\n25px Cherno More motorway - Varna to Burgas ''(planned)''\n25px Lyulin motorway - Sofia to Pernik ''(completed)''\nKalotina motorway - Sofia - Kalotina (Serbia) ''(planned)''\nSofia Northern Bypass ''(completed)''\nVeliko Tarnovo–Ruse motorway Veliko Tarnovo - Ruse (Romania) ''(planned)''\n\n=== Major roads ===\n25px I-1 road\n25px I-2 road\n25px I-3 road\n25px I-4 road\n25px I-5 road\n25px I-6 road\n25px I-7 road\n25px I-8 road\n25px I-9 road\n25px Sofia ring road\n\n===Long-distance public transport===\nThe Central Bus Station in Sofia\nBuses are frequently used in Bulgaria for long-distance travel. Long-distance coaches depart from Sofia from the Central, West and South Bus Stations, international routes are served by the Serdika Station. Besides public buses, coaches are also operated by private companies, like Union-Ivkoni, Biomet or Etap-Grup. Tickets can be purchased at the offices of these companies, at stations and from the bus driver. Some companies offer online booking. International destinations include Saloniki, Istanbul, Bukarest, Skopje and Belgrad. Share taxis called ''marshrutka'' operate in Sofia, and in the countryside between smaller settlements.\n", "470 km (2006); major river is Danube and also includes Maritsa and Iskar.\n", "In 2005, Bulgaria had 2,425 kilometers of natural gas pipelines, 339 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 156 kilometers of pipelines for refined products. The pipeline system was scheduled for substantial changes and additions, however. The 279-kilometer Burgas-Alexandroupolis Pipeline, still under negotiation among Bulgaria, Greece, and Russia in 2006, would provide a bypass of the overloaded Bosporus Strait. The line would enable Russian oil arriving at the Bulgarian oil port of Burgas to reach Greece’s Mediterranean port at Alexandroupolis. A 900-kilometer U.S.- financed alternate route, known as the AMBO pipeline, would bring oil from Burgas across Bulgaria and Macedonia to the Albanian port of Vlore on the Adriatic Sea, bypassing both the Bosporus and Greece. As of October 2006, approval of both pipelines was expected. With international investment, Bulgaria began constructing a new domestic gas transportation network beginning in 2005. The Russian Gazprom company planned a gas pipeline from Dimitrovgrad in eastern Bulgaria across Serbia, reaching the Adriatic Sea in Croatia. Some 400 kilometers of the planned Nabucco Pipeline, bringing gas from Azerbaijan and Iran to Central Europe, were to cross Bulgaria sometime before 2011.\n", "\n=== River ports ===\n\nLom, Nikopol, Oryahovo, Ruse, Silistra, Svishtov, Tutrakan, Vidin are river ports on the Danube river.\n\n=== Sea ports ===\n\n'''Sea ports'''\n\nAhtopol, Balchik, Burgas, Nesebar, Pomorie, Sozopol, Tsarevo, Varna\n\n'''Container terminals'''\n\nThe major and largest ports with international significance are Varna and Burgas.\n\n'''Yacht ports'''\n\nBalchik, Burgas, Byala, Golden Sands, Nesebar, Sozopol, Sveti Vlas, Varna\n", "'''total''': 31 ships\n\n'''ships by type''':\nbulk carrier: 31 ships grouped by volume of 24,000 - 13,000 DWT, 35,000 - 25,000 DWT and 43,000 - 36,000 DWT\n", "\nWhile most urban and suburban transport in Bulgaria is composed of buses (using an increasing number of CNG vehicles), around a dozen cities also have trolley bus networks. The capital Sofia also has a tram and an underground network.\n", "Bulgaria\nSofia Public Transport\n", "\n\nalt= ''This article incorporates public domain material from \n", "\n* Bulgarian road quality map — Google Maps\n* Prime Minister Borisov vows to build seven new highways\n* Truck transport Bulgaria\n* Executive Agency Marinetime Administration\n* Executive agency for Exploration and Maintenance of the Danube river\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Air transport ", " Railways ", " Road transport ", " Waterways ", " Pipelines ", " Ports and harbours ", " Merchant marine ", " Urban transport ", " See also ", " References ", "External links" ]	Transport in Bulgaria
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Bulgarian Army''' () represents the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria. The Commander-in-Chief is the President of Bulgaria (currently Rumen Radev). The Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership while overall military command remains in the hands of the Defence Staff, headed by the Chief of the Defence (formerly called the Chief of the General Staff). There are three main branches, named literally the Land Forces, the Air Forces and the Naval Forces and the term \"Bulgarian Army\" encompasses them all together.\n\nThroughout history, the Army has played a major role in defending the country's sovereignty. Only several years after its liberation (1878), Bulgaria became a regional military power and was involved in several major wars – Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885), First Balkan War (1912–13), Second Balkan War (1913), First World War (1915–1918) and Second World War (1941–1945), during which the Army gained significant combat experience. During the Cold War the People's Republic of Bulgaria maintained one of the largest militaries in the Warsaw Pact, numbering an estimated 152,000 troops in 1988. Since the Fall of Communism, the political leadership decided to pursue a pro-NATO policy, thus reducing military personnel and weaponry. Bulgaria joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 29 March 2004 and currently maintains a total 776 deployed troops in three countries.\n\nThe patron saint of the Bulgarian Army is St. George. The Armed Forces Day or St. George's Day (6 May) is an official holiday in Bulgaria.\n", "\n\n=== Medieval Period ===\n\n\n\nBulgarian militiamen from the region of Macedonia, ca. 1900\nThe modern Bulgarian military dates back to 1878. On 22 July 1878 (10 July O.S.) a total of 12 battalions of ''opalchentsi'' who participated in the Liberation war, formed the Bulgarian armed forces. According to the Tarnovo Constitution, all men between 21 and 40 years of age were eligible for military service. In 1883 the military was reorganized in four infantry brigades (in Sofia, Pleven, Ruse and Shumen) and one cavalry brigade.\n\n===Serbo-Bulgarian war===\n\nThe Serbo-Bulgarian War was the first armed conflict after Bulgaria's liberation. It was a result of the unification with Eastern Rumelia, which happened on 6 September 1885. The unification was not completely recognized, however, and one of the countries that refused to recognize the act was the Kingdom of Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had been expanding its influence in the Balkans and was particularly opposed. Serbia also feared this would diminish its dominance in the region. In addition, Serbian ruler Milan Obrenović IV was annoyed that Serbian opposition leaders like Nikola Pašić, who had escaped persecution after the Timok Rebellion, had found asylum in Bulgaria. Lured by Austria-Hungary's promises of territorial gains from Bulgaria (in return for concessions in the western Balkans), Milan IV declared war on Bulgaria on 14 November 1885.\n\nMilitary strategy relied largely on surprise, as Bulgaria had moved most of its troops near the border with the Ottoman Empire, in the southeast. As it happened, the Ottomans did not intervene and the Serbian army's advance was stopped after the Battle of Slivnitsa. The main body of the Bulgarian army traveled from the Ottoman border in the southeast to the Serbian border in the northwest to defend the capital, Sofia. After the defensive battles at Slivnitsa and Vidin, Bulgaria began an offensive that took the city of Pirot. At this point the Austro-Hungarian Empire stepped in, threatening to join the war on Serbia's side if Bulgarian troops did not retreat. Fighting lasted for only 14 days, from 14–28 November. A peace treaty was signed in Bucharest on 19 February 1886. No territorial changes were made to either country, but Bulgarian unification was recognized by the Great Powers. However, the relationship of trust and friendship between Serbia and Bulgaria, built during their long common fight against Ottoman rule, suffered irreparable damage.\n\n===First Balkan War===\n\nInstability in the Balkan region in the early 1900s quickly became a precondition for a new war. Serbia's aspirations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Austrian annexation of the province in October 1908, so the Serbs focused their attention onto their historic cradle, Kosovo, and to the south for expansion. Greek officers, revolting in August 1909, had secured the appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos, which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favor and reverse their defeat of 1897 by the Ottomans. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of its independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion.\n\nA camel caravan of the Bulgarian 17th Regiment carrying supplies for the Çatalca operation, 1912 \n\nIn March 1910 an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo. In August Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom. In 1911 Italy launched an invasion of Tripolitania, which was quickly followed by the occupation of the Dodecanese Islands. The Italians' decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire greatly influenced the Balkan states to prepare for war against Turkey. Thus, in the spring of 1912 consultations among the various Christian Balkan nations resulted in a network of military alliances that became known as the Balkan League. The Great Powers, most notably France and Austria-Hungary, reacted to this diplomatic sensation by trying to dissuade the League from going to war, but failed.\n\nIn late September both the League and the Ottoman Empire mobilized their armies. Montenegro was the first to declare war, on 25 September (O.S.)/ 8 October. The other three states, after issuing an impossible ultimatum to the Porte on 13 October, declared war on Turkey on 17 October. The Balkan League relied on 700,000 troops, 370,000 of whom were Bulgarians. Bulgaria, often dubbed \"the Prussia of the Balkans\", was militarily the most powerful of the four states, with a large, well-trained and well-equipped army. The peacetime army of 60,000 troops was expanded during the war to 370,000, with almost 600,000 men mobilized in total out of a population of 4,300,000. The Bulgarian field army consisted of nine infantry divisions, one cavalry division and 1,116 artillery units. Commander-in-Chief was Tsar Ferdinand, while the actual command was in the hands of his deputy, Gen. Mikhail Savov. The Bulgarians also possessed a small navy of six torpedo boats, which were restricted to operations along the country's Black Sea coast.\n\nSoldiers preparing for an assault against Adrianople, 1912\nBulgaria's war aims were focused on Thrace and Macedonia. For the latter, Bulgaria had a secret agreement with Serbia to divide it between them, signed on 13 March 1912 during the negotiations that led to the establishment of the Balkan League. However, it was not a secret that Bulgaria's target was the fulfillment of the never-materialized Treaty of San Stefano, signed after the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78. They deployed their main force in Thrace, forming three armies. The First Army, under Gen. Vasil Kutinchev with three infantry divisions, was deployed to the south of Yambol, with direction of operations along the Tundzha River. The Second Army, under Gen. Nikola Ivanov with two infantry divisions and one infantry brigade, was deployed west of the First and was assigned to capture the strong fortress of Adrianople (now Edirne). According to the plans, the Third Army, under Gen. Radko Dimitriev, was deployed east of and behind the First and was covered by the cavalry division hiding it from the Turkish view. The Third Army had three infantry divisions and was assigned to cross the Stranja mountain and to take the fortress of Lozengrad (Kirk Kilisse). The 2nd and 7th divisions were assigned independent roles, operating in western Thrace and eastern Macedonia, respectively.\n\nThe first great battles were at the Adrianople–Kirk Kilisse defensive line, where the Bulgarian 1st and 3rd Armies (together 110,000 men) defeated the Ottoman East Army (130,000 men) near Gechkenli, Seliolu and Petra. The fortress of Adrianople was besieged and Kirk Kilisse was taken without resistance under the pressure of the Bulgarian Third Army. The initial Bulgarian attack by First and Third Army defeated the Turkish forces, numbering some 130,000, and reached the Sea of Marmara. However, the Turks, with the aid of fresh reinforcements from the Asian provinces, established their third and strongest defensive position at the Chataldja Line, across the peninsula where Constantinople is located. New Turkish forces landed at Bulair and Şarköy, but after heavy fighting they were crushed by the newly formed 4th Bulgarian Army under the command of Gen Stiliyan Kovachev. The offensive at Chataldja failed, too. On 11 March the final Bulgarian assault on Adrianople began. Under the command of Gen. Georgi Vazov the Bulgarians, reinforced with two Serb divisions, conquered the \"untakeable\" city. On 17/30 May a peace treaty was signed between Turkey and the Balkan Alliance. The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912-May 1913, strengthened Bulgaria's position as a regional military power, significantly reduced Ottoman influence over the Balkans and resulted in the formation of an independent Albanian state.\n\n===Second Balkan War===\n\nThe peace settlement of the First Balkan War proved unsatisfactory for both Serbia and Bulgaria. Serbia refused to cede a part of the territories in Macedonia, which it occupied and promised to give to Bulgaria according to a secret agreement. Serbia, on its side, was not satisfied with the independence of Albania and sought a secret alliance with Greece. Armed skirmishes between Serbian and Bulgarian troops occurred.\n\nOn 16 June 1913, just a few months after the end of the first war, the Bulgarian government ordered an attack on Serbian and Greek positions in Macedonia, without declaring war. Almost all of Bulgaria's 500,000-man standing army was positioned against these two countries, on two fronts—western and southern—while the borders with Romania and the Ottoman Empire were left almost unguarded. Montenegro sent a 12,000-strong force to assist the Serbs. Exhausted from the previous war, which took the highest toll on Bulgaria, the Bulgarian army soon turned to the defensive. Romania attacked from the north and northeast and the Ottoman Empire also intervened in Thrace. Allied numerical superiority was almost 2:1. After a month and two days of fighting, the war ended as a moral disaster for Bulgaria, and at the same time its economy was ruined and its military demoralized.\n\n===First World War===\n\nGen. Nikola Zhekov, Commander-in-Chief of the Bulgarian Army during World War I\nThe Kingdom of Bulgaria participated in World War I on the side of the Central Powers between 15 October 1915, when the country declared war on Serbia, and 29 September 1918, when the Armistice of Thessalonica was signed. In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the western powers, whom the Bulgarians felt had done nothing to help them. The government of Vasil Radoslavov aligned the country with Germany and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. However, Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) were all in possession of lands perceived in Bulgaria as its own.\n\nIn 1915 Germany promised to restore the boundaries according to the Treaty of San Stefano and Bulgaria, which had the largest army in the Balkans, declared war on Serbia in October of that year. In the First World War Bulgaria decisively asserted its military capabilities. The second Battle of Doiran, with Gen. Vladimir Vazov as commander, inflicted a heavy blow on the numerically superior British army, which suffered 12,000 casualties against 2,000 from the opposite side. One year later, during the third battle of Doiran, the United Kingdom, supported by Greece, once again suffered a humiliating defeat, losing 3,155 men against just about 500 on the Bulgarian side. The reputation of the French army also suffered badly. The Battle of the Red Wall was marked by the total defeat of the French forces, with 5,700 out of 6,000 men killed. The 261 Frenchmen who survived were captured by Bulgarian soldiers.\n\nDespite the outstanding victories, Germany was near defeat, which meant that Bulgaria would be left without its most powerful ally. The Russian Revolution of February 1917 had a great effect in Bulgaria, spreading antiwar and anti-monarchist sentiment among the troops and in the cities. In June Radoslavov's government resigned. In 1919 Bulgaria officially left the war with the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine.\n\n===The army between the World Wars===\nCV-33 tankettes, early 1930s\nThe Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine proved to be a severe blow to Bulgaria's military. According to the treaty, the country had no right to organize a conscription-based military. The professional army was to be no more than 20,000 men, including internal forces and border guards. Equipping the army with tanks, submarines, bombers and heavy artillery was strictly prohibited, although Bulgaria managed to get around some of these prohibitions. Nevertheless, on the eve of World War II the Bulgarian army was still well-trained and well-equipped.\n\n===World War II===\n\n\nThe government of the Kingdom of Bulgaria under Prime Minister Bogdan Filov declared a position of neutrality upon the outbreak of World War II. Bulgaria was determined to observe it until the end of the warm but it hoped for bloodless territorial gains, especially in the lands with a significant Bulgarian population occupied by neighboring countries after the Second Balkan War and World War I. However, it was clear that the central geopolitical position of Bulgaria in the Balkans would inevitably lead to strong external pressure by both World War II factions. Turkey had a non-aggression pact with Bulgaria. On 7 September 1940 Bulgaria succeeded in negotiating a recovery of Southern Dobruja with the Treaty of Craiova (see Second Vienna Award). Southern Dobruja had been part of Romania since 1913. This recovery of territory reinforced hopes for resolving other territorial problems without direct involvement in the war. The country joined the Axis Powers in 1941, when German troops preparing to invade Yugoslavia and Greece reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through its territory.\n\nThe Bombing of Sofia in World War II, 1944\n\nOn 1 March 1941, Bulgaria signed the Tripartite Pact and Tsar Boris III officially joined the Axis bloc. After a short period of inaction, the army launched an operation against Yugoslavia and Greece. The goal of reaching the shores of the Aegean sea and completely occupying the region of Macedonia was successful. Even though Bulgaria did not send any troops to support the German invasion of the Soviet Union, its navy was involved in a number of skirmishes with the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, which attacked Bulgarian shipping. Besides this, Bulgarian armed forces garrisoned in the Balkans battled various resistance groups. The Bulgarian government declared a token war on the United Kingdom and the United States near the end of 1941, an act that resulted in the bombing of Sofia and other Bulgarian cities by Allied aircraft.\n\nSome communist activists managed to begin a guerrilla movement, headed by the underground Bulgarian Communist Party. A resistance movement called Otechestven front (Fatherland front, Bulgarian: Отечествен фронт) was set up in August 1942 by the Communist Party, the Zveno movement and a number of other parties to oppose the elected government, after a number of Allied victories indicated that the Axis might lose the War. In 1943 Tsar Boris III died suddenly. In the summer of 1944, after having crushed the Nazi defense around Iaşi and Chişinău, the Soviet Army was approaching the Balkans and Bulgaria. On 23 August 1944 Romania quit the Axis Powers, declared war on Germany and allowed Soviet forces to cross its territory to reach Bulgaria. On 26 August 1944 the Fatherland Front made the decision to incite an armed rebellion against the government, which led to the appointment of a new government on 2 September. Support for the government was withheld by the Fatherland Front, since it was composed of pro-Nazi elements, in a desperate attempt to hold on to power. On 5 September 1944 the Soviet Union declared war and invaded Bulgaria. On 8 September 1944 the Bulgarian army joined the Soviet Union in its war against Germany.\n\n===Cold War era===\nAs the Red Army invaded Bulgaria in 1944 and installed a communist government, the armed forces were rapidly forced to reorganise following the Soviet model, and were renamed the Bulgarian People's Army (''Bulgarska Narodna Armiya, BNA''). Moscow quickly supplied Bulgaria with T-34-85 tanks, SU-100 guns, Il-2 attack planes and other new combat machinery. As the country was a Soviet satellite, it was a part of the Eastern Bloc and entered the Warsaw Pact as one of its founders. By this time the army had expanded to over 200,000 men with hundreds of thousands of more reserve troops. Military service was obligatory. A special defensive line, known as the Krali Marko defensive line, was constructed along the entire border with Turkey. It was heavily fortified with concrete walls and turrets of T-34, Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks.\n\nThe army was involved in a number of border skirmishes from 1948 to 1952, repulsing several Greek attacks, and took part in the suppression of the Prague spring events. In the meantime, during the rule of Todor Zhivkov, a significant military-industrial complex was established, capable of producing armored vehicles, self-propelled artillery, small arms and ammunition, as well as aircraft engines and spare parts. Bulgaria provided weapons and military expertise to Algeria, Yemen, Libya, Iraq, Nicaragua, Egypt and Syria. Some military and medical aid was also supplied to North Korea and North Vietnam in the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1970s the Air Force was at the apogee of its power, possessing at least 500 modern combat aircraft in its inventory. Training in the Bulgarian People's Army was exhaustive even by Soviet standards; however, it was never seen as a major force within the Warsaw Pact. In 1989, when the Cold War was coming to its end, the army (the combined number of ground, air and naval forces) numbered about 120,000 men, most of them conscripts. There were, however, a number of services which, while falling outside of Ministry of Defense jurisdiction in peacetime, were considered part of the armed forces. These were foremost the Labor Troops (construction forces), the People's Militia (the police forces of the country, which fell under Ministry of the Interior jurisdiction, but the ministry was itself a militarized structure) and, more importantly, its Interior Troops, the Border Troops—which in different periods fell under either Ministry of Defense or Ministry of the Interior control—Civil Defense Service, the Signals Troops (government communications) and the Transport Troops (mostly railway infrastructure maintenance), which were two separate services under the Postal and Communications Committee (a ministry), etc. The combined strength of the Bulgarian People's Army and all those services reached well over 325,000 troops.\n\n===Modern era===\nA Land Forces dismounted patrol in Afghanistan, January 2011\n\nWith the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the end of the Cold war, Bulgaria could no longer support a vast military. A rapid reduction in personnel and active equipment was to be carried out in parallel with a general re-alignment of strategic interests. In 1990, Bulgaria had a total of more than 2,400 tanks, 2,000 armored vehicles, 2,500 large caliber artillery systems, 300 fighter and bomber aircraft, 100 trainer aircraft, more than 40 combat and 40 transport helicopters, 4 submarines, 6 fast missile craft, 2 frigates, 5 corvettes, 6 torpedo boats, 9 patrol craft, 30 minesweepers and 21 transport vessels. Due to the economic crisis that affected most former Eastern bloc countries, a steady reform in the military could not be carried out; much of the equipment fell into disrepair and some of it was smuggled and sold to the international black market. Inadequate payments, fuel and spare part shortages and the disbandment of many capable units led to an overall drop in combat readiness, morale and discipline.\n\nAfter partially recovering from the 1990s crisis, the Bulgarian military became a part of the collective defensive system of NATO. As a member, Bulgaria sent a total of 485 soldiers to Iraq (2003–2008) as a participant in the Iraq War, and currently maintains a 608-strong force in Afghanistan as part of ISAF. Bulgaria had a significant missile arsenal, including 67 SCUD-B, 50 FROG-7 and 24 SS-23 ballistic missiles. In 2002, Bulgaria disbanded the Rocket Forces despite nationwide protests, and has disbanded its submarine component. Bulgaria is to have 27,000 standing troops by 2014, consisting of 14,310 troops in the land forces, 6,750 in the air force, 3,510 in the navy and 2,420 in the joint command.\n", "Structure of the Bulgarian Armed Forces\n\n=== Defence Staff ===\nThe Bulgarian Armed Forces are headquartered in Sofia, where most of the Defence staff is based. Until recently the supreme military institution was the General Staff and the most senior military officer was known as the Chief of the General Staff. After the latest military reform has been implemented the General Staff became a department within the Ministry of Defence and for that matter its name had to be changed to match the new situation. For that reason the former GS became the Defence Staff and the supreme military commander became the Chief of Defence. Currently headed by Chief of Defence general Simeon Simeonov, the Defence Staff is responsible for operational command of the Bulgarian Army and its 3 major branches. Deputies: Vice Admiral Petar Petrov, General Atanas Zaprianov, General Dimitar Zekhtinov.\n\n'''General rank positions in the Bulgarian Army:'''\n\nMinistry of Defence\n* Defense Staff\n Chief of Defence - General/ Admiral\n Deputy Chief of Defence - Lieutenant-General/ Vice-Admiral\n Deputy Chief of Defence - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Director, \"Operations and Readiness\" Directorate - Brigade General/ Commodore\n Director, \"Strategical Planning\" Directorate - Brigade General/ Commodore\n Director, \"Communication and Information Systems\" Directorate - Brigade General/ Commodore\n** Director, \"Logistics\" Directorate - Brigade General/ Commodore\n* Joint Forces Command\n Commander, Joint Forces Command – Lieutenant-General/ Vice-Admiral\n Deputy Commander, Joint Forces Command – Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n** Chief of Staff, Joint Forces Command – Brigade General/ Commodore \n* Land Forces\n Commander, Land Forces - Major-General\n Deputy Commander, Land Forces - Brigade General\n Chief of Staff, Land Forces – Brigade General\n* Commander, 2nd Mechanized Brigade – Brigade General\n*** Commander, 61st Mechanized Brigade – Brigade General\n* Air Forces\n Commander, Air Forces - Major-General\n Deputy Commander, Air Forces - Brigade General\n* Commander, 3rd Air Base – Brigade General\n* Commander, 24th Air Base – Brigade General\n* Navy\n Commander, Naval Forces - Rear-Admiral\n Deputy Commander, Naval Forces - Commodore\n*** Commander Naval Base - Commodore\n* Military Police Service, directly subordinated to the Minister of Defense\n** Director, Military Police Service - Brigade General/ Commodore \n* Military Intelligence Service, directly subordinated to the Minister of Defense\n** Director, Military Intelligence Service - civil servant, equal in rank to a Brigade General/ Commodore \n* Military education institutions, directly subordinated to the Minister of Defense\n Chief of the \"Georgy Stoykov Rakovski\" Military Academy - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Chief of the Military Medical Academy and the Armed Forces Medical Service - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n** Chief of the \"Vasil Levski\" National Military University - Brigade General\n* Other positions at the Ministry of Defense \n Military Advisor on Military Security Matters to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, the President of the Republic of Bulgaria - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Military Representative of the Chief of Defense at the NATO Military Committee and at the EU Military Committee - Lieutenant-General/ Vice-Admiral\n Director of the Cooperation and Regional Security Directorate at the NATO Military Committee - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Deputy Commander of the NATO Rapid Deployment Corps - Greece (Thessaloniki) - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n** National Military Representative at the NATO Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n\nIn addition to the afforementioned positions, there are general rank positions in the National Intelligence Service and the National Close Protection Service (the bodyguard service to high-ranking officials and visiting dignitaries). These two services are considered part of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria, but are directly subordinated to the President of Bulgaria and fall out of the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense.\n\n* National Intelligence Service\n Director, National Intelligence Service - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Deputy Director, National Intelligence Service - Brigade General/ Commodore\n* National Close Protection Service\n Director, National Close Protection Service - Major-General/ Rear-Admiral\n Deputy Director, National Close Protection Service - Brigade General/ Commodore\n\nWith the establishment of the State Agency for National Security - SANS (Bulgarian: Darzhavna Agentsiya za Natsionalna Sigurnost - DANS, Държавна агенция за национална сигурност - ДАНС) part of the military security personnel came under its authority. Before that the security aspects of the armed forces were handled by a unified organisation under the General Staff - the \"Military Service of Security and Military Police\". After the formation of SANS the service was split, with the military counter-intelligence personnel entering the newly formed structure and the military police personnel staying under Ministry of Defense subordination. While technically civilian servants not part of the armed forces, the military counter-intelligence personnel of the State Agency of National Security retain their military ranks.\n\n=== Ministry of Defence ===\n\n'''Ministry of Defence'''\nThe organisation of the Ministry of Defence includes:\n* General Administration\n* Specialised Administration\n* Inspectorate of the Ministry of Defence\n* Protocol Unit of the Ministry of Defence\n* Financial Control and Material Accountability Unit\n* Internal Audit Directorate of the Ministry of Defence\n* Information Security Directorate of the Ministry of Defence\n* Defence Staff\n\nStructures directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence include:\n* Military Information Service, Sofia (commanded by a Major-General/ Rear-Admiral)\n Director\n Directorate \n Information Division\n Analysis Division\n** Resources Supply Division\n* Military Police Service, Sofia (commanded by a Brigade General/ Commodore)\n Military Police Command\n Military Police Operational Company (MRAV Sand Cat)\n Regional Military Police Service Sofia\n Regional Military Police Service Plovdiv\n Regional Military Police Service Pleven\n Regional Military Police Service Varna\n Regional Military Police Service Sliven\n Military Police Service Logistics and Training Center, Sofia\n* Military Geographical Service\n MGS Headquarters \n Geographical Information Support Center \n Geodesic Observatory (GPS Observatory)\n Military Geographical Center \n Information Security Unit\n Financial Comptroller\n* Stationary Communications and Information System\n Communications and Information Center\n Government Communications Support Centre, \n Operational Centers\n Engineering and CIS recovery Centre\n** Stationary Communications Network\n* National Guards Unit, Sofia (commanded by a Colonel)\n Headquarters\n 1st Guards Battalion\n 2nd Mixed Guards Battalion\n National Guards Unit Representative Military Band\n Armed Forces Representative Dance Company\n Guardsmen Training Center\n** Logistics Support Company\n* Military Medical Academy, Sofia (commanded by a Major-General/ Rear-Admiral)\n Chief of the MMA, Chief of the MATH - Sofia and General Surgeon of the Bulgarian Armed Forces\n Deputy Chief for Diagnostics and Medical Treatment Activities\n Deputy Chief for Education and Scientific Activities\n Deputy Chief for Medical Support of Military Units and Overseas Military Missions\n Multiprofile Active Treatment Hospital - Sofia \n Multiprofile Active Treatment Hospital (informally known as the Naval Hospital)- Varna \n Multiprofile Active Treatment Hospital - Plovdiv \n Multiprofile Active Treatment Hospital - Sliven\n Multiprofile Active Treatment Hospital - Pleven\n Follow-up Long-term Treatment and Rehabilitation Hospital \"Saint George the Victorious\" - Pomorie \n Follow-up Long-term Treatment and Rehabilitation Hospital \"Caleroya\" - Hisar \n Follow-up Long-term Treatment and Rehabilitation Hospital - Bankya\n Military Medical Quick Reaction Force (expeditionary disaster and crisis relief unit)\n Psychological Health and Prevention Center\n Scientific and Application Center for Military Medical Expertise and Aviation and Seaborne Medicine \n Scientific and Application Center for Military Epidemiology and Hygiene\n* Military Academy \"Georgi Stoykov Rakovski\", Sofia (commanded by a Major-General/ Rear-Admiral)\n Command\n* Commandant of the Military Academy\n* Deputy Chief for Study and Scientific Activities\n* Deputy Chief for Administrative Activities and Logistics\n Administrative Units\n* Personnel and Administrative Support Department\n* Logistics Department\n* Study and Scientific Activities Department\n* Financial Department\n* Library and Publishing Activities Sector\n* Public Relations, International Activities and Protocol Sector\n Training Units\n* National Security and Defence College\n* Command Staff College\n* Peacekeeping Operations and Computer Simulations Sector\n* Foreign Languages Studies Department\n** Perspective Defence Research Institute\n* National Military University \"Vasil Levski\", Veliko Tarnovo (commanded by a Brigade General)\n Combined Arms Education Department, Veliko Tarnovo\n Artillery and Communication Systems Education Department, Shumen\n Aviation Education Department, Dolna Mitropoliya\n NCO School, Veliko Tarnovo\n** Foreign Languages and Computer Systems Education Department, Shumen\n* Higher Naval Officer School \"Nikola Yonkov Vaptsarov\", Varna (commanded by a Commodore)\n Chief of the Higher Naval Officer School\n Deputy Chief for Administration and Logistics\n Deputy Chief for Studies and Schience Activities \n Navigation Department\n Engineering Department\n Post-Graduate Qualification Department\n** Professional Petty Officers College\n* Defence Institute, Sofia\n The Defence Institute is the research and development administration of the MoD. It includes the:\n Administration and Financial Management Department\n Military Standardisation, Quality and Certification Department\n Armament, Equipment and Materials Development Department\n Armament, Equipment and Materials Testing and Control Department\n C4I Systems Development Department \n* Commandment Service of the Ministry of Defence, Sofia\n The Commandment Service is an institution in charge of real estate management, transportation, library services, documentation publishing and communications support for the central administration of the MoD, transportation support to the immediate MoD personnel, classified information, cryptographic and perimeter security for the MoD administration buildings.\n Director\n Deputy Director\n Chief Legal Advisor\n Financial Comptroler\n Administrative Department\n Financial Department\n Business Department\n Transportation Support Department\n Support Department\n CIS Support Department\n Technical Center for Armed Forces Information Security\n* Executive Agency for the Military Clubs and Recreational Activities, Sofia\n* National Museum of Military History, Sofia\n\n=== Defence Staff ===\nThe Defence Staff, formerly called the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army, is the supreme professional institution for military expertise and command and supervision of the armed forces under the Ministry of Defence umbrella. It includes:\n* Operations and Preparedness Directorate\n* Logistics Directorate\n* Strategical Planning Directorate\n* Communication and Information Systems Directorate\n* Office of the Cabinet of the Chief of Defence\n* Office for Joint Military Installations\n* Joint Forces Command\n Land Forces Command\n Air Forces Command\n** Naval Forces Command\n\n=== Joint Forces Command ===\nIn 2010 the Ministry of Defence completed a thorough study of the defence policy and issued a ''White Book'', or a ''White Paper on Defence'', calling for a major overhaul of the structure of Defence Forces. According to the document the military of the Republic of Bulgaria should include two mechanized brigades, four regiments (Logistics, Artillery, Engineering, SpecOps), four battalions (Reconnaissance, Mechanized, NBC, PsyOps) in the Land Forces; two air bases, SAM air defense base and Air force training base in the Air Force; and one naval base consisting of two homeports in the Navy. The brigade formations are 7, including the two mechanised brigades and the special forces brigade of the army, the two air bases of the air force, the naval base and the logistical brigade of the JOC. Currently deployed units are as follows:\n\n'''Joint Forces Command'''\n* Military Command Center\n* Center for Radiological, Chemical, Biological and Ecological Environment Monitoring and Control\n* Support Center of the JFC\n* Mobile Communication and Information System\n* Logistics Brigade\n Brigade Headquarters\n 1st Transport Battalion, Sofia\n 2nd Transport Battalion, Burgas\n Central Supply Base, Negushevo \n repair and maintenance bases\n depots, storage facilities and technical inspection units\n* Movement Control Headquarters\n* Center for Documentation Support of the JFC\n* Operational Archive of the Bulgarian Army\n* Joint Forces Training Range \"Novo Selo\"\n* National Military Study Complex \"Charalitsa\"\n\nThe three armed services of the Bulgarian Army - the Land, Air and Naval Forces are subordinated to the recently formed Joint Forces Command:\n* '''Land Forces Command'''\n* '''Naval Forces Command'''\n* '''Air Forces Command'''\nThe '''68th Special Forces Brigade''' left the Land Forces on February 1, 2017, de facto becoming the country's fourth combat service. Unlike Bulgaria's Land, Air and Naval Forces however it falls outside of the Joint Forces Command structure, having been assigned directly under the authority of the Chief of Defence.\n\n===Personnel and education===\nRakovski Defence and Staff College\n\nBulgaria's total military personnel as of 2014 is 37,100, of which 30,400 (80.1%) are active military personnel and 8,100 (11.9%) are civilian personnel. The Land Forces are the largest branch, with at least 18,000 men serving there. In terms of percentage, 53% of all Army personnel are in the Land Forces, 25% are in the Air Force, 13% are in the Navy and 9% are in the Joint Forces Command. Annual spending per soldier amounts to 30,000 leva (~ 15,000 euro) and is scheduled to increase to 43,600 leva by 2014.\n\nUnlike many former Soviet bloc militaries, discipline and morale problems are not common. During the Communist era, the army members enjoyed extensive social privileges. After the fall of Communism and Bulgaria's transition to a market economy, wages fell severely. For almost a decade social benefits were virtually non-existent, and some of them have been restored but recently. Nikolai Tsonev, defence minister under the 2005–2009 cabinet, undertook steps to provide the members of the military and their families with certain privileges in terms of healthcare and education, and to improve living conditions.\n\nMilitary education in Bulgaria is provided in military universities and academies. Due to cuts in spending and manpower some universities have been disbanded and their campuses were included as faculties of other, larger educational entities. The largest institutions of military education in Bulgaria are:\n* Vasil Levski National Military University\n* Rakovski Defence and Staff College\n* Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy\n* Military Medical Academy – a mixed military academy/hospital institution\n\n===Training===\nBulgarian trooper fires an M2 Browning .50 cal machine gun at the Novo Selo training range\nThe Land Forces practice extensive year-round military training in various conditions. Cooperative drills with the United States are very common, the last series of them conducted in 2008. Bulgaria's most recent full-scale exercise simulating a foreign invasion was carried out in 2009. It was conducted at the Koren range, and included some 1,700 personnel with tanks, ATGMs, attack aircraft, AA guns and armored vehicles. The combat skills of individual soldiers are on a very high level, on par with troops of the U.S. Army.\n\nUntil recent years the Air Force suffered somewhat from fuel shortages; a problem which was overcome in 2008. Fighter pilots have year-round flights, but gunship pilots do not fly often due to the yet unfulfilled modernization of the Mi-24 gunships. Due to financial difficulties fighter pilots have 60 hours of flying time per year, only a third of the national norm of 180 hours.\n\nThe Navy also has some fuel shortage problems, but military training is still effective. The most recent overseas operation of the Navy was along the coast of Libya as part of Operation Unified Protector.\n\n===Budget===\nAfter the collapse of the Warsaw pact, Bulgaria lost the ability to acquire cheap fuel and spares for its military. A large portion of its nearly 2,000 T-55 tanks fell into disrepair, and eventually almost all of them were scrapped or sold to other countries. In the early 1990s the budget was so small, that regulars only received token-value payments. Many educated and well-trained officers lost the opportunity to educate younger soldiers, as the necessary equipment and basis lacked adequate funding. Military spending increased gradually, especially in the last 10 years. As of 2005, the budget was no more than $400 mln., while military spending for 2009 amounted to more than $1.3 bln. – almost a triple increase for 4 years. Despite this growth, the military still does not receive sufficient funds for modernization. An example of bad spending plans is the large-scale purchasing of transport aircraft, while the Air Force has a severe need of new fighters (the MiG-29s, even though modernized, are nearing their operational limits). The planned procurement of 2–4 Gowind class corvettes has been cancelled. As of 2009, military spending were about 1.98% of GDP. In 2010 the budget is to be only 1.3% due to the international financial crisis.\n", "T-72 tanks advance towards the OPFOR on an exercise\n\n\nThe Land Forces are functionally divided into '''Deployable''' and '''Reserve Forces'''. Their main functions include deterrence, defence, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Bulgarian society. Active troops in the land forces number about 18,000 men, and reserve troops number about 13,000.\n\nThe equipment of the land forces is impressive in terms of numbers, but most of it is nonoperational and scheduled to be scrapped or refurbished and exported to other nations. Bulgaria has a military stockpile of about 5,000,000 small arms, models ranging from World War II-era MP 40 machine pistols to modern Steyr AUG, AK-74, HK MP5, HK416 and AR-M12F assault rifles.\n\n===National guard unit===\n\n\nThe National Guard of Bulgaria, founded in 1879, is the successor to the personal guards of Knyaz Alexander I. On 12 July of that year, the guards escorted the Bulgarian knyaz for the first time; today the official holiday of the National Guard is celebrated on 12 July. Throughout the years the structure of the guards has evolved, going from convoy to squadron, to regiment and, subsequent to 1942, to division. Today it includes military units for army salute and wind orchestra duties.\n\nIn 2001, the National Guard unit was designated an official military unit of the Bulgarian army and one of the symbols of state authority, along with the flag, the coat of arms and the national anthem. It is a formation, directly subordinate to the Minister of Defence and while legally part of the armed forces, it is totally independent from the Defence Staff.\n\n===Statistics and equipment===\n\n''Note'': This table represents active equipment only; there are large numbers of equipment in reserve status. They are not listed here. \n\n\n '''Statistics'''\n\n Personnel\n 36,112\n\n Main battle tanks \n '''531''' T-72M2\n\n Heavy armored vehicles (IFVs and APCs)\n '''674''' (BMP-23/A, BMP-1P; BTR-60PB-MD1, MT-LB, MT-LBu)\n\n Light armored vehicles \n '''776''' – M1117 (7), BRDM-2 (74), M1114 Humvees (52), Sand Cat (25), G-class (600)\n\n Artillery pieces over 100 mm (excl. mortar)\n '''500''' (BM-21, RM-70, 2S1, D-20)\n\n SAMs\n '''84''' – SA-10 Grumble (10), SA-5 Gammon (10), SA-6 Gainful (20), SA-8 Gecko (24), SA-13 Gopher (20)\n\n ATGM systems\n AT-3 Sagger, AT-4 Spigot, AT-5 Spandrel, AT-6 Spiral, AT-7 Saxhorn, BRDM-2 Konkurs (24 vehicles)\n\n MANPADS\n SA-7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin, SA-16 Gimlet, SA-18 Grouse\n\n SS-21 Scarab\n 8 TELs\n\n\n", "\nBulgarian Fregate Drazki\n\nThe Navy has traditionally been the smallest component of the Bulgarian military. Established almost simultaneously with the Ground forces in 1879, initially it consisted of a small fleet of boats on the Danube river. Bulgaria has a coastline of about 354 kilometers – thus, naval warfare is not considered a priority.\n\nAfter the downturn in 1990, the Navy was largely overlooked and received almost no funding. No projects for modernization were carried out until 2005, when a Wielingen class frigate (F912 Wandelaar) was acquired from Belgium. By 2009, Bulgaria acquired two more frigates of the same class. The first of them was renamed ''41 Drazki'' and took part in several operations and exercises, most notably the UNIFIL Maritime Patrol along the coast of Lebanon in 2006, and Operation Active Endeavour. It also participated in the enforcement the naval blockade against Muammar Gaddafi's regime off the coast of Libya in 2011 until 2012.\n\nThe equipment is typical for a small navy, consisting mostly of light multi-purpose vessels – 4 frigates, 3 corvettes, 5 minesweepers, 3 fast missile craft and 2 landing ships. Other equipment includes a coastal defence missile battalion armed with locally modified P-15 Termit missiles, a coastal artillery battery, a naval helicopter airbase and a marine special forces unit.\n\nThe Bulgarian Navy is centered in two main bases – in Varna and in Burgas.\n", "\nBAF MiG-29 at Graf Ignatievo Air Base\n\nIn the past decade Bulgaria has been trying actively to restructure its army as a whole and a lot of attention has been placed on keeping the aging Russian aircraft operational. Currently the attack and defence branches of the Bulgarian air force are mainly MiG-21s, MiG-29s and Su-25s. About 16 MiG-29 fighters have been modernized in order to meet NATO standards. The first aircraft arrived on 29 November 2007 and final delivery was due in 03/09. In 2006 the Bulgarian government signed a contract with Alenia Aeronautica for the delivery of five C-27J Spartan transport aircraft in order to replace the Soviet made An-24 and An-26, although the contract was later changed to only three aircraft. Modern EU-made transport helicopters were purchased in 2005 and a total of 12 Eurocopter Cougar have been delivered (8 transport and 4 CSAR).3 Eurocopter AS565 Panther for the Bulgarian navy in 2016.\n\nBranches of the airforce include: fighter aviation, assault aviation, intelligence aviation and transportation aviation, aid defence troops, radio-technical troops, communications troops, radio-technical support troops, logistics and medical troops.\n\nThe Bulgarian ministry of defense has announced plans to withdraw and replace the MiG-21 fighters with new ones. Several offers were received from international suppliers – the United States (offering F-16 Fighting Falcon and F-18 Super Hornet), Sweden JAS-39 Gripen), Germany (Eurofighter Typhoon), Italy (second-hand Eurofighter Typhoon), Russia (MiG-29) and Israel (IAI Kfir).\n\n===Aircraft inventory===\n\nWith the exception of the Navy's small helicopter fleet, the Air Forces are responsible for all military aircraft in Bulgaria. The Air Forces' inventory numbers 124 aircraft, including 46 combat jets and 42 helicopters. Aircraft of western origin have only begun to enter the fleet, numbering 13 of the total in service.\n", "\nA US Stryker IFV on a training range near Novo Selo\nThe Bulgarian-American Joint Military Facilities were established by a Defence Cooperation Agreement signed by the United States and Bulgaria in April 2006. Under the agreement, U.S. forces can conduct training at several bases in the country, which remain under Bulgarian command and under the Bulgarian flag. Under the agreement, no more than 2,500 U.S. military personnel can be located at the joint military facilities.\n\n''Foreign Policy'' magazine lists Bezmer Air Base as one of the six most important overseas facilities used by the USAF.\n", "Both during Communist rule and after, Bulgaria has deployed troops with different tasks in various countries. The table below lists Bulgarian military deployments in foreign countries. Active missions are shown in '''bold'''.\n\n\n\nCountry !! Operation !! Organization !! Timespan !! Personnel !! Casualties\n\n Libyan Arab Jamahiriya \n – \n People's Republic of Bulgaria \n ? \n a total of 9,000 military and non-military advisors \n –\n\n \n Nicaraguan Revolution \n People's Republic of Bulgaria \n 1980s \n unknown number of military instructors \n – \n\n Iraq \n Gulf War \n UN \n 1991 \n 270 \n –\n\n \n peacekeeping \n UNTAC \n 1992–1993 \n 850 troops34 military observers \n 11\n\n \n military observation \n UNOMA \n 1995–2000 \n48 military observers \n –\n\n \n military observation \n UNMOT \n 1995–2000 \n27 military observers \n – \n\n'''''' \n '''peacekeeping''' ('''EUFOR Althea''') \n '''SFOR / EUFOR''' \n '''1997–present''' \n '''140''' \n - \n\n \n demining \n OSCE \n 1999–2001 \n unknown \n –\n\n / \n peacekeeping \n UNMEE \n 2001–2004 \n 11 military observers \n –\n\n''' \n '''construction / peacekeeping''' \n '''UNMIK and KFOR''' \n '''2000–present''' \n'''10''' \n –\n\n \n humanitarian (construction of field kitchens and a hospital) \n – \n 1999–2003 \n ? \n –\n\n'''''' \n '''internal security / anti-terrorist''' \n '''ISAF''' \n '''2001–present''' \n '''383''' \n '''-''' \n\n'''''' \n '''peacekeeping''' \n '''UNMIL''' \n '''2003–present''' \n '''2''' \n '''-'''\n\n \n Iraq War \n Multi-National Force – Iraq \n 2003–2008 \n 485 \n 13\n\n'''''' \n '''peacekeeping''' \n '''European Union Monitoring Mission''' \n '''2008–present''' \n '''12''' \n '''-'''\n\n \n training mission \n NATO Training Mission – Iraq \n 2009–December 2011 \n - \n -\n\n \n Operation Unified Protector \n – \n 27 April 2011 – 3 June 2011 \n 160 military observers, including a group of 12 naval special commandos with the frigate Drazki\n –\n\n'''''' \n '''anti-piracy''' \n '''ATALANTA'''/'''Ocean Shield\n '''2012–present''' \n '''3''' \n –\n\n", "\n* Defense industry of Bulgaria\n* Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction\n* Medieval Bulgarian Army\n", "\n", "* \n* Бяла книга на Въоръжените сили (White Paper of the Armed Forces), Ministry of Defence of Bulgaria, 2011.\n* Wikisource:Great Battles of Bulgaria\n", "\n", " Ministry of Defence of Bulgaria\n* Equipment holdings in 1996\n* http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2007/10/07SOFIA1271.html – U.S. Embassy Sofia views via United States diplomatic cables leak on appropriate future equipment purchases, 2007\n* http://www.mediafire.com/download/heyrxhrnpqx06mz/Bulgarian_Military.docx and http://www.mediafire.com/download/ba571l7jiid2tf8/Bulgarian+Military.pdf - Download the word file and a pdf file for the Bulgarian Military's equipment list and specific details.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of the Bulgarian Army", "Organization", "Land Forces", "Navy", "Air Force", "Bulgarian-American cooperation", "Deployments", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Bulgarian Armed Forces
[ "\nMap Of Burkina Faso\nLocation of Burkina Faso\n\nTopography of Burkina Faso\n\nBurkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked Sahel country that shares borders with six nations. It lies between the Sahara desert and the Gulf of Guinea, south of the loop of the Niger River, mostly between latitudes 9° and 15°N (a small area is north of 15°), and longitudes 6°W and 3°E. The land is green in the south, with forests and fruit trees, and desert in the north. Most of central Burkina Faso lies on a savanna plateau, above sea level, with fields, brush, and scattered trees. Burkina Faso's game preserves—the most important of which are Arly, Nazinga, and W National Park—contain lions, elephants, hippopotamus, monkeys, common warthogs, and antelopes. Previously the endangered painted hunting dog, ''Lycaon pictus'' occurred in Burkina Faso, but, although the last sightings were made in Arli National Park, the species is considered extirpated from Burkina Faso. Tourism is not well developed.\n", "Burkina Faso has a total area of 274,200 km2, of which 273,800 km2 is land and 400 km2 water. Comparatively, it is slightly larger than New Zealand and Colorado. Its borders total 3,611 km: Benin 386 km, Ivory Coast 545 km, Ghana 602 km, Mali 1,325 km, Niger 622 km, and Togo 131 km. It has no coastline or maritime claims.\n\n=== Extreme points ===\nThis is a list of the extreme points of Burkina Faso, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.\n\n* Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Mali, Sahel Region\n* Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Benin immediately south of the Burkina Faso-Benin-Niger tripoint, Est Region\n* Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ivory Coast immediately south of the village of Kpuere, Sud-Ouest Region\n* Westernmost point - the tripoint with Mali and Ivory Coast, Cascades Region\n", "It is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain, which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a Precambrian massif. The southwest of the country, on the other hand, forms a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of . The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than . Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country. Its elevation extremes are a lowest point at the Mouhoun (Black Volta) River (200 m) and highest point at Tena Kourou (749 m).\n", "Provinces of Burkina Faso\nDepartments of Burkina Faso\nThe country is divided into 13 administrative regions. These regions encompass 45 provinces and 351 departments.\n", "The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: the Black Volta (or Mouhoun), the White Volta (Nakambé) and the Red Volta (Nazinon). The Black Volta is one of the country's only two rivers which flow year-round, the other being the Komoé, which flows to the southwest. The basin of the Niger River also drains 27% of the country's surface.\n\nThe Niger's tributaries – the Béli, the Gorouol, the Goudébo and the Dargol – are seasonal streams and flow for only four to six months a year. They still, however, can cause large floods. The country also contains numerous lakes – the principal ones are Tingrela, Bam and Dem. The country contains large ponds, as well, such as Oursi, Béli, Yomboli and Markoye. Water shortages are often a problem, especially in the north of the country.\n", "\nBurkina Faso map of Köppen climate classification.\nBurkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between 600 and 900 millimetres (23.6 and 35.4 in) of rainfall; in the dry season, the harmattan – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows. The rainy season lasts approximately four months, May/June to September, and is shorter in the north of the country. Three climatic zones can be defined: the Sahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and the Sudan-Guinea. The Sahel in the north typically receives less than 13 of rainfall per year and has high temperatures, .\n\nA relatively dry tropical savanna, the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the Horn of Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders the Sahara to its north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the South. Situated between 11°3' and 13°5' north latitude, the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 13 of rain each year and has cooler average temperatures.\n", "Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and small deposits of gold. 21.93% of its land is arable, and 0.26% has permanent crops as of 2012. As of 2003, 250 km2 were irrigated. Its total renewable water resources as of 2011 were 12.5 m3, with a total freshwater withdrawal of 0.72 km3/yr (46% domestic, 3% industrial, 51% agricultural; this amounts to a per-capita withdrawal of 54.99 m3/yr.\n\nBurkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in two national parks and several reserves: see List of national parks in Africa, Nature reserves of Burkina Faso.\n\nRecurring droughts and floods are a significant natural hazard. Current environmental issues include: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation.\n\nBurkina Faso is party to the following international environmental agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands. It has signed, but not ratified, the Law of the Sea and the Nuclear Test Ban.\n", "2010 Sahel famine\n:Category:Treaties of Burkina Faso\n", "\n\n", "* Soil Maps of Burkina Faso European Digital Archive on the Soil Maps of the world\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Area", "Terrain", "Administrative divisions", "Hydrography", "Climate", "Resources and environment", "See also", "Line note references", "External links" ]	Geography of Burkina Faso
[ "\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Burkina Faso, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n\nFAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\nBurkina Faso's million people belong to two major West African cultural groups—the Gur (Voltaic) and the Mandé. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the Mossi, who make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso and established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi are still bound by the traditions of the Mogho Naba, who hold court in Ouagadougou.\n\nAbout 12,000 Europeans reside in Burkina Faso, the majority of whom are French.\n\nMost of Burkina Faso's population is concentrated in the south and center of the country, with a population density sometimes exceeding . This population density, high for Africa, causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands of Burkinabé to Ivory Coast and Ghana for seasonal agricultural work. About a third of Burkinabé adhere to traditional African religions. The introduction of Islam to Burkina Faso was initially resisted by the Mossi rulers. Christians, predominantly Roman Catholics, are largely concentrated among the urban elite.\n\nFew Burkinabé have had formal education. Schooling is free but not compulsory, and only about 29% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. The University of Ouagadougou, founded in 1974, was the country's first institution of higher education. The Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso in Bobo-Dioulasso was opened in 1995.\nPeanut seller in Ouagadougou\n", "According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 284 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 45.3%, 52.4% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.2% was 65 years or older\n.\n\n\n\nTotal population (x 1000)\nPopulation aged 0–14 (%)\nPopulation aged 15–64 (%)\nPopulation aged 65+ (%)\n\n 1950\n4 284\n40.7\n57.3\n2.0\n\n 1955\n4 535\n40.9\n56.9\n2.2\n\n 1960\n4 882\n41.3\n56.4\n2.3\n\n 1965\n5 284\n41.9\n55.7\n2.4\n\n 1970\n5 807\n43.6\n53.9\n2.5\n\n 1975\n6 435\n44.9\n52.5\n2.6\n\n 1980\n7 212\n46.4\n50.9\n2.7\n\n 1985\n8 170\n47.4\n49.9\n2.7\n\n 1990\n9 324\n47.7\n49.7\n2.6\n\n 1995\n10 692\n47.2\n50.3\n2.5\n\n 2000\n12 294\n46.5\n51.2\n2.3\n\n 2005\n14 198\n45.9\n51.9\n2.2\n\n 2010\n16 469\n45.3\n52.4\n2.2\n\n", "Registration of vital events is in Burkina Faso not complete. The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.\n\n\n\nPeriod\nLive births per year\nDeaths per year\nNatural change per year\nCBR\nCDR\nNC\nTFR\nIMR\n\n 1950-1955 \n 208 000\n 138 000\n 70 000\n47.3\n31.3\n16.0\n6.10\n308\n\n 1955-1960 \n 225 000\n 135 000\n 90 000\n47.7\n28.6\n19.1\n6.24\n258\n\n 1960-1965 \n 243 000\n 134 000\n 109 000\n47.9\n26.4\n21.5\n6.35\n217\n\n 1965-1970 \n 269 000\n 135 000\n 134 000\n48.4\n24.3\n24.1\n6.56\n184\n\n 1970-1975 \n 294 000\n 135 000\n 160 000\n48.1\n22.0\n26.1\n6.70\n157\n\n 1975-1980 \n 335 000\n 136 000\n 199 000\n49.1\n20.0\n29.1\n7.02\n136\n\n 1980-1985 \n 373 000\n 138 000\n 235 000\n48.5\n18.0\n30.6\n7.06\n121\n\n 1985-1990 \n 417 000\n 149 000\n 268 000\n47.7\n17.1\n30.6\n6.94\n111\n\n 1990-1995 \n 469 000\n 165 000\n 304 000\n46.8\n16.5\n30.3\n6.71\n101\n\n 1995-2000 \n 527 000\n 179 000\n 348 000\n45.8\n15.6\n30.3\n6.40\n93\n\n 2000-2005 \n 594 000\n 189 000\n 406 000\n44.9\n14.2\n30.6\n6.14\n86\n\n 2005-2010 \n 672 000\n 193 000\n 479 000\n43.9\n12.6\n31.2\n5.95\n79\n\n CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)\n\n\n===Fertility and births===\nTotal Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):\n\n\n\n\n\n Year\n CBR (Total)\n TFR (Total)\n CBR (Urban)\n TFR (Urban)\n CBR (Rural)\n TFR (Rural)\n\n 1993\n 43.0\n 6.9 (6.0)\n 39.0\n 5.0 (3.9)\n 43.0\n 7.3 (6.5)\n\n 1998-99\n 45.1\n 6.8 (6.0)\n 32.6\n 4.1 (3.4)\n 47.0\n 7.3 (6.5)\n\n 2003\n 42.6\n 6.2 (5.4)\n 32.4\n 3.7 (3.2)\n 44.5\n 6.9 (6.0)\n\n 2010\n 41.2\n 6.0 (5.2)\n 33.3\n 3.9 (3.3)\n 43.3\n 6.7 (5.9)\n\n\n\nFertility data as of 2013 (DHS Program):\n\n\n\n Region\n Total fertility rate\n Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant\n Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49\n\n Centre \n 3.7 \n 6.8 \n 5.3\n\n Boucle du Mouhoun \n 6.8 \n 10.8 \n 7.1\n\n Cascades \n 6.0 \n 10.4 \n 7.0\n\n Centre-Est \n 6.3 \n 8.1 \n 6.6\n\n Centre-Nord \n 6.7 \n 10.7 \n 7.1\n\n Centre-Ouest \n 6.4 \n 10.4 \n 7.1\n\n Centre-Sud \n 5.6 \n 9.4 \n 6.8\n\n Est \n 7.5 \n 15.0 \n 7.9\n\n Hauts Bassins \n 5.2 \n 9.3 \n 5.9\n\n Nord \n 6.2 \n 10.3 \n 7.0\n\n Plateau Central \n 5.8 \n 9.4 \n 6.8\n\n Sahel \n 7.5 \n 12.9 \n 7.6\n\n Sud-ouest \n 6.4 \n 10.8 \n 7.1\n\n", "\nThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\n===Population===\n:15,746,232 (July 2009 est.)\n:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected\n\n===Age structure===\n:0-14 years: 46.8% (male 3,267,202/female 3,235,190)\n:15-64 years: 50.7% (male 3,513,559/female 3,538,623)\n:65 years and over: 2.5% (male 140,083/female 208,315) (2006 est.)\n\n===Median age===\n:Total: 16.8 years\n:Male: 16.6 years\n:Female: 17 years (2009 est.)\n\n===Population growth rate===\n:3.103% (2009 est.)\n\n===Sex ratio===\n:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female\n:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female\n:15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female\n:65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female\n:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2009 est.)\n\nA girl from Burkina Faso\n\n===Life expectancy at birth===\n:all 54 years\n:Male: 51.04 years\n:Female: 54.91 years (2009 est.)\n\n===HIV/AIDS===\n:Adult prevalence rate: 1.6% (2007 est.)\n:People living with HIV/AIDS: 130,000 (2007 est.)\n:Deaths: 9,200 (2007 est.)\n\n===Major infectious diseases===\n:Degree of risk: very high\n:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever\n:Vectorborne disease: malaria and yellow fever\n:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis\n:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis\n:Animal contact diseases: rabies (2009)\n\n===Nationality===\n:Noun: Burkinabé (singular and plural)\n:Adjective: Burkinabé\n\n===Ethnic groups===\nBobo men in Bobo-Dioulasso\n:Mossi 52.5%, Fulani 8.4%, Gurma 6.8%, Bobo 4.8%, Gurunsi 4.5%, Senufo 4.4%, Bissa 3.9%, Lobi 2.5%, Dagara 2.4%, Tuareg /Ikelan 1.9%, Dioula 0.8%, Unspecified /No answer 0.1%, Other 7% (2010 est.)\n\n===Religions===\n\n:Islam 61.6%, Roman Catholic 23.2%, Traditional/Animist 7.3%, Protestant 6.7%, Other/No Answer 0.2%, None 0.9% (2010 est.)\n\n===Languages===\n\n:French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population \n\n===Literacy===\n:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write\n:Total population: 21.8%\n:Male: 29.4%\n:Female: 15.2% (2003 est.)\n\n===Education expenditure===\n:4.2% of GDP (2006)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Population", "Vital statistics", " CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ", "References" ]	Demographics of Burkina Faso
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Politics of Burkina Faso''' takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Burkina Faso is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. The President of Burkina Faso is the head of state. Executive power is exercised by both the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system was dominated by the Congress for Democracy and Progress until the 2014 Burkinabé uprising. Since then, the Congress for Democracy and Progress has lost influence. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n", "President Blaise Compaoré ruled Burkina Faso from a coup d'état in 1987 to his resignation in 2014.\nIn 1990, the Popular Front held its first National Congress, which formed a committee to draft a national constitution. The constitution was approved by referendum in 1991. In 1992, Blaise Compaoré was elected president, running unopposed after the opposition boycotted the election because of Compaoré's refusal to accede to demands of the opposition such as a sovereign National Conference to set modalities. The opposition did participate in the following year's legislative elections, in which the ODP/MT won a majority of the seats contested for.\n\nThe government of the Fourth Republic includes a strong presidency, a prime minister, a Council of Ministers presided over by the president, a National Assembly, and the judiciary. The legislature and judiciary are independent but remain susceptible to outside influence.\n\nIn 1995, Burkina held its first multiparty municipal elections since independence. The president's ODP/MT won over 1,100 of some 1,700 councillor seats being contested.\n\nIn February 1996, the ruling ODP/MT merged with several small opposition parties to form the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP). This effectively co-opted much of what little viable opposition to Compaoré existed. The remaining opposition parties regrouped in preparation for 1997 legislative elections and the 1998 presidential election. The 1997 legislative elections, which international observers pronounced to be substantially free, fair, and transparent, resulted in a large CDP majority—101 to 111 seats.\n", "\n===Executive branch===\n\nPresident\nRoch Marc Christian Kaboré\nPeople's Movement for Progress\n29 December 2015\n\nPrime Minister\nPaul Kaba Thieba\nPeople's Movement for Progress\n13 January 2016\n\n\nThe president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and may serve up to two terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature.\nThe constitution of June 2, 1991, established a semi-presidential government with a parliament (Assemblée) which can be dissolved by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of 5 years. The year 2000 saw a constitutional amendment reducing the presidential term from 7 to 5 years, which was enforced during the 2005 elections. Another change according to the amendment would have prevented sitting president Blaise Compaoré from being re-elected. However, notwithstanding a challenge by other presidential candidates, in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that because Compaoré was already a sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office, thereby clearing the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election. On November 13 Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a divided political opposition. In 2010, Compaoré was once again re-elected, and the term limit requirement was held to not apply to him. A proposed constitutional amendment in 2014 would have permitted him to run again, but public resistance led to the 2014 Burkinabé uprising, and Compaoré resigned on 31 October 2014. A transitional government headed by President Michel Kafondo and Prime Minister Isaac Zida took power for a one-year mandate. Elections were to have been held in October, 2015, but members of the Regiment of Presidential Security launched a coup on 16 September 2015, detaining President Kafando and Prime Minister Zida. RSP commander Gilbert Diendéré named himself the head of the new military junta, but popular resistance, backed by army and gendarmerie forces not aligned with the RSP, forced his resignation and the restoration of the transitional government a week later.\n\n===Legislative branch===\n\nAccording to the constitution, the Parliament votes on the law, consents to taxation, and controls the actions of the government under provisions of the constitution. The Parliament, made up of the National Assembly and Senate, meets each year in two ordinary sessions, each of which may not exceed ninety days. The first session opens on the first Wednesday of March and the second the last Wednesday of September. If either of these days lands on a holiday, the session opens the next first working day. Each chamber of Parliament meets in extraordinary session on request of the President, demand of the Prime Minister, or of an absolute majority of half of the Deputies or Senators on a specific agenda and closes at the completion of said agenda.\n\n\nThe National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 111 members, named Deputies, and are elected for a five-year term by proportional representation.\n\nThe Senate, as described in the Constitution of Burkina Faso, would consist of representatives from local government divisions, customary and religious authorities, workers, employers, Burkinabes abroad and people appointed by the President of Burkina Faso and serve a term of six years. The constitution requires that anyone elected or appointed must be 45 years old by the day of the ballot.\n\nIn May 2013, then President Compaoré announced the establishment of a new Senate with 89 members, 29 of which would be selected by the president themselves, and the rest appointed by local officials. With Senate elections being held in July 2013, government opposition groups warned against a legislative body with a majority of handpicked sympathizers by the president. Compaoré was successful in appointing 1/3rd of the Senate, prompting protesters rallying in the streets of Bobo-Dioulasso and the capital Ouagadougou to protest the establishment of the Senate, which has since been postponed.\n\nThe Presidents of both the Senate and National Assembly are elected for the duration of the legislator by an absolute majority of half the chamber in the first round of voting, or a simple majority in the second round. Their functions can be terminated during the course of a legislature at the demand of two-fifths and a vote of absolute majority of the members of the Assembly. In the case of vacancy of the presidency of either chamber of Parliament by death,resignation, or other reason, said chamber elects a new President by the same method. Each chamber has financial autonomy, with the President of said chamber managing the credits allocated to them for the functioning of chamber, but with a vote of absolute majority the chamber can dismiss the President for incompetence in managing finances.\n\n\nExcept in the case of In flagrante delicto, any member of Parliament can only be prosecuted or arrested in a penal or criminal matter with the authorization of at least one-third members of the chamber which they reside.\n\n", "\n", "Burkinabé General Confederation of Labor (CGTB); Burkinabé Movement for Human Rights (HBDHP); Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabé Workers (CNTB); National Organization of Free Unions (ONSL); watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities\n", "Burkina Faso is divided into 13 regions and 45 provinces:\n\nRegions:\n* Boucle du Mouhoun, Cascades, Centre, Centre-Est, Centre-Nord, Centre-Ouest, Centre-Sud, Est, Hauts-Bassins, Nord, Plateau-Central, Sahel, Sud-Ouest\n\nProvinces: \n*Balé, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoé, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komondjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koulpelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Nahouri, Nayala, Noumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Séno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondoma, Zoundweogo\n", "ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ITUC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO\n", "The ambassador of Burkina Faso to Canada is Juliette Bonkoungou.\n\nThe ambassador of Burkina Faso to Mexico is Jonathan Hodgson\n\nThe former ambassador of Burkina Faso to the United States was Tertius Zongo, he left his post when appointed Prime Minister in July 2007; the US Ambassador to Burkina Faso is Tulinabo Mushingi.\n\n\n", "\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Political history", "Government", "Political parties and elections", "Political pressure groups", "Administrative divisions", "International organization participation", "International relationships", "References" ]	Politics of Burkina Faso
[ "'''Telecommunications in Burkina Faso''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.\n\nRadio is the country's most popular communications medium. Use of telecommunications in Burkina Faso are extremely low, limited due to the low penetration of electricity, even in major cities. There were just 141,400 fixed line phones in use in 2012, in a country with a population of 17.4 million. Use of mobile phones has skyrocketed from 1.0 million lines in 2006 to 10 million in 2012. Internet use is also low, with only 3.7 users per 100 inhabitants in 2012, just over 643,000 users total. The Internet penetration rate in Africa as a whole was 16 users per 100 inhabitants in 2013.\n", "\nThe constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.\n\nAll media are under the administrative and technical supervision of the Ministry of Communications, which is responsible for developing and implementing government policy on information and communication. The Superior Council of Communication (SCC), a semiautonomous body under the Office of the President, monitors the content of radio and television programs, newspapers, and Internet Web sites to ensure compliance with professional ethics standards and government policy. The SCC may summon journalists and issue warnings for subsequent violations. Hearings may concern alleged libel, disturbing the peace, inciting violence, or violations of state security.\n\nJournalists occasionally face criminal libel prosecutions and other forms of harassment and intimidation. In addition to the prohibition against insulting the head of state, the law also prohibits the publication of shocking images and lack of respect for the deceased. Although the government does not attempt to impede criticism, some journalists practice self-censorship.\n\nThe Burkinabé government, in its telecommunications development strategy, has stated its aim to make telecommunications a universal service accessible to all. A large portion of this strategy is the privatization of the National Telecommunications Office (ONATEL), with an additional focus on a rural telephony promotion project. In 2006 the government sold a 51 percent stake in the national telephone company, ONATEL, and ultimately planned to retain only a 23 percent stake in the company.\n", "\n* Radio stations: 2 AM, 26 FM, and 3 shortwave stations; state-owned radio runs a national and regional network; substantial number of privately owned radio stations; transmissions of several international broadcasters available in Ouagadougou (2007).\n* Television stations: 1 state-owned and 1 privately owned (2007).\n\nRadio is the country's most popular communications medium. Dozens of private and community radio stations and a handful of private TV channels operate alongside their state-run counterparts. The BBC World Service, Voice of America, and Radio France Internationale are all on the air in the capital, Ouagadougou.\n", "\n* Calling code: +226 \n* International call prefix: 00\n* Main lines: \n 141,400 lines in use (2012);\n 94,800 lines in use, 144th in the world (2006).\n* Mobile cellular: \n 10.0 million lines, 79th in the world (2012);\n 1.0 million lines, 123rd in the world (2006).\n* Telephone system: system includes microwave radio relay, open-wire, and radiotelephone communication stations; fixed-line connections stand at less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular usage, fostered by multiple providers, is increasing rapidly from a low base (2011).\n* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).\n* Communications cables: Burkina Faso is linked to the global submarine cable network and the international Internet backbone through Senegal's Sonatel fibre-optic transmission network.\n\nUse of mobile phones has skyrocketed in the last decade, growing from 2,700 subscribers in 1998, to 1.0 million in 2006, to 10.0 million in 2012. Competition was introduced to the mobile telephone segment in 2000 between operators Celtel (now Bharti Airtel), Télécel Faso (now Moov), and Telmob (ONATEL). This pushed rates down even as density and coverage area increased. Mobile phone users utilize \"flashing\" which allows extremely low-cost operations and Burkina Faso's ancient oral tradition and talking drum culture have harmonized well the introduction of mobile phone technologies. Additionally, mobile phone owners have acquired status by being able to loan their phones to others in their communities.\n\nONATEL, majority-owned by Maroc Telecom, operates the country’s fixed-line network, a CDMA2000 wireless network, a fibre optic backbone, and a GSM mobile network, Telmob.\n", "\n* Top-level domain: .bf\n* Internet users: \n 643,504 users, 127th in the world; 3.7% of the population, 194th in the world (2012);\n 178,100 users, 144th in the world (2009);\n** 80,000, 146th in the world (2006).\n* Fixed broadband: 14,166 subscriptions, 139th in the world; 0.1% of population, 169th in the world (2012).\n* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).\n* Internet hosts:\n 1,795, 164th in the world (2012); \n 193 hosts, 178th in the world (2007).\n* IPv4: 32,512 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 1.9 addresses per 1000 people (2012).\n* Internet Service Providers: 1 ISP (1999).\n\nInternet use is low, but the sector began to improve following installation of a 22 Mbit/s fiber optic international link, a vast improvement over the previous 128 kbit/s link. Secondary access nodes began to appear in major cities, and cybercafés were providing Internet access to a broader spectrum of end users.\n\nONATEL’s FasoNet is the country’s leading wired Internet service provider, dominating the broadband market with its ADSL and EV-DO fixed-wireless offerings.\n\nThe mobile operators are offering data services using GPRS and EDGE technology, and third generation (3G) mobile broadband technology was not introduced until 2013 by Bharti Airtel.\n\nA March 2013 ITU ''Study on international Internet connectivity in sub-Saharan Africa'' reports that the Burkina Faso \"Internet market is not sufficiently dynamic and competitive\" and that the high costs for Internet capable mobile phones (more than six times the cost of a basic mobile phone) and mobile Internet subscriptions (up to seven times the cost for basic mobile) limit the number of Internet users.\n\n===Internet censorship and surveillance===\n\nThere are no government restrictions on access to the Internet; however, the Superior Council of Communication (SCC) monitors Internet Web sites and discussion forums to ensure compliance with existing regulations. For example, in May 2012 the SCC issued a warning to a Web site on which a user had allegedly insulted President Compaore in an Internet forum.\n\nThe constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. The law prohibits persons from insulting the head of state or using derogatory language with respect to the office; however, individuals criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal.\n\nThe constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. In cases of national security, however, the law permits surveillance, searches, and monitoring of telephones and private correspondence without a warrant.\n", "\n* Radio Télévision du Burkina, national broadcaster of Burkina Faso.\n* Telephone numbers in Burkina Faso\n* Maroc Telecom, a 51% owner of ONATEL since December 2006.\n* List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa\n* Media in Burkina Faso\n* Economy of Burkina Faso\n* Burkina Faso\n", "\n* \n* \n\n", "* ''Autorité de régulation des communications électroniques'' (ARCE, Regulatory authority for electronic communications) , registrar for the .bf domain.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Regulation and control", "Radio and television", "Telephones", "Internet", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Telecommunications in Burkina Faso
[ "\nThe branches of '''Burkina Faso's military''' include its Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, and People's Militia. Being a landlocked country, Burkina Faso has no navy.\n\nIn 1966 a military coup deposed the first president of Upper Volta, Maurice Yaméogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lieutenant Colonel Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for 4 years; on June 14, 1970, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a 4-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. After conflict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977, and Lamizana was reelected by open elections in 1978.\n\nLamizana's government faced problems with the country's traditionally powerful trade unions and on November 25, 1980, Colonel Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution.\n\nColonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later on November 7, 1982, by Major Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP). The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution.\n\nFactional infighting developed between moderates in the CSP and radicals led by Captain Thomas Sankara, who was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The internal political struggle and Sankara's leftist rhetoric led to his arrest and subsequent efforts to bring about his release, directed by Captain Blaise Compaoré. This release effort resulted in yet another military coup d'état on August 4, 1983. Compaoré came to power in a 1987 coup that led to the death of Sankara.\n\nOn February 15, 2011, soldiers mutinied in Ouagadougou over unpaid housing allowances. On April 18, 2011, it was reported that the mutiny had spread to Kaya after demonstrations in Pô and Tenkodogo. On April 29, 2011, the army said the mutiny would end after Compaoré promised to improve the military's housing, clothing and food allowances, though there were later protests by soldiers.\n\nAfter a coup by members of the Regiment of Presidential Security on September 16, 2015, Army units marched on Ouagadougou to oppose the coup, resulting in the restoration of Burkina Faso's transitional government (which was appointed after the 2014 Burkinabe uprising) on September 23, 2015.\n", "Soldiers from Burkina Faso before deployment to an exercise in Mali (2010)\nThe Army of Burkina Faso (''L'Armée de Terre'' – Ground Forces or LAT) is a skeletonized force structure of some 5,800–6,000 officers and men, augmented by a conscript force or ''People's Militia'' of some 45,000 men and women. Unlike the police and security forces, the Army and the People's Militia are organized along Soviet/Chinese models and precepts. The Army is equipped with light wheeled armored cars, some mounting cannon.\n\nThe IISS estimated in 2011–12 that Burkina Faso had 6,400 personnel in the ''Armee de Terre'' in three military regions, one tank battalion (two tank platoons), five infantry regiments that may be under-strength, and an airborne regiment. Artillery and engineer battalions are also listed.\n\nIn recent years, the United States has begun providing military assistance and training to Burkina Faso's ground forces. It has trained three 750-man battalions for peace support operations in Darfur. During a recent UN inspection, a U.S. Department of Defense evaluation team found Burkina's ''Laafi'' battalion fit to deploy to Sudan. Using a small Department of Defense International Military Education and Training (IMET) budget, the U.S. Embassy has established English-language courses at an LAT military base, and has brought LAT officers to attend officer basic training courses in the U.S. The government of Burkina Faso has also accepted additional U.S. training assistance in counter-terrorism tactics and humanitarian assistance. Burkina Faso has recently become a member of the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP).\n\n===Equipment===\n\n====Trucks====\nACMAT\n\n====Armoured vehicles====\nA soldier from Burkina Faso on exercise in Senegal\n\nEE-9 Cascavel (24 ordered in 1983–1984)\nM8 Greyhound (10 M-8 + 4 M-20, delivered in 1961)\nFerret armoured car (30)\nPanhard AML (13 AML-90 + 2 AML-60 delivered in 1975)\nPanhard M3 (13)\nEland-90 (4)\nGila APCs (6, intended for police use; paid for by the Canadian government)\n\n====Artillery systems====\nAPRA-40 – 122mm MRL (5)\nType 63 multiple rocket launcher – 107mm MRL (4)\nM101 howitzer – 105mm Howitzer (8)\n\n====Anti-aircraft warfare====\nStrela 3 10\nStrela 2 20\n\n====Small arms====\nAK-47 \nSIG SG 540 \nHeckler & Koch G3\nFN MAG\nM2 Browning\nWalther PP\nRPG 7 \n", "Current roundel used by the airforce of Burkina Faso\nThe Air Force was founded in 1964 as the ''Escadrille de la République de Haute-Volta'' (EHV) or the Republic of Upper Volta Air Squadron, a subordinate unit of the Army. That year, a transient air support base was created with the assistance of the French Air Force. After acquiring an initial fleet of utility and transport aircraft, the squadron was attached to an inter-army support regiment. In 1970, the ''Escadrille'' was renamed the ''Force Aérienne de Haute-Volta'', or FAHV, and in 1977 became an autonomous force. In October 1985, the ''Force Aérienne de Burkina Faso'', or FABF, was officially inaugurated.\n\nThe EHV was initially formed with two Douglas C-47 Skytrain and three MH.1521M Broussard aircraft. These were later followed by two Alouette III SA.316 B helicopters, used mostly for liaison purposes, one twin-engined Aero Commander 500 light utility aircraft, two Hawker-Siddeley HS.748-2A twin turboprop transport aircraft, and two Nord 262 twin turboprop transport aircraft. Two ''escadrilles'' (squadrons) or sub-formations were created: the ''Escadrille de Transport'' (Transport Unit), and the ''Escadrille d'Hélicoptères'' (Helicopter Unit). Later, the ''Escadrille d'Entraînement'' (Training Unit) was added. All squadrons were initially based at Ouagadougou.\n\nIn mid-1984, Libyan military aid brought eight Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 jet fighters, along with two MiG-21U combat trainer versions. These ex-Libyan Air Force MiG-21 'Fishbed' fighters were based in Ouagadougou, although they were actually operated by the Libyan Air Force on loan by Libya, and were removed in 1985 without seeing combat. A single MiG-17F Fresco that was also operated by the FABF did see combat service in the Agacher Strip War in 1985–86.\nIn 1985, the FABF also acquired two ex-Soviet Mi-4 transport helicopters from an unknown supplier, followed by an additional two Mi-4s. The Mi-4s were operated by the FABF until the late 1980s, when they were taken out of service. Five Mi-8/17 transport helicopters were later added to the ''Escadrille d'Hélicoptères''. While supervising the ceasefire after the Agacher Strip War, an FABF SA.316B Alouette III crashed at Kouni on 14 January 1986, leaving only one SA.316B still in service with the ''Escadrille d'Hélicoptères''.\n\nIn 1986, the FABF formed a new unit, the ''Escadrille de Chasse'' (EdC) (Attack Unit). In mid-1986 six ex-Philippine Air Force SF.260WP Warrior armed trainers/light strike aircraft were acquired from a dealer in Belgium, which offered the FABF a much simpler and less expensive alternative in tactical air support to the expensive MiGs. The Warriors were not only used for pilot training, but also as light strike aircraft, and a number of them were employed by the FABF's ''Escadrille de Chasse'' (EdC). Four additional SF.260WPs were subsequently bought directly from Italy. The six ex-Philippine SF.260WP aircraft were taken out of service in 1993 and returned to their previous owner, although the four newly built SF.260WP aircraft were retained in service, and stationed at Bobo Dioulasso air base.\n\nMost of the other light aircraft acquired by the FABF in the 1970s and 1980s have also now been retired along with the Mi-4 helicopters, but some recent acquisitions have been made, including a Beechcraft ''King Air'', a Piper PA-34 ''Seneca'', a CEAPR ''Robin'' light training aircraft, and a single Air Tractor ''AT-802'' aerial sprayer aircraft for spraying insecticides, purchased after the northern part of the country suffered heavy crop damage from a 2004 invasion of swarming locusts. In 2009, two Xenon Gyroplane autogyros were purchased for use by police and security forces.\n\nIn late 2005, the FABF acquired two Mil Mi-35 'Hind' attack helicopters from Russia in apparent response by moves by neighbouring Ivory Coast to bolster its own air attack capabilities during the Ivorian Civil War.\n\n===Aircraft===\n==== Current inventory ====\n\nAircraft\nOrigin\nType\nVariant\nIn service\nNotes\n\n Combat Aircraft\n\n Embraer EMB-314\n Brazil\n light attack \n\n 3\n\n\n Transport\n\n CASA/IPTN CN-235\n Spain / Indonesia\n transport\n\n 1\n\n\n HS 748\n United Kingdom\n utility transport\n\n 1\n\n\n Super King Air\n United States\n utility transport\n King Air 200\n 1\n\n\n Air Tractor AT-802\n United States\n utility \n\n 2\n\n\n Helicopters\n\n Bell UH-1H\n United States \n utility\n\n 2\ndonated by the government of Taiwan\n\n Eurocopter AS350\n France\n utility \n\n1\n\n\n Mil Mi-17\n Russia\n utility\n\n 3\n\n\n Mil Mi-24\n Russia\n attack\nMi-35\n 2\n\n\n Trainer Aircraft\n\n SF.260\n Italy\n trainer \n\n4\n \n\n", "\n\n", "''World aircraft information files Brightstar publishing London File 338 sheet 4\n", "\nAlan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye, 'Security Sector Governance in Francophone West Africa: Realities and Opportunities,' DCAF/Lit Verlag, 2011.\n*Cooper, Tom & Weinert, Peter (2010). African MiGs: Volume I: Angola to Ivory Coast. Harpia Publishing LLC. .\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Ground forces", "Air Force", "Notes", "References", "Further reading" ]	Military of Burkina Faso
[ "\n\nBurkina Faso has good relations with the European Union, African and Asian countries. France, the former colonial power, in particular, continues to provide significant aid and supports Compaoré's developing role as a regional powerbroker. Burkina maintains diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (usually referred to as \"Taiwan\") instead of the People's Republic of China.\n\nAccording to the U.S. State Department, \"U.S. relations with Burkina Faso are good but subject to strains in the past because of the Compaoré government's past involvement in arms trading and other sanctions-breaking activity.\" \n\nBurkina Faso's relations with its West African neighbors have improved in recent years. Relations with Ghana, in particular, have warmed with a change in government in that country. President Compaoré has mediated a political crisis in Togo and helped to resolve the Tuareg conflict in Niger. Burkina maintains cordial relations with Libya. A territorial dispute with Mali was mediated by Ghana and Nigeria, which has led to lessening of tensions between the two nations.\n\nNineteen provinces of Burkina Faso are joined with contiguous areas of Mali and Niger under the Liptako-Gourma Authority, a regional economic organization.\n\nBurkina Faso is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a bilateral immunity agreement of protection for the United States-military (as covered under Article 98).\n", "\n===Australia===\n\n\n===Armenia===\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1992.\n\n===Benin===\n\nIn September 2007, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) intervened to attempt to resolve the dispute over two villages along the Benin–Burkina Faso border that remain from a 2005 ICJ decision.\n\n===Ivory Coast===\n\nWhen Thomas Sankara came to power in 1983 relations between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast became hostile as Félix Houphouët-Boigny was threatened by Sankara's revolutionary regime. That was one of the main reasons why Blaise Compaore launched his coup in 1987 killing Sankara and making himself president. Under Blaise Compaore Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso reestablished good relations and both countries supported Charles Taylor's NPFL in their overthrow of Samuel Doe. They remain allies and are active trading partners. \n\n===Denmark===\n\n\n===Ghana===\n\n\nWith the coming to power of Thomas Sankara in Burkina Faso in 1983, relations between Ghana and Burkina became both warm and close. Indeed, Rawlings and Sankara began discussions about uniting Ghana and Burkina in the manner of the defunct Ghana-Guinea-Mali Union, which Nkrumah had sought unsuccessfully to promote as a foundation for his dream of unified continental government. Political and economic ties between Ghana and Burkina, a poorer country, were strengthened through joint commissions of cooperation and through border demarcation committee meetings. Frequent high-level consultations and joint military exercises, meant to discourage potential dissidents and to protect young \"revolutions\" in each country, were fairly regular features of Ghana-Burkina relations.\n\n===Kosovo===\nBurkina Faso recognised the Republic of Kosovo on April 24, 2008. Burkina Faso and Kosovo established diplomatic relations on December 6, 2012.\n\n===Libya===\n\n\n===North Korea===\n\n\n===Republic of India===\nIndia and Burkina Faso enjoy warm relations.\n\n===Russia===\n\n\nDiplomatic relations between Burkina Faso and the Soviet Union were established for the first time on February 18, 1967. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, Burkina Faso recognized Russia as the USSR's successor. However financial reasons has shut the embassies between the two nations. In 1992, the embassy of the Russian Federation in Ouagadougou was closed, and in 1996, the embassy of Burkina Faso in Moscow was closed.\n\n===South Korea===\n\n\nEstablishment of diplomatic relations was on April 20, 1962, with visits in 1981 by Special Envoy of the President Roh Tae-woo, in 1983 by Park Chan-geung and in 1984 by Kang Kyung-shik.\n\n===Soviet Union===\n\n\n===Sweden===\n\n\nSweden is a major contributor of developmental aid to Burkina Faso. The Burkina Faso–Sweden Friendship Association was formed in 1986 to promote exchange between the two countries.\n\n===Taiwan===\n\n\n===United States===\n\n\nRelations are good but subject to strains in the past because of the Compaoré government's past involvement in arms trading and other sanctions-breaking activity. In addition to regional peace and stability, U.S. interests in Burkina are to promote continued democratization and greater respect for human rights and to encourage sustainable economic development. Although the Agency for International Development (USAID) closed its office in Ouagadougou in 1995, about $18 million annually of USAID funding goes to Burkina's development through non-governmental and regional organizations. The largest is a Food for Peace school lunch program administered by Catholic Relief Services. Burkina has been the site of several development success stories. U.S. leadership in building food security in the Sahel after the 1968–74 drought has been successful in virtually eliminating famine, despite recurrent drought years. River blindness has been eliminated from the region. In both cases, the U.S. was the main donor to inter-African organizations headquartered in Ouagadougou which through sustained efforts have achieved and consolidated these gains. In 2005, Burkina Faso and the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) signed a $12 million Threshold Country Program to build schools and increase girls' enrollment rates. In November 2005, the Millennium Challenge Corporation selected Burkina Faso as eligible to submit a proposal for Millennium Challenge Account assistance for fiscal year 2006, making it one of only two countries eligible for threshold as well as compact funding. The Government of Burkina Faso is working closely with MCC staff to finalize its compact submission.\n", "* List of diplomatic missions in Burkina Faso\n* List of diplomatic missions of Burkina Faso\n", "\n\n* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Burkina Faso\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Bilateral relations", "See also", "References" ]	Foreign relations of Burkina Faso
[ "\n\n\nTopography of Burundi\n'''Burundi''' is located in central Africa, to the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, at the co-ordinates .\n", "Burundi occupies an area equal to in size, of which is land. The country has of land border: of which is shared with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with Rwanda and with Tanzania. As a landlocked country, Burundi possesses no coastline. It straddles the crest of the Congo-Nile Divide which separates the basins of the Congo and Nile rivers. The farthest headwaters of the Nile, the Ruvyironza River, has its source in Burundi.\n\n===Climate===\nBurundi in general has a tropical highland climate, with a considerable daily temperature range in many areas. Temperature also varies considerably from one region to another, chiefly as a result of differences in altitude. The central plateau enjoys pleasantly cool weather, with an average temperature of . The area around Lake Tanganyika is warmer, averaging ; the highest mountain areas are cooler, averaging . Bujumbura’s average annual temperature is . Rain is irregular, falling most heavily in the northwest. Dry seasons vary in length, and there are sometimes long periods of drought. However, four seasons can be distinguished: the long dry season (June–August), the short wet season (September–November), the short dry season (December–January), and the long wet season (February–May). Most of Burundi receives between of rainfall a year. The Ruzizi Plain and the northeast receive between \n\n===Terrain===\nThe terrain of Burundi is hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in the east. The southern and eastern plains have been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands ecoregion.\n\nThe lowest point in the country is at Lake Tanganyika, at , with the highest point being on Mount Heha, at . Natural hazards are posed in Burundi by flooding and landslides.\n\n===Natural resources===\nBurundi possesses reserves of: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, niobium, tantalum, gold, tin, tungsten, kaolin, and limestone. There is also arable land and the potential for hydropower. Burundi has of land that is irrigated. The table below describes land use in Burundi.\n\n\n+Land use\n\n Use !! Percentage of Area\n\n arable land\n 42.83\n\n permanent crops\n 13.63\n\n other\n 43.54\n\n\n", "===Current issues===\nSoil erosion is an issue for Burundi, and is as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands. Other issues include: deforestation, due to the uncontrolled cutting-down of trees for fuel; and habitat loss threatens wildlife populations.\n\n===International agreements===\nBurundi is a party to the following international agreements that relate to the environment: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes and Ozone Layer Protection. The following have been signed but not yet ratified by Burundi: Law of the Sea and Nuclear Test Ban.\n", "\nThis is a list of the extreme points of Burundi, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.\n\n* Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Rwanda immediately south of the Rwandna town of Mbuye, Muyinga Province\n* Easternmost point - unnamed location on the border with Tanzania immediately northwest of Mburi hill, Cankuzo Province\n* Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Tanzania immediately north of the Tanzanian town of Mwenene, Makamba Province\n* Westernmost point - unnamed location on the border the Democratic Republic of the Congo immediately east of the Congolese town of Kamanyola, Cibitoke Province\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Physical geography", "Environment", " Extreme points ", "References" ]	Geography of Burundi
[ "\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Burundi, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n\nFAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\nAt 206.1 persons per km²., Burundi has the second-largest population density in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most people live on farms near areas of fertile volcanic soil. The population is made up of three major ethnic groups – Hutu (''Bahutu''), Tutsi (''Batutsi'' or ''Watusi''), and Twa (''Batwa''). Kirundi is the common language. Intermarriage takes place frequently between the Hutus and Tutsis. The terms \"pastoralist\" and \"agriculturist\", often used as ethnic designations for Watusi and Bahutu, respectively, are only occupational titles which vary among individuals and groups. Although Hutus encompass the majority of the population, historically Tutsis have been politically and economically dominant.\n", "According to , the total population was in , compared to only 2 456 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2015 was 44.8%, 52.7% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was older than 65 years old\n.\nPopulation pyramid\n\n\n\nTotal population (x 1000)\nPopulation aged 0–14 (%)\nPopulation aged 15–64 (%)\nPopulation aged 65+ (%)\n\n 1950\n2 456\n40.9\n55.9\n3.2\n\n 1955\n2 687\n42.8\n54.1\n3.1\n\n 1960\n2 940\n44.0\n53.0\n3.0\n\n 1965\n3 213\n45.0\n51.9\n3.1\n\n 1970\n3 513\n44.6\n52.2\n3.3\n\n 1975\n3 680\n45.5\n51.1\n3.4\n\n 1980\n4 130\n44.7\n51.8\n3.5\n\n 1985\n4 851\n43.7\n52.9\n3.3\n\n 1990\n5 602\n44.6\n52.3\n3.2\n\n 1995\n6 087\n46.0\n51.0\n3.0\n\n 2000\n6 374\n46.2\n50.9\n2.9\n\n 2005\n7 251\n41.8\n55.4\n2.9\n\n 2010\n8 383\n37.9\n59.3\n2.9\n\n2015\n11 179\n44.8\n52.7\n2.5\n\n", "Numbers are in thousands. UN medium variant projections \n2010 8,382\n2015 9,230\n2020 10,057\n2025 10,791\n2030 11,441\n2035 12,052\n2040 12,651\n2045 13,215\n2050 13,703\n", "Registration of vital events is in Burundi not complete. The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.\n\n\n\nPeriod\nLive births per year\nDeaths per year\nNatural change per year\nCBR\nCDR\nNC\nTFR\nIMR\n\n 1950-1955 \n 125 000\n 65 000\n 60 000\n48.4\n25.1\n23.4\n6.80\n167\n\n 1955-1960 \n 131 000\n 66 000\n 65 000\n46.6\n23.6\n23.0\n6.80\n157\n\n 1960-1965 \n 139 000\n 68 000\n 71 000\n45.3\n22.0\n23.2\n6.80\n149\n\n 1965-1970 \n 149 000\n 69 000\n 80 000\n44.5\n20.6\n23.8\n6.80\n140\n\n 1970-1975 \n 158 000\n 73 000\n 85 000\n44.0\n20.2\n23.8\n6.80\n137\n\n 1975-1980 \n 174 000\n 73 000\n 101 000\n44.7\n18.8\n25.9\n6.80\n127\n\n 1980-1985 \n 204 000\n 79 000\n 125 000\n45.3\n17.6\n27.8\n6.50\n118\n\n 1985-1990 \n 242 000\n 91 000\n 151 000\n46.3\n17.5\n28.9\n6.50\n116\n\n 1990-1995 \n 261 000\n 114 000\n 147 000\n44.7\n19.5\n25.2\n6.45\n126\n\n 1995-2000 \n 249 000\n 112 000\n 138 000\n40.0\n17.9\n22.1\n6.08\n117\n\n 2000-2005 \n 245 000\n 110 000\n 135 000\n36.0\n16.1\n19.9\n5.41\n107\n\n 2005-2010 \n 268 000\n 116 000\n 152 000\n34.3\n14.8\n19.5\n4.66\n101\n\n * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)\n\n\n===Fertility and births===\nTotal Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):\n\n\n\n Year\n CBR (Total)\n TFR (Total)\n CBR (Urban)\n TFR (Urban)\n CBR (Rural)\n TFR (Rural)\n\n 1987\n \n 6.6\n \n 5.2\n \n 6.6\n\n 2010\n 44.5\n 6.4 (4.2)\n 37.3\n 4.8 (3.4)\n 45.3\n 6.6 (4.3)\n\n 2016-17\n 37.9\n 5.5\n 33.0\n 4.1\n 38.5\n 5.7\n\n\n\nFertility data as of 2010 (DHS Program):\n\n\n\n Region\n Total fertility rate\n Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant\n Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49\n\n Bujumbura Mairie \n 4.2 \n 7.9 \n 5.3\n\n Nord \n 6.7 \n 10.1 \n 6.4\n\n Centre-Est \n 6.3 \n 10.5 \n 6.6\n\n Ouest \n 7.1 \n 11.7 \n 7.2\n\n Sud \n 6.2 \n 10.8 \n 6.8\n\n", "\nThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\n===Population===\n:10,742,276\n:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2015 est.)\n\n===Median age===\n:total: 17 years\n:male: 16.8 years\n:female: 17.2 years (2015 est.)\n\n===Population growth rate===\n:3.28% (2015 est.)\n\n===Net migration rate===\n:4.04 immigrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)\n\n===Urbanization===\n:Urban population: 12.1% of total population (2015 est.)\n:Rate of urbanization: 5.66% annual rate of change (2010- 15 est.)\n\n===Sex ratio===\n:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female\n:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female\n:15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female\n:65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female\n:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2015 est.)\n\n===Life expectancy at birth===\n:Total population: 52.09 years\n:Male: 51.2 years\n:Female: 53.01 years (2009 est.)\n\n===HIV/AIDS===\n:Adult prevalence rate: 2% (2007 est.)\n:People living with HIV/AIDS: 110,000 (2007 est.)\n:Deaths: 11,000 (2007 est.)\n\n===Major infectious diseases===\n:Degree of risk: very high\n:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever\n:Vectorborne disease: malaria\n:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis\n:Animal contact disease: rabies (2009)\n\n===Nationality===\n:Noun: Burundian(s)\n:Adjective: Burundian\n\n===Ethnic groups===\n\n:Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000 \n\n===Religions===\n\n:Roman Catholic 62.1%, Protestant 23.9% (includes Adventist 2.3% and other Protestant 21.6%), Islam 2.5%, Other 3.6%, Unspecified 7.9% (2008 est.)\n\n===Languages===\n\n:Kirundi 29.7% (official), Kirundi and other language 9.1%, French (official) and French and other language 0.3%, Swahili and Swahili and other language 0.2% (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area), English and English and other language 0.06%, more than 2 languages 3.7%, unspecified 56.9% (2008 est.) \n\n===Literacy===\n:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write\n:Total population: 59.3%\n:Male: 67.3%\n:Female: 52.2% (2003 est.)\n\n===Education expenditure===\n:8.3% of GDP (2009)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Population", "UN population projections", "Vital statistics", " CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ", "References" ]	Demographics of Burundi
[ "\n\n'''Politics of Burundi''' takes place in a framework of a transitional presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Burundi is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Senate and the National Assembly.\n", "The political landscape of Burundi has been dominated in recent years by the civil war and a long peace process and move to democracy. The current President of Burundi is Pierre Nkurunziza, a former rebel leader of the Hutu National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy who was elected unopposed as the new President of Burundi by the parliament on 19 August 2005. Nkurunziza was the first president chosen through democratic means since the start of the civil war in 1993 and was sworn in on 26 August, replacing transitional president Domitien Ndayizeye.\n\nIn November 1995, the presidents of Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire (currently Democratic Republic of Congo) announced a regional initiative for a negotiated peace in Burundi facilitated by former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. In July 1996, former Burundian President Buyoya returned to power in a bloodless coup. He declared himself president of a transitional republic, even as he suspended the National Assembly, banned opposition groups, and imposed a nationwide curfew. Widespread condemnation of the coup ensued, and regional countries imposed economic sanctions pending a return to a constitutional government. Buyoya agreed in 1996 to liberalize political parties. Nonetheless, fighting between the army and Hutu militias continued. In June 1998, Buyoya promulgated a transitional constitution and announced a partnership between the government and the opposition-led National Assembly. After facilitator Julius Nyerere's death in October 1999, the regional leaders appointed Nelson Mandela as Facilitator of the Arusha peace process. Under Mandela the peace process has revived and important progress has taken place.\n\nIn April 2015 the 2015 Burundian unrest broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term in office. Protests in the capital lasted over a week, and while President Nkurunziza was in Tanzania for talks at resolving the situation, Major General Godefroid Niyombare declared a coup, leading to gun battles in the capital for control of key locations.\n", "\nPresident\nPierre Nkurunziza\nCNDD-FDD\n26 August 2005\n\nVice-presidents\nThérence Sinunguruza\nUPRONA\n29 August 2010\n\nGervais Rufyikiri\n\n29 August 2010 \n\nThe president is elected by the people. He nominates two vice-presidents, who form together with the Council of Ministers the executive branch.\n", "The '''National Assembly''' (''Assemblée nationale'') has 118 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation with a 2% barrier. The '''Senate''' (''Sénat'') has 49 members, elected for a five-year term by electoral colleges of communal councilors. Extra seats in both chambers can be added to ensure that ethnic and gender quotas are met. Burundi has a multi-party system, with two or three strong parties and a third party that is electorally successful. Parties are usually based on ethnic background.\n", "\n", "Burundi has 17 provinces: Bubanza, Bujumbura Mairie, Bujumbura Rural, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Mwaro, Ngozi, Rutana and Ruyigi.\n", "Burundi is member of ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, PMAESA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO.\n", "* Global Integrity Report: Burundi reports on Burundi's anti-corruption efforts.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Political landscape after the civil war", "Executive branch", "Legislative branch", "Political parties and elections", "Administrative divisions", "International relations", "External links" ]	Politics of Burundi
