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int64 1
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timestamp[us] | CaseNum
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int64 0
948
| Path
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80
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22
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2.02k
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1.9M
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254
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60
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16
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
421 | 2022-09-17T15:07:25 | 23 | HebrewVerdicts\95\820\015\I29\95015820_I29.txt | 112,259 | 421 | 2001-06-11T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T09:52:40 | 1,582 | ืืฉ"ื 1582/95 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\820\015\I29 | ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ื . ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช | 95015820_I29.txt | 95015820.I29.doc | 1,995 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 0bec788009eb52fb70011e11d97ad85bfaf2d4c73fc45ca6ab5aa686857dc391 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
1582/95
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืช
:
1.
ืืื ืืืข ืืืื - ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช
ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขืืจืืืช ืฆืคืช
2.
ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืืช ืฆืคืช
3.
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
4.
ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื
5.
ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื
6.
ืืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช
ืืืืฉ
ื ืชืืืื ืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื
10.6.01
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืื ื ืงืืจื-ืืคืช
ืืืืื
ืืืื 10.6.01 ื ืชืงืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืชืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช.
ืืืฉืืืื 1 ื2- ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืืืืฉ ืชืืืื ืืกืขืืฃ 1 ืืชืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช
ืชืื 30 ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืื ืชืฉืก"ื (11.6.2001).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
_________________
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
95015820.
I29
/ืฆืฉ
ื ืืกื
ืื ืืคืืฃ ืืฉืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืจื ืคืจืกืืื
ืืงืืืฅ
ืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืื.
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืคืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืข, ืื' 02-6750444
| 2001-06-11T00:00:00 | ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ื . ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95015820.I29 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื",
"ืื ืืื ืืื",
"ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช",
"ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช",
"ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื",
"ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช"
] | 2001-06-11 | 1995-03-09 | 29 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1582/95 | ืืืืื | [
"ืคืืฉ ืื ืืื",
"ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ื.",
"ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื",
"ืื ืื ืืืกื ืช"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
421 | 2022-09-17T15:07:25 | 23 | HebrewVerdicts\95\820\015\D34\95015820_D34.txt | 134,640 | 421 | 2002-01-23T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T06:25:15 | 1,582 | ืืฉ"ื 1582/95 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\820\015\D34 | ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ื . ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช | 95015820_D34.txt | 95015820.D34.doc | 1,995 | 1 | ืืืืื | true | 0 | e2fff6e3a4c1789699fe1dd4b3ed496e3301905d12c2661973a8c6dba321d952 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
1582/95 - ื"ื
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืขื ืืืงืื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื
2. ืื ืืื ืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช
2. ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช
3. ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
4. ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื
5. ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื
6. ืืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช
ืืงืฉื ืืคืกืืงืช ืืืฆืืืช
ืืืืื
ืืืฉืืื 1 ืชืฉื ืืืืฆืืืช ืขืชืืจื ืืกืืื ืฉื 5,000 โช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืฉืื ืชืฉืก"ื, 23 ืืื ืืืจ 2002.
ืืขื ืืืงืื, ืจืฉื
ืฉ ื ืค ื
_________________
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
95015820.
D34
ื ืืกื
ืื ืืคืืฃ ืืฉืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืื ืืกืื.
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืคืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืข, ืื' 02-6750444
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืคืชืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฆืขืืช:
[email protected]
ืืืชื
ืืืฉืคื ืืชืจ ืืืื ืืจื ื:
www.court.gov.il
| 2002-01-23T00:00:00 | ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ื . ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95015820.D34 | [
"ืืขื ืืืงืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื",
"ืื ืืื ืืื",
"ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช",
"ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืช ืฆืคืช",
"ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื",
"ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช"
] | 2002-01-23 | 1995-03-09 | 34 | null | true | [
"ืืืงืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1582/95 | ืืืืื | [
"ืคืืฉ ืื ืืื",
"ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ื.",
"ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื",
"ืื ืื ืืืกื ืช"
] | [
"ืืขื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
422 | 2022-09-17T15:07:31 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\O01\97054760_O01.txt | 431 | 422 | 1997-10-06T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:20:50 | 5,476 | ืืฉ"ื 5476/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\O01 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 97054760_O01.txt | 97054760.O01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 66379c6e7f49ebbc3ae35245fb114a4dbb4ef031cfb9e1368a64ce2d8c9e7a7c |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื
5476/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉืืช
:
1. ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื
2.
ืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื
2.
ื"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื
3.
ืืจืื ืืืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืขืจืืื ืืืจืช
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืืช: ืขื"ื ื. ืงืืจืฉ, ืขื"ื ื. ืืืจืื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช.
ืืืืงืฉืืช ืืคืงืืื ืขืจืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืจ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืฉืจื ืชืฉื "ื (6.10.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97054760.
O01
| 1997-10-06T00:00:00 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97054760.O01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื",
"ืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข\"ื",
"ื\"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื",
"ืืจืื ืืืืืื"
] | 1997-10-06 | 1997-09-17 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 5476/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจ ืจืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืืกืฃ",
"ืงืื ืคืืจืื ื ืืจื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
422 | 2022-09-17T15:07:31 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\E03\97054760_E03.txt | 1,223 | 422 | 1997-12-08T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:20:50 | 5,476 | ืืฉ"ื 5476/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\E03 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 97054760_E03.txt | 97054760.E03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 7d00f7881f797c87c8b165ae5cc71468c45c5d4e45db3bc37e9939ae2a74a41a |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื
5476/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืืืงืฉืื
:
1.
ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื
2.
ืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื
2.
ื"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื
3.
ืืจืื ืืืืืื
ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉื
ืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืื 13.7.97
ืืช"ื 2289/90 ืฉื ืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉื ืืื ืืืชื ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืืฉืชื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืื"ื ืืืงืืจืช ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืืืฉ ืืฆืืืจ 1990 ืขืงื
ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืกืคื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืจืืฉืื ื (
ืืืื: ืืื"ื
). ืืืืงืฉืืช
ืืกืคืจ ืืขื ืืช ืื ืื ืงืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื"ื, ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืกืชืืืืช ืขื ืกืขืืฃ 10(ื) ืืืืง
ืืืืงืืจืช ืืคื ืืืืช, ืืชืฉื "ื1992-.
ืืื ื ืจืืื ืืืชืขืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ื ืืื
ืืขืืืื ืฉืงืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื"ื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืืืช 1 ื2- ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืืื
ืืืืื ืื ืืืกืืจืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื, ืื ืชืืืจื ื ืืืืงืฉืืช ืืืืืฉ ืขืจืขืืจ ืืื.
ืืืืืฉ ืืขื ืืื ืื, ืฉืืืืงืฉืืช ืื ืืฆืืืขื ืขื ืื ื ืืง ืงืื ืงืจืื ืืขืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืขืงื ืืืฉืช
ืืื"ื ืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืืขืฆื ืืืกืชืืืืช ืขื ืืื"ื, ืื ืืืงืื
ืฉืื, ืืจืืื, ืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืงืื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืชืืจืจ
ืงืืืื ืฉื ื ืืง ืืื, ืืชืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืง ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืื"ื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืื.
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช. ืืืืงืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืื 1 ื2-
ืืืฆืืืช ืืงืฉื ืื ืืกื 10,000 ืฉ"ื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืกืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(8.12.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืขืื/
97054760.