[ "'''Communications in Burundi''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, the Internet, and the postal service in Burundi.\n", "\n\nRadio is the main source of information for many Burundians.\n\n* Radio stations:\n La Radiodiffusion et Television Nationale de Burundi (RTNB), the state-controlled broadcaster operates the only national radio network, broadcasting in Kirundi, Swahili, French, and English; roughly 10 privately owned radio stations are operating; transmissions of several international broadcasters are available in the capital, Bujumbura (2007).\n No AM radio stations, four FM stations, and one shortwave station (2001). \n** Two AM stations, two FM stations, and no shortwave stations (1998).\n* Radios: 440,000 radios in use (1997).\n* Television stations:\n La Radiodiffusion et Television Nationale de Burundi (RTNB), the state-controlled national network, broadcasting in Kirundi, Swahili, French, and English (2013); and \n Tele Renaissance, a private station launched in 2008 (2013).\n* Television sets: 25,000 sets in use (1997).\n\nThe BBC World Service broadcasts on 90.2 FM in the capital, Bujumbura, and on 105.6 in Mount Manga; Radio France Internationale and the Voice of America are also available in the capital.\n", "\n\n* Calling code: +257\n* International call prefix: 00\n* Telephone system:\n In 2011, system described as sparse open-wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relays; telephone density one of the lowest in the world; fixed-line connections stand at well less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular usage is increasing but remains at roughly 20 per 100 persons; \n In 2010, system described as “primitive” with “one of the lowest” telephone densities in the world and “increasing … but meager” use of cell phones; the number of fixed-line telephone connections was far fewer than one per every 100 persons; roughly five cell phones in use per 100 persons; the domestic telephone system consists of open-wire, radiotelephone communications, along with low capacity microwave radio relay.\n* Main lines:\n 17,400 lines in use, 193rd in the world (2012);\n 30,400 lines in use, 178th in the world (2008), a decrease from 2006; \n 35,000 lines in use (2006);\n 27,000 lines in use (2005);\n** 17,000 lines in use (1995).\n* Mobile cellular lines:\n 2.2 million lines, 140th in the world (2012);\n 480,600 lines, 156th in the world (2008), a large increase, almost doubling the figure from 2006;\n 250,000 lines (2006); \n 153,000 lines (2005); \n** 343 lines (1995).\n* Satellite earth stations: one station, operated by Intelsat in the Indian Ocean region (2008).\n", "\n* Internet top-level domain: .bi \n* Internet users:\n 128,799 users, 167th in the world; 1.2% of the population, 208th in the world (2012);\n 65,000 users, 167th in the world (2008);\n** 60,000 users (2006).\n* Fixed broadband: 422 subscriptions, 189th in the world; less than 0.05% of THE population, 191st in the world (2012).\n* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).\n* Internet hosts:\n 229 hosts. 198th in the world (2012);\n 191 hosts, 189th in the world (2009);\n** 162 hosts (2008).\n* IPv4: 5,376 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).\n\n===Internet censorship and surveillance===\n\nThere are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Operating in a turbulent political climate, Burundi's media are subject to occasional government censorship and may practice self-censorship.\n\nThe constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. The law prohibits the media from spreading \"hate\" messages or from using abusive or defamatory language against public servants acting in their official role that could damage the dignity of or respect for the public office. Libel laws prohibit the public distribution of information that exposes a person to \"public contempt\" and carry penalties of prison terms and fines. The crime of treason, which includes knowingly demoralizing the military or the nation in a manner that endangers national defense during a time of war, carries a criminal penalty of life imprisonment. It is a crime for anyone knowingly to disseminate or publicize false rumors likely to alarm or excite the public against the government or to promote civil war. It is illegal for anyone to display drawings, posters, photographs, or other items that may disturb the public peace. Penalties range from two months' to three years' imprisonment and fines. Some journalists, lawyers, and political party, civil society, and NGO leaders allege the government uses these laws to intimidate and harass them.\n\nThe constitution and law provide for the right to privacy, but the government does not always respect this right in practice. Authorities do not always respect the law requiring search warrants.\n", "\n\n''Régie Nationale des Postes'' (RNP, National Postal Administration) is responsible for postal service in Burundi. Operating as an independent state-owned company since 1992, the RNP has reported to the Ministry of Commerce, Industry, Posts and Tourism since 2010.\n", "\n* Burundi National Radio and Television (RTNB), the national broadcaster of Burundi.\n* Media of Burundi\n* Economy of Burundi\n", "\n* \n* \n\n", "* NIC.bi, registry for the .bi domain.\n* Radio Télévision Nationale du Burundi (RTNB), the national broadcaster of Burundi.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Radio and television", "Telephones", "Internet", "Postal Service", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Communications in Burundi
[ "There are a number of systems of '''transport in Burundi''', including road and water-based infrastructure, the latter of which makes use of Lake Tanganyika. Furthermore, there are also some airports in Burundi.\n\nA great hindrance to Burundi’s economic development is lack of adequate transportation. The country has limited ferry services on Lake Tanganyika, few road connections to neighboring countries, no rail connections, and only one airport with a paved runway. Public transport is extremely limited and private bus companies operate buses on the route to Kigali but not to Tanzania or the Democratic Republic of Congo.\n", "Roads total as of 2004, and only about 7 percent of them are paved and remain open in all weather; the rest are classed as local roads or tracks. In 2003, there were 24,000 passenger cars and 23,500 commercial vehicles. On paper there are 90 public buses in the country but few of these are operational. Transport is extremely limited and private bus companies operate buses on the route to Kigali but not to Tanzania or the Democratic Republic of Congo.\n", "Lake Tanganyika is used for transport, with the major port on the lake being Bujumbura. Most freight is transported down waterways.\n\nAs of May 2015, MV Mwongozo, a passenger and cargo ferry, connects Bujumbura with Kigoma in Tanzania.\n", "Burundi possesses eight airports, of which one has paved runways, whose length exceeds 3,047m. Bujumbura International Airport is the country’s primary airport any the country's only airport with a paved runway. There are also a number of helicopter landing strips.\n\nAs of May 2015 the airlines serving Burundi are: Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, flydubai, Kenya Airways and RwandAir. Kigali is the city with the most daily departures.\n", "Burundi does not possess any railway infrastructure, although there are proposals to connect Burundi to its neighbours via railway.\n\nAt a meeting in August 2006 with members of the Rwanda Patriotic Front, Wu Guanzheng, of the Communist Party of China, confirmed the intention of the People's Republic of China to fund a study into the feasibility of constructing a railway connecting at Isaka with the existing Tanzanian railway network, and running via Kigali in Rwanda through to Burundi. Tanzanian railways use , although TAZARA and other neighbouring countries, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) use the gauge, leading to some potential difficulties.\n\nAnother project was launched in the same year, which aims to link Burundi and Rwanda (which also has no railways) to the DRC and Zambia, and therefore to the rest of Southern Africa. At a meeting to inaugurate the Northern Corridor Transit Coordination Authority (NCTCA), the governments of Uganda and Burundi backed the proposed new railway from the Ugandan western railhead at Kasese into the DRC.\n\nAdditionally, Burundi has been added to a planned railway project to connect Tanzania and Rwanda.\n\n=== 2013 ===\nA project started in November 2013 to build a Standard Gauge line from Mombassa, Kenya, to Burundi, via Rwanda and Uganda. The main line from Mombasa will also feature branches in other directions, including Ethiopia and DR Congo.\n", "* East African Railway Master Plan\n", "* UN Map of Burundi\n* Map of railways in southern Africa\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Roads ", " Waterways ", " Airports and air services ", " Railways ", " See also ", " External links ", " References " ]	Transport in Burundi
[ "\nThe '''National Defence Force''' is the state military organisation responsible for the defence of Burundi.\nA general staff (''État-Major Général'') commands the armed forces, consisting of a joint staff (''État-Major inter-armes''); a training staff (''État-Major de la Formation''), and a logistics staff (''État-Major de la Logistique''). Naval and aviation \ncommands exist, as well as specialised units.\n\nBurundi gained independence in July 1962. In October 1965, an attempted coup d'état led by the Hutu-dominated police was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a predecessor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide. Micombero then became Prime Minister.\n\nKing Mwambutsa, who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son, Prince Ntare V, claimed the throne. Later that same year, Prime Minister, then-Captain, Michel Micombero, carried out another coup in November, 1966, this time deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic. His one-party government was effectively a military dictatorship. As president, Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism. After Micombero's coup d’etat which deposed the monarchy, he became first general in Burundian history. He was also commissioned by the National Council of the Revolution (French: Conseil National de la Révolution (CNR)), and made a Lieutenant Général. In his turn, Micombero raised Thomas Ndabemeye to the grade of Major General. They were the sole generals of the First Republic.\n\nIn 1981-82 the IISS estimated that the Burundian armed forces were 6,000 strong, with 2 infantry battalions, 1 airborne battalion, 1 commando battalion, and an armoured car company. The same estimate was repeated in the 1988-89 edition except that the strength figure had been dropped to 5,500.\n\nThe Burundian Civil War lasted from 1993 to 2005, and an estimated 300,000 people were killed. The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi ended 12 years of war and stopped decades of ethnic killings. The 2005 constitution provided guaranteed representation for both Hutu and Tutsi, and 2005 parliamentary elections that led to Pierre Nkurunziza, from the Hutu FDD, becoming President.\n\nAccording to a 2004 report by Child Soldiers International, Burundi's military used conscripted child soldiers. Children in military service were subject to military courts which fell short of international law standards.\n\nThe armed forces have deployed significant numbers of troops to the African Union Mission in Somalia since c. 2007. On February 1, 2007 Burundi committed to the mission, pledging up to 1,000 troops. By March 27, it was confirmed that 1700 Burundian troops would be sent to Somalia. In 2011 the IISS estimated that three Burundian battalions were deployed there. The army's forces in 2011 included, according to IISS estimates, 2 light armoured battalions (squadrons), seven infantry battalions and independent companies; and artillery, engineer, and air defence battalions (SA-7 'Grail' man-portable SAMs and 14.5mm, 23mm and 37mm guns were reported). Separately reported were the 22nd commando battalion (Gitega) and 124th commando battalion Bujumbura).\n\nIn the wake of the Burundian unrest, personnel faced a choice between supporting President Pierre Nkurunziza, with whom some fought when he was a military commander, or opposing him. Interviewed by Reuters on May 14, 2015, an Africa analyst at Verisk Maplecroft said moves by Major General Godefroid Niyombare, former director of the intelligence service, \"starkly highlighted Nkurunziza’s lack of unified support among his military chiefs,\" he said. \"Even if Niyombare’s attempt fails, Nkurunziza’s political credibility may be damaged irreparably.\"\n\nIn the aftermath of the coup and the later disputed election, armed forces chief of staff Major General Prime Niyongabo survived an assassination attempt on September 11, 2015.\n", "Burundi troops of the Central African Multinational Force in the Central African Republic.\nMortar man with 1st Sapper Company, Burundi National Defense Force\n\n===Anti-tank weapons===\n\n\n Model !! Origin !! Type\n\n RL-83 Blindicide \n Belgium \n Rocket launcher\n\n M20 Super Bazooka \n United States \n Rocket launcher\n\n MILAN (reported) \n France/Germany \n Anti-tank Guided Missile\n\n RPG 7 \n Soviet Union \n Rocket launcher\n\n\n===Vehicles===\n\n\n Model !! Type !! Origin !! Count\n\n Panhard M3 \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n France \n 9\n\n GAZ BTR-80 \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n Russia \n 10\n\n Panhard AML-90 \n Armored Car \n France \n 12\n\n Panhard AML-60 \n Armored Car \n France \n 6\n\n BRDM-2 \n Reconnaissance Vehicle \n Soviet Union \n 30\n\n BTR-40 \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n Soviet Union \n 20\n\n Shorland S-52 \n Armored Car \n United Kingdom \n 7\n\n Walid \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n Egypt \n 6\n\n RG-31 \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n South Africa \n 12\n\n RG-31 Nyala \n Armored Personnel Carrier \n South Africa \n 31\n\n\n===Artillery===\n12 BM-21 Grad 122mm Multiple Launch Rocket Systems\n18 D-30 122mm towed-howitzer\n15 M-37\\43 82mm medium-mortar\nApprox. 75 Brandt 120mm heavy mortar\n\n===Anti-aircraft weapons===\n30 SA-7B Grail MANPADS Launchers\\303 missiles \n15 ZPU 14.5mm AAG \nOver 150 ZU-23\\2 23mm twin-gun AAG \nM-1939\\Type-55 37mm AAG\n\n===Aircraft inventory===\nThe Burundi Army's air unit operates 11 aircraft, including one combat aircraft and six helicopters, of which two are non-operational as of 2012. \n\nAircraft\nType\nVersions\nIn service\nNotes\n\n Aérospatiale SA 342 Gazelle\n utility helicopter\n SA 342L\n 2 \n\n\n Mil Mi-8 Hip\n utility helicopter\n Mi-8\n 2 \n Both non-operational as of 2012 \n\n Cessna 150\n liaison\n\n 2 \n\n\n Douglas DC-3\n Transport\n\n 2 \n\n\n Mil Mi-24 Hind Hind-E\n attack helicopter\n\n 2 \n\n\n SIAI-Marchetti SF 260\n trainer\n SF-260P\n 1 \n\n\n", "\n", "\nhttp://issat.dcaf.ch/content/download/62427/1033023/file/Burundi%20lesson%20learned%20report_Final%20ENGLISH1.pdf - Burundi DEfence Review Lessons Learned\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Equipment", "Notes", "References" ]	Military of Burundi
[ "\n\n\nLocation of the Bosphorus (red) relative to the Dardanelles (yellow) and the Sea of Marmara.\nISS in April 2004. The body of water at the top is the Black Sea, the one at the bottom is the Marmara Sea, and the Bosphorus is the winding waterway that connects the two. The western banks of the Bosphorus constitute the geographic starting point of the European continent, while the banks to the east are the geographic beginnings of the continent of Asia. The city of Istanbul is visible along both banks.\nAerial view of the Bosphorus taken from its northern end near the Black Sea (bottom), looking south (top) toward the Marmara, with the city center of Istanbul visible along the strait's hilly banks.\nA view of the Bosphorus strait, with the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge seen in the background.\nA cruise ship (left) and Seabus (right) navigating through the Bosphorus, with the Dolmabahçe Palace seen at the right end of the frame.\nSkyline of Levent as seen from the Khedive Palace gardens on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus. Istanbul Sapphire is the first skyscraper at right.\nThe '''Bosphorus''' ( or ) or '''Bosporus''' (; , ''Bósporos''; , ) is a narrow, natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in northwestern Turkey. It forms part of the continental boundary between Europe and Asia, and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. The world's narrowest strait used for international navigation, the Bosphorus connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara, and, by extension via the Dardanelles, the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas.\n\nMost of the shores of the strait are heavily settled, straddled by the city of Istanbul's metropolitan population of 17 million inhabitants extending inland from both coasts.\n\nTogether with the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus forms the Turkish Straits.\n", "The original name of the channel comes from an Anglicisation of the Ancient Greek (''Bosporos''), which was folk-etymologised as , i.e. \"cattle strait\" (or \"Ox-ford\"), from the genitive of ''bous'' \"ox, cattle\" + ''poros'' \"passage\", thus meaning \"cattle-passage\", or \"cow passage\". This is in reference to the mythological story of Io, who was transformed into a cow, and was subsequently condemned to wander the Earth until she crossed the Bosphorus, where she met the Titan Prometheus, who comforted her with the information that she would be restored to human form by Zeus and become the ancestress of the greatest of all heroes, Heracles (Hercules).\n\nThis folk etymology was canonized by Aeschylus in ''Prometheus Bound'' (v. 734f.), where Prometheus prophesies to Io that the strait would be named after her.\nThe site where Io supposedly went ashore was near Chrysopolis (present-day Üsküdar), and was named ''Bous'' \"the Cow\". The same site was also known as ''Damalis'', as it was where the Athenian general Chares had erected a monument to his wife Damalis, which included a colossal statue of a cow (the name ''Damalis'' translating to \"calf\").\n\nThe spelling with ''-ph-'', as ''Bosphorus'', has no justification in the ancient Greek name, but it occurs as a variant in medieval Latin (as ''Bosphorus'', and occasionally ''Bosforus, Bosferus''), and in medieval Greek sometimes as Βόσφορος,\ngiving rise to the French form ''Bosphore'', Spanish ''Bósforo'' and Russian Босфор.\nThe 12th century Greek scholar John Tzetzes calls it '' Damaliten Bosporon'' (after ''Damalis''), but he also reports that in popular usage the strait was known as ''Prosphorion'' during his day, the name of the most ancient northern harbour of Constantinople.\n\nHistorically, the Bosphorus was also known as the \"Strait of Constantinople\", or the Thracian Bosphorus, in order to distinguish it from the Cimmerian Bosporus in Crimea. These are expressed in Herodotus' ''Histories'', 4.83; as ''Bosporus Thracius, Bosporus Thraciae '', and , respectively. Other names by which the strait is referenced by Herodotus include Chalcedonian Bosporus (''Bosporus Chalcedoniae'', , Herodotus 4.87), or Mysian Bosporus (''Bosporus Mysius'').\n\nThe term eventually came to be used as common noun βόσπορος, meaning \"a strait\", and was also formerly applied to the Hellespont in Classical Greek by Aeschylus and Sophocles.\n\nPresently, the waterway is officially referred to as simply \"Bosphorus\" (), the \"Strait of Istanbul\", or \"Istanbul Strait\" ().\n", "As a maritime waterway, the Bosphorus connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas via the Dardanelles. Thus, the Bosphorus allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia.\n\nA common mistake made by those who are unfamiliar with the locale is to assume the Bosphorus is a river, when it is, in fact, a narrow sea channel.\n\n=== Formation ===\n\n\nThe exact scientific cause and date of the formation of the Bosphorus remain the subject of debate among geologists. One recent theory, dubbed The Black Sea deluge theory, which was launched by a study of the same name in 1997 by two scientists from Columbia University, postulates that the Bosphorus was formed around 5600 BC when the rising waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara breached through to the Black Sea, which at the time, according to the theory, was a low-lying body of fresh water.\n\nMany geologists, however, claim that the strait is much older, even if relatively young on a geologic timescale.\n\nFrom the perspective of ancient Greek mythology, it was said that colossal floating rocks known as the Symplegades, or Clashing Rocks, once occupied the hilltops on both sides of the Bosphorus, and destroyed any ship that attempted passage of the channel by rolling down the strait's hills and violently crushing all vessels between them. The Symplegades were defeated when the lyrical hero Jason obtained successful passage, whereupon the rocks became fixed, and Greek access to the Black Sea was opened.\n\n=== Present morphology ===\n\nThe limits of the Bosphorus are defined as the connecting line between the lighthouses of Rumeli Feneri and Anadolu Feneri in the north, and between the Ahırkapı Feneri and the Kadıköy İnciburnu Feneri in the south. Between these limits, the strait is long, with a width of at the northern entrance and at the southern entrance. Its maximum width is between Umuryeri and Büyükdere Limanı, and minimum width between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan.\n\nThe depth of the Bosphorus varies from in midstream with an average of . The deepest location is between Kandilli and Bebek with . The most shallow locations are off Kadıköy İnciburnu on the northward route with and off Aşiyan Point on the southward route with .\n\nThe Golden Horn is an estuary off the main strait that historically acted as a moat to protect Old Istanbul from attack, as well as providing a sheltered anchorage for the imperial navies of various empires until the 19th century, after which it became a historic neighborhood at the heart of the city, popular with tourists and locals alike.\n\n=== Newer explorations ===\n\nIt had been known since before the 20th century that the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara flow into each other in a geographic example of \"density flow\", and in August 2010, a continuous 'underwater channel' of suspension composition was discovered to flow along the floor of the Bosphorus, which would be the sixth largest river on Earth if it were to be on land. The study of the water and wind erosion of the straits relates to that of its formation. Sections of the shore have been reinforced with concrete or rubble and sections of the strait prone to deposition are periodically dredged.\n\nThe 2010 team of scientists, led by the University of Leeds, used a robotic \"yellow submarine\" to observe detailed flows within an \"undersea river\", scientifically referred to as a submarine channel, for the first time. Submarine channels are similar to land rivers, but they are formed by density currents—underwater flow mixtures of sand, mud and water that are denser than sea water and so sink and flow along the bottom. These channels are the main transport pathway for sediments to the deep sea where they form sedimentary deposits. These deposits ultimately hold not only untapped reserves of gas and oil, they also house important secrets—from clues on past climate change to the ways in which mountains were formed.\n\nThe team studied the detailed flow within these channels and findings included:\n\n\nThe central tenet of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis is that as the ocean rose at the end of the last Ice Age when the massive ice sheets melted, the sealed Bosphorus was overtopped in a spectacular flood that increased the then fresh water Black Sea Lake 50%, and drove people from the shores for many months. This was proven by undersea explorer Robert Ballard, who discovered settlements along the old shoreline; scientists dated the flood to 7500 BP or 5500 BC from fresh-salt water microflora. The peoples driven out by the constantly rising water, which must have been terrifying and inexplicable, spread to all corners of the Western world carrying the story of the Great Flood, how it probably entered most religions. As the waters surged, they scoured a network of sea-floor channels less resistant to denser suspended solids in liquid, which remains a very active layer today.\n\nThe first images of these submarine channels were obtained in 1999, showing them to be of great size during a NATO SACLANT Undersea Research project using jointly the NATO RV ''Alliance'', and the Turkish Navy survey ship ''Çubuklu''. In 2002, a survey was carried out on board the Ifremer RV ''Le Suroit'' for BlaSON project (Lericolais, et al., 2003) completed the multibeam mapping of this underwater channel fan-delta. A complete map was published in 2009 using these previous results with high quality mapping obtained in 2006 (by researchers at Memorial University, Newfoundland, Canada who are project partners in this study.)\n\nThe team will use the data obtained to create innovative computer simulations that can be used to model how sediment flows through these channels. The models the team will produce will have broad applications, including inputting into the design of seafloor engineering by oil and gas companies.\n\nThe project was led by Dr. Jeff Peakall and Dr. Daniel Parsons at the University of Leeds, in collaboration with the University of Southampton, Memorial University (Newfoundland, Canada), and the Institute of Marine Sciences (Izmir, Turkey). The survey was run and coordinated from the Institute of Marine Sciences research ship, the R/V ''Koca Piri Reis''.\n\nThe researchers estimate that the river, known as a submarine channel, would be the sixth largest river in the world if it were on land based on the amount of water flowing through it.\n\n", "\nAs part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of conflicts in modern history, notably the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), as well as of the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I.\n\n=== Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman and Byzantine eras (pre-1453) ===\n Map of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), designed in 1422 by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti. This is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only surviving map which predates the Turkish conquest of 1453. The Bosphorus is visible along the right hand side of the map, wrapping vertically around the historic city.\n\nThe strategic importance of the Bosphorus dates back millennia. The Greek city-state of Athens in the 5th century BC, which was dependent on grain imports from Scythia, maintained critical alliances with cities which controlled the straits, such as the Megarian colony Byzantium.\n\nPersian King Darius I the Great, in an attempt to subdue the Scythian horsemen who roamed across the north of the Black Sea, crossed through the Bosphorus, then marched towards the River Danube. His army crossed the Bosphorus over an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats. This bridge essentially connected the farthest geographic tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1,000 metres of open water if not more. Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed by Xerxes I on the Dardanelles (Hellespont) strait, during his invasion of Greece.\n\nThe Byzantines called the Bosphorus \"Stenon\" and most important toponyms of it Bosporios Akra, Argyropolis, St. Mamas, St. Phokas, Hestiai or Michaelion, Phoneus, Anaplous or Sosthenion in European side and Hieron tower, Eirenaion, Anthemiou, Sophianai, Bithynian Chryspolis in Asian side in this era \n\nThe strategic significance of the strait was one of the factors in the decision of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to found there in AD 330 his new capital, Constantinople, which came to be known as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The phrase \"swim the Bosphorus\" or \"crossing the Bosphorus\" was, and is still used to indicate religious conversion to the Eastern Orthodox Church.\n\n=== Ottoman era (1453–1922) ===\n''The Bosphorus with the Castles of Europe and Asia''. 19th-century engraving by Thomas Allom. The castles are Rumelihisarı and Anadoluhisarı, respectively.\nOn 29 May 1453, the then-emergent Ottoman Empire conquered the city of Constantinople following a lengthy campaign wherein the Ottomans constructed fortifications on each side of the strait, the Anadoluhisarı (1393) and the Rumelihisarı (1451), in preparation for not only the primary battle but to assert long-term control over the Bosphorus and surrounding waterways. The final 53-day campaign, which resulted in Ottoman victory, constituted an important turn in world history. Together with Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, the 1453 conquest of Constantinople is commonly noted as among the events that brought an end to the Middle Ages and marked the transition to the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery.\n\nThe event also marked the end of the Byzantines —the final remnants of the Roman Empire— and the transfer of the control of the Bosphorus into Ottoman hands, who made Constantinople their new capital, and from where they expanded their empire in the centuries that followed.\n\nAt its peak between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman Empire had used the strategic importance of the Bosphorus to expand their regional ambitions and to wrest control of the entire Black Sea area, which they regarded as an \"Ottoman lake\", on which Russian warships were prohibited.\n\nSubsequently, several international treaties have governed vessels using the waters. Under the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi of 8 July 1833, the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were to be closed on Russian demand to naval vessels of other powers. By the terms of the London Straits Convention concluded on 13 July 1841, between the Great Powers of Europe — Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Austria and Prussia — the \"ancient rule\" of the Ottoman Empire was re-established by closing the Turkish Straits to any and all warships, barring those of the Sultan's allies during wartime. It thus benefited British naval power at the expense of Russian, as the latter lacked direct access for its navy to the Mediterranean.\n\nFollowing the First World War, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations.\n\n=== Turkish republican era (1923–present) ===\n\nThis was amended under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which restored the straits to Turkish territory—but allowed all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. Turkey eventually rejected the terms of that treaty, and subsequently Turkey remilitarised the straits area. The reversion was formalised under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits of 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force, treats the straits as an international shipping lane save that Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states.\n\nTurkey was neutral in the Second World War until February 1945, and the straits were closed to the warships of belligerent nations during this time, although some German auxiliary vessels were permitted to transit. In diplomatic conferences, Soviet representatives had made known their interest in Turkish concession of Soviet naval bases on the straits. This, as well as Stalin's demands for the restitution of the Turkish provinces of Kars, Artvin and Ardahan to the Soviet Union (which were lost by Turkey in the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–1878, but were regained with the Treaty of Kars in 1921), were considerations in Turkey's decision to abandon neutrality in foreign affairs. Turkey declared war against Germany in February 1945, but did not engage in offensive actions.\n\nTurkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway.\n\nDuring the early 21st century, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles straits. In 2011 Turkey planned a 50 km canal through Silivri as a second waterway, reducing risk in the Bosphorus.\n", "Bosphorus Bridge, the first to be built across the Bosphorus, completed in 1973\nFatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, the second crossing built in 1988, as seen from the Rumelian Castle on the Bosphorus\nYavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the third and most recent crossing, in September 2016. The bridge was opened on 26 August 2016.\n\n=== Maritime ===\nThe waters of the Bosphorus are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities.\n\nThe strait also experiences significant amounts of international commercial shipping traffic by freighters and tankers. Between its northern limits at Rumeli Feneri and Anadolu Feneri and its southern ones at Ahırkapı Feneri and Kadıköy İnciburnu Feneri, there are numerous dangerous points for large-scale maritime traffic that require sharp turns and management of visual obstructions. Famously, the stretch between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan requires a 45-degree course alteration in a location where the currents can reach . To the south, at Yeniköy, the necessary course alteration is 80 degrees. Compounding these difficult changes in trajectory, the rear and forward sight lines at Kandilli and Yeniköy are also completely blocked prior to and during the course alteration, making it impossible for ships approaching from the opposite direction to see around these bends. The risks posed by geography are further multiplied by the heavy ferry traffic across the strait, linking the European and Asian sides of the city. As such, all the dangers and obstacles characteristic of narrow waterways are present and acute in this critical sea lane.\n\nIn 2011, the Turkish Government discussed creating a large-scale canal project roughly long that runs north-south through the western edges of Istanbul Province as a second waterway between the Black Sea and the Marmara, intended to reduce risk in the Bosphorus. This Kanal İstanbul project currently continues to be debated.\n\n=== Land ===\n\nTwo suspension bridges and a cable-stayed bridge cross the Bosphorus. The first of these, the 15th July Martyrs Bridge, is long and was completed in 1973. The second, named Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Bosphorus II) Bridge, is long, and was completed in 1988 about north of the first bridge. The first Bosphorus Bridge forms part of the O1 Motorway, while the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge forms part of the Trans-European Motorway. The third, Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, is long and was completed in 2016. It is located near the northern end of the Bosphorus, between the villages of Garipçe on the European side and Poyrazköy on the Asian side, as part of the \"Northern Marmara Motorway\", integrated with the existing Black Sea Coastal Highway, and allowing transit traffic to bypass city traffic.\n\n=== Submarine ===\n\nThe Marmaray project, featuring a long undersea railway tunnel, opened on 29 October 2013. Approximately of the tunnel runs under the strait, at a depth of about .\n\nAn undersea water supply tunnel with a length of , named the Bosporus Water Tunnel, was constructed in 2012 to transfer water from the Melen Creek in Düzce Province (to the east of the Bosphorus strait, in northwestern Anatolia) to the European side of Istanbul, a distance of .\n\nThe Eurasia Tunnel is an undersea highway tunnel, crossing the Bosphorus for vehicular traffic, between Kazlıçeşme and Göztepe, for which construction began in February 2011, was opened on 20 December 2016.\n", "\n\nThe Bosphorus has 620 waterfront houses (''yalı'') built during the Ottoman period along the strait's European and Asian shorelines. Ottoman palaces such as the Topkapı Palace, Dolmabahçe Palace, Yıldız Palace, Çırağan Palace, Feriye Palaces, Beylerbeyi Palace, Küçüksu Palace, Ihlamur Palace, Hatice Sultan Palace, Adile Sultan Palace and Khedive Palace are within its view. Buildings and landmarks within view include the Hagia Sophia, Hagia Irene, Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Yeni Mosque, Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque, Nusretiye Mosque, Dolmabahçe Mosque, Ortaköy Mosque, Üsküdar Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, Yeni Valide Mosque, Maiden's Tower, Galata Tower, Rumelian Castle, Anatolian Castle, Yoros Castle, Selimiye Barracks, Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Sadberk Hanım Museum, Istanbul Museum of Modern Art, Borusan Museum of Contemporary Art, Tophane-i Amire Museum, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Galatasaray University, Boğaziçi University, Robert College, Kabataş High School, Kuleli Military High School.\n\nTwo points in Istanbul have most of the public ferries that traverse the strait: from Eminönü (ferries dock at the ''Boğaz İskelesi'' pier) on the historic peninsula of Istanbul to Anadolu Kavağı near the Black Sea, zigzagging and calling briefly multiple times at the Rumelian and Anatolian sides of the city. At central piers shorter, regular ride in one of the public ferries cross.\n\nPrivate ferries operate between Üsküdar and Beşiktaş or Kabataş in the city. The few well-known geographic hazards are multiplied by ferry traffic across the strait, linking the European and Asian sides of the city, particularly for the largest ships.\n\nThe catamaran seabuses offer high-speed commuter services between the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus, but they stop at fewer ports and piers in comparison to the public ferries. Both the public ferries and the seabuses also provide commuter services between the Bosphorus and the Prince Islands in the Sea of Marmara.\n\nThere are also tourist rides available in various places along the coasts of the Bosphorus. The prices vary according to the type of the ride, and some feature loud popular music for the duration of the trip.\n", "\n\nFile:Istanbul panorama and skyline.jpg\|View of the European side of Istanbul from the southern entrance to the Bosphorus.\nFile:Modern Istanbul skyline at sunset.jpg\|View of the European side of Istanbul from the Bosphorus.\nFile:Bosphorus view Topkapi Istanbul 2007.jpg\|View of the entrance to the Bosphorus from the Sea of Marmara, as seen from the Topkapı Palace.\nFile:Istanbul Bogazici Ulus view 3690-3699.jpg\|Panoramic view of the Bosphorus as seen from Ulus on the European side, with the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) at left and the Bosphorus Bridge (1973) at right.\nFile:İstanbul.jpg\|Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and the Bosphorus strait.\nFile:Istanbul img 4925.jpg\|Dolmabahçe Palace on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Topkapi B15-10.jpg\|View from Topkapi Palace on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Bosphorus.jpg\|View of the Bosphorus from the Marmara Hotel, Taksim Square.\nFile:2007 0919 Bosporus Rumelihisarı.jpg\|The Rumelian Castle on the Bosphorus, with both suspension bridges which span the strait.\nFile:Ahmet Rasim Paşa Yalısı (A'ija Hotel) on the Bosphorus, Turkey 001.jpg\|620 historic waterfront houses stretch along the coasts of the Bosphorus, such as the yalı of Ahmet Rasim Pasha.\nFile:Yağcı Hacı Şefik Bey Yalısı on the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey 001.jpg\|Yalı of Hacı Şefik Bey on the Bosphorus.\nFile:36, Bosforo-ko yali gehiago ferrytik.jpg\|Ottoman era waterfront houses on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Bosphorus yali bergie.jpg\|Afif Pasha Mansion on the Bosphorus was designed by Alexander Vallaury.\nFile:Arnavutkoy-SA400006.jpg\|The quarters of Bebek, Arnavutköy and Yeniköy on the Bosphorus are famous for their fish restaurants.\nFile:Yalı in Kanlıca on the Bosphorus, Turkey 001.jpg\|Ottoman era waterfront houses (''yalı'') on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Yağlıkçı Hacı Reşit Bey and Prenses Rukiye Yalısı on the Bosphorus, Istanbul, Turkey 001.jpg\|Ottoman era waterfront houses (''yalı'') on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Elbiseci Ahmet Bey Yalısı and Esre Umur Yalısı in Kanlıca on the Bosphorus, Turkey 001.jpg\|Ottoman era waterfront houses (''yalı'') on the Bosphorus.\nFile:Boat on Bosphorus.JPG\|Boat on Bosphorus as seen from Sultanahmet street.\n\n", "* Great Istanbul Tunnel, a proposed three-level road-rail undersea tunnel.\n* List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits\n* Public transport in Istanbul\n* Rail transport in Turkey\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* istanbul bosphorus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Name ", " Geography ", " History ", " Crossings ", " Sightseeing ", " Image gallery ", " See also ", " Notes ", " External links " ]	Bosphorus
[ "\n\n'''BE''', '''B.E.''', '''Be''', or '''be''' may refer to:\n\n", "Be Unlimited, a UK Internet service provider\nBE Education, a UK educational consultancy specializing in educating Mainland Chinese children\nBe Inc., a software company and developer of the Be Operating System\nBob Evans Restaurants, an American restaurant chain\nBearingPoint (former stock ticker symbol BE)\n or Left Bloc, a Portuguese political party\n\n=== Transport ===\nBeriev, a Russian aircraft manufacturer\nFlybe (IATA airline code), based in Exeter, England\nBaltimore and Eastern Railroad, a defunct railroad in Maryland, US\n", "Be (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet\nBe language or Ong Be, a language of northern Hainan province, China\nBelarusian language (ISO 639 alpha-2 code BE)\nBritish English\nBusiness English\n''To be'', the English copular verb\n", "''BE'' (Beady Eye album), 2013\n''Be'' (Casiopea album), 1998\n''Be'' (Common album), 2005\n''BE'' (Pain of Salvation album), 2004\n''BE'' (concert DVD)\n\"Be\", a song by Jessica Simpson from ''In This Skin''\n\"Be\", a song by Slade from ''Whatever Happened to Slade''\n", "Belgium's ISO 3166-1 and FIPS 10-4 country code\n*.be, the country code top-level domain for Belgium\nBermuda's World Meteorological Organization territory code\nCanton of Berne, a canton of Switzerland\n", "Bachelor of Engineering, an academic degree\nBackup Exec (BE), a backup and recovery solution from Veritas Software\nBaumé scale (°Bé), a density scale\nBeryllium (Be), a chemical element\nBe star, in astronomy, a B-type star\nBejan number, in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics\n", "Badminton Europe, the governing body of badminton in Europe\nBritish Eventing, the British governing body for the equestrian sport of eventing\n", "Bachelor of Engineering, an academic degree\nBahá'í Era, in timekeeping\nBuddhist Era, in timekeeping\n", "B (disambiguation)\nBBE (disambiguation)\nBee (disambiguation)\nBay (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Businesses and organisations ", " Linguistics ", " Music ", " Places ", " Science and technology ", " Sport ", " Other uses ", " See also " ]	BE
[ "\nA '''bell''' is a percussion instrument, usually cup-shaped.\n\n'''Bell''' may also refer to:\n\n", "\n* Bell (wind instrument), a part of a wind instrument\n* Bell cymbal, a type of cymbal, tending to be thick and uniformly so, and small\n* Bell effect, a musical technique\n* Cymbal bell, the most central part of a cymbal\n", "* Church bell, indicating when to go to church\n* Doorbell, a signaling device to alert residents to visitors\n* Division bell, used in a parliament to call members to a vote\n* Last call bell, a signal that a bar is closing soon\n* School bell, a signal used for transitions during a school day\n* Ship's bell, a signal for marking time on a ship\n* A signal from an engine order telegraph, a communications device used on a ship or submarine\n", "* Bell (surname), a list of people with the surname Bell\n* Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), Scottish-Canadian-American inventor, teacher, engineer, and scientist, son of Alexander Melville Bell\n", "===Africa===\n* Bell, Eastern Cape, South African a town\n* Port Bell, Lake Victoria, Uganda\n\n=== Australia ===\n* Bell, New South Wales\n* Bell, Queensland\n\n===Canada===\n* Bell Island, Newfoundland and Labrador\n* Bell Peninsula, Nunavut\n* Bell River (Quebec), a tributary of Matagami Lake, then Nottaway River flowing in Abitibi-Témiscamingue and in Nord-du-Québec, in Quebec, in Canada\n\n===Europe===\n* Bell, Mayen-Koblenz, Germany, a municipality\n* Bell, Rhein-Hunsrück, Germany, a municipality\n* Bell End, UK\n\n===United States===\n* Bell, California\n* Bell, Florida\n* Bell, Illinois\n* Bell, Oklahoma\n* Bell, Wisconsin\n* Bell Canyon, California\n* Bell City, Missouri\n* Bell County, Kentucky\n* Bell County, Texas\n* Bell Township, Pennsylvania (disambiguation)\n\n===Other places===\n* Bell (crater), a crater on the Moon\n* Bell Creek (disambiguation)\n", "* Bell (fictional currency), in the game ''Animal Crossing''\n* Bell Fibe TV, an IP-based television service offered in Ontario and Quebec\n", "* Bell Centre, a stadium in Montreal, Quebec, Canada\n* Bell Laboratories Building, an historic building in Manhattan, New York\n* Bell Lightbox, a skyscraper in Toronto, Ontario, Canada\n* Bell Sensplex, a four-pad ice facility in the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada\n* Bell Sports Complex, a sports facility in Brossard, Quebec, Canada\n* Campus Bell, headquarters of Bell Canada, on Nuns' Island in Montreal, Canada\n", "===Telecommunications===\n* Alcatel-Lucent Shanghai Bell\n* Bell Aliant, a communications company providing services in eastern Canada\n* Bell Atlantic, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving the mid-Atlantic US, merged in 2000 with GTE to form Verizon\n* Bell Canada, a Canadian telecommunications company\n* Bell Communications Research, Inc., a research & development organization, originally a joint subsidiary of the Regional Bell Operating Companies, since renamed to Telecordia Technologies, Inc. and now a subsidiary of Ericsson\n* Bell Labs, a research & development organization founded by AT&T, now owned by Nokia\n* Bell Media, a Canadian media company, operated by Bell Canada\n* Bell Mobility, a wireless network selling services in Canada\n* Bell System, the organization that provided telephone service in the United States until 1984\n* Bell Telephone Company, founded in 1877 by the family of Alexander Graham Bell\n* Bell TV, a division of Bell Canada\n* Illinois Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving Illinois\n* Indiana Bell, the Bell Operating Company serving Indiana\n* Michigan Bell, the subsidiary of AT&T serving the state of Michigan\n* Mountain Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving the US Rocky Mountain region\n* Nevada Bell, the Bell System's telephone provider in Nevada\n* New Jersey Bell, (1904–1983)\n* Northwestern Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving the North Central and Northwestern US\n* Ohio Bell, the Bell Operating Company serving most of Ohio\n* Pacific Bell, the name of the Bell System's telephone operations in California\n* Regional Bell Operating Company, any of the phone companies spun off from AT&T in 1984\n* South Central Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving the South-Central US\n* Southern Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving the Southeastern US\n* Southwestern Bell, the name of the Bell Operating Company serving Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas\n* Wisconsin Bell, (1984–1999)\n\n===Other business===\n* Bell Aircraft, an aircraft manufacturer of the United States\n* Bell Helicopter, an American rotorcraft manufacturer\n* Bell ID, a software company based in The Netherlands\n* Bell Records, a record label\n* Bell Sports Inc., a helmet manufacturer\n* Bell's Brewery, based in Michigan\n", "* The body of a jellyfish\n* Bell character, in computing, a device control code\n* Bell number, in mathematics\n* Bell polynomials, in mathematics\n* Bell state, in quantum information science\n* Diving bell, a cable-suspended underwater airtight chamber\n", "===Rail===\n* Bell (METRORail station), Houston, Texas, United States\n* Bell railway station, Melbourne, Australia\n* Bell railway station, New South Wales, Australia\n\n===Sea===\n* SS ''Empire Bell'', a Swedish collier (bulk cargo ship) launched in 1930\n* USS ''Bell'', either of two U.S. Navy ships\n\n===Other forms of transportation===\n* Bell (cyclecar), a British three-wheeled cyclecar made in 1920 by W.G. Bell of Rochester, Kent\n* Bell tailslide, an aerobatic maneuver\n", "* Bell (typeface), a typeface designed in 1788 by Richard Austin\n* Bell Challenge, a WTA Tour Tier III tennis tournament held in Quebec\n* Bell High School (disambiguation)\n* Bell House (disambiguation)\n", "* Bel (disambiguation)\n* Bell, Book & Candle (disambiguation)\n* Belle (disambiguation)\n* Bells (disambiguation)\n* The Bell (disambiguation)\n* The Bells (disambiguation)\n* Justice Bell (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Sound and music", "Signals", "People", "Places", "Art, entertainment, and media", "Buildings", "Businesses", "Mathematics, science and technology", "Transportation", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Bell (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n'''Bjarne Stroustrup''' (; ; born 30 December 1950) is a Danish computer scientist, most notable for the creation and development of the widely used C++ programming language. He is a visiting professor at Columbia University, and works at Morgan Stanley as a Managing Director in New York.\n", "Stroustrup has a master's degree in mathematics and computer science (1975) from Aarhus University, Denmark, and a PhD. in computer science (1979) from the University of Cambridge, England. His thesis advisor at Cambridge was Professor David Wheeler.\n", "Stroustrup began developing C++ in 1979 (then called \"C with Classes\"), and, in his own words, \"invented C++, wrote its early definitions, and produced its first implementation... chose and formulated the design criteria for C++, designed all its major facilities, and was responsible for the processing of extension proposals in the C++ standards committee.\" Stroustrup also wrote a textbook for the language, ''The C++ Programming Language''.\n\nStroustrup was the head of AT&T Bell Labs' Large-scale Programming Research department, from its creation until late 2002. Stroustrup was elected member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2004. He is a Fellow of the ACM (1994) and an IEEE Fellow. From 2002 to 2014, Stroustrup was the College of Engineering Chair in Computer Science Professor at Texas A&M University. As of January 2014, Stroustrup is a Managing Director in the technology division of Morgan Stanley in New York City and a Visiting Professor in Computer Science at Columbia University. ITMO University noble doctor since 2013.\n\nIn 2015, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum for his invention of the C++ programming language.. In 2017, the IET announced that he is the Faraday Medal recipient, for pioneering C++, the most influential programming language in the history of computing.\n", "Stroustrup has written or co-written a number of publications including the following books.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n", "\n\n* Meet Bjarne Stroustrup (Video)\n* List of interviews with Bjarne Stroustrup\n* A hoax interview transcript with IEEE's ''Computer'' magazine.\n* Computerworld Interview with Bjarne Stroustrup\n* Bjarne Stroustrup's FAQ, Class\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Education", "Career", "Publications", "References", "External links" ]	Bjarne Stroustrup
[ "\n\nLocation of Byzantium\n'''Byzantium''' or '''Byzantion''' (; , ''Byzántion'') was an ancient Greek colony in early antiquity that later became Constantinople, and later Istanbul. Byzantium was colonized by the Greeks from Megara in .\n", "\nThe etymology of ''Byzantion'' is unknown. It has been suggested that the name is of Thraco-Illyrian origin. It may be derived from a Thracian or Illyrian personal name, ''Byzas''. Ancient Greek legend refers to a king Byzas, the leader of the Megarian colonists and founder of the city.\nThe form ''Byzantium'' is a Latinisation of the original name. Much later, the name ''Byzantium'' became common in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire, the ''\"Byzantine\" Empire'', whose capital Constantinople stood on the site of ancient Byzantium. This usage was introduced only in 1555 by the historian Hieronymus Wolf, a century after the empire had ceased to exist. During the time of the empire, the term ''Byzantium'' was restricted to just the city, rather than the empire it ruled.\n", "\nAt Seraglio Point on the European side two fishing settlements, Lygos and Semistra, were situated. The origins of Byzantium are shrouded in legend. Traditional legend says Byzas from Megara (a city-state near Athens) founded Byzantium in 667 BC when he sailed northeast across the Aegean Sea. The tradition tells that Byzas, son of King Nisos (Νίσος), planned to found a colony of the Dorian Greek city of Megara. Byzas consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, which instructed Byzas to settle opposite the \"Land of the Blind\". Leading a group of Megarian colonists, Byzas found a location where the Golden Horn, a great natural harbor, meets the Bosporus and flows into the Sea of Marmara, opposite Chalcedon (modern day Kadıköy). He adjudged the Chalcedonians blind not to have recognized the advantages the land on the European side of the Bosporus had over the Asiatic side. In 667 BC he founded Byzantium at their location, thus fulfilling the oracle's requirement. Cape Moda in Chalcedon was the first location the Greek settlers from Megara chose to colonize in 685 BC, prior to colonizing Byzantion on the European side of the Bosporus under the command of King Byzas in 667 BC.\n\nIt was mainly a trading city due to its location at the Black Sea's only entrance. Byzantium later conquered Chalcedon, across the Bosporus on the Asiatic side.\n\nThe city was taken by the Persian Empire at the time of King Darius I (r. 522-486 BC) Scythian campaign (513 BC), and was added to the administrative province of Skudra. Though Achaemenid control of the city was never as stable as compared to other cities in Thrace, it was considered, alongside Sestos, to be one of the foremost Achaemenid ports on the European coast of the Bosporus and the Hellespont.\n\nByzantium was besieged by Greek forces during the Peloponnesian War. As part of Sparta's strategy for cutting off grain supplies to Athens, Sparta took the city in 411 BC. The Athenian military later took the city in 408 BC.\n\nAfter siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus, the city was besieged by Roman forces and suffered extensive damage in 196 AD. Byzantium was rebuilt by Septimius Severus, now emperor, and quickly regained its previous prosperity. It was bound to Perinthos during the period of Septimius Severus. The location of Byzantium attracted Roman Emperor Constantine I who, in 330 AD, refounded it as an imperial residence inspired by Rome itself. (See Nova Roma.) After his death the city was called Constantinople (Greek Κωνσταντινούπολις, ''Konstantinoupolis'', \"city of Constantine\").\n\nThis combination of imperialism and location would affect Constantinople's role as the nexus between the continents of Europe and Asia. It was a commercial, cultural, and diplomatic centre. With its strategic position, Constantinople controlled the major trade routes between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea. On May 29, 1453, the city fell to the Ottoman Turks, and again became the capital of a powerful state, the Ottoman Empire. The Turks called the city \"Istanbul\" (although it was not officially renamed until 1930); the name derives from \"eis-tin-polin\" (Greek: \"to-the-city\"). To this day it remains the largest and most populous city in Turkey, although Ankara is now the national capital.\n\n===Emblem===\n\nBy the late Hellenistic or early Roman period (1st century BC), the star and crescent motif was associated to some degree with Byzantium; even though it became more widely used as the royal emblem of Mithradates VI Eupator (who for a time incorporated the city into his empire).\n\nSome Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of Artemis with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be an eight-rayed star on the reverse. \nAccording to accounts which vary in some of the details, in 340 BC the Byzantines and their allies the Athenians were under siege by the troops of Philip of Macedon. On a particularly dark and wet night Philip attempted a surprise attack but was thwarted by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. This light is occasionally described by subsequent interpreters as a meteor, sometimes as the moon, and some accounts also mention the barking of dogs. However, the original accounts mention only a light in the sky, without specifying the moon. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of Hecate ''lampadephoros'' (light-bearer or bringer). This story survived in the works of Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian I. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the tenth century lexicographer Suidas. The tale is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium, and Eustathius.\n\nDevotion to Hecate was especially favored by the Byzantines for her aid in having protected them from the incursions of Philip of Macedon. Her symbols were the crescent and star, and the walls of her city were her provenance.\n\nIt is unclear precisely how the symbol Hecate/Artemis, one of many goddesses would have been transferred to the city itself, but it seems likely to have been an effect of being credited with the intervention against Philip and the subsequent honors. This was a common process in ancient Greece, as in ''Athens'' where the city was named after ''Athena'' in honor of such an intervention in time of war.\n\nLater, under the Romans, cities in the empire often continued to issue their own coinage. \"Of the many themes that were used on local coinage, celestial and astral symbols often appeared, mostly stars or crescent moons.\" The wide variety of these issues, and the varying explanations for the significance of the star and crescent on Roman coinage precludes their discussion here. It is, however, apparent that by the time of the Romans, coins featuring a star or crescent in some combination were not at all rare.\n", "Homerus, tragedian, lived in the early 3rd century BC\nPhilo, engineer, lived ca. 280 BC–ca. 220 BC\nEpigenes of Byzantium, astrologer, lived in the 3rd–2nd century BC\nAristophanes of Byzantium, a scholar who flourished in Alexandria, 3rd–2nd century BC\n", "* Constantinople details the history of the city before the Turkish conquest of 1453.\n* Istanbul details the history of the city from 1453 on, and describes the modern city.\n* Sarayburnu is the geographic location of ancient Byzantium.\n* Timeline of Istanbul history\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Harris, Jonathan, ''Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium'' (Hambledon/Continuum, London, 2007). \nJeffreys, Elizabeth and Michael, and Moffatt, Ann, ''Byzantine Papers: Proceedings of the First Australian Byzantine Studies Conference, Canberra, 17–19 May 1978'' (Australian National University, Canberra, 1979).\n Istanbul Historical Information - Istanbul Informative Guide To The City. Retrieved January 6, 2005.\n* The Useful Information about Istanbul. Retrieved January 6, 2005.\n* ''The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) \nYeats, William Butler, \"Sailing to Byzantium\",\n\n", " www.byzantium.ac.uk Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies\n* Vasilief, A History of the Byzantine Empire, hyperlinked with notes and more resources, at Elpenor\n* History of money FAQs – description of Byzantine monetary system, fifth century BC\n* Byzantine & Christian Museum\n* Coins of the Byzantine empire\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Name", "History", "Notable people", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Byzantium
[ "\nBiotics describe living or once living components of a community; for example organisms, such as plants and animals.\n\n'''Biotic''' may refer to:\nLife, the condition of living organisms\nBiology, the study of life\nBiotic material, which is derived from living organisms\nBiotic components in ecology\nBiotic potential, an organism's reproductive capacity\nBiotic community, all the interacting organisms living together in a specific habitat\nBiotic energy, a vital force theorized by biochemist Benjamin Moore\n\n'''Biotic''' may also refer to:\nBiotic Baking Brigade, an unofficial group of pie-throwing activists\nAbiotic Non living\n", "Antibiotics are agents that either kill bacteria or inhibit their growth\nPrebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system\nProbiotics consist of a live culture of bacteria that inhibit or interfere with colonization by microbial pathogens\nSynbiotics refer to nutritional supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics\n*Postbiotics are the probiotic metabolic products that stimulate the growth and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Biotic
[ "Bass voice range.\n\n'''Bass''' describes tones of low (also called \"deep\") frequency, pitch and range from 16-256 Hz (C0 to middle C4). In musical compositions, such as songs and pieces, these are the lowest parts of the harmony. In choral music without instrumental accompaniment, the bass is supplied by adult male bass singers. In an orchestra, the bass lines are played by the double bass and cellos, bassoon or contrabassoon, low brass such as the tuba and bass trombone, and the timpani (kettledrums). In many styles of traditional music such as Bluegrass, folk, and in styles such as Rockabilly and Big Band and Bebop jazz, the bass role is filled by the upright bass. In most rock and pop bands and in jazz fusion groups, the bass role is filled by the electric bass. In some 20th and 21st century pop genres, such as 1980s pop, hip hop music and Electronic Dance Music, the bass role may be filled with a bass synthesizer.\n", "When bass notes are played in a musical ensemble such an orchestra, they are frequently used to provide a counterpoint or counter-melody, in a harmonic context either to outline or juxtapose the progression of the chords, or with percussion to underline the rhythm. In popular music, the bass part, which is called the \"bassline\", typically provides harmonic and rhythmic support to the band. The bass player is a member of the rhythm section in a band, along with the drummer, rhythm guitarist, and, in some cases, a keyboard instrument player (e.g., piano or Hammond organ). The bass player usually plays the root or fifth of the chord (and to a lesser degree, the third of the chord) and accents the strong beats. \"The bass differs from other voices because of the particular role it plays in supporting and defining harmonic motion. It does so at levels ranging from immediate, chord-by-chord events to the larger harmonic organization of a entire work.\"\n", "In classical music, different forms of bass are: ''basso concertante'', or ''basso recitante''; the bass voice of the chorus; the bass which accompanies the softer passages of a composition, as well as those passages which employ the whole power of the ensemble, generally played by the violoncellos in orchestral music; ''contrabass'' (“under bass”), is described as that part which is performed by the double basses; violoncellos often play the same line an octave higher, or a different melodic or rhythmic part which is not a bassline when double basses are used; ''basso ripieno''; that bass which joins in the full passages of a composition, and, by its depth of tone and energy of stroke, affords a powerul contrast to the lighter and softer passages or movements. Basso continuo was an approach to writing music during the Baroque music era (1600-1750).\n", "\n\n===Keyboards===\nKeyboard bass\nPedal keyboard\n===Percussion===\nBass drum\nTimpani\n===Stringed===\nDouble bass\nBass guitar\nWashtub bass\n\n===Bass wind instruments===\n\n====Woodwind====\nBassoon\nBass clarinet\nBass saxophone\nContrabassoon\n====Brass====\nTuba\nBass trombone\nEuphonium\n", "Sub bass\nTreble (sound)\nBass clef\nFigured bass\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Musical role", "Kinds of bass harmony", "Bass instruments", "See also", "Sources" ]	Bass (sound)
[ "\n'''Bass music''' (also called '''UK bass''' or '''post-dubstep''') is an umbrella term for electronic dance music that emerged in the United Kingdom during the mid-2000s under the influence of dubstep, UK garage, wonky, R&B, 2-step, house, grime, and other electronic styles that coalesced amongst varied artists. The phrase \"bass music\" came into use as artists began ambiguously blending the sounds of these defined genres while maintaining an emphasis on bass and rhythm.\n", "The breadth of styles that have come to be associated with the term preclude it from being a specific musical genre. ''Pitchfork'' writer Martin Clark has suggested that \"well-meaning attempts to loosely define the ground we're covering here are somewhat futile and almost certainly flawed. This is not one genre. However, given the links, interaction, and free-flowing ideas ... you can't dismiss all these acts as unrelated.\" Dubstep producer Skream is quoted in an interview with ''The Independent'' in September 2011 as saying: The word dubstep is being used by a lot of people and there were a lot of people being tagged with the dubstep brush. They don't want to be tagged with it and shouldn't be tagged with it – that's not what they're pushing... When I say 'UK bass', it's what everyone UK is associated with so it would be a lot easier if it was called that.\"\n\nIn the United Kingdom, bass music, or UK bass has had major mainstream success since the late 2000s and early 2010s, with artists such as James Blake, Example, Burial, Zomby, Chase & Status, Skream, TNGHT, Benga and Wretch 32. The term \"post-dubstep\" has been used synonymously to refer to artists, such as Blake, Mount Kimbie and Fantastic Mr. Fox whose work drew on UK garage, 2-step, and other forms of underground dance music, as well as ambient music and early R&B. Outside of nightclubs, bass music has mainly been promoted and played on internet radio stations such as Sub.FM and Rinse FM.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "References" ]	Bass music
[ "A replica (on a smaller scale) of the burning lens owned by Joseph Priestley, in his laboratory\nA '''burning glass''' or '''burning lens''' is a large convex lens that can concentrate the sun's rays onto a small area, heating up the area and thus resulting in ignition of the exposed surface. '''Burning mirrors''' achieve a similar effect by using reflecting surfaces to focus the light. They were used in 18th-century chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of combustion could be trapped for analysis. The burning glass was a useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.\n", "The technology of the burning glass has been known since antiquity. Vases filled with water used to start fires were known in the ancient world. Burning lenses were used to cauterise wounds and to light sacred fires in temples. ''Plutarch'' refers to a burning mirror made of joined triangular metal mirrors installed at the temple of the Vestal Virgins. Aristophanes mentions the burning lens in his play ''The Clouds'' (424 BC).\n:\"Strepsiades. Have you ever seen a beautiful, transparent stone at the druggists', with which you may kindle fire?\"\n\nArchimedes, the renowned mathematician, was said to have used a burning glass as a weapon in 212 BC, when Syracuse was besieged by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The Roman fleet was supposedly incinerated, though eventually the city was taken and Archimedes was slain.\n\nThe legend of Archimedes gave rise to a considerable amount of research on burning glasses and lenses until the late 17th century. Various researchers worked with burning glasses, including Anthemius of Tralles (6th century AD), Proclus (6th century) (who by this means purportedly destroyed the fleet of Vitalian besieging Constantinople), Ibn Sahl in his ''On Burning Mirrors and Lenses'' (10th century), Alhazen in his ''Book of Optics'' (1021), Roger Bacon (13th century), Giambattista della Porta and his friends (16th century), Athanasius Kircher and Gaspar Schott (17th century), and the Comte de Buffon in 1740 in Paris.\n\nThe pop science TV program ''MythBusters'' attempted to model Archimedes' feat by using mirrors to ignite a small wooden boat covered with tar, with little success—they found it too difficult to focus light from their hand-held mirrors onto a point small enough to ignite the boat. However, an episode of Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections relating to the Keck Observatory (whose reflector glass is based on the Archimedes' Mirror) did successfully use a much smaller curved mirror to burn a wooden model, though not made of the same quality of materials as in the ''MythBusters'' effort.\n\nLavoisier with French Academy of Sciences' ''lentilles ardentes''\n\nBurning lenses were used both by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier in their experiments to obtain oxides contained in closed vessels under high temperatures. These included carbon dioxide by burning diamond, and mercuric oxide by heating mercury. This type of experiment contributed to the discovery of \"dephlogisticated air\" by Priestley, which became better known as oxygen, following Lavoisier's investigations.\n\nIn 1796, during the French Revolution and three years after the declaration of war between France and Great Britain, Étienne-Gaspard Robert met with the French government and proposed the use of mirrors to burn the invading ships of the British Royal Navy. They decided not to take up his proposal.\n\nChapter 17 of William Bates' 1920 book ''Perfect Sight Without Glasses'', in which the author argues that observation of the sun is beneficial to those with poor vision, includes a figure of somebody ''\"Focussing the Rays of the Sun Upon the Eye of a Patient by Means of a Burning Glass.\"''\n", "Burning glasses (often called '''fire lenses''') are still used to light fires in outdoor and primitive settings. Large burning lenses sometimes take the form of Fresnel lenses, similar to lighthouse lenses, including those for use in solar furnaces. Solar furnaces are used in industry to produce extremely high temperatures without the need for fuel or large supplies of electricity. They sometimes employ a large parabolic array of mirrors (some facilities are several storeys high) to focus light to a high intensity.\nClose-up view of a flat Fresnel lens. These thin, light weight, non fragile and low cost lens can be used as burning-glass in emergency situations.\nThe Olympic torch that is carried around the host country of the Olympic Games is lit by a burning glass, at the site of ancient Olympia in Greece.\n", "* Diocles (mathematician)\n* Nimrud lens\n* Pyreliophorus\n* Visby lenses\n", "\n", "*Temple, Robert. ''The Crystal Sun'', .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Current use", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Burning glass
[ "'''Battle of Adrianople''' (378) was the main battle of the Gothic War (376–382).\n\n'''Battle of Adrianople''' may also refer to:\n\nBattle of Adrianople (313), also known as Battle of Tzirallum, Licinius defeats Maximinus Daia in a Roman civil war\nBattle of Adrianople (324), Constantine the Great defeats Licinius in a Roman civil war\nSiege of Adrianople (378), siege by the Goths following the Battle of Adrianople (378)\nBattle of Adrianople (718), part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars\nSiege of Adrianople (813), part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars\nBattle of Adrianople (914), part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars\nSack of Adrianople (1003), part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars\nBattle of Adrianople (1094), between the Byzantine throne and a usurper\nBattle of Adrianople (1205), part of the Fourth Crusade, the Bulgarians defeat the Crusaders\nBattle of Adrianople (1254), part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars\nBattle of Adrianople (1255), engagement in one of the Byzantine civil wars\nBattle of Adrianople (1355), Byzantine victory over the Serbs\nConquest of Adrianople (1362), by the Ottoman Empire from the Byzantine Empire\nBattle of Adrianople (1829), Russians seize the city from the Ottoman Empire\nSiege of Adrianople (1912–13), battle of the First Balkan War\nSecond Battle of Adrianople (1913), battle of the Second Balkan War\n", "* Adrianople\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Battle of Adrianople (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Bhaṅgṛā''' ((Shahmukhi), ਭੰਗੜਾ (Gurmukhi); ) is a type of upbeat popular music associated with immigrant Punjabi youth. It was invented in England starting in the 1970s by people from the Punjab region of India and Pakistan.\n", "\n===Origins===\nThe roots of modern bhangra music date back to the early 1980s, when several Punjabi bands started experimenting with Western styles as well as traditional Punjabi music. Significant amongst these were 'The Black Mist', 'The Shots', 'The Jambo Boys', and 'The Saathies'. However, the first recording artist/group of this type of music in the UK was Bhujhangy Group, founded by brothers Balbir Singh Khanpur and Dalbir Singh Khanpur in Birmingham in 1967. Bhujhangy Group's first major hit was \"Bhabiye Akh Larr Gayee\" in the early 1970s, released on Birmingham's Oriental Star Agencies label. This was the first song to combine traditional Asian music with modern western instruments, which would be followed by further developments of this in bhangra.\n", "\n===1970s===\nLive concert by Bhangra band Alaap\nBhangra music was said to rise in Britain in the 1970s by Punjabi immigrants who took their native folk music and began experimenting by altering it using instruments from their host country. The new genre quickly became popular in Britain replacing Punjabi folk singers due to it being heavily influenced in Britain by the infusion of rock music and a need to move away from the simple and repetitive Punjabi folk music. It indicated the development of a self-conscious and distinctively rebellious British Asian youth culture centred on an experiential sense of self, e.g., language, gesture, bodily signification, desires, etc., in a situation in which tensions with British culture and racist elements in British society had resulted in alienation in many minority ethnic groups, fostered a sense of need for an affirmation of a positive identity and culture, and provided a platform for British Punjabi males to assert their masculinity.\n\nIn the 1980s, distributed by record labels such as Multitone Records, Bhangra artists were selling over 30,000 cassettes a week in the UK, but no artists reached the Top 40 UK Chart despite these artists outselling popular British ones; most of the Bhangra cassette sales were not through the large UK record stores, whose sales were those recorded by the Official UK Charts Company for creating their rankings.\n\nThe group Alaap formed in 1977 co-founded by Channi Singh and Harjeet Gandhi both hail from Southall, a Punjabi area in London. Their album ''Teri Chunni De Sitaray'' was released in 1982 by Multitone. Alaap was considered the first and original superstar Bhangra band formed in the United Kingdom. Channi Singh has been awarded the OBE by the British Queen for his services to Bhangra music and services/ charity for the British Asian community. Co-founder Harjeet Gandhi died in 2003.\n\nThe 1980s is commonly known as the golden age, or the age of Bhangra music, which lasted roughly from 1985 to 1993. The primary emphasis during these times was on the melody/riff, played out usually on a synthesizer, harmonium, accordion or a guitar. The folk instruments were rarely used.\n\nOne of the biggest Bhangra stars of the last several decades is Malkit Singh and his band Golden Star. Singh was born in June 1963 in the village of Hussainpur in Punjab. He attended the Lyallpur Khalsa College, Jalandhar, in Punjab in 1980 to study for a bachelor of arts degree. There he met his mentor, Professor Inderjit Singh, who taught him Punjabi folk singing and Bhangra dancing. Due to Singh's tutelage, Malkit entered and won song contests during this time. In 1983, he won a gold medal at the Guru Nanak Dev University in Amritsar, Punjab, for performing his song \"Gurh Nalon Ishq Mitha\", which later featured on his first album, ''Nach Gidhe Wich'', released in 1984. This album was created with the assistance of Bhangra musician, Tarlochan Singh Bilga. The band has toured 27 countries. Malkit has been awarded the MBE by the British Queen for his services to Bhangra music.\n\nBhangra boy band, the Sahotas, composed of five brothers from Wolverhampton. Their music is a fusion of Bhangra, rock and dance.\n\nHeera, formed by Bhupinder Bhindi and fronted by Kumar and Dhami, was one of the most popular bands of the 1980s . The group established itself with the albums ''Jag Wala Mela'', produced by Kuljit Bhamra, and ''Diamonds from Heera'', produced by Deepak Khazanchi, on Arishma records. These albums are notable for being amongst the first Bhangra albums to mix Punjabi drums and Punjabi synthesizers with traditional British instruments successfully.\n\nBands like Alaap and Heera incorporated rock-influenced beats into Bhangra, because it enabled \"Asian youth to affirm their identities positively\" within the broader environment of alternative rock as an alternative way of expression. However, some believe that the progression of Bhangra music created an \"intermezzo culture\" post-India's partition, within the unitary definitions of Southeast Asians within the diaspora, thus \"establishing a brand new community in their home away from home\".\n\nSeveral other influential groups appeared around the same time, including The Saathies, Premi Group, Bhujungy Group, and Apna Sangeet. Apna Sangeet, best known for their hit \"Mera Yaar Vajavey Dhol\", re-formed for charity in May 2009 after a break-up.\n\nWhen Bhangra and General Indian sounds and lyrics were combined, British-Asian artists began incorporating them in their music. Some Asian artists, such as Bally Sagoo, Talvin Singh, Badmarsh, Black Star Liner are creating their own form of British hip-hop.\n\nThis era also brought about Bhangra art, which, like the Bhangra music it represented was rebellious. Unlike folk music art, which consisted of a picture of the folk singer, Bhangra recordings had details such as distinctive artwork, logos, clever album names and band/musician listings (who played what).\n\n===Folk backlash===\nIn the mid 1990s, however, many artists returned to the original, traditional folk beats away from Bhangra music, often incorporating more dhol drum beats and tumbi. This time also saw the rise of several young Punjabi folk singers as a backlash to Bhangra music. They were aided by DJs who mixed hip hop samples with folk singing.\n\nBeginning around 1994, there was a trend towards the use of samples (often sampled from mainstream hip hop) mixed with traditional folk rhythm instruments, such as the tumbi and dhol. Using folk instruments and hip-hop samples, along with relatively inexpensive folk vocals imported from Punjab, Punjabi folk music was able to cause the decline of Bhangra music.\n\nPioneering DJs instrumental in the decline of Bhangra were Bally Sagoo and Panjabi MC. As DJs who were initially hired by Bhangra labels to remix the original recordings on the label's roster (OSA and Nachural respectively), they along with the record labels quickly found that remixing folk singers from India was much cheaper than working with outsourced Bhangra bands.\n\nA pioneering folk singer that was instrumental in Bhangra's demise was Jazzy B, who debuted in 1992. Having sold over 55,000 copies of his third album, ''Folk and Funky'', he is now one of the best-selling Punjabi folk artists in the world, with a vocal style likened to that of Kuldip Manak.\n\nOther influential folk artists include Surinder Shinda - famous for his \"Putt Jattan De\" - Harbhajan Mann, Manmohan Waris, Meshi Eshara, Sarbjit Cheema, Hans Raj Hans, Sardool Sikander, Anakhi, Sat Rang, XLNC, B21, Shaktee, Sahara, Paaras, PDM, Amar Group, Sangeet Group, and Bombay Talkie. Late Alam Lohar contributions of notably Jugni and Mirza Sahiban. A DJ to rise to stardom with many successful hits was Panjabi MC.\n\nBy the end of the 1990s, Bhangra music had largely declined and been replaced with Punjabi folk singers. The same folk singers which Bhangra bands had replaced a decade earlier were being utilized by DJs to make relatively inexpensive non live music on laptops. This \"Folkhop\" genre was short lived as records could not be officially released due to non clearance copyrights on samples used to create the \"beat\". This continued until the end of the century. Folkhop record labels such Hi Tech were investigated by BPI (British Phonographic Industry) for copyright infringement by way of uncleared samples on releases by Folk DJs such as DJ Sanj.\n\nToward the end of the decade, Bhangra continued to decline, with folkhop artists such as Bally Sagoo and Apache Indian signing with international recording labels Sony and Island. Moreover, Multitone Records, one of the major recording labels associated with Bhangra in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s, was bought by BMG. A recent Pepsi commercial launched in Britain featured South Asian actors and Punjabi folk music.\n\n===2000s remixes===\n\nPunjabi folk remixed with hip hop, known as Folkhop, is most often produced when folk vocals are purchased online to be remixed in a studio. Folk vocals are usually sung to traditional melodies, that are often repeated with new lyrics.\nPunjabi folk remixed\nSome South Asian DJs, especially in America, have mixed Punjabi folk music with house, reggae, and hip-hop to add a different flavor to Punjabi folk. These remixes continued to gain popularity as the 1990s came to an end. This movement was established and proliferated by DJs such as Punjabi MC and DJ Rekha. DJ Rekha, originally from the UK, now resides in New York City running a club event series called Basement Bhangra. These monthly events exhibit house and hip hop bhangra remixes.\n\nA notable remix artist is Bally Sagoo, a Punjabi-Sikh, Anglo-Indian raised in Birmingham, England. Sagoo described his music as \"a bit of tablas, a bit of the Indian sound. But bring on the bass lines, bring on the funky-drummer beat, bring on the James Brown samples\", to ''Time'' magazine in 1997. He was recently signed by Sony. Daler Mehndi, a Punjabi singer from India has a type of music known as \"folk pop\". Mehndi has released tracks such as \"Bolo Ta Ra Ra\" and \"Ho Jayegee Balle Balle\". His song \"Tunak Tunak Tun\" was released in 1998.\n", "Miss Pooja famous for her numerous album releases \n\nPunjabi immigrants have encouraged the growth of Punjabi folk music in the Western Hemisphere rather than Bhangra music. The Bhangra industry has grown in North America much less than in the United Kingdom. Indian Lion, a Canadian folk artist explains what he thinks has caused this:\n\n\n\nNorth American (non Bhangra) folk artists such as Manmohan Waris, Jazzy Bains, Kamal Heer, Harbhajan Mann, Sarabjit Cheema, and Debi Makhsoospuri have emerged and the remix market has grown.\n\nIn 2001, Punjabi folk, and its hip-hop form, Folkhop, began to exert an influence over US R&B music, when Missy Elliott released the folkhop-influenced song \"Get Ur Freak On\". In 2003, Punjabi MC's \"Mundian To Bach Ke\" (\"Beware of the Boys\") was covered by the U.S. rapper Jay-Z. Additionally, American rapper Pras of The Fugees has recorded tracks with British alternative Bhangra band Swami. American singer and actress Selena Gomez released her bhangra single Come & Get It from her first solo album ''Stars Dance'' in 2013. Australian singer and songwriter Sia released her bhangra single Cheap Thrills from her seventh studio album This Is Acting in 2016.\n", "\nPunjabi\nBhangra lyrics, which generally cover social issues or love, are sung in Punjabi. Bhangra lyrics were generally kept deliberately simple by the creators of the genre because the youth did not understand complex lyrics. Traditional Punjabi folk lyrics are generally more complex and often tell the tales of Punjabi history. There are many Bhangra songs devoted to Punjabi pride themes and Punjabi heroes. The lyrics are tributes to the cultural traditions of Punjab. In particular, many Bhangra tracks have been written about Udham Singh and Bhagat Singh. Less serious topics include beautiful women with their colourful duppattas. Lyrics can also be about crops and the coming of a new season. Bhangra is sung fiercely with strong lyrics often yelling: \"balle balle\" or \"chakde phate\", which refer to celebration and/or pride.\n\nNotable Bhangra or Punjabi lyricists include Harbans Jandu (Jandu Littranwala) (\"Giddhian Di Rani\") and Rattan Reehal (Rurki wala rattan).\n", "\n\nPunjabi instruments contribute to Bhangra. Originally this was primarily the dhol. The 20th century has brought changes to the instruments that define Bhangra, to include the tumbi, sarangi, dholak (smaller than the dhol), flute, zither, fiddle, harmonium, tabla, guitar, mandolin, saxophone, synthesizer, drum set, and other Western instruments.\n\nThe string instruments include the guitar (both acoustic and electrical), bass, oud, sitar, tumbi, violin and sarangi. The snare, toms, dhadd, dafli, dholki, and damru are the other drums. The tumbi, originally played by folk artists such as Lalchand Yamla Jatt and Kuldip Manak in true folk recordings and then notably used by Chamkila, a Punjabi folk (not Bhangra) singer, is a high-tone, single-string instrument and Chimta by (Late) Alam Lohar.\n\n===Percussion===\n\n\nBhangra today has developed into a largely beat-based music genre, unlike before 1994, when it was slightly more mellow and classical. Pandit Dinesh and Kuljit Bhamra were trained exponents of Indian percussion and helped create the current British music, mainly with tabla and dholki for bands like Alaap and Heera.\n\n15-year-old percussionist Bhupinder Singh Kullar, a.k.a. Tubsy, of Handsworth, Birmingham, created a more contemporary style and groove that seemed to fuse more naturally with Western music. Songs such as \"Dhola veh Dhola\" (Satrang) and albums such as ''Bomb the Tumbi'' (Safri Boyz) contained this new style.\n\nSunil Kalyan of Southall, London, was a session musician on many songs and albums, playing the tabla.\n\nSukhshinder Shinda later introduced his style of dhol playing with the album ''Dhol Beat''. He added a very clean style of dhol playing and helped create the sound for artists such as Jaswinder Singh Bains and Bhinda Jatt.\n\nAnother notable percussionist was :Parvinder Bharat :(Parv) of Wolverhampton. Parv had played for many bhangra bands from the 80's, playing with bands such as, Satrang, Pardesi and then eventually joining the internationally acclaimed DCS. After leaving DCS, Parv continued to experiment with his art which resulted in a European tour with none other than the legend that is Stevie Wonder.\n", "\nThe third and fourth generation are generally unable to speak Punjabi if their parents could hardly speak it. There is a move towards Punjabi folk music which is the purest form of Punjabi music. Much of the youth struggle to understand the lyrics, although, there are some children and young adults who have maintained their folk roots. Another reason why some fans express an anti-folk sentiment is because many folk songs were written about Sikh Jatts whereas other Punjabi Sikhs were not Jatt, so they disapproved of Punjabi folk music. However, today with artists like Tru-Skool, Jazzy B, PMC, Sukhshinder Shinda, Surinder Shinda, Pappi Gill, Nachattar Gill, Pammi Bai and Diljit Dosanjh, Punjabi folk has increased in popularity although it is fused in some cases. iTunes has catalogs of many Punjabi folk singers available.\n\n", "Music of the United Kingdom\nAsian Underground\nMultitone records\nList of bhangra artists\nDhol\nMusic of Punjab\nPunjab region\nPunjabi culture\n", "\n", "\n* Where Bhangra Lives\n* Bhangra News, Music Videos & Interviews\n* www.Bhangra.org\n* House Of Bhangra\n* Real Bhangra\n* Punjabi Video Songs\n* India Music - The first ever Indian Music domain and web site registered.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "United Kingdom", "Canada & The United States", "Lyrics", "Instruments", "Cultural impact and resurgence of Punjabi folk music in the West", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Bhangra (music)
[ "\n\n\n'''Beastie Boys''' were an American hip hop group from New York City, formed in 1981. For the majority of their career, the group consisted of Michael \"Mike D\" Diamond (vocals, drums), Adam \"MCA\" Yauch (vocals, bass) and Adam \"Ad-Rock\" Horovitz (vocals, guitar).\n\nOriginally formed as a four-piece hardcore punk band, the Young Aborigines, in 1978 by Diamond (vocals), John Berry (guitar), Yauch (bass) and Kate Schellenbach (drums), the band appeared on the compilation cassette ''New York Thrash'', contributing two songs from their first EP, ''Polly Wog Stew'', in 1982. Berry left shortly thereafter, and was replaced by Horovitz. After achieving moderate local success with the 1983 experimental hip hop 12-inch single \"Cooky Puss\", Schellenbach dropped out and the Beastie Boys made a full transition to hip hop, releasing a string of successful singles. They toured with Madonna in 1985 and a year later released their debut album ''Licensed to Ill''. The Beastie Boys have sold 26 million records in the United States and 50 million records worldwide, making them, according to ''Billboard'', the biggest-selling rap group since the magazine began recording sales data in 1991.\n\nWith seven platinum or better albums from 1986 to 2004, the Beastie Boys were one of the longest-lived hip hop acts worldwide. In 2009, they released digitally remastered deluxe editions of their albums ''Paul's Boutique'', ''Check Your Head'', ''Ill Communication'' and ''Hello Nasty''. Their eighth studio album, ''Hot Sauce Committee Part Two'', was released in 2011, and received positive reviews. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2012, \"just the third rap group to enter the Hall, after Run–D.M.C. (2009) and Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five (2007).\" The following month, MCA died of cancer of the parotid salivary gland. In June 2014, Mike D confirmed that he and Ad-Rock would not continue the Beastie Boys, out of respect to MCA.\n\n\n", "\n\n\n===1981–83: Formation and early years===\nPrior to forming the Beastie Boys, Michael Diamond was part of a number of bands such as the Walden Jazz Band, BAN, and The Young Aborigines. The Beastie Boys formed in July 1981 when the Young Aborigines bassist Jeremy Shatan left New York City for the summer and the remaining members Michael Diamond, John Berry and Kate Schellenbach formed a new hardcore punk band with Adam Yauch called Beastie Boys. The band supported Bad Brains, the Dead Kennedys, the Misfits and Reagan Youth at venues such as CBGB, A7, Trudy Hellers Place and Max's Kansas City, playing at the latter venue on its closing night. In November 1982, the Beastie Boys recorded the 7\" EP ''Polly Wog Stew'' at 171A studios, an early recorded example of New York hardcore.\n\nOn November 13, 1982, the Beastie Boys played Philip Pucci's birthday for the purposes of his short concert film of the Beastie Boys, ''Beastie''. Pucci held the concert in Bard College's Preston Drama Dance Department Theatre. This performance marked the Beastie Boys' first on screen appearance in a published motion picture. Pucci's concept for ''Beastie'' was to distribute a mixture of both a half dozen 16 mm Bell & Howell Filmo cameras, and 16 mm Bolex cameras to audience members and ask that they capture the Beastie Boys performance from the audience's own point of view while a master sync sound camera filmed from the balcony of the abandoned theater where the performance was held. The opening band for that performance was The Young and the Useless, which featured Adam Horovitz as the lead singer. A one-minute clip of ''Beastie'' was subsequently excerpted and licensed by the Beastie Boys for use in the \"Egg Raid on Mojo\" segment of the \"Skills to Pay the Bills\" long-form home video released by Capitol Records. \"Skills to Pay the Bills\" later went on to be certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).\n\nBerry left the group in 1982 (later forming Thwig, Big Fat Love and Bourbon Deluxe) and was replaced by Adam Horovitz, guitarist of The Young and the Useless, who had become close friends with the Beastie Boys at this point; Schellenbach left the band in 1984 and was not replaced, with Diamond filling the role of drummer. The band also recorded and then performed its first hip hop track, \"Cooky Puss\", based on a prank call by the group to Carvel Ice Cream franchise in 1983. It was a part of the new line-up's first EP, also called ''Cooky Puss'', which was the first piece of work that showed their incorporation of the underground rap phenomenon and the use of samples. It quickly became a hit in New York underground dance clubs and night clubs upon its release.\n\nIn 1983, the new line-up released the ''Cooky Puss'' EP, which offered the first evidence of them picking up on the underground rap phenomenon and the use of samples. \"Beastie Revolution\" was later sampled for a British Airways commercial. The Beastie Boys sued them over the use of the song, earning them $40,000 in royalties.\n\n===1984–87: Def Jam years and ''Licensed to Ill''===\nDue to the success of \"Cooky Puss\", they began to incorporate rap into their sets. They decided to hire a DJ for their live shows and ended up getting an NYU student named Rick Rubin. Soon thereafter, Rubin began producing records. He formed Def Jam Recordings with fellow NY University student, Russell Simmons, and approached the band about producing them for his new label. Around the same time, the band made a more complete switch over from a punk rock outfit to a three-man rap trio with drummer Kate Schellenbach leaving the group (later to join Luscious Jackson in 1991) and Diamond, Yauch and Horovitz each adopting their own hip hop monikers—Mike D, MCA and Ad-Rock respectively.\n\nThey released the 12-inch single \"Rock Hard\" in 1984, which would be the second record released by Def Jam crediting Rubin as producer. In 1985, the band opened for John Lydon's post-Sex Pistols band Public Image Ltd., as well as supporting Madonna on her North American The Virgin Tour. Then headlining with Fishbone and Murphy's Law with DJ Hurricane and later in the year, the group was on the ''Raising Hell'' tour with Run DMC, Whodini, LL Cool J, and the Timex Social Club. With their exposure on this tour, the track \"Hold It Now, Hit It\" charted on ''Billboard''s US R&B and dance charts. The track \"She's on It\" from the ''Krush Groove'' soundtrack continued in a rap/metal vein while a double A-side 12\", \"Paul Revere/The New Style\", was released at the end of the year.\n\nThe band recorded ''Licensed to Ill'' throughout 1986 and released the album on November 15, 1986. The album was well-received, and was favorably reviewed by ''Rolling Stone'' magazine with the now-famous headline, \"Three Idiots Create a Masterpiece\". ''Licensed to Ill'' became the best-selling rap album of the 1980s and the first rap album to go number 1 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, where it stayed for five weeks. It also reached number 2 on the Top R&B album charts. It was Def Jam's fastest selling debut record to date and sold over nine million copies. The fourth single from the album, \"(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)\", reached number 7 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and the video (directed by Ric Menello and Adam Dubin) became an MTV staple. Another song from the album, \"No Sleep till Brooklyn\", released in 1987, peaked at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart.\n\nThe band took the ''Licensed to Ill'' tour around the world the following year. It was a tour clouded in controversy featuring female members of the crowd dancing in cages and a giant motorized inflatable penis similar to one used by The Rolling Stones in the 1970s. The tour was troubled by lawsuits and arrests, with the band accused of provoking the crowd. This culminated in their notorious gig at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, England on May 30, 1987 that erupted into a riot approximately 10 minutes after the Beasties hit the stage and the arrest of Adam Horovitz by Merseyside Police. He was charged with assault causing grievous bodily harm.\n\nAfter the success of ''Licensed to Ill'', the Beasties parted ways with Def Jam and ended their relationship with Rick Rubin to sign with Capitol Records. ''Tougher Than Leather'', a movie made by Rick Rubin as a star vehicle for Run-D.M.C. and Def Jam Recordings with appearances by the Beastie Boys when they were still with the label, was released in 1988.\n\n===1988–89: Move to Capitol Records and ''Paul's Boutique''===\nThe group re-entered the studio in 1988, emerging with a more artistically mature second album, ''Paul's Boutique'', released on July 25, 1989 by Capitol Records, after the falling out between the group and Def Jam Recordings. It failed to match the sales of ''Licensed to Ill'', peaking at number 14 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and number 24 on the ''Billboard'' R&B charts. The lead single, \"Hey Ladies\", reached number 36 on the ''Billboard'' 100 and number 10 on the R&B charts. ''Rolling Stone'' would describe the album as \"the ''Pet Sounds''/''The Dark Side of the Moon'' of hip hop.\" Produced by the Dust Brothers and Matt Dike, ''Paul's Boutique'' is an extremely sample-laden opus and is considered one of the strongest works by the Beastie Boys. ''Rolling Stone'' ranked it number 156 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It is also considered a landmark in hip hop recordings due to its large array of samples and intricate use of multi-layering. ''Paul's Boutique'' would eventually sell a million copies, despite the initially weak commercial reception. The album was titled after a Lower East Manhattan thrift store. The album was remastered and re-released in 2009.\n\n===1990–96: ''Check Your Head'' and ''Ill Communication''===\nThe Beastie Boys at Club Citta Kawasaki, Japan ''Check Your Head tour'' Photo: Masao Nakagami, September 16, 1992\nThe follow-up album, ''Check Your Head'', was recorded in the band's own \"G-Son\" studio in Atwater Village, California and released on its Grand Royal record label. The band was influenced to play instruments on this album by Dutch group Urban Dance Squad; with Mike D on drums, Yauch on bass, Horovitz on guitar and Mark Ramos Nishita (\"Keyboard Money Mark\") on keyboards. Mario Caldato, Jr., who had helped in the production of ''Paul's Boutique'', engineered the record and became a longtime collaborator. ''Check Your Head'' was released in 1992 and was certified double Platinum in the US and peaked at number 10 on the ''Billboard'' 200. The single \"So What'cha Want\" reached number 93 on the ''Billboard'' 100 and charted on both the Rap and Modern Rock Chart, while the album's first single, \"Pass the Mic\", peaked at number 38 on the Hot Dance Music chart. The album also introduced a more experimental direction, with funk and jazz inspired songs including \"Lighten Up\" and \"Something's Got to Give\". The band returned to their hardcore punk roots for the song \"Time for Livin'\", a Sly & the Family Stone cover. The addition of instruments and the harder rock sound of the album could be considered a precursor to the nu metal genre of music to come out in the later half of the 1990s.\n\nBeastie Boys signed an eclectic roster of artists to their Grand Royal label, including Luscious Jackson, Sean Lennon and promising Australian artist Ben Lee. The group owned Grand Royal Records until 2001 when it was then sold for financial reasons. Grand Royal's first independent release was Luscious Jackson's album ''In Search of Manny'' in 1993. Also in 1993, the band contributed the track \"It's the New Style\" (with DJ Hurricane) to the AIDS benefit album ''No Alternative'', produced by the Red Hot Organization.\n\nThe Beastie Boys also published ''Grand Royal Magazine'', with the first edition in 1993 featuring a cover story on Bruce Lee, artwork by George Clinton, and interviews with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and A Tribe Called Quest MC Q-Tip. The 1995 issue of the magazine contained a memorable piece on the mullet. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' cites this as the first published use of the term, along with the lyrics from the Beasties' 1994 song, \"Mullet Head\". That term was not heard in the 1980s, even though that decade has retroactively been hailed as the mullet's peak in popularity. The ''OED'' says that the term was \"apparently coined, and certainly popularized, by US hip-hop group the Beastie Boys\". ''Grand Royal Magazine'' is also responsible for giving British band Sneaker Pimps their name.\n\n''Ill Communication'', released in 1994, saw the Beastie Boys' return to the top of the charts when the album debuted at number 1 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and peaked at number 2 on the R&B/hip hop album chart. The single \"Sabotage\" became a hit on the modern rock charts and the music video, directed by Spike Jonze, received extensive play on MTV. \"Get It Together\" reached Top 10 on the ''Billboard''. Also in 1994, the band released ''Some Old Bullshit'', featuring the band's early independent material, made number 46 on the ''Billboard'' independent charts.\n\nBeastie Boys headlined at Lollapalooza—an American travelling music festival—in 1994, together with The Smashing Pumpkins. In addition, the band performed three concerts (in Los Angeles, New York City, and Washington D.C.) to raise money for the Milarepa Fund and dedicated the royalties from \"Shambala\" and \"Bodhisattva Vow\" from the ''Ill Communication'' to the cause. The Milarepa Fund aims to raise awareness of Tibetan human rights issues and the exile of the Dalai Lama. In 1996, Yauch organized the largest rock benefit show since 1985's Live Aid – the Tibetan Freedom Concert, a two-day festival at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco that attracted over 100,000 attendees.\n\nIn 1995, the popularity of Beastie Boys was underlined when tickets for an arena tour went on sale in the US and Madison Square Garden and Chicago's Rosemont Horizon sold out within 30 minutes. One dollar from each ticket sold went through Milarepa to local charities in each city on the tour. The Beastie Boys toured South America and Southeast Asia for the first time. The band also released ''Aglio e Olio'', a collection of eight songs lasting just 11 minutes harking back to their punk roots, in 1995. ''The in Sound from Way Out!'', a collection of previously released jazz/funk instrumentals, was released on Grand Royal in 1996 with the title and artwork a homage to an album by electronic pop music pioneers Perrey and Kingsley.\n\nIn 1992, The Beastie Boys decided to sample portions of the sound recording of \"Choir\" by James Newton in various renditions of their song \"Pass the Mic\". The band did not, however, obtain a license from Newton to use the underlying composition. Pursuant to their license from ECM Records, the Beastie Boys digitally sampled the opening six seconds of Newton's sound recording of \"Choir\", and repeated this six-second sample as a back ground element throughout their song. Newton brought suit, claiming that the Beastie Boys infringed his copyright in the underlying composition of \"Choir\". The district court granted the Beastie Boys a summary of judgement in their favor. The district court said that no license was required because the three-note segment of \"Choir\" lacked the requisite originality and was therefore not copyrightable.\n\n===1997–2001: ''Hello Nasty''===\nBeastie Boys began work on the album ''Hello Nasty'' at the G-Son studios, Los Angeles in 1995, but continued to produce and record it in New York City after Yauch moved to Manhattan in 1996. The album displayed a substantial shift in musical feel, with the addition of Mix Master Mike. The album featured bombastic beats, rap samples, and experimental sounds. Released on July 14, 1998, ''Hello Nasty'' earned first week sales of 681,000 in the US and went straight to number 1 in the US, the UK, Germany, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Sweden. The album achieved number 2 rank in the charts in Canada and Japan, and reached top ten chart positions in Austria, Switzerland, Ireland, Belgium, Finland, France and Israel.\n\nBeastie Boys won two Grammy Awards in 1999, receiving the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album for ''Hello Nasty'' as well as the Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for \"Intergalactic\". This was the first and, as of 2008, only time that a band had won awards in both rap and alternative categories.\n\nAlso at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards they won Video Vanguard Award for their contribution to music videos. The following year at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards they also won the award for Best Hip Hop Video for their hit song \"Intergalactic\". Beastie Boys used both appearances at the Video Music Awards to make politically charged speeches of considerable length to the sizable MTV audiences. At the 1998 ceremony, Yauch addressed the issue of Muslim people being stereotyped as terrorists and that most people of the Muslim faith are not terrorists. These comments were made in the wake of the US Embassy bombings that had occurred in both Kenya and Tanzania only a month earlier. At the 1999 ceremony in the wake of the horror stories that were coming out of Woodstock 99, Adam Horovitz addressed the fact that there had been many cases of sexual assaults and rapes at the festival, suggesting the need for bands and festivals to pay much more attention to the security details at their concerts.\n\nBeastie Boys started an arena tour in 1998. Through Ian C. Rogers, the band made live downloads of their performances available for their fans, but were temporarily thwarted when Capitol Records removed them from its website. The Beastie Boys was one of the first bands who made MP3 downloads available on their website; they got a high level of response and public awareness as a result including a published article in ''The Wall Street Journal'' on the band's efforts.\n\nOn September 28, 1999, Beastie Boys joined Elvis Costello to play \"Radio Radio\" on the 25th anniversary season of ''Saturday Night Live''.\n\nBeastie Boys released ''The Sounds of Science'', a two-CD anthology of their works in 1999. This album reached number 19 on the Billboard 200, number 18 in Canada, and number 14 on the R&B/Hip Hop charts. The one new song, the single \"Alive\", reached number 11 on the Billboard's Modern Rock chart.\n\nIn 2000, Beastie Boys had planned to co-headline the \"Rhyme and Reason Tour\" with Rage Against the Machine and Busta Rhymes, but the tour was canceled when drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury due to a bicycle accident. The official diagnosis was fifth-degree acromioclavicular joint dislocation; he needed surgery and extensive rehabilitation. By the time he recovered, Rage Against the Machine had disbanded, although they would reunite seven years later.\n\nUnder the name \"Country Mike\", Mike D recorded an album, ''Country Mike's Greatest Hits'', and gave it to friends and family for Christmas in 2000. Adam \"Ad-Rock\" Horovitz's side project BS 2000 released ''Simply Mortified'' in 2001.\n\nThe band increased its level of political activism after the September 11, 2001 attacks, organizing and headlining the New Yorkers Against Violence Concert at the Hamerstein Ballroom in October 2001.\n\n''Hello Nasty'' was reissued on September 22, 2009.\n\n===2002–08: ''To the 5 Boroughs'' and ''The Mix-Up''===\nIn 2002, Adam Yauch started building a new studio facility, ''Oscilloscope Laboratories'', in downtown Manhattan, New York and the band started work on a new album there. The band released a protest song, \"In A World Gone Mad\", against the 2003 Iraq war as a free download on several websites, including the Milarepa website, the MTV website, MoveOn.org, and Win Without War. The 19th and 20th Tibetan Freedom Concerts were held in Tokyo and Taipei, Beastie Boys' first Taiwan appearance. Beastie Boys also headlined the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.\n\nTheir single, \"Ch-Check It Out\", debuted on ''The O.C.'' in \"The Vegas\" episode from Season 1, which aired April 28, 2004.\n\n''To the 5 Boroughs'' was released worldwide on June 15, 2004. It was the first album the Beastie Boys produced themselves and reached number 1 on the Billboard album charts, number 2 in the UK and Australia, and number 3 in Germany. The first single from the album, \"Ch-Check It Out\", reached number 1 in Canada and on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart.\n\nThe album was the cause of some controversy with allegations that it installed spyware when inserted into the CD drive of a computer. The band denied this allegation, defending that there is no copy protection software on the albums sold in the US and UK. While there is Macrovision CDS-200 copy protection software installed on European copies of the album, this is standard practice for all European releases on EMI/Capitol Records released in Europe, and it does not install spyware or any form of permanent software.\n\nThe band stated in mid-2006 that they were writing material for their next album and would be producing it themselves.\n\nThe Beastie Boys (left to right) Ad-Rock, Mike D, and MCA performing in Barcelona, Spain in September 2007.\nSpeaking to British music weekly ''NME'' (April 26, 2007), Diamond revealed that a new album was to be called ''The Mix-Up''. Despite initial confusion regarding whether the album would have lyrics as opposed to being purely instrumental, the Mic-To-Mic blog reported that Capitol Records had confirmed it would be strictly instrumental and erroneously reported a release date scheduled for July 10, 2007. (The album was eventually released June 26, as originally reported.) On May 1, 2007, this was further cemented by an e-mail sent to those on the Beastie Boys' mailing list – explicitly stating that the album would be all instrumental:\n\n\n\nThe band played several tracks from the album at the 2007 Virgin Festival at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland.\n\nThe band subsequently confirmed the new album and announced a short tour that focused on festivals as opposed to a traditional tour, including the likes of Sónar (Spain), Roskilde (Denmark), Hurricane/Southside (Germany), Bestival (Isle of Wight), Electric Picnic (Ireland) and Open'er Festival (Poland). Beastie Boys performed at the UK leg of Live Earth July 7, 2007 at Wembley Stadium, London with \"Sabotage\", \"So What'cha Want\", \"Intergalactic\", and \"Sure Shot\".\n\nThey worked with Reverb, a non-profit environmental organization, on their 2007 summer tour.\n\nThey won a Grammy for ''The Mix-Up'' in the \"Best Pop Instrumental Album\" category at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards in 2008.\n\n===2009–12: ''Hot Sauce Committee''===\nIn February 2009, Yauch revealed their forthcoming new album has taken the band's sound in a \"bizarre\" new direction, saying \"It's a combination of playing and sampling stuff as we're playing, and also sampling pretty obscure records.\" The tentative title for the record was ''Tadlock's Glasses'', of which Yauch explained the inspiration behind the title:\n\n\n\nOn May 25, 2009, it was announced during an interview on ''Late Night with Jimmy Fallon'' that the name of their new album would be ''Hot Sauce Committee'' and was set for release on September 15 (with the track listing of the album announced through their mailing list on June 23). The album included a collaboration with Santigold who co-wrote and sang with the band on the track \"Don't Play No Game That I Can't Win\".\n\nIn June, the group appeared at Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival and performed the new single from the album titled \"Too Many Rappers\" alongside rapper Nas who appears on the track. It would be the last live performance by the Beastie Boys as a trio. The group would have toured the UK later in the year in support of the new record.\n\nSpeaking to ''Drowned in Sound'', the Beastie Boys revealed that Part 2 was done. Mike D also hinted it may be released via unusual means:\n\n\n\nOn July 20, Yauch announced on the Beastie Boys' official YouTube channel and through the fan mailing list, the cancellation of several tour dates and the postponement of the new album due to the discovery of a cancerous tumor in his parotid gland and a lymph node. The group also had to cancel their co-headlining gig at the Osheaga Festival in Montreal as well as a headlining spot at 2009's Lollapalooza and also another headlining spot for the first night of the All Points West Festival in Jersey City, New Jersey.\n\nIn late October 2010, the Beastie Boys sent out two emails regarding the status of ''Hot Sauce Committee'' Pts. 1 and 2 to their online mailing list. An email dated October 18 read: \"Although we regret to inform you that ''Hot Sauce Committee Part 1'' will continue to be delayed indefinitely, ''Hot Sauce Committee Part 2'' will be released on time as originally planned in spring of 2011.\" One week later, a second email was sent out, reading as follows:\n\n\n\nThe official release dates were April 27, 2011 for Japan; April 29 in the UK and Europe, and May 3, 2011 in the US. The third single for the album is \"Make Some Noise\" was made available for download on April 11, 2011 as well as a limited edition 7\" vinyl single for Record Store Day five days later with a Passion Pit remix of the track as a b-side. The track was leaked online on April 6 and subsequently made available via their blog.\n\nOn April 22, the Beastie Boys emailed out the cryptic message ''\"This Sat, 10:35 am EST – Just listen, listen, listen to the beat box\"''. A day later, they live streamed their album online via beatbox inside Madison Square Garden.\n\nThe band was announced as an inductee into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in December 2011. They were inducted by Chuck D and LL Cool J on April 14, 2012. Yauch was too sick to attend the ceremony, having been admitted to NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital the same day, therefore the group didn't perform; instead Black Thought, Travie from Gym Class Heroes and Kid Rock performed a medley of their songs. Diamond and Horovitz accepted and read a speech that Yauch had written.\n\n===2012–present: Deaths of Yauch and Berry===\nOn May 4, 2012, Yauch died from cancer at the age of 47. On May 24, in an interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Mike D claimed that the Beastie Boys recorded new music in late 2011 after the release of ''Hot Sauce Committee (Part 2)'', although it was not indicated if or when these recordings would be released. During the same interview, Mike D claimed that the Beastie Boys will likely disband due to the death of MCA, although he is open to making new music with Ad-Rock in the future. Nothing certain has been said regarding the future of the band, but Mike D stated he would like to continue making music and \"Yauch would genuinely want us to try whatever crazy thing we wanted but never got around to.\"\n\nIn April 2013 it was announced that the group has signed a deal to write an autobiography. The book was scheduled to be released in the fall of 2015. \nHowever, Horovitz stated that the autobiography is being delayed. According to Horovitz, \"We've got pages!....How it's going to fit together, I don't know. But we've got some ideas. It's interesting. It's fun.\"\n\nOn May 3, 2013 a children's playground in Brooklyn was renamed for Adam Yauch.\n\nIn June 2014, Mike D stated that neither he nor Horovitz would ever perform under the name the Beastie Boys again out of respect for Yauch.\n\nFounding Beastie Boys guitarist John Berry died on May 19, 2016, aged 52, as a result of frontotemporal dementia, after a decline of health for several years. He was credited with coming up with the Beastie Boys name, and played guitar on the first EP the Beastie Boys recorded. Before the Beastie Boys, he was also a part of Even Worse, Big Fat Love, Highway Stars, Bourbon Deluxe, and Idaho. The first Beastie Boys show took place at Berry's loft.\n\n", "\nIn 1994, Adam Yauch and activist Erin Potts organized the Tibetan Freedom Concert in order to raise awareness of humans rights abuses by the Chinese government on the Tibetan people.\n\nYauch became aware of this after hiking in Nepal and speaking with Tibetan refugees. The events became annual, and shortly after went international with acts such as Live, Mike Mills and Michael Stipe of R.E.M., Rage Against the Machine, Smashing Pumpkins, and U2.\n", "Originally a hardcore punk band, Beastie Boys largely abandoned the genre in favor of hip hop and rap rock by the time they worked on their debut studio album ''Licensed to Ill''.\n\nAround the time of the release of their debut album, ''Licensed to Ill'', Mike D started to appear on stage and in publicity photographs wearing a large Volkswagen emblem attached to a chain-link necklace. This started a rash of thefts of the emblem from vehicles around the world as fans tried to emulate him. A controversial concert in Columbus, Georgia in 1987 led to the passage of a lewdness ordinance in that city.\n\nThe Beastie Boys are considered very influential in both the hip hop and rock music scenes, with artists from Eminem to Rage Against the Machine to Limp Bizkit, to Sublime, and Blur citing them as an influence. Beastie Boys have had four albums reach the top of the ''Billboard'' album charts (''Licensed to Ill'', ''Ill Communication'', ''Hello Nasty'' and ''To The 5 Boroughs'') since 1986. In the November 2004 issue, ''Rolling Stone'' named \"Sabotage\" the 475th song on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list.\nIn their April 2005 issue, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked them number 77 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. VH1 ranked them number 89 on their list of their 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On September 27, 2007, it was announced that Beastie Boys were one of the nine nominees for the 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Inductions. In December 2011, they were announced to be official 2012 inductees.\n", "In 2003, Beastie Boys were involved in the landmark sampling decision, ''Newton v. Diamond''. In that case, a federal judge ruled that the band was not liable for sampling James Newton's \"Choir\" in their track, \"Pass the Mic\". The sample used is the six-second flute stab. In short, the Beasties cleared the sample but obtained only the rights to use the sound recording and not the composition rights to the song \"Choir\". In the decision, the judge found that:\n\n\n", "===Former members===\n* John Berry – guitars (1981–1982; died in 2016)\n* Mike D – vocals (1981–2012), drums (1984–2012)\n* Kate Schellenbach – drums, percussion (1981–1984)\n* MCA – vocals, bass (1981–2012; '''died 2012''')\n* Ad-Rock – vocals, guitars (1982–2012)\n\n===Touring members===\n* DJ Double R – disc jockey (1984–1985)\n* Doctor Dré – disc jockey (1986)\n* DJ Hurricane – disc jockey (1986–1997)\n* Eric Bobo – percussion (1992–1996)\n* Money Mark (Mark Ramos-Nishita) – keyboards, vocals (1992–2012)\n* AWOL – drums (1994–1995)\n* Alfredo Ortiz – drums, percussion (1996–2012)\n* Mix Master Mike – disc jockey, backing vocals (1998–2012)\n\n===Timeline===\n\nImageSize =width:900 height:auto barincrement:18\nPlotArea =left:120 bottom:180 top:10 right:20\nAlignbars =justify\nDateFormat =mm/dd/yyyy\nPeriod =from:07/01/1981 till:05/04/2012\nScaleMajor = increment:2 start:1982\nScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1983\nTimeAxis =orientation:horizontal format:yyyy\nLegend =orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:1\n\nColors=\n id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals\n id:guitar value:green legend:Guitars\n id:bass value:blue legend:Bass\n id:drums value:orange legend:Drums,_percussion\n id:studio value:black legend:Studio_releases\n id:EPs value:gray(0.6) legend:Others_releases\n\nLineData=\n layer:back\n at:11/15/1986 color:black\n at:07/25/1989 color:black\n at:04/21/1992 color:black\n at:05/23/1994 color:black\n at:07/14/1998 color:black\n at:06/15/2004 color:black\n at:06/27/2007 color:black\n at:05/03/2011 color:black\n at:11/20/1982 color:eps\n at:01/01/1994 color:eps\n at:05/23/1995 color:eps\n at:11/13/1995 color:eps\n at:08/24/1999 color:eps\n at:12/23/2008 color:eps\n\nBarData=\n \n bar:John text:\"John Berry\"\n bar:Ad-Rock text:\"Ad-Rock\"\n bar:MCA text:\"MCA\"\n bar:Mike text:\"Mike D\"\n bar:Kate text:\"Kate Schellenbach\"\n\nPlotData =\n width:11\n bar:MCA from:07/01/1981 till:end color:bass\n bar:MCA from:07/01/1981 till:end color:vocals width:3\n bar:John from:07/01/1981 till:01/01/1982 color:guitar\n bar:Ad-Rock from:01/01/1982 till:end color:guitar\n bar:Ad-Rock from:01/01/1982 till:end color:vocals width:3\n bar:Mike from:07/01/1981 till:02/01/1984 color:vocals\n bar:Mike from:02/01/1984 till:end color:drums\n bar:Mike from:02/01/1984 till:end color:vocals width:3\n bar:Kate from:07/01/1981 till:02/01/1984 color:drums\n\n", "\n\n'''Studio albums'''\n* ''Licensed to Ill'' (1986)\n* ''Paul's Boutique'' (1989)\n* ''Check Your Head'' (1992)\n* ''Ill Communication'' (1994)\n* ''Hello Nasty'' (1998)\n* ''To the 5 Boroughs'' (2004)\n* ''The Mix-Up'' (2007)\n* ''Hot Sauce Committee Part Two'' (2011)\n", "'''Headlining'''\n* Licensed to Ill Tour (1987) (with Public Enemy)\n* Together Forever Tour (1987) (with Run-D.M.C.)\n* Check Your Head Tour (1992) (with Cypress Hill)\n* Ill Communication Tour (1994–1995)\n* In The Round Tour (1998–1999) (with A Tribe Called Quest)\n* To the 5 Boroughs Tour (2004)\n* The Mix-Up Tour (2007–2008)\n\n'''Supporting'''\n* The Virgin Tour (1985) (supporting Madonna)\n* Raising Hell Tour (1986) (supporting Run-D.M.C.)\n", ";Grammy Awards\n\n\n1992\n''Check Your Head''\nBest Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\n\n\n1995\n\"Sabotage\"\nBest Hard Rock Performance\n\n\n1999\n\"Intergalactic\"\nBest Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\n\n\n''Hello Nasty''\nBest Alternative Music Album\n\n\n2001\n\"Alive\"\nBest Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\n\n\n2005\n\"Ch-Check It Out\"\nBest Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\n\n\n''To The 5 Boroughs''\nBest Rap Album\n\n\n2008\n\"Off the Grid\"\nBest Pop Instrumental Performance\n\n\n''The Mix-Up''\nBest Contemporary Instrumental Album\n\n\n2010\n\"Too Many Rappers\" (featuring Nas)\nBest Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\n\n\n\n;MTV Video Music Awards\n\n\n1994\n\"Sabotage\"\nVideo of the Year\n\n\nBest Group Video\n\n\nBreakthrough Video\n\n\nBest Direction (Director: Spike Jonze)\n\n\nViewer's Choice\n\n\n1998\nBeastie Boys\nMichael Jackson Video Vanguard Award\n\n\n1999\n\"Intergalactic\"\nBest Hip-Hop Video\n\n\n2009\n\"Sabotage\"\nBest Video (That Should Have Won a Moonman)\n\n\n2011\n\"Make Some Noise\"\nVideo of the Year\n\n\nBest Direction (Director: Adam Yauch)\n\n\n\n;MTV Europe Music Awards\n\n\n1994\nBeastie Boys\nBest Group\n\n\n1998\n\"Intergalactic\"\nBest Video\n\n\n''Hello Nasty''\nBest Album\n\n\nBeastie Boys\nBest Group\n\n\nBest Hip-Hop\n\n\n1999\nBeastie Boys\nBest Hip-Hop\n\n\n2004\nBeastie Boys\nBest Group\n\n\nBest Hip-Hop\n\n\n2011\n\"Make Some Noise\"\nBest Video\n\n\n\n;MTV Video Music Awards Japan\n\n\n2005\n\"Ch-Check It Out\"\nBest Hip-Hop Video\n\n\n2009\nBeastie Boys\nMTV Street Icon Award\n\n\n", "''Krush Groove'' (1985)\n''Tougher Than Leather'' (1988)\n''Awesome; I Fuckin' Shot That!'' (2006)\n''Fight for Your Right Revisited'' (2011)\n''Futurama episode Hell Is Other Robots (1999)\n", "\n", "\n\n\n Beastie Boys Lyrics Annotated – Beastie Boys lyrics laid out with annotated comments explaining popular culture and historical references as well as known samples.\n* Beastie Boys Lyrics\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Tibetan Freedom Concert ", "Musical style, influences, and legacy", "Sampling lawsuit", "Band members", "Discography", "Tours", "Awards and nominations", "Filmography", "References", "External links" ]	Beastie Boys
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''British Isles''' are a group of islands off the north-western coast of continental Europe that consist of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. Situated in the North Atlantic, the islands have a total area of approximately 315,159 km2, and a combined population of just under 70 million. Two sovereign states are located on the islands: Ireland (which covers roughly five-sixths of the island with the same name) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The British Isles also include three Crown Dependencies: the Isle of Man and, by tradition, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey in the Channel Islands, although the latter are not physically a part of the archipelago.\n\nThe oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of Scotland, Ireland and North Wales and are 2,700 million years old. During the Silurian period the north-western regions collided with the south-east, which had been part of a separate continental landmass. The topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards. Ben Nevis rises to an elevation of only , and Lough Neagh, which is notably larger than other lakes on the isles, covers . The climate is temperate marine, with mild winters and warm summers. The North Atlantic Drift brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was long dominated by temperate rainforest, although human activity has since cleared the vast majority of forest cover. The region was re-inhabited after the last glacial period of Quaternary glaciation, by 12,000 BC, when Great Britain was still part of a peninsula of the European continent. Ireland, which became an island by 12,000 BC, was not inhabited until after 8000 BC. Great Britain became an island by 5600 BC.\n\nHiberni (Ireland), Pictish (northern Britain) and Britons (southern Britain) tribes, all speaking Insular Celtic, inhabited the islands at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Much of Brittonic-controlled Britain was conquered by the Roman Empire from AD 43. The first Anglo-Saxons arrived as Roman power waned in the 5th century and eventually dominated the bulk of what is now England. Viking invasions began in the 9th century, followed by more permanent settlements and political change—particularly in England. The subsequent Norman conquest of England in 1066 and the later Angevin partial conquest of Ireland from 1169 led to the imposition of a new Norman ruling elite across much of Britain and parts of Ireland. By the Late Middle Ages, Great Britain was separated into the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, while control in Ireland fluxed between Gaelic kingdoms, Hiberno-Norman lords and the English-dominated Lordship of Ireland, soon restricted only to The Pale. The 1603 Union of the Crowns, Acts of Union 1707 and Acts of Union 1800 attempted to consolidate Britain and Ireland into a single political unit, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands remaining as Crown Dependencies. The expansion of the British Empire and migrations following the Irish Famine and Highland Clearances resulted in the distribution of the islands' population and culture throughout the world and a rapid de-population of Ireland in the second half of the 19th century. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Anglo-Irish Treaty (1919–1922), with six counties remaining in the UK as Northern Ireland.\n\nThe term ''British Isles'' is controversial in Ireland, where there are objections to its usage due to the association of the word ''British'' with Ireland. The Government of Ireland does not recognise or use the term and its embassy in London discourages its use. As a result, '''Britain and Ireland''' is used as an alternative description, and '''Atlantic Archipelago''' has had limited use among a minority in academia, while ''British Isles'' is still commonly employed. Within them, they are also sometimes referred to as ''these islands''.\n", "\n\nThe earliest known references to the islands as a group appeared in the writings of sea-farers from the ancient Greek colony of Massalia. The original records have been lost; however, later writings, e.g. Avienus's ''Ora maritima'', that quoted from the Massaliote Periplus (6th century BC) and from Pytheas's ''On the Ocean'' (circa 325–320 BC) have survived. In the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus has ''Prettanikē nēsos'', \"the British Island\", and ''Prettanoi'', \"the Britons\". Strabo used Βρεττανική (''Brettanike''), and Marcian of Heraclea, in his ''Periplus maris exteri'', used αἱ Πρεττανικαί νῆσοι (''the Prettanic Isles'') to refer to the islands. Historians today, though not in absolute agreement, largely agree that these Greek and Latin names were probably drawn from native Celtic-language names for the archipelago. Along these lines, the inhabitants of the islands were called the Πρεττανοί (''Priteni'' or ''Pretani''). The shift from the \"P\" of ''Pretannia'' to the \"B\" of ''Britannia'' by the Romans occurred during the time of Julius Caesar.\n\nThe Greco-Egyptian scientist Claudius Ptolemy referred to the larger island as ''great Britain'' (''μεγάλης Βρεττανίας – megális Brettanias'') and to Ireland as ''little Britain'' (''μικρής Βρεττανίας – mikris Brettanias'') in his work ''Almagest'' (147–148 AD). In his later work, ''Geography'' (c. 150 AD), he gave these islands the names ''Alwion'', ''Iwernia'', and ''Mona'' (the Isle of Man), suggesting these may have been names of the individual islands not known to him at the time of writing ''Almagest''. The name ''Albion'' appears to have fallen out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Great Britain, after which ''Britain'' became the more commonplace name for the island called Great Britain.\n\nThe earliest known use of the phrase ''Brytish Iles'' in the English language is dated 1577 in a work by John Dee. Today, this name is seen by some as carrying imperialist overtones although it is still commonly used. Other names used to describe the islands include the ''Anglo-Celtic Isles'', ''Atlantic archipelago'', ''British-Irish Isles'', ''Britain and Ireland'', ''UK and Ireland'', and ''British Isles and Ireland''. Owing to political and national associations with the word ''British'', the Government of Ireland does not use the term ''British Isles'' and in documents drawn up jointly between the British and Irish governments, the archipelago is referred to simply as \"these islands\". Nonetheless, British Isles is still the most widely accepted term for the archipelago.\n", "\n\nEuropean continental shelf.\n\nThe British Isles lie at the juncture of several regions with past episodes of tectonic mountain building. These orogenic belts form a complex geology that records a huge and varied span of Earth's history. Of particular note was the Caledonian Orogeny during the Ordovician Period, c. 488–444 Ma and early Silurian period, when the craton Baltica collided with the terrane Avalonia to form the mountains and hills in northern Britain and Ireland. Baltica formed roughly the northwestern half of Ireland and Scotland. Further collisions caused the Variscan orogeny in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, forming the hills of Munster, southwest England, and southern Wales. Over the last 500 million years the land that forms the islands has drifted northwest from around 30°S, crossing the equator around 370 million years ago to reach its present northern latitude.\n\nThe islands have been shaped by numerous glaciations during the Quaternary Period, the most recent being the Devensian. As this ended, the central Irish Sea was deglaciated and the English Channel flooded, with sea levels rising to current levels some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, leaving the British Isles in their current form. Whether or not there was a land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland at this time is somewhat disputed, though there was certainly a single ice sheet covering the entire sea.\n\nThe west coasts of Ireland and Scotland that directly face the Atlantic Ocean are generally characterised by long peninsulas, and headlands and bays; the internal and eastern coasts are \"smoother\".\n\nThere are about 136 permanently inhabited islands in the group, the largest two being Great Britain and Ireland. Great Britain is to the east and covers . Ireland is to the west and covers . The largest of the other islands are to be found in the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland to the north, Anglesey and the Isle of Man between Great Britain and Ireland, and the Channel Islands near the coast of France.\n\nThe islands are at relatively low altitudes, with central Ireland and southern Great Britain particularly low-lying: the lowest point in the islands is Holme, Cambridgeshire at . The Scottish Highlands in the northern part of Great Britain are mountainous, with Ben Nevis being the highest point on the islands at . Other mountainous areas include Wales and parts of Ireland, however only seven peaks in these areas reach above . Lakes on the islands are generally not large, although Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland is an exception, covering . The largest freshwater body in Great Britain (by area) is Loch Lomond at , and Loch Ness, by volume whilst Loch Morar is the deepest freshwater body in the British Isles, with a maximum depth of . There are a number of major rivers within the British Isles. The longest is the Shannon in Ireland at . The river Severn at is the longest in Great Britain.\n\n===Climate===\nThe climate is mild, moist and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. It is defined as a temperate oceanic climate, or ''Cfb'' on the Köppen climate classification system, a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. The country receives generally cool summers and mild winters. The North Atlantic Drift (\"Gulf Stream\"), which flows from the Gulf of Mexico, brings with it significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the islands' latitudes. Winters are cool and wet, with summers mild and also wet. Most Atlantic depressions pass to the north of the islands, combined with the general westerly circulation and interactions with the landmass, this imposes an east-west variation in climate.\n", "\n\nSome female red deer in Killarney National Park, Ireland.\n\nThe islands enjoy a mild climate and varied soils, giving rise to a diverse pattern of vegetation. Animal and plant life is similar to that of the northwestern European mainland. There are however, fewer numbers of species, with Ireland having even less. All native flora and fauna in Ireland is made up of species that migrated from elsewhere in Europe, and Great Britain in particular. The only window when this could have occurred was between the end of the last Ice Age (about 12,000 years ago) and when the land bridge connecting the two islands was flooded by sea (about 8,000 years ago).\n\nAs with most of Europe, prehistoric Britain and Ireland were covered with forest and swamp. Clearing began around 6000 BC and accelerated in medieval times. Despite this, Britain retained its primeval forests longer than most of Europe due to a small population and later development of trade and industry, and wood shortages were not a problem until the 17th century. By the 18th century, most of Britain's forests were consumed for shipbuilding or manufacturing charcoal and the nation was forced to import lumber from Scandinavia, North America, and the Baltic. Most forest land in Ireland is maintained by state forestation programmes. Almost all land outside urban areas is farmland. However, relatively large areas of forest remain in east and north Scotland and in southeast England. Oak, elm, ash and beech are amongst the most common trees in England. In Scotland, pine and birch are most common. Natural forests in Ireland are mainly oak, ash, wych elm, birch and pine. Beech and lime, though not native to Ireland, are also common there. Farmland hosts a variety of semi-natural vegetation of grasses and flowering plants. Woods, hedgerows, mountain slopes and marshes host heather, wild grasses, gorse and bracken.\n\nMany larger animals, such as wolf, bear and the European elk are today extinct. However, some species such as red deer are protected. Other small mammals, such as rabbits, foxes, badgers, hares, hedgehogs, and stoats, are very common and the European beaver has been reintroduced in parts of Scotland. Wild boar have also been reintroduced to parts of southern England, following escapes from boar farms and illegal releases. Many rivers contain otters and seals are common on coasts. Over 200 species of bird reside permanently and another 200 migrate. Common types are the common chaffinch, common blackbird, house sparrow and common starling; all small birds. Large birds are declining in number, except for those kept for game such as pheasant, partridge, and red grouse. Fish are abundant in the rivers and lakes, in particular salmon, trout, perch and pike. Sea fish include dogfish, cod, sole, pollock and bass, as well as mussels, crab and oysters along the coast. There are more than 21,000 species of insects.\n\nFew species of reptiles or amphibians are found in Great Britain or Ireland. Only three snakes are native to Great Britain: the common European adder, the grass snake and the smooth snake; none are native to Ireland. In general, Great Britain has slightly more variation and native wild life, with weasels, polecats, wildcats, most shrews, moles, water voles, roe deer and common toads also being absent from Ireland. This pattern is also true for birds and insects. Notable exceptions include the Kerry slug and certain species of woodlouse native to Ireland but not Great Britain.\n\nDomestic animals include the Connemara pony, Shetland pony, English Mastiff, Irish wolfhound and many varieties of cattle and sheep.\n", "\n\nregions.\n\nThe demographics of the British Isles today are characterised by a generally high density of population in England, which accounts for almost 80% of the total population of the islands. In elsewhere on Great Britain and on Ireland, high density of population is limited to areas around, or close to, a few large cities. The largest urban area by far is the Greater London Urban Area with 9 million inhabitants. Other major population centres include the Greater Manchester Urban Area (2.4 million), West Midlands conurbation (2.4 million) and West Yorkshire Urban Area (1.6 million) in England, Greater Glasgow (1.2 million) in Scotland and Greater Dublin Area (1.1 million) in Ireland.\n\nThe population of England rose rapidly during the 19th and 20th centuries, whereas the populations of Scotland and Wales showed little increase during the 20th century, the population of Scotland remaining unchanged since 1951. Ireland for most of its history comprised a population proportionate to its land area (about one third of the total population). However, since the Great Irish Famine, the population of Ireland has fallen to less than one tenth of the population of the British Isles. The famine, which caused a century-long population decline, drastically reduced the Irish population and permanently altered the demographic make-up of the British Isles. On a global scale, this disaster led to the creation of an Irish diaspora that numbers fifteen times the current population of the island.\n\nThe linguistic heritage of the British Isles is rich, with twelve languages from six groups across four branches of the Indo-European family. The Insular Celtic languages of the Goidelic sub-group (Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic) and the Brittonic sub-group (Cornish, Welsh and Breton, spoken in north-western France) are the only remaining Celtic languages—the last of their continental relations becoming extinct before the 7th century. The Norman languages of Guernésiais, Jèrriais and Sarkese spoken in the Channel Islands are similar to French. A cant, called Shelta, is spoken by Irish Travellers, often as a means to conceal meaning from those outside the group. However, English, sometimes in the form of Scots, is the dominant language, with few monoglots remaining in the other languages of the region. The Norn language of Orkney and Shetland became extinct around 1880. \n", "\n\nAt the end of the last ice age, what are now the British Isles were joined to the European mainland as a mass of land extending north west from the modern-day northern coastline of France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Ice covered almost all of what is now Scotland, most of Ireland and Wales, and the hills of northern England. From 14,000 to 10,000 years ago, as the ice melted, sea levels rose separating Ireland from Great Britain and also creating the Isle of Man. About two to four millennia later, Great Britain became separated from the mainland. Britain probably became repopulated with people before the ice age ended and certainly before it became separated from the mainland. It is likely that Ireland became settled by sea after it had already become an island.\n\nAt the time of the Roman Empire, about two thousand years ago, various tribes, which spoke Celtic dialects of the Insular Celtic group, were inhabiting the islands. The Romans expanded their civilisation to control southern Great Britain but were impeded in advancing any further, building Hadrian's Wall to mark the northern frontier of their empire in 122 AD. At that time, Ireland was populated by a people known as Hiberni, the northern third or so of Great Britain by a people known as Picts and the southern two thirds by Britons. The Alfred Jewel (9th century)Anglo-Saxons arrived as Roman power waned in the 5th century AD. Initially, their arrival seems to have been at the invitation of the Britons as mercenaries to repulse incursions by the Hiberni and Picts. In time, Anglo-Saxon demands on the British became so great that they came to culturally dominate the bulk of southern Great Britain, though recent genetic evidence suggests Britons still formed the bulk of the population. This dominance creating what is now England and leaving culturally British enclaves only in the north of what is now England, in Cornwall and what is now known as Wales. Ireland had been unaffected by the Romans except, significantly, for being Christianised—traditionally by the Romano-Briton, Saint Patrick. As Europe, including Britain, descended into turmoil following the collapse of Roman civilisation, an era known as the Dark Ages, Ireland entered a golden age and responded with missions (first to Great Britain and then to the continent), the founding of monasteries and universities. These were later joined by Anglo-Saxon missions of a similar nature.\n\nViking invasions began in the 9th century, followed by more permanent settlements, particularly along the east coast of Ireland, the west coast of modern-day Scotland and the Isle of Man. Though the Vikings were eventually neutralised in Ireland, their influence remained in the cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Waterford and Wexford. England, however, was slowly conquered around the turn of the first millennium AD, and eventually became a feudal possession of Denmark. The relations between the descendants of Vikings in England and counterparts in Normandy, in northern France, lay at the heart of a series of events that led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, which conquered England, remain associated to the English Crown as the Channel Islands to this day. A century later, the marriage of the future Henry II of England to Eleanor of Aquitaine created the Angevin Empire, partially under the French Crown. At the invitation of Diarmait Mac Murchada, a provincial king, and under the authority of Pope Adrian IV (the only Englishman to be elected pope), the Angevins invaded Ireland in 1169. Though initially intended to be kept as an independent kingdom, the failure of the Irish High King to ensure the terms of the Treaty of Windsor led Henry II, as King of England, to rule as effective monarch under the title of Lord of Ireland. This title was granted to his younger son, but when Henry's heir unexpectedly died, the title of King of England and Lord of Ireland became entwined in one person.\n\nJames VI of Scotland (James I of England)\n\nBy the Late Middle Ages, Great Britain was separated into the Kingdoms of England and Scotland. Power in Ireland fluxed between Gaelic kingdoms, Hiberno-Norman lords and the English-dominated Lordship of Ireland. A similar situation existed in the Principality of Wales, which was slowly being annexed into the Kingdom of England by a series of laws. During the course of the 15th century, the Crown of England would assert a claim to the Crown of France, thereby also releasing the King of England as from being vassal of the King of France. In 1534, King Henry VIII, at first having been a strong defender of Roman Catholicism in the face of the Reformation, separated from the Roman Church after failing to secure a divorce from the Pope. His response was to place the King of England as \"the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England\", thereby removing the authority of the Pope from the affairs of the English Church. Ireland, which had been held by the King of England as Lord of Ireland, but which strictly speaking had been a feudal possession of the Pope since the Norman invasion was declared a separate kingdom in personal union with England.\n\nScotland, meanwhile had remained an independent Kingdom. In 1603, that changed when the King of Scotland inherited the Crown of England, and consequently the Crown of Ireland also. The subsequent 17th century was one of political upheaval, religious division and war. English colonialism in Ireland of the 16th century was extended by large-scale Scottish and English colonies in Ulster. Religious division heightened and the king in England came into conflict with parliament over his tolerance towards Catholicism. The resulting English Civil War or War of the Three Kingdoms led to a revolutionary republic in England. Ireland, largely Catholic was mainly loyal to the king. Following defeat to the parliaments army, large scale land distributions from loyalist Irish nobility to English commoners in the service of the parliamentary army created a new Ascendancy class which obliterated the remnants of Old English (Hiberno-Norman) and Gaelic Irish nobility in Ireland. The new ruling class was Protestant and English, whilst the populace was largely Catholic and Irish. This theme would influence Irish politics for centuries to come. When the monarchy was restored in England, the king found it politically impossible to restore the lands of former land-owners in Ireland. The \"Glorious Revolution\" of 1688 repeated similar themes: a Catholic king pushing for religious tolerance in opposition to a Protestant parliament in England. The king's army was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne and at the militarily crucial Battle of Aughrim in Ireland. Resistance held out, eventually forcing the guarantee of religious tolerance in the Treaty of Limerick. However, the terms were never honoured and a new monarchy was installed.\n\nThe Kingdoms of England and Scotland were unified in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. Following an attempted republican revolution in Ireland in 1798, the Kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain were unified in 1801, creating the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands remaining outside of the United Kingdom but with their ultimate good governance being the responsibility of the British Crown (effectively the British government). Although, the colonies of North America that would become the United States of America were lost by the start of the 19th century, the British Empire expanded rapidly elsewhere. A century later it would cover one third of the globe. Poverty in the United Kingdom remained desperate, however, and industrialisation in England led to terrible condition for the working classes. Mass migrations following the Irish Famine and Highland Clearances resulted in the distribution of the islands' population and culture throughout the world and a rapid de-population of Ireland in the second half of the 19th century. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Anglo-Irish Treaty (1919–1922), with the six counties that formed Northern Ireland remaining as an autonomous region of the UK.\n", "\n\n\ndiagrammatic version\n\nThere are two sovereign states in the isles: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Ireland, sometimes called ''the Republic of Ireland'', governs five sixths of the island of Ireland, with the remainder of the island forming Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, usually shortened to simply ''the United Kingdom'', which governs the remainder of the archipelago with the exception of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. The Isle of Man and the two states of the Channel Islands, Jersey and Guernsey, are known as the Crown Dependencies. They exercise constitutional rights of self-government and judicial independence; responsibility for international representation rests largely upon the UK (in consultation with the respective governments); and responsibility for defence is reserved by the UK. The United Kingdom is made up of four constituent parts: England, Scotland and Wales, forming Great Britain, and Northern Ireland in the north-east of the island of Ireland. Of these, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have \"devolved\" governments, meaning that each has its own parliament or assembly and is self-governing with respect to certain areas set down by law. For judicial purposes, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England and Wales (the latter being one entity) form separate legal jurisdiction, with there being no single law for the UK as a whole.\n\nIreland, the United Kingdom and the three Crown Dependencies are all parliamentary democracies, with their own separate parliaments. All parts of the United Kingdom return members to parliament in London. In addition to this, voters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland return members to a parliament in Edinburgh and to assemblies in Cardiff and Belfast respectively. Governance in the norm is by majority rule, however, Northern Ireland uses a system of power sharing whereby unionists and nationalists share executive posts proportionately and where the assent of both groups are required for the Northern Ireland Assembly to make certain decisions. (In the context of Northern Ireland, unionists are those who want Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom and nationalists are those who want Northern Ireland to join with the rest of Ireland.) The British monarch is the head of state of the United Kingdom, while in the Republic of Ireland the head of state is the President of Ireland.\n\nIreland and the United Kingdom are both part of the European Union (EU). The Crown Dependencies are not a part of the EU, but do participate in certain aspects that were negotiated as a part of the UK's accession to the EU. Neither the United Kingdom or Ireland are part of the Schengen area, that allow passport-free travel between EU members states. However, since the partition of Ireland, an informal free-travel area had existed across the region. This area required formal recognition in 1997 during the course of negotiations for the Amsterdam Treaty of the European Union, and is now known as the Common Travel Area.\n\nReciprocal arrangements allow British and Irish citizens full voting rights in the two states. Exceptions to this are presidential elections and constitutional referendums in the Republic of Ireland, for which there is no comparable franchise in the other states. In the United Kingdom, these pre-date European Union law, and in both jurisdictions go further than that required by European Union law. Other EU nationals may only vote in local and European Parliament elections while resident in either the UK or Ireland. In 2008, a UK Ministry of Justice report investigating how to strengthen the British sense of citizenship proposed to end this arrangement, arguing that \"the right to vote is one of the hallmarks of the political status of citizens; it is not a means of expressing closeness between countries\".\n\nIn addition, some civil bodies are organised throughout the islands as a whole—for example the Samaritans, which is deliberately organised without regard to national boundaries on the basis that a service which is not political or religious should not recognise sectarian or political divisions. The Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI), a charity that operates a lifeboat service, is also organised throughout the islands as a whole, covering the waters of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands.\n\nThe Northern Ireland Peace Process has led to a number of unusual arrangements between the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom. For example, citizens of Northern Ireland are entitled to the choice of Irish or British citizenship or both and the Governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom consult on matters not devolved to the Northern Ireland Executive. The Northern Ireland Executive and the Government of Ireland also meet as the North/South Ministerial Council to develop policies common across the island of Ireland. These arrangements were made following the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.\n\n===British–Irish Council===\n\n\nAnother body established under the Good Friday Agreement, the British–Irish Council, is made up of all of the states and territories of the British Isles. The British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly () predates the British–Irish Council and was established in 1990. Originally it comprised 25 members of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament, and 25 members of the parliament of the United Kingdom, with the purpose of building mutual understanding between members of both legislatures. Since then the role and scope of the body has been expanded to include representatives from the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, the Northern Ireland Assembly, the States of Jersey, the States of Guernsey and the High Court of Tynwald (Isle of Man).\n\nThe Council does not have executive powers, but meets biannually to discuss issues of mutual importance. Similarly, the Parliamentary Assembly has no legislative powers but investigates and collects witness evidence from the public on matters of mutual concern to its members. Reports on its findings are presented to the Governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom. During the February 2008 meeting of the British–Irish Council, it was agreed to set up a standing secretariat that would serve as a permanent 'civil service' for the Council. Leading on from developments in the British–Irish Council, the chair of the British–Irish Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, Niall Blaney, has suggested that the body should shadow the British–Irish Council's work.\n", "\n\nOne Day Cricket International at Lord's; England v Australia 10 July 2005\nPádraig Harrington teeing off at the Open Championship (golf) in 2007.\n\nThe United Kingdom and Ireland have separate media, although British television, newspapers and magazines are widely available in Ireland, giving people in Ireland a high level of familiarity with cultural matters in the United Kingdom. Irish newspapers are also available in the UK, and Irish state and private television is widely available in Northern Ireland. Certain reality TV shows have embraced the whole of the islands, for example ''The X Factor'', seasons 3, 4 and 7 of which featured auditions in Dublin and were open to Irish voters, whilst the show previously known as ''Britain's Next Top Model'' became ''Britain and Ireland's Next Top Model'' in 2011. A few cultural events are organised for the island group as a whole. For example, the Costa Book Awards are awarded to authors resident in the UK or Ireland. The Mercury Music Prize is handed out every year to the best album from a British or Irish musician or group.\n\nMany globally popular sports had modern rules codified in the British Isles, including golf, association football, cricket, rugby, snooker and darts, as well as many minor sports such as croquet, bowls, pitch and putt, water polo and handball. A number of sports are popular throughout the British Isles, the most prominent of which is association football. While this is organised separately in different national associations, leagues and national teams, even within the UK, it is a common passion in all parts of the islands. Rugby union is also widely enjoyed across the islands with four national teams from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The British and Irish Lions is a team chosen from each national team and undertakes tours of the southern hemisphere rugby playing nations every four years. Ireland play as a united team, represented by players from both Northern Ireland and the Republic. These national rugby teams play each other each year for the Triple Crown as part of the Six Nations Championship. Also, since 2001, the professional club teams of Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Italy compete against each other in the Pro14.\n\nThe Ryder Cup in golf was originally played between a United States team and a team representing Great Britain and Ireland. From 1979 onwards this was expanded to include the whole of Europe.\n", "\n\nHSC ''Stena Explorer'', a large fast ferry on the former Holyhead–Dún Laoghaire route between Great Britain and Ireland.\n\nLondon Heathrow Airport is Europe's busiest airport in terms of passenger traffic and the Dublin-London route was once the busiest air route in Europe, and it remains the busiest route out of Heathrow. The English Channel and the southern North Sea are the busiest seaways in the world. The Channel Tunnel, opened in 1994, links Great Britain to France and is the second-longest rail tunnel in the world.\n\nThe idea of building a tunnel under the Irish Sea has been raised since 1895, when it was first investigated. Several potential Irish Sea tunnel projects have been proposed, most recently the ''Tusker Tunnel'' between the ports of Rosslare and Fishguard proposed by The Institute of Engineers of Ireland in 2004. A rail tunnel was proposed in 1997 on a different route, between Dublin and Holyhead, by British engineering firm Symonds. Either tunnel, at , would be by far the longest in the world, and would cost an estimated £15 billion or €20 billion. A proposal in 2007, estimated the cost of building a bridge from County Antrim in Northern Ireland to Galloway in Scotland at £3.5bn (€5bn).\n", "British Islands\nExtreme points of the British Isles\nList of islands in the British Isles\nBritish Isles fixed sea link connections\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \nA History of Britain: At the Edge of the World, 3500 B.C. – 1603 A.D. by Simon Schama, BBC/Miramax, 2000 \nA History of Britain—The Complete Collection on DVD by Simon Schama, BBC 2002\nShortened History of England by G. M. Trevelyan Penguin Books \n\n", "\n An interactive geological map of the British Isles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Geography", "Flora and fauna", "Demographics", "History", "Politics", "Culture", "Transport", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	British Isles
[ "\n\nFamily transmission of Basque language (Basque as initial language) Percentage of students registered in Basque language schools (2000–2005). Location of the Basque-language provinces within Spain and France\n\n'''Basque '''( or ; Basque: , ) is the language spoken in the Basque country. Linguistically, Basque is unrelated to the other languages of Europe and indeed, as a language isolate, to any other known living language. The Basques are indigenous to, and primarily inhabit, the Basque Country, a region that straddles the westernmost Pyrenees in adjacent parts of northern Spain and southwestern France. The Basque language is spoken by 28.4% of Basques in all territories (751,500). Of these, 93.2% (700,300) are in the Spanish area of the Basque Country and the remaining 6.8% (51,200) are in the French portion.\n\nNative speakers live in a contiguous area that includes parts of four Spanish provinces and the three \"ancient provinces\" in France. Gipuzkoa, most of Biscay, a few municipalities of Álava, and the northern area of Navarre formed the core of the remaining Basque-speaking area before measures were introduced in the 1980s to strengthen the language. By contrast, most of Álava, the western part of Biscay and central and southern areas of Navarre are predominantly populated by native speakers of Spanish, either because Basque was replaced by Spanish over the centuries, in some areas (most of Álava and central Navarre), or because it was possibly never spoken there, in other areas (Enkarterri and southeastern Navarre).\n\nUnder Restorationist and Francoist Spain, public use of Basque was frowned upon, often regarded as a sign of separatism; this applied especially to those regions that did not support Franco's uprising (such as Biscay or Gipuzkoa). However, in those Basque-speaking regions that supported the uprising (such as Navarre or Álava) the Basque language was more than merely tolerated. Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. As a part of this process, a standardized form of the Basque language, called Euskara Batua, was developed by the Euskaltzaindia in the late 1960s.\n\nBesides its standardised version, the five historic Basque dialects are Biscayan, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese in Spain, and Navarrese–Lapurdian and Souletin in France. They take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that Basque language could be used—and easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations (education, mass media, literature), and this is its main use today. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region and from school to school.\n\nA language isolate, Basque is believed to be one of the few surviving pre-Indo-European languages in Europe, and the only one in Western Europe. The origin of the Basques and their languages are not conclusively known, though the most accepted current theory is that early forms of Basque developed prior to the arrival of Indo-European languages in the area, including the Romance languages that geographically surround the Basque-speaking region. Basque has adopted a good deal of its vocabulary from the Romance languages, and Basque speakers have in turn lent their own words to Romance speakers.\n\nThe Basque alphabet uses the Latin script.\n", "\nIn Basque, the name of the language is officially ''Euskara'' (alongside various dialect forms). Three etymological theories of the name ''Euskara'' are taken seriously by linguists and Vasconists.\n\nIn French, the language is normally called ''basque'', though in recent times ''euskara'' has become common. Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as ''el vasco'', ''la lengua vasca'', or ''el euskera''. Both terms, ''vasco'' and ''basque'', are inherited from Latin ethnonym ''Vascones'', which in turn goes back to the Greek term οὐασκώνους (''ouaskōnous''), an ethnonym used by Strabo in his ''Geographica'' (23 CE, Book III).\n\nThe Spanish term ''Vascuence'', derived from Latin ''vasconĭce'', has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well-liked amongst Basque speakers generally. Its use is documented at least as far back as the 14th century when a law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that ''Item nuyl corridor nonsia usado que faga mercadería ninguna que compre nin venda entre ningunas personas, faulando en algaravia nin en abraych nin en '''basquenç''': et qui lo fara pague por coto XXX sol''—essentially penalizing the use of Arabic, Hebrew, or Basque in marketplaces with a fine of 30 sols (the equivalent of 30 sheep).\n", "\n\nBasque is geographically surrounded by Romance languages but is a language isolate unrelated to them. It is the last remaining descendant of one of the pre-Indo-European languages of Western Europe, the others being extinct outright. Consequently, its prehistory may not be reconstructible by means of the traditional comparative method except by applying it to differences between dialects within the language. Little is known of its origins, but an early form of the Basque language likely was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area.\n\nAuthors such as Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte have noted that the words for \"knife\" (''aizto''), \"axe\" (''aizkora''), and \"hoe\" (''aitzur'') derive from the word for \"stone\" (''haitz''), and have therefore concluded that the language dates to prehistoric Europe when those tools were made of stone. Others find this unlikely: see the ''aizkora'' controversy.\n\nLatin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language, for instance, the personal names ''Nescato'' and ''Cison'' (''neskato'' and ''gizon'' mean \"young girl\" and \"man\", respectively in modern Basque). This language is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area before the Roman Republic's conquests in the western Pyrenees. Some authors even argue for late Basquisation, that the language moved westward during Late Antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire into the northern part of Hispania into what is now Basque Country.\n\nRoman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while the Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizable number of Romance words. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan) in the northeast, Navarro-Aragonese in the southeast and Spanish in the southwest.\n\n===Hypotheses on connections with other languages===\n\nThe statistical improbability and chronological difficulty of linking Basque with its Indo-European neighbors in Europe has inspired many scholars to search for its possible relatives elsewhere. Besides many pseudoscientific comparisons, the appearance of long-range linguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families. Almost all hypotheses on the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by most linguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are:\n* Iberian: another ancient language once spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, shows several similarities with Aquitanian and Basque. However, not enough evidence exists to distinguish geographical connections from linguistic ones. Iberian itself remains unclassified. Eduardo Orduña Aznar claims to have established correspondences between Basque and Iberian numerals and noun case markers.\n* Indo-European: possibly close to (Italo-)Celtic or an Indo-European creole possibly with a donor language akin to Brittonic on a substrate language akin to Italic. Forni considers it unrealistic that Basque is a non-Indo-European language that allegedly borrowed the majority of its basic lexicon (including virtually all verbs) and most of its archaic bound morphemes from neighboring Indo-European languages. In response, a non-Indo-European line of descent with waves or stages of Indo-European influence and minor discontinuities over probably millennia prior to the Roman conquest was suggested as the most likely alternative by John T. Koch in his review of Forni's paper outlining why an Indo-European classification of Basque cannot be accepted, even if some of Forni's data is accepted.\n* Vasconic substratum theory: This proposal, made by the German linguist Theo Vennemann, claims that enough toponymical evidence exists to conclude that Basque is the only survivor of a larger family that once extended throughout most of Western Europe, and has also left its mark in modern Indo-European languages spoken in Europe.\nLigurian substrate: This hypothesis proposed in the 19th century by d'Arbois de Joubainville, J. Pokorny, P. Kretschmer and several other linguists encompasses the Basco-Iberian hypothesis.\n Georgian: Linking Basque to Kartvelian languages is now widely discredited. The hypothesis was inspired by the existence of the ancient Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus and further by some typological similarities between the two languages. According to J. P. Mallory, the hypothesis was also inspired by a Basque place-name ending in -''dze''.\n* Northeast Caucasian, such as Chechen, is seen by the French linguist Michel Morvan as more likely candidates for a very distant connection.\n* Dené–Caucasian: Based on the possible Caucasian link, some linguists, for example John Bengtson and Merritt Ruhlen, have proposed including Basque in the Dené–Caucasian superfamily of languages, but this proposed superfamily includes languages from North America and Eurasia, and its existence is highly controversial.\n* Dogon: The philologist Javier Martín Martín investigated on the subject and states that Basque is derived from Dogon. This has been harshly contested by Xabier Kintana from Euskaltzaindia, who says that this theory makes no sense and is made from \"cheap speculations\", and who criticizes the lack of methodology.\n", "Percentage of fluent speakers of Basque (areas where Basque is not spoken are included within the 0–4% interval)\nPercentage of people fluent in Basque language in Navarre (2001), including second-language speakers\nThe region where Basque is spoken has become smaller over centuries, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. Nothing is known about the limits of this region in ancient times, but on the basis of toponyms and epigraphs, it seems that in the beginning of the Common Era it stretched to the river Garonne in the north (including the southwestern part of present-day France); at least to the Val d'Aran in the east (now a Gascon-speaking part of Catalonia), including lands on both sides of the Pyrenees; the southern and western boundaries are not clear at all.\n\nThe Reconquista temporarily counteracted this contracting tendency when the Christian lords called on Northern Iberian peoples—Basques, Asturians, and \"Franks\"—to colonize the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language, while other languages like Spanish, Gascon, French, or Latin were preferred for the administration and high education.\n\nBy the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was reduced basically to the present-day seven provinces of the Basque Country, excluding the southern part of Navarre, the southwestern part of Álava, and the western part of Biscay, and including some parts of Béarn.\n\nIn 1807, Basque was still spoken in the northern half of Álava—including its capital city Vitoria-Gasteiz—and a vast area in central Navarre, but in these two provinces, Basque experienced a rapid decline that pushed its border northwards. In the French Basque Country, Basque was still spoken in all the territory except in Bayonne and some villages around, and including some bordering towns in Béarn.\n\nIn the 20th century, however, the rise of Basque nationalism spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments in the Southern Basque Country, it has recently made a modest comeback. In the Spanish part, Basque-language schools for children and Basque-teaching centres for adults have brought the language to areas such as Enkarterri and the Ribera d'Ebre in Navarre, where it is not known if it has ever been spoken before; and in the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have almost stopped the decline of the language.\n\n===Official status===\nOfficial status of the Basque language in Navarre\nHistorically, Latin or Romance languages have been the official languages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognized in some areas. For instance, the ''fuero'' or charter of the Basque-colonized Ojacastro (now in La Rioja) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries.\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 states in Article 3 that the Spanish language is the official language, but allows autonomous communities to provide a co-official language status for the other languages of Spain. Consequently, the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Autonomous Community establishes Basque as the co-official language of the autonomous community. The Statute of Navarre establishes Spanish as the official language of Navarre, but grants co-official status to the Basque language in the Basque-speaking areas of northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is permitted (with translation), as Basque is officially recognized on the other side of the border.\n\nThe positions of the various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. The ''Ley del Vascuence'' (\"Law of Basque\"), seen as contentious by many Basques, but considered fitting Navarra's linguistic and cultural diversity by the main political parties of Navarre, divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. Support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary, depending on the area.\n\n===Demographics===\nMap showing the historical retreat and expansion of Basque within the context of its linguistic neighbors between the years 1000 and 2000\nTestimonies of Basque sociolinguistic dynamics (French Basque Country)\nThe 2006 sociolinguistic survey of all Basque-speaking territories showed that in 2006, of all people aged 16 and above:\n* In the Basque Autonomous Community, 30.1% were fluent Basque speakers, 18.3% passive speakers and 51.5% did not speak Basque. The percentage was highest in Gipuzkoa (49.1% speakers) and lowest in Álava (14.2%). These results represent an increase from previous years (29.5% in 2001, 27.7% in 1996 and 24.1% in 1991). The highest percentage of speakers can now be found in the 16–24 age range (57.5%) vs. 25.0% in the 65+ age range. The percentage of fluent speakers is even higher if counting those under 16, given that the proportion of bilinguals is particularly high in this age group (76.7% of those aged between 10 and 14 and 72.4% of those aged 5–9): 37.5% of the population aged 6 and above in the whole Basque Autonomous Community, 25.0% in Álava, 31.3% in Biscay and 53.3% in Gipuzkoa.\n* In French Basque Country, 22.5% were fluent Basque speakers, 8.6% passive speakers, and 68.9% did not speak Basque. The percentage was highest in Labourd and Soule (55.5% speakers) and lowest in the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz conurbation (8.8%). These results represent another decrease from previous years (24.8% in 2001 and 26.4 in 1996). The highest percentage of speakers is in the 65+ age range (32.4%). The lowest percentage is found in the 25–34 age range (11.6%), but there is a slight increase in the 16–24 age range (16.1%)\n* In Navarre, 11.1% were fluent Basque speakers, 7.6% passive speakers, and 81.3% did not speak Basque. The percentage was highest in the Basque-speaking zone in the north (60.1% speakers) and lowest in the non-Basque-speaking zone in the south (1.9%). These results represent a slight increase from previous years (10.3% in 2001, 9.6% in 1996 and 9.5% in 1991). The highest percentage of speakers can now be found in the 16–24 age range (19.1%) vs. 9.1% in the 65+ age range.\n\nTaken together, in 2006, of a total population of 2,589,600 (1,850,500 in the Autonomous Community, 230,200 in the Northern Provinces and 508,900 in Navarre), 665,800 spoke Basque (aged 16 and above). This amounts to 25.7% Basque bilinguals overall, 15.4% passive speakers, and 58.9% non-speakers. Compared to the 1991 figures, this represents an overall increase of 137,000, from 528,500 (from a population of 2,371,100) 15 years previously.\n\nThe 2011 figures show an increase of some 64,000 speakers compared to the 2006 figures to 714,136, with significant increases in the Autonomous Community, but a slight drop in the Northern Basque Country to 51,100, overall amounting to an increase to 27% of all inhabitants of Basque provinces (2,648,998 in total).\n\nBasque is used as a language of commerce both in the Basque Country and in locations around the world where Basques immigrated throughout history.\n\n===Dialects===\n\nThe modern dialects of Basque according to 21st-century dialectology. \nThe modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Biscayan and Souletin, which are regarded as the most divergent Basque dialects.\n\nModern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects:\n* Biscayan or \"Western\"\n* Gipuzkoan or \"Central\"\n* Upper Navarrese\n* Navarro-Lapurdian\n* Souletin (Zuberoan)\n\nThese dialects are divided in 11 subdialects, and 24 minor varieties among them.\nAccording to Koldo Zuazo (“Euskalkiak. Herriaren lekukoak”. Elkar, 2004), the Biscayan dialect or \"Western\" is the most widespread dialect, with around 300,000 speakers out of a total of around 660,000 speakers. This dialect is divided in two minor subdialects: the Western Biscayan and Eastern Biscayan, plus transitional dialects.\n\n===Influence on other languages===\n\nAlthough the influence of the neighbouring Romance languages on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese, and to a lesser degree Spanish are thought to have received this influence in the past. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through substrate interference following language shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees.\n\nAlthough a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. ''anchoa'' 'anchovies', ''bizarro'' 'dashing, gallant, spirited', ''cachorro'' 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque. Ignoring cultural terms, there is one strong loanword candidate, ''ezker'', long considered the source of the Pyrennean and Iberian Romance words for \"left (side)\" ('''', '''', ''''). The lack of initial in Gascon could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched.\n\nThe other most commonly claimed substrate influences:\n* the Old Spanish merger of and .\n* the simple five vowel system.\n* change of initial into (e.g. ''fablar'' → ''hablar'', with Old Basque lacking but having /h/).\n* voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant , a sound transitional between laminodental and palatal ; this sound also influenced other Ibero-Romance languages and Catalan.\n\nThe first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages. The change of /f/ to /h/ occurred historically only in a limited area (Gascony and Old Castile) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavy Basque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed). Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like /f/ to /h/). As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides, the debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments.\n\nExamples of arguments against the substrate theory, and possible responses:\n# Spanish did not fully shift to , instead, it has preserved before consonants such as and (cf ''fuerte'', ''frente''). (On the other hand, the occurrence of in these words might be a secondary development from an earlier sound such as or and learned words (or words influenced by written Latin form). Gascon does have in these words, which might reflect the original situation.)\n# Evidence of Arabic loanwords in Castilian points to continuing to exist long after a Basque substrate might have had any effect on Castilian. (On the other hand, the occurrence of in these words might be a late development. Many languages have come to accept new phonemes from other languages after a period of significant influence. For example, French lost /h/ but later regained it as a result of Germanic influence, and has recently gained as a result of English influence.)\n# Basque regularly developed Latin into .\n# The same change also occurs in parts of Sardinia, Italy and the Romance languages of the Balkans where no Basque substrate can be reasonably argued for. (On the other hand, the fact that the same change might have occurred elsewhere independently does not disprove substrate influence. Furthermore, parts of Sardinia also have prothetic /a/ or /e/ before initial /r/, just as in Basque and Gascon, which may actually argue for some type of influence between both areas.)\n\nBeyond these arguments, a number of nomadic groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the gacería in Segovia, the mingaña, the Galician fala dos arxinas and the Asturian Xíriga.\n\nPart of the Romani community in the Basque Country speaks Erromintxela, which is a rare mixed language, with a Kalderash Romani vocabulary and Basque grammar.\n\n====Basque pidgins====\nA number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced pidgins have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a Basque–Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland. The Algonquian–Basque pidgin arose from contact between Basque whalers and the Algonquian peoples in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Strait of Belle Isle.\n", "\n\n\nBasque is an ergative–absolutive language. The subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case (which is unmarked), and the same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of the transitive verb is marked differently, with the ergative case (shown by the suffix ''-k''). This also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement.\n\nThe auxiliary verb, which accompanies most main verbs, agrees not only with the subject, but with any direct object and the indirect object present. Among European languages, this polypersonal agreement is found only in Basque, some languages of the Caucasus, Mordvinic languages, Hungarian, and Maltese (all non-Indo-European). The ergative–absolutive alignment is also rare among European languages—occurring only in some languages of the Caucasus—but not infrequent worldwide.\n\nConsider the phrase:\n\n:''''\n:{\| cellpadding=\"2\"\n\n Martin-ek \n egunkari-ak \n erosten \n di-zki-t\n\n Martin-ERG \n newspaper-PL \n buy-GER \n AUX.(s)he/it/they.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO (s)he/it_SBJ\n\n:\"Martin buys the newspapers for me.\"\n\n''Martin-ek'' is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending ''-k'' (with an epenthetic ''-e-''). ''Egunkariak'' has an ''-ak'' ending, which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is ''erosten dizkit'', in which ''erosten'' is a kind of gerund (\"buying\") and the auxiliary ''dizkit'' means \"he/she (does) them for me\". This ''dizkit'' can be split like this:\n* ''di-'' is used in the present tense when the verb has a subject (ergative), a direct object (absolutive), and an indirect object, and the object is him/her/it/them.\n* ''-zki-'' means the absolutive (in this case the newspapers) is plural, if it were singular there would be no infix; and\n* ''-t'' or '-da-' means \"to me/for me\" (indirect object).\n* in this instance there is no suffix after ''-t''. A zero suffix in this position indicates that the ergative (the subject) is third person singular (he/she/it).\n\nThe phrase \"you buy the newspapers for me\" would translate as:\n\n:''''\n:{\| cellpadding=\"2\"\n\n Zu-ek \n egunkari-ak \n erosten \n di-zki-da-zue\n\n you-ERG \n newspaper-PL \n buy-GER \n AUX.(s)he/it/they.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO-you(pl.).SBJ\n\n\nThe auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue and means 'you pl. (do) them for me'\n* ''di-'' indicates that the main verb is transitive and in the present tense\n* ''-zki-'' indicates that the direct object is plural\n* ''-da-'' indicates that the indirect object is me (to me/for me; -t becomes -da- when not final)\n* ''-zue'' indicates that the subject is you (plural)\n\nThe pronoun \"zuek\" (''you'', plural) has the same form both in the nominative or absolutive case (the subject of an intransitive sentence or direct object of a transitive sentence) and in the ergative case (the subject of a transitive sentence). In spoken Basque, the auxiliary verb is never dropped even if it is redundant: \"Zuek niri egunkariak erosten dizkidazue\", you pl. buying the newspapers for me. However, the pronouns are almost always dropped: \"egunkariak erosten dizkidazue\", the newspapers buying be-them-for-me-you(plural). The pronouns are used only to show emphasis: \"egunkariak zuek erosten dizkidazue\", it is you (pl.) who buys the newspapers for me; or \"egunkariak niri erosten dizkidazue\", it is me for whom you buy the newspapers.\n\nModern Basque dialects allow for the conjugation of about fifteen verbs, called synthetic verbs, some only in literary contexts. These can be put in the present and past tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, in three tenses in the conditional and potential moods, and in one tense in the imperative. Each verb that can be taken intransitively has a ''nor'' (absolutive) paradigm and possibly a ''nor-nori'' (absolutive–dative) paradigm, as in the sentence ''Aititeri txapela erori zaio'' (\"The hat fell from grandfather's head\"). Each verb that can be taken transitively uses those two paradigms for antipassive-voice contexts in which no agent is mentioned (notice that Basque lacks a passive voice, and displays instead an antipassive voice paradigm), and also has a ''nor-nork'' (absolutive–ergative) paradigm and possibly a ''nor-nori-nork'' (absolutive–dative–ergative) paradigm. The last would entail the ''dizkidazue'' example above. In each paradigm, each constituent noun can take on any of eight persons, five singular and three plural, with the exception of ''nor-nori-nork'' in which the absolutive can only be third person singular or plural. (This draws on a language universal: \"Yesterday the boss presented the committee me\" sounds at least odd, if not incorrect.) The most ubiquitous auxiliary, ''izan,'' can be used in any of these paradigms, depending on the nature of the main verb.\n\nThere are more persons in the singular (5) than in the plural (3) for synthetic (or filamentous) verbs because of the two familiar persons—informal masculine and feminine second person singular. The pronoun ''hi'' is used for both of them, but where the masculine form of the verb uses a ''-k'', the feminine uses an ''-n.'' This is a property rarely found in Indo-European languages. The entire paradigm of the verb is further augmented by inflecting for \"listener\" (the allocutive) even if the verb contains no second person constituent. If the situation calls for the familiar masculine, the form is augmented and modified accordingly. Likewise for the familiar feminine.\n(''Gizon bat etorri da'', \"a man has come\"; ''gizon bat etorri duk'', \"a man has come you are a male close friend\", ''gizon bat etorri dun'', \"a man has come you are a female close friend\", ''gizon bat etorri duzu'', \"a man has come I talk to you (Sir / Madam)\")\nNotice that this nearly multiplies the number of possible forms by three. Still, the restriction on contexts in which these forms may be used is strong, since all participants in the conversation must be friends of the same sex, and not too far apart in age. Some dialects dispense with the familiar forms entirely. Note, however, that the formal second person singular conjugates in parallel to the other plural forms, perhaps indicating that it was originally the second person plural, later came to be used as a formal singular, and then later still the modern second person plural was formulated as an innovation.\n\nAll the other verbs in Basque are called periphrastic, behaving much like a participle would in English. These have only three forms in total, called aspects: perfect (various suffixes), habitual (suffix ''-tzen''), and future/potential (suffix. ''-ko/-go''). Verbs of Latinate origin in Basque, as well as many other verbs, have a suffix ''-tu'' in the perfect, adapted from the Latin perfect passive ''-tus'' suffix. The synthetic verbs also have periphrastic forms, for use in perfects and in simple tenses in which they are deponent.\n\nWithin a verb phrase, the periphrastic verb comes first, followed by the auxiliary.\n\nA Basque noun-phrase is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by 4 ways for its definiteness and number (indefinite, definite singular, definite plural, and definite close plural: ''euskaldun'' Basque speaker, ''euskalduna'' the Basque speaker, a Basque speaker, ''euskaldunak'' Basque speakers, the Basque speakers, and ''euskaldunok'' we Basque speakers, those Basque speakers). These first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected for the noun again. It has been estimated that, with two levels of recursion, a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms.\n\nWithin a noun phrase, modifying adjectives follow the noun. As an example of a Basque noun phrase, ''etxe zaharrean'' \"in the old house\" is morphologically analysed as follows by Agirre et al.\n\n\nWord\nForm\nMeaning\n\n''etxe''\nnoun\nhouse\n\n''zahar-''\nadjective\nold\n\n''-r-e-''\nepenthetical elements\nn/a\n\n''-a-''\ndeterminate, singular\nthe\n\n''-n''\ninessive case\nin\n\n\nBasic syntactic construction is subject–object–verb (unlike Spanish, French or English where a subject–verb–object construction is more common). The order of the phrases within a sentence can be changed with thematic purposes, whereas the order of the words within a phrase is usually rigid. As a matter of fact, Basque phrase order is topic–focus, meaning that in neutral sentences (such as sentences to inform someone of a fact or event) the topic is stated first, then the focus. In such sentences, the verb phrase comes at the end. In brief, the focus directly precedes the verb phrase. This rule is also applied in questions, for instance, ''What is this?'' can be translated as ''Zer da hau?'' or ''Hau zer da?'', but in both cases the question tag ''zer'' immediately precedes the verb ''da''. This rule is so important in Basque that, even in grammatical descriptions of Basque in other languages, the Basque word ''galdegai'' (focus) is used.\n\nIn negative sentences, the order changes. Since the negative particle ''ez'' must always directly precede the auxiliary, the topic most often comes beforehand, and the rest of the sentence follows. This includes the periphrastic, if there is one: ''Aitak frantsesa irakasten du,'' \"Father teaches French,\" in the negative becomes ''Aitak ez du frantsesa irakasten,'' in which ''irakasten'' (\"teaching\") is separated from its auxiliary and placed at the end.\n", "\n===Vowels===\n\n\n\nFront\nCentral\nBack\n\nClose\ni \n \n u\n\nMid\ne \n \n o\n\nOpen\n \n a \n\n\nThe Basque language features five vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/ (the same that are found in Spanish, Asturian and Aragonese). In the Zuberoan dialect, extra phonemes are featured:\n the close front rounded vowel , graphically represented as ;\n* a set of contrasting nasalized vowels, indicating a strong influence from Gascon.\n\n===Consonants===\n\n Table of consonant phonemes of Standard Basque\n\n\n Labial\n Lamino-dental\n Apico-alveolar\n Palatal orpostalveolar\n Velar\n Glottal\n\n Nasal\n m\n\n n\n ñ, -in-\n\n\n\n Plosive\n voiceless\n p\n t\n\n tt, -it-\n k\n\n\n voiced\n b\n d\n\n dd, -id-\n g\n\n\n Affricate\n voiceless\n\n tz\n ts\n tx\n\n\n\n Fricative\n voiceless\n f\n z\n s\n x\n\n h, \n\n (mostly)1 voiced\n \n \n\n j~\n\n\n Lateral\n\n\n l\n ll, -il-\n\n\n\n Rhotic\n Trill\n\n\n r-, -rr-, -r \n\n\n\n\n Tap\n\n\n -r-\n\n\n\n\n\nBasque has a distinction between laminal and apical articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. With the laminal alveolar fricative , the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth. This is the usual in most European languages. It is written with an orthographic . By contrast, the voiceless apicoalveolar fricative is written ; the tip of the tongue points toward the upper teeth and friction occurs at the tip (apex). For example, ''zu'' \"you\" (singular, respectful) is distinguished from ''su'' \"fire\". The affricate counterparts are written and . So, ''etzi'' \"the day after tomorrow\" is distinguished from ''etsi'' \"to give up\"; ''atzo'' \"yesterday\" is distinguished from ''atso'' \"old woman\".\n\nIn the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical and the alveolar affricate are used.\n\nBasque also features postalveolar sibilants (, written , and , written ), sounding like English ''sh'' and ''ch''.\n\nThere are two palatal stops, voiced and unvoiced, as well as a palatal nasal and a palatal lateral (the palatal stops are not present in all dialects). These and the postalveolar sounds are typical of diminutives, which are used frequently in child language and motherese (mainly to show affection rather than size). For example, ''tanta'' \"drop\" vs. ''ttantta'' \"droplet\". A few common words, such as ''txakur'' \"dog\", use palatal sounds even though in current usage they have lost the diminutive sense; the corresponding non-palatal forms now acquiring an augmentative or pejorative sense: ''zakur''—\"big dog\". Many Basque dialects exhibit a derived palatalization effect, in which coronal onset consonants change into the palatal counterpart after the high front vowel . For example, the in ''egin'' \"to act\" becomes palatal in southern and western dialects when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added: = \"the action\", = \"doing\".\n\nRegional realizations of \nThe letter has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: , as pronounced from west to east in south Bizkaia and coastal Lapurdi, central Bizkaia, east Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, south Navarre, inland Lapurdi and Low Navarre, and Zuberoa, respectively.\n\nThe letter is silent in the Southern dialects, but pronounced (although vanishing) in the Northern ones. Unified Basque spells it except when it is predictable, in a position following a consonant.\n\nUnless they are recent loanwords (e.g. ''Ruanda'' (Rwanda), ''radar''...), words may not have initial . In older loans, initial ''r-'' took a prosthetic ''e-'', resulting in ''err-'' (''Erroma'' \"Rome\", ''Errusia'' \"Russia\"), more rarely ''irr-'' (for example ''irratia'' \"radio\", ''irrisa'' \"rice\").\n\n===Stress and pitch===\n\nBasque features great dialectal variation in stress, from a weak pitch accent in the central dialects to a marked stress in some outer dialects, with varying patterns of stress placement. Stress is in general not distinctive (and for historical comparisons not very useful); there are, however, a few instances where stress is phonemic, serving to distinguish between a few pairs of stress-marked words and between some grammatical forms (mainly plurals from other forms), e.g. ''basóà'' (\"the forest\", absolutive case) vs. ''básoà'' (\"the glass\", absolutive case; an adoption from Spanish ''vaso''); ''basóàk'' (\"the forest\", ergative case) vs. ''básoàk'' (\"the glass\", ergative case) vs. ''básoak'' (\"the forests\" or \"the glasses\", absolutive case).\n\nGiven its great deal of variation among dialects, stress is not marked in the standard orthography and Euskaltzaindia (the Academy of the Basque Language) provides only general recommendations for a standard placement of stress, basically to place a high-pitched weak stress (weaker than that of Spanish, let alone that of English) on the second syllable of a syntagma, and a low-pitched even-weaker stress on its last syllable, except in plural forms where stress is moved to the first syllable.\n\nThis scheme provides Basque with a distinct musicality that differentiates its sound from the prosodical patterns of Spanish (which tends to stress the second-to-last syllable). Some ''Euskaldun berriak'' (\"new Basque-speakers\", i.e. second-language Basque-speakers) with Spanish as their first language tend to carry the prosodical patterns of Spanish into their pronunciation of Basque, e.g. pronouncing ''nire ama'' (\"my mum\") as ''nire áma'' (– – ´ –), instead of as ''niré amà'' (– ´ – `).\n\n===Morphophonology===\n\n\nThe combining forms of nominals in final /-u/ vary across the regions of the Basque Country. The /u/ can stay unchanged, be lowered to an /a/, or it can be lost. Loss is most common in the east, while lowering is most common in the west. For instance, ''buru'', \"head\", has the combining forms ''buru-'' and ''bur-'', as in ''buruko'', \"cap\", and ''burko'', \"pillow\", whereas ''katu'', \"cat\", has the combining form ''kata-'', as in ''katakume'', \"kitten\". Michelena suggests that the lowering to /a/ is generalised from cases of Romance borrowings in Basque that retained Romance stem alternations, such as ''kantu'', \"song\" with combining form ''kanta-'', borrowed from Romance ''canto'', ''canta-''.\n", "By contact with neighbouring peoples, Basque has adopted many words from Latin, Spanish, Gascon, among others. There are a considerable number of Latin loans (sometimes obscured by being subject to Basque phonology and grammar for centuries), for example: ''lore'' (\"flower\", from ''florem''), ''errota'' (\"mill\", from ''rotam'', \"mill wheel\"), ''gela'' (\"room\", from ''cellam''), ''gauza'' (\"thing\", from ''causa'').\n", "\nAn example of Basque lettering in a funerary stela.\nBasque is written using the Latin script including ''ñ'' and sometimes ''ç'' and ''ü''. Basque does not use ''Cc, Qq, Vv, Ww, Yy '' for words that have some tradition in this language; nevertheless, the Basque alphabet (established by Euskaltzaindia) does include them for loanwords:\n: Aa Bb Cc (and, as a variant, Çç) Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz\n\nThe phonetically meaningful digraphs ''dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz'' are treated as pairs of letters.\n\nAll letters and digraphs represent unique phonemes. The main exception is when ''l'' or ''n'' are preceded by ''i'', that in most dialects palatalizes their sound into /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, even if these are not written. Hence, ''Ikurriña'' can also be written ''Ikurrina'' without changing the sound, whereas the proper name ''Ainhoa'' requires the mute ''h'' to break the palatalization of the ''n''.\n\n''H'' is mute in most regions, but it is pronounced in many places in the northeast, the main reason for its existence in the Basque alphabet.\nIts acceptance was a matter of contention during the standardization, because the speakers of the most extended dialects had to learn where to place these h's, silent for them.\n\nThe letters of the alphabet in a Basque style font.\nIn Sabino Arana's (1865–1903) alphabet, digraphs and were replaced with ''ĺ'' and ''ŕ'', respectively.\n\nA typically Basque style of lettering is sometimes used for inscriptions.\nIt derives from the work of stone and wood carvers and is characterized by thick serifs.\n\n===Number system used by millers===\nAn example of the number system employed by millers.\nBasque millers traditionally employed a separate number system of unknown origin. In this system the symbols are either arranged along a vertical line or horizontally. On the vertical line the single digits and fractions are usually off to one side, usually at the top. When used horizontally, the smallest units are usually on the right and the largest on the left.\n\nThe system is, as is the Basque system of counting in general, vigesimal. Although the system is in theory capable of indicating numbers above 100, most recorded examples do not go above 100 in general. Fractions are relatively common, especially .\n\nThe exact systems used vary from area to area but generally follow the same principle with 5 usually being a diagonal line or a curve off the vertical line (a '''V''' shape is used when writing a 5 horizontally). Units of ten are usually a horizontal line through the vertical. The twenties are based on a circle with intersecting lines. This system is no longer in general use but is occasionally employed for decorative purposes.\n", "\n=== Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ===\n\n\n\n ''Gizon-emakume guztiak aske jaiotzen dira, duintasun eta eskubide berberak dituztela; eta ezaguera eta kontzientzia dutenez gero, elkarren artean senide legez jokatu beharra dute.''\n\n\n\n All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.\n\n\n=== ''Esklabu erremintaria'' ===\n\n\n\n'''''Esklabu erremintaria'''''\n''Sartaldeko oihanetan gatibaturik''\n''Erromara ekarri zinduten, esklabua,''\n''erremintari ofizioa eman zizuten''\n''eta kateak egiten dituzu.''\n''Labetik ateratzen duzun burdin goria''\n''nahieran molda zenezake,''\n''ezpatak egin ditzakezu''\n''zure herritarrek kateak hauts ditzaten,''\n''baina zuk, esklabu horrek,''\n''kateak egiten dituzu, kate gehiago.''\n\n'''The blacksmith slave'''\nCaptive in the rainforests of the West\nthey brought you to Rome, slave,\nthey gave you the blacksmith work\nand you make chains.\nThe incandescent iron you take out of the oven\ncan be adapted as you wish,\nyou could make swords\nso your people could break the chains,\nbut you, o, slave,\nyou make chains, more chains.\n\nJoseba Sarrionandia\nJoseba Sarrionandia\n\n", "\n* Basque dialects\n* Vasconic languages\n* List of Basques\n* Basque Country\n* Late Basquisation\n* Languages of France\n* Languages of Spain\n* Aquitanian language\n* Wiktionary: Swadesh list of Basque words\n", "\n", "\n=== General and descriptive grammars ===\n* Allières, Jacques (1979): ''Manuel pratique de basque'', \"Connaissance des langues\" v. 13, A. & J. Picard (Paris), .\n* de Azkue Aberasturi, Resurrección María (1969): ''Morfología vasca.'' La Gran enciclopedia vasca, Bilbao 1969.\n* Campion, Arturo (1884): '' Gramática de los cuatro dialectos literarios de la lengua euskara'', Tolosa.\n* Euskara Institutua (), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Sareko Euskal Gramatika, SEG \n* Hualde, José Ignacio & Ortiz de Urbina, Jon (eds.): ''A Grammar of Basque''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003. .\n* King, Alan R. (1994). ''The Basque Language: A Practical Introduction''. Reno: University of Nevada Press. .\n* Lafitte, Pierre (1962): ''Grammaire basque – navarro-labourdin littéraire.'' Elkarlanean, Donostia/Bayonne, . (Dialectal.)\n* Lafon, R. (1972): \"Basque\" In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.) ''Current Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 9. Linguistics in Western Europe'', Mouton, The Hague, Mouton, pp. 1744–1792.\n* de Rijk, Rudolf P. G. (2007): ''Standard Basque: A Progressive Grammar''. (Current Studies in Linguistics) (Vol. 1), The MIT Press, Cambridge MA, \n* Tovar, Antonio, (1957): ''The Basque Language'', U. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.\n* \n* Urquizu Sarasúa, Patricio (2007): ''Gramática de la lengua vasca''. UNED, Madrid, .\n* van Eys, Willem J. (1879): '' Grammaire comparée des dialectes basques'', Paris.\n\n=== Linguistic studies ===\n* Agirre, Eneko, et al. (1992): XUXEN: A spelling checker/corrector for Basque based on two-level morphology.\n* Gavel, Henri (1921): '' Eléments de phonetique basque'' (= ''Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos = Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques'' 12, París. (Study of the dialects.)\n* Hualde, José Ignacio (1991): ''Basque phonology'', Taylor & Francis, .\n* Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba A.; Hualde, José Ignacio (eds.) (2006): ''Studies in Basque and historical linguistics in memory of R. L. Trask – R. L. Trasken oroitzapenetan ikerketak euskalaritzaz eta hizkuntzalaritza historikoaz'', (= ''Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca Julio de Urquijo: International journal of Basque linguistics and philology'' Vol. 40, No. 1–2), San Sebastián.\n* Lakarra, J. & Ortiz de Urbina, J.(eds.) (1992): ''Syntactic Theory and Basque Syntax'', Gipuzkoako Foru Aldundia, Donostia-San Sebastian, .\n* Orduña Aznar, Eduardo. 2005. Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos. ''Palaeohispanica'' 5:491–506. This fifth volume of the journal ''Palaeohispanica'' consists of Acta Palaeohispanica IX, the proceedings of the ninth conference on Paleohispanic studies.\n* de Rijk, R. (1972): '' Studies in Basque Syntax: Relative clauses'' PhD Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.\n* Uhlenbeck, C.C. (1909–1910): \"Contribution à une phonétique comparative des dialectes basques\", ''Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos = Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques'' 3 pp. 465–503 4 pp. 65–120.\n* Zuazo, Koldo (2008): ''Euskalkiak: euskararen dialektoak.'' Elkar. .\n\n=== Lexicons ===\n* Aulestia, Gorka (1989): ''Basque–English dictionary'' University of Nevada Press, Reno, .\n* Aulestia, Gorka & White, Linda (1990): ''English–Basque dictionary'', University of Nevada Press, Reno, .\n* Azkue Aberasturi, Resurrección María de (1905): ''Diccionario vasco–español–francés'', Geuthner, Bilbao/Paris (reprinted many times).\n* Luis Mitxelena: ''Diccionario General Vasco/ Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia.'' 16 vols. Real academia de la lengua vasca, Bilbao 1987ff. .\n* Morris, Mikel (1998): \"Morris Student Euskara–Ingelesa Basque–English Dictionary\", Klaudio Harluxet Fundazioa, Donostia\n* Sarasola, Ibon (2010–), \"Egungo Euskararen Hiztegia EEH\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU\n* Sarasola, Ibon (2010): \"Zehazki\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU\n* Sota, M. de la, et al., 1976: ''Diccionario Retana de autoridades de la lengua vasca: con cientos de miles de nuevas voces y acepciones, Antiguas y modernas'', Bilbao: La Gran Enciclopedia Vasca. .\n* Van Eys, W. J. 1873. '' Dictionnaire basque–français''. Paris/London: Maisonneuve/Williams & Norgate.\n\n=== Basque Corpora ===\n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2011): \"ETC: Egungo Testuen Corpusa\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2009): \"Ereduzko Prosa Gaur, EPG\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2009–): \"Ereduzko Prosa Dinamikoa, EPD\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2013): \"Euskal Klasikoen Corpusa, EKC\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2014): \"Goenkale Corpusa\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n* Sarasola, Ibon; Pello Salaburu, Josu Landa (2010): \"Pentsamenduaren Klasikoak Corpusa\" , Bilbo: Euskara Institutua , The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU \n\n=== Other ===\n* Agirre Sorondo, Antxon. 1988. ''Tratado de Molinología: Los molinos en Guipúzcoa''. San Sebastián: Eusko Ikaskunza-Sociedad de Estudios Vascos. Fundación Miguel de Barandiarán.\n* \n* Bakker, Peter, et al. 1991. ''Basque pidgins in Iceland and Canada. Anejos del Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca \"Julio de Urquijo\"'', XXIII.\n* Deen, Nicolaas Gerard Hendrik. 1937. ''Glossaria duo vasco-islandica''. Amsterdam. Reprinted 1991 in ''Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca Julio de Urquijo'', 25(2):321–426.\n* \n* Morvan, Michel. 2004. Noms de lieux du Pays basque. Paris.\n\n=== History of the language and etymologies ===\n* Agirrezabal, Lore. 2003. ''Erromintxela, euskal ijitoen hizkera''. San Sebastián: Argia.\n* Azurmendi, Joxe: \"Die Bedeutung der Sprache in Renaissance und Reformation und die Entstehung der baskischen Literatur im religiösen und politischen Konfliktgebiet zwischen Spanien und Frankreich\" In: Wolfgang W. Moelleken (Herausgeber), Peter J. Weber (Herausgeber): ''Neue Forschungsarbeiten zur Kontaktlinguistik'', Bonn: Dümmler, 1997. \n* Hualde, José Ignacio; Lakarra, Joseba A. & R.L. Trask (eds) (1996): ''Towards a History of the Basque Language'', \"Current Issues in Linguistic Theory\" 131, John Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam, .\n* Michelena, Luis, 1990. ''Fonética histórica vasca''. Bilbao. \n* Lafon, René (1944): ''Le système du verbe basque au XVIe siècle'', Delmas, Bordeaux.\n* Löpelmann, Martin (1968): ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch der baskischen Sprache.'' Dialekte von Labourd, Nieder-Navarra und La Soule. 2 Bde. de Gruyter, Berlin (non-standard etymologies; idiosyncratic).\n* Orpustan, J. B. (1999): ''La langue basque au Moyen-Age.'' Baïgorri, .\n* Pagola, Rosa Miren. 1984. ''Euskalkiz Euskalki''. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Eusko Jaurlaritzaren Argitalpe.\n* Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1980. Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. ''Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie'' 85.\n* Trask, R.L.: ''History of Basque''. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. .\n* Trask, R.L. † (edited by Max W. Wheeler) (2008): Etymological Dictionary of Basque, University of Sussex (unfinished). Also \"Some Important Basque Words (And a Bit of Culture)\" \n* Zuazo, Koldo (2010). ''El euskera y sus dialectos.'' Alberdania. .\n\n=== Relation with other languages ===\n\n==== General reviews of the theories ====\n* Jacobsen, William H. Jr. (1999): \" Basque Language Origin Theories\" In ''Basque Cultural Studies'', edited by William A. Douglass, Carmelo Urza, Linda White, and Joseba Zulaika, 27–43. Basque Studies Program Occasional Papers Series, No. 5. Reno: Basque Studies Program, University of Nevada, Reno.\n* Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba (1998): \" Hizkuntzalaritza konparatua eta aitzineuskararen erroa\" (in Basque), ''Uztaro'' 25, pp. 47–110, (includes review of older theories).\n* Lakarra Andrinua, Joseba (1999): \" Ná-De-Ná\" (in Basque), ''Uztaro'' 31, pp. 15–84.\n* Morvan, Michel, 1996. ''The linguistic origins of basque'' (in French). Bordeaux: Presses universitaires. pp. 25–95.\n* Trask, R.L. (1995): \"Origin and Relatives of the Basque Language : Review of the Evidence\" in Towards a History of the Basque Language, ed. J. Hualde, J. Lakarra, R.L. Trask, John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia.\n* Trask, R.L.: ''History of Basque''. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ; pp. 358–414.\n\n==== Afroasiatic hypothesis ====\n* Schuchardt, Hugo (1913): \" Baskisch-Hamitische wortvergleichungen\" ''Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos'' = \"Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques\" 7:289–340.\n* Mukarovsky, Hans Guenter (1964/66): \"Les rapports du basque et du berbère\", ''Comptes rendus du GLECS (Groupe Linguistique d’Etudes Chamito-Sémitiques)'' 10:177–184.\n* \n* Trombetti, Alfredo (1925): ''Le origini della lingua basca'', Bologna, (new edit ).\n\n==== Dené–Caucasian hypothesis ====\n* Bengtson, John D. (1999): ''The Comparison of Basque and North Caucasian.'' in: ''Mother Tongue.'' ''Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory''. Gloucester, Mass.\n* \n* Bengtson, John D. (2004): \" Some features of Dene–Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque).\" Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL) 30.4, pp. 33–54.\n* Bengtson, John D.. (2006): \"Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages.\" (there is also a preliminary draft)\n* Bengtson, John D. (1997): Review of \"The History of Basque\". London: Routledge, 1997. Pp.xxii,458\" by R.L. Trask.\n* Bengtson, John D., (1996): \"A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1.\"\n* \n\n==== Caucasian hypothesis ====\n* Bouda, Karl (1950): \" L'Euskaro-Caucasique\" ''Boletín de la Real Sociedad Vasca de Amigos del País. Homenaje a D. Julio de Urquijo e Ybarra'' vol. III, San Sebastián, pp. 207–232.\n* Klimov, Georgij A. (1994): '' Einführung in die kaukasische Sprachwissenschaft'', Buske, Hamburg, ; pp. 208–215.\n* \n* \n* Trombetti, Alfredo (1925): ''Le origini della lingua basca'', Bologna, (new edit ).\n* Míchelena, Luis (1968): \"L'euskaro-caucasien\" in Martinet, A. (ed.) ''Le langage'', Paris, pp. 1414–1437 (criticism).\n* Uhlenbeck, Christian Cornelius (1924): \" De la possibilité d' une parenté entre le basque et les langues caucasiques\", ''Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos'' = ''Revue Internationale des Etudes Basques'' 15, pp. 565–588.\n* Zelikov, Mixail (2005): \" L’hypothèse basco-caucasienne dans les travaux de N. Marr\" ''Cahiers de l’ILSL'', N° 20, pp. 363–381.\n* Зыцарь Ю. В. O родстве баскского языка с кавказскими // Вопросы языкознания. 1955. № 5.\n\n==== Iberian hypothesis ====\n* Bähr, Gerhard (1948): \"Baskisch und Iberisch\" ''Eusko Jakintza'' II, pp. 3–20, 167–194, 381–455.\n* Gorrochategui, Joaquín (1993): La onomástica aquitana y su relación con la ibérica, ''Lengua y cultura en Hispania prerromana : actas del V Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas de la Península Ibérica: (Colonia 25–28 de Noviembre de 1989)'' (Francisco Villar and Jürgen Untermann, eds.), , pp. 609–634.\n* Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús (2002). La hipótesis del vascoiberismo desde el punto de vista de la epigrafía íbera, ''Fontes linguae vasconum: Studia et documenta'', 90, pp. 197–218, .\n* Schuchardt, Hugo Ernst Mario (1907): ''Die Iberische Deklination'', Wien.\n\n==== Uralic-Altaic hypothesis ====\n* Bonaparte, Louis Lucien (1862): '' Langue basque et langues finnoises'', London.\n* Morvan, Michel (1996): ''The linguistic origins of basque'' (in French). Bordeaux: Presses universitaires. .\n\n==== Vasconic-Old European hypothesis ====\n* Vennemann, Theo (2003): ''Europa Vasconica – Europa Semitica'', Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 138, De Gruyter, Berlin, .\n* Vennemann, Theo (2007): \"Basken wie wir: Linguistisches und Genetisches zum europäischen Stammbaum\", ''BiologenHeute'' 5/6, 6–11.\n\n==== Other theories ====\n* Thornton, R.W. (2002): ''Basque Parallels to Greenberg’s Eurasiatic.'' in: ''Mother Tongue.'' Gloucester, Mass., 2002.\n", "\n\n\n\n* – Euskaltzaindia (The Royal Academy of the Basque Language)\n* Euskara Institutua, The University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU\n* Basque – A Mystery Language (YouTube)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Names of the language", "History and classification", "Geographic distribution", "Grammar", "Phonology", "Vocabulary", "Writing system", "Examples", "See also", " Notes ", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Basque language
[ "\n\n\n'''Björn Kristian Ulvaeus''' () (born 25 April 1945; credited as '''Björn Ulvæus''') is a Swedish songwriter, producer, a former member of the Swedish musical group ABBA (1972–1982), and co-composer of the musicals ''Chess'', ''Kristina från Duvemåla'', and ''Mamma Mia!''. He co-produced the film ''Mamma Mia!'' with fellow ABBA member and close friend Benny Andersson.\n", "\n===Early life===\nBjorn Kristian Ulvaeus was born in Gothenburg, but as a child he moved with his family to Västervik. His parents were Aina (1909–2005) and Erik Gunnar Ulvaeus (1912–1999). Ulvaeus studied business and law at Lund University after doing his military service with comedian Magnus Holmström.\n\n===Career===\nBjörn Ulvaeus with The Hootenanny Singers\nBefore gaining international recognition with ABBA, Ulvaeus was a member of the Swedish folk-schlager band Hootenanny Singers, early known as the \"West Bay Singers\", who had an enormous following in Scandinavia. While on the road in southern Sweden in 1966, they encountered the Hep Stars, and Ulvaeus quickly became friends with the group's keyboard player, Benny Andersson. The two musicians shared a passion for songwriting, and each found a composing partner in the other. On meeting again that summer, they composed their first song together: \"Isn't It Easy To Say\", a song soon to be recorded by Andersson's group. The two continued teaming up for music, helping out each other's bands in the recording studio, and adding guitar or keyboards respectively to the recordings. In 1968, they composed two songs together: \"A Flower In My Garden\", recorded by Hep Stars, and their first \"real\" hit \"Ljuva Sextiotal\", for which Stig Anderson wrote lyrics. The latter, a cabarét-style ironic song about the 1960s, was submitted for the 1969 Swedish heats for the Eurovision Song Contest, but was rejected; it was later recorded by diva Brita Borg. Another hit came in 1969 with \"Speleman\", also recorded by Hep Stars.\n\nWhile filming a nostalgic schlager special for television in March 1969, Björn met an eighteen-year-old singer-songwriter Agnetha Fältskog. Benny had himself met his future spouse, a 23-year-old jazz and schlager vocalist Anni-Frid Lyngstad, only weeks before.\n\nBjörn Ulvaeus continued recording and touring with Hootenanny Singers to great acclaim while working as in-house producer at Polar Record Company (headed by future manager Stig Anderson), with Benny as his new partner. The twosome produced records by other artists and continued writing songs together. Polar artist Arne Lamberts Swedish version of \"A Flower in My Garden\" (\"''Fröken Blåklint''\") was one of Björn & Benny's first in-house productions. In December 1969, they recorded the new song \"She's My Kind of Girl\", which became their first single as a duo. It was released in March 1970, giving them a minor hit in Sweden (and by chance a top-ten hit in Japan two years later).\n\nThe Hootenanny Singers entered Svensktoppen, the Swedish radio charts, in 1970 with \"Omkring Tiggarn Från Luossa\", a cover of an old folk-schlager song. It remained on the charts for 52 consecutive weeks, a record which endured until 1990; the song was produced by Björn and Benny, and had Ulvaeus's solo vocal and Benny's piano.\n\nAfter ABBA, Ulvaeus and Andersson created the musicals ''Chess'', a collaboration with lyricist Tim Rice, ''Kristina från Duvemåla'' (based on ''The Emigrants'' novels by Swedish writer Vilhelm Moberg), and ''Mamma Mia!'' (based on ABBA songs).\n\nTogether with Andersson, Ulvaeus was nominated for the Drama Desk Award in the category \"Outstanding Music\" (for the musical ''Chess''), and for a Tony Award in a category \"Best Orchestrations\" (for the musical ''Mamma Mia!''). Original cast recordings of both musicals were nominated for a Grammy Award.\n\nFor the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest in Istanbul, thirty years after ABBA had won the 1974 contest in Brighton, UK, Ulvaeus appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled \"Our Last Video\". Each of the four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall. The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release. It was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split. In fact, they each filmed their appearances separately.\n\nUlvaeus also shared with Andersson \"The Special International Ivor Novello Award\" from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors, \"The Music Export Prize\" from the Swedish Ministry of Industry and Trade (2008), and \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" from the Swedish Music Publishers Association (SMFF).\n\nOn 15 April 2013, it was officially announced by the EBU and the SVT that Ulvaeus and Andersson, with the Swedish DJ and record producer Avicii, had composed the anthem for the 2013 Eurovision Song Contest. The song was performed for the first time in the Final on 18 May.\n\n===Personal life===\nOn 6 July 1971, Ulvaeus married Agnetha Fältskog; the marriage resulted in two children: Linda Elin Ulvaeus (born 23 February 1973), and Peter Christian Ulvaeus (born 4 December 1977). The couple decided to separate in late 1978, and their divorce was finalised in July 1980. Ulvaeus then married music journalist Lena Källersjö on 6 January 1981. This marriage produced two daughters: Emma (born in 1982) and Anna (born in 1986).\n\nUlvaeus and Källersjö currently live in Stockholm. From 1984 to 1990 they lived in the UK, where Ulvaeus founded an IT business with his brother.\n\nHe is also one of four people (including Per Gessle) who own NoteHeads, a Swedish company which publishes the music notation program Igor Engraver.\n\nUlvaeus is a member of the International Humanist and Ethical Union's Swedish member organisation Humanisterna, and was awarded their annual prize, ''Hedenius-priset'', in 2006. Ulvaeus describes himself as a \"freethinker\", rather than an atheist.\n\nIn 2008, Ulvaeus revealed that he suffered from severe long-term memory loss and now no longer remembers many important events in his life. He now has little memory of some of the critical events in his professional history and has resorted to images of his past and even hypnotism to try to bring back his memory. However, in a 2009 interview, he stated that reports of his memory loss were \"hugely exaggerated\". In a TV interview with Fredrik Skavlan, Ulvaeus said the memory loss pertained to episodic memory. He said that, for instance, he was not nostalgic for his days with ABBA: \"It was good while it lasted.\"\n\n''The Guardian'' called him Sweden's \"highest-profile cash-free campaigner\", explaining that \"after his son was robbed several years ago, Ulvaeus became an evangelist for the electronic payment movement, claiming that cash was the primary cause of crime and that 'all activity in the black economy requires cash'\". He has reportedly been living cash-free for more than a year, and ABBA The Museum has operated cash-free since it opened in May 2013.\n\n===Tax vindication===\n\nThe Swedish Tax Agency accused Björn Ulvaeus of failing to pay 90 million kronor (US$12.8 million) in back taxes for eight years ending in 2005. The agency claimed that he \"laundered\" his music royalty income through institutions in several foreign countries. Ulvaeus paid the taxes as a precautionary measure during the 2½-year dispute. In October 2008, the county administrative court decided the case in Ulvaeus' favour, ruling that he never owed any of the 90 million kronor.\n", " \n\n===Björn solo singles===\n* 1968: \"Raring\" (Swedish version of \"Honey\")/\"Vill Du Ha En Vän\"\n* 1968: \"Fröken Fredriksson\" (Swedish version of \"Harper Valley PTA\")/\"Vår Egen Sång\" – (Polar POS 162)\n* 1969: \"Saknar Du Något Min Kära\" (Swedish version of \"Where Do You Go To (My Lovely)?\"/\"Gömt Är Inte Glömt\"\n* 1969: \"Partaj-Aj-Aj-Aj\"/\"Kvinnan I Mitt Liv\"\n\n===Björn and Benny singles===\n* 1970: \"She's My Kind of Girl\"/\"Inga Theme\"\n* 1970: \"Hej Gamle Man!\"/\"Lycka\" (Happiness)\n* 1971: \"Hey, Musikant\"/\"Was die Liebe sagt\"\n* 1971: \"Det Kan Ingen Doktor Hjalpa\" (It Can't Be Remedied by a Doctor)/\"På Bröllop\"\n* 1971: \"Tänk Om Jorden Vore Ung\" (If Only We Had The Time)/\"Träskofolket\"\n* 1972: \"En Karusell\" (Merry-Go-Round)/\"Att Finnas Till\"\n* 1972: \"Love Has Its Ways\"/\"Rock 'N' Roll Band\" (Benny & Björn 1st version)\n\n===Björn and Benny albums===\n* 1970: ''Lycka''\n* 1984: ''Chess'' (concept album with Tim Rice)\n* 1986: ''Chess Pieces''\n* 1988: ''Chess: Original Broadway Cast Recording''\n* 1994: ''Chess in Concert''\n* 1996: ''Kristina från Duvemåla''\n* 1998: ''från Waterloo till Duvemåla''\n* 1999: ''16 favoriter ur Kristina från Duvemåla''\n* 1999: ''Mamma Mia!'' (Original Cast Recording)\n* 2000: ''Mamma Mia!'' (Original Broadway Cast Recording)\n* 2002: ''Chess på Svenska''\n* 2005: ''Mamma Mia! På Svenska''\n* 2008: ''Mamma Mia! – The Movie Soundtrack''\n* 2009: ''Chess in Concert'' (London)\n* 2010: ''Kristina at Carnegie Hall''\n* 2013: ''Hjälp Sökes''\n\n===Gemini===\n* 1985: ''Gemini''\n* 1987: ''Geminism''\n\n===Josefin Nilsson===\n* 1993: ''Shapes''\n", "List of Swedes in music\nAbbacadabra\n", "\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n:-9" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Discography", "See also", "References" ]	Björn Ulvaeus