E03
| 1997-12-08T00:00:00 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97054760.E03 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื",
"ืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข\"ื",
"ื\"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื",
"ืืจืื ืืืืืื"
] | 1997-12-08 | 1997-09-17 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืจืข"ื 5476/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจ ืจืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืืกืฃ",
"ืงืื ืคืืจืื ื ืืจื"
] | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 2 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
422 | 2022-09-17T15:07:31 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\J02\97054760_J02.txt | 8,925 | 422 | 1997-10-29T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:20:50 | 5,476 | ืืฉ"ื 5476/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\760\054\J02 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 97054760_J02.txt | 97054760.J02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | f22c2db1bf2e25c0b7550f68bf8c22de7e98cf573506279105bf26d9d0eb86d1 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื
5476/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืืงืฉืืช:
1.
ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื
ืข"ื
ื"ื ืขื"ื ื. ืงืืจืฉ ืืจ. ืืจ
2.
ืืื ืืข"ื
ืข"ื
ื"ื ืขื"ื ื. ืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื
2.
ื"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื
ืืฉืืืื
1 ื2- ืข"ื ื"ื ืขื"ื ื"ืจ ื. ืฉืื
3.
ืืจืื ืืืืืื
ืข"ื
ื"ื ืขื"ื ื . ืงืื ืคืืจืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื
ืืืื
13.7.97 ืืช.ื. 2289/90
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื. ืฉืืืื
ืืืืื
1. ืืืืื ืฉืืืงืฉื ืืฆืจืืื ืชืฉืืื.
2. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉื ืชืฉืืืชื ืืืงืฉื ืชืื 15 ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื.
3. ืขื ื ืืกื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืชืื ืฉื ืชืงื ื 406(ื)
ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984-.
4. ืืชืฉืืื ืชืืืฉ ืืืงืืื, ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืื
ืืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืงืฉืืช.
5. ืืชืฉืืื ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืงืฉ ืืคืขืื ืขื ืคื ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืชืงื ื 410 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984-.
ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืงืจื ืืื ื ืืชื
ืืจืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืกืืืืืื ืืืชื.
ืืขืืจ ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืกืืื
.
ืืขืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืฆืืืช, ืขื
ืืืจืื ืืื
.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืชืฉื "ื
(29.10.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97054760.
J02
| 1997-10-29T00:00:00 | ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื ื . ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97054760.J02 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ื",
"ืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ื.ื.ืฉ. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข\"ื",
"ื\"ืจ ืืืกืฃ ืฉืื",
"ืืจืื ืืืืืื"
] | 1997-10-29 | 1997-09-17 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 5476/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจ ืจืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืืกืฃ",
"ืงืื ืคืืจืื ื ืืจื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 2 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
423 | 2022-09-17T15:07:31 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\360\068\J01\95068360_J01.txt | 432 | 423 | 1997-07-30T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:55:55 | 6,836 | ืืฉ"ื 6836/95 | 16 | HebrewVerdicts\95\360\068\J01 | ืืืื ืืืกืฃ ื . ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืชื-ืืืื | 95068360_J01.txt | 95068360.J01.doc | 1,995 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 3cbb9287ff19724a8fd9fc80abf52ff8745983a4bb9d91f81c03952c2c44582d |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืื"ืฆ
6319/95
ืจืข"ืค 6836/95
ืื"ืฆ 5565/95
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืื ืฉืื ื. ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื. ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื. ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืืื"ืฆ 6319/95
ืืืืืงืฉ
ืืจืข"ืค 6836/95: ืืืกืฃ ืืืื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืืื"ืฆ 5565/95: ืืืื ืืจืืก
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื
ืืื"ืฆ 6319/95
ืืืจืข"ืค
6836/95: 1. ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืฉืืื ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื
2.
ืืื ืืื
3.
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืืฉืืืื
ืืื"ืฆ 5565/95: 1. ืกืื ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืื
2.
ืืขืงื ืฉืงื
3.
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืชื ืืืืช
ืืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืคืืืืืช
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื (27.11.95).
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื ืืื"ืฆ
6319/95
ืืื"ืฆ 5569/95: ืขื"ื ื. ืจืืืื, ืขื"ื ื.
ื'ืืืกืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื ืืื"ืฆ
6319/95
ืืื"ืฆ 5569/95: ืขื"ื ืจ. ืืื-ืืืืืืจื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืื ืืก' 2: ืขื"ื ืืืื
(ืืื
ืืื)
ืคืกืง-ืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื:
ืืื ืคืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืืขืื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืื ื
ืืืืื ืคืืืื ืจืง ืืฉืื ืฉืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืคืืืื ื ืคืจื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืจืฉ
ืืืขืื? ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฆืืช ืืคื ืื ื. ืืชืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืช
ืืืขืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉื.
ืืขืืืืืช
1. ืืืฉืื 2 - ืืื, ื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื
ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื (ืช.ืค.3570/92) ืืืงืืืช ืฉืืื. ืขื ืคื ืืชื ืืืืฉืื, ืงืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืคืืื ื
ืฉืคืขื ืืฉื ืืืขืจืขืจ - ืืืื. ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื (ืช.ืค. 331/92)
ืืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืืืื ืฉืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืื, ืืชื ืฉืืื ืืืื.
ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืคืจืฉืช ืืืื ื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืื
ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืื ื. ืืืื ืืืงืฉ ืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขื ื ืื ืืฉ
ืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืข"ืค 194/75
ืงืื ืื ื '
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ื(2) 477 (ืืืื: "ืืืืช ืงืื ืื"), ืืืื ืขืช
ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืขืืช ืฉืืชืฃ ืื ืฉืคื ืื ืคืจื, ืืขื ืชืืืขื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื.
ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืคืืฃ ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืคืืจื ืืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืคืงืืืช
ืืจืืืืช. ืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืืื ืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื, ืฉื ืืื. ืขื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืืื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืงืืื ืืืืฉ ืืื ืขืชืืจื ืืื"ืฅ (ืื"ืฅ
6319/95). ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืงื ืืืขื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืชื ืจืืื ื ืืืืื
ืืจืืื. ืืืงืฉื ื ืืื ื ืืขืจืขืืจ. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืขืช ืืขื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ื ืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืื ื
ืืื ืืชื ื ืืืืงืื, ืืืจื ื ืืืืงืื ื:
ืืขื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจ
2. ืืืขืจืขืจ, ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื
ืืื. ืืช ืืขื ืชื ืืืกืก ืืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื,
ืืืืืืช, ืฉืขื ืคื ืืืขื ื, ืืฃ ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื ืืืจื ืืขืฉื ืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืืชื ืื ื ืืื. ืืืขืจืขืจ ืกืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืขื ืืืื ื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื, ืชืืจืื
ืืคืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืืชืื ืืืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืงืืืื ืืฉื ื ืชืืงืฃ ืืื ืขืืื ื ืืืืง
ืืกืื: ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื. ืขืื ืืืขื ืืืขืจืขืจ ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื, ืชืืื
ืืคืืืขื ืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืคืืืขื ืืฆืคืืื ืืฉืืชืคื ืื ืชืืื ืข ืืขืืชื ืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ื
ืืืขืื ืืขื ืืื ื, ืฆืจืืื ืืกืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืชื ืฉืื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื, ืืืืืช ืฉืชืืงื
ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืืื ื ืืืฉืคื ืืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื.