[ "\n\n\n'''Göran Bror''' '''Benny''' '''Andersson''' (; born 16 December 1946) is a Swedish musician, composer, member of the Swedish music group ABBA (1972–1982), and co-composer of the musicals ''Chess'', ''Kristina från Duvemåla'', and ''Mamma Mia!''. For the 2008 film version of ''Mamma Mia!'', he worked also as an executive producer. Since 2001, he is active with his own band Benny Anderssons orkester.\n", "Göran Bror Benny Andersson was born in Vällingby to 34-year-old civil engineer Gösta Andersson and his 26-year-old wife Laila. His sister Eva-Lis Andersson followed in 1948. Andersson's musical background comes from his father and grandfather; they both enjoyed playing the accordion, and at six, Benny got his own. Father Gösta and grandfather Efraim taught him Swedish folk music, traditional music, and the odd schlager. Benny recalls the first records he bought were \"Du Bist Musik\" by Italian schlager singer Caterina Valente and Elvis Presley's \"Jailhouse Rock\". He was especially impressed by the flip side \"Treat Me Nice\" as this featured a piano. This smörgåsbord of different kinds of music was to influence and follow him through the years.\n\nWhen Andersson was ten he got his own piano, and taught himself to play. He left school aged 15 and began to perform at youth clubs. This is when he met his first girlfriend Christina Grönvall, with whom he had two children: Peter (born 1963) and Heléne (born 1965). In early 1964, Benny and Christina joined \"Elverkets Spelmanslag\" (\"The Electricity Board Folk Music Group\"), the name was a punning reference to their electric instruments. The repertoire was mainly instrumentals, one of his numbers was \"Baby Elephant Walk\", and he wrote his first songs.", "===The Hep Stars (1964–1969)===\nIn October 1964 he joined the Hep Stars as keyboardist and they made a breakthrough in March 1965 with their hit \"Cadillac\", eventually becoming the most celebrated of the Swedish 1960s pop bands. Andersson consolidated his place as the band's keyboardist and musical driving force as well as a teen idol. The band performed mostly covers of international hits, but Andersson soon started writing his own material, and gave the band the classic hits \"No Response\", \"Sunny Girl\", \"Wedding\", \"Consolation\", \"It's Nice To Be Back\" and \"She Will Love You\" amongst others.\n\n===Before ABBA (1969–1972)===\nAndersson met Björn Ulvaeus in June 1966, and the two started writing songs together, their first being \"Isn't It Easy To Say\", eventually recorded by the Hep Stars. He also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with Lasse Berghagen, with whom he wrote several songs and submitted \"Hej, Clown\" for the 1969 Melodifestivalen – the Swedish Eurovision Song Festival finals. The song finished in second place. During this contest he met vocalist Anni-Frid Lyngstad, and they soon became a couple. Around the same time his songwriting companion Ulvaeus met vocalist Agnetha Fältskog.\n\nThe personal relationships and Andersson and Ulvaeus' songwriting collaboration has led quite naturally to the very close co-operation which the four friends had during the following years. Benny and Björn scored their first hits as songwriters in the spring of 1969: \"Ljuva sextital\" (a hit with Brita Borg) and \"Speleman\" (a hit for the Hep Stars). As the two couples began supporting each other during recording sessions, the sound of the girls' voices convinced the songwriters to model their 'group' on various MOR acts such as Blue Mink, Middle of the Road and Sweet. Thus, ABBA came to life.\n===ABBA (1972–1982)===\nAndersson on 'The Eddy Go Round Show' in 1975.\n\nThe group's breakthrough came with winning the Eurovision Song Contest for Sweden with \"Waterloo\" on 6 April 1974. During the next eight years, Andersson (together with Ulvaeus) wrote music for and produced eight studio albums with ABBA. The group achieved great success globally and scored a chain of No. 1 hits.\n===After ABBA: ''Chess'', ''Kristina'' and ''Mamma Mia!'' (1983–present)===\nAfter ABBA Andersson continued writing music with Ulvaeus. Their first project was the stage musical ''Chess'', written with Tim Rice. The ''Chess'' concept album – with vocals by Elaine Paige, Barbara Dickson, Murray Head and Swedes Tommy Körberg and Björn Skifs – was released in October 1984, selling two million copies worldwide. The Paige/Dickson duet \"I Know Him So Well\" became a major UK No. 1 hit, and Murray Head's \"One Night in Bangkok\" gave Andersson/Ulvaeus a US No. 3 hit.\n\n''Chess'' was staged in London's West End Prince Edward Theatre in May 1986 and received mixed to positive reviews, running for about three years. A revised staging on Broadway in April 1988 received poor reviews, running for two months.\n\nIn 1985, Andersson produced and released an album with brother and sister Anders and Karin Glenmark, featuring new songs by Andersson/Ulvaeus. The duo named themselves Gemini, and a second album with more music by Björn and Benny was released in April 1987, containing the big hit \"Mio My Mio\"; also to be found on the soundtrack to the film ''Mio in the Land of Faraway'', for which Andersson co-produced the music.\n\nIn 1987, Andersson released his first solo album ''Klinga Mina Klockor'' (\"Chime, My Bells\"). All the music was written by and performed by himself on accordion, backed by the ''Orsa Spelmän'' (Orsa Folk Musicians) on fiddles. A second solo album followed: ''November 1989''.\n\nIn 1990, Andersson scored a Swedish #1 hit with \"Lassie\", sung by female cabaret group Ainbusk, for whom he also wrote the Svensktoppen hits \"Älska Mig\" and \"Drömmarnas Golv\". He decided to produce an album with Josefin Nilsson from this quartet, resulting in the 1993 English-language album ''Shapes'', featuring ten new Andersson/Ulvaeus compositions.\n\nIn 1992, he wrote the introduction melody for the European football championship, which was organised by Sweden that year.\n\nFrom the late 1980s, Andersson had worked on an idea for an epic Swedish language musical based on his affection for traditional folk music, and in October 1995, ''Kristina från Duvemåla'' premiered in Sweden. The musical was based on ''The Emigrants'' novels by Swedish writer Vilhelm Moberg. The musical ran successfully for almost five years, before closing in June 1999. An English-language version, simply titled ''Kristina'', was staged in concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City for two nights in September 2009, yielding a live recording, and at the Royal Albert Hall for one night in April 2010.\n\nAndersson's next project was ''Mamma Mia!'', a musical built around 24 of ABBA's songs, which has become a worldwide box-office blockbuster with versions in several languages currently being played in many countries, including the UK (West End premiere in April 1999), Canada (Toronto premiere in 2000), the USA (Broadway premiere in 2001), and Sweden (Swedish language premiere in 2005).\n\nFor the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul thirty years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Benny appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled \"Our Last Video\". Each of the four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall. The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release. It was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split; however, Frida's appearance was filmed separately.\n\nA film version of ''Mamma Mia!'' premiered on 18 July 2008. In April/May 2007, Andersson worked on the film soundtrack, re-recording the old ABBA songs with musicians from the old ABBA recording sessions. ''Mamma Mia! The Movie'' has now become the most successful movie musical of all time and has been named the number one box office smash of 2008, and the biggest-selling DVD ever in the UK.\n\n===Benny Anderssons Orkester (2001–present)===\nBenny Andersson Orchestra at a concert in Minnesota in 2006.\nAndersson currently performs with his own band of 16 musicians, BAO; ''\"'''B'''enny '''A'''nderssons '''O'''rkester\"'' (\"Benny Andersson's orchestra\"), utilising the vocal talents of fellow Swedes Helen Sjöholm (from ''Kristina from Duvemåla'') and Tommy Körberg (of ''Chess'' fame), with lyrics to new material sometimes written by his song-writing partner and best friend of 40 years, Björn Ulvaeus. BAO has released five albums to huge success in Sweden, all containing hit singles.\n\nBAO recently achieved a new record in Sweden on the Svensktoppen chart by staying there for 243 weeks with the song ''Du är min man'' (\"You Are My Man\"), sung by Helen Sjöholm.\n\n===New compositions (1984–present)===\nAndersson composes primarily for his 'band' BAO! with the vocalists Sjöholm and Körberg, but keeps his older material alive through re-visiting it, like the staging of 'Mamma Mia!' and the Swedish version of 'Chess'.\n\nFor a compilation album of the Glenmark duo Gemini, Andersson had Björn Ulvaeus write new Swedish lyrics for the re-recording of two songs from 1984 and 1987.\nAndersson and Ulvaeus have continuously been writing new material; most recently the two wrote seven songs for Andersson's 'BAO' 2011 album ''O Klang Och Jubeltid'', performed as usual by vocalists Sjöholm, Körberg and Moreus. In July 2009, BAO, now named \"The Benny Andersson Band\", released their first international record, the album ''The Story of a Heart''. It was a compilation of 14 tracks from Andersson's five Swedish-language releases between 1987 and 2007, including five songs now recorded with lyrics by Ulvaeus in English, and the new title song premiered on BBC2's ''Ken Bruce Show''. A Swedish-language version of the title track, ''\"Sommaren Du Fick\"'' (\"The Summer You Got\"), was released as a single in Sweden prior to the English version, with vocals by Helen Sjöholm.\n\nIn the spring of 2009, Andersson also released a single recorded by the staff at his privately owned Stockholm hotel ''Hotel Rival'', titled \"2nd Best to None\", accompanied by a video showing the staff at work. In 2008, Andersson and Ulvaeus wrote a song for Swedish singer Sissela Kyle, titled ''\"Jag vill bli gammal\"'' (\"I Wanna Grow Old\"), for her Stockholm stage show ''\"Your Days Are Numbered\"'', which was never recorded and released, but did get a TV performance. Ulvaeus also contributed lyrics to ABBA's 1976 instrumental track \"Arrival\" for Sarah Brightman's cover version recorded for her 2008 album ''Winter Symphony''. New English lyrics have also been written for Andersson's 1999 song ''\"Innan Gryningen\"'' (then also named \"Millennium Hymn\"), with the new title \"The Silence of the Dawn\" for Barbara Dickson was performed live, but not yet recorded and released. In 2007, they wrote the new song ''\"Han som har vunnit allt\"'' (\"He Who's Won It All\") for actor/singer Anders Ekborg. Björn wrote English lyrics for two older songs from Benny's solo albums: \"I Walk with You Mama\" (\"Stockholm by Night\", 1989) and \"After the Rain\" (\"Efter regnet\", 1987) for opera singer Anne Sofie Von Otter, for her Andersson tribute album ''I Let the Music Speak''. Barbra Dickson recorded (but not yet released) a Björn & Benny song called 'The Day The Wall Came Tumbling Down'; the song eventually was released by Australian 'Mamma Mia!' musical star Anne Wood 201 album of ABBA covers, Divine Discontent. As of October 2012, Björn Ulvaeus has mentioned writing new material with Benny for a 'BAO' Christmas release (also mentioned as a BAO 'box'), and Benny is busy writing music for a Swedish language obscure musical, 'Hjälp Sökes' ('Help is Wanted') together with Kristina Lugn and Lars Rudolfsson, premiering 8 February 2013.\nAndersson has also written music for a documentary film about Olof Palme, re-recording the track 'Sorgmarch' from his last album as a theme throughout the film.\nThe song \"Kärlekens Tid\" -recorded 2004 by Helen Sjöholm with BAO- -has also been performed in concert in English (lyrics by Ylva Eggehorn) by opera baritone Bryn Terfel.\nOn 15 April 2013, it was officially announced by the EBU and the SVT that Benny along with the ex-ABBA member, Björn Ulvaeus and the Swedish DJ and record producer, Avicii, have composed the anthem for the 2013 Eurovision Song Contest. The song was performed for the first time in the Final on 18 May.\n\nA new album of Andersson compositions presented in a choral style was released on September 18, 2015. \"Kärlekens Tid\" was produced in Andersson's Mono Music studio, under the direction of choirmaster Gustaf Sjökvist who died before the album's release. Gustaf Sjökvists Choir, conducted by Cecilia Rydinger Alin, performed two concerts at Skeppsholmen on September 20, featuring Benny Andersson on piano. The album includes songs in Swedish and English from a range of Andersson's projects, such as Chess, Kristina and BAO.\n\n===Film music===\nAndersson has written music to several films for screen and television; the first attempt in the early 1970s for the Swedish erotica movie ''The Seduction of Inga''; the film was not a success, but the 'Björn & Benny' single \"She's My Kind of Girl\" surprised the composers by being released in Japan and becoming a Top 10 hit (the song renamed in Japan as \"The Little Girl of the Cold Wind\").\n\nIn 1987, Andersson wrote music and co-produced the soundtrack with Anders Eljas for the film ''Mio in the Land of Faraway'', based on Swedish author Astrid Lindgrens ''Mio, My Son''. The title song became a huge hit in Sweden for Gemini.\n\nIn 2000, he wrote the music for fellow Swede (no relation) Roy Andersson's film ''Songs from the Second Floor'' (the music later re-recorded, featuring new lyrics, with BAO! with vocals by Helen Sjöholm). He also wrote the theme for Roy Andersson's next film, ''You, the Living'', from 2007.\n\nAndersson also worked on the film adaptation of ''Mamma Mia!''. He also wrote the film score for the 2012 documentary ''Palme'' about Swedish prime minister Olof Palme. He later won a Guldbagge Award for Best Original Score, for that film at the 48th Guldbagge Awards.\n", "Together with Ulvaeus, Andersson was nominated for a Drama Desk Award in a category \"Outstanding Music\" (for the musical ''Chess''), and for a Tony Award in a category \"Best Orchestrations\" (for musical ''Mamma Mia!''). Original cast recordings of both musicals were nominated for a Grammy Award. Andersson/Ulvaeus also won a Touring Broadway Award for the musical \"Mamma Mia\" (best score).\n\nDuring his post-ABBA career Andersson won four Swedish Grammis awards, and together with Ulvaeus received the \"Special International\" Ivor Novello award from 'The British Academy of Composers and Songwriters', twice \"The Music Export Prize\" from the Swedish Ministry of Industry and Trade (2008), as well as the \"Lifetime Achievement\" award from the Swedish Music Publishers Association (SMFF). In 2002, Andersson was given an honorary professorship by the Swedish Government for his \"ability to create high-class music reaching people around the world\".\n\nIn 2007, he was elected a member of Royal Swedish Academy of Music, and in 2008 received an Honorary Doctorate from the Stockholm University Faculty of Humanities for contributing importantly both to the preservation and the growth of the Swedish folk music tradition.\n\nOn 15 March 2010, Andersson appeared on stage in New York with former wife Anni-Frid Lyngstad to accept ABBA's award of induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. During his acceptance speech he reflected on the important influence of traditional European music and the melancholy of the Swedish soul on ABBA's brand of pop music. \"If you live in a country like Sweden, with five, six months of snow, and the sun disappears totally for like two months, that would be reflected in the work of artists,\" he said. \"It's definitely in the Swedish folk music, you can hear it in the Russian folk songs, you can hear in the music from Jean Sibelius or Edvard Grieg from Norway, you can see it in the eyes of Greta Garbo and you can hear it in the voice of Jussi Björling. And you can hear in the sound of Frida and Agnetha on some of our songs too.\"\n\nIn 2012, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Philosophy from the Luleå Tekniska Universitet Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences.\n\nAndersson won the Swedish \"Guldbaggen\" award in 2012 as composer of the music for the film \"Palme\".\n", "Andersson with Lyngstad in 1976\nAndersson was engaged to Christina Grönvall. In 1963, they had a son, Peter Grönvall, and in 1965, a daughter, Heléne. They split in 1966 and Christina kept custody of the children as Andersson was then at the peak of his Hep Stars' success. In the 1990s, Peter formed One More Time, a group that enjoyed European success with the ABBA-like \"Highland\" and, later, as Sweden's entry to the Eurovision Song Contest 1996.\n\nAndersson was engaged to Anni-Frid Lyngstad of ABBA for about nine years and they married on 6 October 1978, but separated on 26 November 1980 and divorced in 1981.\n\nHe married Swedish TV presenter Mona Nörklit in 1981 and had a son, Ludvig (born January 1982), who has since followed in his father's footsteps in forming his own band.\n\nAndersson struggled with alcoholism and drug abuse through much of his adult life. He has remained a teetotaler since 2001. Andersson did not disclose the extent of his substance abuse problems until a 2011 interview, at which point he had maintained nearly a decade of sobriety.\n", "\n\n", "''Beginner's Guide to Scandinavia'' (3CD, Nascente 2011)\n", "List of Swedes in music\n", "\n", "\n\n* Deutsche Grammophon page on Benny Andersson\n* BBC Radio 3 New Generation Artists page\n* icethesite (Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus news site)\n* The Hep Stars International Official website (Benny before ABBA)\n* Chronology: Benny Andersson\n* Official ABBA site\n* \n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Awards", "Personal life", "Discography", "Also appears on", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Benny Andersson
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Bluetooth''' is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.\n\nBluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as '''IEEE 802.15.1''', but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices.\n\n\n", "The development of the \"short-link\" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, and . Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund. The specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology.\n", "\n===Etymology of the name===\nThe name \"Bluetooth\" is an Anglicised version of the Scandinavian ''Blåtand''/''Blåtann'' (Old Norse ''blátǫnn''), the epithet of the tenth-century king Harald Bluetooth who united dissonant Danish tribes into a single kingdom and, according to legend, introduced Christianity as well. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach of Intel who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers. At the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel ''The Long Ships'' about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, uniting them into one universal standard.\n\n===Logo===\nThe Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes 8px (Hagall) (ᚼ) and 8px (Bjarkan) (ᛒ), Harald's initials.\n\n", "Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled. Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.\n\nOriginally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (differential quadrature phase shift keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an instantaneous bit rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a \"BR/EDR radio\".\n\nBluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master/slave architecture. One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock. Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at 312.5 µs intervals. Two clock ticks make up a slot of 625 µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long, but in all cases the master's transmission begins in even slots and the slave's in odd slots.\n\nThe above is valid for \"classic\" BT. Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification, uses the same spectrum but somewhat differently; see Bluetooth low energy#Radio interface.\n\n===Communication and connection===\nA master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as slave).\n\nThe Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one piconet and the slave role in another.\n\nAt any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for the little-used broadcast mode). The master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the master that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is possible. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable floatright\" style=\"text-align:right;\"\n\n Class\n permitted power\n range (m)\n\n (mW)\n (dBm)\n\n 1\n 100 \n 20 \n ~100\n\n 2\n 2.5 \n 4 \n ~10\n\n 3\n 1 \n 0 \n ~1\n\n 4\n 0.5 \n -3 \n ~0.5\n\n\nBluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low-power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each other; however, a ''quasi optical'' wireless path must be viable. Range is power-class-dependent, but effective ranges vary in practice. See the table on the right.\n\nOfficially Class 3 radios have a range of up to , Class 2, most commonly found in mobile devices, , and Class 1, primarily for industrial use cases,. Bluetooth Marketing qualifies that Class 1 range is in most cases , and Class 2 range .\n\n\n Bluetooth version\n Maximum speed\n Maximum range\n\n 3.0\n 25 Mbit/s\n 10 meters (33 ft)\n\n 4.0\n 25 Mbit/s\n 60 meters (200 ft)\n\n 5\n 50 Mbit/s\n 240 meters (800 ft)\n\nThe effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2 device. Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.\n\nThe Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than , but there is no upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers' implementations can be tuned to provide the range needed for each case.\n\n===Bluetooth profiles===\n\n\nTo use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles, which are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviors that Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth devices. These profiles include settings to parameterize and to control the communication from the start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes effective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use cases for devices.\n\n===List of applications===\nheadset.\n* Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a handsfree headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.\n* Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo system.\n* Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and portable wireless speakers.\n* Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called \"a Bluetooth\".\n* Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with or without communication capabilities.\n* Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC.\n* Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.\n* Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer.\n* Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX.\n* Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.\n* For controls where infrared was often used.\n* For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection desired.\n* Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.\n* Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.\n* Seventh and eighth generation game consoles such as Nintendo's Wii, and Sony's PlayStation 3 use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.\n* Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wireless modem.\n* Short-range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-top box or dedicated telehealth devices.\n* Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.\n* Real-time location systems (RTLS) are used to track and identify the location of objects in real time using \"Nodes\" or \"tags\" attached to, or embedded in, the objects tracked, and \"Readers\" that receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations.\n* Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is raised. This can also be used as a man overboard alarm. A product using this technology has been available since 2009.\n* Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers' Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists.\n* Wireless transmission of audio (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)\n* Live video streaming to the visual cortical implant device by Nabeel Fattah in Newcastle university 2017 .\n\n===Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)===\nBluetooth and Wi-Fi (the brand name for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have some similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for high-speed cabling for general local area network access in work areas or home. This category of applications is sometimes called wireless local area networks (WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any setting, and also works for fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.).\n\nWi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic routed through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need to connect with minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets and remote controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in applications where some degree of client configuration is possible and high speeds are required, especially for network access through an access node. However, Bluetooth access points do exist, and ad-hoc connections are possible with Wi-Fi though not as simply as with Bluetooth. Wi-Fi Direct was recently developed to add a more Bluetooth-like ad-hoc functionality to Wi-Fi.\n\n===Bluetooth vs. ANT+===\nBluetooth Smart and ANT+ are similar wireless technologies that allow information to pass between electronic devices.\nBluetooth devices will talk to other electronics connected to the Bluetooth network – and the same goes for ANT+ devices.\nOf course there are advantages and disadvantages of each protocol that must be considered when choosing.\n\n===Devices===\nA Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m range.\nBluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, speakers, tablets, media players, robotics systems, handheld, laptops and console gaming equipment, and some high definition headsets, modems, and watches. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).\n\nBluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier, because more of the security, network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types.\n", "A typical Bluetooth USB dongle.\nAn internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm).\nA personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external adapter, typically in the form of a small USB \"dongle.\"\n\nUnlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets multiple devices communicate with a computer over a single adapter.\n\n===Operating system implementation===\n\n\nFor Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and SP3\nreleases work natively with Bluetooth v1.1, v2.0 and v2.0+EDR.\nPrevious versions required users to install their Bluetooth adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft.\nMicrosoft's own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature Pack for Wireless or Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR. Windows 7 works with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR).\n\nThe Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth profiles natively: PAN, SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third party stack that supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be replaced.\n\nApple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac OS X v10.2, which was released in 2002.\n\nLinux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Affix. The BlueZ stack is included with most Linux kernels and was originally developed by Qualcomm. The Affix stack was developed by Nokia.\n\nFreeBSD features Bluetooth since its v5.0 release.\n\nNetBSD features Bluetooth since its v4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack was ported to OpenBSD as well, however OpenBSD later removed it for security reasons.\n", "The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The SIG was formally announced on 20 May 1998. Today it has a membership of over 30,000 companies worldwide. It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba and Nokia, and later joined by many other companies.\n\nAll versions of the Bluetooth standards support downward compatibility. That lets the latest standard cover all older versions.\n\nThe Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of specifications:\n* The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between\n* Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per year\n* Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly\n* Errata (Available with a user account: Errata login)\n\n===Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B===\nVersions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments.\n\n===Bluetooth 1.1===\n* Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2002\n* Many errors found in the v1.0B specifications were fixed.\n* Added possibility of non-encrypted channels.\n* Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).\n\n===Bluetooth 1.2===\nMajor enhancements include:\n* Faster Connection and Discovery\n* ''Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH)'', which improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.\n* Higher transmission speeds in practice than in v1.1, up to 721 kbit/s.\n* Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide better concurrent data transfer.\n* Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with three-wire UART.\n* Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2005\n* Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP.\n\n===Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR===\nThis version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released in 2004. The main difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The bit rate of EDR is 3 Mbit/s, although the maximum data transfer rate (allowing for inter-packet time and acknowledgements) is 2.1 Mbit/s. EDR uses a combination of GFSK and Phase Shift Keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK. EDR can provide a lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.\n\nThe specification is published as ''Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR'', which implies that EDR is an optional feature. Aside from EDR, the v2.0 specification contains other minor improvements, and products may claim compliance to \"Bluetooth v2.0\" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one commercial device states \"Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR\" on its data sheet.\n\n===Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR===\nBluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July 2007.\n\nThe headline feature of v2.1 is secure simple pairing (SSP): this improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. See the section on Pairing below for more details.\n\nVersion 2.1 allows various other improvements, including \"Extended inquiry response\" (EIR), which provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection; and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power mode.\n\n===Bluetooth 3.0 + HS===\nVersion 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21 April 2009. Bluetooth v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not over the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and establishment, and the high data rate traffic is carried over a colocated 802.11 link.\n\nThe main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high-speed transport. The high-speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices that display the \"+HS\" logo actually support Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A Bluetooth v3.0 device without the \"+HS\" suffix is only required to support features introduced in Core Specification Version 3.0 or earlier Core Specification Addendum 1.\n\n;L2CAP Enhanced modes: Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM) implements reliable L2CAP channel, while Streaming Mode (SM) implements unreliable channel with no retransmission or flow control. Introduced in Core Specification Addendum 1.\n;Alternative MAC/PHY: Enables the use of alternative MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration. However, when large quantities of data must be sent, the high-speed alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data. This means that Bluetooth uses proven low power connection models when the system is idle, and the faster radio when it must send large quantities of data. AMP links require enhanced L2CAP modes.\n;Unicast Connectionless Data: Permits sending service data without establishing an explicit L2CAP channel. It is intended for use by applications that require low latency between user action and reconnection/transmission of data. This is only appropriate for small amounts of data.\n;Enhanced Power Control: Updates the power control feature to remove the open loop power control, and also to clarify ambiguities in power control introduced by the new modulation schemes added for EDR. Enhanced power control removes the ambiguities by specifying the behaviour that is expected. The feature also adds closed loop power control, meaning RSSI filtering can start as the response is received. Additionally, a \"go straight to maximum power\" request has been introduced. This is expected to deal with the headset link loss issue typically observed when a user puts their phone into a pocket on the opposite side to the headset.\n\n====Ultra-wideband====\nThe high-speed (AMP) feature of Bluetooth v3.0 was originally intended for UWB, but the WiMedia Alliance, the body responsible for the flavor of UWB intended for Bluetooth, announced in March 2009 that it was disbanding, and ultimately UWB was omitted from the Core v3.0 specification.\n\nOn 16 March 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced it was entering into technology transfer agreements for the WiMedia Ultra-wideband (UWB) specifications. WiMedia has transferred all current and future specifications, including work on future high-speed and power-optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and the USB Implementers Forum. After successful completion of the technology transfer, marketing, and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance ceased operations.\n\nIn October 2009 the Bluetooth Special Interest Group suspended development of UWB as part of the alternative MAC/PHY, Bluetooth v3.0 + HS solution. A small, but significant, number of former WiMedia members had not and would not sign up to the necessary agreements for the IP transfer. The Bluetooth SIG is now in the process of evaluating other options for its longer term roadmap.\n\n===Bluetooth 4.0 + LE===\n\n\nThe Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specification version 4.0 (called Bluetooth Smart) and has been adopted as of 30 June 2010. It includes ''Classic Bluetooth'', ''Bluetooth high speed'' and ''Bluetooth low energy'' protocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Classic Bluetooth consists of legacy Bluetooth protocols.\n\nBluetooth low energy, previously known as Wibree, is a subset of Bluetooth v4.0 with an entirely new protocol stack for rapid build-up of simple links. As an alternative to the Bluetooth standard protocols that were introduced in Bluetooth v1.0 to v3.0, it is aimed at very low power applications running off a coin cell. Chip designs allow for two types of implementation, dual-mode, single-mode and enhanced past versions. The provisional names ''Wibree'' and ''Bluetooth ULP'' (Ultra Low Power) were abandoned and the BLE name was used for a while. In late 2011, new logos \"Bluetooth Smart Ready\" for hosts and \"Bluetooth Smart\" for sensors were introduced as the general-public face of BLE.\n* In a single-mode implementation, only the low energy protocol stack is implemented. STMicroelectronics, AMICCOM, CSR, Nordic Semiconductor and Texas Instruments have released single mode Bluetooth low energy solutions.\n* In a dual-mode implementation, Bluetooth Smart functionality is integrated into an existing Classic Bluetooth controller. , the following semiconductor companies have announced the availability of chips meeting the standard: Qualcomm-Atheros, CSR, Broadcom and Texas Instruments. The compliant architecture shares all of Classic Bluetooth’s existing radio and functionality resulting in a negligible cost increase compared to Classic Bluetooth.\n\nCost-reduced single-mode chips, which enable highly integrated and compact devices, feature a lightweight Link Layer providing ultra-low power idle mode operation, simple device discovery, and reliable point-to-multipoint data transfer with advanced power-save and secure encrypted connections at the lowest possible cost.\n\nGeneral improvements in version 4.0 include the changes necessary to facilitate BLE modes, as well the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) and Security Manager (SM) services with AES Encryption.\n\nCore Specification Addendum 2 was unveiled in December 2011; it contains improvements to the audio Host Controller Interface and to the High Speed (802.11) Protocol Adaptation Layer.\n\nCore Specification Addendum 3 revision 2 has an adoption date of 24 July 2012.\n\nCore Specification Addendum 4 has an adoption date of 12 February 2013.\n\n===Bluetooth 4.1===\nThe Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the Bluetooth v4.1 specification on 4 December 2013. This specification is an incremental software update to Bluetooth Specification v4.0, and not a hardware update. The update incorporates Bluetooth Core Specification Addenda (CSA 1, 2, 3 & 4) and adds new features that improve consumer usability. These include increased co-existence support for LTE, bulk data exchange rates—and aid developer innovation by allowing devices to support multiple roles simultaneously.\n\nNew features of this specification include: \n* Mobile Wireless Service Coexistence Signaling\n* Train Nudging and Generalized Interlaced Scanning\n* Low Duty Cycle Directed Advertising\n* L2CAP Connection Oriented and Dedicated Channels with Credit Based Flow Control\n* Dual Mode and Topology\n* LE Link Layer Topology\n* 802.11n PAL\n* Audio Architecture Updates for Wide Band Speech\n* Fast Data Advertising Interval\n* Limited Discovery Time\nNotice that some features were already available in a Core Specification Addendum (CSA) before the release of v4.1.\n\n===Bluetooth 4.2===\nReleased on December 2, 2014, it Introduces features for the Internet of Things.\n\nThe major areas of improvement are:\n* Low Energy Secure Connection with Data Packet Length Extension\n* Link Layer Privacy with Extended Scanner Filter Policies\n* Internet Protocol Support Profile (IPSP) version 6 ready for Bluetooth Smart things to support connected home \nOlder Bluetooth hardware may receive 4.2 features such as Data Packet Length Extension and improved privacy via firmware updates.\n\n===Bluetooth 5===\nThe Bluetooth SIG officially unveiled Bluetooth 5 during a media event in London on 16 June 2016. Its new features are mainly focused on emerging Internet of Things technology. The Samsung Galaxy S8 launched with Bluetooth 5 support in April 2017. In September 2017, iPhone 8, 8 Plus and iPhone X launched with Bluetooth 5 support as well. Marketing drops the point number; so that it is just \"Bluetooth 5\" (not 5.0 or LE like Bluetooth 4.0). The change is for the sake of \"Simplifying our marketing, communicating user benefits more effectively and making it easier to signal significant technology updates to the market.\"\n\nBluetooth 5 provides, for BLE, options that can double the speed (2 Mbit/s burst) at the expense of range, or up to a fourfold the range at the expense of data rate, and eightfold the data broadcasting capacity of transmissions, by increasing the packet lengths. The increase in transmissions could be important for Internet of Things devices, where many nodes connect throughout a whole house. Bluetooth 5 adds functionality for connectionless services such as location-relevant navigation of low-energy Bluetooth connections.\n\nThe major areas of improvement are:\n* Slot Availability Mask (SAM)\n* 2 Mbit/s PHY for LE\n* LE Long Range\n* High Duty Cycle Non-Connectable Advertising\n* LE Advertising Extensions\n* LE Channel Selection Algorithm #2\n\nFeatures Added in CSA5 - Integrated in v5.0:\n* Higher Output Power\n\nThe following features were removed in this version of the specification:\n* Park State\n", "\n===Bluetooth protocol stack===\n\nBluetooth Protocol Stack\nBluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols. Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are LMP, L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with Bluetooth almost universally can use these protocols: HCI and RFCOMM.\n\n====LMP====\nThe ''Link Management Protocol'' (LMP) is used for set-up and control of the radio link between two devices. Implemented on the controller.\n\n====L2CAP====\nThe ''Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol'' (L2CAP) is used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level protocols.\nProvides segmentation and reassembly of on-air packets.\n\nIn ''Basic'' mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload configurable up to 64 kB, with 672 bytes as the default MTU, and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory supported MTU.\n\nIn ''Retransmission and Flow Control'' modes, L2CAP can be configured either for isochronous data or reliable data per channel by performing retransmissions and CRC checks.\n\nBluetooth Core Specification Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to the core specification. These modes effectively deprecate original Retransmission and Flow Control modes:\n* '''Enhanced Retransmission Mode''' (ERTM): This mode is an improved version of the original retransmission mode. This mode provides a reliable L2CAP channel.\n* '''Streaming Mode''' (SM): This is a very simple mode, with no retransmission or flow control. This mode provides an unreliable L2CAP channel.\n\nReliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or additionally guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth BDR/EDR air interface by configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout (time after which the radio flushes packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed by the lower layer.\n\nOnly L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over AMP logical links.\n\n====SDP====\nThe ''Service Discovery Protocol'' (SDP) allows a device to discover services offered by other devices, and their associated parameters. For example, when you use a mobile phone with a Bluetooth headset, the phone uses SDP to determine which Bluetooth profiles the headset can use (Headset Profile, Hands Free Profile, Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) etc.) and the protocol multiplexer settings needed for the phone to connect to the headset using each of them. Each service is identified by a Universally Unique Identifier (UUID), with official services (Bluetooth profiles) assigned a short form UUID (16 bits rather than the full 128).\n\n====RFCOMM====\n''Radio Frequency Communications'' (RFCOMM) is a cable replacement protocol used for generating a virtual serial data stream. RFCOMM provides for binary data transport and emulates EIA-232 (formerly RS-232) control signals over the Bluetooth baseband layer, i.e. it is a serial port emulation.\n\nRFCOMM provides a simple reliable data stream to the user, similar to TCP. It is used directly by many telephony related profiles as a carrier for AT commands, as well as being a transport layer for OBEX over Bluetooth.\n\nMany Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of its widespread support and publicly available API on most operating systems. Additionally, applications that used a serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use RFCOMM.\n\n====BNEP====\nThe ''Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol'' (BNEP) is used for transferring another protocol stack's data via an L2CAP channel.\nIts main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the Personal Area Networking Profile.\nBNEP performs a similar function to SNAP in Wireless LAN.\n\n====AVCTP====\nThe ''Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol'' (AVCTP) is used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP channel. The music control buttons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the music player.\n\n====AVDTP====\nThe ''Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol'' (AVDTP) is used by the advanced audio distribution profile to stream music to stereo headsets over an L2CAP channel intended for video distribution profile in the Bluetooth transmission.\n\n====TCS====\nThe ''Telephony Control Protocol – Binary'' (TCS BIN) is the bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, \"TCS BIN defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices.\"\n\nTCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest.\n\n====Adopted protocols====\nAdopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations and incorporated into Bluetooth’s protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to code protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include:\n;Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Internet standard protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link.\n;TCP/IP/UDP: Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP protocol suite\n;Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX): Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation representation\n;Wireless Application Environment/Wireless Application Protocol (WAE/WAP): WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services.\n\n===Baseband error correction===\nDepending on packet type, individual packets may be protected by error correction, either 1/3 rate forward error correction (FEC) or 2/3 rate. In addition, packets with CRC will be retransmitted until acknowledged by automatic repeat request (ARQ).\n\n===Setting up connections===\nAny Bluetooth device in ''discoverable mode'' transmits the following information on demand:\n* Device name\n* Device class\n* List of services\n* Technical information (for example: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification used, clock offset)\n\nAny device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of a device's services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device.\n\nEvery device has a unique 48-bit address. However, these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by the user. This name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.\n\nMost cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most cellular phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several cellular phones in range named T610 (see Bluejacking).\n\n\n\n===Pairing and bonding===\n\n====Motivation====\nMany services offered over Bluetooth can expose private data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to establish a connection without user intervention (for example, as soon as in range).\n\nTo resolve this conflict, Bluetooth uses a process called ''bonding'', and a bond is generated through a process called ''pairing''. The pairing process is triggered either by a specific request from a user to generate a bond (for example, the user explicitly requests to \"Add a Bluetooth device\"), or it is triggered automatically when connecting to a service where (for the first time) the identity of a device is required for security purposes. These two cases are referred to as dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively.\n\nPairing often involves some level of user interaction. This user interaction confirms the identity of the devices. When pairing successfully completes, a bond forms between the two devices, enabling those two devices to connect to each other in the future without repeating the pairing process to confirm device identities. When desired, the user can remove the bonding relationship.\n\n====Implementation====\nDuring pairing, the two devices establish a relationship by creating a shared secret known as a ''link key''. If both devices store the same link key, they are said to be ''paired'' or ''bonded''. A device that wants to communicate only with a bonded device can cryptographically authenticate the identity of the other device, ensuring it is the same device it previously paired with. Once a link key is generated, an authenticated Asynchronous Connection-Less (ACL) link between the devices may be encrypted to protect exchanged data against eavesdropping. Users can delete link keys from either device, which removes the bond between the devices—so it is possible for one device to have a stored link key for a device it is no longer paired with.\n\nBluetooth services generally require either encryption or authentication and as such require pairing before they let a remote device connect. Some services, such as the Object Push Profile, elect not to explicitly require authentication or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the user experience associated with the service use-cases.\n\n====Pairing mechanisms====\nPairing mechanisms changed significantly with the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth v2.1. The following summarizes the pairing mechanisms:\n* ''Legacy pairing'': This is the only method available in Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter a PIN code; pairing is only successful if both devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte UTF-8 string may be used as a PIN code; however, not all devices may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes.\n ''Limited input devices'': The obvious example of this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free headset, which generally have few inputs. These devices usually have a ''fixed PIN'', for example \"0000\" or \"1234\", that are hard-coded into the device.\n ''Numeric input devices'': Mobile phones are classic examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter a numeric value up to 16 digits in length.\n** ''Alpha-numeric input devices'': PCs and smartphones are examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter full UTF-8 text as a PIN code. If pairing with a less capable device the user must be aware of the input limitations on the other device; there is no mechanism available for a capable device to determine how it should limit the available input a user may use.\n* ''Secure Simple Pairing'' (SSP): This is required by Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with a v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing uses a form of public key cryptography, and some types can help protect against man in the middle, or MITM attacks. SSP has the following authentication mechanisms:\n ''Just works'': As the name implies, this method just works, with no user interaction. However, a device may prompt the user to confirm the pairing process. This method is typically used by headsets with very limited IO capabilities, and is more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism this limited set of devices uses for legacy pairing. This method provides no man-in-the-middle (MITM) protection.\n ''Numeric comparison'': If both devices have a display, and at least one can accept a binary yes/no user input, they may use Numeric Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit numeric code on each device. The user should compare the numbers to ensure they are identical. If the comparison succeeds, the user(s) should confirm pairing on the device(s) that can accept an input. This method provides MITM protection, assuming the user confirms on both devices and actually performs the comparison properly.\n ''Passkey Entry'': This method may be used between a device with a display and a device with numeric keypad entry (such as a keyboard), or two devices with numeric keypad entry. In the first case, the display presents a 6-digit numeric code to the user, who then enters the code on the keypad. In the second case, the user of each device enters the same 6-digit number. Both of these cases provide MITM protection.\n ''Out of band'' (OOB): This method uses an external means of communication, such as Near Field Communication (NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the OOB mechanism. This provides only the level of MITM protection that is present in the OOB mechanism.\n\nSSP is considered simple for the following reasons:\n* In most cases, it does not require a user to generate a passkey.\n* For use cases not requiring MITM protection, user interaction can be eliminated.\n* For ''numeric comparison'', MITM protection can be achieved with a simple equality comparison by the user.\n* Using OOB with NFC enables pairing when devices simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy discovery process.\n\n====Security concerns====\nPrior to Bluetooth v2.1, encryption is not required and can be turned off at any time. Moreover, the encryption key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a single encryption key longer than this time allows simple XOR attacks to retrieve the encryption key.\n* Turning off encryption is required for several normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if encryption is disabled for a valid reason or for a security attack.\nBluetooth v2.1 addresses this in the following ways:\n* Encryption is required for all non-SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) connections\n* A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is used for all normal operations that require that encryption be disabled. This enables easy identification of normal operation from security attacks.\n* The encryption key must be refreshed before it expires.\nLink keys may be stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys be stored on the device—however, if the device is removable, this means that the link key moves with the device.\n", "\n===Overview===\n\nBluetooth implements confidentiality, authentication and key derivation with custom algorithms based on the SAFER+ block cipher. Bluetooth key generation is generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be entered into both devices. This procedure might be modified if one of the devices has a fixed PIN (e.g., for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user interface). During pairing, an initialization key or master key is generated, using the E22 algorithm.\nThe E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting confidentiality, and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into one or both devices.\n\nAn overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was published in 2007 by Andreas Becker.\n\nIn September 2008, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth Security as a reference for organizations. It describes Bluetooth security capabilities and how to secure Bluetooth technologies effectively. While Bluetooth has its benefits, it is susceptible to denial-of-service attacks, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modification, and resource misappropriation. Users and organizations must evaluate their acceptable level of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of Bluetooth devices. To help mitigate risks, included in the NIST document are security checklists with guidelines and recommendations for creating and maintaining secure Bluetooth piconets, headsets, and smart card readers.\n\nBluetooth v2.1 – finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009 – makes significant changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See the pairing mechanisms section for more about these changes.\n\n===Bluejacking===\n\nBluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message from one user to an unsuspecting user through Bluetooth wireless technology. Common applications include short messages, e.g., \"You've just been bluejacked!\" Bluejacking does not involve the removal or alteration of any data from the device. Bluejacking can also involve taking control of a mobile device wirelessly and phoning a premium rate line, owned by the bluejacker. Security advances have alleviated this issue.\n\n===History of security concerns===\n\n====2001–2004====\nIn 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from Bell Laboratories discovered flaws in the Bluetooth pairing protocol and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption scheme. In 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in some poor implementations of Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data. In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was able to do a field-trial at the CeBIT fairgrounds, showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called BlueBug was used for this experiment. In 2004 the first purported virus using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the Symbian OS.\nThe virus was first described by Kaspersky Lab and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. The virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as \"29A\" and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth technology or Symbian OS since the virus has never spread outside of this system. In August 2004, a world-record-setting experiment (see also Bluetooth sniping) showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to with directional antennas and signal amplifiers.\nThis poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on, although these can be deduced within a few minutes if the device is in use.\n\n====2005====\nIn January 2005, a mobile malware worm known as Lasco surfaced. The worm began targeting mobile phones using Symbian OS (Series 60 platform) using Bluetooth enabled devices to replicate itself and spread to other devices. The worm is self-installing and begins once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file (velasco.sis) from another device. Once installed, the worm begins looking for other Bluetooth enabled devices to infect. Additionally, the worm infects other .SIS files on the device, allowing replication to another device through use of removable media (Secure Digital, Compact Flash, etc.). The worm can render the mobile device unstable.\n\nIn April 2005, Cambridge University security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the PIN-based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices. They confirmed that attacks are practicably fast, and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method is vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they designed an implementation that showed that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices, such as mobile phones.\n\nIn June 2005, Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published a paper describing both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof, if the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary.\n\nIn August 2005, police in Cambridgeshire, England, issued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure that any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way.\n\n====2006====\nIn April 2006, researchers from Secure Network and F-Secure published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm.\n\nIn October 2006, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via Bluetooth on Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and Shaked.\n\n'''2017'''\n\nIn April 2017, security researchers at Armis discovered multiple exploits in firmware used by Bluetooth, the collections of which called BlueBorne. These exploits allowed them to connect to various devices without authentication and giving them \"virtually full control over the device\". Armis contacted Google, Microsoft, Apple, Samsung and the Linux developers so they could patch their software before the coordinated disclosure on September 12, 2017.\n\n=== Mitigation ===\nOptions to mitigate against Bluetooth security attacks include:\n* Enable Bluetooth only when required\n* Enable Bluetooth discovery only when necessary, and disable discovery when finished\n* Do not enter link keys or PINs when unexpectedly prompted to do so\n* Remove paired devices when not in use\n* Regularly update firmware on Bluetooth-enabled devices\n", "\n\nBluetooth uses the microwave radio frequency spectrum in the 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz range, which is non-ionizing radiation, of similar bandwidth to the one used by wireless and mobile phones. No specific demonstration of harm has been demonstrated up to date, even if wireless transmission has been included by IARC in the possible carcinogen list. Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is 100 mW for class 1, 2.5 mW for class 2, and 1 mW for class 3 devices. Even the maximum power output of class 1 is a lower level than the lowest-powered mobile phones. UMTS and W-CDMA output 250 mW, GSM1800/1900 outputs 1000 mW, and GSM850/900 outputs 2000 mW.\n", "The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup, a marketing initiative of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), was an international competition that encouraged the development of innovations for applications leveraging Bluetooth technology in sports, fitness and health care products. The aim of the competition was to stimulate new markets.\n\nThe Bluetooth Innovation World Cup morphed into the Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards in 2013. The Breakthrough Awards Bluetooth program highlights the most innovative products and applications available today, prototypes coming soon, and student-led projects in the making.\n", "\n* Bluesniping\n* BlueSoleil – proprietary driver\n* Bluetooth low energy beacons (iBeacon and Eddystone)\n* Continua Health Alliance\n* DASH7\n* Headset (audio)\n* Hotspot (Wi-Fi)\n* Java APIs for Bluetooth\n* Li-Fi\n* MyriaNed\n* Near field communication\n* RuBee – secure wireless protocol alternative\n* Tethering\n* ZigBee – low-power lightweight wireless protocol in the ISM band\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Specifications at Bluetooth SIG\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origin", "Name and logo", "Implementation", "Uses", "Computer requirements", "Specifications and features", "Technical information", " Security ", "Health concerns", "Bluetooth award programs", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Bluetooth
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG)''' is the body that oversees the development of Bluetooth standards and the licensing of the Bluetooth technologies and trademarks to manufacturers. The SIG is a not-for-profit, non-stock corporation founded in September 1998. The SIG is headquartered in Kirkland, Washington. The SIG has local offices in Beijing, Seoul, Tokyo, and Malmö.\n\nThe SIG does not make, manufacture or sell Bluetooth enabled products.\n", "''Bluetooth'' technology provides a way to exchange information between wireless devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, laptops, computers, printers and digital cameras via a secure, low-cost, globally available short-range radio frequency band. Originally developed by Ericsson, ''Bluetooth'' technology is now used in many different products by many different manufacturers. These manufacturers must be either Associate or Promoter members of(see below) the Bluetooth SIG before they are granted early access to the ''Bluetooth'' specifications, but published ''Bluetooth'' specifications are available online via the Bluetooth SIG Website .\n\nThe SIG owns the ''Bluetooth'' word mark, figure mark and combination mark. These trademarks are licensed out for use to companies that are incorporating ''Bluetooth'' wireless technology into their products. To become a licensee, a company must become a member of the Bluetooth SIG. The SIG also manages the Bluetooth SIG Qualification program, a certification process required for any product using ''Bluetooth'' wireless technology and a pre-condition of the intellectual property license for ''Bluetooth'' technology. The main tasks for the SIG are to publish the ''Bluetooth'' specifications, protect the ''Bluetooth'' trademarks and evangelize ''Bluetooth'' wireless technology. In 2016, the SIG introduced a new visual and creative identity to support Bluetooth technology as the catalyst for the Internet of Things (IoT). This change included an updated logo, a new tagline and deprecation of the Bluetooth Smart and Bluetooth Smart Ready logos .\n\nAt its inception in 1998, the Bluetooth SIG was primarily run by a staff effectively seconded from its member companies. In 2001 Tom Siep served as the group's Managing Director and from 2002-2004 Mike McCamon led the group as its Executive Director. In 2004 he was replaced by Michael W. Foley (Mike). In mid-2012, Mark Powell took the reins as the SIG's current Executive Director. Beginning in 2002 a professional staff was hired, composed of operations, engineering and marketing specialists. From 2002-2004 the Bluetooth SIG was based in Overland Park, Kansas USA and is now based in Kirkland, Washington. In addition to its professional staff, the SIG is supported by its more than 30,000 member companies who participate in the various working groups that produce the standardization documents and oversee the qualification process for new products and help to evangelize the technology.\n", "The SIG members participate in Study Groups, Expert Groups, Working Groups along with committees .\n\n===Study groups===\nThe Study Groups carry out research into their various areas which informs the development of the Bluetooth specifications. They may eventually become Working Groups in their akhil own right.\n\n===Expert groups===\nThe Expert Groups deal with issues of technical importance to all aspects of ''Bluetooth'' development. As with the Study Groups their work informs the Working Groups as well as the corporate groups. \nParticipation in the Expert Groups is restricted to Promoter members and Associate members.\n\n===Working Groups===\nThe Working Groups develop new Bluetooth specifications and enhance adopted specifications. They are responsible for the vast majority of published standards and specifications. Participation in the Working Groups is restricted to Promoter members and Associate members.\n\n===Committees===\nThe committees of the SIG deal with the other aspects of licensing, marketing and review including developing and maintaining the Qualification Process, oversight of the ''Bluetooth'' specifications, and developing, improving and maintaining the test methodology and concepts as well as other strategic functions.\n", "Any company incorporating ''Bluetooth'' wireless technology into products, using the technology to offer goods and services or simply re-branding a product with ''Bluetooth'' technology must become a member of the Bluetooth SIG. There are three levels of corporate membership totaling more than 20,000 members, and individuals from member companies may also participate.\n\n===Promoter members===\nThese members are the most active in the SIG and have considerable influence over both the strategic and technological directions of Bluetooth as a whole. The current promoter members are:\n \nEricsson Technology Licensing (founder member)\nIntel (founder member)\nLenovo (since 2005)\nMicrosoft (since 1999)\nApple (since 2015)\nNokia (founder member)\nToshiba (founder member)\nIBM (founder member)\n\nEach Promoter member has one seat (and one vote) on the Board of Directors and the Qualification Review Board (the body responsible for developing and maintaining the qualification process). They each may have multiple staff in the various working groups and committees that comprise the work of the SIG.\n\nThe SIG's website carries a full list of members.\n\n===Associate members===\nThe Bluetooth SIG Associate membership fees have stayed the same since 2006. Associate membership is renewed annually and the yearly fee depends on the individual company's revenue. Companies with annual revenue in excess of $100M US are considered Large Associates and pay annual membership fees of $35,000 US. Small Associates are categorized as those organizations with revenue less than $100M US and join the SIG with an annual membership fee of $7,500 US. Associate members of the SIG get early access to draft specifications at versions 0.5 and 0.7 and are eligible to participate and gain a voting seat in working groups and committees—a key opportunity to work with other Associate and Promoter members on enhancing existing specifications. They are also eligible for enhanced marketing support, receive discounts on product qualification listings and SIG events including Bluetooth World and UnPlugFest (UPF) testing events.\n\n===Adopter members===\nAdopter membership in the SIG is free and entitles members to use published ''Bluetooth '' wireless specifications and ''Bluetooth'' trademarks. Adopter members do not have early access to unpublished specifications and may not participate in working groups or committees to influence the development of the technology.\n\n===Individuals===\nMembership is not currently open to individuals.\n\n===Universities===\nUniversities are accepted for membership. The person registering the institution must have the power and authority to accept the Membership Agreements on behalf of the school. Note that students may not register their school, but may create user accounts on the SIG membership portal, www.bluetooth.com, that are associated with their school's existing SIG membership.\n", "Next to the development of the technology itself, the qualification process is one of the most important aspects of ''Bluetooth'' technology, supporting interoperability, conformance to the Bluetooth specifications, and to strengthening the Bluetooth brand.\n\nMembers of the Bluetooth SIG must complete the qualification and declaration process for their Bluetooth enabled product(s) to demonstrate and declare compliance to the Membership Agreements.\n\nThe primary objective of the qualification process is for members to demonstrate their product(s) compliance to the adopted specifications through testing and documentation. After qualification is completed, members need to complete the declaration process. Members declare their compliance to both the Bluetooth Patent/Copyright License Agreement and Bluetooth Trademark License Agreement (“BTLA”).\n\nAn overview of both processes including steps of the processes, types and fees is available on the Bluetooth SIG public portal.\n\nBluetooth Qualification Experts (BQEs) and Bluetooth Qualification Test Facilities (BQTFs) are available to support members through the processes. Members uncertain or unfamiliar with the qualification process are encouraged to consider using one or both of these service types.\n", "Bluetooth\nIEEE 802.15 TG1\n", "\n", "* The Official Bluetooth Membership Site\n* The Official Bluetooth Blog\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Introduction", "Structure", "Membership", "Qualification", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Bluetooth Special Interest Group
[ "\n'''Britain''' usually refers to:\n* United Kingdom, a sovereign state\n* Great Britain, an island\n* List of national sports teams of the United Kingdom\n\n'''Britain''' may also refer to:\n\n\n", "* Britain (place name)\n* Kingdom of Great Britain, a sovereign state from 1707 to 1800\n* Britain, Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States\n", "* Prehistoric Britain\n* Roman Britain\n* Sub-Roman Britain\n* Early modern Britain\n", "* Calvin Britain (1800–1862), an American politician\n* Kristen Britain, an American novelist\n", "* SS ''Great Britain'', a passenger steamship launched in 1843 and retired in 1886\n* ''Great Britain'', a GWR 3031 Class locomotive, built in 1892 and retired in 1914\n", "* ''Great Britain'' (play), by Richard Bean\n* Captain Britain, a Marvel Comics superhero\n", "* Terminology of the British Isles\n* England\n* Britains\n* Britannia\n* British Isles\n* Brittain (disambiguation)\n* Brittany (disambiguation)\n* Brit (disambiguation)\n* Britten (disambiguation)\n* Briton (disambiguation)\n* Brittonic languages\n* British (disambiguation)\n* Great Britain (disambiguation)\n* \n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Places", " History ", "People", "Vehicles", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Britain
[ " \n\n\n\n\n'''''Blade Runner''''' is a 1982 American neo-noir science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young, and Edward James Olmos. The script was written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples, and is a loose adaptation of the 1968 novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' by Philip K. Dick. Set in a dystopian Los Angeles in 2019, the story depicts a future in which bioengineered androids known as replicants are manufactured by the powerful Tyrell Corporation to work on off-world colonies. When a renegade group of replicants led by Roy Batty (Hauer) escape back to Earth, burnt-out LA cop Rick Deckard (Ford) reluctantly accepts one last assignment to hunt them down. During his investigations, Deckard meets Rachael (Young), an advanced replicant who causes him to question his mission.\n\n''Blade Runner'' initially underperformed in North American theaters and polarized critics; some praised its thematic complexity and visuals while others were displeased with its unconventional pacing and plot. In subsequent years, however, it has become an acclaimed cult film. The year following its release, the film won the prestigious Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Hailed for its production design, depicting a \"retrofitted\" future, it remains a leading example of neo-noir cinema. The film's soundtrack, composed by Vangelis, was critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score. The film brought the work of Philip K. Dick to the attention of Hollywood, and several later films were based on his work. Ridley Scott regards ''Blade Runner'' as \"probably\" his most complete and personal film. In 1993, the movie was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". ''Blade Runner'' is now regarded by many critics as one of the all-time best science fiction movies.\n\nSeven versions of the film have been shown for various markets as a result of controversial changes made by studio executives. A director's cut was released in 1992 after a strong response to test screenings of a workprint. This, in conjunction with its popularity as a video rental, made it one of the first movies released on DVD—a basic production with mediocre video and audio quality. In 2007, Warner Bros. released ''The Final Cut'', a 25th anniversary digitally remastered version, the only one on which Scott had complete artistic freedom. This version was shown in selected theaters and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray. A sequel, ''Blade Runner 2049'', is scheduled for release in October 2017.\n", "\n\nIn Los Angeles in November 2019, ex-police officer Rick Deckard is detained by officer Gaff and brought to his former supervisor, Bryant. Deckard, whose job as a \"blade runner\" was to track down bioengineered beings known as replicants and \"retire\" (a euphemism for killing) them, is informed that four have come to Earth illegally. As Tyrell Corporation Nexus-6 models, they have only a four-year lifespan and may have come to Earth to try to extend their lives.\n\nDeckard watches a video of a blade runner named Holden administering the \"Voight-Kampff\" test designed to distinguish replicants from humans based on their emotional response to questions. The test subject, Leon, shoots Holden after Holden asks about Leon's mother. Bryant wants Deckard to retire Leon and the other three replicants: Roy Batty, Zhora, and Pris. Deckard initially refuses, but after Bryant ambiguously threatens him, he reluctantly agrees.\n\nDeckard begins his investigation at the Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, he discovers that Eldon Tyrell's assistant Rachael is an experimental replicant who believes herself to be human. Rachael has been given false memories to provide an \"emotional cushion\". As a result, a more extensive test is required to determine whether she is a replicant.\n\nEvents are then set into motion that pit Deckard's search for the replicants against their search for Tyrell to force him to extend their lives. Roy and Leon investigate a replicant eye-manufacturing laboratory and learn of J. F. Sebastian, a gifted genetic designer who works closely with Tyrell. Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity by showing him a family photo, but after Deckard reveals that her memories are implants from Tyrell's niece, she leaves his apartment in tears. Meanwhile, Pris locates Sebastian and manipulates him to gain his trust.\n\nWhile searching Leon's hotel room, Deckard finds a photo of Zhora and a synthetic snake scale that leads him to a strip club where Zhora works. Deckard kills Zhora and shortly after is told by Bryant to also retire Rachael, who has disappeared from the Tyrell Corporation. After Deckard spots Rachael in a crowd, he is attacked by Leon, but Rachael kills Leon using Deckard's dropped pistol. The two return to Deckard's apartment, and during an intimate discussion, he promises not to hunt her; as she abruptly tries to leave, Deckard physically restrains her, forcing her to kiss him.\n\nArriving at Sebastian's apartment, Roy tells Pris the others are dead. Sympathetic to their plight, Sebastian reveals that because of \"Methuselah Syndrome\", a genetic premature aging disorder, his life will also be cut short. Sebastian and Roy gain entrance into Tyrell's secure penthouse, where Roy demands more life from his maker. Tyrell tells him that it is impossible. Roy confesses that he has done \"questionable things\" which Tyrell dismisses, praising Roy's advanced design and accomplishments in his short life. Roy kisses Tyrell, then kills him. Sebastian runs for the elevator followed by Roy, who then rides the elevator down alone. Though not shown, it is implied by Bryant via police radio that Roy also kills Sebastian.\n\nUpon entering Sebastian's apartment, Deckard is ambushed by Pris, but he manages to kill her just as Roy returns. As Roy starts to die, he chases Deckard through the building, ending up on the roof. Deckard tries to jump to an adjacent roof, but misses and is left hanging precariously between buildings. Roy makes the jump with ease, and as Deckard's grip loosens, Roy hoists him onto the roof, saving him. As Roy's life runs out, he delivers a monologue about how his memories \"will be lost in time, like tears in rain\"; Roy dies in front of Deckard, who watches silently. Gaff arrives and shouts across to Deckard, \"It's too bad she won't live, but then again, who does?\" Deckard returns to his apartment and finds the door ajar, but Rachael is safe, asleep in his bed. As they leave, Deckard notices a small tin-foil origami unicorn on the floor, a familiar calling card that brings back to him Gaff's final words. Deckard and Rachael quickly leave the apartment block.\n", "\n* Harrison Ford as Rick Deckard\n* Rutger Hauer as Roy Batty\n* Sean Young as Rachael\n* Edward James Olmos as Gaff\n* M. Emmet Walsh as Harry Bryant\n* Daryl Hannah as Pris Stratton\n* William Sanderson as J. F. Sebastian\n* Brion James as Leon Kowalski\n* Joe Turkel as Dr. Eldon Tyrell\n* Joanna Cassidy as Zhora Salome\n* James Hong as Hannibal Chew\n* Morgan Paull as Dave Holden\n* Kevin Thompson as Bear\n* John Edward Allen as Kaiser\n* Hy Pyke as Taffey Lewis\n* Kimiko Hiroshige as Cambodian lady\n* Robert Okazaki as Howie Lee\n* Carolyn DeMirjian as saleslady\n* Ben Astar as Abdul Ben Hassan\n\n'''Source:'''\n", "\n\nThe film operates on multiple dramatic and narrative levels. It follows some conventions of film noir, among them the character of a ''femme fatale''; narration by the protagonist, at least in the original release; chiaroscuro cinematography; and giving the hero a questionable moral outlook—extended to include reflections upon the nature of his own humanity. It is a literate science fiction film, thematically enfolding the philosophy of religion and moral implications of human mastery of genetic engineering in the context of classical Greek drama and hubris. It also draws on Biblical images, such as Noah's flood, and literary sources, such as ''Frankenstein''. Linguistically, the theme of mortality is subtly reiterated in the chess game between Sebastian and Tyrell, based on the famous Immortal Game of 1851, though Scott has said that was coincidental.\n\n''Blade Runner'' delves into the implications of technology on the environment and on society by reaching to the past, using literature, religious symbolism, classical dramatic themes, and film noir. This tension between past, present, and future is mirrored in the retrofitted future of ''Blade Runner'', which is high-tech and gleaming in places but decayed and old elsewhere. Ridley Scott described the film as: \"extremely dark, both literally and metaphorically, with an oddly masochistic feel\", in an interview by Lynn Barber for the British Sunday newspaper ''The Observer'' in 2002. Scott \"liked the idea of exploring pain\" in the wake of his brother's skin cancer death: \"When he was ill, I used to go and visit him in London, and that was really traumatic for me.\"\n\nAn aura of paranoia suffuses the film: corporate power looms large; the police seem omnipresent; vehicle and warning lights probe into buildings; and the consequences of huge biomedical power over the individual are explored – especially the consequences for replicants of their implanted memories. Control over the environment is depicted as taking place on a vast scale, hand in hand with the absence of any natural life, with artificial animals substituting for their extinct predecessors. This oppressive backdrop explains the frequently referenced migration of humans to extraterrestrial (\"off-world\") colonies. The dystopian themes explored in ''Blade Runner'' are an early example of cyberpunk concepts expanding into film. Eyes are a recurring motif, as are manipulated images, calling reality into question, and our ability to accurately perceive and remember it.\n\nThese thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for ''Blade Runner''s central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants, an empathy test is used, with a number of its questions focused on the treatment of animals – seemingly an essential indicator of someone's \"humanity\". The replicants appear to show compassion and concern for one another and are juxtaposed against human characters who lack empathy while the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is human, and forces the audience to re-evaluate what it means to be human.\n\nThe question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Both Michael Deeley and Harrison Ford wanted Deckard to be human while Hampton Fancher preferred ambiguity. Ridley Scott has confirmed that in his vision Deckard is a replicant.\n\nDeckard's unicorn dream sequence, inserted into the ''Director's Cut'', coinciding with Gaff's parting gift of an origami unicorn is seen by many as showing that Deckard is a replicant – as Gaff could have accessed Deckard's implanted memories. The interpretation that Deckard is a replicant is challenged by others who believe the unicorn imagery shows that the characters, whether human or replicant, share the same dreams and recognize their affinity, or that the absence of a decisive answer is crucial to the film's main theme. The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of the film, as well as its textual richness, have permitted viewers to see it from their own perspectives.\n", "\n===Casting===\n\nCasting the film proved troublesome, particularly for the lead role of Deckard. Screenwriter Hampton Fancher envisioned Robert Mitchum as Deckard and wrote the character's dialogue with Mitchum in mind. Director Ridley Scott and the film's producers spent months meeting and discussing the role with Dustin Hoffman, who eventually departed over differences in vision. Harrison Ford was ultimately chosen for several reasons, including his performance in the ''Star Wars'' films, Ford's interest in the ''Blade Runner'' story, and discussions with Steven Spielberg who was finishing ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' at the time and strongly praised Ford's work in the film. Following his success in films like ''Star Wars'' (1977) and ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' (1981), Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. According to production documents, several actors were considered for the role, including Gene Hackman, Sean Connery, Jack Nicholson, Paul Newman, Clint Eastwood, Tommy Lee Jones, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Al Pacino, and Burt Reynolds.\n\nOne role that was not difficult to cast was Rutger Hauer as Roy Batty, the violent yet thoughtful leader of the replicants. Scott cast Hauer without having met him, based solely on Hauer's performances in Paul Verhoeven's movies Scott had seen (''Katie Tippel'', ''Soldier of Orange'' and ''Turkish Delight''). Hauer's portrayal of Batty was regarded by Philip K. Dick as, \"the perfect Batty—cold, Aryan, flawless\". Of the many films Hauer has made, ''Blade Runner'' is his favorite. As he explained in a live chat in 2001, \"''Blade Runner'' needs no explanation. It just is. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real masterpiece which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome.\" Hauer rewrote his character's \"tears in rain\" speech himself and presented the words to Scott on set prior to filming.\n\n''Blade Runner'' used a number of then-lesser-known actors: Sean Young portrays Rachael, an experimental replicant implanted with the memories of Tyrell's niece, causing her to believe she is human; Nina Axelrod auditioned for the role. Daryl Hannah portrays Pris, a \"basic pleasure model\" replicant; Stacey Nelkin auditioned for the role, but was given another part in the film, which was ultimately cut before filming. Casting Pris and Rachael was challenging, requiring several screen tests, with Morgan Paull playing the role of Deckard. Paull was cast as Deckard's fellow bounty hunter Holden based on his performances in the tests. Brion James portrays Leon Kowalski, a combat replicant, and Joanna Cassidy portrays Zhora, an assassin replicant.\n\nEdward James Olmos portrays Gaff. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background, and personal research, to help create the fictional \"Cityspeak\" language his character uses in the film. His initial address to Deckard at the noodle bar is partly in Hungarian and means, \"Horse dick bullshit! No way. You are the Blade ... Blade Runner.\" M. Emmet Walsh plays Captain Bryant, a hard-drinking, sleazy, and underhanded police veteran typical of the film noir genre. Joe Turkel portrays Dr. Eldon Tyrell, a corporate mogul who built an empire on genetically manipulated humanoid slaves. William Sanderson was cast as J. F. Sebastian, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. J. F. sympathizes with the replicants, whom he sees as companions, and shares their shorter lifespan due to his rapid aging disease; Joe Pantoliano was considered for the role. James Hong portrays Hannibal Chew, an elderly geneticist specializing in synthetic eyes, and Hy Pyke portrays the sleazy bar owner Taffey Lewis with ease and in a single take, something almost unheard-of with Scott whose drive for perfection resulted at times in double-digit takes.\n\n===Development===\nThe Bradbury Building in Los Angeles was a filming location.\n\n\nInterest in adapting Philip K. Dick's novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' developed shortly after its 1968 publication. Director Martin Scorsese was interested in filming the novel, but never optioned it. Producer Herb Jaffe optioned it in the early 1970s, but Dick was unimpressed with the screenplay written by Herb's son Robert: \"Jaffe's screenplay was so terribly done ... Robert flew down to Santa Ana to speak with me about the project. And the first thing I said to him when he got off the plane was, 'Shall I beat you up here at the airport, or shall I beat you up back at my apartment?\n\nThe screenplay by Hampton Fancher was optioned in 1977. Producer Michael Deeley became interested in Fancher's draft and convinced director Ridley Scott to film it. Scott had previously declined the project, but after leaving the slow production of ''Dune'', wanted a faster-paced project to take his mind off his older brother's recent death. He joined the project on February 21, 1980, and managed to push up the promised Filmways financing from US$13 million to $15 million. Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and religion, which are prominent in the novel and Scott wanted changes. Fancher found a cinema treatment by William S. Burroughs for Alan E. Nourse's novel ''The Bladerunner'' (1974), titled ''Blade Runner (a movie)''. Scott liked the name, so Deeley obtained the rights to the titles. Eventually he hired David Peoples to rewrite the script and Fancher left the job over the issue on December 21, 1980, although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites.\n\nHaving invested over $2.5 million in pre-production, as the date of commencement of principal photography neared, Filmways withdrew financial backing. In ten days Deeley had secured $21.5 million in financing through a three-way deal between The Ladd Company (through Warner Bros.), the Hong Kong-based producer Sir Run Run Shaw and Tandem Productions.\n\nPhilip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production, which added to his distrust of Hollywood. After Dick criticized an early version of Hampton Fancher's script in an article written for the Los Angeles ''Select TV Guide'', the studio sent Dick the David Peoples rewrite. Although Dick died shortly before the film's release, he was pleased with the rewritten script and with a 20-minute special effects test reel that was screened for him when he was invited to the studio. Despite his well-known skepticism of Hollywood in principle, Dick enthused to Ridley Scott that the world created for the film looked exactly as he had imagined it. He said, \"I saw a segment of Douglas Trumbull's special effects for ''Blade Runner'' on the KNBC-TV news. I recognized it immediately. It was my own interior world. They caught it perfectly.\" He also approved of the film's script, saying, \"After I finished reading the screenplay, I got the novel out and looked through it. The two reinforce each other, so that someone who started with the novel would enjoy the movie and someone who started with the movie would enjoy the novel.\" The motion picture was dedicated to Dick. Principal photography of ''Blade Runner'' began on March 9, 1981, and ended four months later.\n\nIn 1992, Ford revealed, \"''Blade Runner'' is not one of my favorite films. I tangled with Ridley.\" Apart from friction with the director, Ford also disliked the voiceovers: \"When we started shooting it had been tacitly agreed that the version of the film that we had agreed upon was the version without voiceover narration. It was a nightmare. I thought that the film had worked without the narration. But now I was stuck re-creating that narration. And I was obliged to do the voiceovers for people that did not represent the director's interests.\" \"I went kicking and screaming to the studio to record it.\" The narration monologues were written by an uncredited Roland Kibbee.\n\nIn 2006, Scott was asked \"Who's the biggest pain in the arse you've ever worked with?\", he replied: \"It's got to be Harrison ... he'll forgive me because now I get on with him. Now he's become charming. But he knows a lot, that's the problem. When we worked together it was my first film up and I was the new kid on the block. But we made a good movie.\" Ford said of Scott in 2000: \"I admire his work. We had a bad patch there, and I'm over it.\" In 2006 Ford reflected on the production of the film saying: \"What I remember more than anything else when I see ''Blade Runner'' is not the 50 nights of shooting in the rain, but the voiceover ... I was still obliged to work for these clowns that came in writing one bad voiceover after another.\" Ridley Scott confirmed in the summer 2007 issue of ''Total Film'' that Harrison Ford contributed to the ''Blade Runner'' Special Edition DVD, and had already recorded his interviews. \"Harrison's fully on board\", said Scott.\n\nThe Bradbury Building in downtown Los Angeles served as a filming location, and a Warner Bros. backlot housed the LA 2019 streets. Other locations included the Ennis-Brown House and the 2nd Street Tunnel. Test screenings resulted in several changes including adding a voice-over, a happy ending and the removal of a Holden hospital scene. The relationship between the filmmakers and the investors was difficult, which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film. Crew members created T-shirts during filming saying, \"Yes Guv'nor, My Ass\" that mocked Scott's unfavorable comparison of U.S. and British crews; Scott responded with a T-shirt of his own, \"Xenophobia Sucks\" making the incident known as the T-shirt war.\n\n===Design===\nRidley Scott credits Edward Hopper's painting ''Nighthawks'' and the French science fiction comics magazine ''Métal Hurlant'', to which the artist Moebius contributed, as stylistic mood sources. He also drew on the landscape of \"Hong Kong on a very bad day\" and the industrial landscape of his one-time home in northeast England. The visual style of the movie is influenced by the work of futurist Italian architect Antonio Sant'Elia. Scott hired Syd Mead as his concept artist who, like Scott, was influenced by ''Métal Hurlant''. Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre-production of ''Blade Runner'', but he declined so that he could work on René Laloux's animated film ''Les Maîtres du temps'' – a decision that he later regretted. Production designer Lawrence G. Paull and art director David Snyder realized Scott's and Mead's sketches. Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich supervised the special effects for the film.\n\n''Blade Runner'' has numerous deep similarities to Fritz Lang's ''Metropolis'', including a built-up urban environment, in which the wealthy literally live above the workers, dominated by a huge building – the Stadtkrone Tower in ''Metropolis'' and the Tyrell Building in ''Blade Runner''. Special effects supervisor David Dryer used stills from ''Metropolis'' when lining up ''Blade Runner''s miniature building shots.\n\nThe extended end scene in the original theatrical release shows Rachael and Deckard traveling into daylight with pastoral aerial shots filmed by director Stanley Kubrick. Ridley Scott contacted Kubrick about using some of his surplus helicopter aerial photography from ''The Shining.''\n\n\"Spinner\" is the generic term for the fictional flying cars used in the film. A spinner can be driven as a ground-based vehicle, and take off vertically, hover, and cruise using jet propulsion much like vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft. They are used extensively by the police to patrol and survey the population, and it is clear that despite restrictions wealthy people can acquire spinner licenses. The vehicle was conceived and designed by Syd Mead who described the spinner as an \"aerodyne\"—a vehicle which directs air downward to create lift, though press kits for the film stated that the spinner was propelled by three engines: \"conventional internal combustion, jet, and anti-gravity\" Mead's conceptual drawings were transformed into 25 working vehicles by automobile customizer Gene Winfield. A spinner is on permanent exhibit at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle, Washington.\n\n====Voight-Kampff machine====\n\nThe Voight-Kampff machine is a fictional interrogation tool, originating in the novel where it is spelled ''Voigt-Kampff''. The Voight-Kampff is a polygraph-like machine used by Blade Runners to determine whether an individual is a replicant. It measures bodily functions such as respiration, blush response, heart rate and eye movement in response to questions dealing with empathy. In the film two replicants take the test, Leon and Rachael, and Deckard tells Tyrell that it usually takes 20 to 30 cross-referenced questions to distinguish a replicant; in contrast with the book, where it is stated it only takes \"six or seven\" questions to make a determination. In the film it takes more than one hundred questions to determine that Rachael is a replicant.\n\n===Music===\n\nThe ''Blade Runner'' soundtrack by Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by Ridley Scott. Vangelis, fresh from his Academy Award-winning score for ''Chariots of Fire'', composed and performed the music on his synthesizers. He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator Demis Roussos. Another memorable sound is the haunting tenor sax solo \"Love Theme\" by British saxophonist Dick Morrissey, who performed on many of Vangelis's albums. Ridley Scott also used \"Memories of Green\" from the Vangelis album ''See You Later, ''an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film ''Someone To Watch Over Me''.\n\nAlong with Vangelis' compositions and ambient textures, the film's soundscape also features a track by the Japanese ensemble Nipponia – \"Ogi No Mato\" or \"The Folding Fan as a Target\" from the Nonesuch Records release ''Traditional Vocal and Instrumental Music'' – and a track by harpist Gail Laughton from \"Harps of the Ancient Temples\" on Laurel Records.\n\nDespite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score, and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the official soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from ''Blade Runner''. In light of the lack of a release of an album, the New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would, in 1989, surface on the compilation ''Vangelis: Themes'', but not until the 1992 release of the ''Director's Cut'' version would a substantial amount of the film's score see commercial release.\n\nThese delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many bootleg recordings over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 \"Off World Music, Ltd\" created a bootleg CD that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994. A set with three CDs of ''Blade Runner''-related Vangelis music was released in 2007. Titled ''Blade Runner Trilogy'', the first disc contains the same tracks as the 1994 official soundtrack release, the second features previously unreleased music from the movie, and the third disc is all newly composed music from Vangelis, inspired by, and in the spirit of the movie.\n\n===Special effects===\nThe film's special effects are generally recognized to be among the best of all time, using the available (non-digital) technology to the fullest. In addition to matte paintings and models, the techniques employed included multipass exposures. In some scenes, the set was lit, shot, the film rewound, and then rerecorded over with different lighting. In some cases this was done 16 times in all. The cameras were frequently motion controlled using computers. Many effects used techniques which had been developed during the production of ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind''.\n", "''Blade Runner'' was released in 1,290 theaters on June 25, 1982. That date was chosen by producer Alan Ladd Jr. because his previous highest-grossing films (''Star Wars'' and ''Alien'') had a similar opening date (May 25) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his \"lucky day\". ''Blade Runner'' grossed reasonably good ticket sales according to contemporary reports; earning $6.1 million during its first weekend in theaters. The film was released close to other major sci-fi/fantasy releases such as ''The Thing'', ''Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan'', ''Conan the Barbarian'' and ''E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial.''\n\n===Critical reception===\nInitial reactions among film critics were mixed. Some wrote that the plot took a back seat to the film's special effects, and did not fit the studio's marketing as an action/adventure movie. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time. Negative criticism in the United States cited its slow pace. Sheila Benson from the ''Los Angeles Times'' called it \"Blade Crawler\", and Pat Berman in ''The State'' and ''Columbia Record'' described it as \"science fiction pornography\". Pauline Kael praised ''Blade Runner'' as worthy of a place in film history for its distinctive sci-fi vision, yet criticized the film's lack of development in \"human terms\".\n\nAcademics began writing analyses of the film almost as soon as it was released, in particular its dystopic aspects, its questions regarding \"authentic\" humanity, its ecofeminist aspects, in genre studies and in recent years, popular culture. The film has been the subject of academic interest over decades.\n\nSince its original release, the film has become a science fiction classic. Roger Ebert praised the visuals of both the original and the ''Director's Cut'' versions and recommended it for that reason; however, he found the human story clichéd and a little thin. He later added ''The Final Cut'' to his \"Great Movies\" list. Critic Chris Rodley and Janet Maslin theorized that ''Blade Runner'' changed cinematic and cultural discourse through its image repertoire, and subsequent influence on films. In 2012, ''Time'' film critic Richard Corliss surgically analyzed the durability, complexity, screenplay, sets and production dynamics from a personal, three-decade perspective. ''Blade Runner'' holds an 90% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a website that rates films based on published reviews by critics, averaging a score of 8.5 out of 10 from 106 reviews. The site's main consensus reads \"Misunderstood when it first hit theaters, the influence of Ridley Scott's mysterious, neo-noir ''Blade Runner'' has deepened with time. A visually remarkable, achingly human sci-fi masterpiece.\" Denis Villeneuve, who is to direct the ''Blade Runner'' sequel, cites the movie as a huge influence for him and many others.\n\n===Accolades===\n''Blade Runner'' won or received nominations for the following awards:\n\n\n\n Year !! Award !! Category !! Nominee !! Result\n\n 1982\n British Society of Cinematographers\n Best Cinematography\n Jordan Cronenweth\n \n\n Los Angeles Film Critics Association\n Best Cinematography\n \n\n 1983\n British Academy Film Awards\n Best Cinematography\n \n\n Best Costume Design\n Charles Knode and Michael Kaplan\n \n\n Best Editing\n Terry Rawlings\n \n\n Best Film Music\n Vangelis\n \n\n Best Makeup and Hair\n Marvin Westmore\n \n\n Best Production Design\n Lawrence G. Paull\n \n\n Best Sound\n Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, and Gerry Humphreys\n \n\n Best Special Visual Effects\n Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, and David Dryer\n \n\n Hugo Award\n Best Dramatic Presentation\n ''Blade Runner''\n \n\n London Film Critics’ Circle\n Special Achievement Award\n Lawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, and Syd Mead\n \n\n Golden Globe Awards\n Best Original Score – Motion Picture\n Vangelis\n \n\n Academy Awards\n Best Art Direction-Set Decoration\n Lawrence G. Paull, David Snyder, and Linda DeScenna\n \n\n Best Effects, Visual Effects\n Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, and David Dryer\n \n\n Saturn Award\n Best Director\n Ridley Scott\n \n\n Best Science Fiction Film\n ''Blade Runner''\n \n\n Best Special Effects\n Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich\n \n\n Best Supporting Actor\n Rutger Hauer\n \n\n Fantasporto\n International Fantasy Film Award\n Ridley Scott\n \n\n\n\n===Versions===\n\nSeveral versions of ''Blade Runner'' have been shown. The original workprint version (1982, 113 minutes) was shown for audience test previews in Denver and Dallas in March 1982. Negative responses to the previews led to the modifications resulting in the U.S. theatrical version. The workprint was shown as a director's cut without Scott's approval at the Los Angeles Fairfax Theater in May 1990, at an AMPAS showing in April 1991, and in September and October 1991 at the Los Angeles NuArt Theater and the San Francisco Castro Theatre. Positive responses pushed the studio to approve work on an official director's cut. A San Diego Sneak Preview was shown only once, in May 1982, and was almost identical to the U.S. theatrical version but contained three extra scenes not shown in any other version, including the 2007 Final Cut.\n\nTwo versions were shown in the film's 1982 theatrical release: the U.S. theatrical version (117 minutes), known as the original version or ''Domestic Cut'', released on Betamax, CED Videodisc and VHS in 1983 and LaserDisc in 1987; and the ''International Cut'' (117 minutes), also known as the \"Criterion Edition\" or \"uncut version\", which included more violent action scenes than the U.S. version. Although initially unavailable in the U.S., and distributed in Europe and Asia via theatrical and local Warner Home Video Laserdisc releases, it was later released on VHS and Criterion Collection Laserdisc in North America, and re-released in 1992 as a \"10th Anniversary Edition\".\n\nScott's ''Director's Cut'' (1991, 116 minutes) was made available on VHS and Laserdisc in 1993, and on DVD in 1997. Significant changes from the theatrical version include: the removal of Deckard's voice-over; re-insertion of the unicorn sequence; and removal of the studio-imposed happy ending. Scott provided extensive notes and consultation to Warner Bros. through film preservationist Michael Arick, who was put in charge of creating the ''Director's Cut''. Scott's ''The Final Cut'' (2007, 117 minutes) was released by Warner Bros. theatrically on October 5, 2007, and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc in December 2007. This is the only version over which Scott had complete editorial control.\n\n\n\n Year !! Award !! Category !! Nominee !! Result\n\n 1993\n Fantasporto\n International Fantasy Film Award\n Best Film – Ridley Scott (Director’s Cut)\n \n\n 1994\n Saturn Award\n Best Genre Video Release\n ''Blade Runner'' (Director’s Cut)\n \n\n 2008\n Saturn Award\n Best DVD Special Edition Release\n ''Blade Runner'' (5-Disc Ultimate Collector’s Edition)\n \n\n\n", "\n===Cultural impact===\nA police spinner flying beside huge advertising-laden skyscrapers. These special effects were benchmarks that have influenced many subsequent science-fiction films.\nDisney-MGM Studios\nWhile not initially a success with North American audiences, the film was popular internationally and garnered a cult following. The film's dark style and futuristic designs have served as a benchmark and its influence can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films, video games, anime, and television programs. For example, Ronald D. Moore and David Eick, the producers of the re-imagining of ''Battlestar Galactica'', have both cited ''Blade Runner'' as one of the major influences for the show. ''Blade Runner'' continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time. It was voted the best science fiction film ever made in a poll of 60 eminent world scientists conducted in 2004. ''Blade Runner'' is also cited as an important influence to both the style and story of the ''Ghost in the Shell'' film series, which itself has been highly influential to the future-noir genre.\n\n''Blade Runner'' has been very influential to the cyberpunk movement. It also influenced the cyberpunk derivative biopunk that revolves around biotechnology and genetic engineering.\n\nThe film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in university courses. In 2007 it was named the second-most visually influential film of all time by the Visual Effects Society.\n\n''Blade Runner'' is one of the most musically sampled films of the 20th century. The 2009 album, ''I, Human'', by Singaporean band Deus Ex Machina makes numerous references to the genetic engineering and cloning themes from the film, and even features a track titled \"Replicant\".\n\n''Blade Runner'' has influenced adventure games such as the 2012 graphical text adventure ''Cypher'', ''Rise of the Dragon'', ''Snatcher'', the Tex Murphy series, ''Beneath a Steel Sky'', ''Flashback: The Quest for Identity'', ''Bubblegum Crisis'' (and its original anime films), the role-playing game ''Shadowrun'', the first-person shooter ''Perfect Dark'', and the ''Syndicate'' series of video games. The film is also cited as a major influence on Warren Spector, designer of the computer-game ''Deus Ex'', which displays evidence of the film's influence in both its visual rendering and plot. The look of the film, darkness, neon lights and opacity of vision, is easier to render than complicated backdrops, making it a popular choice for game designers.\n\n''Blade Runner'' has also been the subject of parody, such as the comics ''Blade Bummer'' by ''Crazy'' comics, ''Bad Rubber'' by Steve Gallacci, and the ''Red Dwarf'' 2009 three-part miniseries, \"Back to Earth\".\n\nAmong the folklore that has developed around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a curse to the companies whose logos were displayed prominently as product placements in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, Atari, Bell, Cuisinart and Pan Am experienced setbacks after the film's release. The Coca-Cola Company suffered losses during its failed introduction of New Coke in 1985, but soon afterwards regained its market share.\n\nMedia recognitions for ''Blade Runner'' include:\n\n\n\n Year\n Presenter\n Title\n Rank\n Notes\n\n 2001\n ''The Village Voice''\n 100 Best Films of the 20th Century\n 94\n\n\n 2002\n Online Film Critics Society (OFCS)\n Top 100 Sci-fi Films of the Past 100 Years\n 2\n\n\n ''Sight & Sound''\n Sight & Sound Top Ten Poll 2002\n 45\n\n\n ''50 Klassiker, Film''\n None\n\n\n 2003\n ''1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die''\n\n\n ''Entertainment Weekly''\n The Top 50 Cult Movies\n 9\n\n\n 2004\n ''The Guardian'', Scientists\n Top 10 Sci-fi Films of All Time\n 1\n\n\n 2005\n ''Total Film''s Editors\n 100 Greatest Movies of All Time\n 47\n\n\n ''Time'' Magazine's Critics\n \"All-TIME\" 100 Best Movies\n None\n\n\n 2008\n ''New Scientist''\n All-time favorite science fiction film (readers and staff)\n 1\n\n\n ''Empire''\n The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time\n 20\n\n\n 2010\n ''IGN''\n Top 25 Sci-Fi Movies of All Time\n 1\n\n\n ''Total Film''\n 100 Greatest Movies of All Time\n None\n\n\n 2012\n ''Sight & Sound''\n Sight & Sound 2012 critics top 250 films\n 69\n\n\n ''Sight & Sound''\n Sight & Sound 2012 directors top 100 films\n 67\n\n\n 2014\n ''Empire''\n The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time\n 11\n\n\n\n====American Film Institute recognition====\n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – No. 74\n* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 97\n* AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 6 Science Fiction Film\n\n===In other media===\nBefore filming began, ''Cinefantastique'' magazine commissioned Paul M. Sammon to write an article about ''Blade Runner''s production which became the book ''Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner''.\nThe book chronicles ''Blade Runner''s evolution, focusing on film-set politics, especially the British director's experiences with his first American film crew; of which producer Alan Ladd, Jr. has said, \"Harrison wouldn't speak to Ridley and Ridley wouldn't speak to Harrison. By the end of the shoot Ford was 'ready to kill Ridley', said one colleague. He really would have taken him on if he hadn't been talked out of it.\"\n''Future Noir'' has short cast biographies and quotations about their experiences, and photographs of the film's production and preliminary sketches. A second edition of ''Future Noir'' was published in 2007.\n\nPhilip K. Dick refused a $400,000 offer to write a ''Blade Runner'' novelization, saying: \"I was told the cheapo novelization would have to appeal to the twelve-year-old audience\" and it \"would have probably been disastrous to me artistically\". He added, \"That insistence on my part of bringing out the original novel and not doing the novelization – they were just furious. They finally recognized that there was a legitimate reason for reissuing the novel, even though it cost them money. It was a victory not just of contractual obligations but of theoretical principles.\" ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' was eventually reprinted as a tie-in, with the film poster as a cover and the original title in parentheses below the ''Blade Runner'' title. Additionally, a novelization of the movie entitled ''Blade Runner: A Story of the Future'' by Les Martin was released in 1982. Archie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation, ''A Marvel Super Special: Blade Runner'', published in September 1982.\n\nThere are two video games based on the film, one from 1985 for Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC by CRL Group PLC based on the music by Vangelis (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure PC game from 1997 by Westwood Studios. The 1997 video game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the ''Blade Runner'' world. Eldon Tyrell, Gaff, Leon, Rachael, Chew, and J.F. Sebastian appear, and their voice files are recorded by the original actors. The player assumes the role of McCoy, another replicant-hunter working at the same time as Deckard.\n\nThe PC game featured a non-linear plot, non-player characters that each ran in their own independent AI, and an unusual pseudo-3D engine (which eschewed polygonal solids in favor of voxel elements) that did not require the use of a 3D accelerator card to play the game.\n\nThe television film ''Total Recall 2070'' was initially planned as a spin-off of the film ''Total Recall'', and would eventually be transformed into a hybrid of ''Total Recall'' and ''Blade Runner''. The ''Total Recall'' film was also based on a Philip K. Dick story, \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\"; many similarities between ''Total Recall 2070'' and ''Blade Runner'' were noted, as well as apparent inspiration from Isaac Asimov's ''The Caves of Steel'' and the TV series ''Holmes & Yoyo''.\n\n=== Documentaries ===\nThe film has been the subject of several documentaries.\n\n* ''On the Edge of Blade Runner'' (2000, 55 minutes)\n: was directed by Andrew Abbott and hosted/written by Mark Kermode. Interviews with production staff, including Scott, give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction. Insights into Philip K. Dick and the origins of ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' are provided by Paul M. Sammon and Hampton Fancher.\n\n* ''Future Shocks'' (2003, 27 minutes)\n: is a documentary by TVOntario. It includes interviews with executive producer Bud Yorkin, Syd Mead, and the cast, and commentary by science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics.\n\n* ''Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner'' (2007, 213 minutes)\n: is a documentary directed and produced by Charles de Lauzirika for ''The Final Cut'' version of the film. It was culled from over 80 interviews, including Ford, Young, and Scott. The documentary consists of eight chapters, each covering a portion of the film-making – or in the case of the final chapter, the film's controversial legacy.\n\n* ''All Our Variant Futures: From Workprint to Final Cut'' (2007, 29 minutes)\n: produced by Paul Prischman, appears on the ''Blade Runner'' Ultimate Collector's Edition and provides an overview of the film's multiple versions and their origins, as well as detailing the seven-year-long restoration, enhancement and remastering process behind ''The Final Cut''.\n", "\n''Blade Runner'' co-author David Peoples wrote the 1998 action film ''Soldier'', which he referred to as a \"sidequel\" or spiritual successor to the original film, set in the same shared universe. By 1999, Stuart Hazeldine had written a sequel to ''Blade Runner'' based on ''The Edge of Human'', titled ''Blade Runner Down''; the project was shelved due to rights issues. In 2009 Scott and his brother Tony Scott were working on a prequel called ''Purefold'' as a series of 5–10 minute webisodes, but in February 2010 production ceased due to funding problems.\n\nIn 2012, a bonus feature on the ''Alien'' prequel ''Prometheus'' DVD revealed \"that Guy Pearce's Peter Weyland (who funded the space expedition that Shaw was on in ''Prometheus'') had a mentor, and that was Eldon Tyrell (Joe Turkell), a character in the ''Blade Runner'' movie who was the CEO of the Tyrell Corporation which produced the replicant androids that Harrison Ford's Rick Deckard pursues.\"\n\nIn March 2011, Yorkin began developing a new ''Blade Runner'' film,\nand named director Christopher Nolan was the desired choice to make it. In August 2011, Scott was to direct the new film while producer Andrew Kosove indicated Ford was unlikely to be involved.\nScott outlined the film was \"liable to be a sequel\" without the previous cast. By February 2015, Scott switched to an executive producer's role with Denis Villeneuve (''Arrival'') to direct. Ford would return along with original writer Hampton Fancher; Oscar-nominated cinematographer Roger Deakins is attached, and Ryan Gosling would also star.\n\nThe film entered production in mid-2016 and is set decades after the first film. Originally slated for release in January 2018, it is now set for October 6, 2017.\n\n===Books===\nDick's friend K. W. Jeter wrote three authorized ''Blade Runner'' novels that continue Deckard's story, attempting to resolve the differences between the film and ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'': ''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human'' (1995), ''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night'' (1996), and ''Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon'' (2000).\n", "\n* Arcology\n* Biorobotics\n* ''Natural City''\n* Synthetic biology\n* Tech noir\n", "'''Informational notes'''\n\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Plot", "Cast", " Themes ", "Production {{anchor\|Cast}}", "Release", "Legacy", "Sequel", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Blade Runner
[ "'''Bourbon''' may refer to:\n", "* Bourbon whiskey, an American whiskey made using a corn-based mash\n* Bourbon biscuit, a chocolate sandwich biscuit\n* A beer produced by Brasseries de Bourbon\n* Bourbon chicken, a dish made with bourbon whiskey\n* Bourbon coffee, a type of coffee made from a cultivar of ''Coffea arabica''\n* Bourbon Coffee, a coffeehouse chain\n* Bourbon vanilla, a cultivar of vanilla\n", "* Bourbon, Indiana, United States\n* Bourbon, Missouri, United States\n* Bourbon, Boone County, Missouri\n* Bourbon County, Kentucky, United States\n* Bourbon County, Kansas, United States\n* Bourbon Street, a street in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States\n* Bourbon-l'Archambault, Allier département, France\n* Bourbon-Lancy, Saône-et-Loire département, France\n* Bourbonne-les-Bains, Haute-Marne département, France\n* Bourbonnais, an area derived from the former dukedom of Bourbon, France\n* Île Bourbon, former name for the Island of Réunion\n", "* House of Bourbon, French and Spanish royal dynasties\n* Duke of Bourbon, a title in the peerage of France\n* Bourbon Reforms, a series of measures taken by the Spanish Crown\n* Bourbon Restoration, the return to the French throne of the Bourbon Dynasty\n* Bourbon Democrat, from 1876 to 1904 a conservative member of the US Democratic Party\n", "* USS ''Bourbon'', a frigate\n* Bourbon virus, a tick-borne virus discovered in the summer of 2014\n", "* Bhurban, a small town and a hill station in Punjab province, Pakistan\n* Bourbonism (disambiguation)\n* Borbon (disambiguation)\n* Constable de Bourbon (disambiguation)\n* Bourbon Kid, a supernatural horror book series by an anonymous British author\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Food and drink ", " Places ", " Politics and history ", " Other uses ", " See also " ]	Bourbon
[ "\nBelgian Blue bull\nBelgian Blue cow with the scars from caesarean sections clearly visible.\nThe '''Belgian Blue''' (, ) is a breed of beef cattle from Belgium. It may also be known as the . Alternative names for this breed include Belgian Blue-White; Belgian White and Blue Pied; Belgian White Blue; Blue; and Blue Belgian. The Belgian Blue's extremely lean, hyper-sculpted, ultra-muscular physique is termed \"double-muscling\". The double-muscling phenotype is a heritable condition resulting in an increased number of muscle fibers (hyperplasia), instead of the (normal) enlargement of ''individual'' muscle fibers (hypertrophy).\n\nThis particular trait is shared with another breed of cattle known as Piedmontese. Both of these breeds have an increased ability to convert feed into lean muscle, which causes these particular breeds' meat to have a reduced fat content and increased tenderness. The Belgian Blue is named after their typically blue-grey mottled hair colour, however its colour can vary from white to black.\n", "The condition was first documented in 1808 by the livestock observationist, George Culley. The breed originated in central and upper Belgium in the nineteenth century, from crossing local breeds with a Shorthorn breed of cattle from the United Kingdom. It is also possible that Charolais cattle were cross-bred as well. Belgian Blue cattle were first used as a dairy and beef breed. The modern beef breed was developed in the 1950s by Professor Hanset, working at an artificial insemination centre in Liege province. The breed's characteristic gene mutation was maintained through linebreeding to the point where the condition was a fixed property in the Belgian Blue breed. In 1978 Belgian Blue cattle were introduced to the United States by Nick Tutt, a farmer from central Canada who immigrated to west Texas and showed the cattle to universities in the region.\n", "The Belgian Blue has a natural mutation in the myostatin gene which codes for the protein, myostatin (\"myo\" meaning muscle and \"statin\" meaning stop). Myostatin is a protein that inhibits muscle development. This mutation also interferes with fat deposition, resulting in very lean meat. The truncated myostatin gene is unable to function in its normal capacity, resulting in accelerated lean muscle growth. Muscle growth is due primarily to physiological changes in the animal's muscle cells (fibers) from hypertrophy to a hyperplasia mode of growth. This particular type of growth is seen early in the fetus of a pregnant dam, which results in a calf that is born with two times the number of muscle fibers at birth than a calf with no myostatin gene mutation. In addition a new born double-muscled calf’s birth weight is significantly greater than that of a normal calf .\n\nBelgian Blue cattle have improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) due to lower feed intake compared to weight gain. The ability for these animals to have improved FCR is due to an altered composition of body weight gain which includes increased protein and decreased fat deposition. The Belgian Blue’s bone structure is the same as a normal cow, albeit holding a greater amount of muscle, which causes them to have a greater meat to bone ratio. These cattle have a muscle yield of about 20% more on average than cattle without the genetic myostatin mutation. Because of this breed’s increased muscle yield a diet containing higher protein is required to compensate for the altered mode of weight gain. During finishing this breed requires high-energy (concentrated) feeds, and will not yield the same results if put on a high-fiber diet.\n\nThe value of the double-muscling breed is due to their superior carcass characteristics. However, with decreased fat content there is decreased marbling of meat, which means the meat tenderness is reduced. Conversely, the Belgian Blue's meat tenderness has been argued to be just as tender because there are a large number of smaller muscle fibers. The Belgian Blue's meat cuts also have a lower collagen content, which allows the protein quality to be improved due to a higher yield of amino acids.\n", "Double-muscled cows can experience dystocia (a difficult birth), even when bred to normal beef bulls or dairy bulls, because of a narrower birth canal. In addition to the dam’s reduced pelvic dimensions, the calf’s birth weight and width are increased, making parturition harder. The neonatal calf is so large that Caesarean sections are routinely scheduled for breeders. The bull’s testicular weight and semen quantity and quality have been observed as reduced, however this seems to be less of an issue when compared to the dam's difficulties in calving.\n", "The economics of breeding and raising Belgian Blue cattle are inconclusive because of complications experienced during parturition and metabolic demand for increased concentrated feeds. The breed's increased need to have Caesarean sections when calving means increased cost and added work, and can become a welfare issue. However, the carcass value of double-muscled animals may be enhanced due to increased dressing yield, lean carcass content, and upgrading of some cuts leading to a higher proportion of higher valued cuts. The slower rate of fat deposition causes slaughtering to be delayed in most cases, which means an increase in maintenance costs in those animals. Belgian Blue cattle require more skilled management and do not thrive in harsh environments. For these reasons and others, the breed's overall production efficiency in an economic sense is still unclear.\n", "\n", "\n* The Belgian Blue Herdbook\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Breed characteristics ", " Breed problems ", " Economic efficiency ", " References ", " External links " ]	Belgian Blue
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Boron''' is a chemical element with symbol '''B''' and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is a low-abundance element in the Solar system and in the Earth's crust. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds, the borate minerals. These are mined industrially as evaporites, such as borax and kernite. The largest known boron deposits are in Turkey, the largest producer of boron minerals.\n\nElemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids but chemically uncombined boron is not otherwise found naturally on Earth. Industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder; crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard (about 9.5 on the Mohs scale), and a poor electrical conductor at room temperature. The primary use of elemental boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials.\n\nBoron is primarily used in chemical compounds. About half of all consumption globally, boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron-containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials. The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high-strength, lightweight structural and refractory materials. Borosilicate glass is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass. Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches. A small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals. A few boron-containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study. Natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes, one of which (boron-10) has a number of uses as a neutron-capturing agent.\n\nIn biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals (similar to table salt), but are more toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides. Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial, and several natural boron-containing organic antibiotics are known. Boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary plant nutrient. There is no consensus on whether boron is an essential nutrient for mammals, including humans, although there is some evidence it supports bone health.\n", "The word ''boron'' was coined from ''borax'', the mineral from which it was isolated, by analogy with ''carbon'', which boron resembles chemically. \nSassolite.\n\nBorax, its mineral form then known as tincal, glazes were used in China from AD 300, and some crude borax reached the West, where the Persian alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān apparently mentioned it in AD 700. Marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy. In 1777, boric acid was recognized in the hot springs (soffioni) near Florence, Italy, and became known as ''sal sedativum'', with primarily medical uses. The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Italy. Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872, when American sources replaced it. Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smith's Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost.\n\nBoron was not recognized as an element until it was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy and by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard. In 1808 Davy observed that electric current sent through a solution of borates produced a brown precipitate on one of the electrodes. In his subsequent experiments, he used potassium to reduce boric acid instead of electrolysis. He produced enough boron to confirm a new element and named the element ''boracium''. Gay-Lussac and Thénard used iron to reduce boric acid at high temperatures. By oxidizing boron with air, they showed that boric acid is an oxidation product of boron. Jöns Jakob Berzelius identified boron as an element in 1824. Pure boron was arguably first produced by the American chemist Ezekiel Weintraub in 1909.\n", "The earliest routes to elemental boron involved the reduction of boric oxide with metals such as magnesium or aluminium. However, the product is almost always contaminated with borides of those metals. Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halides with hydrogen at high temperatures. Ultrapure boron for use in the semiconductor industry is produced by the decomposition of diborane at high temperatures and then further purified with the zone melting or Czochralski processes.\n\nThe production of boron compounds does not involve the formation of elemental boron, but exploits the convenient availability of borates.\n", "\n===Allotropes===\n\nBoron chunks\nBoron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks. Even nominally disordered (amorphous) boron contains regular boron icosahedra which are, however, bonded randomly to each other without long-range order. Crystalline boron is a very hard, black material with a melting point of above 2000 °C. It forms four major polymorphs: α-rhombohedral and β-rhombohedral (α-R and β-R), γ and β-tetragonal (β-T); α-tetragonal phase also exists (α-T), but is very difficult to produce without significant contamination. Most of the phases are based on B12 icosahedra, but the γ-phase can be described as a rocksalt-type arrangement of the icosahedra and B2 atomic pairs. It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 12–20 GPa and heating to 1500–1800 °C; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure. The T phase is produced at similar pressures, but higher temperatures of 1800–2200 °C. As to the α and β phases, they might both coexist at ambient conditions with the β phase being more stable. Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure, and this phase is a superconductor at temperatures 6–12 K. Borospherene (fullerene-like B40) molecules) and borophene (proposed graphene-like structure) have been described in 2014.\n\n\n\nBoron phase\nα-R\nβ-R\nγ\nβ-T\n\nSymmetry\nRhombohedral\nRhombohedral\nOrthorhombic\nTetragonal\n\nAtoms/unit cell\n12\n~105\n28\n\n\nDensity (g/cm3)\n2.46\n2.35\n2.52\n2.36\n\nVickers hardness (GPa)\n42\n45\n50–58\n\n\nBulk modulus (GPa)\n185\n224\n227\n\n\nBandgap (eV)\n2\n1.6\n2.1\n\n\n\n===Chemistry of the element===\n\nElemental boron is rare and poorly studied because the pure material is extremely difficult to prepare. Most studies of \"boron\" involve samples that contain small amounts of carbon. The chemical behavior of boron resembles that of silicon more than aluminium. Crystalline boron is chemically inert and resistant to attack by boiling hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid. When finely divided, it is attacked slowly by hot concentrated hydrogen peroxide, hot concentrated nitric acid, hot sulfuric acid or hot mixture of sulfuric and chromic acids.\n\nThe rate of oxidation of boron depends on the crystallinity, particle size, purity and temperature. Boron does not react with air at room temperature, but at higher temperatures it burns to form boron trioxide:\n:4 B + 3 O2 → 2 B2O3\nFile:Tetraborate-xtal-3D-balls.png\|thumb\|left\|Ball-and-stick model of tetraborate anion, B4O5(OH)42−, as it occurs in crystalline borax, Na2B4O5(OH)4·8H2O. Boron atoms are pink, with bridging oxygens in red, and four hydroxyl hydrogens in white. Note two borons are trigonally bonded sp2 with no formal charge, while the other two borons are tetrahedrally bonded sp3, each carrying a formal charge of −1. The oxidation state of all borons is III. This mixture of boron coordination numbers and formal charges is characteristic of natural boron minerals.\n\nBoron undergoes halogenation to give trihalides; for example,\n:2 B + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3\nThe trichloride in practice is usually made from the oxide.\n\n====Chemical compounds====\nBoron (III) trifluoride structure, showing \"empty\" boron p orbital in pi-type coordinate covalent bonds\nIn the most familiar compounds, boron has the formal oxidation state III. These include oxides, sulfides, nitrides, and halides.\n\nThe trihalides adopt a planar trigonal structure. These compounds are Lewis acids in that they readily form adducts with electron-pair donors, which are called Lewis bases. For example, fluoride (F−) and boron trifluoride (BF3) combined to give the tetrafluoroborate anion, BF4−. Boron trifluoride is used in the petrochemical industry as a catalyst. The halides react with water to form boric acid.\n\nBoron is found in nature on Earth entirely as various oxides of B(III), often associated with other elements. More than one hundred borate minerals contain boron in oxidation state +3. These minerals resemble silicates in some respect, although boron is often found not only in a tetrahedral coordination with oxygen, but also in a trigonal planar configuration. Unlike silicates, the boron minerals never contain boron with coordination number greater than four. A typical motif is exemplified by the tetraborate anions of the common mineral borax, shown at left. The formal negative charge of the tetrahedral borate center is balanced by metal cations in the minerals, such as the sodium (Na+) in borax.\n\n\n\nBoranes are chemical compounds of boron and hydrogen, with the generic formula of BxHy. These compounds do not occur in nature. Many of the boranes readily oxidise on contact with air, some violently. The parent member BH3 is called borane, but it is known only in the gaseous state, and dimerises to form diborane, B2H6. The larger boranes all consist of boron clusters that are polyhedral, some of which exist as isomers. For example, isomers of B20H26 are based on the fusion of two 10-atom clusters.\n\nThe most important boranes are diborane B2H6 and two of its pyrolysis products, pentaborane B5H9 and decaborane B10H14. A large number of anionic boron hydrides are known, e.g. B12H122−.\n\nThe formal oxidation number in boranes is positive, and is based on the assumption that hydrogen is counted as −1 as in active metal hydrides. The mean oxidation number for the borons is then simply the ratio of hydrogen to boron in the molecule. For example, in diborane B2H6, the boron oxidation state is +3, but in decaborane B10H14, it is 7/5 or +1.4. In these compounds the oxidation state of boron is often not a whole number.\n\n\n\nThe boron nitrides are notable for the variety of structures that they adopt. They exhibit structures analogous to various allotropes of carbon, including graphite, diamond, and nanotubes. In the diamond-like structure, called cubic boron nitride (tradename Borazon), boron atoms exist in the tetrahedral structure of carbons atoms in diamond, but one in every four B-N bonds can be viewed as a coordinate covalent bond, wherein two electrons are donated by the nitrogen atom which acts as the Lewis base to a bond to the Lewis acidic boron(III) centre. Cubic boron nitride, among other applications, is used as an abrasive, as it has a hardness comparable with diamond (the two substances are able to produce scratches on each other). In the BN compound analogue of graphite, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), the positively charged boron and negatively charged nitrogen atoms in each plane lie adjacent to the oppositely charged atom in the next plane. Consequently, graphite and h-BN have very different properties, although both are lubricants, as these planes slip past each other easily. However, h-BN is a relatively poor electrical and thermal conductor in the planar directions.\n\n=====Organoboron chemistry=====\n\nA large number of organoboron compounds are known and many are useful in organic synthesis. Many are produced from hydroboration, which employs diborane, B2H6, a simple borane chemical. Organoboron(III) compounds are usually tetrahedral or trigonal planar, for example, tetraphenylborate, B(C6H5)4− vs. triphenylborane, B(C6H5)3. However, multiple boron atoms reacting with each other have a tendency to form novel dodecahedral (12-sided) and icosahedral (20-sided) structures composed completely of boron atoms, or with varying numbers of carbon heteroatoms.\n\nOrganoboron chemicals have been employed in uses as diverse as boron carbide (see below), a complex very hard ceramic composed of boron-carbon cluster anions and cations, to carboranes, carbon-boron cluster chemistry compounds that can be halogenated to form reactive structures including carborane acid, a superacid. As one example, carboranes form useful molecular moieties that add considerable amounts of boron to other biochemicals in order to synthesize boron-containing compounds for boron neutron capture therapy for cancer.\n\n=====Compounds of B(I) and B(II)=====\nAlthough these are not found on Earth naturally, boron forms a variety of stable compounds with formal oxidation state less than three. As for many covalent compounds, formal oxidation states are often of little meaning in boron hydrides and metal borides. The halides also form derivatives of B(I) and B(II). BF, isoelectronic with N2, cannot be isolated in condensed form, but B2F4 and B4Cl4 are well characterized.\nBall-and-stick model of superconductor magnesium diboride. Boron atoms lie in hexagonal aromatic graphite-like layers, with a charge of −1 on each boron atom. Magnesium(II) ions lie between layers\nBinary metal-boron compounds, the metal borides, contain boron in negative oxidation states. Illustrative is magnesium diboride (MgB2). Each boron atom has a formal −1 charge and magnesium is assigned a formal charge of +2. In this material, the boron centers are trigonal planar with an extra double bond for each boron, forming sheets akin to the carbon in graphite. However, unlike hexagonal boron nitride, which lacks electrons in the plane of the covalent atoms, the delocalized electrons in magnesium diboride allow it to conduct electricity similar to isoelectronic graphite. In 2001, this material was found to be a high-temperature superconductor.\n\nCertain other metal borides find specialized applications as hard materials for cutting tools. Often the boron in borides has fractional oxidation states, such as −1/3 in calcium hexaboride (CaB6).\n\nFrom the structural perspective, the most distinctive chemical compounds of boron are the hydrides. Included in this series are the cluster compounds dodecaborate (B12H122−), decaborane (B10H14), and the carboranes such as C2B10H12. Characteristically such compounds contain boron with coordination numbers greater than four.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\nBoron has two naturally occurring and stable isotopes, 11B (80.1%) and 10B (19.9%). The mass difference results in a wide range of δ11B values, which are defined as a fractional difference between the 11B and 10B and traditionally expressed in parts per thousand, in natural waters ranging from −16 to +59. There are 13 known isotopes of boron, the shortest-lived isotope is 7B which decays through proton emission and alpha decay. It has a half-life of 3.5×10−22 s. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B(OH)3 and tetrahydroxyborate\|B(OH)4−. Boron isotopes are also fractionated during mineral crystallization, during H2O phase changes in hydrothermal systems, and during hydrothermal alteration of rock. The latter effect results in preferential removal of the 10B(OH)4− ion onto clays. It results in solutions enriched in 11B(OH)3 and therefore may be responsible for the large 11B enrichment in seawater relative to both oceanic crust and continental crust; this difference may act as an isotopic signature.\n\nThe exotic 17B exhibits a nuclear halo, i.e. its radius is appreciably larger than that predicted by the liquid drop model.\n\nThe 10B isotope is useful for capturing thermal neutrons (see neutron cross section#Typical cross sections). The nuclear industry enriches natural boron to nearly pure 10B. The less-valuable by-product, depleted boron, is nearly pure 11B.\n\n====Commercial isotope enrichment====\nBecause of its high neutron cross-section, boron-10 is often used to control fission in nuclear reactors as a neutron-capturing substance. Several industrial-scale enrichment processes have been developed; however, only the fractionated vacuum distillation of the dimethyl ether adduct of boron trifluoride (DME-BF3) and column chromatography of borates are being used.\n\n====Enriched boron (boron-10)====\nNeutron cross section of boron (top curve is for 10B and bottom curve for 11B)\n\nEnriched boron or 10B is used in both radiation shielding and is the primary nuclide used in neutron capture therapy of cancer. In the latter (\"boron neutron capture therapy\" or BNCT), a compound containing 10B is incorporated into a pharmaceutical which is selectively taken up by a malignant tumor and tissues near it. The patient is then treated with a beam of low energy neutrons at a relatively low neutron radiation dose. The neutrons, however, trigger energetic and short-range secondary alpha particle and lithium-7 heavy ion radiation that are products of the boron + neutron nuclear reaction, and this ion radiation additionally bombards the tumor, especially from inside the tumor cells.\n\nIn nuclear reactors, 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems. It can serve either function in the form of borosilicate control rods or as boric acid. In pressurized water reactors, boric acid is added to the reactor coolant when the plant is shut down for refueling. It is then slowly filtered out over many months as fissile material is used up and the fuel becomes less reactive.\n\nIn future manned interplanetary spacecraft, 10B has a theoretical role as structural material (as boron fibers or BN nanotube material) which would also serve a special role in the radiation shield. One of the difficulties in dealing with cosmic rays, which are mostly high energy protons, is that some secondary radiation from interaction of cosmic rays and spacecraft materials is high energy spallation neutrons. Such neutrons can be moderated by materials high in light elements such as polyethylene, but the moderated neutrons continue to be a radiation hazard unless actively absorbed in the shielding. Among light elements that absorb thermal neutrons, 6Li and 10B appear as potential spacecraft structural materials which serve both for mechanical reinforcement and radiation protection.\n\n====Depleted boron (boron-11)====\n\n===== Radiation-hardened semiconductors =====\nCosmic radiation will produce secondary neutrons if it hits spacecraft structures. Those neutrons will be captured in 10B, if it is present in the spacecraft's semiconductors, producing a gamma ray, an alpha particle, and a lithium ion. Those resultant decay products may then irradiate nearby semiconductor \"chip\" structures, causing data loss (bit flipping, or single event upset). In radiation-hardened semiconductor designs, one countermeasure is to use ''depleted boron'', which is greatly enriched in 11B and contains almost no 10B. This is useful because 11B is largely immune to radiation damage. Depleted boron is a byproduct of the nuclear industry.\n\n===== Proton-boron fusion =====\n\n11B is also a candidate as a fuel for aneutronic fusion. When struck by a proton with energy of about 500 keV, it produces three alpha particles and 8.7 MeV of energy. Most other fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium produce penetrating neutron radiation, which weakens reactor structures and induces long-term radioactivity, thereby endangering operating personnel. However, the alpha particles from 11B fusion can be turned directly into electric power, and all radiation stops as soon as the reactor is turned off.\n\n====NMR spectroscopy====\nBoth 10B and 11B possess nuclear spin. The nuclear spin of 10B is 3 and that of 11B is . These isotopes are, therefore, of use in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; and spectrometers specially adapted to detecting the boron-11 nuclei are available commercially. The 10B and 11B nuclei also cause splitting in the resonances of attached nuclei.\n\n===Occurrence===\n\n\nA fragment of ulexite\nBorax crystals\nBoron is rare in the Universe and solar system due to trace formation in the Big Bang and in stars. It is formed in minor amounts in cosmic ray spallation nucleosynthesis and may be found uncombined in cosmic dust and meteoroid materials.\n\nIn the high oxygen environment of Earth, boron is always found fully oxidized to borate. Boron does not appear on Earth in elemental form. Extremely small traces of elemental boron were detected in Lunar regolith\n\nAlthough boron is a relatively rare element in the Earth's crust, representing only 0.001% of the crust mass, it can be highly concentrated by the action of water, in which many borates are soluble. \nIt is found naturally combined in compounds such as borax and boric acid (sometimes found in volcanic spring waters). About a hundred borate minerals are known.\n\nOn September 5, 2017, scientists reported that the ''Curiosity'' rover detected boron, an essential ingredient for life on Earth, on the planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\n", "Economically important sources of boron are the minerals colemanite, rasorite (kernite), ulexite and tincal. Together these constitute 90% of mined boron-containing ore. The largest global borax deposits known, many still untapped, are in Central and Western Turkey, including the provinces of Eskişehir, Kütahya and Balıkesir. Global proven boron mineral mining reserves exceed one billion metric tonnes, against a yearly production of about four million tonnes.\n\nTurkey and the United States are the largest producers of boron products. Turkey produces about half of the global yearly demand, through Eti Mine Works () a Turkish state-owned mining and chemicals company focusing on boron products. It holds a government monopoly on the mining of borate minerals in Turkey, which possesses 72% of the world's known deposits. In 2012, it held a 47% share of production of global borate minerals, ahead of its main competitor, Rio Tinto Group.\n\nAlmost a quarter (23%) of global boron production comes from the single Rio Tinto Borax Mine (also known as the U.S. Borax Boron Mine) near Boron, California.\n\n===Market trend===\nThe average cost of crystalline boron is $5/g. Free boron is chiefly used in making boron fibers, where it is deposited by chemical vapor deposition on a tungsten core (see below). Boron fibers are used in lightweight composite applications, such as high strength tapes. This use is a very small fraction of total boron use. Boron is introduced into semiconductors as boron compounds, by ion implantation.\n\nEstimated global consumption of boron (almost entirely as boron compounds) was about 4 million tonnes of B2O3 in 2012. Boron mining and refining capacities are considered to be adequate to meet expected levels of growth through the next decade.\n\nThe form in which boron is consumed has changed in recent years. The use of ores like colemanite has declined following concerns over arsenic content. Consumers have moved toward the use of refined borates and boric acid that have a lower pollutant content.\n\nIncreasing demand for boric acid has led a number of producers to invest in additional capacity. Turkey's state-owned Eti Mine Works opened a new boric acid plant with the production capacity of 100,000 tonnes per year at Emet in 2003. Rio Tinto Group increased the capacity of its boron plant from 260,000 tonnes per year in 2003 to 310,000 tonnes per year by May 2005, with plans to grow this to 366,000 tonnes per year in 2006. Chinese boron producers have been unable to meet rapidly growing demand for high quality borates. This has led to imports of sodium tetraborate (borax) growing by a hundredfold between 2000 and 2005 and boric acid imports increasing by 28% per year over the same period.\n\nThe rise in global demand has been driven by high growth rates in glass fiber, fiberglass and borosilicate glassware production. A rapid increase in the manufacture of reinforcement-grade boron-containing fiberglass in Asia, has offset the development of boron-free reinforcement-grade fiberglass in Europe and the USA. The recent rises in energy prices may lead to greater use of insulation-grade fiberglass, with consequent growth in the boron consumption. Roskill Consulting Group forecasts that world demand for boron will grow by 3.4% per year to reach 21 million tonnes by 2010. The highest growth in demand is expected to be in Asia where demand could rise by an average 5.7% per year.\n", "Nearly all boron ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into boric acid and sodium tetraborate pentahydrate. In the United States, 70% of the boron is used for the production of glass and ceramics.\nThe major global industrial-scale use of boron compounds (about 46% of end-use) is in production of glass fiber for boron-containing insulating and structural fiberglasses, especially in Asia. Boron is added to the glass as borax pentahydrate or boron oxide, to influence the strength or fluxing qualities of the glass fibers. Another 10% of global boron production is for borosilicate glass as used in high strength glassware. About 15% of global boron is used in boron ceramics, including super-hard materials discussed below. Agriculture consumes 11% of global boron production, and bleaches and detergents about 6%.\n\n===Elemental boron fiber===\nBoron fibers (boron filaments) are high-strength, lightweight materials that are used chiefly for advanced aerospace structures as a component of composite materials, as well as limited production consumer and sporting goods such as golf clubs and fishing rods. The fibers can be produced by chemical vapor deposition of boron on a tungsten filament.\n\nBoron fibers and sub-millimeter sized crystalline boron springs are produced by laser-assisted chemical vapor deposition. Translation of the focused laser beam allows to produce even complex helical structures. Such structures show good mechanical properties (elastic modulus 450 GPa, fracture strain 3.7%, fracture stress 17 GPa) and can be applied as reinforcement of ceramics or in micromechanical systems.\n\n=== Boronated fiberglass ===\n\nFiberglass is a fiber reinforced polymer made of plastic reinforced by glass fibers, commonly woven into a mat. The glass fibers used in the material are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use. These glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. The boron is present as borosilicate, borax, or boron oxide, and is added to increase the strength of the glass, or as a fluxing agent to decrease the melting temperature of silica, which is too high to be easily worked in its pure form to make glass fibers.\n\nThe highly boronated glasses used in fiberglass are E-glass (named for \"Electrical\" use, but now the most common fiberglass for general use). E-glass is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other common high-boron glasses include C-glass, an alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation, and D-glass, a borosilicate glass, named for its low '''D'''ielectric constant).\n\nNot all fiberglasses contain boron, but on a global scale, most of the fiberglass used does contain it. Because the ubiquitous use of fiberglass in construction and insulation, boron-containing fiberglasses consume half the global production of boron, and are the single largest commercial boron market.\n\n===Borosilicate glass===\nBorosilicate glassware. Displayed are two beakers and a test tube.\nBorosilicate glass, which is typically 12–15% B2O3, 80% SiO2, and 2% Al2O3, has a low coefficient of thermal expansion giving it a good resistance to thermal shock. Schott AG's \"Duran\" and Owens-Corning's trademarked Pyrex are two major brand names for this glass, used both in laboratory glassware and in consumer cookware and bakeware, chiefly for this resistance.\n\n===Boron carbide ceramic===\n\nicosahedra consist of boron atoms, and black spheres are carbon atoms.\nSeveral boron compounds are known for their extreme hardness and toughness.\nBoron carbide is a ceramic material which is obtained by decomposing B2O3 with carbon in the electric furnace:\n:2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO\n\nBoron carbide's structure is only approximately B4C, and it shows a clear depletion of carbon from this suggested stoichiometric ratio. This is due to its very complex structure. The substance can be seen with empirical formula B12C3 (i.e., with B12 dodecahedra being a motif), but with less carbon, as the suggested C3 units are replaced with C-B-C chains, and some smaller (B6) octahedra are present as well (see the boron carbide article for structural analysis). The repeating polymer plus semi-crystalline structure of boron carbide gives it great structural strength per weight. It is used in tank armor, bulletproof vests, and numerous other structural applications.\n\nBoron carbide's ability to absorb neutrons without forming long-lived radionuclides (especially when doped with extra boron-10) makes the material attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear power plants. Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding, control rods and shut-down pellets. Within control rods, boron carbide is often powdered, to increase its surface area.\n\n===High-hardness and abrasive compounds===\n\n\n\n+ Mechanical properties of BCN solids and ReB2\nMaterial\nDiamond\ncubic-BC2N\ncubic-BC5\ncubic-BN\nB4C\nReB2\n\nVickers hardness (GPa)\n115\n76\n71\n62\n38\n22\n\nFracture toughness (MPa m1⁄2)\n5.3\n4.5\n9.5\n6.8\n3.5\n\n\nBoron carbide and cubic boron nitride powders are widely used as abrasives. Boron nitride is a material isoelectronic to carbon. Similar to carbon, it has both hexagonal (soft graphite-like h-BN) and cubic (hard, diamond-like c-BN) forms. h-BN is used as a high temperature component and lubricant. c-BN, also known under commercial name borazon, is a superior abrasive. Its hardness is only slightly smaller than, but its chemical stability is superior, to that of diamond. Heterodiamond (also called BCN) is another diamond-like boron compound.\n\n===Boron metal coatings===\nMetal borides are used for coating tools through chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition. Implantation of boron ions into metals and alloys, through ion implantation or ion beam deposition, results in a spectacular increase in surface resistance and microhardness. Laser alloying has also been successfully used for the same purpose. These borides are an alternative to diamond coated tools, and their (treated) surfaces have similar properties to those of the bulk boride.\n\nFor example, rhenium diboride can be produced at ambient pressures, but is rather expensive because of rhenium. The hardness of ReB2 exhibits considerable anisotropy because of its hexagonal layered structure. Its value is comparable to that of tungsten carbide, silicon carbide, titanium diboride or zirconium diboride.\nSimilarly, AlMgB14 + TiB2 composites possess high hardness and wear resistance and are used in either bulk form or as coatings for components exposed to high temperatures and wear loads.\n\n===Detergent formulations and bleaching agents===\nBorax is used in various household laundry and cleaning products, including the \"20 Mule Team Borax\" laundry booster and \"Boraxo\" powdered hand soap. It is also present in some tooth bleaching formulas.\n\nSodium perborate serves as a source of active oxygen in many detergents, laundry detergents, cleaning products, and laundry bleaches. However, despite its name, \"Borateem\" laundry bleach no longer contains any boron compounds, using sodium percarbonate instead as a bleaching agent.\n\n===Insecticides===\nBoric acid is used as an insecticide, notably against ants, fleas, and cockroaches.\n\n===Semiconductors===\nBoron is a useful dopant for such semiconductors as silicon, germanium, and silicon carbide. Having one fewer valence electron than the host atom, it donates a hole resulting in p-type conductivity. Traditional method of introducing boron into semiconductors is via its atomic diffusion at high temperatures. This process uses either solid (B2O3), liquid (BBr3), or gaseous boron sources (B2H6 or BF3). However, after the 1970s, it was mostly replaced by ion implantation, which relies mostly on BF3 as a boron source. Boron trichloride gas is also an important chemical in semiconductor industry, however not for doping but rather for plasma etching of metals and their oxides. Triethylborane is also injected into vapor deposition reactors as a boron source. Examples are the plasma deposition of boron-containing hard carbon films, silicon nitride-boron nitride films, and for doping of diamond film with boron.\n\n===Magnets===\nBoron is a component of neodymium magnets (Nd2Fe14B), which are among the strongest type of permanent magnet. These magnets are found in a variety of electromechanical and electronic devices, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) medical imaging systems, in compact and relatively small motors and actuators. As examples, computer HDDs (hard disk drives), CD (compact disk) and DVD (digital versatile disk) players rely on neodymium magnet motors to deliver intense rotary power in a remarkably compact package. In mobile phones 'Neo' magnets provide the magnetic field which allows tiny speakers to deliver appreciable audio power.\n\n===Shielding and neutron absorber in nuclear reactors===\nBoron shielding is used as a control for nuclear reactors, taking advantage of its high cross-section for neutron capture.\n\nIn pressurized water reactors a variable concentration of boronic acid in the cooling water is used to compensate the variable reactivity of the fuel: when new rods are inserted the concentration of boronic acid is maximal, and then reduced during the lifetime.\n\n===Other nonmedical uses===\nLaunch of ''Apollo 15'' Saturn V rocket, using triethylborane ignitor\nBecause of its distinctive green flame, amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares.\nStarch and casein-based adhesives contain sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7·10 H2O)\nSome anti-corrosion systems contain borax.\nSodium borates are used as a flux for soldering silver and gold and with ammonium chloride for welding ferrous metals. They are also fire retarding additives to plastics and rubber articles.\nBoric acid (also known as orthoboric acid) H3BO3 is used in the production of textile fiberglass and flat panel displays and in many PVAc- and PVOH-based adhesives.\nTriethylborane is a substance which ignites the JP-7 fuel of the Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet/ramjet engines powering the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird. It was also used to ignite the F-1 Engines on the Saturn V Rocket utilized by NASA's Apollo and Skylab programs from 1967 until 1973. Triethylborane is suitable for this because of its pyrophoric properties, especially the fact that it burns with a very high temperature. Triethylborane is an industrial initiator in radical reactions, where it is effective even at low temperatures.\nBorates are used as environmentally benign wood preservatives.\n\n===Pharmaceutical and biological applications===\n'''Boric acid''' has antiseptic, antifungal, and antiviral properties and for these reasons is applied as a water clarifier in swimming pool water treatment. Mild solutions of boric acid have been used as eye antiseptics.\n\n'''Bortezomib''' (marketed as '''Velcade''' and '''Cytomib'''). Boron appears as an active element in its first-approved organic pharmaceutical in the pharmaceutical bortezomib, a new class of drug called the proteasome inhibitors, which are active in myeloma and one form of lymphoma (it is in currently in experimental trials against other types of lymphoma). The boron atom in bortezomib binds the catalytic site of the 26S proteasome with high affinity and specificity.\nA number of potential boronated pharmaceuticals using boron-10, have been prepared for use in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT).\nSome boron compounds show promise in treating arthritis, though none have as yet been generally approved for the purpose.\n\n'''Tavaborole''' (marketed as '''Kerydin''') is a Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase inhibitor which is used to treat toenail fungus. It gained FDA approval in July 2014.\n\nDioxaborolane chemistry enables radioactive fluoride (18F) labeling of antibodies or red blood cells, which allows for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of cancer and hemorrhages, respectively.\n\n===Research areas===\nMagnesium diboride is an important superconducting material with the transition temperature of 39 K. MgB2 wires are produced with the powder-in-tube process and applied in superconducting magnets.\n\nAmorphous boron is used as a melting point depressant in nickel-chromium braze alloys.\n\nHexagonal boron nitride forms atomically thin layers, which have been used to enhance the electron mobility in graphene devices. It also forms nanotubular structures (BNNTs), which have with high strength, high chemical stability, and high thermal conductivity, among its list of desirable properties.\n", "Boron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls. However, high soil concentrations of greater than 1.0 ppm lead to marginal and tip necrosis in leaves as well as poor overall growth performance. Levels as low as 0.8 ppm produce these same symptoms in plants that are particularly sensitive to boron in the soil. Nearly all plants, even those somewhat tolerant of soil boron, will show at least some symptoms of boron toxicity when soil boron content is greater than 1.8 ppm. When this content exceeds 2.0 ppm, few plants will perform well and some may not survive.\n\nIt is thought that boron plays several essential roles in animals, including humans, but the exact physiological role is poorly understood. A small human trial published in 1987 reported on postmenopausal women first made boron deficient and then repleted with 3 mg/day. Boron supplementation markedly reduced urinary calcium excretion and elevated the serum concentrations of 17 beta-estradiol and testosterone.\n\nThe U.S. Institute of Medicine has not confirmed that boron is an essential nutrient for humans, so neither a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) nor an Adequate Intake have been established. Adult dietary intake is estimated at 0.9 to 1.4 mg/day, with about 90% absorbed. What is absorbed is mostly excreted in urine. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level for adults is 20 mg/day.\n\nIn 2013, a hypothesis suggested it was possible that boron and molybdenum catalyzed the production of RNA on Mars with life being transported to Earth via a meteorite around 3 billion years ago.\n\nThere exist several known boron-containing natural antibiotics. The first one found was boromycin, isolated from streptomyces.\n\nCongenital endothelial dystrophy type 2, a rare form of corneal dystrophy, is linked to mutations in SLC4A11 gene that encodes a transporter reportedly regulating the intracellular concentration of boron.\n\n===Analytical quantification===\nFor determination of boron content in food or materials the colorimetric ''curcumin method'' is used. Boron is converted to boric acid or borates and on reaction with curcumin in acidic solution, a red colored boron-chelate complex, rosocyanine, is formed.\n\n===Health issues and toxicity===\nElemental boron, boron oxide, boric acid, borates, and many organoboron compounds are relatively nontoxic to humans and animals (with toxicity similar to that of table salt). The LD50 (dose at which there is 50% mortality) for animals is about 6 g per kg of body weight. Substances with LD50 above 2 g are considered nontoxic. An intake of 4 g/day of boric acid was reported without incident, but more than this is considered toxic in more than a few doses. Intakes of more than 0.5 grams per day for 50 days cause minor digestive and other problems suggestive of toxicity.\n\nSingle medical doses of 20 g of boric acid for neutron capture therapy have been used without undue toxicity.\n\nBoric acid is more toxic to insects than to mammals, and is routinely used as an insecticide.\n\nThe boranes (boron hydrogen compounds) and similar gaseous compounds are quite poisonous. As usual, it is not an element that is intrinsically poisonous, but their toxicity depends on structure. The boranes are also highly flammable and require special care when handling. Sodium borohydride presents a fire hazard owing to its reducing nature and the liberation of hydrogen on contact with acid. Boron halides are corrosive.\n\nBoron toxicity in rose leaves.\nBoron is necessary for plant growth, but an excess of boron is toxic to plants, and occurs particularly in acidic soil. It presents as a yellowing from the tip inwards of the oldest leaves and black spots in barley leaves, but it can be confused with other stresses such as magnesium deficiency in other plants.\n", "\nAllotropes of boron\nBoron deficiency\nBoron oxide\nBoron nitride\nBoron neutron capture therapy\nBoronic acid\nHydroboration-oxidation reaction\nSuzuki coupling\n\n\n", "\n", " Boron at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)\n* Boron\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Preparation of elemental boron in the laboratory", "Characteristics", "Production", "Applications", "Biological role", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Boron
[ "\n'''Bromine''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Br''' and atomic number 35. It is the third-lightest halogen, and is a fuming red-brown liquid at room temperature that evaporates readily to form a similarly coloured gas. Its properties are thus intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. Isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig (in 1825) and Antoine Jérôme Balard (in 1826), its name was derived from the Ancient Greek ''βρῶμος'' \"stench\", referencing its sharp and disagreeable smell.\n\nElemental bromine is very reactive and thus does not occur free in nature, but in colourless soluble crystalline mineral halide salts, analogous to table salt. While it is rather rare in the Earth's crust, the high solubility of the bromide ion (Br−) has caused its accumulation in the oceans. Commercially the element is easily extracted from brine pools, mostly in the United States, Israel and China. The mass of bromine in the oceans is about one three-hundredth of that of chlorine.\n\nAt high temperatures, organobromine compounds readily dissociate to yield free bromine atoms, a process that stops free radical chemical chain reactions. This effect makes organobromine compounds useful as fire retardants, and more than half the bromine produced worldwide each year is put to this purpose. Unfortunately, the same property causes sunlight to dissociate volatile organobromine compounds in the atmosphere to yield free bromine atoms, causing ozone depletion. As a result, many organobromide compounds—such as the pesticide methyl bromide—are no longer used. Bromine compounds are still used in well drilling fluids, in photographic film, and as an intermediate in the manufacture of organic chemicals.\n\nBromine has sometimes been considered to be possibly essential in humans, but this is supported by only limited circumstantial evidence, and no clear biological role. As a pharmaceutical, the simple bromide ion (Br−) has inhibitory effects on the central nervous system, and bromide salts were once a major medical sedative, before replacement by shorter-acting drugs. They retain niche uses as antiepileptics.\n", "Antoine Balard, one of the discoverers of bromine\nBromine was discovered independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Balard, in 1825 and 1826, respectively.\n\nLöwig isolated bromine from a mineral water spring from his hometown Bad Kreuznach in 1825. Löwig used a solution of the mineral salt saturated with chlorine and extracted the bromine with diethyl ether. After evaporation of the ether a brown liquid remained. With this liquid as a sample of his work he applied for a position in the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin in Heidelberg. The publication of the results was delayed and Balard published his results first.\n\nBalard found bromine chemicals in the ash of seaweed from the salt marshes of Montpellier. The seaweed was used to produce iodine, but also contained bromine. Balard distilled the bromine from a solution of seaweed ash saturated with chlorine. The properties of the resulting substance were intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine; thus he tried to prove that the substance was iodine monochloride (ICl), but after failing to do so he was sure that he had found a new element, and named it muride, derived from the Latin word ''muria'' for brine.\n\nAfter the French chemists Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, Louis Jacques Thénard, and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac approved the experiments of the young pharmacist Balard, the results were presented at a lecture of the Académie des Sciences and published in ''Annales de Chimie et Physique''. In his publication, Balard states that he changed the name from ''muride'' to ''brôme'' on the proposal of M. Anglada. ''Brôme'' (bromine) derives from the Greek βρωμος (stench). Other sources claim that the French chemist and physicist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac suggested the name ''brôme'' for the characteristic smell of the vapors. Bromine was not produced in large quantities until 1858, when the discovery of salt deposits in Stassfurt enabled its production as a by-product of potash.\n\n\nApart from some minor medical applications, the first commercial use was the daguerreotype. In 1840, bromine was discovered to have some advantages over the previously used iodine vapor to create the light sensitive silver halide layer in daguerreotypy.\n\nPotassium bromide and sodium bromide were used as anticonvulsants and sedatives in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but were gradually superseded by chloral hydrate and then by the barbiturates. In the early years of the First World War, bromine compounds such as xylyl bromide were used as poison gas.\n", "Illustrative and secure bromine sample for teaching\nBromine is the third halogen, being a nonmetal in group 17 of the periodic table. Its properties are thus similar to those of fluorine, chlorine, and iodine, and tend to be intermediate between those of the two neighbouring halogens, chlorine and iodine. Bromine has the electron configuration Ar3d104s24p5, with the seven electrons in the fourth and outermost shell acting as its valence electrons. Like all halogens, it is thus one electron short of a full octet, and is hence a strong oxidising agent, reacting with many elements in order to complete its outer shell. Corresponding to periodic trends, it is intermediate in electronegativity between chlorine and iodine (F: 3.98, Cl: 3.16, Br: 2.96, I: 2.66), and is less reactive than chlorine and more reactive than iodine. It is also a weaker oxidising agent than chlorine, but a stronger one than iodine. Conversely, the bromide ion is a weaker reducing agent than iodide, but a stronger one than chloride. These similarities led to chlorine, bromine, and iodine together being classified as one of the original triads of Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, whose work foreshadowed the periodic law for chemical elements. It is intermediate in atomic radius between chlorine and iodine, and this leads to many of its atomic properties being similarly intermediate in value between chlorine and iodine, such as first ionisation energy, electron affinity, enthalpy of dissociation of the X2 molecule (X = Cl, Br, I), ionic radius, and X–X bond length. The volatility of bromine accentuates its very penetrating, choking, and unpleasant odour.\n\nAll four stable halogens experience intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction, and their strength increases together with number of electrons among all homonuclear diatomic halogen molecules. Thus, the melting and boiling points of bromine are intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. As a result of the increasing molecular weight of the halogens down the group, the density and heats of fusion and vaporisation of bromine are again intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine, although all their heats of vaporisation are fairly low (leading to high volatility) thanks to their diatomic molecular structure. The halogens darken in colour as the group is descended: fluorine is a very pale yellow gas, chlorine is greenish-yellow, and bromine is a reddish-brown volatile liquid that melts at −7.2 °C and boils at 58.8 °C. (Iodine is a shiny black solid.) This trend occurs because the wavelengths of visible light absorbed by the halogens increase down the group. Specifically, the colour of a halogen, such as bromine, results from the electron transition between the highest occupied antibonding ''πg'' molecular orbital and the lowest vacant antibonding ''σu'' molecular orbital. The colour fades at low temperatures, so that solid bromine at −195 °C is pale yellow.\n\nLike solid chlorine and iodine, solid bromine crystallises in the orthorhombic crystal system, in a layered lattice of Br2 molecules. The Br–Br distance is 227 pm (close to the gaseous Br–Br distance of 228 pm) and the Br···Br distance between molecules is 331 pm within a layer and 399 pm between layers (compare the van der Waals radius of bromine, 195 pm). This structure means that bromine is a very poor conductor of electricity, with a conductivity of around 5 × 10−13 Ω−1 cm−1 just below the melting point, although this is better than the essentially undetectable conductivity of chlorine.\n\nAt a pressure of 55 GPa (roughly 540,000 times atmospheric pressure) bromine undergoes an insulator-to-metal transition. At 75 GPa it changes to a face-centered orthorhombic structure. At 100 GPa it changes to a body centered orthorhombic monatomic form.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\nBromine has two stable isotopes, 79Br and 81Br. These are its only two natural isotopes, with 79Br making up 51% of natural bromine and 81Br making up the remaining 49%. Both have nuclear spin 3/2− and thus may be used for nuclear magnetic resonance, although 81Br is more favourable. The other bromine isotopes are all radioactive, with half-lives too short to occur in nature. Of these, the most important are 80Br (''t''1/2 = 17.7 min), 80mBr (''t''1/2 = 4.421 h), and 82Br (''t''1/2 = 35.28 h), which may be produced from the neutron activation of natural bromine. The most stable bromine radioisotope is 77Br (''t''1/2 = 57.04 h). The primary decay mode of isotopes lighter than 79Br is electron capture to isotopes of selenium; that of isotopes heavier than 81Br is beta decay to isotopes of krypton; and 80Br may decay by either mode to stable 80Se or 80Kr.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float:right; margin-top:0; margin-left:1em; text-align:center; font-size:10pt; line-height:11pt; width:25%;\"\n Halogen bond energies (kJ/mol)\n\n X\n XX\n HX\n BX3\n AlX3\n CX4\n\n F\n 159\n 574\n 645\n 582\n 456\n\n Cl\n243\n428\n444\n427\n327\n\n Br\n193\n363\n368\n360\n272\n\n I\n151\n294\n272\n285\n239\n\nBromine is intermediate in reactivity between chlorine and iodine, and is one of the most reactive elements. Bond energies to bromine tend to be lower than those to chlorine but higher than those to iodine, and bromine is a weaker oxidising agent than chlorine but a stronger one than iodine. This can be seen from the standard electrode potentials of the X2/X− couples (F, +2.866 V; Cl, +1.395 V; Br, +1.087 V; I, +0.615 V; At, approximately +0.3 V). Bromination often leads to higher oxidation states than iodination but lower or equal oxidation states to chlorination. Bromine tends to react with compounds including M–M, M–H, or M–C bonds to form M–Br bonds.\n\n===Hydrogen bromide===\nThe simplest compound of bromine is hydrogen bromide, HBr. It is mainly used in the production of inorganic bromides and alkyl bromides, and as a catalyst for many reactions in organic chemistry. Industrially, it is mainly produced by the reaction of hydrogen gas with bromine gas at 200–400 °C with a platinum catalyst. However, reduction of bromine with red phosphorus is a more practical way to produce hydrogen bromide in the laboratory:\n: 2 P + 6 H2O + 3 Br2 → 6 HBr + 2 H3PO3\n: H3PO3 + H2O + Br2 → 2 HBr + H3PO4\n\nAt room temperature, hydrogen bromide is a colourless gas, like all the hydrogen halides apart from hydrogen fluoride, since hydrogen cannot form strong hydrogen bonds to the large and only mildly electronegative bromine atom; however, weak hydrogen bonding is present in solid crystalline hydrogen bromide at low temperatures, similar to the hydrogen fluoride structure, before disorder begins to prevail as the temperature is raised. Aqueous hydrogen bromide is known as hydrobromic acid, which is a strong acid (p''K''a = −9) because the hydrogen bonds to bromine are too weak to inhibit dissociation. The HBr/H2O system also involves many hydrates HBr·''n''H2O for ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, which are essentially salts of bromine anions and hydronium cations. Hydrobromic acid forms an azeotrope with boiling point 124.3 °C at 47.63 g HBr per 100 g solution; thus hydrobromic acid cannot be concentrated beyond this point by distillation.\n\nUnlike hydrogen fluoride, anhydrous liquid hydrogen bromide is difficult to work with as a solvent, because its boiling point is low, it has a small liquid range, its dielectric constant is low and it does not dissociate appreciably into H2Br+ and ions – the latter, in any case, are much less stable than the bifluoride ions () due to the very weak hydrogen bonding between hydrogen and bromine, though its salts with very large and weakly polarising cations such as Cs+ and (R = Me, Et, Bu''n'') may still be isolated. Anhydrous hydrogen bromide is a poor solvent, only able to dissolve small molecular compounds such as nitrosyl chloride and phenol, or salts with very low lattice energies such as tetraalkylammonium halides.\n\n===Other binary bromides===\nSilver bromide (AgBr)\nNearly all elements in the periodic table form binary bromides. The exceptions are decidedly in the minority and stem in each case from one of three causes: extreme inertness and reluctance to participate in chemical reactions (the noble gases, with the exception of xenon in the very unstable XeBr2); extreme nuclear instability hampering chemical investigation before decay and transmutation (many of the heaviest elements beyond bismuth); and having an electronegativity higher than bromine's (oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine), so that the resultant binary compounds are formally not bromides but rather oxides, fluorides, or chlorides of bromine.\n\nBromination of metals with Br2 tends to yield lower oxidation states than chlorination with Cl2 when a variety of oxidation states is available. Bromides can be made by reaction of an element or its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate with hydrobromic acid, and then dehydrated by mildly high temperatures combined with either low pressure or anhydrous hydrogen bromide gas. These methods work best when the bromide product is stable to hydrolysis; otherwise, the possibilities include high-temperature oxidative bromination of the element with bromine or hydrogen bromide, high-temperature bromination of a metal oxide or other halide by bromine, a volatile metal bromide, carbon tetrabromide, or an organic bromide. For example, niobium(V) oxide reacts with carbon tetrabromide at 370 °C to form niobium(V) bromide. Another method is halogen exchange in the presence of excess \"halogenating reagent\", for example:\n:FeCl3 + BBr3 (excess) → FeBr3 + BCl3\nWhen a lower bromide is wanted, either a higher halide may be reduced using hydrogen or a metal as a reducing agent, or thermal decomposition or disproportionation may be used, as follows:\n: 3 WBr5 + Al 3 WBr4 + AlBr3\n: EuBr3 + H2 → EuBr2 + HBr\n: 2 TaBr4 TaBr3 + TaBr5\n\nMost of the bromides of the pre-transition metals (groups 1, 2, and 3, along with the lanthanides and actinides in the +2 and +3 oxidation states) are mostly ionic, while nonmetals tend to form covalent molecular bromides, as do metals in high oxidation states from +3 and above. Silver bromide is very insoluble in water and is thus often used as a qualitative test for bromine.\n\n===Bromine halides===\nThe halogens form many binary, diamagnetic interhalogen compounds with stoichiometries XY, XY3, XY5, and XY7 (where X is heavier than Y), and bromine is no exception. Bromine forms a monofluoride and monochloride, as well as a trifluoride and pentafluoride. Some cationic and anionic derivatives are also characterised, such as , , , , and . Apart from these, some pseudohalides are also known, such as cyanogen bromide (BrCN), bromine thiocyanate (BrSCN), and bromine azide (BrN3).\n\nThe pale-brown bromine monofluoride (BrF) is unstable at room temperature, disproportionating quickly and irreversibly into bromine, bromine trifluoride, and bromine pentafluoride. It thus cannot be obtained pure. It may be synthesised by the direct reaction of the elements, or by the comproportionation of bromine and bromine trifluoride at high temperatures. Bromine monochloride (BrCl), a red-brown gas, quite readily dissociates reversibly into bromine and chlorine at room temperature and thus also cannot be obtained pure, though it can be made by the reversible direct reaction of its elements in the gas phase or in carbon tetrachloride. Bromine monofluoride in ethanol readily leads to the monobromination of the aromatic compounds PhX (''para''-bromination occurs for X = Me, Bu''t'', OMe, Br; ''meta''-bromination occurs for the deactivating X = –CO2Et, –CHO, –NO2); this is due to heterolytic fission of the Br–F bond, leading to rapid electrophilic bromination by Br+.\n\nAt room temperature, bromine trifluoride (BrF3) is a straw-coloured liquid. It may be formed by directly fluorinating bromine at room temperature and is purified through distillation. It reacts explosively with water and hydrocarbons, but is a less violent fluorinating reagent than chlorine trifluoride. It reacts vigorously with boron, carbon, silicon, arsenic, antimony, iodine, and sulfur to give fluorides, and also reacts with most metals and their oxides: as such, it is used to oxidise uranium to uranium hexafluoride in the nuclear industry. Refractory oxides tend to be only partially fluorinated, but here the derivatives KBrF4 and BrF2SbF6 remain reactive. Bromine trifluoride is a useful nonaqueous ionising solvent, since it readily dissociates to form and and thus conducts electricity.\n\nBromine pentafluoride (BrF5) was first synthesised in 1930. It is produced on a large scale by direct reaction of bromine with excess fluorine at temperatures higher than 150 °C, and on a small scale by the fluorination of potassium bromide at 25 °C. It is a very vigorous fluorinating agent, although chlorine trifluoride is still more violent. Bromine pentafluoride explodes on reaction with water and fluorinates silicates at 450 °C.\n\n===Polybromine compounds===\nAlthough dibromine is a strong oxidising agent with a high first ionisation energy, very strong oxidisers such as peroxydisulfuryl fluoride (S2O6F2) can oxidise it to form the cherry-red cation. A few other bromine cations are known, namely the brown and dark brown . The tribromide anion, , has also been characterised; it is analogous to triiodide.\n\n===Bromine oxides and oxoacids===\n\n+ Standard reduction potentials for aqueous Br species\n !!(acid)!!!!(base)\n\nBr2/Br−\n+1.052\nBr2/Br−\n+1.065\n\nHOBr/Br−\n+1.341\nBrO−/Br−\n+0.760\n\n/Br−\n+1.399\n/Br−\n+0.584\n\nHOBr/Br2\n+1.604\nBrO−/Br2\n+0.455\n\n/Br2\n+1.478\n/Br2\n+0.485\n\n/HOBr\n+1.447\n/BrO−\n+0.492\n\n/\n+1.853\n/\n+1.025\n\nBromine oxides are not as well-characterised as chlorine oxides or iodine oxides, as they are all fairly unstable: it was once thought that they could not exist at all. Dibromine monoxide is a dark-brown solid which, while reasonably stable at −60 °C, decomposes at its melting point of −17.5 °C; it is useful in bromination reactions and may be made from the low-temperature decomposition of bromine dioxide in a vacuum. It oxidises iodine to iodine pentoxide and benzene to 1,4-benzoquinone; in alkaline solutions, it gives the hypobromite anion.\n\nSo-called \"bromine dioxide\", a pale yellow crystalline solid, may be better formulated as bromine perbromate, BrOBrO3. It is thermally unstable above −40 °C, violently decomposing to its elements at 0 °C. Dibromine trioxide, ''syn''-BrOBrO2, is also known; it is the anhydride of hypobromous acid and bromic acid. It is an orange crystalline solid which decomposes above −40 °C; if heated too rapidly, it explodes around 0 °C. A few other unstable radical oxides are also known, as are some poorly characterised oxides, such as dibromine pentoxide, tribromine octoxide, and bromine trioxide.\n\nThe four oxoacids, hypobromous acid (HOBr), bromous acid (HOBrO), bromic acid (HOBrO2), and perbromic acid (HOBrO3), are better studied due to their greater stability, though they are only so in aqueous solution. When bromine dissolves in aqueous solution, the following reactions occur:\n:{\|\n\n Br2 + H2O \n HOBr + H+ + Br− \n ''K''ac = 7.2 × 10−9 mol2 l−2\n\n Br2 + 2 OH− \n OBr− + H2O + Br− \n ''K''alk = 2 × 108 mol−1 l\n\n\nHypobromous acid is unstable to disproportionation. The hypobromite ions thus formed disproportionate readily to give bromide and bromate:\n:{\|\n\n 3 BrO− 2 Br− + \n ''K'' = 1015\n\n\nBromous acids and bromites are very unstable, although the strontium and barium bromites are known. More important are the bromates, which are prepared on a small scale by oxidation of bromide by aqueous hypochlorite, and are strong oxidising agents. Unlike chlorates, which very slowly disproportionate to chloride and perclorate, the bromate anion is stable to disproportionation in both acidic and aqueous solutions. Bromic acid is a strong acid. Bromides and bromates may comproportionate to bromine as follows:\n: + 5 Br− + 6 H+ → 3 Br2 + 3 H2O\n\nThere were many failed attempts to obtain perbromates and perbromic acid, leading to some rationalisations as to why they should not exist, until 1968 when the anion was first synthesised from the radioactive beta decay of unstable . Today, perbromates are produced by the oxidation of alkaline bromate solutions by fluorine gas. Excess bromate and fluoride are precipitated as silver bromate and calcium fluoride, and the perbromic acid solution may be purified. The perbromate ion is fairly inert at room temperature but is thermodynamically extremely oxidising, with extremely strong oxidising agents needed to produce it, such as fluorine or xenon difluoride. The Br–O bond in is fairly weak, which corresponds to the general reluctance of the 4p elements (especially arsenic, selenium, and bromine) to attain their maximum possible oxidation state, as they come after the scandide contraction characterised by the poor shielding afforded by the radial-nodeless 3d orbitals.\n\n===Organobromine compounds===\n\n''N''-bromosuccinimide, a common brominating reagent in organic chemistry\nLike the other carbon–halogen bonds, the C–Br bond is a common functional group that forms part of core organic chemistry. Formally, compounds with this functional group may be considered organic derivatives of the bromide anion. Due to the difference of electronegativity between bromine (2.96) and carbon (2.55), the carbon in a C–Br bond is electron-deficient and thus electrophilic. The reactivity of organobromine compounds resembles but is intermediate between the reactivity of organochlorine and organoiodine compounds. For many applications, organobromides represent a compromise of reactivity and cost.\n\nOrganobromides are typically produced by additive or substitutive bromination of other organic precursors. Bromine itself can be used, but due to its toxicity and volatility safer brominating reagents are normally used, such as ''N''-bromosuccinimide. The principal reactions for organobromides include dehydrobromination, Grignard reactions, reductive coupling, and nucleophilic substitution.\n\nOrganobromides are the most common organohalides in nature, even though the concentration of bromide is only 0.3% of that for chloride in sea water, because of the easy oxidation of bromide to the equivalent of Br+, a potent electrophile. The enzyme bromoperoxidase catalyzes this reaction. The oceans are estimated to release 1–2 million tons of bromoform and 56,000 tons of bromomethane annually.\n\nBromine addition to alkene reaction mechanism\nAn old qualitative test for the presence of the alkene functional group is that alkenes turn brown aqueous bromine solutions colourless, forming a bromohydrin with some of the dibromoalkane also produced. The reaction passes through a short-lived strongly electrophilic bromonium intermediate. This is an example of a halogen addition reaction.\n", "View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, where Jordan (right) and Israel (left) produce salt and bromine \nBromine is significantly less abundant in the crust than fluorine or chlorine, comprising only 2.5 parts per million of the Earth's crustal rocks, and then only as bromide salts. It is the forty-sixth most abundant element in Earth's crust. It is significantly more abundant in the oceans, resulting from long-term leaching. There, it makes up 65 parts per million, corresponding to a ratio of about one bromine atom for every 660 chlorine atoms. Salt lakes and brine wells may have higher bromine concentrations: for example, the Dead Sea contains 0.4% bromide ions. It is from these sources that bromine extraction is mostly economically feasible.\n\nThe main sources of bromine are in the United States and Israel. The element is liberated by halogen exchange, using chlorine gas to oxidise Br− to Br2. This is then removed with a blast of steam or air, and is then condensed and purified. Today, bromine is transported in large-capacity metal drums or lead-lined tanks that can hold hundreds of kilograms or even tonnes of bromine. The bromine industry is about one-hundredth the size of the chlorine industry. Laboratory production is unnecessary because bromine is commercially available and has a long shelf life.\n", "A wide variety of organobromine compounds are used in industry. Some are prepared from bromine and others are prepared from hydrogen bromide, which is obtained by burning hydrogen in bromine.\n\n===Flame retardants===\nTetrabromobisphenol A\n\nBrominated flame retardants represent a commodity of growing importance, and make up the largest commercial use of bromine. When the brominated material burns, the flame retardant produces hydrobromic acid which interferes in the radical chain reaction of the oxidation reaction of the fire. The mechanism is that the highly reactive hydrogen radicals, oxygen radicals, and hydroxy radicals react with hydrobromic acid to form less reactive bromine radicals (i.e., free bromine atoms). Bromine atoms may also react directly with other radicals to help terminate the free radical chain-reactions that characterise combustion.\n\nTo make brominated polymers and plastics, bromine-containing compounds can be incorporated into the polymer during polymerisation. One method is to include a relatively small amount of brominated monomer during the polymerisation process. For example, vinyl bromide can be used in the production of polyethylene, polyvinylchloride or polypropylene. Specific highly brominated molecules can also be added that participate in the polymerisation process For example, tetrabromobisphenol A can be added to polyesters or epoxy resins, where it becomes part of the polymer. Epoxys used in printed circuit boards are normally made from such flame retardant resins, indicated by the FR in the abbreviation of the products (FR-4 and FR-2). In some cases the bromine containing compound may be added after polymerisation. For example, decabromodiphenyl ether can be added to the final polymers.\n\nA number of gaseous or highly volatile brominated halomethane compounds are non-toxic and make superior fire suppressant agents by this same mechanism, and are particular effective in enclosed spaces such as submarines, airplanes, and spacecraft. However, they are expensive and their production and use has been greatly curtailed due to their effect as ozone-depleting agents. They are no longer used in routine fire extinguishers, but retain niche uses in aerospace and military automatic fire-suppression applications. They include bromochloromethane (Halon 1011, CH2BrCl), bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211, CBrClF2), and bromotrifluoromethane (Halon 1301, CBrF3).\n\n===Other uses===\nEthylene bromide was an additive in gasolines containing lead anti-engine knocking agents. It scavenges lead by forming volatile lead bromide, which is exhausted from the engine. This application accounted for 77% of the bromine use in 1966 in the US. This application has declined since the 1970s due to environmental regulations (see below).\n\nPoisonous bromomethane was widely used as pesticide to fumigate soil and to fumigate housing, by the tenting method. Ethylene bromide was similarly used. These volatile organobromine compounds are all now regulated as ozone depletion agents. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer scheduled the phase out for the ozone depleting chemical by 2005, and organobromide pesticides are no longer used (in housing fumigation they have been replaced by such compounds as sulfuryl fluoride, which contain neither the chlorine or bromine organics which harm ozone). Before the Montreal protocol in 1991 (for example) an estimated 35,000 tonnes of the chemical were used to control nematodes, fungi, weeds and other soil-borne diseases.\n\nBromide compounds, especially potassium bromide, were frequently used as general sedatives in the 19th and early 20th century. Bromides in the form of simple salts are still used as anticonvulsants in both veterinary and human medicine, although the latter use varies from country to country. For example, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not approve bromide for the treatment of any disease, and it was removed from over-the-counter sedative products like Bromo-Seltzer, in 1975.\n\nOther uses of organobromine compounds include high-density drilling fluids, dyes (such as Tyrian purple and the indicator bromothymol blue), and pharmaceuticals. Bromine itself, as well as some of its compounds, are used in water treatment, and is the precursor of a variety of inorganic compounds with an enormous number of applications (e.g. silver bromide for photography).\n", "Unlike its neighbours in the halogen column (chlorine and iodine), bromine is not known to have a confirmed biological role in humans. A single 2014 study suggests that it may be a necessary catalyst to make collagen IV, making it essential to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, but these findings have not been confirmed and the precise role posited for bromine is not certain. Aside from this, only circumstantial evidence in the form of hypothesised deprivation symptoms exists for a trace role for bromine. Nevertheless, even if bromine is not an essential element, it can be pharmacologically beneficial. For example, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, formed by the eosinophil, and either chloride or bromide ions, eosinophil peroxidase provides a potent mechanism by which eosinophils kill multicellular parasites (such as, for example, the nematode worms involved in filariasis) and some bacteria (such as tuberculosis bacteria). Eosinophil peroxidase is a haloperoxidase that preferentially uses bromide over chloride for this purpose, generating hypobromite (hypobromous acid), although the use of chloride is possible.\n\nMarine organisms are the main source of organobromine compounds, and it is in these organisms that the essentiality of bromine is on much firmer ground. More than 1600 such organobromine compounds were identified by 1999. The most abundant is methyl bromide (CH3Br), of which an estimated 56,000 tonnes is produced by marine algae each year. The essential oil of the Hawaiian alga ''Asparagopsis taxiformis'' consists of 80% bromoform. Most of such organobromine compounds in the sea are made by the action of a unique algal enzyme, vanadium bromoperoxidase.\n\nThe bromide anion is not very toxic: a normal daily intake is 2 to 8 milligrams. However, high levels of bromide chronically impair the membrane of neurons, which progressively impairs neuronal transmission, leading to toxicity, known as bromism. Bromide has an elimination half-life of 9 to 12 days, which can lead to excessive accumulation. Doses of 0.5 to 1 gram per day of bromide can lead to bromism. Historically, the therapeutic dose of bromide is about 3 to 5 grams of bromide, thus explaining why chronic toxicity (bromism) was once so common. While significant and sometimes serious disturbances occur to neurologic, psychiatric, dermatological, and gastrointestinal functions, death from bromism is rare. Bromism is caused by a neurotoxic effect on the brain which results in somnolence, psychosis, seizures and delirium.\n\nElemental bromine is toxic and causes chemical burns on human flesh. Inhaling bromine gas results in similar irritation of the respiratory tract, causing coughing, choking, and shortness of breath, and death if inhaled in large enough amounts. Chronic exposure may lead to frequent bronchial infections and a general deterioration of health. As a strong oxidising agent, bromine is incompatible with most organic and inorganic compounds. Caution is required when transporting bromine; it is commonly carried in steel tanks lined with lead, supported by strong metal frames. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the United States has set a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for bromine at a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 ppm. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of TWA 0.1 ppm and a short-term limit of 0.3 ppm. The exposure to bromine immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) is 3 ppm. Bromine is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Properties", "Chemistry and compounds", "Occurrence and production", "Applications", "Biological role and toxicity", "References", "Bibliography" ]	Bromine
[ "\n'''Barium''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Ba''' and atomic number 56. It is the fifth element in group 2 and is a soft, silvery alkaline earth metal. Because of its high chemical reactivity, barium is never found in nature as a free element. Its hydroxide, known in pre-modern history as baryta, does not occur as a mineral, but can be prepared by heating barium carbonate.\n\nThe most common naturally occurring minerals of barium are barite (barium sulfate, BaSO4) and witherite (barium carbonate, BaCO3), both insoluble in water. The barium name originates from the alchemical derivative \"baryta\", from Greek βαρύς (''barys''), meaning \"heavy.\" ''Baric'' is the adjectival form of barium. Barium was identified as a new element in 1774, but not reduced to a metal until 1808 with the advent of electrolysis.\n\nBarium has few industrial applications. Historically, it was used as a getter for vacuum tubes. It is a component of YBCO (high-temperature superconductors) and electroceramics, and is added to steel and cast iron to reduce the size of carbon grains within the microstructure. Barium compounds are added to fireworks to impart a green color. Barium sulfate is used as an insoluble additive to oil well drilling fluid, as well as in a purer form, as X-ray radiocontrast agents for imaging the human gastrointestinal tract. The soluble barium ion and soluble compounds are poisonous, and have been used as rodenticides.\n", "\n===Physical properties===\nOxidized barium\nBarium is a soft, silvery-white metal, with a slight golden shade when ultrapure. The silvery-white color of barium metal rapidly vanishes upon oxidation in air yielding a dark gray oxide layer. Barium has a medium specific weight and good electrical conductivity. Ultrapure barium is very difficult to prepare, and therefore many properties of barium have not been accurately measured yet.\n\nAt room temperature and pressure, barium has a body-centered cubic structure, with a barium–barium distance of 503 picometers, expanding with heating at a rate of approximately 1.8/°C. It is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.25. Its melting temperature of is intermediate between those of the lighter strontium () and heavier radium (); however, its boiling point of exceeds that of strontium (). The density (3.62 g·cm−3) is again intermediate between those of strontium (2.36 g·cm−3) and radium (~5 g·cm−3).\n\n===Chemical reactivity===\nBarium is chemically similar to magnesium, calcium, and strontium, but even more reactive. It always exhibits the oxidation state of +2, except in a few rare and unstable molecular species that are only characterised in the gas phase such as BaF. Reactions with chalcogens are highly exothermic (release energy); the reaction with oxygen or air occurs at room temperature, and therefore barium is stored under oil or in an inert atmosphere. Reactions with other nonmetals, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, and hydrogen, are generally exothermic and proceed upon heating. Reactions with water and alcohols are very exothermic and release hydrogen gas:\n: Ba + 2 ROH → Ba(OR)2 + H2↑ (R is an alkyl or a hydrogen atom)\n\nBarium reacts with ammonia to form complexes such as Ba(NH3)6.\n\nThe metal is readily attacked by most acids. Sulfuric acid is a notable exception because passivation stops the reaction by forming the insoluble barium sulfate on the surface. Barium combines with several metals, including aluminium, zinc, lead, and tin, forming intermetallic phases and alloys.\n\n===Compounds===\n\nSelected alkaline earth and zinc salts densities, g·cm−3\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n3.34\n2.59\n3.18\n2.15\n2.96\n2.83\n2.9\n1.7\n\n\n5.1\n3.7\n4.24\n3.05\n3.96\n3.5\n4.78\n3.26\n\n ''''''''''\n ''5.72''\n ''4.3''\n ''4.89''\n ''3.89''\n ''4.49''\n ''4.29''\n ''4.96''\n ''4.16''\n\n\n5.6\n4.09\n4.95\n2.09\n3.54\n4.4\n1.57\n—\n\n\nBarium salts are typically white when solid and colorless when dissolved, and barium ions provide no specific coloring. They are denser than the strontium or calcium analogs, except for the halides (see table; zinc is given for comparison).\n\nBarium hydroxide (\"baryta\") was known to alchemists, who produced it by heating barium carbonate. Unlike calcium hydroxide, it absorbs very little CO2 in aqueous solutions and is therefore insensitive to atmospheric fluctuations. This property is used in calibrating pH equipment.\n\nVolatile barium compounds burn with a green to pale green flame, which is an efficient test to detect a barium compound. The color results from spectral lines at 455.4, 493.4, 553.6, and 611.1 nm. \n\nOrganobarium compounds are a growing field of knowledge: recently discovered are dialkylbariums and alkylhalobariums.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\n\nBarium found in the Earth's crust is a mixture of seven primordial nuclides, barium-130, 132, and 134 through 138. Barium-130 undergoes very slow radioactive decay to xenon-130 by double beta plus decay, and barium-132 theoretically decays similarly to xenon-132, with half-lives a thousand times greater than the age of the Universe. The abundance is ~0.1% that of natural barium. The radioactivity of these isotopes is so weak that they pose no danger to life. \n\nOf the stable isotopes, barium-138 composes 71.7% of all barium, and the lighter the isotope, the less abundant. \n\nIn total, barium has about 50 known isotopes, ranging in mass between 114 and 153. The most stable metastable isotope is barium-133 with a half-life of approximately 10.51 years. Five other isotopes have half-lives longer than a day. Barium also has 10 meta states, out of which barium-133m1 is the most stable with a half-life of about 39 hours.\n", "Sir Humphry Davy, who first isolated barium metal\nAlchemists in the early Middle Ages knew about some barium minerals. Smooth pebble-like stones of mineral barite were found in volcanic rock near Bologna, Italy, and so were called \"Bologna stones.\" Alchemists were attracted to them because after exposure to light they would glow for years. The phosphorescent properties of barite heated with organics were described by V. Casciorolus in 1602.\n\nCarl Scheele determined that barite contained a new element in 1774, but could not isolate barium, only barium oxide. Johan Gottlieb Gahn also isolated barium oxide two years later in similar studies. Oxidized barium was at first called \"barote\" by Guyton de Morveau, a name that was changed by Antoine Lavoisier to ''baryta.'' Also in the 18th century, English mineralogist William Withering noted a heavy mineral in the lead mines of Cumberland, now known to be witherite. Barium was first isolated by electrolysis of molten barium salts in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy in England. Davy, by analogy with calcium, named \"barium\" after baryta, with the \"-ium\" ending signifying a metallic element. Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen obtained pure barium by electrolysis of a molten mixture of barium chloride and ammonium chloride.\n\nThe production of pure oxygen in the Brin process was a large-scale application of barium peroxide in the 1880s, before it was replaced by electrolysis and fractional distillation of liquefied air in the early 1900s. In this process barium oxide reacts at with air to form barium peroxide, which decomposes above by releasing oxygen:\n:2 BaO + O2 ⇌ 2 BaO2\n\nBarium sulfate was first applied as a radiocontrast agent in X-ray imaging of the digestive system in 1908.\n", "The abundance of barium is 0.0425% in the Earth's crust and 13 µg/L in sea water. The primary commercial source of barium is barite (also called barytes or heavy spar), a barium sulfate mineral. with deposits in many parts of the world. Another commercial source, far less important than barite, is witherite, a barium carbonate mineral. The main deposits are located in England, Romania, and the former USSR.\n\n\nThe barite reserves are estimated between 0.7 and 2 billion tonnes. The maximum production, 8.3 million tonnes, was produced in 1981, but only 7–8% was used for barium metal or compounds. Barite production has risen since the second half of the 1990s from 5.6 million tonnes in 1996 to 7.6 in 2005 and 7.8 in 2011. China accounts for more than 50% of this output, followed by India (14% in 2011), Morocco (8.3%), US (8.2%), Turkey (2.5%), Iran and Kazakhstan (2.6% each).\n\nThe mined ore is washed, crushed, classified, and separated from quartz. If the quartz penetrates too deeply into the ore, or the iron, zinc, or lead content is abnormally high, then froth flotation is used. The product is a 98% pure barite (by mass); the purity should be no less than 95%, with a minimal content of iron and silicon dioxide. It is then reduced by carbon to barium sulfide:\n:BaSO4 + 2 C → BaS + 2 CO2↑\n\nThe water-soluble barium sulfide is the starting point for other compounds: reacting BaS with oxygen produces the sulfate, with nitric acid the nitrate, with carbon dioxide the carbonate, and so on. The nitrate can be thermally decomposed to yield the oxide. Barium metal is produced by reduction with aluminium at . The intermetallic compound BaAl4 is produced first:\n:3 BaO + 14 Al → 3 BaAl4 + Al2O3\n\nBaAl4 is an intermediate reacted with barium oxide to produce the metal. Note that not all barium is reduced.\n:8 BaO + BaAl4 → Ba↑ + 7 BaAl2O4\n\nThe remaining barium oxide reacts with the formed aluminium oxide:\n:BaO + Al2O3 → BaAl2O4\n\nand the overall reaction is\n:4 BaO + 2 Al → 3 Ba↑ + BaAl2O4\n\nBarium vapor is condensed and packed into molds in an atmosphere of argon. This method is used commercially, yielding ultrapure barium. Commonly sold barium is about 99% pure, with main impurities being strontium and calcium (up to 0.8% and 0.25%) and other contaminants contributing less than 0.1%.\n\nA similar reaction with silicon at yields barium and barium metasilicate. Electrolysis is not used because barium readily dissolves in molten halides and the product is rather impure.\nBenitoite crystals on natrolite. The mineral is named for the San Benito River in San Benito County where it was first found.\n\n===Gemstone===\nThe barium mineral, benitoite (barium titanium silicate), occurs as a very rare blue fluorescent gemstone, and is the official state gem of California.\n", "\n===Metal and alloys===\nBarium, as a metal or when alloyed with aluminium, is used to remove unwanted gases (gettering) from vacuum tubes, such as TV picture tubes. Barium is suitable for this purpose because of its low vapor pressure and reactivity towards oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water; it can even partly remove noble gases by dissolving them in the crystal lattice. This application is gradually disappearing due to the rising popularity of the tubeless LCD and plasma sets.\n\nOther uses of elemental barium are minor and include an additive to silumin (aluminium–silicon alloys) that refines their structure, as well as\n* bearing alloys;\n* lead–tin soldering alloys – to increase the creep resistance;\n* alloy with nickel for spark plugs;\n* additive to steel and cast iron as an inoculant;\n* alloys with calcium, manganese, silicon, and aluminium as high-grade steel deoxidizers.\n\n\n===Barium sulfate and barite===\nAmoebiasis as seen in radiograph of barium-filled colon\nBarium sulfate (the mineral barite, BaSO4) is important to the petroleum industry as a drilling fluid in oil and gas wells. The precipitate of the compound (called \"blanc fixe\", from the French for \"permanent white\") is used in paints and varnishes; as a filler in ringing ink, plastics, and rubbers; as a paper coating pigment; and in nanoparticles, to improve physical properties of some polymers, such as epoxies.\n\nBarium sulfate has a low toxicity and relatively high density of ca. 4.5 g·cm−3 (and thus opacity to X-rays). For this reason it is used as a radiocontrast agent in X-ray imaging of the digestive system (\"barium meals\" and \"barium enemas\"). Lithopone, a pigment that contains barium sulfate and zinc sulfide, is a permanent white with good covering power that does not darken when exposed to sulfides.\n\n===Other barium compounds===\nGreen barium fireworks\nOther compounds of barium find only niche applications, limited by the toxicity of Ba2+ ions (barium carbonate is a rat poison), which is not a problem for the insoluble BaSO4.\n* Barium oxide coating on the electrodes of fluorescent lamps facilitates the release of electrons.\n* By its great atomic density, barium carbonate increases the refractive index and luster of glass and reduces leaks of X-rays from cathode ray tubes (CRT) TV sets.\n* Barium, typically as barium nitrate imparts a yellow or \"apple\" green color to fireworks; for brilliant green barium monochloride is used.\n* Barium peroxide is a catalyst in the aluminothermic reaction (thermite) for welding rail tracks. It is also a green flare in tracer ammunition and a bleaching agent.\n* Barium titanate is a promising electroceramic.\n* Barium fluoride is used for optics in infrared applications because of its wide transparency range of 0.15–12 micrometers.\n* YBCO was the first high-temperature superconductor cooled by liquid nitrogen, with a transition temperature of that exceeded the boiling point of nitrogen ().\n* Ferrite, a type of sintered ceramic composed of Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) and barium oxide (BaO), is both electrically nonconductive and ferrimagnetic, and can be temporarily or permanently magnetized.\n\n", "Because of the high reactivity of the metal, toxicological data are available only for compounds. Water-soluble barium compounds are poisonous. In low doses, barium ions act as a muscle stimulant, and higher doses affect the nervous system, causing cardiac irregularities, tremors, weakness, anxiety, shortness of breath, and paralysis. This toxicity may be caused by Ba2+ blocking potassium ion channels, which are critical to the proper function of the nervous system. Other organs damaged by water-soluble barium compounds (i.e., barium ions) are the eyes, immune system, heart, respiratory system, and skin causing, for example, blindness and sensitization.\n\nBarium is not carcinogenic and it does not bioaccumulate. Inhaled dust containing insoluble barium compounds can accumulate in the lungs, causing a benign condition called baritosis. The insoluble sulfate is nontoxic and is not classified as a dangerous goods in transport regulations.\n\nTo avoid a potentially vigorous chemical reaction, barium metal is kept in an argon atmosphere or under mineral oils. Contact with air is dangerous and may cause ignition. Moisture, friction, heat, sparks, flames, shocks, static electricity, and exposure to oxidizers and acids should be avoided. Anything that may contact with barium should be electrically grounded. Anyone who works with the metal should wear pre-cleaned non-sparking shoes, flame-resistant rubber clothes, rubber gloves, apron, goggles, and a gas mask. Smoking in the working area is forbidden. Thorough washing is required after handling barium.\n", "* Han purple and Han blue – synthetic barium copper silicate pigments developed and used in ancient and imperial China\n\n", "\n", "* Barium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* Elementymology & Elements Multidict\n* 3-D Holographic Display Using Strontium Barium Niobate\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "History", "Occurrence and production", "Applications", "Toxicity", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Barium