ืืืกืืจืช ืื ืืจืืืืืืช
3. ืืืขืจืขืจ, ืืืจืก - ืืืืืจ - ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื
ื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืง ืืกืื: ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืจืืชื, ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืื ื ืืฉื ืืขืืืจืืช ืคืืืืืืช. ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืืื
ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืืืจืฅ ืืื ืืืืฆื ืื. ืืื, ืืฉ ืืืืจืกืื ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื ื ืืฉื
ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืื, ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืง ืืกืื: ืืืื
ืืืื ืืืจืืชื, ืืืขืืื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืคืจืืืืช. ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื. ืืขืืืชื, ืืฉ ืืืืจืกืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื,
ืืฃ ืฉืืฉืืืืชื ืจืื, ืืื ื ื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืื ืืงืืืขืืช ืืืืง ืืืกืื. ืืื ืื ืืื
ืืขืืืื ืขืื.
ืืืื ืืืืจืืข ืืื ืืืขืืช ืืฉืื ืืช, ืืื ืืืืง ืื ืืฉ
ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืขื ืืจืงืข ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขื ืืกืืก ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืช
ืฉืืืชื ื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืืจืชืืช.
ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืฆืืง ืืืื ื
ืืจืืืืชื, ืืื ื ืืืืื ืช ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืื ื ืืขืฉืืืช ืืฆืืง ืืืืืชื ืืืฉืืืจื ืขื
ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื, ื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืคืืืื. ืืขืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจื ืืขืืืจื ืืขื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืขืืจื ืืืจ, ืืื ื ืืืช ืืืืกืชืขืคืืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื
ื ืงืืืช ืืคืืฉ ืืื ืืชืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืงืชื, ืฉืืจื ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืขื ืื ืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช
ืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืฉื, ืืื ืฉืืคืืข ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืืคื. ืืืืืช
ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืขืืจืืื ืืืืืืื ืคืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืชื ื ืืืขืืืชืืช (ืืืืจืกืจืืช)
ืื ืืืื ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืชืืืขื. ืงืืืขืืช ืืื, ืื ืื ืืื ื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืง ืืกืื:
ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื, ืืืืืช ืืืฉื ื ืชืืงืฃ ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืืง, ืฉืืขืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืืช
ืืืืื ืืืคืจืืืืช, ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืื ื.
ืืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืฉืชืืืื ื, ืืื ื
ืืืืืืืช. ืืืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืขื ืื
ืืื ืืคืจืืื, ืืคื ืื; ืืืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืงืืจืื ืืช ืืคืฉืืขื, ืฉืืืืื,
ืืืจืืชื, ืืืืืื ื ืืืืฉื ืืจืืืืชื ืืืืคื ืืช ืืื ืคืฉืืช, ื ืจืืกืื ืืจืื ืืกื ืขื ืืื ืขืืจืืื ืื
ืืกืจื ืืฆืคืื; ืืืื ื ืืฆื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืจ ืคืฉืืขื ืืคืืืขืช ืืจืงืื ืืขืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืฉืืจ
ืืขืจืื, ืื ืืจืืืืื, ืืคืจืื, ืืืฆืืืืจื.
ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืชืืงื ืช ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืื
ืืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื
ืืืคืฉืจ ืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืืขืื, ืืื ืืข ืืจืฉืขืช ืืคืื ืืคืฉืข ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉื ืื
ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืฉืืคืืืืช ืื - ืืื ืืฉืืจ - ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืคืืืื ืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช. ืืืืฆืขืืชื ืืคืืกืช ืืขืฆืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืช ืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืงืจ ืืืืช ืืขืฉืืืช
ืืฆืืง ืืืืืชื.
ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื
4. ืฉืืืช ืืขืืชื ืฉื ืขื ืืืขืืจื ืืขืืืจื, ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื
ืฉืืชืคื, ืืืฉืจ ื ืื ืืขื ืชืืื ืืืื ื ืคืจื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื, ืืฆืืื ืืชืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืฉืื
ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ื ืขื ืื ืืฉื ืืขื ืืขื ืืื ืืืกื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืจืืื
ืจืืืื ืืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืกื. ืขื ืืจืื ืืขืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื, ืืืชื ืืืงืฉ
ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื, ืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืข ืื
ืื ืืฉื
ืืืื ื
ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืคื ืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืื ืข ืื
ืืชืืืขื
ืืืืื ื ืืขื ืชืืืขื.
ืืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืขื ืืืงืจื
ืื ืืื? ืืื ื ื ืกืืืจื ืื. ืืืขืื ืจืืื ืืฉืงืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืงืื ืื, ืืขื ืื ืคื ืื, ืืื
ืื ืืฉ ืืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืื ื ืืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืขื ืคืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืขืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืืงืื
ืืืจืืืื ืืืฉ ืืฆืืฆืื ืืืืช ืืืืชืื ืื ืขืื ืฉืจืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืื.
ืืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืื
?
5. ืืืงืจื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื, ืืืงืฉื ืืชืืืขื ืืืื
ืืขื ืืืขืื, ื ืืฉื ืืื (ืืืื: ืืขื) ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืคืจืฉื (ืืืื ืื ืืฉื)
ืฉืืขืงืืืชืื ืืืืฉื ื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืชืื ืืืฉืื ื ืคืจืืื. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืงืืข ืืื ืคืกืืงืชื ืื ืื
ืืคืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืชืืืขื ืืืื ืืขื ืชืืืขื ืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืืชื ืขืืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืชืืื ืืขืืื
ื ืืื ืืืื ื, ืืฃ ืฉืขืืืช ืื ืืื ืขืืืช ืงืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืื ืงืช ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืื, ืฉื ืืื
ื ืงืืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืคืกืง ืืืื
R V. Pipe 51 Cr. App .R 17
ืืืืืื ืจืง ืขื ืขืื ืชืืืขื.
โIt was said in
R v Pipe
that an accomplice against whom
proceedings are pending must not, as a matter of practice, be called on behalf
of the prosecution unless it is made plain that the proceedings will be
discontinued."
Cross on
Evidence
, 7
th
. Ed. (London, 1990)
ืขื' 210
ืื ืืืืง ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืื ืืื
ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืืขืื ืฉืืืขื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืขืจืื ืืืขืืืชืืืช ืฉืืกืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืจืืืฉื
ืฉื ืืกืืจืช ืขืืืช ืขื ืืื ืฉืืชืฃ ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืฉืคืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืคืจื:
โTo put unreliable evidence before a jury
with a warning of itโs unreliability seems more risky than to withhold the
evidence until it becomes reliable. We may know very little about actual jury
behaviour, but what we do know suggests that no useful general predictions can
be made about it, and that it is better controlled by strict exclusionary rules
of law than by warnings, mandatory or otherwise.โ (J.D. Heydon โObtaining
Evidence versus Protecting the Accused: Two Conflictsโ
Crim L.R.
1971,
13.p.p.18.
ื ืืืืง ืื ืืื ื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืืืชื ื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืื
ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉืืคืืื ืืงืฆืืขืืื.
ืืืืช
R V. Pipe
ืื
ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืขืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื, ืื ืงืจื ืืืขืื ืืืขื
ืืืื ื
. ืขื
ืืื ืืืื ืืืขืื:
โ...someone who was originally jointly indicted with the accused
but has been acquitted or directed to be tried separately is both competent and
compellable for the accused."
ืฉื ืืขืืื 212-213
ืจืื ืื
R v
Richardson
, 51 Cr.App.R. 381
.
ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืจืืช ืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืื,
ืืฃ ืื ืขื ืขืื ืืชืืืขื, ืืืจืืข ืฉืืฉืคืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืคืจื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืื (ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืชืืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืื ื). ืื, ืืคืกืง ืืื ืงื ืื, ืืฆืืื
ืืืจืืจ ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืืืขื
ืื ืืชืืงืฉ ืืื ืืืขืื:
โThe right of an accused to remain silent at his or her trial
has long existed side by side with the compellability of a witness who has been
charged with the same offence but who will be tried separately. That has been
the very basis for applications by accused persons for separate trials: to
enable evidence to be called which may establish the innocence of one accused
person...
...Keeping in mind that it is the right of the witness that
we are dealing with, I cannot see how that right could differ depending upon
who issued the subpoenaโ.
R v S (R.J
)
, 80 C.C.C. (3d)397
(Ont.C.A.)(1993)
ืืืฉืจ
ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืงื ืื ื:
R
v
S (R.J
)
, 96 C.C.C.(3d) 1 (S.C.C.)(1995).
ืื ืืงืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื
6. ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ื ืืืง ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืฉืืจืช
ื ืืืืงืื ืขื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืื ื ื ืงืืื ืืืืงืืจืช. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืกืืจ - ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืงื -
ืื ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืขื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืคื ืื ืฉื
ืื ืืฉื
ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืกืืืืืื ืืืฉืคืื
ืื ืคืจื, ืื ืืืืขืจ ืืช ืืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืงืืื ืื ืืช ืืืงื ืฉืื, ืื ืืขืื ืชืื ืฆืืคืืื
ืืชืืืจื ืืืฉืคืื ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืช
ืื ืืฉื
ืชืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืช ืืชืืืขื
ืืชืงืืื ืฉืื ืชืืืื ืขืื. ืื ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืื ืชื
ืฉื ืื ืืฉื
ืชืืคืืข, ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืื
ืฉื ืืขื ืืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืงืืจืชื ืื ืืืืช - ืฉืืฉืืืืชื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืจืื - ืืืกืชืชืจื ืืืืืจื
ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช.
ืืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืขื ืื ืืกืชืืืืืืืช ืืืืง
ืืื ืืืืงืื. ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืฉ ืืคืืืขื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืฆืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื
ืขืฆืืื ื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืืชืืืขื ืืชืืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืคื ื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืฉ
ืืคืืืขื ืืืืกืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืฉืืืจ (ืืชืืืจื ืื) ืืืขืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืืืง ืฉื
ืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืช ืืชืืืขื ืืฆืืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืคื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช,
ืฉืื, ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืกืงืืืช ืฉืขืืฉื ืืชืืืขื ืขื ื ืืฉืืื. ืืฉืืคื ืฉืืืจ ืืฃ ืฉืื
ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืช ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืขืช ืขืืืช
ื ืืฉื ืืื ื ืื ื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื, ืฉืื, ืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืขื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ื ืคืืืจืช ืืช ืืขื ืืืืคื ืืืจืฃ ืืืืืชื ืืืขืื
ืืืคืืฃ ืืกืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ืขืืืช ื ืืื.
ืืืื ืช ืืื ืืงื ืืืืืงืืจืช ืขืืื
7. ืืืื ืช ืืื ืืงืืช ืฉืืืกืืก ืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืืืช, ืื
ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื
ืืขื
ืฉืืฉืคื ื ืคืจื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืืช
ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืืชื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืืกืืก ืืืืื. ืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืื
ืฉืืืืชื ืืืื ืขืื ืื ืื ืขืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื
ืื ืืฉื
ืฉืืชื ืื ืืืขืืช ืฉืืชืคื
ื ืืื. ืืืฉืฉ ืืคื ื ืืคืืืช ืื ืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืชืคื ืชืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืืจื, ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื
ืืื ืืขืช ืืขืืชื. ืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืขื
ืื ืืฉื
ืืคื ื ืืคืืืชื
ืขื ืืื ืฉืืชืคื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื. ืฉื
ืื ืืฉื ืืชื ืื
ืืืขืืช
ืฉืืชืคื
ืืขื ืชืืืขื
ืืืฉืคืื ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืฉื ืชืคืืขื ื. ืืื,
ืืืงืฉ ืื ืืฉื
ืืืขืื ืืช ืฉืืชืคื
ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืืขืื ืืชืงืืื ืฉืืื ืชื ืชืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื
ืืขื ืืื
ืืืชื ืื
ืืื ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืื ืชื ืฉืื ืชืืคืืข ืืืฉืคืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืช ืฉืืืกืืจ ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื
ืฉืืชืคื. ืฉืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื, ืืฆืื ืกืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืืจืฆืืื ื
ืฉื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื. ืืื ืฉืกืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืฆื ืขื ืืืืช ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช
ืงืื ืื ืืืืชืืืื. ืขื ืืืื ืื ื ืืชืื ืืืงืืจืช ืืขืืจ ืืจืืืง ืืืงืจืื ืื ืฉืืขื ืงืจืืืืช
ืืืืืืื (ืจืื: ื' ืงืจืืกืืจ "ืืขืืช ืฉืืชืฃ ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืืืฉื ืื ืคืจื"
ืืคืจืงืืื
ื"ื 372; ื' ืฉืืจืืืื: "ืืื ืขืืจืื ืื ืืืจ ืืืฉืืขืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืฉืจืืื"
ืขืืื ื ืืฉืคื
ื"ื 175; ื' ืงืืจ "ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื
ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื"
ืืคืจืงืืื
ื"ื 548) ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืฆืขืช ืืืง
ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื (ืืฆืขืช ืืืง ืืชืืงืื ืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช (ืืก' 10), ืืชืฉื "ื1992-,
ื"ื 170 ืขื ืืืช ื ืฉืืขื ืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื (ื' ืืื ืช "ืืื ืืืืข
ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื? "
ืืคืจืงืืื"
ืื 376).
ืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืืจืช ืืืคื ื ืื ืื ืื ืืขื ืืืจืคืช ืฉื
ืืกืืจืช ืขืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืืขืืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืื ืืืงืืจ ืจืืฉืื, ืืืืืชื ืืขืืจื
ืืื. ืื ืืขืช ืขืืืช ืฉืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจ ืจืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืคืืืขืช ืืืืืืชื ืืืืืข
ืืืงืจ ืืืืช ืืืขืฉืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฆืืง. ืืื ืืืืฉืคื ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืืช ืืื ื ืืช ื ืฉืืช ืืคื ืืืฉืคืชื
ืฉื ืืืืืื
Bentham
ืืกืืฃ ืืืื
ืืงืืืืช:
โEvidence is the basis of justice. Exclude evidence
you exclude justice.โ
ืฆืืื
ื-
G.M.Caplan โQuestioning Mirandaโ 38
Van.L.Rev.
1417, 1453 (1985)).
ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืขืื, ื ืืืจืช ืืฆืืจื
ืืืื ื ืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืจ ืจืืืืช ืจืืื ืื ืืคืชืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
ืืืืจืกืื ืืืืืืช ืงืื ืื
8. ืืืจืกืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืื ืจืง ืืืืจื ืืืืงืืจืช
ืฉืืืฉืืขื ื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืคืกืืงื ืืืืงืืงื ืืืชื ืืฉืืจื.
ืืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ื ืืฉืคื ืชืืื ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื
ืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช ืืชืืืจืืช ืืจืืืงืืช ืืืช ืื ืืฆื ืืืืืงืง ืืื ืืฆื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืขืืจ
ืืืจืืชื ืืืื ื ืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืฉืงื. ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืข ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืืฆืืืืจ
ืืคื ื ืขืืจืืื ืืช ืงืฉื ืงืฉืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืคื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืคืจืืื,
ืืืื ืขืืชื ืืืชืืืงืืชื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืืืกืืจ ืขืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืจืืื ืืคืฉืข ืืืงืืฉื ืฉื ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืข ืืืงืจ ืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืขื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขื ืื
ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืชื ืขืืฆืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืจื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืกืื
ืืฉืื ืื, ืืืขืืืฃ ืืช ืืขืจืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืช ืืคืืืขืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืขื ืืง ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืขืืคืช. ืืืืื
ืืืื ื ืจืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืคืกืืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืงืืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืฉืงื; ืื ืืงืฉืืช
ืืคืืจืืืืื, ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืืคืฉ ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืคืืื. ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืจ
ืืืื ืืืืื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืจืกืื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืงืืืข ืืกืขืืฃ 47
ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืคืกืืงืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขื ืืื ืงืื ืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืกืื
ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื, ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 162 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื [ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื]
ืืชืฉื"ื1982- ื ืืชื ืืืืืก ืืฉืืขืืช ืจืืืืชืืช ืืืืื ืขืืชื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืืขืื, ืืืืืงืช ืืช
ืขืืืืืช ืืชืืืขื ืืืกืืืขืช ืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืข ืืืืงืืช ืืฃ ืื
ืชืืฆืืืชืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืคืืืื (ืกืขืืฃ 64 ืืคืงืืืช ืืชืขืืืจื [ื ืืกื ืืืฉ] ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืืฆืข
ืืืืงืช ืฉืืจืืช; ืกืขืืฃ 250ื ืืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืฆืืื ืืชืฉื"ื1955- ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืง ืืฉื
ืืืืื ืกื ืืกืืื). ืืืืื, ืงืืข ืืืืืงืง ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืกืืืื ืืฃ ืื ืืฉ ืืื
ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืืชื (ืกืขืืคืื 12(ื) ื17- (ื) ืืืืง ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืข,
ืืชืฉื"ื1978-). ืืฉ ืืจืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืงืืืืืช ืืืฉืงื ืืงืืืืืชื ืฉื
"ืืืืจืช ืืืฅ" ืฉื ืขื (ืกืขืืฃ 10ื ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช [ื ืืกื ืืืฉ]
ืืชืฉื"ื1971-.
ืืขื ืืื ืืจืืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืืกืืจ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืขืืจ ืืงืืืืืช ืืืฉืงื ืจืื ืื ืข"ืค 2603/90
ืืืคืืจ ื ' ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
,
ืค"ื ืื(3) 799 ืืขื' 806 ืืื ื"ื 23/85
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื ' ืืืืื
,
ืค"ื ืื(4) 309.
ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ื ืงืื ืืืืงืืจืช ืื ืืืขืช ืืืืืื
ืืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืฉืฉ ืฉืื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืฆืืฆืื ืืืื ืืคืกืืื ืืืืื
ืืื ืคืืื ืืืฉืจืช ืจืืืืช ืคืกืืืืช ืฉืชืคืืขื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืกืื ืฉื
ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืงืช ืืืคืืช, ืืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืื. (ืจืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืื ืืช ืคืกืง ืืื ื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืฉ' ืืืื (ืืชืืืจื ืืื) ืื"ื 23/85 ืืืืื ืื "ื, ืืจืื ื. ืฉืืืื
"ืืฆืขืช ืืืืง ืืืืจ ืืืืคืช ืกืขืืฃ 10ื ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช "
ืืืงืจื ืืฉืคื
ื'
157 161-166, ื. ืฉืืืื "ืกืขืืฃ 10ื ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช: ืคืจืฉื ืืชื ืืจืืืื ืืคืกืืงืชื ืฉื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื"
ืืฉืคืืื
, ื"ื 325, 330-333;
A.Stein "The Refoundation of Evidence Law" 9
The Canadian
Journal of Law and Jurisprudence
, 279 (1996)/
ืืฃ ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืฉืช ืืื ื ืืจืืืืช ื ืจืืืช ืื ืจืืืื,
ืืฉ ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืื
ืืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืืืช ืืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืฉืข.
ืืฉ ืืืืื ืข ืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืงืจ ืืื, ืื ืืชืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืข ืืื ืืชืื ืืืืืืช
ืืคืืื, ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืช ืืชืจ.
9. ืฆืืฆืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืืคืกืง ืืื ืืข"ืค
579/88
ืกืืืกื ื ืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืคื"ื ืื (1) 529. ืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืชืืืขื
ืืขืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื ืืฉื, ืืช ืฉืืชืคืื ืฉืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื,
ืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืื. ืจืง ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืกืจื ืืขืืืช ืืืงืฉ ืื ืืฉื ืืืชืขืื ืืื ื. ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื
(ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืืืจื) ืงืืข ืื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืืืื ื ืืืืงื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช
ืงืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืขื, ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืชืจ ืขืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืืขื
ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฆืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืข ืืืฉืจืืชื ืฉื ืืขื ืืฉืืชืฃ
ืืืขืื ืืืฉื ืืช ืืืจื ืฉื ืคืกืืงื ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื "ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืื ืืื
ืืฉืคื...." ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืฆืื ืืืกืื ืืคื ื ืืขื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืขืืื
(ืฉื ืืขืืื 533).
ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืืงืืืขื ืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืืจ
ืืืฉืจืช ืขืืืช ืืขื ืขื ืืฉืจืฆืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืขืืจ ืื ืื ืืืงืจื ืื ื ืืืงื ืืฉืืื
ืื ืงืืืช ืจืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืงืืืช ืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืขื. ืจืื ืื ืืช ืคืกืง ืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืื
ืืข"ืค 99/87, 65, 64
ืื ืืื ืืจืกืื ื ' ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(3)533,
ืืืช ืืืจืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืื (ืืชืืืจื ืืื) ืื"ืฉ 479/86
ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืฉื ื '
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืชืงืืื ืขืืืื 86 (2) 418).
ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืื ื ืฉืืืกืืก ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืงืื
ืืืืื ืจืื ืื ืขื ืืื ืืคืจืงืืืงื ืืืชืืจื ืืขืืช ืขืื ืืืื ื ื ืื ื ืืฉื ืฉืืชืฃ ืืขืืืจื, ืฉืขืืืชื
ืงืืืื ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืจืกื ืืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืชืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืงื
ืืขืืืชื ืื ืืคืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืื. ืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืชื ืฉื "ืกืืื ืฉืชืื" ืืฉื ืืืืื
ืฉืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืคืงืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืง ืืคืขืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืฆืื, ืืฃ ืฉืืขืชืื ืืืฉืืืชื
ืืคืืงืคืงืช ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืขืืจ ืคืืืื ืขืฉืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืชื ืืืืขืืช "ืืกืคืง ืืช
ืืกืืืจื" ืืืืืื. ืขื ืืฃ ืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืชื ื ืืืฉืคืืืช ื ืจืชืขืช ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืขืืชื ืืืืฉืืืจ
ืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืฉืงืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืคื.
ืืืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืขื ืขืื ืืื ื?