[ "\n\n'''Berkelium''' is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol '''Bk''' and atomic number 97. It is a member of the actinide and transuranium element series. It is named after the city of Berkeley, California, the location of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (then the University of California Radiation Laboratory) where it was discovered in December 1949. Berkelium was the fifth transuranium element discovered after neptunium, plutonium, curium and americium.\n\nThe major isotope of berkelium, 249Bk, is synthesized in minute quantities in dedicated high-flux nuclear reactors, mainly at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA, and at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Dimitrovgrad, Russia. The production of the second-most important isotope 247Bk involves the irradiation of the rare isotope 244Cm with high-energy alpha particles.\n\nJust over one gram of berkelium has been produced in the United States since 1967. There is no practical application of berkelium outside of scientific research which is mostly directed at the synthesis of heavier transuranic elements and transactinides. A 22 milligram batch of berkelium-249 was prepared during a 250-day irradiation period and then purified for a further 90 days at Oak Ridge in 2009. This sample was used to synthesize the new element tennessine for the first time in 2009 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Russia, after it was bombarded with calcium-48 ions for 150 days. This was the culmination of the Russia–US collaboration on the synthesis of the heaviest elements on the periodic table.\n\nBerkelium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive metal. The berkelium-249 isotope emits low-energy electrons and thus is relatively safe to handle. It decays with a half-life of 330 days to californium-249, which is a strong emitter of ionizing alpha particles. This gradual transformation is an important consideration when studying the properties of elemental berkelium and its chemical compounds, since the formation of californium brings not only chemical contamination, but also free-radical effects and self-heating from the emitted alpha particles.\n", "\n===Physical===\nalt=Sequential layers of spheres arranged from top to bottom: GRGBGRGB (G=green, R=red, B=blue)\n\nBerkelium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive actinide metal. In the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide curium, to the left of the actinide californium and below the lanthanide terbium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Its density of 14.78 g/cm3 lies between those of curium (13.52 g/cm3) and californium (15.1 g/cm3), as does its melting point of 986 °C, below that of curium (1340 °C) but higher than that of californium (900 °C). Berkelium is relatively soft and has one of the lowest bulk moduli among the actinides, at about 20 GPa (2 Pa).\n\nBerkelium(III) ions shows two sharp fluorescence peaks at 652 nanometers (red light) and 742 nanometers (deep red – near infrared) due to internal transitions at the f-electron shell. The relative intensity of these peaks depends on the excitation power and temperature of the sample. This emission can be observed, for example, after dispersing berkelium ions in a silicate glass, by melting the glass in presence of berkelium oxide or halide.\n\nBetween 70 K and room temperature, berkelium behaves as a Curie–Weiss paramagnetic material with an effective magnetic moment of 9.69 Bohr magnetons (µB) and a Curie temperature of 101 K. This magnetic moment is almost equal to the theoretical value of 9.72 µB calculated within the simple atomic L-S coupling model. Upon cooling to about 34 K, berkelium undergoes a transition to an antiferromagnetic state. Enthalpy of dissolution in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is −600 kJ/mol−1, from which the standard enthalpy change of formation (Δf''H''°) of aqueous Bk3+ ions is obtained as −601 kJ/mol−1. The standard potential Bk3+/Bk0 is −2.01 V. The ionization potential of a neutral berkelium atom is 6.23 eV.\n\n===Allotropes===\nAt ambient conditions, berkelium assumes its most stable α form which has a hexagonal symmetry, space group ''P63/mmc'', lattice parameters of 341 pm and 1107 pm. The crystal has a double-hexagonal close packing structure with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic (having a similar structure) with α-lanthanum and α-forms of actinides beyond curium. This crystal structure changes with pressure and temperature. When compressed at room temperature to 7 GPa, α-berkelium transforms to the beta modification, which has a face-centered cubic (''fcc'') symmetry and space group ''Fmm''. This transition occurs without change in volume, but the enthalpy increases by 3.66 kJ/mol. Upon further compression to 25 GPa, berkelium transforms to an orthorhombic γ-berkelium structure similar to that of α-uranium. This transition is accompanied by a 12% volume decrease and delocalization of the electrons at the 5f electron shell. No further phase transitions are observed up to 57 GPa.\n\nUpon heating, α-berkelium transforms into another phase with an ''fcc'' lattice (but slightly different from β-berkelium), space group ''Fmm'' and the lattice constant of 500 pm; this ''fcc'' structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC. This phase is metastable and will gradually revert to the original α-berkelium phase at room temperature. The temperature of the phase transition is believed to be quite close to the melting point.\n\n===Chemical===\nLike all actinides, berkelium dissolves in various aqueous inorganic acids, liberating gaseous hydrogen and converting into the berkelium(III) state. This trivalent oxidation state (+3) is the most stable, especially in aqueous solutions, but tetravalent (+4) and possibly divalent (+2) berkelium compounds are also known. The existence of divalent berkelium salts is uncertain and has only been reported in mixed lanthanum chloride-strontium chloride melts. A similar behavior is observed for the lanthanide analogue of berkelium, terbium. Aqueous solutions of Bk3+ ions are green in most acids. The color of Bk4+ ions is yellow in hydrochloric acid and orange-yellow in sulfuric acid. Berkelium does not react rapidly with oxygen at room temperature, possibly due to the formation of a protective oxide layer surface. However, it reacts with molten metals, hydrogen, halogens, chalcogens and pnictogens to form various binary compounds.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\nAbout twenty isotopes and six nuclear isomers (excited states of an isotope) of berkelium have been characterized with the mass numbers ranging from 235 to 254. All of them are radioactive. The longest half-lives are observed for 247Bk (1,380 years), 248Bk (over 300 years) and 249Bk (330 days); the half-lives of the other isotopes range from microseconds to several days. The isotope which is the easiest to synthesize is berkelium-249. This emits mostly soft β-particles which are inconvenient for detection. Its alpha radiation is rather weak – 1.45% with respect to the β-radiation – but is sometimes used to detect this isotope. The second important berkelium isotope, berkelium-247, is an alpha-emitter, as are most actinide isotopes.\n\n===Occurrence===\nAll berkelium isotopes have a half-life far too short to be primordial. Therefore, any primordial berkelium, that is, berkelium present on the Earth during its formation, has decayed by now.\n\nOn Earth, berkelium is mostly concentrated in certain areas, which were used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests between 1945 and 1980, as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster, Three Mile Island accident and 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash. Analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, Ivy Mike, (1 November 1952, Enewetak Atoll), revealed high concentrations of various actinides, including berkelium. For reasons of military secrecy, this result was published only in 1956.\n\nNuclear reactors produce mostly, among the berkelium isotopes, berkelium-249. During the storage and before the fuel disposal, most of it beta decays to californium-249. The latter has a half-life of 351 years, which is relatively long when compared to the other isotopes produced in the reactor, and is therefore undesirable in the disposal products.\n\nThe transuranic elements from americium to fermium, including berkelium, occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.\n", "Glenn T. Seaborg\nalt=Black-and-white picture of heavy machinery with two operators sitting aside\nalt=The Seal of the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley)\n\nAlthough very small amounts of berkelium were possibly produced in previous nuclear experiments, it was first intentionally synthesized, isolated and identified in December 1949 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso, Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth Street, Jr.. They used the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. Similar to the nearly simultaneous discovery of americium (element 95) and curium (element 96) in 1944, the new elements berkelium and californium (element 98) were both produced in 1949–1950.\n\nThe name choice for element 97 followed the previous tradition of the Californian group to draw an analogy between the newly discovered actinide and the lanthanide element positioned above it in the periodic table. Previously, americium was named after a continent as its analogue europium, and curium honored scientists Marie and Pierre Curie as the lanthanide above it, gadolinium, was named after the explorer of the rare earth elements Johan Gadolin. Thus the discovery report by the Berkeley group reads: \"It is suggested that element 97 be given the name berkelium (symbol Bk) after the city of Berkeley in a manner similar to that used in naming its chemical homologue terbium (atomic number 65) whose name was derived from the town of Ytterby, Sweden, where the rare earth minerals were first found.\" This tradition ended on berkelium, though, as the naming of the next discovered actinide, californium, was not related to its lanthanide analogue dysprosium, but after the discovery place.\n\nThe most difficult steps in the synthesis of berkelium were its separation from the final products and the production of sufficient quantities of americium for the target material. First, americium (241Am) nitrate solution was coated on a platinum foil, the solution was evaporated and the residue converted by annealing to americium dioxide (AmO2). This target was irradiated with 35 MeV alpha particles for 6 hours in the 60-inch cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley. The (α,2n) reaction induced by the irradiation yielded the 243Bk isotope and two free neutrons:\n\n:\n\nAfter the irradiation, the coating was dissolved with nitric acid and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution. The product was centrifugated and re-dissolved in nitric acid. To separate berkelium from the unreacted americium, this solution was added to a mixture of ammonium and ammonium sulfate and heated to convert all the dissolved americium into the oxidation state +6. Unoxidized residual americium was precipitated by the addition of hydrofluoric acid as americium(III) fluoride (). This step yielded a mixture of the accompanying product curium and the expected element 97 in form of trifluorides. The mixture was converted to the corresponding hydroxides by treating it with potassium hydroxide, and after centrifugation, was dissolved in perchloric acid.\n\nChromatographic elution curves revealing the similarity between the lanthanides terbium (Tb), gadolinium (Gd), and europium (Eu) and their corresponding actinides berkelium (Bk), curium (Cm), and americium (Am)\|alt=Graphs showing similar elution curves (metal amount vs. drops) for (top vs. bottom) terbium vs. berkelium, gadolinium vs. curium, europium vs. americium\nFurther separation was carried out in the presence of a citric acid/ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium (pH≈3.5), using ion exchange at elevated temperature. The chromatographic separation behavior was then unknown for the element 97, but was anticipated by analogy with terbium (see elution curves). First results were disappointing as no alpha-particle emission signature could be detected from the elution product. Only the further search for characteristic X-rays and conversion electron signals resulted in the identification of a berkelium isotope. Its mass number was uncertain between 243 and 244 in the initial report, but was later established as 243.\n", "\n===Preparation of isotopes===\nBerkelium is produced by bombarding lighter actinides uranium (238U) or plutonium (239Pu) with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. In a more common case of uranium fuel, plutonium is produced first by neutron capture (the so-called (n,γ) reaction or neutron fusion) followed by beta-decay:\n\n:^{238}_{92}U ->\\ce{(n,\\gamma)} ^{239}_{92}U ->\\beta^-23.5 \\ \\ce{min} ^{239}_{93}Np ->\\beta^-2.3565 \\ \\ce d ^{239}_{94}Pu (the times are half-lives)\n\nPlutonium-239 is further irradiated by a source that has a high neutron flux, several times higher than a conventional nuclear reactor, such as the 85-megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA. The higher flux promotes fusion reactions involving not one but several neutrons, converting 239Pu to 244Cm and then to 249Cm:\n:\n\nCurium-249 has a short half-life of 64 minutes, and thus its further conversion to 250Cm has a low probability. Instead, it transforms by beta-decay into 249Bk:\n:^{249}_{96}Cm ->\\overset{}{\\beta^-}64.15 \\ \\ce{min} ^{249}_{97}Bk ->\\overset{}{\\beta^-}330 \\ \\ce d ^{249}_{98}Cf\n\nThe thus-produced 249Bk has a long half-life of 330 days and thus can capture another neutron. However, the product, 250Bk, again has a relatively short half-life of 3.212 hours and thus, does not yield any heavier berkelium isotopes. Instead decays to the californium isotope 250Cf:\n:^{249}_{97}Bk ->{(n,\\gamma)} ^{250}_{97}Bk ->\\beta^-3.212 \\ \\ce h ^{250}_{98}Cf\n\nAlthough 247Bk is the most stable isotope of berkelium, its production in nuclear reactors is very inefficient due to the long half-life of its potential progenitor curium-247, which does not allow it sufficient time to beta decay before capturing another neutron. Thus, 249Bk is the most accessible isotope of berkelium, which still, is available only in small quantities (only 0.66 grams have been produced in the US over the period 1967–1983) at a high price of the order 185 USD per microgram.\n\nThe isotope 248Bk was first obtained in 1956 by bombarding a mixture of curium isotopes with 25 MeV α-particles. Although its direct detection was hindered by strong signal interference with 245Bk, the existence of a new isotope was proven by the growth of the decay product 248Cf which had been previously characterized. The half-life of 248Bk was estimated as 23 ± 5 hours, though later 1965 work gave a half-life in excess of 300 years (which may be due to an isomeric state). Berkelium-247 was produced during the same year by irradiating 244Cm with alpha-particles:\n:\n\nBerkelium-242 was synthesized in 1979 by bombarding 235U with 11B, 238U with 10B, 232Th with 14N or 232Th with 15N. It converts by electron capture to 242Cm with a half-life of 7.0 ± 1.3 minutes. A search for an initially suspected isotope 241Bk was then unsuccessful; 241Bk has since been synthesized.\n:\n\n===Separation===\nThe fact that berkelium readily assumes oxidation state +4 in solids, and is relatively stable in this state in liquids greatly assists separation of berkelium away from many other actinides. These are inevitably produced in relatively large amounts during the nuclear synthesis and often favor the +3 state. This fact was not yet known in the initial experiments, which used a more complex separation procedure. Various oxidation agents can be applied to the berkelium(III) solutions to convert it to the +4 state, such as bromates (), bismuthates (), chromates ( and CrO), silver(I) thiolate (), lead(IV) oxide (), ozone (), or photochemical oxidation procedures. Berkelium(IV) is then extracted with ion exchange, extraction chromatography or liquid-liquid extraction using HDEHP (bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric scid), amines, tributyl phosphate or various other reagents. These procedures separate berkelium from most trivalent actinides and lanthanides, except for the lanthanide cerium (lanthanides are absent in the irradiation target but are created in various nuclear fission decay chains).\n\nA more detailed procedure adopted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory was as follows: the initial mixture of actinides is processed with ion exchange using lithium chloride reagent, then precipitated as hydroxides, filtered and dissolved in nitric acid. It is then treated with high-pressure elution from cation exchange resins, and the berkelium phase is oxidized and extracted using one of the procedures described above. Reduction of the thus-obtained berkelium(IV) to the +3 oxidation state yields a solution, which is nearly free from other actinides (but contains cerium). Berkelium and cerium are then separated with another round of ion-exchange treatment.\n\n===Bulk metal preparation===\nIn order to characterize chemical and physical properties of solid berkelium and its compounds, a program was initiated in 1952 at the Material Testing Reactor, Arco, Idaho, US. It resulted in preparation of an eight-gram plutonium-239 target and in the first production of macroscopic quantities (0.6 micrograms) of berkelium by Burris B. Cunningham and Stanley G. Thompson in 1958, after a continuous reactor irradiation of this target for six years. This irradiation method was and still is the only way of producing weighable amounts of the element, and most solid-state studies of berkelium have been conducted on microgram or submicrogram-sized samples.\n\nThe world's major irradiation sources are the 85-megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA, and the SM-2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (NIIAR) in Dimitrovgrad, Russia, which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium elements (atomic number greater than 96). These facilities have similar power and flux levels, and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements, although the quantities produced at NIIAR are not publicly reported. In a \"typical processing campaign\" at Oak Ridge, tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium, milligram quantities of berkelium-249 and einsteinium, and picogram quantities of fermium. In total, just over one gram of berkelium-249 has been produced at Oak Ridge since 1967.\n\nThe first berkelium metal sample weighing 1.7 micrograms was prepared in 1971 by the reduction of berkelium(III) fluoride with lithium vapor at 1000 °C; the fluoride was suspended on a tungsten wire above a tantalum crucible containing molten lithium. Later, metal samples weighing up to 0.5 milligrams were obtained with this method.\n:\n\nSimilar results are obtained with berkelium(IV) fluoride. Berkelium metal can also be produced by the reduction of berkelium(IV) oxide with thorium or lanthanum.\n", "\n\n===Oxides===\nTwo oxides of berkelium are known, with the berkelium oxidation state of +3 (Bk2O3) and +4 (BkO2). Berkelium(IV) oxide is a brown solid, while berkelium(III) oxide is a yellow-green solid with a melting point of 1920 °C and is formed from BkO2 by reduction with molecular hydrogen:\n:\n\nUpon heating to 1200 °C, the oxide Bk2O3 undergoes a phase change; it undergoes another phase change at 1750 °C. Such three-phase behavior is typical for the actinide sesquioxides. Berkelium(II) oxide, BkO, has been reported as a brittle gray solid but its exact chemical composition remains uncertain.\n\n===Halides===\nIn halides, berkelium assumes the oxidation states +3 and +4. The +3 state is the most stable, especially in solutions, while the tetravalent halides BkF4 and Cs2BkCl6 are only known in the solid phase. The coordination of berkelium atom in its trivalent fluoride and chloride is tricapped trigonal prismatic, with the coordination number of 9. In trivalent bromide, it is bicapped trigonal prismatic (coordination 8) or octahedral (coordination 6), and in the iodide it is octahedral.\n\n\n\n Oxidation number\n F\n Cl\n Br\n I\n\n +4\n BkF4 (yellow)\n Cs2BkCl6(orange)\n\n\n\n +3\n BkF3 (yellow)\n BkCl3 (green)Cs2NaBkCl6\n BkBr3(yellow-green)\n BkI3 (yellow)\n\n\nBerkelium(IV) fluoride (BkF4) is a yellow-green ionic solid and is isotypic with uranium tetrafluoride or zirconium(IV) fluoride. Berkelium(III) fluoride (BkF3) is also a yellow-green solid, but it has two crystalline structures. The most stable phase at low temperatures is isotypic with yttrium(III) fluoride, while upon heating to between 350 and 600 °C, it transforms to the structure found in lanthanum(III) fluoride.\n\nVisible amounts of berkelium(III) chloride (BkCl3) were first isolated and characterized in 1962, and weighed only 3 billionths of a gram. It can be prepared by introducing hydrogen chloride vapors into an evacuated quartz tube containing berkelium oxide at a temperature about 500 °C. This green solid has a melting point of 600 °C, and is isotypic with uranium(III) chloride. Upon heating to nearly melting point, BkCl3 converts into an orthorhombic phase.\n\nTwo forms of berkelium(III) bromide are known: one with berkelium having coordination 6, and one with coordination 8. The latter is less stable and transforms to the former phase upon heating to about 350 °C. An important phenomenon for radioactive solids has been studied on these two crystal forms: the structure of fresh and aged 249BkBr3 samples was probed by X-ray diffraction over a period longer than 3 years, so that various fractions of berkelium-249 had beta decayed to californium-249. No change in structure was observed upon the 249BkBr3—249CfBr3 transformation. However, other differences were noted for 249BkBr3 and 249CfBr3. For example, the latter could be reduced with hydrogen to 249CfBr2, but the former could not – this result was reproduced on individual 249BkBr3 and 249CfBr3 samples, as well on the samples containing both bromides. The intergrowth of californium in berkelium occurs at a rate of 0.22% per day and is an intrinsic obstacle in studying berkelium properties. Beside a chemical contamination, 249Cf, being an alpha emitter, brings undesirable self-damage of the crystal lattice and the resulting self-heating. The chemical effect however can be avoided by performing measurements as a function of time and extrapolating the obtained results.\n\n===Other inorganic compounds===\nThe pnictides of berkelium-249 of the type BkX are known for the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony. They crystallize in the rock-salt structure and are prepared by the reaction of either berkelium(III) hydride (BkH3) or metallic berkelium with these elements at elevated temperature (about 600 °C) under high vacuum.\n\nBerkelium(III) sulfide, Bk2S3, is prepared by either treating berkelium oxide with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide vapors at 1130 °C, or by directly reacting metallic berkelium with elemental sulfur. These procedures yield brownish-black crystals.\n\nBerkelium(III) and berkelium(IV) hydroxides are both stable in 1 molar solutions of sodium hydroxide. Berkelium(III) phosphate (BkPO4) has been prepared as a solid, which shows strong fluorescence under excitation with a green light. Berkelium hydrides are produced by reacting metal with hydrogen gas at temperatures about 250 °C. They are non-stoichiometric with the nominal formula BkH2+x (0 2O2S), and hydrated nitrate (), chloride (), sulfate () and oxalate (). Thermal decomposition at about 600 °C in an argon atmosphere (to avoid oxidation to ) of yields the crystals of berkelium(III) oxysulfate (). This compound is thermally stable to at least 1000 °C in inert atmosphere.\n\n===Organoberkelium compounds===\nBerkelium forms a trigonal (η5–C5H5)3Bk metallocene complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings, which can be synthesized by reacting berkelium(III) chloride with the molten beryllocene (Be(C5H5)2) at about 70 °C. It has an amber color and a density of 2.47 g/cm3. The complex is stable to heating to at least 250 °C, and sublimates without melting at about 350 °C. The high radioactivity of berkelium gradually destroys the compound (within a period of weeks). One cyclopentadienyl ring in (η5–C5H5)3Bk can be substituted by chlorine to yield Bk(C5H5)2Cl2. The optical absorption spectra of this compound are very similar to those of (η5–C5H5)3Bk.\n", "The berkelium target used for the synthesis of alt=A very small sample of a blue liquid in a plastic pipette held by a hand wearing heavy protection equipment\nThere is currently no use for any isotope of berkelium outside of basic scientific research. Berkelium-249 is a common target nuclide to prepare still heavier transuranic elements and transactinides, such as lawrencium, rutherfordium and bohrium. It is also useful as a source of the isotope californium-249, which is used for studies on the chemistry of californium in preference to the more radioactive californium-252 that is produced in neutron bombardment facilities such as the HFIR.\n\nA 22 milligram batch of berkelium-249 was prepared in a 250-day irradiation and then purified for 90 days at Oak Ridge in 2009. This target yielded the first 6 atoms of tennessine at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), Dubna, Russia, after bombarding it with calcium ions in the U400 cyclotron for 150 days. This synthesis was a culmination of the Russia—US collaboration between JINR and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory on the synthesis of elements 113 to 118 which was initiated in 1989.\n", "The nuclear fission properties of berkelium are different from those of the neighboring actinides curium and californium, and they suggest berkelium to perform poorly as a fuel in a nuclear reactor. Specifically, berkelium-249 has a moderately large neutron capture cross section of 710 barns for thermal neutrons, 1200 barns resonance integral, but very low fission cross section for thermal neutrons. In a thermal reactor, much of it will therefore be converted to berkelium-250 which quickly decays to californium-250. In principle, berkelium-249 can sustain a nuclear chain reaction in a fast breeder reactor. Its critical mass is relatively high at 192 kg; it can be reduced with a water or steel reflector but would still exceed the world production of this isotope.\n\nBerkelium-247 can maintain chain reaction both in a thermal-neutron and in a fast-neutron reactor, however, its production is rather complex and thus the availability is much lower than its critical mass, which is about 75.7 kg for a bare sphere, 41.2 kg with a water reflector and 35.2 kg with a steel reflector (30 cm thickness).\n", "Little is known about the effects of berkelium on human body, and analogies with other elements may not be drawn because of different radiation products (electrons for berkelium and alpha particles, neutrons, or both for most other actinides). The low energy of electrons emitted from berkelium-249 (less than 126 keV) hinders its detection, due to signal interference with other decay processes, but also makes this isotope relatively harmless to humans as compared to other actinides. However, berkelium-249 transforms with a half-life of only 330 days to the strong alpha-emitter californium-249, which is rather dangerous and has to be handled in a glove box in a dedicated laboratory.\n\nMost available berkelium toxicity data originate from research on animals. Upon ingestion by rats, only about 0.01% berkelium ends in the blood stream. From there, about 65% goes to the bones, where it remains for about 50 years, 25% to the lungs (biological half-life about 20 years), 0.035% to the testicles or 0.01% to the ovaries where berkelium stays indefinitely. The balance of about 10% is excreted. In all these organs berkelium might promote cancer, and in the skeletal system its radiation can damage red blood cells. The maximum permissible amount of berkelium-249 in the human skeleton is 0.4 nanograms.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "* Berkelium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "History", "Synthesis and extraction", "Compounds", "Applications", "Nuclear fuel cycle", "Health issues", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Berkelium
[ "\nUS penny for comparison\nQEMSCAN mineral maps of bauxite ore-forming pisoliths\nBauxite in Les Baux-de-Provence, France\nBauxite with core of unweathered rock\nBauxite output in 2005\nWeipa, Australia\n\n'''Bauxite''', an aluminium ore, is the world's main source of aluminium. It consists mostly of the minerals gibbsite (Al(OH)3), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with the two iron oxides goethite and haematite, the clay mineral kaolinite and small amounts of anatase (TiO2) and ilmenite (FeTiO3 or FeO.TiO2). In 1821 the French geologist Pierre Berthier discovered bauxite near the village of Les Baux in Provence, southern France. In 1861, French chemist Henri Sainte-Claire Deville named the mineral \"bauxite\".\n", "\nLateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) are distinguished from karst bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites). The carbonate bauxites occur predominantly in Europe, Guyana, and Jamaica above carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite), where they were formed by lateritic weathering and residual accumulation of intercalated clay layers – dispersed clays which were concentrated as the enclosing limestones gradually dissolved during chemical weathering.\n\nThe lateritic bauxites are found mostly in the countries of the tropics. They were formed by lateritization of various silicate rocks such as granite, gneiss, basalt, syenite, and shale. In comparison with the iron-rich laterites, the formation of bauxites depends even more on intense weathering conditions in a location with very good drainage. This enables the dissolution of the kaolinite and the precipitation of the gibbsite. Zones with highest aluminium content are frequently located below a ferruginous surface layer. The aluminium hydroxide in the lateritic bauxite deposits is almost exclusively gibbsite.\n\nIn the case of Jamaica, recent analysis of the soils showed elevated levels of cadmium, suggesting that the bauxite originates from recent Miocene ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central America.\n", "In 2009, Australia was the top producer of bauxite with almost one-third of the world's production, followed by China, Brazil, India, and Guinea. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known reserves of its bauxite ore are sufficient to meet the worldwide demands for aluminium for many centuries. Increased aluminium recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric power in producing aluminium, will considerably extend the world's bauxite reserves.\n\n\n+ Numbers for 2010's total proven bauxite reserves x1,000 Mg\n Country\n Mine production\n Reserves\n Reserve base\n\n 2010\n 2011 (est.)\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n17,400\n18,000\n7,400,000\n8,600,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n68,400\n67,000\n6,200,000\n7,900,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n80\n80\n2,100,000\n5,400,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n8,540\n10,200\n2,000,000\n2,500,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n28,100\n31,000\n3,600,000\n2,500,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n1,760\n2,000\n850,000\n900,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n18,000\n20,000\n900,000\n1,400,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n44,000\n46,000\n830,000\n2,300,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n2,100\n2,100\n600,000\n650,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n—\n500\n—\n—\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n4,000\n5,000\n580,000\n600,000\n\n \n1,090 \n1,700 \n180,000\n ?\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n5,310\n5,400\n160,000\n450,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n2,500\n4,500\n320,000\n350,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n5,480\n5,800\n200,000\n250,000\n\n style=\"text-align:left\" \n30\nN/A\n20,000\n40,000\n\nOther countries\n2,630\n2,600\n3,300,000\n3,800,000\n\nWorld total (rounded)\n209,000\n220,000\n29,000,000\n38,000,000\n\n\nIn November 2010, Nguyen Tan Dung, the prime minister of Vietnam, announced that Vietnam's bauxite reserves might total 11,000 Mt; this would be the largest in the world.\n", "Bauxite being loaded at Cabo Rojo, Dominican Republic, to be shipped elsewhere for processing; 2007\nBauxite being digested by washing with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide at under pressure at National Aluminium Company, Nalconagar, India.\nBauxite is usually strip mined because it is almost always found near the surface of the terrain, with little or no overburden. As of 2010, approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium by electrolysis. Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and refractory.\n\nUsually, bauxite ore is heated in a pressure vessel along with a sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to 200 °C. At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as sodium aluminate (the Bayer process). The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite(Al(OH)3), boehmite(AlOOH) or diaspore(AlOOH); the different forms of the aluminium component will dictate the extraction conditions. The undissolved waste, bauxite tailings, after the aluminium compounds are extracted contains iron oxides, silica, calcia, titania and some un-reacted alumina. After separation of the residue by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide. The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide, Al2O3, by heating in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to a temperature in excess of 1000oC. This aluminium oxide is dissolved at a temperature of about in molten cryolite. Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the Hall–Héroult process, named after its American and French discoverers.\n\nPrior to the invention of this process, and prior to the Deville process, aluminium ore was refined by heating ore along with elemental sodium or potassium in a vacuum. The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold.\n", "\nAlcoa\nBauxite, Arkansas\nRio Tinto Alcan\nUnited Company RUSAL\n", "\n", "Bárdossy, G. (1982): ''Karst Bauxites: Bauxite deposits on carbonate rocks''. Elsevier Sci. Publ. 441 p.\nBárdossy, G. and Aleva, G.J.J. (1990): ''Lateritic Bauxites''. Developments in Economic Geology 27, Elsevier Sci. Publ. 624 p. \nGrant, C.; Lalor, G. and Vutchkov, M. (2005) ''Comparison of bauxites from Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and Suriname''. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry p. 385–388 Vol.266, No.3\nHanilçi, N. (2013). ''Geological and geochemical evolution of the Bolkardaği bauxite deposits, Karaman, Turkey: Transformation from shale to bauxite''. Journal of Geochemical Exploration\n", "\n* USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite\n* Mineral Information Institute\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Formation ", "Production trends", "Processing", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Bauxite
[ "\n\n\n\nSecond official flag of Bavaria\n'''Bavaria''' ( ; ), officially the '''Free State of Bavaria''' ( ) is a landlocked federal state of Germany, occupying its southeastern corner. With an area of 70,550.19 square kilometres (27,200 sq mi), Bavaria is the largest German state by land area. Its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany. With 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germany's second-most-populous state (after North Rhine-Westphalia). Bavaria's capital and largest city, Munich, is the third largest city in Germany.\n\nThe history of Bavaria stretches from its earliest settlement and formation as a duchy in the 6th century CE (AD) through the Holy Roman Empire to becoming an independent kingdom and finally a state of the Federal Republic of Germany.\n\nThe Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE (AD), the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War.\n\nBavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the state's Catholic majority (52%) and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes festivals such as Oktoberfest and elements of Alpine symbolism. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, giving it a status as a rather wealthy German region.\n\nModern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia.\n", "\nPrehistoric ''Heunischenburg'', in the vicinity of Kronach\n\n===Antiquity===\nThe Bavarians emerged in a region north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts, which had been part of the Roman provinces of Raetia and Noricum. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, probably did not migrate from elsewhere. Rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, Heruli. The name \"Bavarian\" (\"Baiuvarii\") means \"Men of Baia\" which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520. A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE.\n\n===Middle Ages===\n\nFrom about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria, ending with Tassilo III who was deposed by Charlemagne.\n\nThree early dukes are named in Frankish sources: Garibald I may have been appointed to the office by the Merovingian kings and married the Lombard princess Walderada when the church forbade her to King Chlothar I in 555. Their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibald's successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the eastern frontier against the expansion of Slavs and Avars around 600. Tassilo's son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616.\n\nAfter Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and strengthen Christianity in his duchy (it is unclear what Bavarian religious life consisted of before this time). His son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodo's death the duchy was divided among his sons, but reunited under his grandson Hugbert.\n\nAt Hugbert's death (735) the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia (modern southwest Germany and northern Switzerland). Odilo issued a law code for Bavaria, completed the process of church organisation in partnership with St. Boniface (739), and tried to intervene in Frankish succession disputes by fighting for the claims of the Carolingian Grifo. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in many ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.\n\nBavaria in the 10th century\n\"Beschreibvng des hochloblichen Fvrsten t.h v.b Obern vnd Nidern Bayrn\" – (National Library of Sweden)\n\nTassilo III (b. 741 – d. after 796) succeeded his father at the age of eight after an unsuccessful attempt by Grifo to rule Bavaria. He initially ruled under Frankish oversight but began to function independently from 763 onwards. He was particularly noted for founding new monasteries and for expanding eastwards, fighting Slavs in the eastern Alps and along the River Danube and colonising these lands. After 781, however, his cousin Charlemagne began to pressure Tassilo to submit and finally deposed him in 788. The deposition was not entirely legitimate. Dissenters attempted a coup against Charlemagne at Tassilo's old capital of Regensburg in 792, led by his own son Pépin the Hunchback. The king had to drag Tassilo out of imprisonment to formally renounce his rights and titles at the Assembly of Frankfurt in 794. This is the last appearance of Tassilo in the sources, and he probably died a monk. As all of his family were also forced into monasteries, this was the end of the Agilolfing dynasty.\nKingdom of Bavaria 900\n\nBavarian duchies after the partition of 1392\nFor the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations. With the revolt of duke Henry the Quarrelsome in 976, Bavaria lost large territories in the south and south east. The territory of ''Ostarrichi'' was elevated to a duchy in its own right and given to the Babenberger family. This event marks the founding of Austria.\n\nThe last, and one of the most important, of the dukes of Bavaria was Henry the Lion of the house of Welf, founder of Munich, and ''de facto'' the second most powerful man in the empire as the ruler of two duchies. When in 1180, Henry the Lion was deposed as Duke of Saxony and Bavaria by his cousin, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (a.k.a. \"Barbarossa\" for his red beard), Bavaria was awarded as fief to the Wittelsbach family, counts palatinate of Schyren (\"Scheyern\" in modern German). They ruled for 738 years, from 1180 to 1918. The Electorate of the Palatinate by Rhine (''Kurpfalz'' in German) was also acquired by the House of Wittelsbach in 1214, which they would subsequently hold for six centuries.\n\nThe first of several divisions of the duchy of Bavaria occurred in 1255. With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen in 1268, Swabian territories were acquired by the Wittelsbach dukes. Emperor Louis the Bavarian acquired Brandenburg, Tyrol, Holland and Hainaut for his House but released the Upper Palatinate for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. In the 14th and 15th centuries, upper and lower Bavaria were repeatedly subdivided. Four Duchies existed after the division of 1392: Bavaria-Straubing, Bavaria-Landshut, Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Bavaria-Munich. In 1506 with the Landshut War of Succession, the other parts of Bavaria were reunited, and Munich became the sole capital.\n\n===Electorate of Bavaria===\n\nIn 1623 the Bavarian duke replaced his relative of the Palatinate branch, the Electorate of the Palatinate in the early days of the Thirty Years' War and acquired the powerful prince-electoral dignity in the Holy Roman Empire, determining its Emperor thence forward, as well as special legal status under the empire's laws. The country became one of the Jesuit supported counter-reformation centers. During the early and mid-18th century the ambitions of the Bavarian prince electors led to several wars with Austria as well as occupations by Austria (War of the Spanish Succession, election of a Wittelsbach emperor instead of a Habsburger). From 1777 onwards and after the younger Bavarian branch of the family had died out with elector Max III Joseph, Bavaria and the Electorate of the Palatinate were governed once again in personal union, now by the Palatinian lines. The new state also comprised the Duchies of Jülich and Berg as these on their part were in personal union with the Palatinate.\n\n===Kingdom of Bavaria===\n\nBavaria in the 19th century and beyond\nWhen Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire, Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806 due, in part, to the Confederation of the Rhine. Its area doubled after the Duchy of Jülich was ceded to France, as the Electoral Palatinate was divided between France and the Grand Duchy of Baden. The Duchy of Berg was given to Jerome Bonaparte. The Tyrol and Salzburg were temporarily reunited with Bavaria but finally ceded to Austria by the Congress of Vienna. In return Bavaria was allowed to annex the modern-day region of Palatinate to the left of the Rhine and Franconia in 1815. Between 1799 and 1817, the leading minister, Count Montgelas, followed a strict policy of modernisation; he laid the foundations of administrative structures that survived the monarchy and retain core validity in the 21st century. In May 1808 a first constitution was passed by Maximilian I, being modernized in 1818. This second version established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords (''Kammer der Reichsräte'') and a House of Commons (''Kammer der Abgeordneten''). That constitution was followed until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of World War I.\n\nBavarian stamps during the German empire period\nAfter the rise of Prussia to power, Bavaria preserved its independence by playing off the rivalries of Prussia and Austria. Allied to Austria, it was defeated in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and did not belong to the North German Federation of 1867, but the question of German unity was still alive. When France declared war on Prussia in 1870, the south German states Baden, Württemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt and Bavaria joined the Prussian forces (whereas Austria did not) and ultimately joined the Federation, which was renamed ''Deutsches Reich'' (German Empire) in 1871. Bavaria continued as a monarchy, and it had some special rights within the federation (such as an army, railways and a postal service of its own).\n\n===Part of the German Empire===\nWhen Bavaria became part of the newly formed German Empire, this action was considered controversial by Bavarian nationalists who had wanted to retain independence, as Austria was. As Bavaria had a majority-Catholic population, many people resented being ruled by the mostly Protestant northerners of Prussia. As a direct result of the Bavarian-Prussian feud, political parties formed to encourage Bavaria to break away and regain its independence. Although the idea of Bavarian separatism was popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, apart from a small minority such as the Bavaria Party, most Bavarians have accepted that Bavaria is part of Germany.\n\nIn the early-20th century, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Henrik Ibsen, and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the Schwabing district of Munich, a center of international artistic activity. This area was devastated by bombing and invasion during World War II.\n\n===Free State of Bavaria===\nA memorial to soldiers who died in the two world wars. Dietelskirchen, Bavaria.\nDachau concentration camp memorial sculpture erected in 1968\n''Free State'' has been an adopted designation after the abolition of monarchy in the aftermath of World War I in several German states.\nOn 12 November 1918, Ludwig III signed a document, the Anif declaration, releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths; the newly formed republican government, or \"People's State\" of Socialist premier Kurt Eisner, interpreted this as an abdication. To date, however, no member of the House of Wittelsbach has ever formally declared renunciation of the throne. On the other hand, none has ever since officially called upon their Bavarian or Stuart claims. Family members are active in cultural and social life, including the head of the house, Franz, Duke of Bavaria. They step back from any announcements on public affairs, showing approval or disapproval solely by Franz's presence or absence.\n\nEisner was assassinated in February 1919, ultimately leading to a Communist revolt and the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic being proclaimed 6 April 1919. After violent suppression by elements of the German Army and notably the Freikorps, the Bavarian Soviet Republic fell in May 1919. The Bamberg Constitution ('''') was enacted on 12 or 14 August 1919 and came into force on 15 September 1919 creating the Free State of Bavaria within the Weimar Republic. Extremist activity further increased, notably the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch led by the National Socialists, and Munich and Nuremberg became seen as Nazi strongholds under the Third Reich of Adolf Hitler. However, in the crucial German federal election, March 1933, the Nazis received less than 50% of the votes cast in Bavaria.\n\nAs a manufacturing centre, Munich was heavily bombed during World War II and was occupied by U.S. troops, becoming a major part of the American Zone of Allied-occupied Germany (1945–47) and then of \"Bizonia\".\n\nThe Rhenish Palatinate was detached from Bavaria in 1946 and made part of the new state Rhineland-Palatinate. During the Cold War, Bavaria was part of West Germany. In 1949, the Free State of Bavaria chose not to sign the Founding Treaty (''Gründungsvertrag'') for the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, opposing the division of Germany into two states, after World War II. The Bavarian Parliament did not sign the Basic Law of Germany, mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual ''Länder'', but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other ''Länder'' ratified it. All of the other ''Länder'' ratified it, and so it became law.\n\n===Bavarian identity===\nBavarians have often emphasized a separate national identity and considered themselves as \"Bavarians\" first, \"Germans\" second. This feeling started to come about more strongly among Bavarians when the Kingdom of Bavaria joined the Protestant Prussian-dominated German Empire while the Bavarian nationalists wanted to keep Bavaria as Catholic and an independent state. Nowadays, aside from the minority Bavaria Party, most Bavarians accept that Bavaria is part of Germany. Another consideration is that Bavarians foster different cultural identities: Franconia in the north, speaking East Franconian German; Bavarian Swabia in the south west, speaking Swabian German; and Altbayern (so-called \"Old Bavaria\", the regions forming the \"historic\", pentagon-shaped Bavaria before the acquisitions through the Vienna Congress, at present the districts of the Upper Palatinate, Lower and Upper Bavaria) speaking Austro-Bavarian. In Munich, the Old Bavarian dialect was widely spread, but nowadays High German is predominantly spoken there.\n", "\nBavarian herald Joerg Rugenn wearing a tabard of the arms around 1510\nThe modern coat of arms of Bavaria was designed by Eduard Ege in 1946, following heraldic traditions.\n* The Golden Lion: At the dexter chief, sable, a lion rampant Or, armed and langued gules. This represents the administrative region of Upper Palatinate.\n* The \"Franconian Rake\": At the sinister chief, per fess dancetty, gules and argent. This represents the administrative regions of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia.\n* The Blue \"Pantier\" (mythical creature from French heraldry, sporting a flame instead of a tongue): At the dexter base, argent, a Pantier rampant azure, armed Or and langued gules. This represents the regions of Lower and Upper Bavaria.\n* The Three Lions: At the sinister base, Or, three lions passant guardant sable, armed and langued gules. This represents Swabia.\n* The White-And-Blue inescutcheon: The inescutcheon of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen, adopted in 1247 by the House of Wittelsbach. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and these arms today symbolize Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms.\n* The People's Crown (''Volkskrone''): The coat of arms is surmounted by a crown with a golden band inset with precious stones and decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown first appeared in the coat of arms to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the royal crown was eschewed in 1923.\n", "\nBavaria shares international borders with Austria (Salzburg, Tyrol, Upper Austria and Vorarlberg) and the Czech Republic (Karlovy Vary, Plzeň and South Bohemian Regions) as well as with Switzerland (across Lake Constance to the Canton of St. Gallen). Because all of these countries are part of the Schengen Area, the border is completely open. Neighbouring states within Germany are Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Thuringia and Saxony. Two major rivers flow through the state: the Danube (''Donau'') and the Main. The Bavarian Alps define the border with Austria (including the Austrian federal-states of Vorarlberg, Tyrol and Salzburg), and within the range is the highest peak in Germany: the Zugspitze. The Bavarian Forest and the Bohemian Forest form the vast majority of the frontier with the Czech Republic and Bohemia.\n\nThe major cities in Bavaria are Munich (''München''), Nuremberg (''Nürnberg''), Augsburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Ingolstadt, Fürth and Erlangen.\nThe Bavarian Alps\nZell in the Bavarian Forest\n", "Administrative Districts ('''' and '''') of Bavaria\n\nBavaria is divided into 7 administrative districts called '''' (singular '''').\n\nAdministrative districts of Bavaria\n\n=== (Administrative districts)===\nMunich\n'''Altbayern''':\n# Upper Palatinate ()\n# Upper Bavaria ('''')\n# Lower Bavaria ('''')\n'''Franconia''':\n# Upper Franconia ('''')\n# Middle Franconia ('''')\n# Lower Franconia ('''')\n'''Swabia''':\n# Swabia ('''')\n\n====Population and area====\n\n\n Administrative region\n Capital\n Population (2011)\n Area (km2)\n No. municipalities\n\n Lower Bavaria\n Landshut\n 1,192,641\n 9.48%\n 10,330\n 14.6%\n 258\n 12.5%\n\n Lower Franconia\n Würzburg\n 1,315,882\n 10.46%\n 8,531\n 12.1%\n 308\n 15.0%\n\n Upper Franconia\n Bayreuth\n 1,067,988\n 8.49%\n 7,231\n 10.2%\n 214\n 10.4%\n\n Middle Franconia\n Ansbach\n 1,717,670\n 13.65%\n 7,245\n 10.3%\n 210\n 10.2%\n\n Upper Palatinate\n Regensburg\n 1,081,800\n 8.60%\n 9,691\n 13.7%\n 226\n 11.0%\n\n Swabia\n Augsburg\n 1,788,729\n 14.21%\n 9,992\n 14.2%\n 340\n 16.5%\n\n Upper Bavaria\n Munich\n 4,418,828\n 35.12%\n 17,530\n 24.8%\n 500\n 24.3%\n\n '''Total'''\n\n 12,583,538\n 100.0%\n 70,549\n 100.0%\n 2,056\n 100.0%\n\n\n======\n'''' (districts) are the third communal layer in Bavaria; the others are the '''' and the '''' or ''''. The '''' in Bavaria are territorially identical with the '''' (e.g. ), but are a different form of administration, having their own parliaments, etc. In the other larger states of Germany, there are '''' which are only administrative divisions and not self-governing entities as the '''' in Bavaria.\n\nleft\nNuremberg\nAugsburg\nRegensburg\nWürzburg\nIngolstadt\nBayreuth\n\n===Landkreise/kreisfreie cities===\nThese administrative regions consist of 71 administrative districts (called '''', singular '''', e.g. rural districts) and 25 independent cities ('''', singular '''', e.g. urban districts) that are comparable to Counties (only that there is no distinction between \"Ceremonial\" and \"Administrative\" and all have the same administrative responsibilities).\n\nLandkreise:\n\n\n\n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n# \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n München ('''')\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\nKreis-free Cities:\n\n\n\n# Amberg\n# Ansbach\n# Aschaffenburg\n# Augsburg\n# Bamberg\n# Bayreuth\n# Coburg\n# Erlangen\n# Fürth\n# Hof\n# Ingolstadt\n# Kaufbeuren\n# Kempten\n\n\n Landshut\n Memmingen\n Munich (''München'')\n Nuremberg (''Nürnberg'')\n Passau\n Regensburg\n Rosenheim\n Schwabach\n Schweinfurt\n Straubing\n Weiden\n Würzburg\n\n\n\n=== (municipalities)===\nThe 71 administrative districts are on the lowest level divided into 2031 regular municipalities (called '''', singular ''''). Together with the 25 independent cities ('''', which are in effect municipalities independent of '''' administrations), there are a total of 2056 municipalities in Bavaria.\n\nIn 44 of the 71 administrative districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of 1 January 2005, called '''', singular ''''), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (-without islands, -without island , , which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and ).\n\n====Major cities====\n\n\n City\n Region\n Inhabitants 31 December 2000\n Inhabitants 31 December 2005\n Inhabitants 31 December 2010\n Inhabitants 31 December 2015\n Changes 2000 – 2010 in %\n\nMunich\n Upper Bavaria\n1,210,223\n1,259,677\n1,353,186\n1,450,381\n+11.81\n\nNuremberg\n Middle Franconia\n488,400\n499,237\n505,664\n509,975\n+3.53\n\nAugsburg\n Swabia\n254,982\n262,676\n264,708\n286,374\n+3.81\n\nRegensburg\n Upper Palatinate\n125,676\n129,859\n135,520\n145,465\n+7.83\n\nIngolstadt\n Upper Bavaria\n115,722\n121,314\n125,088\n132,438\n+8.09\n\nWürzburg\n Lower Franconia\n127,966\n133,906\n133,799\n124,873\n+4.56\n\nFürth\n Middle Franconia\n110,477\n113,422\n114,628\n124,171\n+3.76\n\nErlangen\n Middle Franconia\n100,778\n103,197\n105,629\n108,336\n+4.81\n\nBayreuth\n Upper Franconia\n74,153\n73,997\n72,683\n72,148\n−1.98\n\nBamberg\n Upper Franconia\n69,036\n70,081\n70,004\n73,331\n+1.40\n\nAschaffenburg\n Lower Franconia\n67,592\n68,642\n68,678\n68,986\n+1.61\n\nLandshut\n Lower Bavaria\n58,746\n61,368\n63,258\n69,211\n+7.68\n\nKempten (Allgäu)\n Swabia\n61,389\n61,360\n62,060\n66,947\n+1.09\n\nRosenheim\n Upper Bavaria\n58,908\n60,226\n61,299\n61,844\n+4.06\n\nNeu-Ulm\n Swabia\n50,188\n51,410\n53,504\n57,237\n+6.61\n\nSchweinfurt\n Lower Franconia\n54,325\n54,273\n53,415\n51,969\n−1.68\n\nPassau\n Lower Bavaria\n50,536\n50,651\n50,594\n50,566\n+0.11\n\nFreising\n Upper Bavaria\n40,890\n42,854\n45,223\n46,963\n+10.60\n\n \n Straubing\n Lower Bavaria\n44,014\n44,633\n44,450\n46,806\n+0.99\n\nDachau\n Upper Bavaria\n38,398\n39,922 \n42,954\n46,705\n+11.87\n\n\nSource: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung\n\n\n", "\n===Government===\nThe Constitution of Bavaria of the free state of Bavaria was enacted on 8 December 1946. The new Bavarian Constitution became the basis for the Bavarian State after the Second World War.\n\nBavaria has a unicameral '''', or state parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Until December 1999, there was also a '''', or Senate, whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in 1998, this institution was abolished.\n\nThe Bavarian State Government consists of the Minister-President of Bavaria, 11 Ministers and 6 Secretaries of State. The Minister-President is elected for a period of five years by the State Parliament and is head of state. With the approval of the State Parliament he appoints the members of the State Government. The State Government is composed of the:\n\n Ministry of the Interior ('''')\n* Ministry of Education and Culture, Science and Art ('''')\n* Ministry of Finance, for Rural Development and Homeland ('''')\n* Ministry of Economic Affairs and Media, Energy and Technology ('''')\n* Ministry of Environment and Consumer Protection ('''')\n* Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Family and Integration ('''')\n* Ministry of Justice ('''')\n* Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry ('''')\n* Ministry of Public Health and Care Services ('''')\n\nPolitical processes also take place in the 7 regions ('''' / '''') in Bavaria, in the 71 administrative districts ('''') and the 25 towns and cities forming their own districts (''''), and in the 2,031 local authorities ('''').\n\nIn 1995 Bavaria introduced direct democracy on the local level in a referendum. This was initiated bottom-up by an association called ''Mehr Demokratie'' (More Democracy). This is a grass-roots organization which campaigns for the right to citizen-initiated referendums. In 1997 the Bavarian Supreme Court aggravated the regulations considerably (e.g. by introducing a turn-out quorum). Nevertheless, Bavaria has the most advanced regulations on local direct democracy in Germany. This has led to a spirited citizens' participation in communal and municipal affairs—835 referenda took place from 1995 through 2005.\n\n===Bavarian politics===\n\n\n12th and current Minister-President of Bavaria Horst Seehofer\n\nBavaria has a multi-party system dominated by the conservative Christian Social Union (CSU), which has won every election since 1945, and the center-left Social Democrats (SPD) . Thus far Wilhelm Hoegner has been the only SPD candidate to ever become Minister-President; notable successors in office include multi-term Federal Minister Franz Josef Strauss, a key figure among West German conservatives during the Cold War years, and Edmund Stoiber, who both failed with their bids for Chancellorship. The German Greens and the center-right Free Voters have been represented in the state parliament since 1986 and 2008 respectively.\n\nIn the 2003 elections the CSU won a ⅔ supermajority – something no party had ever achieved in post-war Germany. However, in the subsequent 2008 elections the CSU lost the absolute majority for the first time in 46 years. The losses were partly attributed to the CSU's stance against an anti-smoking bill. (First anti-smoking referendum was passed but subverted, so a second\nreferendum enforced it with a larger majority).\n\nThe last state elections were held on 15 September 2013; the CSU won an absolute majority in the state parliament in spite of bad press surrounding a cronyism affair. The CSU's former coalition partner Free Democrats (FDP) failed to gain caucus recognition amidst a downward trend for the party in all of Germany. \nThe 17th parliamentary term comprises 180 mandates of which the CSU won 101, the SPD 42, the Free Voters 19 and the Alliance '90/The Greens 18.\n\n===Designation as a \"free state\"===\nUnlike most German states (''Länder''), which simply designate themselves as \"State of X\" (''Land X''), Bavaria uses the style of \"Free State of Bavaria\" (''Freistaat Bayern''). The difference from other states is purely terminological, as German constitutional law does not draw a distinction between \"States\" and \"Free States\". The situation is thus analogous to the United States, where some states use the style \"Commonwealth\" rather than \"State\". The choice of \"Free State\", a creation of the early 20th century and intended to be a German alternative to (or translation of) the Latin-derived \"republic\", has historical reasons, Bavaria having been styled that way even before the current 1946 constitution was enacted (i.e. in 1918 after the ''de facto'' abdication of Ludwig III). Two other states, Saxony and Thuringia, also use the style \"Free State\"; unlike Bavaria, however, these were not part of the original states when the Grundgesetz was enacted but joined the federation later on, in 1990, as a result of German reunification. Saxony had used the designation as \"Free State\" from 1918 to 1952.\n\n====Minister-presidents of Bavaria since 1945====\n\n Minister-presidents of Bavaria\n\n No.\n Name\n Born-Died\n Party affiliation\n Begin of Tenure\n End of Tenure\n\n \n 1\n \n Fritz Schäffer\n 1888–1967\n CSU\n 1945\n 1945\n\n \n 2\n \n Wilhelm Hoegner\n 1887–1980\n SPD\n 1945\n 1946\n\n \n 3\n \n Hans Ehard\n 1887–1980\n CSU\n 1946\n 1954\n\n \n 4\n \n Wilhelm Hoegner\n 1887–1980\n SPD\n 1954\n 1957\n\n \n 5\n \n Hanns Seidel\n 1901–1961\n CSU\n 1957\n 1960\n\n \n 6\n \n Hans Ehard\n 1887–1980\n CSU\n 1960\n 1962\n\n \n 7\n \n Alfons Goppel\n 1905–1991\n CSU\n 1962\n 1978\n\n \n 8\n \n Franz Josef Strauß\n 1915–1988\n CSU\n 1978\n 1988\n\n \n 9\n \n Max Streibl\n 1932–1998\n CSU\n 1988\n 1993\n\n \n 10\n \n Edmund Stoiber\n 1941\n CSU\n 1993\n 2007\n\n \n 11\n \n Günther Beckstein\n 1943\n CSU\n 2007\n 2008\n\n \n 12\n \n Horst Seehofer\n 1949\n CSU\n 2008\n Incumbent\n\n\n=== Arbitrary arrest and human rights ===\n\nIn July 2017, Bavaria's parliament enacted a new revision of the \"Gefährdergesetz\", allowing the authorities to imprison a person for a three months term, renewable indefinitely, when he or she has not committed a crime but it is assumed that he or she might commit a crime \"in the near future\". Critics like the prominent journalist Heribert Prantl have called the law \"shameful\" and compared it to Guantanamo Bay detention camp, assessed it to be in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights, and also compared it to the legal situation in Russia, where a similar law allows for imprisonment for a maximum term of two years (i.e., not indefinitely)\n", "BMW headquarters in Munich\nBavaria has long had one of the largest economies of any region in Germany, or Europe for that matter. Its GDP in 2007 exceeded 434 billion Euros (about 600 bn US$). This makes Bavaria itself one of the largest economies in Europe and only 20 countries in the world have a higher GDP. Some large companies headquartered in Bavaria include BMW, Siemens, Rohde & Schwarz, Audi, Munich Re, Allianz, Infineon, MAN, Wacker Chemie, Puma, Adidas, and Ruf. Bavaria has a GDP per capita of over $48,000 US, meaning that if it were its own independent country it would rank 7th or 8th in the world.\n\n===Company names===\nThe motorcycle and automobile makers BMW (''Bayerische Motoren-Werke'', or Bavarian Motor Works) and Audi, Allianz, Grundig (consumer electronics), Siemens (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments), Amazon, Weltbild (trade) Patrizia Immobilien (real estate management) Continental (Automotive Tire and Electronics), Nintendo, Adidas, Puma, HypoVereinsbank (UniCredit Group), Infineon, Krauss-Maffei Wegmann, MAN Diesel & Turbo, KUKA, OSRAM and Ruf have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base.\n", "The population of Bavaria is 12,843,514 (2015). Countries of origin of the major immigrant groups are as listed below:\n\n\n\nRank\nNationality\nPopulation estimate (2017)\n\n1\n\n 398,644\n\n2\n\n 192,813\n\n3\n\n 158,899\n\n4\n\n 152,330\n\n5\n\n122,319\n\n6\n\n 98,500\n\n7\n\n 93,483\n\n8\n\n 85,317\n\n9\n\n 59,382\n\n10\n\n 59,202\n\n\n", "\nBavarian church with Alps in the background\nSome features of the Bavarian culture and mentality are remarkably distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to:\n\n===Religion===\nRamsau\nBavarian culture (''Altbayern'') has a long and predominant tradition of Catholic faith. Pope emeritus Benedict XVI (Joseph Alois Ratzinger) was born in Marktl am Inn in Upper Bavaria and was Cardinal-Archbishop of Munich and Freising. Otherwise, the culturally Franconian and Swabian regions of the modern State of Bavaria are historically more diverse in religiosity, with both Catholic and Protestant traditions. In 1925, 70.0% of the Bavarian population was Catholic, 28.8% was Protestant, 0.7% was Jewish, and 0.5% was placed in other religious categories.\n\n 52.1% of Bavarians still adhered to Catholicism though the number is on the decline (they were 70.4% in 1970, 56.3% in 2007). 19.5% of the population adheres to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria, and their number is declining too. Muslims make up 4.0% of the population of Bavaria. 24% of Bavarians are irreligious or adhere to other religions, and this number is increasing.\n\n===Traditions===\nBavarians commonly emphasize pride in their traditions. Traditional costumes collectively known as Tracht are worn on special occasions and include in Altbayern Lederhosen for males and Dirndl for females. Centuries-old folk music is performed. The Maibaum, or Maypole (which in the Middle Ages served as the community's yellow pages, as figurettes on the pole represent the trades of the village), and the bagpipes in the Upper Palatinate region bear witness to the ancient Celtic and Germanic remnants of cultural heritage of the region. There are a lot of traditional Bavarian sports disciplines, e.g. the Aperschnalzen is an old tradition of competitive whipcracking.\n\nWhether actually in Bavaria, overseas or full of citizens from other nations they continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals and dances to keep their traditions alive. In New York City the German American Cultural Society is a larger umbrella group for others such as the Bavarian organizations, which represent a specific part of Germany. They proudly put forth a German Parade called Steuben Parade each year. Various affiliated events take place amongst its groups, one of which is the Bavarian Dancers.\n\n===Food and drink===\nBavarians tend to place a great value on food and drink. In addition to their renowned dishes, Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in Germany; for example (\"white sausage\") or in some instances a variety of entrails. At folk festivals and in many beer gardens, beer is traditionally served by the litre (in a ). Bavarians are particularly proud of the traditional , or purity law, initially established by the Duke of Bavaria for the City of Munich (e.g. the court) in 1487 and the duchy in 1516. According to this law, only three ingredients were allowed in beer: water, barley, and hops. In 1906 the made its way to all-German law, and remained a law in Germany until the EU partly struck it down recently as incompatible with the European common market. German breweries, however, cling to the principle, and Bavarian breweries still comply with it in order to distinguish their beer blend. Bavarians are also known as some of the world's most beer-loving people with an average annual consumption of 170 litres per person, although figures have been declining in recent years.\n\nBavaria is also home to the Franconia wine region, which is situated along the Main River in Franconia. The region has produced wine (''Frankenwein'') for over 1,000 years and is famous for its use of the Bocksbeutel wine bottle. The production of wine forms an integral part of the regional culture, and many of its villages and cities hold their own wine festivals (Weinfeste) throughout the year.\n\n===Language and dialects===\nAustro-Bavarian dialects\n\nMainly three German dialects are spoken in Bavaria: Austro-Bavarian in Old Bavaria (South-East and East), Swabian German (an Alemannic German dialect) in the Bavarian part of Swabia (South West) and East Franconian German in Franconia (North). In the small town Ludwigsstadt in the north, district Kronach in Upper Franconia, Thuringian dialect is spoken. In the 20th century an increasing part of the population began to speak Standard German, mainly in the cities.\n\n===Ethnography===\nBavarians consider themselves to be egalitarian and informal. Their sociability can be experienced at the annual Oktoberfest, the world's largest beer festival, which welcomes around six million visitors every year, or in the famous beer gardens. In traditional Bavarian beer gardens, patrons may bring their own food but buy beer only from the brewery that runs the beer garden. \n \nIn the United States, particularly among German Americans, Bavarian culture is viewed somewhat nostalgically, and several \"Bavarian villages\" have been founded, most notably Frankenmuth, Michigan; Helen, Georgia; and Leavenworth, Washington. Since 1962, the latter has been styled with a Bavarian theme and is home to an Oktoberfest celebration it claims is among the most attended in the world outside of Munich.\n", "The Allianz Arena\n\n===Football===\nBavaria is home to several football clubs including FC Bayern Munich, 1. FC Nürnberg, FC Augsburg, TSV 1860 Munich, FC Ingolstadt 04 and SpVgg Greuther Fürth. Bayern Munich is the most popular and successful football team in Germany having won a record 27 German titles. They are followed by 1. FC Nürnberg who have won 9 titles. SpVgg Greuther Fürth have won 3 championships while TSV 1860 Munich have been champions once. FC Bayern won the 2013 UEFA Champions League final.\n", "\nFile:Aschaffenburg Schloss Johannisburg.jpg\|Johannisburg Castle in Aschaffenburg\nFile:Wuerzburger Residenz vom Hofgarten.jpg\|Würzburg Residence\nFile:Marienberg wuerzburg.jpg\|Fortress Marienberg and the Alte Mainbrücke in Würzburg\nFile:Plassenburg oben.jpg\|Plassenburg Castle in Kulmbach\nFile:Bamberger Dom BW 6.JPG\|Cathedral in Bamberg\nFile:Vierzehnheiligen I.JPG\|Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen\nFile:Coburg-Veste4.jpg\|Veste Coburg in Coburg\nFile:Bayreuth Festspielhaus 2006-07-16.jpg\|Festspielhaus of Richard Wagner in Bayreuth\nFile:Nuremberg sebald castle f lorenz f s.jpg\|Imperial Castle in Nuremberg\nFile:Kastell Biriciana (Weißenburg in Bayern).jpg\|Kastell Biriciana, Weissenburg close to the Limes\nFile:Kreuztor Ingoldstadt.jpg\|Kreuztor in Ingolstadt\nFile:Schloss Neuburg.jpg\|Castle of Neuburg an der Donau\nFile:Regensburg-steinerne-bruecke-hytrion-enhanced 1-1024x768.jpg\|Old Stone Bridge and Cathedral of Regensburg\nFile:Walhalla aussen.jpg\|Walhalla temple in Donaustauf near Regensburg\nFile:Befreiungshalle-kelheim-aussen.jpg\|Befreiungshalle in Kelheim\nFile:Passau Inn Cathedral.JPG\|Cathedral and Oberhaus fortification in Passau\nFile:LandshutTrausnitz01.jpg\|Trausnitz castle, Landshut\nFile:Burghausen.jpg\|Burghausen Castle\nFile:A rathausplatz.jpg\|Townhall in Augsburg\nFile:Munich skyline.jpg\|Frauenkirche in Munich\nFile:Residenz Ansicht Hofgarten, München.jpg\| Residenz in Munich\nFile:Image-Schloss Nymphenburg Munich CC edit3.jpg\|Nymphenburg Palace in Munich\nFile:Freisinger Dom aussen 01.jpg\|Cathedral in Freising\nFile:Herrenchiem.JPG\|Herrenchiemsee Palace\nFile:Linderhof-1.jpg\|Linderhof Palace\nFile:Schloss Hohenschwangau.jpg\|Hohenschwangau Castle\nFile:Castle Neuschwanstein.jpg\|Neuschwanstein Castle\nFile:wieskirche boenisch okt 2003.jpg\|Wieskirche, Steingaden\nFile:Bartholomae-2005.jpg\|Church of St. Bartholomew at Königssee\n\n", "Many famous people have been born or lived in present-day Bavaria:\n '''Popes''' Pope Benedict XVI (baptismal name: '''Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger''')—a retired Pope of the Catholic Church; Pope Damasus II and Pope Victor II.\n* '''Painters''' Hans Holbein the Elder, Albrecht Dürer, Albrecht Altdorfer, Lucas Cranach, Carl Spitzweg, Franz von Lenbach, Franz von Stuck, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, Erwin Eisch, Gabriele Münter.\n* '''Classical Musicians''' Orlando di Lasso, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Leopold Mozart, Max Reger, Richard Wagner (originally from Saxony), Richard Strauss, Carl Orff, Johann Pachelbel and Theobald Boehm, the inventor of the modern flute, and countertenor Klaus Nomi.\n* '''Pop & other forms''' Songwriter Hans-Jürgen Buchner; Jazz musicians: Barbara Dennerlein and Klaus Doldinger (also film composer); Bands: Indie rock Sportfreunde Stiller and death metal Obscura.\n* '''Opera singers''' Jonas Kaufmann and Diana Damrau.\n* '''Writers''', '''poets''' and '''playwrights''' Hans Sachs, Jean Paul, Friedrich Rückert, August von Platen-Hallermünde, Frank Wedekind, Christian Morgenstern, Oskar Maria Graf, Bertolt Brecht, Lion Feuchtwanger, Thomas Mann and his sons Klaus and Golo Mann, Ludwig Thoma, Michael Ende.\n* '''Scientists''' Max Planck, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, and Werner Heisenberg, as well as Adam Ries, Joseph von Fraunhofer, Georg Ohm, Johannes Stark, Carl von Linde, Ludwig Prandtl, Rudolf Mössbauer, Lothar Rohde, Hermann Schwarz, Robert Huber, Martin Behaim, Levi Strauss, and Rudolf Diesel.\n* '''Physicians''' Max Joseph von Pettenkofer, Sebastian Kneipp and the neurologist Alois Alzheimer, who first described Alzheimer's Disease.\n* '''Politicians''' Leonard John Rose, Henry Kissinger\n* '''Football players''' Max Morlock, Karl Mai, Franz Beckenbauer, Sepp Maier, Gerd Müller, Paul Breitner, Bernd Schuster, Klaus Augenthaler, Lothar Matthäus, Philipp Lahm, Bastian Schweinsteiger, Holger Badstuber, Thomas Müller, Mario Götze, Dietmar Hamann and Stefan Reuter\n* '''Other sportspeople''' golfer Bernhard Langer and basketball player Dirk Nowitzki\n* '''Actors''' Werner Stocker, Helmut Fischer, Walter Sedlmayr, Gustl Bayrhammer, Ottfried Fischer, Ruth Drexel, Elmar Wepper, Fritz Wepper, Uschi Glas, Yank Azman.\n* '''Entertainers''' Siegfried Fischbacher\n* '''Film directors''' Helmut Dietl, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Bernd Eichinger, Joseph Vilsmaier, Hans Steinhoff and Werner Herzog.\n* '''Mysterious people''': Kaspar Hauser (the 19th century foundling), The Smith of Kochel (legend).\n* '''Legendary outlaws''' Mathias Kneißl, the legendary robber or Matthias Klostermayr, better known as Bavarian Hiasl.\n* '''Army officer and aristocrat''', co-conspirator of the 20 July plot Claus von Stauffenberg, born in early 20th century Swabia.\n* '''Automobile designer''' Peter Schreyer, born in Bad Reichenhall\n* '''Fashion designer''' Damir Doma, who shows men's and women's collection in Paris, grew up in Traunstein.\n* '''Entrepreneurs''' Charles Diebold, founder of Diebold; Levi Strauss\n", "\n* Outline of Germany\n* List of rulers of Bavaria\n* List of Premiers of Bavaria\n* Former countries in Europe after 1815\n* Extensive pictures of Bavaria in addition to those shown below are linked from in :Category:Bavaria, where they are organized (predominantly) by locale.\n", "\n", "\n\n* Official government website\n* Official website of Bayern Tourismus Marketing GmbH \n* Foreign Trade\n* statistics\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Coat of arms", "Geography", "Administrative divisions", "Government and politics", "Economy", "Demographics", "Culture", "Sports", "Historical buildings", "Bavarians", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Bavaria
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Brandenburg''' (; , Lower Sorbian: ''Bramborska'', ) is one of the sixteen federated states of Germany. It lies in the northeast of the country covering an area of 29,478 square kilometers and has 2.48 million inhabitants. The capital and largest city is Potsdam. Brandenburg surrounds but does not include the national capital and city-state Berlin forming a metropolitan area.\n\nOriginating in the medieval Northern March, the Margraviate of Brandenburg grew to become the core of the Kingdom of Prussia, which would later become the Free State of Prussia with part being the province of Brandenburg. Brandenburg is one of the federal states that were re-created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former East Germany and West Germany.\n", "\n\n\nIn late medieval and early modern times, Brandenburg was one of seven electoral states of the Holy Roman Empire, and, along with Prussia, formed the original core of the German Empire, the first unified German state. Governed by the Hohenzollern dynasty from 1415, it contained the future German capital Berlin. After 1618 the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were combined to form Brandenburg-Prussia, which was ruled by the same branch of the House of Hohenzollern. In 1701 the state was elevated as the Kingdom of Prussia. Franconian Nuremberg and Ansbach, Swabian Hohenzollern, the eastern European connections of Berlin, and the status of Brandenburg's ruler as prince-elector together were instrumental in the rise of that state.\n\n===Early Middle Ages===\n\nBrandenburg is situated in territory known in antiquity as Magna Germania, which reached to the Vistula river. By the 7th century, Slavic peoples are believed to have settled in the Brandenburg area. The Slavs expanded from the east, possibly driven from their homelands in present-day Ukraine and perhaps Belarus by the invasions of the Huns and Avars. They relied heavily on river transport. The two principal Slavic groups in the present-day area of Brandenburg were the Hevelli in the west and the Sprevane in the east.\n\nBeginning in the early 10th century, Henry the Fowler and his successors conquered territory up to the Oder River. Slavic settlements such as Brenna (Brandenburg an der Havel), Budusin (Bautzen), and Chośebuz (Cottbus) came under imperial control through the installation of margraves. Their main function was to defend and protect the eastern marches. In 948 Emperor Otto I established margraves to exert imperial control over the pagan Slavs west of the Oder River. Otto founded the Bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg. The Northern March was founded as a northeastern border territory of the Holy Roman Empire. However, a great uprising of Wends drove imperial forces from the territory of present-day Brandenburg in 983. The region returned to the control of Slavic leaders.\n\n===Late Middle Ages===\n\n\nDuring the 12th century, the Ottonian German kings and emperors re-established control over the mixed Slav-inhabited lands of present-day Brandenburg, although some Slavs like the Sorbs in Lusatia adapted to Germanization while retaining their distinctiveness. The Roman Catholic Church brought bishoprics which, with their walled towns, afforded protection from attacks for the townspeople. With the monks and bishops, the history of the town of Brandenburg an der Havel, which was the first center of the state of Brandenburg, began.\n\nEisenhardt Castle in Bad Belzig\n\nIn 1134, in the wake of a German crusade against the Wends, the German magnate, Albert the Bear, was granted the Northern March by the Emperor Lothar III. He formally inherited the town of Brandenburg and the lands of the Hevelli from their last Wendish ruler, Pribislav, in 1150. After crushing a force of Sprevane who occupied the town of Brandenburg in the 1150s, Albert proclaimed himself ruler of the new Margraviate of Brandenburg. Albert, and his descendants the Ascanians, then made considerable progress in conquering, colonizing, Christianizing, and cultivating lands as far east as the Oder. Within this region, Slavic and German residents intermarried. During the 13th century, the Ascanians began acquiring territory east of the Oder, later known as the Neumark (see also Altmark).\n\nIn 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end, and from 1323 up until 1415 Brandenburg was under the control of the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria, followed by the Luxembourg Dynasties. Under the Luxembourgs, the Margrave of Brandenburg gained the status of a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire. In the period 1373-1415, Brandenburg was a part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. In 1415, the Electorate of Brandenburg was granted by Emperor Sigismund to the House of Hohenzollern, which would rule until the end of World War I. The Hohenzollerns established their capital in Berlin, by then the economic center of Brandenburg.\n\n===16th and 17th centuries===\n\nBrandenburg's victory over Swedish forces at the Battle of Fehrbellin in 1675\nBrandenburg converted to Protestantism in 1539 in the wake of the Protestant Reformation, and generally did quite well in the 16th century, with the expansion of trade along the Elbe, Havel, and Spree Rivers. The Hohenzollerns expanded their territory by co-rulership since 1577 and acquiring the Duchy of Prussia in 1618, the Duchy of Cleves (1614) in the Rhineland, and territories in Westphalia. The result was a sprawling, disconnected country known as Brandenburg-Prussia that was in poor shape to defend itself during the Thirty Years' War.\n\nBeginning near the end of that devastating conflict, however, Brandenburg enjoyed a string of talented rulers who expanded their territory and power in Europe. The first of these was Frederick William, the so-called \"Great Elector\", who worked tirelessly to rebuild and consolidate the nation. He moved the royal residence to Potsdam. At the Treaty of Westphalia, his envoy Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal negotiated the acquisition of several important territories such as Halberstadt. Under the Treaty of Oliva Christoph Caspar von Blumenthal(son of the above) negotiated the incorporation of the Duchy of Prussia into the Hohenzollern inheritance.\n\n===Kingdom of Prussia and German Empire===\n\nSanssouci Palace in Potsdam, the former summer palace of Frederick the Great, today a World Heritage site\n\nWhen Frederick William died in 1688, he was followed by his son Frederick, third of that name in Brandenburg. As the lands that had been acquired in Prussia were outside the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick assumed (as Frederick I) the title of \"King in Prussia\" (1701). Although his self-promotion from margrave to king relied on his title to the Duchy of Prussia, Brandenburg was still the most important portion of the kingdom. However, this combined state is known as the Kingdom of Prussia.\n\nBrandenburg remained the core of the Kingdom of Prussia, and it was the site of the kingdom's capitals, Berlin and Potsdam. When Prussia was subdivided into provinces in 1815, the territory of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became the Province of Brandenburg, again subdivided into the government regions of Frankfurt and Potsdam. In 1881, the City of Berlin was separated from the Province of Brandenburg. However, industrial towns ringing Berlin lay within Brandenburg, and the growth of the region's industrial economy brought an increase in the population of the province. The Province of Brandenburg had an area of and a population of 2.6 million (1925). After World War II, the Neumark, the part of Brandenburg east of the Oder-Neisse Line, was transferred to Poland; and its native German population expelled. The remainder of the province became a state in the Soviet Zone of occupation in Germany when Prussia was dissolved in 1947.\n\n===East Germany ===\n\nSince the foundation of East Germany in 1949 Brandenburg formed one of its component states. The State of Brandenburg was completely dissolved in 1952 by the Socialist government of East Germany, doing away with all component states. The East German government then divided Brandenburg among several ''Bezirke'' or districts. (See Administrative division of the German Democratic Republic). Most of Brandenburg lay within the Bezirke of Cottbus, Frankfurt, or Potsdam, but parts of the former province passed to the Schwerin, Neubrandenburg and Magdeburg districts (town Havelberg). East Germany relied heavily on lignite (the lowest grade of coal) as an energy source, and lignite strip mines marred areas of southeastern Brandenburg. The industrial towns surrounding Berlin were important to the East German economy, while rural Brandenburg remained mainly agricultural.\n\n===Federal Republic of Germany===\nThe present State of Brandenburg was re-established on 3 October 1990 upon German reunification. The newly elected Landtag of Brandenburg first met on 26 October 1990. As in other former parts of East Germany, the lack of modern infrastructure and exposure to West Germany's competitive market economy brought widespread unemployment and economic difficulty. In the recent years, however, Brandenburg's infrastructure has been modernized and unemployment has slowly declined.\n\nIn 1995, the governments of Berlin and Brandenburg proposed to merge the states in order to form a new state with the name of \"Berlin-Brandenburg\", though some suggested calling the proposed new state \"Prussia\". The merger was rejected in a plebiscite in 1996 – while West Berliners voted for a merger, East Berliners and Brandenburgers voted against it.\n", "\nBrandenburg is bordered by Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in the north, Poland in the east, the Freistaat Sachsen in the south, Saxony-Anhalt in the west, and Lower Saxony in the northwest.\n\nThe Oder River forms a part of the eastern border, the Elbe River a portion of the western border. The main rivers in the state itself are the Spree and the Havel. In the southeast, there is a wetlands region called the Spreewald; it is the northernmost part of Lusatia, where the Sorbs, a Slavic people, still live. These areas are bilingual, i.e., German and Sorbian are both used.\n\n===Protected areas===\nBrandenburg is known for its well-preserved natural environment and its ambitious natural protection policies which began in the 1990s. 15 large protected areas were designated following Germany's reunification. Each of them is provided with state-financed administration and a park ranger staff, who guide visitors and work to ensure nature conservation. Most protected areas have visitor centers.\n\n'''National parks'''\nLower Oder Valley National Park (106 km²)\n\n'''Biosphere reserves'''\nThe Spreewald, a biosphere reserve by UNESCO\nSpreewald Biosphere Reserve ()\nSchorfheide-Chorin Biosphere Reserve ()\nRiver Landscape Elbe-Brandenburg Biosphere Reserve ()\n\n'''Nature parks'''\n* Barnim Nature Park ()\n* Dahme-Heideseen Nature Park ()\n* High Fläming Nature Park ()\n* Märkische Schweiz Nature Park ()\n* Niederlausitzer Heidelandschaft Nature Park ()\n* Niederlausitzer Landrücken Nature Park ()\n* Nuthe-Nieplitz Nature Park ()\n* Schlaube Valley Nature Parke ()\n* Uckermark Lakes Nature Park ()\n* Westhavelland Nature Park ()\n* Stechlin-Ruppiner Land Nature Park ()\n\n===Cities===\n\n20140118 xl Innenhof des Brandenburger Landtages-5782.JPG\|State capital Potsdam \nBrandenburg an der Havel Gesamtansicht.JPG\|Brandenburg an der Havel\nCottbus Stadt 55.jpg\|Cottbus\nEUV-FFO.JPG\|Frankfurt (Oder)\nSchloss Oranienburg - Jan 2013.jpg\|Oranienburg\n\n", "\n\nDevelopment of population from 1875 to 2010 within current borders. \n\n\nPopulation density in Berlin-Brandenburg in 2015\n\n\n '''Significant foreign born populations'''\n\n Nationality \n Population (2014)\n\n \n 14,802\n\n \n 10,832\n\n \n 7,556\n\n \n 3,578\n\n \n 3,344\n\n \n 2,868\n\n \n 2,764\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Religion===\n\n\nThe majority (79.8%) of Brandenburgers can be defined as non-religious, adherents of non-Christian religions or not adherents of the larger Christian denominations.\n\n17.1% of the Brandenburgers adhere to the local Evangelical Church in Germany (mostly the Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia), while 3.1% are Roman Catholic (mostly the Archdiocese of Berlin, and a minority in the Diocese of Görlitz). \n\n", "\n\n===Subdivisions===\n\nBrandenburg is divided into 14 rural districts (''Landkreise'') and four urban districts (''kreisfreie Städte''), shown with their population in 2011:\n\nAdministrative Divisions in Brandenburg\n\nDistrict\nPopulation\n\n20px Barnim\n176,953\n\n20px Dahme-Spreewald\n161,556\n\n20px Elbe-Elster\n110,291\n\n20px Havelland\n155,226\n\n20px Märkisch-Oderland\n189,673\n\n20px Oberhavel\n203,508\n\n20px Oberspreewald-Lausitz\n120,023\n\n20px Oder-Spree\n182,798\n\n20px Ostprignitz-Ruppin\n102,108\n\n20px Potsdam-Mittelmark\n205,678\n\n20px Prignitz\n80,872\n\n20px Spree-Neiße\n124,662\n\n20px Teltow-Fläming\n161,546\n\n20px Uckermark\n128,174\n\n20px Stadt Brandenburg an der Havel\n71,534\n\n20px Stadt Cottbus\n102,129\n\n20px Stadt. Frankfurt (Oder)\n60,002\n\n20px Stadt Potsdam\n158,902\n\n\n=== Government===\n\nThe parliament building (Landtag) in the capital Potsdam\nDietmar Woidke, Minister-President\n\nThe most recent election took place on 14 September 2014. The coalition government formed by the Social Democrats and the Left Party led by Dietmar Woidke (SPD) was re-elected. The next ordinary state election is scheduled for 2019.\n\n\n", "===Transport===\nBerlin Schönefeld Airport (IATA code:SXF) is the largest airport in Brandenburg. It is the second largest international airport of the Berlin-Brandenburg metropolitan region and is located southeast of central Berlin in Schönefeld. The airport is a base for Condor, easyJet and Ryanair. In 2016, SXF handled 11.652.922 Passengers (+36,7%).\n\nIt is planned to incorporate Schönefeld's existing infrastructure and terminals into the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER), which is scheduled to open not before the end of 2017. The new BER will have an initial capacity of 35-40 million passengers a year. Due to increasing air traffic in Berlin and Brandenburg plans for airport expansions are in the making (as of 2017).\n", "The University of Potsdam campus.\n\n===Education===\nIn 2016, around 49.000 students were enlisted Brandenburg universities and higher education facilities. The largest institution is the University of Potsdam, located southwest of Berlin.\n\n===Music===\n\nThe ''Brandenburg concerti'' by Johann Sebastian Bach (original title: ''Six Concerts à plusieurs instruments'') are a collection of six instrumental works presented by Bach to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, in 1721 (though probably composed earlier). They are widely regarded as among the finest musical compositions of the Baroque era and are among the composer's best known works.\n\n===Notable people ===\n* Theodor Fontane \n* Karl Friedrich Schinkel \n* Peter Joseph Lenné\n", "\nOutline of Germany\n Former countries in Europe after 1815\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n* Official website \n* Brandenburg Tourist Board\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", " Demography ", "Politics ", "Economy", "Culture", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Brandenburg
[ "\n\n\nReichstag building\n\nThe '''Bundestag''' (, \"Federal Diet\") is a constitutional and legislative body at the federal level in Germany. For its similar function, it is often described as a lower house of parliament along the lines of the US House of Representatives and the Canadian or the British House of Commons. The German constitution, however, does not define the Bundestag and the Bundesrat as the lower and upper houses of a bicameral legislature.\n\nThe Bundestag was established by chapter III of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Constitution) in 1949 as one of the legislative bodies of Germany and thus the historical successor to the earlier Reichstag.\n\nSince 1999 it has met in the Reichstag Building in Berlin. Norbert Lammert is the current President of the Bundestag. Members of the Bundestag (''Mitglieder des Bundestages'') are usually elected every four years by all adult German citizens in a mixed system of constituency voting and list voting. There are currently 631 seats; however, one – belonging to the CDU – remains vacant. The Election Day, however, can be earlier if the Federal Chancellor (''Bundeskanzler'') loses a vote of no confidence and asks the Federal President (''Bundespräsident'') to dissolve the Bundestag in order to hold new general elections.\n\nIn the 19th century the name Bundestag was the unofficial designation for the assembly of the sovereigns and mayors of the Monarchies and Free Cities which formed the German Confederation (1815–1866). Its seat was in the Free City of Frankfurt on the Main.", "With the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 and the founding of the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) in 1871, the Reichstag was established as the German parliament in Berlin, which was the capital of the then Kingdom of Prussia (the largest and most influential state in both the Confederation and the empire). Two decades later, the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage (and not the three-class electoral system prevailing in Prussia until 1918). The Reichstag did not participate in the appointment of the Chancellor until the parliamentary reforms of October 1918. After the Revolution of November 1918 and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution, women were given the right to vote for (and serve in) the Reichstag, and the parliament could use the no-confidence vote to force the chancellor or any cabinet member to resign. In March 1933, one month after the Reichstag fire, the then president, Paul von Hindenburg, a retired war hero, gave Adolf Hitler ultimate power through the Decree for the Protection of People and State and the Enabling Act of 1933, although Hitler remained at the post of Federal Government Chancellor (though he called himself the Führer). After this the Reichstag met only rarely, usually at the ''Krolloper'' (Kroll Opera House) following the Reichstag fire starting in 1933 to unanimously rubber-stamp the decisions of the government. It last convened on 26 April 1942.\n\nWith the new constitution of 1949, the Bundestag was established as the new (West) German parliament. Because West Berlin was not officially under the jurisdiction of the Constitution, a legacy of the Cold War, the Bundestag met in Bonn in several different buildings, including (provisionally) a former water works facility. In addition, owing to the city's legal status, citizens of West Berlin were unable to vote in elections to the Bundestag, and were instead represented by 22 non-voting delegates chosen by the House of Representatives, the city's legislature.\n\nThe Bundeshaus in Bonn is the former Parliament Building of Germany. The sessions of the German Bundestag were held there from 1949 until its move to Berlin in 1999. Today it houses the International Congress Centre Bundeshaus Bonn and in the north areas the branch office of the Bundesrat (\"Federal Council\", the Upper House of the German Federal Parliament representing the ''Länder'', i.e. the federated States). The southern areas became part of German offices for the United Nations in 2008.\n\nThe ''German Unity Flag'' is a national memorial to German Reunification that was raised on 3 October 1990. It waves in front of the Reichstag building in Berlin, seat of the Bundestag.\nThe former Reichstag building housed a history exhibition (Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte) and served occasionally as a conference center. The Reichstag building was also occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the Bundesversammlung (Federal Assembly), the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets harshly protested against the use of the Reichstag building by institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany and tried to disturb the sittings by flying supersonic jets close to the building.\n\nSince 1999, the German parliament has again assembled in Berlin in its original Reichstag building, which was built in 1888 based on the plans of German architect Paul Wallot and underwent a significant renovation under the lead of British architect Sir Norman Foster. Parliamentary committees and subcommittees, public hearings and faction meetings take place in three auxiliary buildings, which surround the Reichstag building: the Jakob-Kaiser-Haus, Paul-Löbe-Haus and Marie-Elisabeth-Lüders-Haus.\n\nIn 2005, a small aircraft crashed close to the German parliament. It was then decided to ban private air traffic over Central Berlin.\n", "Together with the Bundesrat, the Bundestag is the legislative branch of the German political system.\n\nAlthough most legislation is initiated by the executive branch, the Bundestag considers the legislative function its most important responsibility, concentrating much of its energy on assessing and amending the government's legislative program. The committees (see below) play a prominent role in this process. Plenary sessions provide a forum for members to engage in public debate on legislative issues before them, but they tend to be well attended only when significant legislation is being considered.\n\nThe Bundestag members are the only federal officials directly elected by the public; the Bundestag in turn elects the Chancellor and, in addition, exercises oversight of the executive branch on issues of both substantive policy and routine administration. This check on executive power can be employed through binding legislation, public debates on government policy, investigations, and direct questioning of the chancellor or cabinet officials. For example, the Bundestag can conduct a question hour ''(Fragestunde),'' in which a government representative responds to a previously submitted written question from a member. Members can ask related questions during the question hour. The questions can concern anything from a major policy issue to a specific constituent's problem. Use of the question hour has increased markedly over the past forty years, with more than 20,000 questions being posed during the 1987-90 term. Understandably, the opposition parties are active in exercising the parliamentary right to scrutinize government actions.\n\nConstituent service does also take place in the form of the Petition Committee. In 2004, the Petition Committee received over 18,000 complaints from citizens and was able to negotiate a mutually satisfactory solution to more than half of them. In 2005, as a pilot of the potential of internet petitions, a version of e-Petitioner was produced for the Bundestag. This was a collaborative project involving The Scottish Parliament, International Teledemocracy Centre and the Bundestag ‘Online Services Department’. The system was formally launched on 1 September 2005, and in 2008 the Bundestag moved to a new system based on its evaluation.\n", "The Bundestag is elected for four years, and new elections must be held between 46 and 48 months after the beginning of its electoral term. Unless the Bundestag is dissolved prematurely, its term ends when the next Bundestag convenes, which must occur within 30 days of the election.\nPrior to 1976, there could be a period where one Bundestag had been dissolved and the next Bundestag could not be convened; during this period, the rights of the Bundestag were exercised by a so-called \"Permanent Committee\".\n\n\n", "Members serve four-year terms, with elections held every four years, or earlier in the relatively rare case that the Bundestag is dissolved prematurely by the president. The Bundestag can be dissolved by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor if the latter has lost a vote of confidence in the Bundestag, if the recommendation is made and accepted before the Bundestag acts to elect a new Chancellor. This has happened three times: 1972 under Chancellor Willy Brandt, 1983 under Chancellor Helmut Kohl and 2005 under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. The procedures for these situations are governed by Articles 67 and 68 of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Law regarding the election procedure itself is the Federal Election Act 1956 (Bundeswahlgesetz/BWahlG)\n\nAll candidates must be at least eighteen years old; there are no term limits. The election uses the MMP electoral system. In addition, the Bundestag has a minimum threshold of either 5% of the national party vote or three (directly elected) constituency representatives for a party to gain additional representation through the system of proportional representation. Thus, small minority parties cannot easily enter the Bundestag and prevent the formation of stable majority governments as they could under the Weimar constitution.\n\nThe most recent election, the German federal election, 2017, was held on 24 September 2017.\n\n===Distribution of seats in the Bundestag===\n\nBundestag ballot: constituency vote on left, party list (showing top five list candidates) vote on right\nHalf of the Members of the Bundestag are elected directly from 299 constituencies (first-past-the-post system), the other half are elected from the parties’ Land lists in such a way as to achieve proportional representation for the total Bundestag (if possible).\n\nAccordingly, each voter has two votes in the elections to the Bundestag. The first vote, allowing voters to elect their local representatives to the Bundestag, decides which candidates are sent to Parliament from the constituencies.\n\nThe second vote is cast for a party list; it determines the relative strengths of the parties represented in the Bundestag.\n\nAt least 598 Members of the Bundestag are elected in this way. Parties that gain more than 5% of the second votes or win at least 3 direct mandates are allocated seats in the Bundestag in proportion to the number of votes it has received (d'Hondt method until 1987, largest remainder method until the 2005 election, now Sainte-Laguë method).\n\nIn addition to this, there are certain circumstances in which some candidates win what are known as overhang seats when the seats are being distributed. If a party has gained more direct mandates in a Land than it is entitled to according to the results of the second vote, it does not forfeit these mandates because all directly elected candidates are guaranteed a seat in the Bundestag. The other parties are then compensated by getting additional seats as well, the ''balance seats'', so proportionality is preserved.\n", "\n", "Initial distribution of seats in the 17th Bundestag.\nChancellor Angela Merkel at a debate in the plenary of the German Bundestag, 2014\n\n'''Distribution of seats in the 17th Bundestag:'''\n\n +\n CDU and CSU:\n 237 \n (38.1%)\n including 22 overhang seats\n\n +\n SPD:\n 146 \n (23.5%)\n\n\n +\n FDP:\n 93 \n (15%)\n\n\n +\n The Left:\n 76 \n (12.2%)\n\n\n +\n Alliance '90/Greens:\n 68 \n (10.9%)\n\n\n\n\n\nSee the List of Bundestag Members for lists of changes and current members.\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" cellspacing=\"1\" cellpadding=\"2\" border=\"0\"\n '''Seat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session)'''\n\n Bundestag\n Session\n Seats\n CDU/CSU\n SPD\n FDP\n Alliance '90 /The Greens1\n The Left2\n German Party / Alternative for Germany\n Others''Sonstige''\n\n'''1st Bundestag''' \n '''1949–1953'''\n 402 \n 139 \n 131 \n 52 \n – \n – \n 17 \n 633\n\n '''2nd Bundestag''' \n '''1953–1957'''\n 487 \n 243 \n 151 \n 48 \n – \n – \n 15 \n 304\n\n '''3rd Bundestag''' \n '''1957–1961'''\n 497 \n 270 \n 169 \n 41 \n – \n – \n 17 \n –\n\n '''4th Bundestag''' \n '''1961–1965'''\n 499 \n 242 \n 190 \n 67 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''5th Bundestag''' \n '''1965–1969'''\n 496 \n 245 \n 202 \n 49 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''6th Bundestag''' \n '''1969–1972'''\n 496 \n 242 \n 224 \n 30 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''7th Bundestag''' \n '''1972–1976'''\n 496 \n 225 \n 230 \n 41 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''8th Bundestag''' \n '''1976–1980'''\n 496 \n 243 \n 214 \n 39 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''9th Bundestag''' \n '''1980–1983'''\n 497 \n 226 \n 218 \n 53 \n – \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''10th Bundestag''' \n '''1983–1987'''\n 498 \n 244 \n 193 \n 34 \n 27 \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''11th Bundestag''' \n '''1987–1990'''\n 497 \n 223 \n 186 \n 46 \n 42 \n – \n – \n –\n\n '''12th Bundestag''' \n '''1990–1994'''\n 662 \n 319 \n 239 \n 79 \n 8 \n 17 \n – \n –\n\n '''13th Bundestag''' \n '''1994–1998'''\n 672 \n 294 \n 252 \n 47 \n 49 \n 30 \n – \n –\n\n '''14th Bundestag''' \n '''1998–2002'''\n 669 \n 245 \n 298 \n 43 \n 47 \n 36 \n – \n –\n\n '''15th Bundestag''' \n '''2002–2005'''\n 603 \n 248 \n 251 \n 47 \n 55 \n 2 \n – \n –\n\n '''16th Bundestag''' \n '''2005–2009'''\n 614 \n 226 \n 222 \n 61 \n 51 \n 54 \n – \n –\n\n '''17th Bundestag''' \n '''2009–2013'''\n 622 \n 239 \n 146 \n 93 \n 68 \n 76 \n – \n –\n\n '''18th Bundestag''' \n '''2013–2017'''\n 630 \n 3105 \n 192 \n – \n 63 \n 64 \n – \n –\n\n '''19th Bundestag''' \n '''2017- '''\n 709 \n 246 \n 153 \n 80 \n 67 \n 69 \n 94 \n –\n\n\n1 1983 to 1994 The Greens and 1990 to 1994 Alliance 90, since 1994 Alliance 90/The Greens\n2 1990 to 2005 PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism), 2005 to 2007 The Left Party.PDS, since 2007 The Left\n3 BP 17, KPD 15, WAV 12, Centre Party 10, DKP-DRP 5, SSW 1, Independents 3\n4 GB-BHE 27, Centre Party 3\n5 Vacant seat as of 04.09.2015 means the CDU/CSU reduced to 310 from 311\n\nSeat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session). The graph shows not the absolute number of seats, but rather the relation of the number of seats a party has to the overall number of seats in that session, in percent. The colours stand for the following parties: Black: CDU/CSU, red: SPD, yellow: FDP, green: Greens, pink: PDS/Left Party, brown: German Party, grey: others.\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n+ Presidents of the Bundestag\n\n\nName\nParty\nBeginning of term\nEnd of term\nLength of term\n\n 1\n Erich Köhler* (1892–1958)\nCDU\n7 September 1949\n18 October 1950\n\n\n 2\n Hermann Ehlers (1904–1954)\nCDU\n19 October 1950\n29 October 1954\n\n\n 3\n Eugen Gerstenmaier* (1906–1986)\nCDU\n16 November 1954\n31 January 1969\n\n\n 4\n Kai-Uwe von Hassel (1913–1997)\nCDU\n5 February 1969\n13 December 1972\n\n\n5\nAnnemarie Renger† (1919–2008)\nSPD\n13 December 1972\n14 December 1976\n\n\n 6\n Karl Carstens§ (1914–1992)\nCDU\n14 December 1976\n31 May 1979\n\n\n 7\n Richard Stücklen (1916–2002)\nCSU\n31 May 1979\n29 March 1983\n\n\n 8\n Rainer Barzel* (1924–2006)\nCDU\n29 March 1983\n25 October 1984\n\n\n 9\n Philipp Jenninger* (b. 1932)\nCDU\n5 November 1984\n11 November 1988\n\n\n 10\nRita Süssmuth (b. 1937)\nCDU\n25 November 1988\n26 October 1998\n\n\n11\nWolfgang Thierse (b. 1943)\nSPD\n26 October 1998\n18 October 2005\n\n\n 12\n Norbert Lammert (b. 1948)\nCDU\n18 October 2005\npresent\n\n\nresigned for medical reasons\ndied in office\nresigned for political reasons\n†first woman to hold the post\n§ resigned when he became President of Germany\n", "The ''Marie-Elisabeth-Lüders-Haus'', one of the official buildings of the complex\n\n===Parliamentary groups===\nThe most important organisational structures within the Bundestag are parliamentary groups (''Fraktionen''; sing. ''Fraktion''), which are traditionally formed by political parties represented in the chamber which incorporate more than 5% of the Bundestag legislators; CDU and CSU have always formed a single united ''Fraktion''. The size of a party's ''Fraktion'' determines the extent of its representation on legislative committees, the time slots allotted for speaking, the number of committee chairs it can hold, and its representation in executive bodies of the Bundestag. The ''Fraktionen,'' not the members, receive the bulk of government funding for legislative and administrative activities.\n\nThe leadership of each ''Fraktion'' consists of a parliamentary party leader, several deputy leaders, and an executive committee. The leadership's major responsibilities are to represent the ''Fraktion,'' enforce party discipline, and orchestrate the party's parliamentary activities. The members of each ''Fraktion'' are distributed among working groups focused on specific policy-related topics such as social policy, economics, and foreign policy. The ''Fraktion'' meets every Tuesday afternoon in the weeks in which the Bundestag is in session to consider legislation before the Bundestag and formulate the party's position on it.\n\nParties which do not fulfill the criterion for being a ''Fraktion'' but have at least three seats by direct elections (i.e. which have at least three MPs representing a certain electoral district) in the Bundestag can be granted the status of a ''group'' of the Bundestag. This applied to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) from 1990-1998. This status entails some privileges which are in general less than those of a ''Fraktion''. In the current Bundestag, there are no such groups (the PDS had only two MPs in parliament until 2005 and could thus not even considered a group anymore; the party—now The Left—has now returned to the Bundestag with full ''Fraktion'' status).\n\n===Executive bodies===\nThe Bundestag's executive bodies include the Council of Elders and the Presidium. The council consists of the Bundestag leadership, together with the most senior representatives of each ''fraktion'', with the number of these representatives tied to the strength of the Parliamentary groups in the chamber. The council is the coordination hub, determining the daily legislative agenda and assigning committee chairpersons based on Parliamentary group representation. The council also serves as an important forum for interparty negotiations on specific legislation and procedural issues. The Presidium is responsible for the routine administration of the Bundestag, including its clerical and research activities. It consists of the chamber's president (usually elected from the largest ''fraktion'') and vice presidents (one from each ''fraktion'').\n\n===Committees===\nMost of the legislative work in the Bundestag is the product of standing committees, which exist largely unchanged throughout one legislative period. The number of committees approximates the number of federal ministries, and the titles of each are roughly similar (e.g., defense, agriculture, and labor). There are, as of the current eighteenth Bundestag, 23 standing committees. The distribution of committee chairs and the membership of each committee reflect the relative strength of the various Parliamentary groups in the chamber. In the current eighteenth Bundestag, the CDU/CSU chaired twelve committees, the SPD seven, The Left (Die Linke) two, and the Greens (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen), two. Members of the opposition party can chair a significant number of standing committees (e.g. The budget committee is always chaired by the biggest opposition party). These committees have either a small staff or no staff at all.\n", "As is the case with some other parliaments, the Bundestag is subject to the ''principle of discontinuation'', meaning that a newly elect Bundestag is legally regarded to be a body and entity completely different from the previous Bundestag. This leads to the result, that any motion, application or action submitted to the previous Bundestag, e.g. a bill referred to the Bundestag by the Federal Government, is regarded as void by non-decision (German terminology: \"''Die Sache fällt der Diskontinuität anheim''\"). Thus any bill that has not been decided upon by the beginning of the new electoral period must be brought up by the government again, if it aims to uphold the motion, this procedure in effect delaying the passage of the bill. Furthermore, any newly elected Bundestag will have to freshly decide on the rules of procedure (''Geschäftsordnung''), which is done by a formal decision of taking over such rules from the preceding ''Bundestag'' by reference.\n\nAny Bundestag is considered dissolved only once a newly elected Bundestag has actually gathered in order to constitute itself (Article 39 sec. 1 sentence 2 of the Basic Law), which has to happen within 30 days of its election (Article 39 sec. 2 of the Basic Law). Thus, it may happen (and has happened) that the old Bundestag gathers and makes decisions even after the election of a new Bundestag that has not gathered in order to constitute itself. For example, elections to the 16th Bundestag took place on 18 September 2005, but the 15th Bundestag still convened after election day to make some decisions on German military engagement abroad, and was entitled to do so, as the newly elected 16th Bundestag did not convene for the first time until 18 October 2005.\n\n==See also==\n Bundesrat (Germany)\n* Länderkammer\n* Parliamentwatch\n* Politics of Germany\n", "\n", "\n* \n* German election database\n* Map of constituencies\n* Distribution of power\n* Plenary speech search engine\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Tasks", " Electoral term ", "Election", "Election result", "Distribution of seats by party in the 17th Bundestag (2009 to 2013)", "List of Bundestag by session", "Presidents since 1949", "Organisation", "Principle of discontinuation", "References", "External links" ]	Bundestag
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''BMW AG''' is a Germany-based company which currently produces automobiles and motorcycles, and produced aircraft engines until 1945.\n\nThe company was founded in 1916 and has its headquarters in Munich, Bavaria. BMW produces motor vehicles in Germany, Brazil, China, India, South Africa and the United States. In 2015, BMW was the world's twelfth largest producer of motor vehicles, with 2,279,503 vehicles produced. The Quandt family are long-term shareholders of the company, with the remaining stocks owned by public float.\n\nAutomobiles are marketed under the brands BMW (with sub-brands BMW M for performance models and BMW i for plug-in electric cars), Mini and Rolls-Royce. Motorcycles are marketed under the brand BMW Motorrad.\n\nThe company has significant motorsport history, especially in touring cars, Formula 1, sports cars and the Isle of Man TT.\n", "\"BMW AG\" is an abbreviation for the German name \"Bayerische Motoren Werke Aktiengesellschaft\" (). \"Bayerische Motoren Werke\" translates into English as \"Bavarian Motor Works\", while Aktiengesellschaft signifies it is a corporation owned by shareholders.\n", "\n\nBMW Headquarters in Munich. The towers and museum are visible in the back right.\nBMW Isetta with a front opening door\nBMW model 3/15PS (BMW Dixi) from 1930\nBMW 132 engine\nBMW 801 engine\n=== 1916—1923: Aircraft engine production ===\nBMW's origins can be traced back to three separate German companies: Rapp Motorenwerke, Bayerische Flugzeugwerke and Automobilwerk Eisenach. The history of the name itself begins with Rapp Motorenwerke, an aircraft engine manufacturer. In April 1917, following the departure of the founder Karl Friedrich Rapp, the company was renamed Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW).. BMW's first product was the BMW IIIa aircraft engine. The IIIa engine was known for good fuel economy and high-altitude performance. The resulting orders for IIIa engines from the German military caused rapid expansion for BMW.\n\nAfter the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. To maintain in business, BMW produced farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. In 1922, former major shareholder Camillo Castiglioni purchased the rights to the name BMW, which led to the company descended from Rapp Motorenwerke being renamed Süddeutsche Bremse AG (known today as Knorr-Bremse). Castiglioni was also an investor in another aircraft company, called \"Bayerische Flugzeugwerke\", which he renamed BMW. The disused factory of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke was re-opened to produce engines for busses, trucks, farm equipment and pumps, under the brand name BMW. BMW's corporate history considers the founding date of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (7 March 1916) to be the birth of the company.\n\n=== 1923—1939: Motorcycle and car production ===\nAs the restrictions of the Armistice Treaty began to be lifted, BMW began production of motorcycles in 1923, with the R32 model.\n\nBMW's production of automobiles began in 1928, when the company purchased the Automobilwerk Eisenach car company. Automobilwerk Eisenach's current model was the Dixi 3/15, a licensed copy of the Austin 7 which had begun production in 1927. Following the takeover, the Dixi 3/15 became the BMW 3/15, BMW's first production car.\n\nIn 1920, the BMW 3/20 became the first BMW automobile designed entirely by BMW. It was powered by a four-cylinder engine, which BMW designed based on the Austin 7 engine.\n\nBMW's first automotive straight-six engine was released in 1933, in the BMW 303. Throughout the 1930s, BMW expanded its model range to include sedans, coupes, convertibles and sports cars.\n\n=== 1939—1945: World War II ===\nWith German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour: foreign civilians, prisoners of war and inmates of the concentration camp Dachau . Among its successful World War II engine designs were the BMW 132 and BMW 801 air-cooled radial engines, and the pioneering BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet, which powered the tiny, 1944–1945–era jet-powered \"emergency fighter\", the Heinkel He 162 ''Spatz''. The BMW 003 jet engine was first tested as a prime power plant in the first prototype of the Messerschmitt Me 262, the Me 262 V1, but in 1942 tests the BMW prototype engines failed on takeoff with only the standby Junkers Jumo 210 nose-mounted piston engine powering it to a safe landing. The few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km/h (497 mph). The first-ever four-engine jet aircraft ever flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance-bomber, which used BMW 003 jets for power. Through 1944 the 003's reliability improved, making it a suitable power plant for air frame designs competing for the ''Jägernotprogramm'''s light fighter production contract. which was won by the Heinkel He 162 ''Spatz'' design. The BMW 003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944–45, as the GT 101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the ''Luftwaffe'', the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built.\n\n=== 1945—1959: Post-war rebuilding ===\nDuring World War II, many BMW production facilities had been heavily bombed. BMW's facilities in East Germany were seized by the Soviet Government and the remaining facilities were banned by the Allies from producing motorcycles or automobiles. During this ban, BMW used basic secondhand and salvaged equipment to make pots and pans, later expanding to other kitchen supplies and bicycles.\n\nIn 1947, BMW was granted permission to resume motorcycle production and its first post-war motorcycle - the R24 - was released in 1948. BMW was still forbidden from producing automobiles, however the Bristol Aeroplane Company (BAC) was producing cars in England based on BMW's pre-war models, using plans that BAC had taken from BMW's German offices. \n\nProduction of automobiles resumed in 1952, with the BMW 501 large sedan. Throughout the 1950s, BMW expanded their model range with sedans, coupes, convertibles and sports cars. In 1954, the BMW 502 was BMW's first to use a V8 engine. To provide an affordable model, BMW began production of the Isetta micro-car (under licence from Iso) in 1955. Two years later, the four-seat BMW 600 was based on a lengthened version of the Isetta design. In 1959, the BMW 600 was replaced by the larger BMW 700 coupe/sedan.\n\n=== 1959—1968: Near bankruptcy and New Class ===\nBy 1959, BMW was in debt and losing money. The Isetta was selling well but with small profit margins. Their 501-based luxury sedans were not selling well enough to be profitable and were becoming increasingly outdated. Their 503 coupé and 507 roadster were too expensive to be profitable. Their 600, a four-seater based on the Isetta, was selling poorly. The motorcycle market imploded in the mid-1950s with increased affluence turning Germans away from motorcycles and toward cars. BMW had sold their Allach plant to MAN in 1954. American Motors and the Rootes Group had both tried to acquire BMW.\n\nAt BMW's annual general meeting on 9 December 1959, Dr. Hans Feith, chairman of BMW's supervisory board, proposed a merger with Daimler-Benz. The dealers and small shareholders opposed this suggestion and rallied around a counter-proposal by Dr. Friedrich Mathern, which gained enough support to stop the merger. At that time, the Quandt Group, led by half-brothers Herbert and Harald Quandt, had recently increased their holdings in BMW and had become their largest shareholder. In 1960, the development program began for a new range of models, called the \"Neue Klasse\" (New Class) project. The resulting New Class four-door sedans, introduced in 1962, are credited for saving the company financially and establishing BMW's identity as a producer of leading sports sedans.\n\nIn 1965, the New Class range was expanded with the 2000 C and 2000 CS luxury coupes. The range was further expanded in 1966 with the iconic BMW 02 Series compact coupes.\n\nBMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were briefly badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. It was reputed that the acquisition was mainly to gain access to Glas' development of the timing belt with an overhead camshaft in automotive applications, although some saw Glas' Dingolfing plant as another incentive. However, this factory was outmoded and BMW's biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, a stock of highly qualified engineers and other personnel. The Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW.\n\n=== 1968—1978: New Six, 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series ===\nIn 1968, BMW began production of its first straight-six engine since World War II. This engine coincided with the launch of the New Six large sedans (the predecessor to the 7 Series) and New Six CS large coupes (the predecessor to the 6 Series).\n\nThe first 5 Series range of mid-size sedans were introduced in 1972, to replace the New Class sedans. The 5 Series platform was also used for the 6 Series coupes, which were introduced in 1976. In 1975, the first model of the iconic 3 Series range of compact sedans/coupes was introduced. The 7 Series large sedans were introduced in 1978.\n\n=== 1978—present ===\nIn 1992, BMW acquired a large stake in California-based industrial design studio DesignworksUSA, which they fully acquired in 1995. In 1994, BMW bought the British Rover Group (which at the time consisted of the Rover, Land Rover,Mini and MG brands as well as the rights to defunct brands including Austin and Morris), and owned it for six years. By 2000, Rover was incurring huge losses and BMW decided to sell the combine. The MG and Rover brands were sold to the Phoenix Consortium to form MG Rover, while Land Rover was taken over by Ford. BMW, meanwhile, retained the rights to build the new Mini, which was launched in 2001.\n\nChief designer Chris Bangle announced his departure from BMW in February 2009, after serving on the design team for nearly seventeen years. He was replaced by Adrian van Hooydonk, Bangle's former right-hand man. Bangle was known for his radical designs such as the 2002 7 Series and the 2002 Z4. In July 2007, the production rights for Husqvarna Motorcycles was purchased by BMW for a reported 93 million euros. BMW Motorrad plans to continue operating Husqvarna Motorcycles as a separate enterprise. All development, sales and production activities, as well as the current workforce, have remained in place at its present location at Varese.\n\nIn June 2012, BMW was listed as the #1 most reputable company in the world by Forbes.com. Rankings are based upon aspects such as \"people's willingness to buy, recommend, work for, and invest in a company is driven 60% by their perceptions of the company and only 40% by their perceptions of their products.\"\n", "BMW plant in Leipzig, Germany: Spot welding of BMW 3 series car bodies with KUKA industrial robots\n\nBMW produces complete automobile at its factories in Germany (Munich, Dingolfing, Regensburg and Leipzig), United States (Greer), South Africa (Rosslyn) and China (Shenyang). BMW also has local assembly operation using complete knock down components in Thailand, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, and India, for 3, 5, 7 series and X3.\n\nIn 2006, the BMW group (including Mini and Rolls-Royce) produced 1,366,838 four-wheeled vehicles, which were manufactured in five countries. In 2010, it manufactured 1,481,253 four-wheeled vehicles and 112,271 motorcycles (under both the BMW and Husqvarna brands).\n\nBy 2011, about 56% of BMW-brand vehicles produced are powered by petrol engines and the remaining 44% are powered by diesel engines. Of those petrol vehicles, about 27% are four-cylinder models and about nine percent are eight-cylinder models. On average, 9,000 vehicles per day exit BMW plants, and 63% are transported by rail.\n\nAnnual production since 2005 is as follows:\n\n\nYear!!BMW!!MINI!!Rolls-Royce!!Motorcycle\n\n2005\n1,122,308 \n200,119 \n692 \n92,013\n\n2006\n1,179,317 \n186,674 \n847 \n103,759\n\n2007\n1,302,774 \n237,700 \n1,029 \n104,396\n\n2008\n1,203,482 \n235,019 \n1,417 \n118,452\n\n2009\n1,043,829 \n213,670 \n918 \n93,243\n\n2010\n1,236,989 \n241,043 \n3,221 \n112,271\n\n2011\n1,440,315 \n294,120 \n3,725 \n110,360\n\n2012\n1,547,057 \n311,490 \n3,279 \n113,811\n\n2013\n1,699,835 \n303,177 \n3,354 \n110,127\n\n2014\n1,838,268 \n322,803 \n4,495 \n133,615\n\n2015\n1,933,647 \n342,008 \n3,848 \n151,004\n\n\n", "Vehicles sold in all markets according to BMW's annual reports.\n\n\n\n Year !! BMW !! MINI !! Rolls-Royce !! Motorcycle\n\n 2005 \n 1,126,768 \n 200,428 \n 797 \n 97,474\n\n 2006 \n 1,185,089 \n 188,077 \n 805 \n 100,064\n\n 2007 \n 1,276,793 \n 222,875 \n 1,010 \n 102,467\n\n 2008 \n 1,202,239 \n 232,425 \n 1,212 \n 115,196\n\n 2009 \n 1,068,770 \n 216,538\n 1,002 \n 100,358\n\n 2010 \n 1,224,280 \n 234,175 \n 2,711 \n 110,113\n\n 2011 \n 1,380,384 \n 285,060 \n 3,538 \n 113,572\n\n 2012 \n 1,540,085 \n 301,525 \n 3,575 \n 117,109\n\n 2013 \n 1,655,138 \n 305,030 \n 3,630 \n 115,215\n\n 2014 \n 1,811,719 \n 302,183 \n 4,063 \n 123,495\n\n 2015 \n 1,905,234 \n 338,466 \n 3,785 \n 136,963*\n\n Since 2008, motorcycle productions and sales figures include Husqvarna models.\n Excluding Husqvarna, sales volume up to 2013: 59,776 units.\n\nIn China, BMW sold 415,200 vehicles between January and November 2014, through a network of over 440 BMW stores and 100 Mini stores.\n", "\nR32 motorcycle, the first BMW motor vehicle.\nThe 2015 BMW R1200RT\nBMW began production of motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I. Its motorcycle brand is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle after the failed Helios and Flink, was the \"R32\" in 1923, though production originally began in 1921. This had a \"boxer\" twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air-flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single-cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMW's are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series.\n\nDuring the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a sidecar attached. Having a unique design copied from the Zündapp KS750, its sidecar wheel was also motor-driven. Combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the Jeep.\n\nIn 1982, came the K Series, shaft drive but water-cooled and with either three or four cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines.\n\nIn the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1,170 cc and enhanced performance to for the R1200GS, compared to of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing , respectively.\n\nIn 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It had an engine producing , derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team, and is lighter than previous K models. Innovations include electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork that BMW calls Duolever.\n\nBMW introduced anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles pave the way for the introduction of electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology later in the 2007 model year.\n\nBMW has been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then they switched to an Earles fork, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (compare with the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm).\nSome BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles fork, the Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking.\n\nBMW Group, on 31 January 2013, announced that Pierer Industrie AG has bought Husqvarna for an undisclosed amount, which will not be revealed by either party in the future. The company is headed by Stephan Pierer (CEO of KTM). Pierer Industrie AG is 51% owner of KTM and 100% owner of Husqvarna.\n", "\n\n\nThe '''1 Series''' (F20/F21) is the entry level to BMW's current model range. It is produced in 3-door and 5-door hatchback body styles. A 4-door sedan variant (F52) is also sold in China.\n\nFile:2016 BMW 118i M Sport Automatic 1.5 Front.jpg \|F20 1 Series\nFile:BMW M135i-rear.jpg \|F21 1 Series\nFile:BMW 1-Series F52 04 China 2017-04-05.jpg\|F52 1 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''2 Series''' (F22/F23) is BMW's entry level coupes and convertibles. The 2 Series range also consists of the \"Active Tourer\" (F45) and \"Gran Tourer\" (F46) body styles, which are 5-seat and 7-seat MPVs respectively.\n\nFile:BMW M235i (14974381522).jpg \|F22 2 Series\nFile:BMW Serie 2 Cabriolet - Mondial de l'Automobile de Paris 2014 - 003.jpg \|F23 2 Series\nFile:BMW 218i Active Tourer Advantage (F45) – Frontansicht, 15. März 2015, Düsseldorf.jpg \|F45 2 Series\nFile:BMW 218d Gran Tourer Advantage (F46) – Heckansicht, 24. Oktober 2015, Münster.jpg \|F46 2 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''3 Series''' (F30/F31/F34) range is produced in 4-door sedan, 4-door wagon (estate) and 5-door fastback (\"Gran Turismo\") body styles. A long-wheelbase sedan variant (F35) is also sold in China.\n\nFile:BMW 3-Series F30 China 2015-04-12.jpg \|F30 3 Series\nFile:BMW 330d Touring M-Sportpaket (F31) – Heckansicht, 5. Oktober 2013, Münster.jpg \|F31 3 Series\nFile:BMW 318d GT Modern Line (F34) – Heckansicht, 31. August 2013, Münster.jpg \|F34 3 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''4 Series''' (F32/F33/F36) range is produced in 2-door coupe, 2-door convertible and 5-door fastback (\"Gran Coupe\") body styles.\n\nFile:BMW 420i Coupé Luxury (F32) front.JPG \|F32 4 Series\nFile:BMW 435i Cabriolet Luxury (F33) rear.JPG \|F33 4 Series\nFile:BMW 428i - tył (MSP16).jpg \|F36 4 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''5 Series''' (G30/G31) range is produced in sedan and wagon body styles. A long-wheelbase sedan variant (G38) is also sold in China.\n\nFile:BMW-G30.JPG \|G30 5 Series\nFile:BMW G31 rr.jpg \|G31 5 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''6 Series''' (F06/F12/F13) range is produced in 2-door coupe, 2-door convertible and 4-door fastback (\"Gran Coupe\") body styles.\n\nFile:BMW Serie 6.JPG \|F13 6 Series\nFile:BMW 6 Series Convertible (rear).jpg \|F12 6 Series\nFile:BMW 6-Series F06 Gran Coupé 02 Auto Chongqing 2012-06-07.jpg \|F06 6 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''7 Series''' (G11/G12) range is produced in the 4-door sedan and long-wheelbase sedan body styles.\n\nFile:2016 BMW 7-Series (G11) sedan, front view.jpg \|G11 7 Series\nFile:BMW 750i (G12) – Frontansicht, 1. Oktober 2016, New York.jpg \|G12 7 Series\n\n\n\nThe '''i Series''' consists of the i3 city car and i8 sports car.\n\nFile:BMW-i3-Front.JPG\| i3\nFile:BMW i8 Front (left) New.jpg\| i8\n\n\n\nThe '''X models''' consist of the X1 (F48), X3 (F25), X4 (F26), X5 (F15) and X6 (F16). \n\nFile:2016 BMW X1 (F84) xDrive25i wagon (2017-07-15) 01.jpg\| F84 X1\nFile:2011 BMW X3 (F25) xDrive28i wagon (2011-11-18) 01.jpg\| F25 X3\n\n\nFile:BMW X4 xDrive35d M-Sportpaket (F26) – Frontansicht, 11. April 2015, Düsseldorf.jpg\| F26 X4\nFile:BMW X5 F15 China 2015-04-13.jpg\| F15 X5\nFile:2014 BMW X6 (F16) M50d wagon (2015-07-14) 01.jpg\| F16 X6\n\n\n\nThe '''Z Series''' consists of the Z4 (E89) 2-seat roadster.\n\nFile:BMW E89 Z4 sDrive35is.JPG\| E89 Z4\nFile:BMW Z4 (8504349313).jpg\| E89 Z4\n\n\n=== i models ===\n\nBMW i3 electric car\nBMW i8 plug-in hybrid\n\nThe BMW i is a sub-brand of BMW founded in 2011 to design and manufacture plug-in electric vehicles. The sub-brand initial plans called for the release of two vehicles; series production of the BMW i3 all-electric car began in September 2013, and the market launch took place in November 2013 with the first retail deliveries in Germany. The BMW i8 sports plug-in hybrid car was launched in Germany in June 2014. Combined sales of the BMW i brand models reached the 50,000 unit milestone in January 2016. Two years after its introduction, the BMW i3 ranked as the world's third best selling all-electric car in history. Global sales of the BMW i3 achieved the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2016.\n\nIn February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the \"iPerformance\" model designation, which will be given to all BMW plug-in hybrid vehicles from July 2016. The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from BMW i to the BMW core brand. The new designation will be used first on the plug-in hybrid variants of the latest BMW 7 Series. Global sales of all BMW plug-in electrified models achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in early November 2016, consisting of more than 60,000 BMW i3s, over 10,000 BMW i8s, and about 30,000 from combined sales of all BMW iPerformance plug-in hybrid models.\n\n, four BMW electrified models have been released, the BMW X5 xDrive40e iPerformance, BMW 225xe iPerformance Active Tourer, BMW 330e iPerformance, and the BMW 740e iPerformance. The BMW 530e iPerformance is scheduled to be released in Europe March 2017 as part of the upcoming seventh generation BMW 5 Series lineup. In November 2016, BMW announced the company expected to deliver 60,000 of its electrified i and iPerformance models in 2016, and a sales target of 100,000 units for 2017. BMW set the goal to expand the share of its electrified models to between 15% and 25% of sales by 2025, when batteries have doubled their capacity.\n\nIn 2015, BMW in cooperation with SCHERM Group has started deploying electric trucks on European roads, making it the first company to ever do so. The truck itself is manufactured by the Terberg Group, one of the world's largest independent specialist vehicle suppliers.\n\n===M models===\n\nBMW M3 (F80)\nBMW M5 (F90)\nBMW produce a number of high-performance derivatives of their cars developed by their BMW M GmbH (previously BMW Motorsport GmbH) subsidiary.\n\nThe current M models are:\n\n M2 – F87 Coupé (2015 to present)\n* M3 – F80 Sedan (2013 to present)\n* M4 – F82 Coupé/F83 Convertible (2014 to present)\n* M5 – F10 Saloon (2011 to present)\n* M6 – F06 Gran Coupé/F12 Convertible/F13 Coupé (2012 to present)\n* X5 M – F15 SAV (2014 to present)\n* X6 M – F16 SAV (2014 to present)\n\n", "\nBMW has been engaged in motorsport activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle in 1923.\n\n===Motorsport sponsoring===\n* Formula BMW – A Junior racing Formula category.\n* Kumho BMW Championship – A BMW-exclusive championship run in the United Kingdom.\n\n===Motorcycle===\nBMW S1000RR\n* Isle of Man TT – Georg 'Schorsch' Meier won the 1939 running of the Grand Prix. Michael Dunlop won both the 2014 Senior and Superbike races on a 2014 BMW S1000RR. Dunlop again took victory in the 2016 Superbike TT during the process of which he also set a new outright lap record for the Snaefell Mountain Course at 130.306 mph.\n* Dakar Rally – BMW motorcycles have won the Dakar rally six times. In 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1999, and 2000.\n* Superbike World Championship – BMW returned to premier road racing in 2009 with their all new superbike, the BMW S1000RR.\n\n===Formula One – F1===\n\nBMW Sauber F1 Team Logo.\nBMW first entered Formula One as a full-fledged team in .\nBMW has a history of success in Formula One. BMW powered cars have won 20 races. In 2006 BMW took over the Sauber team and became Formula One constructors. In 2007 and 2008 the team enjoyed some success. The most recent win is a lone constructor team's victory by BMW Sauber F1 Team, on 8 June 2008, at the Canadian Grand Prix with Robert Kubica driving. Achievements include:\n* Driver championship: 1 (1983)\n* Constructor championship: 0 (Runner-up 2002, 2003, 2007)\n* Fastest laps: 33\n* Grand Prix wins: 20\n* Podium finishes: 76\n* Pole positions: 33\n\nBMW was an engine supplier to Williams, Benetton, Brabham, and Arrows. Notable drivers who have started their Formula One careers with BMW include Jenson Button, Juan Pablo Montoya, Robert Kubica, and Sebastian Vettel.\n\nIn July 2009, BMW announced that it would withdraw from Formula One at the end of the 2009 season. The team was sold back to the previous owner, Peter Sauber, who kept the BMW part of the name for the 2010 season due to issues with the Concorde Agreement. The team has since dropped BMW from their name starting in 2011.\n\n===Sport cars===\nAn Iranian drift driver is driving in the Iranian national drift match with a sport BMW (2016)\n* Le Mans 24 Hours – BMW won Le Mans in 1999 with the BMW V12 LMR designed by Williams Grand Prix Engineering. Also the Kokusai Kaihatsu Racing team won the 1995 edition with a BMW-engined McLaren F1 GTR race car.\n* Nürburgring – BMW won the 24 Hours Nürburgring 19 times and the 1000km Nürburgring twice (1976 and 1981).\n* 24 Hours of Daytona – BMW won three times (1976, 2011, 2013)\n* Spa 24 Hours – BMW won 21 times\n* A BMW works team E36 320d was the first diesel-powered overall winner ever at the 24 Hours Nürburgring.\n* McLaren F1 GTR – Successful mid-1990s GT racing car with a BMW designed engine. It won the BPR Global GT Series in 1995 and 1996 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995.\n* American Le Mans Series – BMW has won three (2001, 2010, 2011) GT Team Championships and GT Automobile Manufacturer titles. Twice (2010, 2011) with Team RLL in the Crowne Plaza V8 powered M3 GT coupe and once (2001) with the BMW Motorsport team in the V8 powered M3 GTR.\n\n===Touring cars===\nBMW has a long and successful history in touring car racing.\n* British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) – BMW won the drivers' championship in 1988, 1991, 1992 and 1993 and manufacturers' championship in 1991 and 1993.\n* The DRM (Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft) was won by Harald Ertl in a BMW 320i Turbo in 1978\n* DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft) – the following won the DTM drivers' championship driving BMWs:\n 1987: Eric van der Poele, BMW M3\n 1989: Roberto Ravaglia, BMW M3\n** 2012: Bruno Spengler, BMW M3 DTM\n* European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) – Since 1968, BMW won 24 drivers' championships along with several manufacturers' and teams' titles.\n* Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC) – BMW (Schnitzer) flew from Europe to Japan to compete in the JTCC and won the championship in 1995.\n* Mille Miglia – BMW won the 1940 Brescia Grand Prix with a 328 Touring Coupé. Previously in 1938 the 328 sport car won the Mille Miglia 2000 litre class.\n* SCCA Pro Racing World Challenge Touring Car Series(WC) – BMW won the manufacturer's championship in 2001 and Bill Auberlen, driving a Turner Motorsport BMW 325i, won the 2003 and 2004 Driver's Championships.\n* World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) – BMW won four drivers' championship (1987, 2005, 2006 and 2007) and three manufacturers' titles (2005–2007).\n\nBMW announced on 15 October 2010 that it will return to touring car racing during the 2012 season. Dr. Klaus Draeger, director of research and development of the BMW Group, who was in charge of the return to DTM racing (Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters), commented that \"The return of BMW to the DTM is a fundamental part of the restructuring of our motorsport activities. With its increased commitment to production car racing, BMW is returning to its roots. The race track is the perfect place to demonstrate the impressive sporting characteristics of our vehicles against our core competitors in a high-powered environment. The DTM is the ideal stage on which to do this.\"\n\n===Rally===\n* RAC Rally – The 328 sport car won this event in 1939.\n* Paris Dakar Rally – BMW motorcycles have won this event 6 times total including 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1999, 2000.\n* Tour de Corse – The BMW M3 – E30 won this event in 1987.\n", "\nBMW has signed deals to license Toyota technology in the areas of diesel engines, lithium batteries, and hydrogen fuel cells.\n\n=== BMW Connected Drive ===\nBMW ConnectedDrive provides services and apps controlled through the vehicle's on-board computer. BMW announced the rollout of additional ConnectedDrive functions based around telecommunications in 2014. The new services and apps were made available to Australian delivered cars built during the April/March period.\n\nThe ConnectedDrive update introduced real-time traffic data, concierge and a new emergency call system to work alongside BMW's existing driver assistance services.\n\nIn 2015, BMW Australia launched a customer portal that included integrated access to the new services and apps.\n", "In football, BMW sponsors Bundesliga club Eintracht Frankfurt.\n\nIt was an official sponsor of the London 2012 olympics providing 4000 BMWs and Minis in a deal made in November 2009. The company also made a six-year sponsorship deal with the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) in July 2010.\n\nBMW has sponsored various European golf events such as the PGA Championship at Wentworth, the BMW Italian Open and the BMW International Open in Germany.\n\nIn 2012, BMW Australia announced a 2-year sponsorship agreement with the Australian Film Institute's Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts (AACTA) Awards. As part of the agreement, BMW supplied a fleet of vehicles renowned for appearing in feature films. The vehicles supplied included a range of elegant BMW limousines, iconic BMW's of the past and the BMW 6 Series which featured in Mission Impossible 4: Ghost Protocol. The automotive company also sponsored the South African national Rugby team. The sponsorship was cancelled due to controversies on the Rugby team's part.\n\nIn football BMW currently sponsors Bundesliga club Schalke 04 after Volkswagen elected to discontinue Schalke 04's automotive partner due to dieselgate case.\n", "The company is a charter member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Environmental Achievement Track, which recognizes companies for their environmental stewardship and performance. It is also a member of the South Carolina Environmental Excellence Program.\n\nIn 2012, BMW was named the world's most sustainable automotive company for the eighth consecutive year by the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes. The BMW Group is the only automotive enterprise in the index since its inception in 1999. In 2001, the BMW Group committed itself to the United Nations Environment Programme, the UN Global Compact and the Cleaner Production Declaration. It was also the first company in the automotive industry to appoint an environmental officer, in 1973. BMW is a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development.\n\nBMW is industry leader in the Carbon Disclosure Project's Global 500 ranking and 3rd place in Carbon Disclosure Leadership Index across all industries.\nBMW is listed in the FTSE4GoodIndex.\nThe BMW Group was rated the most sustainable DAX 30 company by Sustainalytics in 2012.\n\nBMW has taken measures to reduce the impact the company has on the environment. It is trying to design less-polluting cars by making existing models more efficient, as well as developing environmentally friendly fuels for future vehicles. Possibilities include: electric power, hybrid power (combustion engines and electric motors) hydrogen engines.\n\nBMW offers 49 models with EU5/6 emissions norm and nearly 20 models with CO2 output less than 140 g/km, which puts it on the lowest tax group and therefore could provide the future owner with eco-bonus offered from some European countries.\n\nHowever, there have been some criticisms directed at BMW, and in particular, accusations of greenwash in reference to their BMW Hydrogen 7. Some critics claim that the emissions produced during hydrogen fuel production outweigh the reduction of tailpipe emissions, and that the Hydrogen 7 is a distraction from more immediate, practical solutions for car pollution. The BBC's Jorn Madslien questioned whether the Hydrogen 7 was \"a truly green initiative or merely a cynical marketing ploy\"\n", "BMW has created a range of high-end bicycles sold online and through dealerships. They range from the Kid's Bike to the EUR 4,499 Enduro Bike. In the United States, only the Cruise Bike and Kid's Bike models are sold.\n", "BMW 520d (G30)\nBMW 730d xDrive (G11)\nBMW X5 (F15)\nBMW X6 (F16)\nBMW vehicles follow a certain nomenclature; usually a 3 digit number is followed by 1 or 2 letters. The first number represents the series number. The next two numbers traditionally represent the engine displacement in cubic centimeters divided by 100. However, more recent cars use those two numbers as a performance index, as e.g. the 116i, 118i and 120i (all 2,0L petrol-powered), just like the 325d and 330d (both 3,0L diesel) share the same motor block while adjusting engine power through setup and turbocharging. A similar nomenclature is used by BMW Motorrad for their motorcycles.\n\nThe system of letters can be used in combination, and is as follows:\n* A = automatic transmission\n* C = coupé, last used on the BMW E46 and the BMW E63 (dropped after 2005 model year)\n* c = cabriolet\n* d = diesel†\n* e = eta (efficient economy, from the Greek letter 'η')\n* g = compressed natural gas/CNG\n* h = hydrogen\n* i = fuel-injected\n* L = long wheelbase\n* M = Motorsport\n* s = sport, also means \"2 dr\" on E36 model††\n* sDrive = rear-wheel drive\n* T = touring (wagon/estate)\n* Ti = hatchback for the BMW 3 Series hatchback\n* x / xDrive = BMW xDrive all-wheel drive\n\n† historic nomenclature indicating \"td\" refers to \"Turbo Diesel\", not a diesel hatchback or touring model (524td, 525td)\n\n†† typically includes sport seats, spoiler, aerodynamic body kit, upgraded wheels and Limit Slip Differential on pre-95 model etc.\n\nFor example, the BMW 750iL is a fuel-injected 7 Series with a long wheelbase and 5.4 litres of displacement. This badge was used for successive generations, E65 and F01, except the \"i\" and \"L\" switched places, so it read \"Li\" instead of \"iL\".\n\nWhen 'L' supersedes the series number (e.g. L6, L7, etc.) it identifies the vehicle as a special luxury variant, having extended leather and special interior appointments. The L7 is based on the E23 and E38, and the L6 is based on the E24.\n\nWhen 'X' is capitalised and supersedes the series number (e.g. X3, X5, etc.) it identifies the vehicle as one of BMW's Sports Activity Vehicles (SAV), their brand of crossovers, with BMW's xDrive. The second number in the 'X' series denotes the platform that it is based upon, for instance the X5 is derived from the 5 Series. Unlike BMW cars, the SAV's main badge does not denote engine size; the engine is instead indicated on side badges.\n\nThe 'Z' identifies the vehicle as a two-seat roadster (e.g. Z1, Z3, Z4, etc.). 'M' variants of 'Z' models have the 'M' as a suffix or prefix, depending on country of sale (e.g. 'Z4 M' is 'M Roadster' in Canada).\n\nPrevious X & Z vehicles had 'i' or 'si' following the engine displacement number (denoted in litres). BMW is now globally standardising this nomenclature on X & Z vehicles by using 'sDrive' or 'xDrive' (simply meaning rear or all-wheel drive, respectively) followed by two numbers which vaguely represent the vehicle's engine (e.g. Z4 sDrive35i is a rear-wheel-drive Z4 roadster with a 3.0 L twin-turbo fuel-injected engine).\n\nBMW last used the 's' for the E36 328is, which ceased production in 1999. However, the 's' nomenclature was brought back on the 2011 model year BMW 335is and BMW Z4 sDrive35is. The 335is is a sport-tuned trim with more performance and an optional dual clutch transmission that slots between the regular 335i and top-of-the-line M3.\n\nThe 'M' – for Motorsport – identifies the vehicle as a high-performance model of a particular series (e.g. M3, M5, M6, etc.). For example, the M6 is the highest performing vehicle in the 6 Series lineup. Although 'M' cars should be separated into their respective series platforms, it is very common to see 'M' cars grouped together as its own lineup on the official BMW website.\n\n===Exceptions===\nThere are exceptions to the numbering nomenclature.\n\nThe M version of the BMW 1 Series was named the BMW 1 Series M Coupe rather than the traditional style \"M1\" due to the possible confusion with BMW's former BMW M1 homologation sports car.\n\nThe M versions of the Sports Activity Vehicles, such as the X5 M, could not follow the regular naming convention since MX5 was used for Mazda's MX-5 Miata.\n\nFor instance in the 2008 model year, the BMW 125i/128i, 328i, and 528i all had 3.0 naturally aspirated engines (N52), not a 2,500 cc or 2,800 cc engine as the series designation number would lead one to believe. The '28' is to denote a detuned engine in the 2008 cars, compared to the 2006 model year '30' vehicles (330i and 530i) whose 3.0 naturally aspirated engines are from the same N52 family but had more output.\n\nThe 2008 BMW 335i and 535i also have 3.0-litre engine; however the engines are twin-turbocharged (N54) which is not identified by the nomenclature. Nonetheless the '35' indicates a more powerful engine than previous '30' models that have the naturally aspirated N52 engine. The 2011 BMW 740i and 335is shares the same twin-turbo 3.0 engine from the N54 family but tuned to higher outputs, although the badging is not consistent ('40' and 's'). The 2013 BMW 640i Gran Coupe's twin-scroll single turbo 3.0L inline-6 engine makes similar output to the older twin turbo inline-6 engines.\n\nThe E36 and E46 323i and E39 523i had 2.5-litre engines. The E36 318is made after 1996 has a 1.9 L engine (M44) as opposed to the 1.8 L (M42) used in the 1992 to 1995 models. The E36 316i \"Contour\" manufactured between 1999 and 2000 could be fitted with the 1.9 L M43B19 (M43). The E39 540i had a 4.4 L M62 engine, instead of a 4.0 L as the designation would suggest.\n\nThe badging for recent V8 engines (N62 and N63) also does not indicate displacement, as the 2006 750i and 2009 750i have 4800 cc (naturally aspirated) and 4400 cc (twin-turbocharged) engines, respectively.\n\nIn BMW CSL models (for example BMW M3 CSL), the letter L stands for Leichtbau (German for lightweight) instead of Lang (German for long wheelbase).\n", "In June 2011, BMW and Sixt launched Drivenow, a joint-venture that provides carsharing services in several cities in Europe and North America. As of December 2012, DriveNow operates over 1,000 vehicles, which serve five cities worldwide and over 60,000 customers.\n\nBMW has expanded its DriveNow car-sharing service in Seattle, rebranded as ReachNow.\n", "BMW has developed street lights equipped with sockets to charge electric cars, called Light and Charge.\n", "BMW logo sign in Düsseldorf\nFrom the summer of 2001 until October 2005, BMW hosted The Hire, showcasing sporty models being driven to extremes. These videos are still popular within the enthusiast community and proved to be a ground-breaking online advertising campaign.\n\nAnnually since 1999, BMW enthusiasts have met in Santa Barbara, CA to attend Bimmerfest. One of the largest brand-specific gatherings in the United States, over 3,000 people attended in 2006, and over 1,000 BMW cars were present. In 2007, the event was held on 5 May.\n\n===BMW slang===\nThe initials BMW are pronounced in German. The model series are referred to as \"Einser\" (\"One-er\" for 1 series), \"Dreier\" (\"Three-er\" for 3 series), \"Fünfer\" (\"Five-er\" for the 5 series), \"Sechser\" (\"Six-er\" for the 6 series), \"Siebener\" (\"Seven-er\" for the 7 series). These are not actually slang, but are the normal way that such letters and numbers are pronounced in German.\n\nThe English slang terms Beemer, Bimmer and Bee-em are variously used for BMWs of all kinds, cars and motorcycles.\n\nIn the US, specialists have been at pains to prescribe that a distinction must be made between using Beemer exclusively to describe BMW motorcycles, and using Bimmer only to refer to BMW cars, in the manner of a \"true aficionado\" and avoid appearing to be \"uninitiated.\"\nThe Canadian ''Globe and Mail'' prefers Bimmer and calls Beemer a \"yuppie abomination,\" while the ''Tacoma News Tribune'' says it is a distinction made by \"auto snobs.\" An editor of ''Business Week'' was satisfied in 2003 that the question was resolved in favor of Bimmer by noting that a Google search yielded 10 times as many hits compared to Beemer.\n\n===The arts===\n1975 BMW 3.0CSL painted by Alexander Calder\n\nManufacturers employ designers for their cars, but BMW has made efforts to gain recognition for exceptional contributions to and support of the arts, including art beyond motor vehicle design. These efforts typically overlap or complement BMW's marketing and branding campaigns. BMW Headquarters designed in 1972 by Karl Schwanzer has become a European icon, and artist Gerhard Richter created his ''Red, Yellow, Blue'' series of paintings for the building's lobby. In 1975, Alexander Calder was commissioned to paint the 3.0CSL driven by Hervé Poulain at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. This led to more BMW Art Cars, painted by artists including David Hockney, Jenny Holzer, Roy Lichtenstein, and others. The cars, currently numbering 17, have been shown at the Louvre, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, and, in 2009, at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and New York's Grand Central Terminal. BMW was the principal sponsor of the 1998 ''The Art of the Motorcycle'' exhibition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and other Guggenheim museums, though the financial relationship between BMW and the Guggenheim was criticised in many quarters.\n\nIn 2012, BMW brought out the BMW Art Guide by Independent Collectors, which had, amongst others, the Dikeou Collection.\nIt is the first global guide to private and publicly accessible collections of contemporary art worldwide.\n\nThe 2006 \"BMW Performance Series\" was a marketing event geared to attract black car buyers, and included the \"BMW Pop-Jazz Live Series,\" a tour headlined by jazz musician Mike Phillips, and the \"BMW Blackfilms.com Film Series\" highlighting black filmmakers.\n\n===April Fools===\nBMW has garnered a reputation over the years for its April Fools pranks, which are printed in the British press every year. In 2010, they ran an advertisement in ''The Guardian'' announcing that customers would be able to order BMWs with different coloured badges to show their affiliation with the political party they supported.\n", "\n===Brazil===\nOn 9 October 2014, BMW's new South American automobile plant in Araquari, Santa Catarina produced its first car. BMW intend to increase its production capacity to over 30,000 vehicles a year. The new site is intended to create around 1,300 new jobs, of which 500 have already been filled.\n\n===Canada===\nIn October 2008, BMW Group Canada was named one of Greater Toronto's Top Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc., which was announced by the Toronto Star newspaper.\n\n===China===\n\nSigning a deal in 2003 for the production of sedans in China, May 2004 saw the opening of a factory in the North-eastern city of Shenyang where Brilliance Auto produces BMW-branded automobiles in a joint venture with the German company.\n\n===Egypt===\nBavarian Auto Group is a multinational group of companies established in March 2003 when it was appointed as the sole importer of BMW and Mini in Egypt, with monopoly rights for import, assembly, distribution, sales and after-sales support of BMW products in Egypt. Since that date, BAG invested a total amount of US$100 million distributed on seven companies and 11 premises in addition to three stores.\n\n===India===\nBMW India was established in 2006 as a sales subsidiary in Gurgaon (National Capital Region). A state-of-the-art assembly plant for BMW 3 and 5 Series started operation in early 2007 in Chennai. Construction of the plant started in January 2006 with an initial investment of more than one billion Indian Rupees. The plant started operation in the first quarter of 2007 and produces the different variants of BMW 3 Series, BMW GT, BMW 5 Series, BMW 7 Series, BMW X1, BMW X3, BMW X5, Mini Cooper S, Mini Cooper D and Mini Countryman. Further more, it has expanded its model range to include the BMW Z4, BMW X6, BMW M Cars, and BMW i8. There are a total of 31 variants of BMW cars on offer in the Indian market today.\n\n===Japan===\nThe vast majority of BMW automobiles in Japan are imported and sold by BMW Japan Corp., a wholly owned subsidiary of BMW AG.\n\n===Mexico===\nIn July 2014, BMW announced it was establishing a plant in Mexico, in the city and state of San Luis Potosi involving an investment of $1 billion. The plant will employ 1,500 people, and produce 150,000 cars annually, commencing in 2019.\n\n===South Africa===\nBMWs have been assembled in South Africa since 1968, when Praetor Monteerders' plant was opened in Rosslyn, near Pretoria. BMW initially bought shares in the company, before fully acquiring it in 1975; in so doing, the company became '''BMW South Africa''', the first wholly owned subsidiary of BMW to be established outside Germany. Three unique models that BMW Motorsport created for the South African market were the E23 M745i (1983), which used the M88 engine from the BMW M1, the BMW 333i (1986), which added a six-cylinder 3.2-litre M30 engine to the E30, and the E30 BMW 325is (1989) which was powered by an Alpina-derived 2.7-litre engine.\n\nUnlike United States manufacturers, such as Ford and GM, which divested from the country in the 1980s, BMW retained full ownership of its operations in South Africa. Following the end of apartheid in 1994, and the lowering of import tariffs, BMW South Africa ended local production of the 5 Series and 7 Series, in order to concentrate on production of the 3 Series for the export market. South African–built BMWs are now exported to right hand drive markets including Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1997, BMW South Africa has produced vehicles in left-hand drive for export to Taiwan, the United States and Iran, as well as South America.\n\nBMWs with a VIN starting with \"NC0\" are manufactured in South Africa.\n\n===United States===\nSpartanburg factory\n\nThe BMW Manufacturing Company opened in 1994, in South Carolina, and has been manufacturing all Z4 and X5 models, and more recently the X6 and X3, including those for export to Europe, on the same assembly line in Greer between Greenville and Spartanburg. In an average work day the company builds 600 vehicles: 500 X5s and 100 Z4s. The engines for these vehicles are built in Munich, Germany. BMWs with a VIN starting with \"4US and 5US\" are manufactured in Greer.\n\nIn 2010 BMW announced that it would spend $750 million to expand operations at the Greer plant. This expansion will allow production of 240,000 vehicles a year and will make the plant the largest car factory in the United States by number of employees. BMW's largest single market is the United States, where 339 dealerships sold 346,023 cars in 2015.\n\n, the Greer facility produces all BMW X3, X4, X5, X5 M, X6 and X6 M models.\n", "\nBMW began using the slogan 'The Ultimate Driving Machine' in the 1970s. In 2010, this long-lived campaign was mostly supplanted by 'Joy', a campaign intended to make the brand more \"approachable\" and to better appeal to women, but by 2012 they had returned to \"The Ultimate Driving Machine\", which has a strong public association with BMW.\n\n===Audio logo===\nIn 2013, BMW replaced the 'double-gong' sound used in TV and Radio advertising campaigns since 1998. The new sound, developed to represent the future identity of BMW, was described as \"introduced by a rising, resonant sound and underscored by two distinctive bass tones that form the sound logo's melodic and rhythmic basis.\" The new sound was first used in BMW 4 Series Concept Coupe TV commercial. The sound was produced by Thomas Kisser of HASTINGS media music.\n\n===Roundel logo===\nThe round BMW logo used for all models\nThe circular blue and white BMW logo or roundel evolved from the circular Rapp Motorenwerke company logo, from which the BMW company grew, combined with the blue and white colors of the flag of Bavaria. The logo has been portrayed as the movement of an aircraft propeller with the white blades cutting through a blue sky—first used in a BMW advertisement in 1929, twelve years after the roundel was created—but this is not the origin of the logo itself.\nThe BMW logo still used today was created in early 1920.\n", "\n===Theft using OBD, 2012===\nIn 2012, BMW vehicles were stolen by programming a blank key fob to start the car through the on-board diagnostics (OBD) connection. The primary causes of this vulnerability lie in the lack of appropriate authentication and authorization in the OBD specifications, which rely largely on security through obscurity. BMW offered all owners a free fix through a software update, and all newer vehicles have upgraded software that fixed this vulnerability.\n\n===ConnectedDrive, 2010–14===\nDieter Spaar was asked by ADAC to analyze ConnectedDrive and its hardware called Combox. He uncovered the following problems which allowed him e.g. to remotely open the car:\n* BMW uses the same symmetric keys in all cars.\n* some services do not encrypt transported data while connecting to the BMW backend.\n* the integrity of the ConnectedDrive configuration is not protected.\n* the Combox discloses the vehicle identification number via NGTP (next generation telematics pattern) error messages.\n* data sent via SMS in NGTP format are encrypted via the nowadays unsecure DES.\n* the Combox does not protect against replay attacks.\nBMW was notified in advance of the publication to provide fixes. The transport is now encrypted and BMW's server certificate is verified. The updates were delivered via ConnectedDrive config change. All BMW, Mini and Rolls Royce cars produced between March 2010 and 8 December 2014 are vulnerable. Cars without battery or parked in places without mobile connection still may be vulnerable, an update can be initiated manually.\n", "(German: ''Neue Klasse'')\n\n\n\n* BMW Central Building\n* BMW FIZ\n* BMW Group Classic\n* BMW Welt\n* CleanEnergy\n* I would rather cry in a BMW\n\n* List of BMW engines\n* Streetcarver – BMW Skateboard\n\n\n", "* BMW M235i\n\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Company name ", "History", "Production", " Sales ", "Motorcycles", " Automobiles ", "Motorsport", " Technology ", "Sponsorships", "Environmental record", "Bicycles", "BMW nomenclature", "Carsharing services", "Light and Charge", "Community", "Overseas subsidiaries", "Marketing", "Problems", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	BMW
[ "\n'''Bisexual''' may refer to:\n* Bisexuality, in human sexuality, describes a man or woman that is sexually or romantically attracted to persons of both sexes\nBisexual characteristics, having an ambiguous sexual identity (e.g. epicenity or androgyny)\nA bisexual flower, in botany, one that possesses both male (pollen-producing) and female (seed-producing) parts; see Sexual reproduction in plants\nBisexual species, in biology, one that has members of two different distinct sexes (e.g. humans), opposed to unisexual (only one sex present, always females)\nNot to be confused with By-Sexual.\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Bisexual (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n'''Bornholm''' (; ) is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, to the east of the rest of Denmark, south of Sweden, northeast of Germany and north of the westernmost part of Poland. The main industries on the island include, dairy farming, and arts and crafts such as glass production and pottery using locally worked clay. Tourism is important during the summer. There is an especially large number of Denmark's round churches on the island. The total area according to www.noegletal.dk (Municipal and Regional Key Figures) was (January 2016). Population was 39,664 (1 April 2017).\n\nThe island is called ''solskinsøen'' (''The Sunshine Island'') because of its weather and ''klippeøen'' (''The Rock Island'') because of its geology, which consists of granite, except along the southern coast. The heat from the summer is stored in the rock formations and the weather is quite warm until October. As a result of the climate, a local variety of the common fig, known as ''Bornholm's Diamond'', can grow locally on the island. The island's topography consists of dramatic rock formations in the north (unlike the rest of Denmark, which is mostly gentle rolling hills) sloping down towards pine and deciduous forests (greatly affected by storms in the 1950s), farmland in the middle and sandy beaches in the south.\n\nStrategically located in the Baltic Sea, Bornholm has been fought over for centuries. It has usually been ruled by Denmark, but also by Lübeck and Sweden. The ruin of Hammershus, at the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest medieval fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location.\n\n'''Bornholm Regional Municipality''', established January 2003 by the merger of Bornholm County with 5 municipalities, covers the entire island. Bornholm was one of the three last Danish municipalities () not belonging to a county — the others were Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. On 1 January 2007, the municipality lost its short-lived (2003 until 2006) county status and became part of the Capital Region of Denmark. The municipality's educational needs are served by the Bornholms Erhvervsskole, the main educational institute on the island.\n\nThe island is situated between 54°59'11\" and 55°17'30\" northern latitude and 14°45' and 15°11' eastern longitude.\n\nDirectly west of Bornholm across the Baltic Sea mostly on the island of Sjælland are several municipalities of Region Sjælland: Stevns, Faxe, Næstved (the part that used to be the municipality of Fladså) and Vordingborg, including Møn, which is around across the Baltic Sea.\n\nIt typically takes 3 hours for passengers and freight (ferry :2 hours; driving :1 hour) to travel between Rønne and Copenhagen via Ystad in Sweden. There is a ferry departure mostly reserved for freight of goods between Rønne and Køge. If there is capacity on a departure, \"normal\" passengers can come aboard. There are also ferry routes to Sassnitz and Świnoujście. Between Bornholm Airport and Copenhagen Airport by airplane it is 25 minutes.\n\nThe Ertholmene archipelago is located to the northeast of Bornholm. These islands, which do not belong to a municipality or region, are administered by the Danish Ministry of Defence.\n", "\n\nMany inhabitants speak the Bornholmsk dialect, which is officially a dialect of Danish. Bornholmsk retains three grammatical genders, like Icelandic and most dialects of Norwegian, but unlike standard Danish. Its phonology includes archaisms (unstressed and internal , where other dialects have and ) and innovations ( for before and after front-tongue vowels). This makes the dialect difficult to understand for some Danish speakers. However, Swedish speakers often consider Bornholmian to be easier to understand than standard Danish. The intonation resembles the Scanian dialect spoken in nearby Scania, the southernmost province of Sweden.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float: right;\"\n+Result of referendum 29 May 2001 on merger of municipalities with the county\n\nMunicipality\nYes\nNo\n\nVotes!!Percent!!Votes!!Percent\n\nAllinge-Gudhjem\n3590!!74!!1287!!26\n\nHasle\n2886!!70!!1219!!30\n\nNexø\n3218!!59!!2252!!41\n\nRønne\n7754!!85!!1366!!15\n\nAakirkeby\n3131!!74!!1118!!26\n\nTotal:27821\n20579!!74!!7242!!26\n\nBornholm and Christiansø hundreds and 5 municipalities (1970-2002) in green colour and 22 municipalities before 1 April, 1970 \nParishes numbered\nUnofficial flag of Bornholm (''the tourist flag'').\nDannebrog is clearly visible with the green cross inserted in\n the white cross.\nOld coat of arms of Bornholm.\n\nBornholm Regional Municipality is the local authority (Danish, ''kommune'') covering the entire island. It is the result of a merger of the five former (1 April 1970 until 2002) municipalities on the island (Allinge-Gudhjem, Hasle, Nexø, Rønne and Aakirkeby) and the former Bornholm County. Bornholm Regional Municipality was also a county in its own right during its first four years from 1 January 2003 until 31 December 2006. From 1 January 2007 all counties were abolished, and Bornholm became part of Region Hovedstaden whose main responsibility is the health service. The municipality still retains its name Bornholm ''Regional'' Municipality. The island had 22 municipalities until March 1970, of which 6 were market towns and 16 parishes. In addition to supervising parish municipalities, which was the responsibility of the counties in ''all'' of Denmark, the market town municipalities of Bornholm were supervised by Bornholm County as well and not by the Interior Ministry as was the case in the rest of Denmark. The seat of the municipal council is the island's main town, Rønne. The voters decided to merge the county with the municipalities in a referendum May 29, 2001, effective from January 1, 2003. On the ballot was written the question, \"Do you want the six municipal entities of Bornholm to be joined to form one municipal entity as of 1 January 2003?\" 73.9% of those voting ticked off the box \"Ja\" (English, ''Yes'') on the ballot. The lowest percentage for the merger was in Nexø municipality, whose mayor, Annelise Molin, a Social Democrat, spoke out against the merger. It was required that each municipality had more \"Yes\" votes than \"No\" votes. Otherwise the merger would have to be abandoned altogether. The six municipal entities had 122 councillors (of which county clls were 15) and the new regional municipality would have 27 councillors from the start. They will be reduced to 23 from 1 January 2018 (election November 2017). The merger was approved in a law by the Folketing 19 March 2002, transferring the tasks of the abolished county and old municipalities to the new ''Bornholm Regional Municipality''. The first regional mayor was Thomas Thors, a physician and member of the Social Democrats and previously mayor of Rønne Municipality. Bjarne Kristiansen, representing the local Borgerlisten political party, served as mayor from January 1, 2006 until 2009. From January 1, 2010 the mayor has been Winni Grosbøll, a high school teacher and a member of the Social Democrats (''Socialdemokratiet'') political party.\n\nFerry services connect Rønne to Świnoujście (Poland), Sassnitz (Germany), Køge, by road ( as the crow flies) south of Copenhagen, Denmark; the destination to Køge replaced the nighttime route directly to and from Copenhagen (for both cargo and passengers) from 1 October 2004; and catamaran services to Ystad (Sweden). Simrishamn (Sweden) has a ferry connection during the summer. There are also regular catamaran services between Nexø and the Polish ports of Kołobrzeg, Łeba and Ustka. There are direct bus connections Ystad-Copenhagen, coordinated with the catamaran. There are also flights from Bornholm Airport to Copenhagen and other locations.\n\nBornholm Regional Municipality was not merged with other municipalities on 1 January 2007 in the nationwide Municipal Reform of 2007.\n", "The larger towns on the island are located on the coast and have harbours. There is however one exception, centrally placed Aakirkeby, which was also the name of the municipality from 1970 until 2002, which also included the harbor, Boderne, to the south. The largest town is Rønne, the seat, in the southwest. The other main towns (clockwise round the island) are Hasle, Allinge-Sandvig, Gudhjem, Svaneke and Nexø. Monday morning 22 September 2014 it was documented by ''Folkeregistret'' in the municipality that the number of people living in the municipality that day were 39,922, the lowest number in over 100 years.\n\n, the Danish statistical office gave the populations as follows:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Rønne \n12,887\n\n Nexø \n3,654\n\n Aakirkeby \n2,112\n\n Hasle \n1,665\n\n Allinge-Sandvig \n1,517\n\n Svaneke \n1,044\n\n Tejn \n899\n\n\n\n\n Gudhjem \n701\n\n Snogebæk \n701\n\n Nyker \n707\n\n Klemensker \n629\n\n Sorthat-Muleby \n533\n\n Østermarie \n480\n\n Aarsdale \n389\n\n\n\n\n Lobbæk \n356\n\n Østerlars \n243\n\n Balka \n216\n\n Vestermarie \n253\n\n Pedersker \n245\n\n Nylars \n225\n\n Listed \n210\n\n\n\n\nThe ''town'' of Rønne after the merger of the island's administrative entities 1 January 2003 reached a low point of 13568 inhabitants 1 January 2014. 15957 people in 1965 (date unknown;number not registerbased) lived in the two parishes that would become Rønne municipality from 1 April 1970. In the table, numbers for Rønne are for the parish of Rønne, Rønne Sogn, alone. Year unknown. It does not include Knudsker Sogn, which was also a part of Rønne Municipality. Other localities (with approximate populations, not updated) include Aarsballe (86), Arnager (151), Olsker (67), Rutsker (64), Rø (181), Stenseby (?) and Vang (92).\n", "Hammershus Ruin.\n\nIn Old Norse the island was known as ''Borgundarholm'', and in ancient Danish especially the island's name was ''Borghand'' or ''Borghund''; these names were related to Old Norse ''borg'' \"height\" and ''bjarg/berg'' \"mountain, rock\", as it is an island that rises high from the sea. Other names known for the island include ''Burgendaland'' (9th century), ''Hulmo'' / ''Holmus'' (''Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum''), ''Burgundehulm'' (1145), and ''Borghandæholm'' (14th century). The Old English translation of Orosius uses the form ''Burgenda land''. Some scholars believe that the Burgundians are named after Bornholm; the Burgundians were Germanic peoples who moved west when the Western Roman Empire collapsed and occupied and named Burgundy in France.\n\nWindmill in Gudhjem, Bornholm\nBornholm formed part of the historical Lands of Denmark when the nation united out of a series of petty chiefdoms. It was originally administratively part of the province of Scania and was administered by the Scanian Law after this was codified in the 13th century. Control over the island evolved into a long-raging dispute between the See of Lund and the Danish crown culminating in several battles. The first fortress on the island was ''Gamleborg'' which was replaced by ''Lilleborg'', built by the king in 1150. In 1149, the king accepted the transfer of three of the island's four herreder (districts) to the archbishop. In 1250, the archbishop constructed his own fortress, Hammershus. A campaign launched from it in 1259 conquered the remaining part of the island including Lilleborg. The island's status remained a matter of dispute for an additional 200 years.\n\nBornholm was pawned to Lübeck for 50 years starting in 1525. Its first militia, Bornholms Milits, was formed in 1624.\nFile:Bornholm-arsdale-windmill.jpg\nAn 1877 windmill at Årsdale\n\nSwedish forces conquered the island in 1645, but returned the island to Denmark in the following peace settlement. After the war in 1658, Denmark ceded the island to Sweden under the Treaty of Roskilde along with the rest of the Skåneland, Bohuslän and Trøndelag, and it was occupied by Swedish forces.\n\nA revolt broke out the same year, culminating in Villum Clausen's shooting of the Swedish commander Johan Printzensköld on 8 December 1658. Following the revolt, a deputation of islanders presented the island as a gift to King Frederick III on the condition that the island would never be ceded again. This status was confirmed in the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660.\n\nSwedes, notably from Småland and Scania, emigrated to the island during the 19th century, seeking work and better conditions. Most of the migrants did not remain.\nRønne, Bornholm.\n\nBornholm also attracted many famous artists at the beginning of the 20th century, forming a group now known as the Bornholm school of painters. In addition to Oluf Høst, they include Karl Isaksson (1878–1922), from Sweden, and the Danes Edvard Weie (1879-1943), Olaf Rude (1886–1957), Niels Lergaard (1893–1982), and Kræsten Iversen (1886–1955).\n\n=== German occupation (1940–1945) ===\nBornholm, as a part of Denmark, was captured by Germany on 10 April 1940, and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war, as it was a part of the Eastern Front. The island's perfect central position in the Baltic Sea meant that it was an important \"natural fortress\" between Germany and Sweden, effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi-occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, and several coastal batteries had tremendous range. However, none of them were ever used, and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule have since fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded today as historical curiosities. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, however, providing supplemental income to the tourist industry.\n\nOn 22 August 1943 a V-1 flying bomb (numbered V83, probably launched from a Heinkel He 111) crashed on Bornholm during a test – the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. This was photographed or sketched by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. This was the first sign British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop flying bombs and rockets which were to become known as V-1 and V-2.\n\n=== Soviet occupation (1945–1946) ===\nBornholm was heavily bombarded by the Soviet Air Force in May 1945. German garrison commander, German Navy Captain Gerhard von Kamptz, refused to surrender to the Soviets, as his orders were to surrender to the Western Allies. The Germans sent several telegrams to Copenhagen requesting that at least one British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the western allied forces instead of the Soviets. When von Kamptz failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by the Soviet commanders, Soviet aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses in Rønne and Nexø and seriously damaged roughly 3,000 more on 7–8 May 1945.\n\nDuring the Soviet bombing of the two main towns on 7 and 8 May, Danish radio was not allowed to broadcast the news because it was thought it would spoil the liberation festivities in Denmark. On 9 May Soviet troops landed on the island, and after a short fight, the German garrison (about 12,000 strong) surrendered. Soviet forces left the island on 5 April 1946.\n\nIn the mid 1940s Donald (descendant of Ben Sayers) and Mavis Sayers arrived in Bornholm on a boat from Copenhagen. On their arrival they were greeted by a band and were paraded into the town centre. They were celebrated by the locals as the first English people to visit Bornholm since the end of the war and were treated like royalty during their stay. Following their stay they were frequently invited back as they were seen as a symbol of the restoration of Bornholm.\n\nAfter the evacuation of their forces from Bornholm, the Soviets took the position that the stationing of foreign troops on Bornholm would be considered a declaration of war against the Soviet Union, and that Denmark should keep troops on it at all times to protect it from such foreign aggression. This policy remained in force after NATO was formed, with Denmark as a founding member. The Soviets accepted the stationing there of Danish troops, which were part of NATO but viewed as militarily inferior elements of the alliance, but they strongly objected to the presence of other NATO troops on Bornholm, in particular of US troops.\n", "Bornholm.\n\nOn the surface of Bornholm older geological formations can be seen better than in the rest of Denmark. ''Stubbeløkken'' - which is still operating (Danish ''i drift'') - and ''Klippeløkken'' granite quarries in Knudsker parish just east of central Rønne - and statistically a part of the town - are among the few remaining quarries of what was once many active quarries on the island. The island's varied geography and seascapes attract visitors to its many beauty spots from the Hammeren promontory in the northwest to the Almindingen forest in the centre and the Dueodde beaches in the southeast. Of special interest are the rocky sea cliffs at Jons Kapel and Helligdomsklipperne, the varied topography of Paradisbakkerne and rift valleys such as Ekkodalen and Døndalen. Bornholm's numerous windmills include the post mill of Egeby and the well-kept Dutch mill at Aarsdale. The lighthouse at Dueodde is Denmark's tallest, while Hammeren Lighthouse stands at a height of above sea level and Rønne Lighthouse rises over the waterfront.\n\nExamples of roads that have (very) steep climbs and descents are: (inland) Simblegårdsvej in Klemensker, which begins by the village inn Klemens Kro, and Slamrebjergvej just outside Nexø extending northward from the main road from Rønne. Along the coast there are several steep roads, which is also the case in some parts of Denmark as a whole, for instance in and around Vejle.\n\nThe island hosts examples of 19th- and early-20th-century architecture, and about 300 wooden houses in Rønne and Nexø, donated by Sweden after World War II, when the island was repairing damage caused by the war.\nThe island is home to 15 medieval churches, four of which are round churches with unique artwork and architecture. The ancient site of Rispebjerg has remains of sun temples from the Neolithic and earthworks from the Iron Age.\n\nThere are 14 European bison near Åkirkeby, attracting 100,000 visitors a year.\n", "Kristian Zahrtmann\nMichael Ancher, self portrait 1902\nVilhelm Herold as Lohengrin\nTulla Blomberg Ranslet\nPia Ranslet\nMagnus Cort\n=== pre 1900 ===\n\n* Peder Olsen Walløe (1716 – 1793) Dano-Norwegian Arctic explorer, explored the former Norse settlements on Greenland\n* Peter Schousboe (1766 in Rønne – 1832) botanist and Danish consul general in Tangier\n* Peter Ludvig Panum (1820 in Rønne – 1885) physiologist and pathologist \n* Johan Peter Andreas Anker (1838 in Knudsker Sogn – 1876) military officer.\n* Peder Henrik Kristian Zahrtmann (1843 in Rønne – 1917) painter, favoured naturalism and realism\n* Michael Ancher (1849 in Rutsker – 1927) realist artist, painted fishermen in Skagen\n* Mathias Bidstrup (1852 in Rønne – 1929) architect of many buildings on Bornholm, schools, churches (including Gudhjem Church), urban and rural stations and the post office in Rønne\n* Janus Laurentius Ridter (1854 in Aakirkeby) – 1921) painter and illustrator of topographical watercolours\n* M.P. Möller (1854 in Østermarie – 1937), a pipe-organ builder and manufacturer, moved to the USA in 1872.\n* Vilhelm Herold (1865 in Hasle – 1937) operatic tenor, voice teacher, and theatre director \n* Martin Andersen Nexø (1869 – 1954) socialist writer, moved to the island aged 8 and took his last name after the city of Nexø\n* Vilhelm Grønbech (1873 in Allinge – 1948) cultural historian and professor of the history of religion at the University of Copenhagen\n* Oluf Høst (1884 in Svaneke – 1966) Expressionist painter, the only native member of the Bornholm school of painters\n\n=== post 1900 ===\n\n* Else Højgaard (1906–1979) ballerina and an actress of stage and screen, noted for her fiery temperament and edgy intensity\n* Gustaf Munch-Petersen (1912 – 1938) writer and painter. He moved to Bornholm in 1935\n* Gertrud Vasegaard (1913–2007), a ceramist remembered for her stoneware, in 1933 she moved to Bornholm whence her family originated and opened a studio in Gudhjem.\n* Dr. Lilli Nielsen (1926 in Rønne - 2013) psychologist, taught blind children and those with multiple disabilities\n* Mogens Glistrup (1926 – 2008) controversial politician, lawyer and tax protester \n* Tulla Blomberg Ranslet (born 1928) Norwegian painter, moved to Bornholm in 1955\n* Flemming Kofod-Svendsen (born 1944 in Aakirkeby) an ordained minister in the Lutheran Church and a politician\n* Ursula Munch-Petersen (born 1937 in Rønne) ceramist\n* Bente Hammer (born 1950) textile artist and fashion designer, moved to Bornholm in 1987, opened a workshop and boutique\n* Pia Ranslet (born 1956 in Allinge) painter and sculptor.\n* Klaus Bondam (born 1963 in Aakirkeby) actor and politician\n* Sofie Stougaard (born 1966 in Svaneke) actress \n* Engelina Andrina Larsen (born 1978) singer and songwriter \n* Nicolai Nørregaard (born 1979 in Svaneke) chef and restaurateur \n* Aura Dione (born 1985) pop singer and songwriter\n\n=== sport ===\n\n* Hans Colberg (1921 in Klemensker – 2007) football player, over 200 pro appearances \n* Julie Houmann (born in Rønne 1979) badminton player \n* Lisbet Jakobsen (born 1987 in Nexø) rower\n* Magnus Cort Nielsen (born 1993) professional road bicycle racer \n* Mathias Christiansen (born 1994) badminton player\n* Amir Hadžiahmetović (born 1997 in Nexø) professional footballer\n", "Bornholm is connected to the Swedish electricity grid by a submarine 60 kV AC cable, which is among the longest AC cables in Europe. This cable is capable of delivering all the electrical energy consumed on Bornholm. However Bornholm also generates its own electricity at small thermal power plants and especially wind turbines.\n\nBornholm is also home to a large internationally funded demonstration project to test the viability of novel energy market mechanisms to regulate energy networks with a high prevalence of renewables (such as wind turbines and photovoltaics). 50% of the project is EU-funded, with the remainder coming mainly from large corporations. See http://www.eu-ecogrid.net/ecogrid-eu for more.\n", "\n\n\nØsterlars Church, one of Bornholm's four round churches\nRuins of Hammershus, a medieval fortress\n22 September 2014 population numbers showed fewer than 40,000 inhabitants on the island for the first time in over 100 years. The ''Folkeregister'' in the municipality could document 39,922 inhabitants in the municipality on that date.\n", "Bornholm has an oceanic climate relatively similar to southern Sweden and mainland Denmark, whose summer highs and winter lows are heavily moderated by its maritime and isolated position. Even though heat is rare, the climate is sunny during summers and rainfall is generally sparse for a climate of this type. The winter (November–December) 2010 - (January–April) 2011 was exceptionally extreme with snow depth reaching at least 146 cm, 2 inches short of 5 feet (snowdrifts 6 meters, almost 20 feet) the highest in Northern Europe. Military had to assist. The DMI estimated the weight of snow to be 100 million ton. 2013 was a cold year, with only June, July, and August being warm.\n\n\n", "Bornholm's geography as an island and moderate climate makes Bornholm an ideal location for sailing and other water-based sports.\n\nBornholm has also become an internationally recognised venue for 'match racing', a sailing sport where two identical (or one design) supplied racing yachts are raced in one-on-one dogfights on the water. The Danish Open event was held in Bornholm in September 2010 at the port town of Rønne on the Western coast of Bornholm. The racing yachts used for the Danish Open event are Danish-designed DS37 racing yachts. These highly manoeuvrable and versatile boats are also used in the Match Cup Sweden event.\n\nThe five-day Danish Open is a key event in the World Match Racing Tour calendar which is one of only 3 events awarded 'special event' status by the International Sailing Federation. The Tour is the world's leading professional 'match racing' series and features a nine-event calendar which crosses three continents during the series.\n\nPoints accrued during the Danish Open contribute directly to the World Match Racing Tour championship with the winner of the season finale at the Monsoon Cup in Malaysia claiming the ultimate match racing title ISAF World Match Racing Champion.\n\nUnlike other sailing sports, match racing is suited to locations like Bornholm, because it takes place in close proximity to the shore which provides spectacular heat-of-the-action viewing for the on-shore audience.\n\nThere are two small stadiums: Nexø Stadion, in Nexø, where NB Bornholm association football club play; and the slightly larger multi-use stadium Rønne Stadion Nord in Rønne, which serves the Bornholm national football team, multi-section club most well known for athletics '''IK Viking''', and several local football clubs. The DBU Bornholm is the local branch governing football on the island.\n", "Various Christian denominations have become established on the island, most during the 19th century.\n* ''Folkekirken'' (State church) (1536)\n* Baptist church (1843)\n* The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) (1850)\n* Methodist church (1895)\n* Jehovah's Witnesses (1897)\n* Roman Catholic Church (ca 1150)\n", "* The Academy Award-winning 1987 Bille August film ''Pelle the Conqueror'', an adaptation of Martin Andersen Nexø's four volume novel by the same name, is set and was shot on the island.\n* A considerable part of the Second World War spy thriller Hornet Flight by ''Ken Follett'' takes place on Bornholm, depicting the island under German occupation.\n* The metalhead teen themed Megaheavy by the Danish filmmaker Fenar Ahmad is set on Bornholm in the 1980s. It won the Grand Prix at the 2010 Odense Film Festival.\n", "\n* Bornholm disease\n* ''Dromaeosauroides bornholmensis'', the first dinosaur found in Denmark\n", "\n=== In-line ===\n\n\n===General===\n\n# ''The Island of Bornholm'', a chapter in ''Selected Prose'' by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, 1969, Northwestern University Press.\n# ''The Battle of Bornholm'' in ''The hidden folk: stories of fairies, dwarves, selkies, and other secret beings'', by Lise Lunge-Larsen, 2004, Houghton Mifflin.\n# ''The Templars' Secret Island: The Knights, the Priest, and the Treasure'', 1992, by Erling Haagensen and Henry Lincoln\n# ''Behind the Da Vinci Code'', 2006 documentary by ''The History Channel''\n# ''Bornholm i krig 1940–1946'' (''Bornholm in War''), Bornholm museum, 2001, . Book of photos from World War II.\n# Bent Jensen: ''Soviet Remote Control: the Island of Bornholm as a Relay Station in Soviet-Danish Relations, 1945–71'', in ''Mechanisms of Power in the Soviet Union'', Macmillan Press, 2000, .\n\n\n", "* Outlined scanian orthography including morphology and word index. First revision.\n* Outlined scanian orthography including morphology and word index.\n", "\n* Municipality's official website (Dansk+Deutsch+English)\n* Turistguide Bornholm (Dansk+Deutsch+English)\n* Bornholm in pictures\n* Activities on Bornholm (Dansk+Deutsch+English)\n* Krak searchable/printable municipality map\n* Bornholm Map and Web Index\n* Bornholm's Museum (Dansk+Deutsch+English+Polski)\n* Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD a.k.a. Kommunedata (Municipal Data) (Danish)\n* Bornholm (Polish)\n* Frit Bårrijnhålm / Free Bornhom (Bornholmian+Danish+English)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Language", " Municipality ", "Towns and villages", " History ", "Sights and landmarks", "Famous people", "Electricity supply", "Population", " Climate ", " Sports ", " Religion ", "Cultural references", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Bornholm
[ "\n\n\n\nBooks\n\n\nA '''book''' is a set of sheets of paper, parchment, or similar materials that are fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page. Writing or images can be printed or drawn on a book's pages. An electronic image that is formatted to resemble a book on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book or e-book.\n\nThe term \"books\" may also refer to a body of works of literature, or a main division of literature (e.g., children's literature) . In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, or newspapers. In novels and sometimes other types of books (for example, biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, and so on). An avid reader or collector of books or a book lover is a bibliophile or colloquially, \"bookworm\".\n\nA shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore. Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries. Google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, the sale of printed books has decreased because of the use of e-books, though sales of e-books declined in the first half of 2015.\n", "The word book comes from Old English \"bōc\", which in turn comes from the Germanic root \"bōk-\", cognate to \"beech\". Similarly, in Slavic languages (for example, Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian) \"буква\" (bukva—\"letter\") is cognate with \"beech\". In Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word \"букварь\" (bukvar') or \"буквар\" (bukvar) refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing.\nIt is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood. Similarly, the Latin word ''codex'', meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant \"block of wood\".\n", "\n\n=== Antiquity ===\nSumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400–2200 BC\n\nWhen writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, might be used for writing. The study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt. The Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from each other (''scriptura continua'') and there was no punctuation. Texts were written from right to left, left to right, or even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for that last type of writing is 'boustrophedon', which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields.\n\n==== Tablet ====\nA tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet. Clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a (possibly dampened) stylus. They were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of goods such as bushels of grain and by rulers' scribes to record tax or other levy collections.\n\nWax tablets were pieces of wood covered in a thick enough coating of wax to record the impressions of a stylus. They were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting, and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman ''pugillares'') is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex). The etymology of the word ''codex'' (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.\n\n==== Scroll ====\n\nEgyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart.\nScrolls can be made from papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool until it is flattened. Papyrus was used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First Dynasty, although the first evidence is from the account books of King Nefertiti Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime and other materials were also used.\n\nAccording to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (''biblion'') and book (''biblos'') come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece. From Greek we also derive the word tome (), which originally meant a slice or piece and from there began to denote \"a roll of papyrus\". ''Tomus'' was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as ''volumen'' (see also below the explanation by Isidore of Seville).\n\nWhether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese, Hebrew, and Macedonian cultures. The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia.\n\n==== Codex ====\nbamboo book meets the modern definition of Codex\n\nIsidore of Seville (died 636) explained the then-current relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): \"A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (''codex'') of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches.\" Modern usage differs.\n\nA codex (in modern usage) is the first information repository that modern people would recognize as a \"book\": leaves of uniform size bound in some manner along one edge, and typically held between two covers made of some more robust material. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the first century, where he praises its compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use. This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable, searchable, and easy to conceal. A book is much easier to read, to find a page that you want, and to flip through. A scroll is more awkward to use. The Christian authors may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls. In addition, some metal books were made, that required smaller pages of metal, instead of an impossibly long, unbending scroll of metal. A book can also be easily stored in more compact places, or side by side in a tight library or shelf space.\n\n==== Manuscripts ====\n\nFolio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (''capsa''), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals.\nThe Codex Amiatinus anachronistically depicts the Biblical Ezra with the kind of books used in the 8th Century AD.\nThe fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. saw the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material. Parchment is a material made from processed animal skin and used—mainly in the past—for writing on.\nParchment is most commonly made of calfskin, sheepskin, or goatskin. It was historically used for writing documents, notes, or the pages of a book. Parchment is limed, scraped and dried under tension. It is not tanned, and is thus different from leather. This makes it more suitable for writing on, but leaves it very reactive to changes in relative humidity and makes it revert to rawhide if overly wet.\n\nMonasteries carried on the Latin writing tradition in the Western Roman Empire. Cassiodorus, in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts. St. Benedict of Nursia, in his ''Rule of Saint Benedict'' (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading. The ''Rule of Saint Benedict'' (Ch. XLVIII), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the Middle Ages and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.\n\nBefore the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books, medium-sized perhaps a few hundred. By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in Avignon and Paris library of the Sorbonne held only around 2,000 volumes.\nBurgundian author and scribe Jean Miélot, from his ''Miracles de Notre Dame'', 15th century.\n\nThe ''scriptorium'' of the monastery was usually located over the chapter house. Artificial light was forbidden for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes:\n ''Calligraphers'', who dealt in fine book production\n* ''Copyists'', who dealt with basic production and correspondence\n* ''Correctors'', who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced\n* ''Illuminators'', who painted illustrations\n* ''Rubricators'', who painted in the red letters\n\nThe bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by the scribe, who usually left blank areas for illustration and rubrication. Finally, the book was bound by the bookbinder.\nDesk with chained books in the Malatestiana Library of Cesena, Italy.\n\nDifferent types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from gall nuts and iron vitriol. This gave writing a brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and different colors were used for illumination. For very luxurious manuscripts the whole parchment was colored purple, and the text was written on it with gold or silver (for example, Codex Argenteus).\n\nIrish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However, the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.\n\nThe first books used parchment or vellum (calfskin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. Because dried parchment tends to assume the form it had before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later Middle Ages, when public libraries appeared, up to the 18th century, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft. These chained books are called ''libri catenati''.\n\nAt first, books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (''pecia''), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular stationers guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.\n\nJudaism has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present. According to Jewish tradition, the Torah scroll placed in a synagogue must be written by hand on parchment and a printed book would not do, though the congregation may use printed prayer books and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the synagogue. A sofer \"scribe\" is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community.\n\n==== Middle East ====\n\nPeople of various religious (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Muslims) and ethnic backgrounds (Syriac, Coptic, Persian, Arab etc.) in the Middle East also produced and bound books in the Islamic Golden Age (mid 8th century to 1258), developing advanced techniques in Islamic calligraphy, miniatures and bookbinding. A number of cities in the medieval Islamic world had book production centers and book markets. Yaqubi (d. 897) says that in his time Baghdad had over a hundred booksellers. Book shops were often situated around the town's principal mosque as in Marrakesh, Morocco, that has a street named ''Kutubiyyin'' or book sellers in English and the famous Koutoubia Mosque is named so because of its location in this street.\n\nThe medieval Muslim world also used a method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities known as check reading, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript. In the check reading method, only \"authors could authorize copies, and this was done in public sessions in which the copyist read the copy aloud in the presence of the author, who then certified it as accurate.\" With this check-reading system, \"an author might produce a dozen or more copies from a single reading,\" and with two or more readings, \"more than one hundred copies of a single book could easily be produced.\" By using as writing material the relatively cheap paper instead of parchment or papyrus the Muslims, in the words of Pedersen \"accomplished a feat of crucial significance not only to the history of the Islamic book, but also to the whole world of books\".\n\n==== Wood block printing ====\n\nBagh Print Traditional woodblock printing in Bagh Madhya Pradesh, India. \nIn woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the Han dynasty (before 220 AD), as a method of printing on textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is ''The Diamond Sutra'' (868 AD).The method (called ''Woodcut'' when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as well as playing-cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. The monks or people who wrote them were paid highly.\n\n==== Movable type and incunabula ====\nA 15th-century Incunable. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps.\n\n\"Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters\", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque nationale de France.\n\nThe Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available.\n\nEarly printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or ''incunabula''. \"A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330.\"\n\n=== 19th century to 21st century===\nSteam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour. Monotype and linotype typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. There have been numerous improvements in the printing press. As well, the conditions for freedom of the press have been improved through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.\n\nThroughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of electronic publishing and the internet means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a digital library, on CD-ROM, in the form of e-books or other online media. An on-line book is an e-book that is available online through the internet. Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing. There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. This effort is spearheaded by Project Gutenberg combined with Distributed Proofreaders. There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as POD or \"print on demand\", which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing (and vanity publishing) much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print.\n", "\n\n\nspine of the book is an important aspect in book design, especially in the cover design. When the books are stacked up or stored in a shelf, the details on the spine is the only visible surface that contains the information about the book. In stores, it is the details on the spine that attract buyers' attention first.\n\nThe methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th century. While there was more mechanization, a book printer in 1900 had much in common with Gutenberg. Gutenberg's invention was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by letterpress to create multiple copies. Modern paper books are printed on papers designed specifically for printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off-white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimise the show-through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for case-bound books. Different paper qualities are used depending on the type of book: Machine finished coated papers, woodfree uncoated papers, coated fine papers and special fine papers are common paper grades.\n\nToday, the majority of books are printed by offset lithography. When a book is printed the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages will be in the correct sequence. Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The sizes of books are usually specified as \"trim size\": the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and trimmed. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and have come to dominate the industry. British conventions in this regard prevail throughout the English-speaking world, except for the USA. The European book manufacturing industry works to a completely different set of standards.\n\n===Processes===\n\n====Layout====\nModern bound books are organized according to a particular format called the book's ''layout''. Although there is great variation in layout, modern books tend to adhere to as set of rules with regard to what the parts of the layout are and what their content usually includes. A basic layout will include a ''front cover'', a ''back cover'', and the book's content which is called its ''body copy'' or ''content pages''. The front cover often bears the book's title (and subtitle, if any) and the name of its author or editor(s). The ''inside front cover'' page is usually left blank in both hardcover and paperback books. The next section, if present, is the book's ''front matter'', which includes all textual material after the front cover but not part of the book's content— such things as a forward, a dedication, and a table of contents as well as publisher data such as the book's edition or printing number and place of publication. Between the body copy and the back cover goes the ''end matter'' which would include any indices, sets of tables, or diagrams, glossaries, or lists of cited works (though an edited book with multiple contributing authors usually places cited works at the end of each authored chapter). The ''inside back cover'' page, like that inside the front cover, is usually blank. The ''back cover'' itself is the usual place for the book's ISBN, and maybe a photograph of the author(s)/ editor(s), perhaps with a short introduction to them. Also here often appear plot summaries, barcodes, and excerpted reviews of the book.\n\n====Printing====\nBook covers\nSome books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. fewer copies) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print more copies in a shorter time. As the production line circulates, a complete \"book\" is collected together in one stack, next to another, and another A web press carries out the folding itself, delivering bundles of ''signatures'' (sections) ready to go into the gathering line. Note that the pages of a book are printed two at a time, not as one complete book. Excess numbers are printed to make up for any spoilage due to make-readies or test pages to assure final print quality.\n\nA ''make-ready'' is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper.\n\n====Binding====\nAfter the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the bindery. In the middle of last century there were still many trade binders – stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in binding alone. At that time, because of the dominance of letterpress printing, typesetting and printing took place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book's worth of type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so printing would be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be moved. Now, because of increasing computerization of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa).\n\nIf the book is a hardback its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a paperback. Unsewn binding, is now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held together by \"Smyth sewing\" using needles, \"McCain sewing\", using drilled holes often used in schoolbook binding, or \"notch binding\", where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the spine of each signature. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks.\n\n===Finishing===\nBook pages\n\"Making cases\" happens off-line and prior to the book's arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case-making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth (about 5/8\" all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case-making the stack of cases will go to the foil stamping area for adding decorations and type.\n", "Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using toner rather than ink. Each book is printed in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. One might think of a web press as printing quantities over 2000, quantities from 250 to 2000 being printed on sheet-fed presses, and digital presses doing quantities below 250. These numbers are of course only approximate and will vary from supplier to supplier, and from book to book depending on its characteristics. Digital printing has opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received from a customer.\n\n=== E-book ===\n\nKindle e-reader.\nIn the 2000s, due to the rise in availability of affordable handheld computing devices, the opportunity to share texts through electronic means became a more appealing option for media publishers. Thus, the \"e-book\" was made. The term e-book is a contraction of \"electronic book\"; it refers to a book-length publication in digital form. An e-book is usually made available through the internet, but also on CD-ROM and other forms. E-Books may be read either via a computer or by means of a portable book display device known as an e-book reader, such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble Nook, Kobo eReader, or the Amazon Kindle. These devices attempt to mimic the experience of reading a print book.\n", "\n\nBook design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components of a book into a coherent whole. In the words of Jan Tschichold, book design \"though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed over centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought back to life and applied.\" Richard Hendel describes book design as \"an arcane subject\" and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means. Many different creators can contribute to book design, including graphic designers, artists and editors.\n", "\nReal-size facsimile of Codex Gigas\nThe world's largest book\nThe size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame, so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed.\n\nThe most common book sizes are:\n* Quarto (4to): the sheet of paper is folded twice, forming four leaves (eight pages) approximately 11-13 inches (ca 30 cm) tall\n* Octavo (8vo): the most common size for current hardcover books. The sheet is folded three times into eight leaves (16 pages) up to 9 ¾\" (ca 23 cm) tall.\n* DuoDecimo (12mo): a size between 8vo and 16mo, up to 7 ¾\" (ca 18 cm) tall\n* Sextodecimo (16mo): the sheet is folded four times, forming 16 leaves (32 pages) up to 6 ¾\" (ca 15 cm) tall\n\nSizes smaller than 16mo are:\n* 24mo: up to 5 ¾\" (ca 13 cm) tall.\n* 32mo: up to 5\" (ca 12 cm) tall.\n* 48mo: up to 4\" (ca 10 cm) tall.\n* 64mo: up to 3\" (ca 8 cm) tall.\n\nSmall books can be called '''booklets'''.\n\nSizes larger than quarto are:\n* Folio: up to 15\" (ca 38 cm) tall.\n* Elephant Folio: up to 23\" (ca 58 cm) tall.\n* Atlas Folio: up to 25\" (ca 63 cm) tall.\n* Double Elephant Folio: up to 50\" (ca 127 cm) tall.\n\nThe largest extant medieval manuscript in the world is Codex Gigas 92 × 50 × 22 cm. The world's largest book is made of stone and is in Kuthodaw Pagoda (Burma).\n", "\n=== By content ===\nNovels in a bookstore\nA common separation by content are fiction and non-fiction books. This simple separation can be found in most collections, libraries, and bookstores.\n\n==== Fiction ====\nMany of the books published today are fiction, meaning that they are in-part or completely untrue. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for entertainment. An increase in global literacy and print technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical social commentary. Most fiction is additionally categorized by genre.\n\nThe '''novel''' is the most common form of fiction book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot, setting, themes and characters. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing markets. A novella is a term sometimes used for fiction prose typically between 17,500 and 40,000 words, and a novelette between 7,500 and 17,500. A short story may be any length up to 10,000 words, but these word lengths vary.\n\n'''Comic books''' or '''graphic novels''' are books in which the story is illustrated. The characters and narrators use speech or thought bubbles to express verbal language.\n\n==== Non-fiction ====\nA page from a dictionary\nIn a library, a reference book is a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. An almanac is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics. An encyclopedia is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing words, their etymology, meanings, and other information is called a dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas. A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a handbook. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an index, such as ''Engineering Index'', or abstracts such as chemical abstracts and biological abstracts.\nAn atlas\n\nBooks with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement books.\n\nStudents typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for study purposes. Elementary school pupils often use workbooks, which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or homework. In US higher education, it is common for a student to take an exam using a blue book.\n\nA page from a notebook used as hand written diary\n\nThere is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These books are rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank papers to be written in by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use lab notebooks to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out.\n\nA Telephone Directory, with business and residence listings.\n\nAddress books, phone books, and calendar/appointment books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal contact information.\n\nBooks for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called logbooks or simply logs. A similar book for writing the owner's daily private personal events, information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal.\n\nBusinesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping.\n\n==== Other types ====\nThere are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. Albums are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of photographs, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example is stamp albums, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of postage stamps. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar holder. Picture books are books for children with pictures on every page and less text (or even no text).\n\nHymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other devoted followers or clergy.\n\n=== By physical format ===\nHardcover books\nPaperback books\n\nHardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of spiral-bound books include teachers' manuals and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku).\n\nPublishing is a process for producing pre-printed books, magazines, and newspapers for the reader/user to buy.\n\nPublishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.\n", "\nCelsus Library was built in 135 AD and could house around 12,000 scrolls.\nPrivate or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) first appeared in classical Greece. In the ancient world, the maintaining of a library was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference from a modern public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Mediterranean region (for example, Library of Alexandria). Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.\n\nThe beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns. The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built in their homes. In the United States the Boston Public Library 1852 ''Report of the Trustees'' established the justification for the public library as a tax-supported institution intended to extend educational opportunity and provide for general culture.\n\nThe advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.\n\nIn library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as \"Crown 8vo\" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made.\n\nWhen rows of books are lined on a book holder, bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.\n", "ISBN with barcode\n\nDuring the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, worldwide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit.\n\nCommercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However, many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs. A large or public collection requires a catalogue. Codes called \"call numbers\" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside. Institutional or national standards, such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on \"shelvable\" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software.\n\nBooks on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers visible on the spines\n\nOne of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. Another widely known system is the Library of Congress Classification system. Both systems are biased towards subjects which were well represented in US libraries when they were developed, and hence have problems handling new subjects, such as computing, or subjects relating to other cultures. Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like online general-interest book databases. Metadata, which means \"data about data\" is information about a book. Metadata about a book may include its title, ISBN or other classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author, editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, the language of the text, its subject matter, etc.\n\n=== Classification systems ===\n* Bliss bibliographic classification (BC)\n* Chinese Library Classification (CLC)\n* Colon Classification\n* Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)\n* Harvard-Yenching Classification\n* Library of Congress Classification (LCC)\n* New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries\n* Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)\n", "Aside from the primary purpose of reading them, books are also used for other ends:\n* A book can be an artistic artifact, a piece of art; this is sometimes known as an artists' book.\n* A book may be evaluated by a reader or professional writer to create a book review.\n* A book may be read by a group of people to use as a spark for social or academic discussion, as in a book club.\n* A book may be studied by students as the subject of a writing and analysis exercise in the form of a book report.\n* Books are sometimes used for their exterior appearance to decorate a room, such as a study.\n", "Once the book is published, it is put on the market by the distributors and the bookstores. Meanwhile, his promotion comes from various media reports. Book marketing is governed by the law in many states.\n\n=== Other forms of secondary spread ===\nIn recent years, the book had a second life in the form of reading aloud. This is called public readings of published works, with the assistance of professional readers (often known actors) and in close collaboration with writers, publishers, booksellers, librarians, leaders of the literary world and artists.\n\nMany individual or collective practices exist to increase the number of readers of a book. Among them:\n* abandonment of books in public places, coupled or not with the use of the Internet, known as the bookcrossing;\n* provision of free books in third places like bars or cafes;\n* itinerant or temporary libraries;\n* free public libraries in the area.\n\n=== Evolution of the book industry ===\nThis form of the book chain has hardly changed since the eighteenth century, and has not always been this way. Thus, the author has asserted gradually with time, and the copyright dates only from the nineteenth century. For many centuries, especially before the invention of printing, each freely copied out books that passed through his hands, adding if necessary his own comments. Similarly, bookseller and publisher jobs have emerged with the invention of printing, which made the book an industrial product, requiring structures of production and marketing.\n\nThe invention of the Internet, e-readers, tablets, and projects like Wikipedia and Gutenberg, are likely to strongly change the book industry in the years to come.\n", "\nHalfbound book with leather and marbled paper.\n\nPaper was first made in China as early as 200 BC, and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp. Papermaking in Europe began in the 11th century, although vellum was also common there as page material up until the beginning of the 16th century, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market.\n\nPaper made from wood pulp became popular in the early 20th century, because it was cheaper than linen or abaca cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations, and enabled the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution.\n\nPulp paper, however, contains acid which eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are primarily at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections in order to prevent decay.\n\nStability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material. Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The HVAC system should be up to date and functioning efficiently. Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore, care should be given to the collections by implementing light control. General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including pest control. In addition to these helpful solutions, a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through \"acts of God\" therefore an emergency management plan should be in place.\n", "\n\n* Artist's book\n* Audiobook\n* Book burning\n* Booksellers\n* Lists of books\n* Open access book\n* Bibliodiversity\n\n", "\n", "Tim Parks (August 2017), The Books We Don’t Understand, ''New York Review of Books''\n", "\n Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (SHARP)\n* Information on Old Books, Smithsonian Libraries\n* \"Manuscripts, Books, and Maps: The Printing Press and a Changing World\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", " History ", " Modern manufacturing ", "Digital printing", " Design ", " Sizes ", " Types ", " Libraries ", " Identification and classification ", " Uses ", " Book marketing ", " Paper and conservation ", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Book
[ "\nThe Boeing '''B-52''' Stratofortress is an American strategic bomber aircraft.\n\n'''B-52''' or '''B52''' may also refer to:\n", "* B52 (New York City bus), in Brooklyn, US\n* Volvo B52 engine, a group of Volvo engines\n* Nora B-52, a Serbian 152 mm self-propelled howitzer\n* ''Bundesstraße'' 52, a federal highway in Germany\n", "* The B-52's, an American new wave band\n** ''The B-52's'' (album), an album by the eponymous group\n* B-52 (hairstyle), a hairstyle also known as the beehive\n* B-52 (cocktail), a cocktail shooter\n* B-52 Memorial Park, within the Orlando International Airport, Florida, US\n* B52 (chess opening), the ''Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings'' code for a chess opening based on the Sicilian Defence\n* HLA-B52, an HLA-B serotype\n* B-52, a coded reference to Mao Zedong in Project 571\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Transportation and military", "Other uses" ]	B52 (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n \n'''Bal Keshav Thackeray''' (; 23 January 1926 – 17 November 2012) was an Indian politician who founded the Shiv Sena, a Hindu right-wing Marathi ethnocentric party active mainly in the western state of Maharashtra.\n\nThackeray began his professional career as a cartoonist with the English language daily ''The Free Press Journal'' in Mumbai, but left it in 1960 to form his own political weekly ''Marmik''. His political philosophy was largely shaped by his father Keshav Sitaram Thackeray, a leading figure in the Samyukta Maharashtra (United Maharashtra) movement, which advocated the creation of a separate linguistic state. Through ''Marmik'', he campaigned against the growing influence of non-Marathis in Mumbai. In 1966, Thackeray formed the Shiv Sena party to advocate for the interests of Maharashtrians in Mumbai's political and professional landscape. Holding views attacking Muslims and once praising Adolf Hitler, he was known for his writings and was seen as a good orator. He had a large political influence in the state, especially in Mumbai; his party frequently used violent means against its detractors. Thackeray was blamed for inciting violence against Muslims during the 1992–1993 Bombay riots in the Srikrishna Commission Report, an inquiry by the government.\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, Thackeray built the party by forming temporary alliances with nearly all of state's political parties. Thackeray was also the founder of the Marathi-language newspaper ''Saamana''. After the riots of 1992-3, he and his party took a Hindutva stance. In 1999, Thackeray was banned from voting and contesting in any election for six years on the recommendations of the Election Commission for indulging in seeking votes in the name of religion. Besides getting arrested multiple times and briefly going to prison, Thackeray never faced any major legal repercussions for his actions. Upon his death, he was accorded a state funeral with a large number of mourners present. Thackeray did not hold any official position and never was formally elected as the leader of his party.\n", "\nThackeray was born in Pune on 23 January 1926 to Ramabai and Keshav Sitaram Thackeray (also known as 'Prabodhankar'). He was the eldest of nine siblings and belonged to the Marathi Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu or CKP community. Keshav was a progressive social activist and writer who was involved in the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement of the 1950s that argued for the creation of a unified state called Maharashtra for Marathi-speaking areas with Mumbai as its capital. Keshav's political philosophy inspired Thackeray.\n", "Thackeray began his career as a cartoonist in the ''Free Press Journal'' in Mumbai. His cartoons were also published in the Sunday edition of ''The Times of India''. In 1960, he launched the cartoon weekly ''Marmik'' with his brother Srikant. He used it to campaign against the growing numbers and influence of non-Marathi people in Mumbai, targeting south Indians. After Thackeray's differences with the ''Free Press Journal'', he and four or five people, including politician George Fernandes, left the paper and started their own daily ''News Day''. The paper survived for one or two months.\n\n===Politics===\n\n\n==== 1966–1998 ====\nThe success of ''Marmik'' prompted him to form the Shiv Sena on 19 June 1966. The name \"Shiv Sena\" (Shivaji's Army) was after the 17th century renowned local Maratha king. Initially, Thackeray said it was not a political party but an army of Shivaji, inclined to fight for the Marathi ''manoos'' (person). It demanded that native speakers of the state's local language Marathi (the \"sons of the soil\" movement) be given preferential treatment in private and public sector jobs. The early objective of the Shiv Sena was to ensure their job security competing against south Indians and Gujaratis. In its 1966 party manifesto, Thackeray primarily blamed south Indians. In ''Marmik'', Thackeray published a list of corporate officials from a local directory, many being south Indians, citing it as proof that Maharashtrians were being discriminated against.\n\nHis party grew in the next ten years. Senior leaders such as Babasaheb Purandare, chief attorney for Trade Union of Maharashtra Madhav Mehere joined the party and chartered architect Madhav Gajanan Deshpande backed various aspects of the party operations. In 1969, Thackeray and Manohar Joshi were jailed after participating in a protest demanding the merger of Karwar, Belgaum and Nipani regions in Maharashtra. During the 1970s, it did not succeed in the local elections and it was active mainly in Bombay, compared to the rest of the state. The party set up local branch offices and settled disputes, complaints against the government. It later started violent tactics with attacks against rival parties, migrants and the media; the party agitated by destroying public and private property. Thackeray publicly supported Indira Gandhi during the 1975 Emergency to avoid getting arrested; Thackeray supported the Congress party numerous times.\n\nPolitically, the Shiv Sena was anti-communist, and wrested control of trade unions in Mumbai from the Communist Party of India (CPI). Local unemployed youth from the declining textile industry joined the party and it further expanded because of Marathi migrants from the Konkan region. By the 1980s, it became a threat to the ruling Congress party which initially encouraged it because of it rivalling the CPI. In 1989, the Sena's newspaper ''Saamna'' was launched by Thackeray. Because of Thackeray being against the Mandal Commission report, his close aide Chhagan Bhujbal left the party in 1991. Following the 1992 Bombay riots, Thackeray took stances viewed as anti-Muslim and based on Hindutva. The SS later allied itself with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The BJP-Shiv Sena alliance won the 1995 Maharashtra State Assembly elections and were in power from 1995 to 1999. Thackeray declared himself to be the \"remote control\" chief minister. Thackeray and the Shiv Sena were blamed for inciting violence against Muslims during the 1992–1993 riots in an inquiry ordered by the government of India, the Srikrishna Commission Report.\n\nHe had influence in the film industry. His party workers agitated against films he found controversial and would disrupt film screenings, causing losses. ''Bombay'', a 1995 film on the riots was opposed by them.\n\n==== 1999–2012 ====\nOn 28 July 1999 Thackeray was banned from voting and contesting in any election for six years from 11 December 1999 till 10 December 2005 on the recommendations of the Election Commission for indulging in corrupt practice by seeking votes in the name of religion. In 2000, he was arrested for his role in the riots but was released because the statute of limitations expired. In 2002, Thackeray issued a call to form Hindu suicide bomber squads to take on the menace of terrorism. In response, the Maharashtra government registered a case against him for inciting enmity between different groups. At least two organisations founded and managed by retired Indian Army officers, Lt Col Jayant Rao Chitale and Lt Gen. P.N. Hoon (former commander-in-chief of the Western Command), responded to the call with such statements as not allowing Pakistanis to work in India due to accusations against Pakistan for supporting attacks in India by militants. After the six-year voting ban on Thackeray was lifted in 2005, he voted for the first time in the 2007 BMC elections. Eight or nine cases against Thackeray and ''Saamna'' for inflammatory writings were not investigated by the government.\n\nThackeray said that the Shiv Sena had helped the Marathi people in Mumbai, especially in the public sector. Thackeray believed that Hindus must be organised to struggle against those who oppose their identity and religion. Opposition leftist parties alleged that the Shiv Sena has done little to solve the problem of unemployment facing a large proportion of Maharashtrian youth during its tenure, in contradiction to its ideological foundation of 'sons of the soil.'\n\nIn 2006, Thackeray's nephew Raj Thackeray broke away from Shiv Sena to form the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) during Thackeray's retirement and appointment of his son, Uddhav rather than Raj as the leader of Shiv Sena. Narayan Rane also quit around that time.\n\nThe Sena acted as a \"moral police\" and opposed Valentine's Day celebrations. On 14 February 2006, Thackeray condemned and apologised for the violent attacks by its Shiv Sainiks on a private celebration in Mumbai. \"It is said that women were beaten up in the Nallasopara incident. If that really happened, then it is a symbol of cowardice. I have always instructed Shiv Sainiks that in any situation women should not be humiliated and harassed.\" Thackeray and the Shiv Sena remained opposed to it, although they indicated support for an \"Indian alternative.\"\n\nIn 2007, he was briefly arrested and let out on bail after referring to Muslims as \"green poison\" during a Shiv Sena rally.\n\nOn 27 March 2008, in protest to Thackeray's editorial, leaders of Shiv Sena in Delhi resigned, citing its \"outrageous conduct\" towards non-Marathis in Maharashtra and announced that they would form a separate party. Addressing a press conference, Shiv Sena's North India chief Jai Bhagwan Goyal said the decision to leave the party was taken because of the \"partial attitude\" of the party high command towards Maharashtrians. Goyal further said \"Shiv Sena is no different from Khalistan and Jammu and Kashmir militant groups which are trying to create a rift between people along regional lines. The main aim of these forces is to split our country. Like the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, the Shiv Sena too has demeaned North Indians and treated them inhumanely.\"\n", "Thackeray with actress Madhuri Dixit in 2012 shortly before his death\nThackeray died on 17 November 2012 as a consequence of a cardiac arrest. Mumbai came to a virtual halt immediately as the news broke out about his death, with shops and commercial establishments shutting down. The entire state of Maharashtra was put on high alert. The police appealed for calm and 20,000 Mumbai police officers, 15 units of the State Reserve Police Force and three contingents of the Rapid Action Force were deployed. It was reported that Shiv Sena workers forced shops to close down in some areas. The then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh called for calm in the city and praised Thackeray's \"strong leadership\", while there were also statements of praise and condolences from other senior politicians such as the then Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi and the BJP leader and MP, L. K. Advani.\n\nHe was accorded a state funeral at Shivaji Park, which generated some controversy and resulted from demands made by Shiv Sena. It was the first public funeral in the city since that of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1920. Thackeray's body was moved to the park on 18 November. Many mourners attended his funeral, although there were no official figures. The range reported in media sources varied from around 1 million, to 1.5 million and as many as nearly 2 million. His cremation took place the next day, where his son Uddhav lit the pyre. Among those present at his cremation were senior representatives of the Maharashtra government and the event was broadcast live on national television channels. The Parliament of India opened for its winter session on 21 November 2012. Thackeray was the only non-member to be noted in its traditional list of obituaries. He is one of few people to have been recorded thus without being a member of either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. Despite having not held any official position, he was given the 21-gun salute, which was again a rare honour. Both houses of Bihar Assembly also paid tribute. The funeral expenses created further controversies when media reports claimed that the BMC had used taxpayers' money. In response to these reports, the party later sent a cheque of Rs. 500,000 to the Corporation.\n\n''The Hindu,'' in an editorial, said regarding the shutdown that \"Thackeray’s legion of followers raised him to the status of a demigod who could force an entire State to shut down with the mere threat of violence\". Following his death, police arrested a 21-year-old woman who posted a Facebook comment against him, as well as her friend who \"liked\" the comment. Shiv Sena members also vandalised the clinic owned by the woman's relative.\n", "Thackeray was called 'Balasaheb' and ''Hindu Hruday Samrat'' (\"Emperor of Hindu Hearts\") by his supporters. His yearly address at Shivaji Park was popular among his followers. In 2012, he instead gave a video-taped speech and urged his followers \"to give the same love and affection to his son and political heir Uddhav as they had given him\". Thackeray was known to convert popular sentiment into votes, getting into controversies and making no apologies for it though his son has tried to tone down the party's stance after his death. He was known for his inflammatory writings, was seen as a good orator who used cruel humour to engage his audience. He had a large political influence throughout the state, especially in Mumbai. His party never had any formal internal elections nor was he ever formally elected as its chief at any point. Gyan Prakash said, \"Of course, the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement had mobilized Marathi speakers as a political entity, but it was Thackeray who successfully deployed it as an anti-immigrant, populist force.\"\n\nFollowing Thackeray's death in 2012, the Pakistani newspaper ''Express Tribune'' published an editorial defining him as a \"bigot\" who instigated racism and violence against Muslims.\n\nA memorial for him was proposed at Shivaji Park but legal issues and opposition from local residents continue to delay it.\n\nThackeray is satirised in Salman Rushdie's 1995 novel ''The Moor's Last Sigh'' as 'Raman Fielding'. The book was banned by the Maharashtra state government. Suketu Mehta interviewed Thackeray in his critically acclaimed, Pulitzer-nominated, non-fiction 2004 book ''Maximum City''. Thackeray previewed director Ram Gopal Verma's film ''Sarkar'', which is loosely based on him, released in 2005. The 2011 documentary ''Jai Bhim Comrade'' depicted a speech by Thackeray at a public rally, in which he articulated \"genocidal sentiments\" about Muslims, stating that they were the \"species to be exterminated.\" The documentary followed this by showing several Dalit leaders criticizing Thackeray for his beliefs.\n", "Thackeray was married to Meena Thackeray (née Vaidya) and had three sons, Bindumadhav, Jaidev and Uddhav. Meena died in 1995 and Bindumadhav died the following year in a car accident. Uddhav succeeded his father as the leader of Shiv Sena.Uddhav's son, Aditya wants to continue the family dynasty by getting active in the youth wing of the party\n\nRaj is his brother Srikant's son. Despite Raj's breakaway from the main party, Raj continues to maintain that Thackeray was his ideologue and relations between them improved during Thackeray's final years.\n\nThackeray drew cartoons for ''Marmik'' and contributed to ''Saamna'' till 2012. He cited the British cartoonist David Low as his inspiration. He was fond of beer and cigars.\n\n=== Political views ===\nThackeray was criticised for his praise of Adolf Hitler which he later neither admitted nor denied. He was quoted by ''Asiaweek'' as saying: \"I am a great admirer of Hitler, and I am not ashamed to say so! I do not say that I agree with all the methods he employed, but he was a wonderful organiser and orator, and I feel that he and I have several things in common...What India really needs is a dictator who will rule benevolently, but with an iron hand.\" However, ''Indian Express'' published an interview 29 January 2007: \"Hitler did very cruel and ugly things. But he was an artist, I love him for that. He had the power to carry the whole nation, the mob with him. You have to think what magic he had. He was a miracle...The killing of Jews was wrong. But the good part about Hitler was that he was an artist. He was a daredevil. He had good qualities and bad. I may also have good qualities and bad ones.\"\n\nThackeray also declared that he was \"not against every Muslim, but only those who reside in this country but do not obey the laws of the land...I consider such people to be traitors.\" The Shiv Sena is viewed by the liberal media as being anti-Muslim, though Shiv sena members officially reject this accusation. When explaining his views on Hindutva, he conflated Islam with violence and called on Hindus to \"fight terrorism and fight Islam.\" In an interview with Suketu Mehta, he called for the mass expulsion of illegal Bangladeshi Muslim migrants from India and for a visa system to enter Mumbai, the Indian National Congress state government had earlier during the Indira Gandhi declared national emergency considered a similar measure.\n\nHe told ''India Today'' \"Muslims are spreading like a cancer and should be operated on like a cancer. The...country should be saved from the Muslims and the police should support them Hindu Maha Sangh in their struggle just like the police in Punjab were sympathetic to the Khalistanis.\" However, in an interview in 1998, he said that his stance had changed on many issues that the Shiv Sena had with Muslims, particularly regarding the Babri Mosque or Ram Janmabhoomi issue: \"We must look after the Muslims and treat them as part of us.\" He also expressed admiration for Muslims in Mumbai in the wake of the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings perpetrated by Islamic fundamentalists. In response to threats made by Abu Azmi, a leader of the Samajwadi Party, that accusations of terrorism directed at Indian Muslims would bring about communal strife, Thackeray said that the unity of Mumbaikars (residents of Mumbai) in the wake of the attacks was \"a slap to fanatics of Samajwadi Party leader Abu Asim Azmi\" and that Thackeray \"salutes those Muslims who participated in the two minutes' silence on July 18 to mourn the blast victims.\" Again in 2008 he wrote: \"Islamic terrorism is growing and Hindu terrorism is the only way to counter it. We need suicide bomb squads to protect India and Hindus.\" He also reiterated a desire for Hindus to unite across linguistic barriers to see \"a Hindustan for Hindus\" and to \"bring Islam in this country down to its knees.\"\n\nIn 2008, following agitation against Biharis and other north Indians travelling to Maharashtra to take civil service examinations for the Indian Railways due to an overlimit of the quota in their home provinces, Thackeray also said of Bihari MPs that they were \"spitting in the same plate from which they ate\" when they criticised Mumbaikars and Maharashtrians. He wrote: \"They are trying to add fuel to the fire that has been extinguished, by saying that Mumbaikars have rotten brains.\" He also criticised Chhath Puja, a holiday celebrated by Biharis and those from eastern Uttar Pradesh, which occurs on six days of the Hindu month of Kartik. He said that it was not a real holiday. This was reportedly a response to MPs from Bihar who had disrupted the proceedings of the Lok Sabha in protest to the attacks on North Indians. Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar, upset with the remarks, called on the prime minister and the central government to intervene in the matter. A ''Saamna'' editorial prompted at least 16 MPs from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, belonging to the Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal (United), Samajwadi Party and the Indian National Congress, to give notice for breach of privilege proceedings against Thackeray. After the matter was raised in the Lok Sabha, Speaker Somnath Chatterjee said: \"If anybody has made any comment on our members' functioning in the conduct of business in the House, not only do we treat that with the contempt that it deserves, but also any action that may be necessary will be taken according to procedure and well established norms. Nobody will be spared.'\"\n\nIn 2009, he criticised Marathi cricketer Sachin Tendulkar for saying he was an Indian before he was a Maharashtrian.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n Profile: Bombay's militant voice by BBC dated 19 July 2000 referring to him as the \"uncrowned monarch of Maharashtra\"\n* Funeral pictures, from ''IBNLive''\n* \"Bal Thackeray and his controversial legacy\" slideshow by ''India Today''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", "Career", " Death ", " Legacy ", " Personal life ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Bal Thackeray