10. ืืงืจื ืื ืกืจื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืขืื ืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืฉืคืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื ืืืืชื ืคืจืฉื, ืืชืขืืจืจ ืืข"ืค
387/84, 330
ืืฆืืง ืฉืขืฉืืข ื ืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืค"ื ืื(1) 85. ืฉื ืืืืื ืขื
ืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืืื, ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืชื ืืงืจื ืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืืขืช ืืขืืืช ืื
ืืจืื ืขืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืชื ืกืชืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืืืช
ืืืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืฉืืข ืืช ืื ืืฉื. ืขื ืืืช ืืืขืืชื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืขื
ื ืืฉื ืืืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืืฉืคืื ืื ืคืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื. ืฉืืื ืื ืงืืืื
ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืคื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืื, ืฉืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืฉืื ื ืืขืืืืชื ืืืจืขืืื ื ืืื ืฉืชื
ืืกืืืืืฆืืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืฆืจืื ืขืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง (ืืชืืืจื ืื) ืืขื ืืื.
ืฉื ืืฆืืขืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืขืืช ืฉืืชืฃ ืืขื ืืืขื ืืชืืืขื ืืืื ืืขืืชื
ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืื ื ืืขื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืื ืืื, ืืืื: ืืืฉืฉ ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช; ืืืฉืฉ ืืขืืืืช ืืืืช
ืื ืืชืื ืฆืืคืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืชืื ืคืื ืืคื ื ืืืฅ ืืฆื ืื ืืฉื; ืืืฉืฉ ืืคื ื
ืฆืืฆืื ืืืงืืจื ืื ืืืืช; "ืืืืจื ืืืืืืช" ืฉืืขืฉื ืืขื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืขืื.
ืืื ืืืืื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืงืช ืืืืื ื, ืชืื ืืฆืืขื ืขื ืื ืื ืจืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืื
ืืฉื ืืื: ืื ืืื ืืข ืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืขื, ืืื ืืืขื ืืชืืืขื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืืฉืจืฆืื
ืืืืงืื ืืขืืืชื, ืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ื ืืขื ืืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื "...ืืืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืชืื ืืชืื ืืืืฅ, ืืืืฆืื ืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืฉืงืจ." (ืฉื
ืืขื' 95 ืืื ืืืืช ื'). ืืืกืคืชื ืืืขืจืชื ืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืื ื
ืขืืืื ืืืืขื ืฉืืฉ ืืขืฉืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืื ื ื ืกืืืจื ืฉืืืงืจื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืชื ืืื
ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืชืืงืฉื ื ืืขืฉืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืื ื ืืขืืืืชื ืืื ืืืงืจืื. ืืืื ืื ื ืืฆืืช
ืืคืื ืขื ืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืื.
ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื
11. ืขื ืจืงืข ืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืขืืช ื ืืฉื ืืื
ืื ืื ืืืจ ืฉืืฉืคืืืื ืืืืฉื ืื ืคืจื. ืืืงืจื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืื ืืืืข ืืฉืฉ ืืืืคืฉืช ืืืืชืืช
ืื ืืฉื
ืขื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืขืืจื ืืืืชื ืขืืืจื, ืืขืืื ืืืขืื
ื ืืื
ืขืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืช. ืืฉืฉ ืืื
ืื ืงืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื, ืฉืื,
ืื ืืฉื
ืืื ืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืขืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืื
ืืืืข ืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืืืืชื ืืืืงื. ืืคืขื, ืืืฉืฉ ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืง ืืขืฆืื ืืืคืืข ืืืื ืืจืกืื
ืฉื ืขืฆืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืฉืคืื ืื ืคืจื.
ืืืฆื ืืฉืคืืขื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืื "ื ืืืฉืื ื ืืื
ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืื ืื, ืขื ืขื ืืื ื ื?
ื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืื
ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืช. ืกืขืืฃ 2 ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช (ื ืืกื ืืืฉ)
ืชืฉื"ื1971- ืงืืืข ืืช ืืืื, ืืคืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืขืืืช. ืืกืขืืฃ ืืฃ ืืคืจื ืืงืืืข ืฉืืื
ืืื ืคืกืื ืืืืขืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืื ื:
"ืืื
ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืื ืืื ืืฉืคื, ืืืคืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืกืขืืคืื 3 ื4-, ืืืื ืืื ืคืกืื ืืืขืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืื
ืืขื ืืื ืืชืืืขื ื ืืืจืืืช, ืื ืืชืืื ื
ืื ื ืืฉื
ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืื
, ืื ืืคื ื
ืฉืืื ืืขืืืื, ืขืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืงืจืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืข, ืืืชืืื ื ืื ืชืืข ืื ืื ืืฉื, ืื ืืคื ื
ืฉืืืจืฉืข ืื ื ืืฉื ืขืื ืฉ ืขื ืขืืืจื." (ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืงืืจ - ื.ืฉ.ื.).
ืืื ืื, ืฉืืื ืืกืืกื ืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช ืืฉืืืชื ื ื ืืขื
ืืงืื ืืช ืืืจืืจ ืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืช ืื ืขื ืฉืืืืืืชื ืืฉืคืื ืืืจ ืขื ืื ืกืืืืช
ืืืืืจืืขืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืื. ืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืคืืืข ืืืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืจืืฉืื ื
ืืืขืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืช. ืืคืืื ืืฉ ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืืจืืืื
ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืคืืื.
ืืืืืงืง ืงืืข ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืื "ื (ืื
ืืืืืื ืกืขืืคืื 3 ื4- ืืคืงืืืืช ืืจืืืืช). ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืขืจื
ืืืื ืืคืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืื. ื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืื ืืคืื ืืฉืจืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืกืืืื
ืืืื ืื ืืืฆืืงืช ืื ืกืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืงื. ืกืืืื ืืื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช
ืงืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืงืฉ ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืขื ืืื ื ื. ืืืืืจ, ืืื ื ื ืกืืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืจืืืื
ืืืืืืื ืขื ืขืื ืืื ื, ืฉืื, ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืขืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืืื
ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืืชืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื
ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื.
ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช:
12. ืืื ืืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืคืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื. ืืืืืช
ืืืืงืคื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืงืืืข ืืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช:
(ื)
ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืจืืื ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืกืื ืืืกืืืืชืื ืฉื ืขืืืจื ืฉืืื
ืืืืฉื ืื ืื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืื.
(ื)
ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืกืืจืช ืจืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืื ืขืฉืืื ืืืคืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืขืืฃ ืงืื (ื) ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืืจืืื ื ืืกืจื, ืื ืชืืืฉ ืืจืืื ื ืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืฉื
ืืฉื ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืขืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืกืื ืืืกืืืืชืื, ืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืื.
(ื)
ื ืืฉื ืฉืืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืขื ืืกื ืืืจืื, ืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืกืขืืฃ ืื ืืืื ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืื
ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืคื.