[ "\n'''BSE''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, also known as mad cow disease, a disease of cattle\n* Breast self-examination\n", "* Bahrain Stock Exchange, Bahrain\n* Baku Stock Exchange, Azerbaijan\n* Barbados Stock Exchange\n* Bombay Stock Exchange, India\n* Boston Stock Exchange, Massachusetts, US\n* Botswana Stock Exchange in Gaborone, Botswana\n* Budapest Stock Exchange, Hungary\n* Bulgarian Stock Exchange – Sofia, BSE-Sofia\n", "* Britain Stronger in Europe, a lobbying group \n* Board of Secondary Education, Odisha, India\n* Biological systems engineering\n* Bury St Edmunds railway station (station code), Suffolk, England\n* Backscattered electron, See Scanning electron microscope\n* Blender Stack Exchange, a Q&A site for the 3D software blender\n* BSE (satellite), a Japanese satellite\n* Bachelor of Science in Engineering, an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a student after three to five years of studying engineering at a university or college.\n* Black Sun Empire, a Dutch drum and bass group\n", "* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, sometimes called a human form of bovine spongiform encephalopathy\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Medicine", "Stock exchanges", "Other uses", "See also" ]	BSE
[ "\n\n\n'''Bille August''' (born 9 November 1948) is a Danish Academy Award-winning film and television director. His 1987 film ''Pelle the Conqueror'' won the Palme d'Or, Academy Award and Golden Globe. He is one of only eight directors to win the Palme d'Or twice, winning the prestigious award again in 1992 for ''The Best Intentions'', based on the autobiographical script by Ingmar Bergman. He was married to Swedish actress Pernilla August from 1991 to 1997. His son Anders August is a screenwriter.\n", "On 23 September 2011, Bille August announced that he had opened his studio in Hangzhou, China and taken a position as Tianpeng Media's Art Director, aiming to produce Chinese films for Tianpeng Media over the next few years. Tianpeng Media is a new media company established in 2010. The company so far has produced two films, ''The Women Knight of Mirror'' (竞雄女侠秋瑾) and ''The Years of Qi Xiao Fu'' (七小福之燃情岁月), which will be released later this year. Bille is the first foreign director to be hired by the Chinese film company. Recently, August also accepted the invitation from the Hangzhou government to serve as a \"culture consultant\" for the city.\n\nHis 2013 film ''Night Train to Lisbon'' premiered out of competition at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival. He had planned to direct a ''Gianni Versace'' biopic with Antonio Banderas as Versace, but this project was cancelled.\n", "* ''Honning måne'' (1978, In My Life)\n** Entered into the 11th Moscow International Film Festival.\n* ''Verden er så stor, så stor'' (1980)\n** TV Movie\n* ''Maj'' (1982)\n** TV Movie\n* ''Zappa'' (1983)\n** based on the book by Danish writer Bjarne Reuter. Screened at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival and the 13th Moscow International Film Festival.\n* ''Busters verden'' (1984, Buster's world)\n** based on the book by Danish writer Bjarne Reuter\n* ''Tro, håb og kærlighed'' (1984, Twist and Shout). Entered into the 14th Moscow International Film Festival.\n** sequel to ''Zappa''\n* ''Pelle Erobreren'' (1987, Pelle the Conqueror)\n based on the novel ''Pelle the Conqueror'' by Danish author Martin Andersen Nexø\n won the Golden Palm at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival, the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the Best Film award at the 23rd Guldbagge Awards.\n* ''Den goda viljan'' (1991, The Best Intentions)\n script by Ingmar Bergman.\n won the Golden Palm at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival.\n* ''The House of the Spirits'' (1993)\n** based on a novel by Chilean author Isabel Allende.\n* ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (1993) Two episodes\n Vienna, November 1908 (Season 2, Episode 9)\n Northern Italy, June 1918 (Season 2, Episode 10)\n* ''Jerusalem'' (1996)\n** based on a novel by the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf.\n* ''Smilla's Sense of Snow'' (1997)\n based on the novel Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow by Danish author Peter Høeg.\n nominated for the Golden Bear at Berlin\n* ''Les Misérables'' (1998)\n** based on the novel of the same name by French author Victor Hugo.\n* ''En sang for Martin'' (2001, A Song for Martin)\n* ''Return to Sender'' (2005)\n* ''Goodbye Bafana'' (2007)\n** won the ''Cinema for Peace 2007 Best Director Award''\n* ''The Passion of Marie'' (2012)\n* ''Night Train to Lisbon'' (2013)\n* ''Silent Heart'' (2014)\n* ''The Chinese Widow'' (2017)\n* ''55 Steps'' (2017)\n", "\n", "* 1997 interview with Bille August about Smilla's Sense of Snow\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Career", "Selected filmography", "References", "External links" ]	Bille August
[ "\n'''Body''' or '''BODY''' may refer to:\n\n", "===In physics===\n* Physical body, an object in physics\n\n===In life sciences===\n* Human body, the entire structure of a human organism\n** Dead body or cadaver, a dead human body\n* Body plan, the physical features shared by a group of animals\n", "===In film and television===\n* ''Body'' (2015 Polish film), a 2015 Polish film\n* ''Body'' (2015 American film), a 2015 American film\n* \"Body\" (''Wonder Showzen'' episode), a 2006 episode of American sketch comedy television series ''Wonder Showzen''\n* \"Body\", an episode of the Adult Swim television series, ''Off the Air''\n\n===In literature and publishing===\n* Body (publishing), the main part of an article\n* body (typography), the size of a piece of metal type\n* ''B.O.D.Y.'' (manga), by Ao Mimori\n* Body (literary magazine), an international online literary magazine\n\n===In music===\n* \"Body\" (Ja Rule song), a 2007 hip-hop song\n* \"Body\" (Marques Houston song), a 2009 R&B song\n* \"Body\" (Teairra Mari song), a 2010 R&B song\n* \"Body\", a song by Men Without Hats from ''No Hats Beyond This Point'', 2003\n* \"Body\", a song by Funky Green Dogs from ''Star'', 1999\n* \"Body\", a song by The Jacksons from ''Victory'', 1984\n* ''''B.O.D.Y.'' (Machel Montano album)'' (Band Of D Year), a 2006 album by Machel Montano\n* ''Best Night of My Life'', a 2010 Jamie Foxx album originally named ''Body''\n", "* Body (surname)\n* Body (transistor), a terminal of a field-effect transistor\n* Body (wine), a wine tasting descriptor of sense of alcohol and feeling in the mouth\n* Automobile body, the outer body of a motor vehicle which is built around a chassis\n* Body corporate, a corporation capable of having legal rights and duties within a certain legal system\n* Body politic, metaphor in which a nation is considered to be a corporate entity, being likened to a human body\n* An HTML element that contains the displayable content of a page\n", "\n* Anatomy, the study of the body plan of animals\n* Mind–body problem, the relationship between mind and matter in philosophy\n* Body of Evidence (disambiguation)\n* Body part (disambiguation)\n* Bodie (disambiguation)\n* Bodies (disambiguation)\n* The Body (disambiguation)\n* Corporeal (disambiguation)\n* Remains (disambiguation)\n* \n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "In science", "In arts and entertainment", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Body
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Bitola''' ( known also by several alternative names) is a city in the southwestern part of the Republic of Macedonia. It is located in the southern part of the Pelagonia valley, surrounded by the Baba, Nidže and Kajmakčalan mountain ranges, north of the Medžitlija-Níki border crossing with Greece. The city stands at an important junction connecting the south of the Adriatic Sea region with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe, and is an administrative, cultural, industrial, commercial, and educational centre. It has been known since the Ottoman period as \"The City of The Consuls\", since many European countries had consulates in Bitola. \nBitola is one of the oldest cities on the territory of The Republic of Macedonia, having been founded as Heraclea Lyncestis in the middle of the 4th century BC by Philip II of Macedon. The city was the last capital of Ottoman Rumelia, from 1836–1867. According to the 2002 census, Bitola is the second-largest city in the country. Bitola is also the seat of the Bitola Municipality.\n", "The name ''Bitola'' is derived from the Old Church Slavonic word (''obitěĺь'', meaning \"monastery, cloister\") as the city was formerly noted for its monastery. When the meaning of the name was no longer understood, it lost its prefix \"o-\". The name ''Bitola'' is mentioned in the Bitola inscription, related to the old city fortress built in 1015. Modern Slavic variants include the Macedonian ''Bitola'' (Битола), the Serbian ''Bitolj'' (Битољ) and Bulgarian ''Bitolya'' (Битоля). In Byzantine times, the name was Hellenized to ''Voutélion'' (Βουτέλιον) or ''Vitólia'' (Βιτώλια), hence the names ''Butella'' used by William of Tyre and ''Butili'' by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi. During the ruling of Radomir Gavril(1014–1015) Bitola is mentioned under the name of Buteliu. \nThe Aromanian name is ''Bituli''.\n\nThe Greek name for the city (''Monastíri'', Μοναστήρι), also meaning \"monastery\", is a calque of the Slavic name. The Turkish name ''Manastır'' () is derived from the Greek name, as is the Albanian name (''Manastir'').\n", "Bitola is located in the southwestern part of Macedonia. The Dragor River flows through the city. Bitola lies at an elevation of 615 meters above sea level, at the foot of Baba Mountain. Its magnificent Pelister mountain (2601 m) is a national park with exquisite flora and fauna, among which is the rarest species of pine, known as Macedonian pine or pinus peuce, as well as a well-known ski resort.\n\nCovering an area of . and with a population of 122,173 (1991), Bitola is an important industrial, agricultural, commercial, educational, and cultural center. It represents an important junction that connects the Adriatic Sea to the south with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe.\n\n\n", "Bitola has a mild continental climate typical of the Pelagonija region, experiencing warm and dry summers, and cold and snowy winters. The Koppen classification for this climate is Cfb.\n\n\n", "The Catholic Church \"Holy Heart of Jesus\", on the main street of Bitola.\n\n===Prehistory===\nBitola is very rich in monuments from the prehistoric period. Two important ones are Veluška Tumba, and Bara Tumba near the village of Porodin. From the Copper Age there are the settlements of Tumba near the village of Crnobuki, Šuplevec near the village of Suvodol, and Visok Rid near the village of Bukri. The Bronze Age is represented by the settlements of Tumba near the village of Kanino and the settlement with the same name near the village of Karamani.\n\n===Ancient and early Byzantine periods===\nThe area of the town is located in ancient Lynkestis, a region of Upper Macedonia, which was ruled by semi-independent chieftains till the later Argead rulers of Macedon. The tribes of Lynkestis were known as ''Lynkestai''. They were a Greek tribe and belonged to the Molossian group of the Epirotes. There are important metal artifacts from the ancient period at the necropolis of Crkvishte near the village of Beranci. A golden earring dating from the 4th century BC is depicted on the obverse of the Macedonian 10 denar banknote, issued in 1996.\n\nHeraclea Lyncestis ( - ''City of Hercules upon the Land of the Lynx'') was an important settlement from the Hellenistic period till the early Middle Ages. It was founded by Philip II of Macedon by the middle of the 4th century BC, and named after the Greek hero Heracles. With its strategic location, it became a prosperous city. The Romans conquered this part of Macedon in 148 BC and destroyed the political power of the city. However, its prosperity continued mainly due to the Roman Via Egnatia road which passed near the city. Several monuments from the Roman times remain in Heraclea, including a portico, thermae (baths), an amphitheater and a number of basilicas. The theatre was once capable of housing an audience of around 3,000 people.\n\nIn the early Byzantine period (4th to 6th centuries AD) Heraclea was an important episcopal centre. Some of its bishops were mentioned in the acts of the Church Councils, including Bishop Evagrius of Heraclea in the Acts of the Sardica Council of 343 AD. A small and a great (Large) basilica, the bishop's residence, and a funeral basilica near the necropolis are some of the remains of this period. Three naves in the Great Basilica are covered with mosaics of very rich floral and figurative iconography; these well preserved mosaics are often regarded as fine examples of the early Christian art period. During the 4th and 6th centuries, the names of other bishops from Heraclea were recorded. The city was sacked by Ostrogothic forces, commanded by Theodoric the Great in 472 and, despite a large gift to him from the city's bishop, it was sacked again in 479. It was restored in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. In the late 6th century the city suffered successive attacks by Slavic tribes and was gradually abandoned.\n\n===Middle Ages===\nIn the 6th and 7th centuries, the region around Bitola experienced a demographic shift as more and more Slavic tribes settled in the area. In place of the deserted theater, several houses were built during that time. The Slavs also built a fortress around their settlement. Bitola became a part of the First Bulgarian Empire from late in the 8th to early 11th centuries. The spread of Christianity was assisted by St. Clement of Ohrid and Naum of Preslav in the 9th and early 10th centuries. Many monasteries and churches were built in the city.\n\nIn the 10th century, Bitola was under the rule of the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil. He built a castle in the town, later used by his successor Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria. The town is mentioned in several medieval sources. John Skylitzes's 11th-century chronicle mentions that Emperor Basil II burned Gavril's castles in Bitola, when passing through and ravaging Pelagonia. The second chrysobull (1019) of Basil II mentioned that the Bishop of Bitola depended on the Archbishopric of Ohrid. During the reign of Samuil, the city was an important centre in the Bulgarian state and the seat of the Bitola Bishopric. In many medieval sources, especially Western, the name ''Pelagonia'' was synonymous with the Bitola Bishopric, and in some of them Bitola was known under the name of Heraclea due to the church tradition that turned the Heraclea Bishopric into the Pelagonian Metropolitan's Diocese. In 1015, Tsar Gavril Radomir was killed by his cousin Ivan Vladislav, who declared himself tsar and rebuilt the city fortress. To celebrate the occasion, a stone inscription written in the Cyrillic alphabet was set in the fortress; in it the Slavic name of the city is mentioned: Bitol.\n\nFollowing battles with the Tsar Ivan Vladislav, Byzantine emperor Basil II recaptured Monastiri in 1015. The town is mentioned as an episcopal centre in 1019 in a record by Basil II. Two important uprisings against Byzantine rule took place in the Bitola area in 1040 and 1072. After the Bulgarian state was restored in the late 12th century, Bitola was incorporated under the rule of Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria. It was conquered again by Byzantium at the end of the 13th century, but it became part of Serbia in the first half of the 14th century, after the conquests of Stefan Dušan.\n\nAs a military, political and cultural center, Bitola played a very important role in the life of the medieval society in the region, prior to the Ottoman conquest in the mid-14th century. On the eve of the Ottoman conquest, Bitola (Monastir in Ottoman Turkish) experienced great growth with its well-established trading links all over the Balkan Peninsula, especially with big economic centers like Constantinople, Thessalonica, Ragusa and Tarnovo. Caravans of various goods moved to and from Bitola.\n\n===Ottoman rule===\n\nBitola in the 19th century\nGreek school in Bitola, late 19th to early 20th century\n\nFrom 1382 to 1912, Manastır (now Bitola) was part of the Ottoman Empire. Fierce battles took place near the city during the arrival of Ottoman forces. Ottoman rule was completely established after the death of Prince Marko in 1395 when Ottoman Empire established the Sanjak of Ohrid as a part of the Rumelia Eyalet and one of earliest established sanjaks in Europe. Before it became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1395 its initial territory belonged to the realm of Prince Marko. Initially its county town was Bitola and later it was Ohrid, so it was initially sometimes referred to as Sanjak of Monastir or Sanjak of Bitola.\n\nAfter the Austro-Ottoman wars, the trade development and the overall thriving of the city was stifled. But in the late 19th century, it again it became the second-biggest city in the wider southern Balkan region after Salonica.\n\nIn 1874, Manastır became the center of Monastir Vilayet which included the sanjaks of Debra, Serfidze, Elbasan, Manastır (Bitola), Görice and towns of Kırcaova, Pirlepe, Florina, Kesriye and Grevena.\n\nTraditionally a strong trading center, Bitola is also known as \"the city of the consuls\". In the final period of the Ottoman rule (1878-1912), Bitola had consulates from twelve countries. During the same period, there were a number of prestigious schools in the city, including a military academy that, among others, was attended by the famous Turkish reformer Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Bitola was also the headquarters of many cultural organizations that were established at that time.\nTypical neoclassical architecture from the 19th century\n\nThere are opposing ethnographic data from that period, but it appears that no specific ethnic or religious group could claim an absolute majority of the population. According to the 1911 Ottoman census, Greeks were the largest Christian population in the vilayet, with 740,000 Greeks, 517,000 Bulgarians and 1,061,000 Muslims in the vilayets of Selanik (Thessaloniki) and Manastır. However, it should be noted that the basis of the Ottoman censuses was the millet system. People were assigned an ethnicity according to their religion. So all Sunni Muslims were categorised as Turks, although many of them were Albanians, and all members of the Greek Orthodox church as Greeks, although their numbers included a vast majority of Aromanians, South Albanians, and some Macedonian Slavs. The rest were divided between Bulgarian and Serb Orthodox churches.\nCongress of Manastir\n\nBitola’s population itself was very various. It numbered some 50,000 at the end of the 19th century. There were around 7,000 Aromanians most of whom fully embraced the Hellenist ideas, although many of them joined the Romanian idea. Bitola also had significant Muslim population - 11,000 (Turks, Roma, and Albanians) as well Jewish commununity - 5,200. The Slavic-speakers were divided between the Bulgarian Exarchate - 8,000, and the Greek Patriarchate - 6,300.\n\nIn 1894, Manastır was connected with Selanik by train. The first motion picture made in the Balkans was recorded by the Aromanian Manakis brothers in Manastır in 1903. In their honour, the annual Manaki Brothers International Film Camera Festival is held in modern Bitola.\n\nIn November 1905, the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania, a secret organization to fight for the liberation of Albania from the Ottoman Empire, was founded by Bajo Topulli and other Albanian nationalists and intellectuals. Three years later, the Congress of Manastir of 1908 which defined the modern Albanian alphabet was held in the city. The congress was held at the house of Fehim Zavalani and led by Mit'hat Frashëri, chairman of the congress. The participants in the Congress were prominent figures of the cultural and political life from Albanian-inhabited territories in the Balkans, as well as throughout the Albanian diaspora.\n\n===Ilinden Uprising===\nStreet in Bitola in 1914\n\nThe Bitola region was a stronghold of the Ilinden Uprising. The uprising was started as decided in 1903 in Thessaloniki by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO). The uprising in the Bitola region was planned in Smilevo village in May 1903. The battles were fought in the villages of Bistrica, Rakovo, Buf, Skocivir, Paralovo, Brod, Novaci, Smilevo, Gjavato, Capari and others. Smilevo was defended by 600 rebels led by Dame Gruev and Georgi Sugarev, but when they were defeated, villages were burned.\n\n===Balkan Wars===\nIn 1912, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece fought the Ottomans in the First Balkan War. After victory at Sarantaporo, Greek troops advanced towards Monastir but were defeated by the Ottomans at Sorovich. The Battle of Monastir (16–19 November 1912) led to Serbian occupation. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, 1913, the region of Macedonia was divided into three parts between Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria, with Monastir ceded to Serbia, given the name ''Bitola''.\n\n===World War I===\n Vivat ribbon commemorating the Bulgarian occupation (1915).\nDuring World War I Bitola was on the Salonica Front. Bulgaria, a Central Power, took the city on 21 November 1915, while the Allied forces recaptured it in 1916. Bitola was divided into French, Russian, Italian and Serbian sections, under the command of French general Maurice Sarrail. Until Bulgaria's surrender in late autumn 1918, Bitola remained a front line city and was almost daily bombarded by air and battery and suffered almost total destruction.\n\n===Inter-war period===\nAT the end of World War I Bitola was restored to the Kingdom of Serbia, and, consequently, became part in 1918 of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Bitola became one of the major cities of the Vardarska banovina.\n\n===World War II===\nDuring the World War II (1941–45), the Germans (on 9 April 1941) and later Bulgarians (on 18 April 1941) took control of the city. But in September 1944, Bulgaria switched sides in the war and withdrew from Yugoslavia, and Bitola was freed by the Yugoslav Partisans. On 4 November, the 7th Macedonian Liberation Brigade entered Bitola victoriously. A historical Jewish community, of Sephardic origin, lived in the city until World War II, when mostly were killed or migrated to the United States and Chile. After the end of the war, a Macedonian state was established for the first time in modern history, within Yugoslavia. This had cost about 25,000 human lives. In 1945, the first Gymnasium (named \"Josip Broz Tito\") to use the Macedonian language, was opened in Bitola.\n", "The city has many historical building dating from many historical periods. The most notable ones are from the Ottoman age, but there are some from the more recent past.\n\n===Širok Sokak===\n\nŠirok Sokak (, meaning \"Wide Alley\") is a long pedestrian street that runs from Magnolia Square to the City Park.\nTraditional architecture in Bitola\n\n===Clock Tower===\nThe clock tower in Bitola.\nMagnolia Square with Russian Cosulate\nHamam Deboj-Turkish bath\n\nIt is unknown when Bitola's clock tower was built. Written sources from the 16th century mention a clock tower, but it is not clear if it is the same one. Some believe it was built at the same time as St. Dimitrija Church, in 1830. Legend says that the Ottoman authorities collected around 60,000 eggs from nearby villages and mixed them in the mortar to make the walls stronger.\n\nThe tower has a rectangular base and is about 30 meters high. Near the top is a rectangular terrace with an iron fence. On each side of the fence is an iron console construction which holds the lamps for lighting the clock. The clock is on the highest of three levels. The original clock was replaced during World War II with a working one, given by the Nazis because the city had maintained German graves from World War I.\nThe massive tower is composed of walls, massive spiral stairs, wooden mezzanine constructions, pendentives and the dome. During the construction of the tower, the façade was simultaneously decorated with simple stone plastic.\n\n===Church of Saint Demetrius===\nThe Church of Saint Demetrius was built in 1830 with voluntary contributions of local merchants and craftsmen. It is plain on the outside, as all churches in the Ottoman Empire had to be, but of rare beauty inside, lavishly decorated with chandeliers, a carved bishop throne and an engraved iconostasis. According to some theories, the iconostasis is a work of the Mijak engravers. Its most impressive feature is the arc above the imperial quarters with modeled figures of Jesus and the apostles.\n\nOther engraved wood items include the bishop's throne made in the spirit of Mijak engravers, several icon frames and five more-recent pillars shaped like thrones. The frescoes originate from two periods: the end of the 19th century, and the end of World War I to the present. The icons and frescoes were created thanks to voluntary contributions of local businessmen and citizens. The authors of many of the icons had a vast knowledge of iconography schemes of the New Testament. The icons show a great sense of color, dominated by red, green and ochra shades. The abundance of golden ornaments is noticeable and points to the presence of late-Byzantine artwork and baroque style. The icon of Saint Demetrius is signed with the initials \"D. A. Z.\", showing that it was made by iconographer Dimitar Andonov the zograph in 1889. There are many other items, including the chalices made by local masters, a darohranilka of Russian origin, and several paintings of scenes from the New Testament, brought from Jerusalem by pilgrims.\n\nThe opening scenes of the film ''The Peacemaker'' were shot in the \"St. Dimitrija\" church in Bitola, as well as some ''Welcome to Sarajevo'' scenes.\n\n===Heraclea Lyncestis===\nHeraclea Lyncestis () was an important ancient settlement from the Hellenistic period till the early Middle Ages. It was founded by Philip II of Macedon by the middle of the 4th century BC. Today, its ruins fall in the southern part of Bitola, from the city center.\n\n===The covered bazaar===\nThe Monastir bazaar in 1914\n\nSituated near the city centre, the covered bazaar () is one of the most impressive and oldest buildings in Bitola from the Turkish period. With its numerous cupolas that look like a fortress, with its tree-branch-like inner streets and four big metal doors it is one of the biggest covered markets in the region.\n\nIt was built in the 15th century by Kara Daut Pasha Uzuncarsili, then Rumelia's Beylerbey. Although the object looks secure, many times during its existence has been robbed and set on fire, but it managed to survive. The Bezisten, from the 15th to the 19th centuries, was rebuilt, and many stores, often changing over time, were located there. Most of them were selling textile and other luxurious fabrics. At the same time the Bezisten was a treasury, where in specially made small rooms the money from the whole Rumelian Vilaet was kept, before it was transferred into the royal treasury. In the 19th century the Bezisten held a total of 84 shops. Today most of them are contemporary and they sell different types of products, but no matter what the internal transformations, the outer appearance has stayed unchanged.\n\n===Gazi Hajdar Kadi Mosque===\nThe Gazi Hajdar Kadi Mosque is one of the most attractive monuments of Islamic architecture in Bitola. It was built in the early 1560s, as the project of the famous architect Mimar Sinan, ordered by the Bitola kadija Ajdar-kadi. Over time, it was abandoned and heavily damaged, and at one point used as a stare, but recent restoration and conservation has restored to some extent its original appearance.\n\n===Jeni Mosque===\nJeni Mosque\nThe Jeni Mosque is located in the center of the city. It has a square base, topped with a dome. Near the mosque is a minaret, 40 m high. Today, the mosque's rooms house permanent and temporary art exhibitions. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that it has been built upon an old church.\n\n===Ishak Çelebi Mosque===\nThe Ishak Çelebi Mosque is the inheritance of the kadi Ishak Çelebi. In its spacious yard are several tombs, attractive because of the soft, molded shapes of the sarcophagi.\n\n===Kodža Kadi Mosque===\n===The old bazaar===\nThe old bazaar (Macedonian: ''Стара Чаршија'') is mentioned in a description of the city from the 16th and the 17th centuries. The present bezisten does not differ much in appearance from the original one. The bezisten had eighty-six shops and four large iron gates. The shops used to sell textiles, and today sell food products.\n\n===Deboj Bath===\nThe Deboj Bath is a Turkish bath (hamam). It is not known when exactly it was constructed. At one point, it was heavily damaged, but after repairs it regained its original appearance: a beautiful façade, two large domes and several minor ones.\n", "The lions in their cage at Bitola zoo\nBitola is the economic and industrial center of southwestern Macedonia. Many of the largest companies in the country are based in the city. The Pelagonia agricultural combine is the largest producer of food in the country. The Streževo water system is the largest in the Republic of Macedonia and has the best technological facilities. The three thermoelectric power stations of REK Bitola produce nearly 80% of electricity in the state. The Frinko refrigerate factory was a leading electrical and metal company. Bitola also has significant capacity in the textile and food industries.\n\nBitola is also home to twelve consulates, which gives the city the nickname \"the city of consuls.\"\n\n;General consulates\n* (since 2006)\n* (since 2006)\n\n;Honorary consulates\n* (since 2014)\n* (since 2014)\n* (since 1996)\n* (since 2012)\n* (since 2008)\n* (since 2007)\n* (since 2001)\n* (since 2007)\n* (since 1998)\n* (since 2011)\n\n;Former consulates\n* (2006-2014)\n* (2005-2014)\n* (2000-2014)\n\nAlso, Albania and Italy expressed interest in opening a consulate in Bitola.\n\n===Media===\nThere are three Bitola Television Stations: Tera, Orbis and Mega, two regional radio stations: the private Radio 105, Aktuel Bombarder and Radio Delfin as well as a local weekly newspaper — Bitolski Vesnik.\n", "The composition of the council: Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (17) Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (9) Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – People's Party (2) Liberal Democratic Party of Macedonia (2) Party of United Democrats of Macedonia (1) \nThe '''Bitola Municipality Council''' () is the governing body of the city and municipality of Bitola. The city council approves and rejects projects that would have place inside the municipality given by its members and the Mayor of Bitola. The Council consists of representatives of citizens elected by direct and free elections. The number of members of the council is determined according to the number of residents in the community and can not be fewer than nine nor more than 33. Accordingly, the number of residents, the Council of Bitola municipality is composed of 31 councilors. Council members are elected for a term of four years.\n \nSince 2013, the council consists of representatives of five political parties: VMRO-DPMNE - 17, SDSM - 9, VMRO-NP - 2, PODEM - 1 and Liberal Democratic Party of Macedonia - 2.\n\nExamining matters within its competence, the Council set up committees. Council committees are formed as permanent and temporary.\n\nPermanent committees of the Council:\n* Finance and Budget Committee;\n* Commission for Public Utilities;\n* Committee on Urban Planning, public works and environmental protection;\n* Commission for social activities;\n* Commission for local government;\n* Commission to mark holidays, events and award certificates and awards;\n", "The most popular sports in Bitola are football and handball.\n\nThe main football team is FK Pelister and they play at the Tumbe Kafe Stadium which has a capacity of 8,000. Gjorgji Hristov, Dragan Kanatlarovski, Toni Micevski, Nikolče Noveski, Toni Savevski and Mitko Stojkovski are some of the famous Bitola natives to start their careers with the club.\n\nThe main handball club and most famous sports team from Bitola is RK Pelister. RK Bitola is the second club from the city and both teams play their games at the Sports Hall Mladost.\n\nIn the Macedonian Second League, FK Novaci are competing, which is located in the Region of Bitola.\n\nAll the sports teams under the name ''Pelister'' are supported by the fans known as Čkembari.\n", ";Ethnic groups\nAccording to the 1948 census Bitola had 30,761 inhabitants. 77.2% (or 23,734 inhabitants) were Macedonians, 11.5% (or 3,543 inhabitants) were Turks, 4.3% (or 1,327 inhabitants) were Albanians, 3% (or 912 inhabitants) were Serbs and 1.3% (or 402 inhabitants) were Aromanians. As of 2002, the city of Bitola has 74,550 inhabitants and the ethnic composition is the following:\n\n\n\n\n\n% from total population\n\n '''Macedonians'''\n '''66.038'''\n 88.6\n\n Romani\n 2.577\n 3.5\n\n Albanians\n 2.360\n 3.2\n\n Turks\n 1.562\n 2.1\n\n Aromanians \n 997\n 1.3\n\n Serbs\n 499\n 0.7\n\n Bosniaks\n20\n 0.02\n\nOthers\n497\n 0.6\n\n\n;Language\nAccording to the 2002 census the most common languages in the city are the following:\n\n\n\n\n% from total population\n\n '''Macedonian'''\n '''69.255'''\n 92.9\n\n Albanian\n 2.399\n 3.2\n\n Turkish\n 1.392\n 1.9\n\n Aromanian \n 548\n 0.7\n\n Serbian\n 390 \n 0.5\n\n Romani\n 287\n 0.4\n\n Bosnian\n 10\n 0.01\n\nOthers\n269\n0.4\n\n\n;ReligionThe seat of Prespa- Pelagonia diocese of the Macedonian Orthodox Church - Ohrid Archbishopric in Bitola \nBitola is a bishopric city and the seat of the Diocese of Prespa- Pelagonia. In World War II the diocese was named Ohrid - Bitola. With the restoration of the autocephaly of the Macedonian Orthodox Church in 1967, it got its present name Prespa- Pelagonia diocese which covers the following regions and cities: Bitola, Resen, Prilep, Krusevo and Demir Hisar.\n\nThe first bishop of the diocese (1958 - 1979) was Mr. Kliment. The second and current bishop and administrator of the diocese, responsible as bishop since 1981 is Mr. Petar. The Prespa- Pelagonia diocese has about 500 churches and monasteries. In the last ten years in the diocese have been built or are being built about 40 churches and 140 church buildings. The diocese has two church museums- the cathedral \"St. Martyr Demetrius\" in Bitola and at the Church \"St. John\" in Krusevo and permanent exhibition of icons and libraries in the building of the seat of the diocese. The seat building was built between 1901 and 1902 and is one of the most beautiful examples of the baroque architecture. Besides the dominant Macedonian Orthodox Church in Bitola there are other major religious groups such as the Islamic community, the Roman Catholic Church and others.\n\nAccording to the 2002 census the religious composition of the city is the following:\n\n\n\n\n% from total population\n\n '''Orthodox'''\n '''66.492'''\n 89.2\n\n Muslims\n 6.843\n 9.2\n\n Catholics\n 140\n 0.2\n\n Protestants\n 9\n 0.01\n\nOthers\n1.066\n1.4\n\n\n* Bitola's Cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Skopje.\n", "\n;Manaki Festival of Film and Camera\nIs the oldest film festival in the world who value the work of cinematographers.In memories of the first cameramen on the Balkans, Milton Manaki, every September the Film and Photo festival \"Brothers Manaki\" takes place. It is a combination of documentary and full-length films that are being shown. The festival is a world class event and it is a must see.Every year the festival brings world recognized actors including Catherine Deneuve, Isabelle Huppert, Victoria Abril, Predrag Manojlovic, Michael York, Juliette Binoche, Rade Sherbedgia.\n\nThe Magaza, a gallery in the center of the city.\n\n;Ilindenski Denovi\nEvery year, the traditional folk festival \"Ilinden Days\" takes place in Bitola. It is a 4-5 day festival of music, songs, and dances that is dedicated to the Ilinden Uprising against the Turks, where the main concentration is placed on the folk culture of Macedonia. Folk dances and songs are presented with many folklore groups and organizations taking part in it.\n\n;Small Monmartre of Bitola\nIn the last few years, the Art manifestation \"Small Monmartre of Bitola\" that is organized by the art studio \"Kiril and Metodij\" has turned into a successful children's art festival. Children from all over the world come to express their imagination through art, creating important and priceless art that is presented in the country and around the world. \"Small Monmartre of Bitola\" is a winner of numerous awards and nominations.\n\n; Bitolino\nBitolino is an annual children's theater festival held in August with the Babec Theater. Every year professional children's theaters from all over the world participate in the festival. The main prize is the grand prix for best performance.\n;Si-Do\n\nEvery May, Bitola hosts the international children's song festival Si-Do, which in recent years has gained much popularity. Children from all over Europe participate in this event which usually consists of about 20 songs. This festival is supported by ProMedia which organizes the event with a new topic each year. Many Macedonian musicians have participated in the festival including: Next Time and Karolina Goceva who both represented Macedonia at the Eurovision Song Contest.\n\n;Festival for classical music Interfest\nIt is an international festival dedicated mainly to classical music where many creative and reproductive artist from all over the world take place. In addition to the classical music concerts, there are also few nights for pop-modern music, theater plays, art exhibitions, and a day for literature presentation during the event. In the last few years there have been artists from Russia, Slovakia, Poland, and many other countries.\nFor the reason of Bitola being called the city with most pianos, there is one night of the festival dedicated to piano competitions. One award is given for the best young piano player, and another for competitors under 30.\n;Akto Festival\nThe Akto Festival for Contemporary Arts is a regional festival. The festival includes visual arts, performing arts, music and theory of culture. The first Akto festival was held in 2006. The aim of the festival is to open the cultural frameworks of a modern society through \"recomposing\" and redefining them in a new context. In the past, the festival featured artists from regional countries like Slovenia, Greece or Bulgaria, but also from Germany, Italy, France and Austria.\n; International Monodrama Festival\nIs annual festival of monodrama held in April in organization of Centre of Culture of Bitola every year many actors from all over the world come in Bitola to play monodramas.\n; Lokum fest\nIs authentic cultural and tourist event which has existed since 2007. Founder and organizer of the festival is the Association of Citizens Center for Cultural Decontamination Bitola. The festival is held every year in mid-July in the heart of the old Turkish bazaar in Bitola, as part of Bitola Cultural Summer Bit Fest.\n", "St. Clement of Ohrid University of Bitola (. Климент Охридски — Битола) was founded in 1979, as a result of dispersed processes that occurred in education in the 1970s, and increasing demand of highly skilled professionals outside the country's capital. Since 1994, it has carried the name of the Slavic educator St. Clement of Ohrid. The university has institutes in Bitola, Ohrid, and Prilep, and headquarters in Bitola. With its additions in education and science, it has established itself, and cooperates with University of St. Cyril and Methodius from Skopje and other universities in the Balkans and Europe. The following institutes and scientific organizations are part of the university:\n\nTechnical Faculty in Bitola\n* Technical Faculty – Bitola\n* Economical Faculty – Prilep\n* Faculty of Tourism and Leisure management – Ohrid\n* Teachers Faculty – Bitola\n* Faculty of biotechnological sciences – Bitola\n* Faculty of Information and Communication Technologies — Bitola\n* Medical college – Bitola\n* Faculty of Veterinary Sciences – Bitola\n* Tobacco institute – Prilep\n* Hydro-biological institute – Ohrid\n* Slavic cultural institute – Prilep\n\nGymnasium \"Josip Broz-Tito\"\nThere are seven high schools in Bitola:\n\"Josip Broz-Tito\", a gymnasium\n\"Taki Daskalo\", a gymnasium\n- Stopansko School (mining survey, part of Taki Daskalo)\n\"Dr. Jovan Kalauzi\", a medical high school\n\"Jane Sandanski\", an economical high school\n\"Gjorgji Naumov\", a technological high school\n\"Kuzman Šapkarev\", an agricultural high school\n\"Toše Proeski\", a musical high school\n\nTen Primary Schools in Bitola are:\nThe building of the elementary school \"Kliment Ohridski\" in Bitola. 1918-1941\nSchool \"Sv. Bogoroditsa \"in Bitola, 1898- 1912\n \"Todor Angelevski\"\n* \"Sv. Kliment Ohridski\"\n* \"Goce Delčev\"\n* \"Elpida Karamandi\"\n* \"Dame Gruev\"\n* \"Kiril i MEtodij\"\n* \"Kole Kaninski\"\n* \"Trifun Panovski\"\n* \"Stiv Naumov\"\n* \"Gjorgji Sugarev\"\n", "French city of Épinal, a twin town of Bitola. In return, a quarter in the city of Épinal is called Bitola, and a Macedonian flag is flown there.\n\n\nSome notable people born in Bitola are:\n\nAjri Demirovski (Macedonian: Ајри Демировски, Turkish: Hayri Önder) (born 1927 in Bitola (Monastiri), died 2009 in Turkey) was an ethnic Turkish singer.\nKarolina Gočeva, pop singer\nDimitar Ilievski-Murato, first Macedonian to climb Mount Everest\nMiljan Miljanić, football coach\nNikolče Noveski, footballer\nGeorgi Sugarev, IMRO revolutionary\n", "\n\nBitola participates in town twinning to foster good international relations. Its current partners include:\n\n\n\n* Épinal, France since 1968\n* Pushkin, Russia since 2005\n* Nizhny Novgorod, Russia since 2010\n* Bursa, Turkey since 1994\n* , Sweden since 1981\n* Kremenchuk, Ukraine since 2006\n* Rockdale, Australia since 1985\n* Ningbo, China since 2014\n* , Slovenia since 1965\n* , Croatia since 2009\n* , Montenegro since 1976\n* , Bulgaria since 2006\n* , Bulgaria since 1999\n* Stari Grad, Belgrade, Serbia since 2006\n* Požarevac, Serbia since 1976\n* Gornji Milanovac, Serbia\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\nFile:St._Demetrius_Church_(Bitola).jpg\| St. Demetrius Church, Cathedral church of Prespa-Pelagonium Eparchy\nFile:BitolskiKorzo.JPG\|Shirok Sokak\nFile:Čaršija.JPG\|The old bazzar\nFile:Bitolj - crkva svete bogorodice.jpg\|Orthodox St. Bogorodica church\nFile:Hajdar Kadi Mosque (Bitola).jpg\|Hajdar Kadi mosque\nFile:Jevrejsko groblje.JPG\|The Jewish cemetery\nFile:CrkvaBair.JPG\|View from Krkardaš\nFile:Muzej_Bitola.jpg\|Bitola museum\nFile:Spomenik na Branitelite - Bitola 6.JPG\|A monument of an angel for the defenders of Macedonia\nFile:Saat Kula - Bitola 2.JPG\|The tower clock\nFile:Heraclea.jpg\|A mosaic from Heraclea Lyncestis\nFile:Bitolskiot Filip Makedonski, Macedonia.jpg\|A monument of Phillip II of Macedon\nFile:Bitolj.jpg\|A view to Bitola from Baba mountain\nFile:Mount Pelister MK.jpg\|Pelister National Park\nFile:Dragor_river_(Bitola).jpg\|Dragor River\n\n", "\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* Basil Gounaris, \"From Peasants into Urbanites, from Village into Nation: Ottoman Monastir in the Early Twentieth Century\", '' European History Quarterly'' '''31''':1 (2001), pp. 43–63. online copy\n", "\n\n\n* Bitola Municipality Official Page\n* Bitola Municipality Official Info Page\n* Bitola - Gallery\n* The Bitola museum\n* Bitola Tourist Info\n* Bitola Photo Gallery\n* The Story of the Jewish Community in Monastir - an online exhibition by Yad Vashem\n* The Story of the Jewish Community in Monastir - an online exhibition by Yad Vashem\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Geography", "Climate", "History", "Main sights", "Bitola today", " City Council ", "Sports", "Demography", "Culture", "Education", "People from Bitola", "Twin towns — sister cities", "Gallery", "References", "External links" ]	Bitola
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Bosworth Field''' (or '''Battle of Bosworth''') was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that raged across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history.\n\nRichard's reign began in 1483. At the request of his brother Edward IV, Richard was acting as Lord Protector for his son Edward V. Richard had Parliament declare Edward V illegitimate and ineligible for the throne, and took it for himself. Richard lost popularity when the boy and his younger brother disappeared after he incarcerated them in the Tower of London, and his support was further eroded by the popular belief that he was implicated in the death of his wife. Across the English Channel in Brittany, Henry Tudor, a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster, seized on Richard's difficulties so that he could challenge his claim to the throne. Henry's first attempt to invade England was frustrated by a storm in 1483, but on his second attempt he arrived unopposed on 7 August 1485 on the southwest coast of Wales. Marching inland, Henry gathered support as he made for London. Richard mustered his troops and intercepted Henry's army south of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Thomas, Lord Stanley, and Sir William Stanley brought a force to the battlefield, but held back while they decided which side it would be more advantageous to support.\n\nRichard divided his army, which outnumbered Henry's, into three groups (or \"battles\"). One was assigned to the Duke of Norfolk and another to the Earl of Northumberland. Henry kept most of his force together and placed it under the command of the experienced Earl of Oxford. Richard's vanguard, commanded by Norfolk, attacked but struggled against Oxford's men, and some of Norfolk's troops fled the field. Northumberland took no action when signalled to assist his king, so Richard gambled everything on a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry and end the fight. Seeing the king's knights separated from his army, the Stanleys intervened; Sir William led his men to Henry's aid, surrounding and killing Richard. After the battle Henry was crowned king below an oak tree in nearby Stoke Golding, now a residential garden.\n\nHenry hired chroniclers to portray his reign favourably; the Battle of Bosworth was popularised to represent the Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age. From the 15th to the 18th centuries the battle was glamorised as a victory of good over evil. The climax of William Shakespeare's play ''Richard III'' provides a focal point for critics in later film adaptations. The exact site of the battle is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data, and memorials have been erected at different locations. In 1974 the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on a site that has since been challenged by several scholars and historians. In October 2009 a team of researchers, who had performed geological surveys and archaeological digs in the area from 2003, suggested a location southwest of Ambion Hill.\n", "\n\n\nDuring the 15th century civil war raged across England as the Houses of York and Lancaster fought each other for the English throne. In 1471 the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. The Lancastrian King Henry VI and his only son, Edward of Lancaster, died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury. Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne. The Yorkist king, Edward IV, was in complete control of England. He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule, such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry, naming them traitors and confiscating their lands. The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds forced them to land in Brittany, then a semi-independent duchy, where they were taken into the custody of Duke Francis II. Henry's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, uncle of King Richard II and father of King Henry IV. The Beauforts were originally bastards, but Henry IV legitimised them on the condition that their descendants were not eligible to inherit the throne. Henry Tudor, the only remaining Lancastrian noble with a trace of the royal bloodline, had a weak claim to the throne, and Edward regarded him as \"a nobody\". The Duke of Brittany, however, viewed Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England's aid in conflicts with France and kept the Tudors under his protection.\n\nEdward IV died 12 years after Tewkesbury on 9 April 1483. His 12-year-old elder son succeeded him as King Edward V; the younger son, nine-year-old Richard of Shrewsbury, was next in line to the throne. Edward V was too young to rule and a Royal Council was established to rule the country until the king's coming of age. The royal court was worried when it learned that the Woodvilles, relatives of Edward IV's widow Elizabeth, were plotting to seize control of the council. Having offended many in their quest for wealth and power, the Woodville family was not popular. To frustrate the Woodvilles' ambitions, Lord Hastings and other members of the council turned to the new king's uncle—Richard, Duke of Gloucester, brother of Edward IV. The courtiers urged Gloucester to assume the role of Protector quickly, as had been previously requested by his now dead brother. On 29 April Gloucester, accompanied by a contingent of guards and Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, took Edward V into custody and arrested several prominent members of the Woodville family. After bringing the young king to London, Gloucester had two of the Woodvilles (the Queen's brother Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and her younger son by her first marriage Richard Grey) executed, without trial, on charges of treason.\n\nOn 13 June Gloucester accused Hastings of plotting with the Woodvilles and had him beheaded. Nine days later Gloucester convinced Parliament to declare the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth illegal, rendering their children illegitimate and disqualifying them from the throne. With his brother's children out of the way, he was next in the line of succession and was proclaimed King Richard III on 26 June. The timing and extrajudicial nature of the deeds done to obtain the throne for Richard won him no popularity, and rumours that spoke ill of the new king spread throughout England. After they were declared bastards, the two princes were confined in the Tower of London and never seen in public again.\n\nDiscontent with Richard's actions manifested itself in the summer after he took control of the country, as a conspiracy emerged to displace him from the throne. The rebels were mostly loyalists to Edward IV, who saw Richard as a usurper. Their plans were coordinated by a Lancastrian, Henry's mother Lady Margaret, who was promoting her son as a candidate for the throne. The highest-ranking conspirator was Buckingham. No chronicles tell of the duke's motive in joining the plot, although historian Charles Ross proposes that Buckingham was trying to distance himself from a king who was becoming increasingly unpopular with the people. Michael Jones and Malcolm Underwood suggest that Margaret deceived Buckingham into thinking the rebels supported him to be king.\n\nElizabeth of York: rumours of her marriage launched Henry's invasion.\nThe plan was to stage uprisings within a short time in southern and western England, overwhelming Richard's forces. Buckingham would support the rebels by invading from Wales, while Henry came in by sea. Bad timing and weather wrecked the plot. An uprising in Kent started 10 days prematurely, alerting Richard to muster the royal army and take steps to put down the insurrections. Richard's spies informed him of Buckingham's activities, and the king's men captured and destroyed the bridges across the River Severn. When Buckingham and his army reached the river, they found it swollen and impossible to cross because of a violent storm that broke on 15 October. Buckingham was trapped and had no safe place to retreat; his Welsh enemies seized his home castle after he had set forth with his army. The duke abandoned his plans and fled to Wem, where he was betrayed by his servant and arrested by Richard's men. On 2 November 1483 he was executed. Henry had attempted a landing on 10 October (or 19 October), but his fleet was scattered by a storm. He reached the coast of England (at either Plymouth or Poole) and a group of soldiers hailed him to come ashore. They were, in fact, Richard's men, prepared to capture Henry once he set foot on English soil. Henry was not deceived and returned to Brittany, abandoning the invasion. Without Buckingham or Henry, the rebellion was easily crushed by Richard.\n\nThe survivors of the failed uprisings fled to Brittany, where they openly supported Henry's claim to the throne. At Christmas, Henry Tudor swore an oath to marry Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, to unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster. Henry's rising prominence made him a great threat to Richard, and the Yorkist king made several overtures to the Duke of Brittany to surrender the young Lancastrian. Francis refused, holding out for the possibility of better terms from Richard. In mid-1484 Francis was incapacitated by illness and while recuperating, his treasurer Pierre Landais took over the reins of government. Landais reached an agreement with Richard to send back Henry and his uncle in exchange for military and financial aid. John Morton, a bishop of Flanders, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors, who fled to France. The French court allowed them to stay; the Tudors were useful pawns to ensure that Richard's England did not interfere with French plans to annex Brittany. On 16 March 1485 Richard's queen, Anne Neville, died, and rumours spread across the country that she was murdered to pave the way for Richard to marry his niece, Elizabeth. The gossip alienated Richard from some of his northern supporters, and upset Henry across the English Channel. The loss of Elizabeth's hand in marriage could unravel the alliance between Henry's supporters who were Lancastrians and those who were loyalists to Edward IV. Anxious to secure his bride, Henry recruited mercenaries formerly in French service to supplement his following of exiles and set sail from France on 1 August.\n", "A stained-glass window in St. James Church, Sutton Cheney, commemorates the Battle of Bosworth and the leaders of the combatants, Richard III (left) and Henry VII (right).\nBy the 15th century English chivalric ideas of selfless service to the king had been corrupted. Armed forces were mostly raised through musters in individual estates; every able-bodied man had to respond to his lord's call to arms, and each noble had exclusive authority over his militia. Although a king could raise personal militia from his lands, he could only muster a significantly large army through the support of his nobles. Richard, like his predecessors, had to win over these men by granting gifts and maintaining cordial relationships. Powerful nobles could demand greater incentives to remain on the liege's side or else they might turn against him. Three groups, each with its own agenda, stood on Bosworth Field: Richard III and his Yorkist army; his challenger, Henry Tudor, who championed the Lancastrian cause; and the fence-sitting Stanleys.\n\n===Yorkist===\nSmall and slender, Richard III did not have the robust physique associated with many of his Plantagenet predecessors. However, he enjoyed very rough sports and activities that were considered manly. His performances on the battlefield impressed his brother greatly, and he became Edward's right-hand man. During the 1480s Richard defended the northern borders of England. In 1482 Edward charged him to lead an army into Scotland with the aim of replacing King James III with the Duke of Albany. Richard's army broke through the Scottish defences and occupied the capital, Edinburgh, but Albany decided to give up his claim to the throne in return for the post of Lieutenant General of Scotland. As well as obtaining a guarantee that the Scottish government would concede territories and diplomatic benefits to the English crown, Richard's campaign retook the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, which the Scots had conquered in 1460. Edward was not satisfied by these gains, which, according to Ross, could have been greater if Richard had been resolute enough to capitalise on the situation while in control of Edinburgh. In her analysis of Richard's character, Christine Carpenter sees him as a soldier who was more used to taking orders than giving them. However, he was not averse to displaying his militaristic streak; on ascending the throne he made known his desire to lead a crusade against \"not only the Turks, but all his foes\".\n\nRichard's most loyal subject was John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk. The duke had served Richard's brother for many years and had been one of Edward IV's closer confidants. He was a military veteran, having fought in the Battle of Towton in 1461 and served as Hastings' deputy at Calais in 1471. Ross speculates that he may have borne a grudge against Edward for depriving him of a fortune. Norfolk was due to inherit a share of the wealthy Mowbray estate on the death of eight-year-old Anne de Mowbray, the last of her family. However, Edward convinced Parliament to circumvent the law of inheritance and transfer the estate to his younger son, who was married to Anne. Consequently, Howard supported Richard III in deposing Edward's sons, for which he received the dukedom of Norfolk and his original share of the Mowbray estate.\n\nHenry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, also supported Richard's seizure of the throne of England. The Percys were loyal Lancastrians, but Edward IV eventually won the earl's allegiance. Northumberland had been captured and imprisoned by the Yorkists in 1461, losing his titles and estates; however, Edward released him eight years later and restored his earldom. From that time Northumberland served the Yorkist crown, helping to defend northern England and maintain its peace. Initially the earl had issues with Richard III as Edward groomed his brother to be the leading power of the north. Northumberland was mollified when he was promised he would be the Warden of the East March, a position that was formerly hereditary for the Percys. He served under Richard during the 1482 invasion of Scotland, and the allure of being in a position to dominate the north of England if Richard went south to assume the crown was his likely motivation for supporting Richard's bid for kingship. However, after becoming king, Richard began moulding his nephew, John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, to manage the north, passing over Northumberland for the position. According to Carpenter, although the earl was amply compensated, he despaired of any possibility of advancement under Richard.\n\n===Lancastrian===\nHenry Tudor was unfamiliar with the arts of war and a stranger to the land he was trying to conquer. He spent the first fourteen years of his life in Wales and the next fourteen in Brittany and France. Slender but strong and decisive, Henry lacked a penchant for battle and was not much of a warrior; chroniclers such as Polydore Vergil and ambassadors like Pedro de Ayala found him more interested in commerce and finance. Having not fought in any battles, Henry recruited several experienced veterans on whom he could rely for military advice and the command of his armies. \n\nJohn de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, was Henry's principal military commander. He was adept in the arts of war. At the Battle of Barnet, he commanded the Lancastrian right wing and routed the division opposing him. However, as a result of confusion over identities, Oxford's group came under friendly fire from the Lancastrian main force and retreated from the field. The earl fled abroad and continued his fight against the Yorkists, raiding shipping and eventually capturing the island fort of St Michael's Mount in 1473. He surrendered after receiving no aid or reinforcement, but in 1484 escaped from prison and joined Henry's court in France, bringing along his erstwhile gaoler Sir James Blount. Oxford's presence raised morale in Henry's camp and troubled Richard III.\n\n===Stanleys===\nIn the early stages of the Wars of the Roses, the Stanleys of Cheshire had been predominantly Lancastrians. Sir William Stanley, however, was a staunch Yorkist supporter, fighting in the Battle of Blore Heath in 1459 and helping Hastings to put down uprisings against Edward IV in 1471. When Richard took the crown, Sir William showed no inclination to turn against the new king, refraining from joining Buckingham's rebellion, for which he was amply rewarded. Sir William's elder brother, Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, was not as steadfast. By 1485, he had served three kings, namely Henry VI, Edward IV, and Richard III. Lord Stanley's skilled political manoeuvrings—vacillating between opposing sides until it was clear who would be the winner—gained him high positions; he was Henry's chamberlain and Edward's steward. His non-committal stance, until the crucial point of a battle, earned him the loyalty of his men, who felt he would not needlessly send them to their deaths.\n\nEven though Lord Stanley had served as Edward IV's steward, his relations with the king's brother, the eventual Richard III, were not cordial. The two had conflicts that erupted into violence around March 1470. Furthermore, having taken Lady Margaret as his second wife in June 1472, Stanley was Henry Tudor's stepfather, a relationship which did nothing to win him Richard's favour. Despite these differences, Stanley did not join Buckingham's revolt in 1483. When Richard executed those conspirators who had been unable to flee England, he spared Lady Margaret. However, he declared her titles forfeit and transferred her estates to Stanley's name, to be held in trust for the Yorkist crown. Richard's act of mercy was calculated to reconcile him with Stanley, but it may have been to no avail—Carpenter has identified a further cause of friction in Richard's intention to reopen an old land dispute that involved Thomas Stanley and the Harrington family. Edward IV had ruled the case in favour of Stanley in 1473, but Richard planned to overturn his brother's ruling and give the wealthy estate to the Harringtons. Immediately before the Battle of Bosworth, being wary of Stanley, Richard took his son, Lord Strange, as hostage to discourage him from joining Henry.\n", "Reports of the number of soldiers Henry brought with him vary widely, with different sources giving figures of 1,000, 3,000, 3,600, 4,000 and 5,000 men. This initial force consisted of the English and Welsh exiles who had gathered around Henry, combined with a contingent of mercenaries put at his disposal by Charles VIII of France. The history of one \"John Major\" (published in 1521) claims that Charles had granted Henry 5,000 men, of whom 1,000 were Scots, headed by Sir Alexander Bruce. No mention of Scottish soldiers was made by subsequent English historians. After the battle, Bruce was given an annuity of £20 by Henry for his \"faithful services\". How many Frenchmen actually sailed is unknown, but the historian Chris Skidmore estimates over half of Henry's armed fleet. The Crowland Chronicler also recorded that Henry's troops were \"as much French as English\". Many of these French mercenaries were from the garrison of Philippe de Crevecoeur, Lord of Esquerdes. Commynes recorded that these included \"some 3,000 of the most unruly men in Normandy\".\n\nHenry's crossing of the English Channel in 1485 was without incident. Thirty ships sailed from Harfleur on 1 August and, with fair winds behind them, landed in his native Wales, at Mill Bay (near Dale) on the north side of Milford Haven on 7 August, easily capturing nearby Dale Castle. His long-awaited arrival had been hailed by contemporary Welsh bards such as Dafydd Ddu and Gruffydd ap Dafydd as the true prince and \"the youth of Brittany defeating the Saxons\" in order to bring their country back to glory. Mill Bay had been chosen as it was completely hidden from view and there was no resistance by the cohort of Richard's men stationed at Dale where Henry and his men spent the first night.\n\nIn the morning they marched to Haverfordwest, the county town of Pembrokeshire, 12 miles away and were received \"with the utmost goodwill of all\". Here, the Welshman Arnold Butler (who had met Henry in Brittany) announced that \"the whole of Pembrokeshire was prepared to serve him\". Butler's closest friend was Rhys ap Thomas. That afternoon, Henry and his troops headed north towards Cardigan and pitched camp \"at the fifth milestone towards Cardigan\" where they were joined by Gruffydd Rede with a band of soldiers and John Morgan of Tredegar. The following day, 9 August, they passed through Bwlch-y-gwynt and over the Preseli mountains and to Fagwyr Llwyd south of Cilgwyn.\n\nRichard's lieutenant in South Wales, Sir Walter Herbert, failed to move against Henry, and two of his officers, Richard Griffith and Evan Morgan, deserted to Henry with their men.\n\nHowever, the most important defector to Henry in this early stage of the campaign was probably Rhys ap Thomas, who was the leading figure in West Wales. Richard had appointed Rhys Lieutenant in West Wales for his refusal to join Buckingham's rebellion, asking that he surrender his son Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas as surety, although by some accounts Rhys had managed to evade this condition. However, Henry successfully courted Rhys, offering the lieutenancy of all Wales in exchange for his fealty. Henry marched via Aberystwyth while Rhys followed a more southerly route, recruiting a force of Welshmen en route, variously estimated at 500 or 2,000 men, to swell Henry's army when they reunited at Cefn Digoll, Welshpool,. By 15 or 16 August, Henry and his men had crossed the English border, making for the town of Shrewsbury.\n", "March through Wales, to Bosworth Field.\nSince 22 June 1485 Richard had been aware of Henry's impending invasion, and had ordered his lords to maintain a high level of readiness. News of Henry's landing reached Richard on 11 August, but it took three to four days for his messengers to notify his lords of their king's mobilisation. On 16 August, the Yorkist army started to gather; Norfolk set off for Leicester, the assembly point, that night. The city of York, a traditional stronghold of Richard's family, asked the king for instructions, and receiving a reply three days later sent 80 men to join the king. Simultaneously Northumberland, whose northern territory was the most distant from the capital, had gathered his men and ridden to Leicester.\n\nAlthough London was his goal, Henry did not move directly towards the city. After resting in Shrewsbury, his forces went eastwards and picked up Sir Gilbert Talbot and other English allies, including deserters from Richard's forces. Although its size had increased substantially since the landing, Henry's army was still substantially outnumbered by Richard's forces. Henry's pace through Staffordshire was slow, delaying the confrontation with Richard so that he could gather more recruits to his cause. Henry had been communicating on friendly terms with the Stanleys for some time before setting foot in England, and the Stanleys had mobilised their forces on hearing of Henry's landing. They ranged themselves ahead of Henry's march through the English countryside, meeting twice in secret with Henry as he moved through Staffordshire. At the second of these, at Atherstone in Warwickshire, they conferred \"in what sort to arraign battle with King Richard, whom they heard to be not far off\". On 21 August, the Stanleys were making camp on the slopes of a hill north of Dadlington, while Henry encamped his army at White Moors to the northwest of their camp.\nEarly battle (a scenario based on historical interpretations): elements of Richard's army charged down Ambion Hill to engage Henry's forces on the plain. The Stanleys stood at the south, observing the situation.\n\nOn 20 August, Richard rode from Nottingham to Leicester, joining Norfolk. He spent the night at the Blue Boar inn (demolished 1836). Northumberland arrived the following day. The royal army proceeded westwards to intercept Henry's march on London. Passing Sutton Cheney, Richard moved his army towards Ambion Hill—which he thought would be of tactical value—and made camp on it. Richard's sleep was not peaceful and, according to the ''Croyland Chronicle'', in the morning his face was \"more livid and ghastly than usual\".\n", "Late battle (a scenario based on historical interpretations): Richard led a small group of men around the main battle and charged Henry, who was moving towards the Stanleys. William Stanley rode to Henry's rescue.\n\nThe Yorkist army, variously estimated at between 7,500 and 12,000 men, deployed on the hilltop along the ridgeline from west to east. Norfolk's group (or \"battle\" in the parlance of the time) of spearmen stood on the right flank, protecting the cannon and about 1,200 archers. Richard's group, comprising 3,000 infantry, formed the centre. Northumberland's men guarded the left flank; he had approximately 4,000 men, many of them mounted. Standing on the hilltop, Richard had a wide, unobstructed view of the area. He could see the Stanleys and their 4,000–6,000 men holding positions on and around Dadlington Hill, while to the southwest was Henry's army.\n\nHenry's force has been variously estimated at between 5,000 and 8,000 men, his original landing force of exiles and mercenaries having been augmented by the recruits gathered in Wales and the English border counties (in the latter area probably mustered chiefly by the Talbot interest), and by deserters from Richard's army. Historian John Mackie believes that 1,800 French mercenaries, led by Philibert de Chandée, formed the core of Henry's army. John Mair, writing thirty-five years after the battle, claimed that this force contained a significant Scottish component, and this claim is accepted by some modern writers, but Mackie reasons that the French would not have released their elite Scottish knights and archers, and concludes that there were probably few Scottish troops in the army, although he accepts the presence of captains like Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny.\n\nIn their interpretations of the vague mentions of the battle in the old text, historians placed areas near the foot of Ambion Hill as likely regions where the two armies clashed, and thought up possible scenarios of the engagement. In their recreations of the battle, Henry started by moving his army towards Ambion Hill where Richard and his men stood. As Henry's army advanced past the marsh at the southwestern foot of the hill, Richard sent a message to Stanley, threatening to execute his son, Lord Strange, if Stanley did not join the attack on Henry immediately. Stanley replied that he had other sons. Incensed, Richard gave the order to behead Strange but his officers temporised, saying that battle was imminent, and it would be more convenient to carry out the execution afterwards. Henry had also sent messengers to Stanley asking him to declare his allegiance. The reply was evasive—the Stanleys would \"naturally\" come, after Henry had given orders to his army and arranged them for battle. Henry had no choice but to confront Richard's forces alone.\n\nWell aware of his own military inexperience, Henry handed command of his army to Oxford and retired to the rear with his bodyguards. Oxford, seeing the vast line of Richard's army strung along the ridgeline, decided to keep his men together instead of splitting them into the traditional three battles: vanguard, centre, and rearguard. He ordered the troops to stray no further than from their banners, fearing that they would become enveloped. Individual groups clumped together, forming a single large mass flanked by horsemen on the wings.\n\nThe Lancastrians were harassed by Richard's cannon as they manoeuvred around the marsh, seeking firmer ground. Once Oxford and his men were clear of the marsh, Norfolk's battle and several contingents of Richard's group, under the command of Sir Robert Brackenbury, started to advance. Hails of arrows showered both sides as they closed. Oxford's men proved the steadier in the ensuing hand-to-hand combat; they held their ground and several of Norfolk's men fled the field. Norfolk lost one his senior officers, Walter Devereux in this early clash.\n\nRecognising that his force was at a disadvantage, Richard signalled for Northumberland to assist but Northumberland's group showed no signs of movement. Historians, such as Horrox and Pugh, believe Northumberland chose not to aid his king for personal reasons. Ross doubts the aspersions cast on Northumberland's loyalty, suggesting instead that Ambion Hill's narrow ridge hindered him from joining the battle. The earl would have had to either go through his allies or execute a wide flanking move—near impossible to perform given the standard of drill at the time—to engage Oxford's men.\n\nAt this juncture Richard saw Henry at some distance behind his main force. Seeing this, Richard decided to end the fight quickly by killing the enemy commander. He led a charge of mounted men around the melee and tore into Henry's group; several accounts state that Richard's force numbered 800–1000 knights, but Ross says it was more likely that Richard was accompanied only by his household men and closest friends. Richard killed Henry's standard-bearer Sir William Brandon in the initial charge and unhorsed burly John Cheyne, Edward IV's former standard-bearer, with a blow to the head from his broken lance. French mercenaries in Henry's retinue related how the attack had caught them off guard and that Henry sought protection by dismounting and concealing himself among them to present less of a target. Henry made no attempt to engage in combat himself.\n\nOxford had left a small reserve of pike-equipped men with Henry. They slowed the pace of Richard's mounted charge and bought Tudor some critical time. The remainder of Henry's bodyguards surrounded their master and succeeded in keeping him away from the Yorkist king. On seeing Richard embroiled with Henry's men and separated from his main force, William Stanley made his move. He led his men into the fight at Henry's side. Outnumbered, Richard's group was surrounded and gradually pressed back. Richard's force was driven several hundred yards away from Tudor, near to the edge of a marsh. The king's horse lost its footing and toppled into it. Richard gathered himself and rallied his dwindling followers, supposedly refusing to retreat: \"God forbid that I retreat one step. I will either win the battle as a king, or die as one.\" In the fighting Richard's banner man—Sir Percival Thirlwall—lost his legs but held the Yorkist banner aloft until he was killed. It is likely that James Harrington also died in the charge. The king's trusted advisor Richard Ratcliffe was also slain.\n\nPolydore Vergil, Henry Tudor's official historian, recorded that \"King Richard, alone, was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies\". Richard had come within a sword's length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley's men and killed. The Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet says that a Welshman struck the death-blow with a halberd while Richard's horse was stuck in the marshy ground. It was said that the blows were so violent that the king's helmet was driven into his skull. The contemporary Welsh poet Guto'r Glyn implies the leading Welsh Lancastrian Rhys ap Thomas, or one of his men, killed the king, writing that he \"killed the boar, shaved his head\". The identification in 2013 of King Richard's body shows that the skeleton had 10 wounds, eight of them to the head, clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet. The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull.\n\nRichard's forces disintegrated as news of his death spread. Northumberland and his men fled north on seeing the king's fate, and Norfolk was killed.\n", "Finding Richard's circlet after the battle, Lord Stanley hands it to Henry.\nAfter the battle, Richard's circlet is said to have been found and brought to Henry, who was proclaimed king at the top of Crown Hill, near the village of Stoke Golding. According to Vergil, Henry's official historian, Lord Stanley found the circlet. Historian Stanley Chrimes and Professor Sydney Anglo dismiss the legend of the circlet's finding in a hawthorn bush; none of the contemporary sources reported such an event. Ross, however, does not ignore the legend. He argues that the hawthorn bush would not be part of Henry's coat of arms if it did not have a strong relationship to his ascendance. Baldwin points out that a hawthorn bush motif was already used by the House of Lancaster, and Henry merely added the crown.\n\nIn Vergil's chronicle, 100 of Henry's men, compared to 1,000 of Richard's, died in this battle—a ratio Chrimes believes to be an exaggeration. The bodies of the fallen were brought to St James Church at Dadlington for burial. However, Henry denied any immediate rest for Richard; instead the last Yorkist king's corpse was stripped naked and strapped across a horse. His body was brought to Leicester and openly exhibited to prove that he was dead. Early accounts suggest that this was in the major Lancastrian collegiate foundation, the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke. After two days, the corpse was interred in a plain tomb, within the church of the Greyfriars. The church was demolished following the friary's dissolution in 1538, and the location of Richard's tomb was long uncertain.\n\nOn 12 September 2012 archaeologists announced the discovery of a battle-damaged skeleton suspected to be Richard's in the remains of his burial church in Leicester. On 4 February 2013, it was announced that DNA testing had conclusively identified (\"beyond reasonable doubt\") the remains as those of Richard. On Thursday 26 March 2015, these remains were ceremonially buried in Leicester Cathedral. On the following day the new royal tomb of Richard III was unveiled.\n\nHenry dismissed the mercenaries in his force, retaining only a small core of local soldiers to form the \"Yeomen of his Garde\", and proceeded to establish his rule of England. Parliament reversed his attainder and recorded Richard's kingship as illegal, although the Yorkist king's reign remained officially in the annals of England history. The proclamation of Edward IV's children as illegitimate was also reversed, restoring Elizabeth's status to a royal princess. The marriage of Elizabeth, the heiress to the House of York, to Henry, the master of the House of Lancaster, marked the end of the feud between the two houses and the start of the Tudor dynasty. The royal matrimony, however, was delayed until Henry was crowned king and had established his claim on the throne firmly enough to preclude that of Elizabeth and her kin. Henry further convinced Parliament to backdate his reign to the day before the battle, enabling him retrospectively to declare as traitors those who had fought against him at Bosworth Field. Northumberland, who had remained inactive during the battle, was imprisoned but later released and reinstated to pacify the north in Henry's name. The purge of those who fought for Richard occupied Henry's first two years of rule, although later he proved prepared to accept those who submitted to him regardless of their former allegiances.\n\nOf his supporters, Henry rewarded the Stanleys the most generously. Aside from making William his chamberlain, he bestowed the earldom of Derby upon Lord Stanley along with grants and offices in other estates. Henry rewarded Oxford by restoring to him the lands and titles confiscated by the Yorkists and appointing him as Constable of the Tower and admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine. For his kin, Henry created Jasper Tudor the Duke of Bedford. He returned to his mother the lands and grants stripped from her by Richard, and proved to be a filial son, granting her a place of honour in the palace and faithfully attending to her throughout his reign. Parliament's declaration of Margaret as ''femme sole'' effectively empowered her; she no longer needed to manage her estates through Stanley. Elton points out that despite his initial largesse, Henry's supporters at Bosworth would only enjoy his special favour for the short term; in later years, he would instead promote those who best served his interests.\n\nLike the kings before him, Henry faced dissenters. The first open revolt occurred two years after Bosworth Field; Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, who was Edward IV's nephew. The Earl of Lincoln backed him for the throne and led rebel forces in the name of the House of York. The rebel army fended off several attacks by Northumberland's forces, before engaging Henry's army at the Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487. Oxford and Bedford led Henry's men, including several former supporters of Richard III. Henry won this battle easily, but other malcontents and conspiracies would follow. A rebellion in 1489 started with Northumberland's murder; military historian Michael C. C. Adams says that the author of a note, which was left next to Northumberland's body, blamed the earl for Richard's death.\n", "Contemporary accounts of the Battle of Bosworth can be found in four main sources, one of which is the English ''Croyland Chronicle'', written by a senior Yorkist chronicler who relied on second-hand information from nobles and soldiers. The other accounts were written by foreigners—Vergil, Jean Molinet, and Diego de Valera. Whereas Molinet was sympathetic to Richard, Vergil was in Henry's service and drew information from the king and his subjects to portray them in a good light. Diego de Valera, whose information Ross regards as unreliable, compiled his work from letters of Spanish merchants. However, other historians have used Valera's work to deduce possibly valuable insights not readily evident in other sources. Ross finds the poem, ''The Ballad of Bosworth Field'', a useful source to ascertain certain details of the battle. The multitude of different accounts, mostly based on second- or third-hand information, has proved an obstacle to historians as they try to reconstruct the battle. Their common complaint is that, except for its outcome, very few details of the battle are found in the chronicles. According to historian Michael Hicks, the Battle of Bosworth is one of the worst-recorded clashes of the Wars of the Roses.\n\n===Historical depictions and interpretations===\nNewport History Society re-enacts Henry's march through Wales to Bosworth Field during the battle's quincentenary celebration.\nHenry tried to present his victory as a new beginning for the country; he hired chroniclers to portray his reign as a \"modern age\" with its dawn in 1485. Hicks states that the works of Vergil and the blind historian Bernard André, promoted by subsequent Tudor administrations, became the authoritative sources for writers for the next four hundred years. As such, Tudor literature paints a flattering picture of Henry's reign, depicting the Battle of Bosworth as the final clash of the civil war and downplaying the subsequent uprisings. For England the Middle Ages ended in 1485, and English Heritage claims that other than William the Conqueror's successful invasion of 1066, no other year holds more significance in English history. By portraying Richard as a hunchbacked tyrant who usurped the throne by killing his nephews, the Tudor historians attached a sense of myth to the battle: it became an epic clash between good and evil with a satisfying moral outcome. According to Reader Colin Burrow, André was so overwhelmed by the historic significance of the battle that he represented it with a blank page in his ''Henry VII'' (1502). For Professor Peter Saccio, the battle was indeed a unique clash in the annals of English history, because \"the victory was determined, not by those who fought, but by those who delayed fighting until they were sure of being on the winning side.\"\n\nHistorians such as Adams and Horrox believe that Richard lost the battle not for any mythic reasons, but because of morale and loyalty problems in his army. Most of the common soldiers found it difficult to fight for a liege whom they distrusted, and some lords believed that their situation might improve if Richard was dethroned. According to Adams, against such duplicities Richard's desperate charge was the only knightly behaviour on the field. As fellow historian Michael Bennet puts it, the attack was \"the swan-song of mediaeval English chivalry\". Adams believes this view was shared at the time by the printer William Caxton, who enjoyed sponsorship from Edward IV and Richard III. Nine days after the battle, Caxton published Thomas Malory's story about chivalry and death by betrayal—''Le Morte d'Arthur''—seemingly as a response to the circumstances of Richard's death.\n\nElton does not believe Bosworth Field has any true significance, pointing out that the 20th-century English public largely ignored the battle until its quincentennial celebration. In his view, the dearth of specific information about the battle—no-one even knows exactly where it took place—demonstrates its insignificance to English society. Elton considers the battle as just one part of Henry's struggles to establish his reign, underscoring his point by noting that the young king had to spend ten more years pacifying factions and rebellions to secure his throne.\n\nMackie asserts that, in hindsight, Bosworth Field is notable as the decisive battle that established a dynasty which would rule unchallenged over England for more than a hundred years. Mackie notes that contemporary historians of that time, wary of the three royal successions during the long Wars of the Roses, considered Bosworth Field just another in a lengthy series of such battles. It was through the works and efforts of Francis Bacon and his successors that the public started to believe the battle had decided their futures by bringing about \"the fall of a tyrant\".\n\n===Shakespearian dramatisation===\nWilliam Shakespeare gives prominence to the Battle of Bosworth in his play, ''Richard III''. It is the \"one big battle\"; no other fighting scene distracts the audience from this action, represented by a one-on-one sword fight between Henry Tudor and Richard III. Shakespeare uses their duel to bring a climactic end to the play and the Wars of the Roses; he also uses it to champion morality, portraying the \"unequivocal triumph of good over evil\". Richard, the villainous lead character, has been built up in the battles of Shakespeare's earlier play, ''Henry VI, Part 3'', as a \"formidable swordsman and a courageous military leader\"—in contrast to the dastardly means by which he becomes king in ''Richard III''. Although the Battle of Bosworth has only five sentences to direct it, three scenes and more than four hundred lines precede the action, developing the background and motivations for the characters in anticipation of the battle.\n\n''Richard III'', Act 5, scene 3: Richard, played by David Garrick, awakens after a nightmare visit by the ghosts of his victims.\nShakespeare's account of the battle was mostly based on chroniclers Edward Hall's and Raphael Holinshed's dramatic versions of history, which were sourced from Vergil's chronicle. However, Shakespeare's attitude towards Richard was shaped by scholar Thomas More, whose writings displayed extreme bias against the Yorkist king. The result of these influences is a script that vilifies the king, and Shakespeare had few qualms about departing from history to incite drama. Margaret of Anjou died in 1482, but Shakespeare had her speak to Richard's mother before the battle to foreshadow Richard's fate and fulfill the prophecy she had given in ''Henry VI''. Shakespeare exaggerated the cause of Richard's restless night before the battle, imagining it as a haunting by the ghosts of those whom the king had murdered, including Buckingham. Richard is portrayed as suffering a pang of conscience, but as he speaks he regains his confidence and asserts that he will be evil, if such needed to retain his crown.\n\nThe fight between the two armies is simulated by rowdy noises made off-stage (''alarums'' or alarms) while actors walk on-stage, deliver their lines, and exit. To build anticipation for the duel, Shakespeare requests more ''alarums'' after Richard's councillor, William Catesby, announces that the king is \"enacting more wonders than a man\". Richard punctuates his entrance with the classic line, \"A horse, a horse! My kingdom for a horse!\" He refuses to withdraw, continuing to seek to slay Henry's doubles until he has killed his nemesis. There is no documentary evidence that Henry had five decoys at Bosworth Field; the idea was Shakespeare's invention. He drew inspiration from Henry IV's use of them at the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403) to amplify the perception of Richard's courage on the battlefield. Similarly, the single combat between Henry and Richard is Shakespeare's creation. ''The True Tragedy of Richard III'', by an unknown playwright, earlier than Shakespeare's, has no signs of staging such an encounter: its stage directions give no hint of visible combat.\n\nVictorian attitude towards history\nDespite the dramatic licences taken, Shakespeare's version of the Battle of Bosworth was the model of the event for English textbooks for many years during the 18th and 19th centuries. This glamorised version of history, promulgated in books and paintings and played out on stages across the country, perturbed humorist Gilbert Abbott à Beckett. He voiced his criticism in the form of a poem, equating the romantic view of the battle to watching a \"fifth-rate production of ''Richard III''\": shabbily costumed actors fight the Battle of Bosworth on-stage while those with lesser roles lounge at the back, showing no interest in the proceedings.\n\nIn Laurence Olivier's 1955 film adaptation of ''Richard III'', the Battle of Bosworth is represented not by a single duel but a general melee that became the film's most recognised scene and a regular screening at Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre. The film depicts the clash between the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies on an open field, focusing on individual characters amidst the savagery of hand-to-hand fighting, and received accolades for the realism portrayed. One reviewer for ''The Manchester Guardian'' newspaper, however, was not impressed, finding the number of combatants too sparse for the wide plains and a lack of subtlety in Richard's death scene. The means by which Richard is shown to prepare his army for the battle also earned acclaim. As Richard speaks to his men and draws his plans in the sand using his sword, his units appear on-screen, arraying themselves according to the lines that Richard had drawn. Intimately woven together, the combination of pictorial and narrative elements effectively turns Richard into a storyteller, who acts out the plot he has constructed. Shakespearian critic Herbert Coursen extends that imagery: Richard sets himself up as a creator of men, but dies amongst the savagery of his creations. Coursen finds the depiction a contrast to that of Henry V and his \"band of brothers\".\n\nThe adaptation of the setting for ''Richard III'' to a 1930s fascist England in Ian McKellen's 1995 film, however, did not sit well with historians. Adams posits that the original Shakespearian setting for Richard's fate at Bosworth teaches the moral of facing one's fate, no matter how unjust it is, \"nobly and with dignity\". By overshadowing the dramatic teaching with special effects, McKellen's film reduces its version of the battle to a pyrotechnic spectacle about the death of a one-dimensional villain. Coursen agrees that, in this version, the battle and Richard's end are trite and underwhelming.\n", "\nOfficially the site of the battle is deemed by Leicestershire County Council to be in the vicinity of the town of Market Bosworth. The council engaged historian Daniel Williams to research the battle, and in 1974 his findings were used to build the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and the presentation it houses. Williams's interpretation, however, has since been questioned. Sparked by the battle's quincentenary celebration in 1985, a dispute among historians has led many to suspect the accuracy of Williams's theory. In particular, geological surveys conducted from 2003 to 2009 by the Battlefields Trust, a charitable organisation that protects and studies old English battlefields, show that the southern and eastern flanks of Ambion Hill were solid ground in the 15th century, contrary to Williams's claim that it was a large area of marshland. Landscape archaeologist Glenn Foard, leader of the survey, said the collected soil samples and finds of medieval military equipment suggest that the battle took place southwest of Ambion Hill (52°34′41″N 1°26′02″W), contrary to the popular belief that it was fought near the foot of the hill.Bosworth Battlefield true location\n\n===Historians' theories===\n\nThe Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England (popularly referred to as \"English Heritage\") argues that the battle was named after Market Bosworth because the town was the nearest significant settlement to the battlefield in the 15th century. As explored by Professor Philip Morgan, a battle might initially not be named specifically at all. As time passes, writers of administrative and historical records find it necessary to identify a notable battle, ascribing it a name that is usually toponymical in nature and sourced from combatants or observers. This official name becomes accepted by society and future generations without question. Early records associated the Battle of Bosworth with \"Brownehethe\", \"''bellum Miravallenses''\", \"Sandeford\" and \"Dadlyngton field\". The earliest record, a municipal memorandum of 23 August 1485 from York, locates the battle \"on the field of Redemore\". This is corroborated by a 1485–86 letter that mentions \"Redesmore\" as its site. According to historian Peter Foss, records did not associate the battle with \"Bosworth\" until 1510.\n\nFoss is named by English Heritage as the principal advocate for \"Redemore\" as the battle site. He suggests the name is derived from \"''Hreod Mor''\", an Anglo-Saxon phrase that means \"reedy marshland\". Basing his opinion on 13th- and 16th-century church records, he believes \"Redemore\" was an area of wetland that lay between Ambion Hill and the village of Dadlington, and was close to the Fenn Lanes, a Roman road running east to west across the region. Foard believes this road to be the most probable route that both armies took to reach the battlefield. Williams dismisses the notion of \"Redmore\" as a specific location, saying that the term refers to a large area of reddish soil; Foss argues that Williams's sources are local stories and flawed interpretations of records. Moreover, he proposes that Williams was influenced by William Hutton's 1788 ''The Battle of Bosworth-Field'', which Foss blames for introducing the notion that the battle was fought west of Ambion Hill on the north side of the River Sence. Hutton, as Foss suggests, misinterpreted a passage from his source, Raphael Holinshed's 1577 ''Chronicle''. Holinshed wrote, \"King Richard pitched his field on a hill called Anne Beame, refreshed his soldiers and took his rest.\" Foss believes that Hutton mistook \"field\" to mean \"field of battle\", thus creating the idea that the fight took place on Anne Beame (Ambion) Hill. To \"pitch his field\", as Foss clarifies, was a period expression for setting up a camp.\n\nSt James the Greater, Dadlington: the dead of Bosworth Field were buried here.\nFoss brings further evidence for his \"Redemore\" theory by quoting Edward Hall's 1550 ''Chronicle''. Hall stated that Richard's army stepped onto a plain after breaking camp the next day. Furthermore, historian William Burton, author of ''Description of Leicestershire'' (1622), wrote that the battle was \"fought in a large, flat, plaine, and spacious ground, three miles 5 km distant from Bosworth, between the Towne of Shenton, Sutton Cheney, Dadlington and Stoke Golding\". In Foss's opinion both sources are describing an area of flat ground north of Dadlington.\n\n===Physical site===\nEnglish Heritage, responsible for managing England's historic sites, used both theories to designate the site for Bosworth Field. Without preference for either theory, they constructed a single continuous battlefield boundary that encompasses the locations proposed by both Williams and Foss. The region has experienced extensive changes over the years, starting after the battle. Holinshed stated in his chronicle that he found firm ground where he expected the marsh to be, and Burton confirmed that by the end of the 16th century, areas of the battlefield were enclosed and had been improved to make them agriculturally productive. Trees were planted on the south side of Ambion Hill, forming Ambion Wood. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Ashby Canal carved through the land west and south-west of Ambion Hill. Winding alongside the canal at a distance, the Ashby and Nuneaton Joint Railway crossed the area on an embankment. The changes to the landscape were so extensive that when Hutton revisited the region in 1807 after an earlier 1788 visit, he could not readily find his way around.\n\nRichard's Well, where the last Yorkist king supposedly took a drink of water on the day of the battle.\nBosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on Ambion Hill, near Richard's Well. According to legend, Richard III drank from one of the several springs in the region on the day of the battle. In 1788, a local pointed out one of the springs to Hutton as the one mentioned in the legend. A stone structure was later built over the location. The inscription on the well reads:\n\nNorthwest of Ambion Hill, just across the northern tributary of the , a flag and memorial stone mark Richard's Field. Erected in 1973, the site was selected on the basis of Williams's theory. St James's Church at Dadlington is the only structure in the area that is reliably associated with the Battle of Bosworth; the bodies of those killed in the battle were buried there.\n\n===Rediscovered battlefield and possible battle scenario===\n\nThe very extensive survey carried out (2005–2009) by the Battlefields Trust headed by Glenn Foard led eventually to the discovery of the real location of the core battlefield. This lies about a kilometer further west than the location suggested by Peter Foss. It is in what was at the time of the battle an area of marginal land at the meeting of several township boundaries. There was a cluster of field names suggesting the presence of marshland and heath. Thirty four lead round shot were discovered as a result of systematic metal detecting (more than the total found previously on all other C15th European battlefields), as well as other significant finds, including a small silver gilt badge depicting a boar. Experts believe that the boar badge could indicate the actual site of Richard III's death, since this high-status badge depicting his personal emblem, was probably worn by a member of his close retinue.\n\nA new interpretation of the battle now integrates the historic accounts with the battlefield finds and landscape history. The new site lies either side of the Fenn Lanes Roman road, close to Fenn Lane Farm and is some three kilometers to the southwest of Ambion Hill. Bosworth Battlefield (Fenn Lane Farm) \nBased on the round shot scatter, the likely size of Richard III's army, and the topography, Glenn Foard and Anne Curry think that Richard may have lined up his forces on a slight ridge which lies just east of Fox Covert Lane and behind a postulated medieval marsh. Richard's vanguard commanded by the Duke of Norfolk was on the right (north) side of Richard's battle line, with the Earl of Northumberland on Richard's left (south) side.\n\nTudor's forces approached along the line of the Roman road and lined up to the west of the present day Fenn Lane Farm, having marched from the vicinity of Merevale in Warwickshire. \nThe Stanleys were positioned on the south side of the battlefield, on rising ground towards Stoke Golding and Dadlington. The Earl of Oxford turned north to avoid the marsh (and possibly Richard's guns). This manoeuvre put the marsh on Oxford's right. He moved to attack Norfolk's vanguard. Norfolk was subsequently killed.\n\nNorthumberland failed to engage, possibly due to the presence of the Stanleys, whose intentions were unclear, or due to the position of the marsh (or for both reasons). With his situation deteriorating, Richard decided to launch an attack against Henry Tudor, which almost succeeded, but the king's horse became stuck in the marsh, and he was killed. Fen Hole (where the boar badge was found) is believed to be a residue of the marsh. When Richard began his charge, Sir William Stanley intervened from the vicinity of Stoke Golding. It was here, on what came to be known as Crown Hill (the closest elevated ground to the fighting), that Lord Stanley crowned Henry Tudor after Richard was killed.Bosworth Battlefield actual site\n\nThe windmill close to which the Duke of Norfolk is said to have died (according to the ballad \"Lady Bessy\") was Dadlington windmill. This has disappeared but is known to have stood at the time of the battle, in the vicinity of Apple Orchard Farm and North Farm, Dadlington. A small cluster of significant finds was made in this area, including a gold livery badge depicting an eagle. The windmill lay between the core battlefield and Richard's camp on Ambion Hill and the rout of Norfolk's vanguard was in this direction. This also accounts for the large number of dead in Dadlington parish, leading to the setting up of the battle chantry there.\n\nHistoric England have re-defined the boundaries of the registered Bosworth Battlefield to incorporate the newly identified site. There are hopes that public access to the site may be possible in the future.\n\n\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n'''Books'''\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Jones, Michael. ''Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle'' (2014),\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n'''Periodicals'''\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n'''Online sources'''\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n* Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and Country Park: website for the museum, contains information and photos about current state of the battlefield\n* Richard III Society: history society, which contains photos and articles that present several competing theories about the location of the battle\n* Field – The Battle of 1485'': on website The History Notes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "Factions", "Crossing the Channel and through Wales", "Shrewsbury: the gateway to England", "Engagement", "Post-battle", "Legacy and historical significance", "Battlefield location", "References", "External links" ]	Battle of Bosworth Field

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.