ืืืกืืจ ืืงืืืข ืืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื
ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืืจืืื, ืืืืคื ืฉืืงืืื ืืงืจ ืืืืช ืชืื ืคืืืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืืจ ืจืืื ืืขืฉืืื ืืืคืืืื. ืืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืจืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ืืื
ืืืืื ืข ืืืกืืจืช ืจืืื ืืืืขื ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืคืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืขืฉื ืื, ืื ืชืืืฉ ืืจืืื ืืืคืืืื
ื ืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืฉื ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืขืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืกืื
ืืืกืืืืชืื. ืืงืืืขืืชืื ืฉื ืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืคืกืืืช ืืฉืืืืื
ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืชืื ืืื ื ืขื ืืืกืจ ืืจืืื ืืืคืืืื ืืคื ื
ืืฉืืืืฉ ืื, ื ืืื. ืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืกืืจืช ืืจืืื ืื ืืขืืืช; ืืืื ืืกืื ืืช
ืืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืขื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช. ืืืขื ื ืืคืื ืคืืืจ
ืืืกืืื ืื ืืืจ ืืกืขืืฃ 47 ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืืช ืืขื ืืืืืช ืืกืืจืช ืขืืืช ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืคื
ืฉืืืจ ืืคืกืง ืืื ืงืื ืื.
ืจืืื ืืืขืืจ, ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื
ืขืฆืืืช ืืื ืืฆืืงื ืจืขืืื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืขืืื ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืคื ืชืืื ืืขืืื
ื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืขืืื ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืื ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืชื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืฆืคืื
ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืืขืชืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื ืขืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืงืจืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื
ืขืฆืืืช.
ืืกืืื ืฉืืกืขืืฃ 47 ืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืงืื
ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืจืืื ืืืคืืืื ืืืชื, ื ืืืก ืืืืืช ืืืืกืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืื ืฉืืฆื ืืืชื
ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช, ืงืืืขืช ืืืืจืื ืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืคืืืื ืื ืชืฉืืฉ ืจืืื
ื ืื ืืืกืจื, ืืืฉืคืื ืืื. ืคืงืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืงืืื ืืืืง ืืกืื: ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื ืืืฉืื,
ืขืืืืช ืืื ืขื ืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืขืืื ืืงื ื ืืื ืขืื. ืืืื, ืืงืืื ืขืืื ื ืื ืืฉ ืืคืจืฉ
ืืช ืืืจืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืงืื ืฉืงืืื ืืืืงื ืืืกืื, ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืงืื ืืื. ืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ
ืขืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืก ืืืืืช ืืื ืืคืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืชืื
ืืื ืืขืช ืคืืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืขื ืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืคืืื ืืื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืขื.
ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืืื ืืขื - ืืื ืืื - ืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืกืืื ืืื ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืืืชื
ืืืขืื.
ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื:
13. ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืช ืืกืขืืฃ 161 ืืืืง
ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื [ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื 1982. ืืืงืคื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืจืื ืืืชืจ
ืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืขืืืืช ืืจืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืืช
ืืฉืชืืงื, ืืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืขืื. ืื ืืขืื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ื ืชืื
ืืขื
,
ื ืชืื ื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืฉื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉืื
, ืฉืื, ืืื ืืืขืื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืจ, ืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืื ืืคืื ืงืฆืื
ืืืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืื ืืขืื. ืื, ืืืงืจื ืื ืืื, ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืื ื ืขื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืื,
ืืืขื ืืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื. ืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืืืจ:
"ืืฉืืขืฆืื
ืื ื ื ื ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช
ืืฉืชืืงื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืฉืืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉื. ืืืืฅ ืืืกืืจืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืืืื
ืืืกืืื, ืืืืืฅ ืืืกืืจืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืฉืืจืชืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืื.
ืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืื ืืื ืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื"
(ืจืข"ื 5381/91
ืืืืื ืฉืืืืง (1982) ืืข"ื ืืื' ื ืื ืืฉื ืืจืืื
ืค"ื ืื(3) 378, 381).
ืืืฆืืงื ืืืื ื ืืขืืืคืช ืืืืขื ืงืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื,
ื ืขืืฆื ืืื ืฉืืืจืช ืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืจืฉืืข ืืช ืืขื ืขืฆืื. ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื, ืืฉืืืืงื ืืืืื
ื ืืฆืืช ืืจืฉืขืช ืืืขืื, ืงืื ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืจืืื ืืืชื ืืืืื -
"The
right to be let alone."
(ืจืื ื. ืืจื ืื "ืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื"
ืืฉืคืืื
ื' 95, 110 ืืืืคื ืืืช ืืืขืจื 82) ืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืืขืจืขืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืืขืื ืืืืื
ืฉืืืจืชื ืืื ืืจืฉืขืชื, ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืชื ืืื ืืืจืฉืืข ืืืจ.
14. ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืื ืืืืงืืข ืืืจืืืื
ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืจืืช ืืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืงืจ
ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืขืืจื, ืืืื ืืกืชืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขืงื ืกืืจืืื ืืืขืื. ืื ืืื
ื ืื ืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื. ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉ ืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืขื
ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืช ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืชืื ืืื ื ืขื ืืืืชื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช. ืืืืคื ืืื ืื ืชื ื
ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจื ืื ืืจืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืคืืืข ืืขื.
ืขื ืืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ื ืืชื ืืืืื
ืืืืกืงื ืืช ืฉืืืืง ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืกืืง ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืชืืงืชื. ืกืขืืฃ 162 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืคืืืื [ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื- 1982 ืงืืืข:
"ืืืื ืขืืช
ืื ืืฉื ืืืขืื ืขืฉืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืืง ืืืฉืงื ืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืชืืืขื ืืื ืกืืืข ืืจืืืืช ืืชืืืขื ืืงืื
ืฉืืจืืฉ ืืื ืกืืืข, ืื ืื ืชืฉืืฉ ืกืืืข ืืฆืืจื ืกืขืืฃ 11 ืืืืง ืืชืืงืื ืืื ื ืจืืืืช (ืืื ืช
ืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื 1955".
(ืขื ืืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืกืื ืืืื ืจืื ื. ืืจืง
ืคืจืฉื ืืช
ืืืฉืคื
(ืืจืืฉืืื, ืชืฉื "ื, ืืจื ืฉืืืฉื) 369 ืืืืื; ืข"ื 6821/93
ืื ืง
ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืข"ื ื ' ืืืื ืืคืจ ืฉืืชืืคื
, ืชืงืืื ืขืืืื 95(3) 1948, 2035;
ืื"ืฆ 721/94
ืื ืขื ื ืชืืื ืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ื ' ืืื ืชื ืื ืืืืืืฅ
, ืค"ื
ืื(5) 757, 761).
ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืงื ืืื ื
15. ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืขื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื, ืื
ืืืืช ืื ืืื ื ืงืืืืช ืืืืคื ืขืฆืืื. ื ืจืื, ืื ืืืืช ืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืฉืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจืกืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ื ืื ืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืช ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืืขืื
ืืื ืกืคืง ืกืืืจ, ืขื ืืชืืืขื. ืืคื ืฉืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืื ื ืขืืืืช ืื ืืขื, ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื
ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืช ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจ.
ืืืงืฉืจ ืื, ืืขืืจ, ืื ืจืืื ืืขืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืืืคืคืช ืืช ืืื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื,
ืืจืฉืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืชืืชื ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื ืืืช ืื ืืืืจ ืืจืืืืช ืฉืืืขืชื ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืขื ืืืืจ
ืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืขื ืืขืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืื ืฉืืืืชืืชื ืืืืชืืืื.
(ืจืื ืื ื. ืืจื ืื "ืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื" ืืฉืคืืื ื' 95, 104) ืขื ืื ืคื ืื, ืืื
ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืช ืงื ืืื ืชื, ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืื ื ืืชื ืขืืืช
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจ.
ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืืืื ืืืืช
16. ืืื ืืืฉืฉ ืืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืืฆืืืง ืกืืืื ืืืืืื
ืืืขืื. ืืฉืฉ ืืื ืงืืื ืืืงืจืื ืจืืื ืืื ืขืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืช,
ืืื ืืขืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืกืืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืขืืชื, ืฉืื ืื ืชืืืจ ืื,
ืืืฉืฉืชื ื ืฉืืืื ืืงืื ืืื ืืข ืืขืืชื ืฉื ืขืืื ืจืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืื ื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืจืืืืช
ืฉืื ืืฉืขืจื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืื ืฉืจืืื ืืชืช ืืช ืืืขืช ืืืฉืฉ ืื, ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืืื ืืฉืืงื
ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืืช ืื ืืกืจืช ืืคื ืื. ืืคืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ื ื ืืฉืืืืช
ืงืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืฉ ืืขืืืืช ืืืืช. ืจืืื ืืคืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืขื ืืืขืื ืืขื
ืืฉืืคื ืืฉืืืข ืืช ืขืืืชื, ืืชืช ืื ืืช ืืืฉืงื ืืืืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืืฉืคื, ืืืืข,
ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื, ืืขืืืื ืืจืฉืืชื.
ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืื ืืขืืืช ืืขื ืืขืืืชื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืช
ืืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืคืจืฉื - ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืฅ ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืคืขืื ืขื ืืขื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืขื ืืืงืฉ
ืืืงืืื ืืช ืืืงื ืฉืื ืืคืจืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืงืื ืช ืืืงื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืื ืื ืืื, ืืื ื ืืืฉื
ืืืงืจื ืื ืืื, ืฉืื, ืืชืืืขื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืช ืืืขืืช ืืขื ืืืื ืืื ืกืืืจื ืื ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ
ืืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืืืชื. ืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืฉืฉ ืืื, ืฉืืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืขืื ืืช
ืืืจื. ืืขื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืชื ืื ืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืงื ืจื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื
ืืืืช.
ืืื ืืจืก ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ื ื ืืืชื ืืืฉืคืื:
17. ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืจืืื ืขืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ื ืืช ืืขื
ืืืขืื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ื ืืขืืืช ืืขื ืืื ื, ืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืื ืืฉื. ืฉืืจืืจ ืืขื ืืืืืชื
ืืืขืื, ืืคืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ื ื ืืืชื, ืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืขืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืื ื ืืฉืืืชื ื
ืืืฉืคืืืช. ืืืืช ืื ืืชืขืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืืืง ืืกืื: ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื. ืืฉื ืืืฉืืขืืืืช
ืืืจืืืงืืช ืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืขื ืืคืืืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืคืืืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืฉ ืืืงืคืื ืขื
ื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืฆืื ืืืืกืก ืืื ืชื ืืจืืื.
ืืื ื ืืขื ืืืงืฉ ืืื ื ืขื ืืืืชื ืฉืื
ืื ืืฉื
ืืืฉืคื ืืืจ, ืืืื ืขื ืคืืืขื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื, ืืกืืช ืืคื ื ืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืจื
ืืืืืื ื ืืืขืื. ื ืกืืื ืื ืขื ืฉืื ืื? ืจืืฉืืช, ืขื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืืจื ืืื ืืขื ืขืืื ืืืืืง
ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืกืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืื ืื ืฉืืขืืืช ืฉืืืกืืจ, ืชืืื ืื
ืืืืืชื. ืฉื ืืช, ืขื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืขื ื ืื ื ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืง ืืืขืื
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจ. ืฉืืืฉืืช, ืขื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืขื ื ืชืื ืืกืื ื ืฉื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืคืืช ืืืืกืืื
ืืื ื ืืื ื ืื ื.
ื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื
18. ื ืืชื ืืืขืื, ืื ืืจื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืคืืืขื ืืืื ืช
ืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืขืื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืฉื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืขื ืืกืืื
ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืขื. ืื ืืกืจืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืืจื ืื ืขืืืื ืขื ืืชืจืื ืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืฆื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืฉืื
ืขืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืจ ืขืฉืื ืืืืชืื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืขื ืืืืฉื ืืฉืคืื. ืฉื ืืช, ืืฉืื
ืืคืืืขื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉื ืืขื ืฉืช ืขืืจืืื ืื ืขื-ืืื ืืขื ืงืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืฆืื
ืืืื ืขืืื, ืืคืจืง ืืื ืืืืฉื. ืฉืืืฉืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืงืจืื ืจืืื ืืืงืฉื ืฉื ื ื ืืฉืืื
ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื, ืืืฉืคืืื ื ืคืจืืื, ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉื ืื. ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื, ืคืชืจืื
ื"ืืืืื" ืืื ื ืืขืฉื, ืฉืื, ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืชืื ืืกืืื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืขื
ืื ืช ืืืชืงืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉืื, ืืืืฉืคืืื ืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืขืืื.
ืกืืฃ ืืืจ
ื ืืชื ืืกืื ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืฉืืืชื, ืืืืืื ืืงืืื
ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืจ, ืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื
ืขืฆืืืช - ืืืงืฉืจ ืืกืืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื - ืืื ื ืืืืื ืจืืื. ืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืช
ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืง ืืกืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื
(ืืืืืืจ, ืืื ืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื ืืฉื ืื), ืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืขืืช ืืขื ืืฉืื ืคืืืขื ืืืฉืื
ืืืืืช ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืกืืื ืืคื ื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ื ืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืขืืืืื ืื ืื,
ืืื ืคืืืขื ืื ืืชืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืขื ืื ืืจืฉ.
ืืฉืจ ืขื ืื, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขื (ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืฉื
ืื ืคืจื) ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืคืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืื, ืืืขื ืฉืืืื ืคืืืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื
ื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืื ืคืจื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื.
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง:
ืื ื ืืกืืื.
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื:
ืื ื ืืกืืื.
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืกืง ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื'
ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(30.7.97).
ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื ืืื /ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืื683695
| 1997-07-30T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืืืกืฃ ื . ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืชื-ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95068360.J01 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืืืกืฃ",
"ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืชื-ืืืื",
"ืืื ืืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-07-30 | 1995-11-02 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ืค 6836/95 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืจืืืื ืืขืงื",
"ืืืื ืืจืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืืื"
] | 16 | ืจืข"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
424 | 2022-09-17T15:07:32 | 4 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\B03\97026820_B03.txt | 433 | 424 | 1997-05-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:18 | 2,682 | ืืฉ"ื 2682/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\B03 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 97026820_B03.txt | 97026820.B03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | c5045236bd304f8caabb92d59a0a1395581480049371f6ee4e95d6e5f05ec7bd |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
2682
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืื
ืฉืืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืข"ืฉ 1082/97
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืืืื 14.4.97 ืขื ืืื ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื
ืื ืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ืืื ื ืืืืืจ
ืืืืื
ืืชืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืชืื 10 ืืืื.
ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืช ืืกืืืจ ืฉืขืืชืง
ืืืืื ืื ืืืืงืฉื ืขื ืจืฆืืคืืชืื ืืื ืขืืชืง ืฆื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (2.5.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97026820.
B03
| 1997-05-04T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026820.B03 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื"
] | 1997-05-04 | 1997-05-01 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 2682/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืฉืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
424 | 2022-09-17T15:07:32 | 4 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\B04\97026820_B04.txt | 498 | 424 | 1997-06-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:18 | 2,682 | ืืฉ"ื 2682/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\B04 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 97026820_B04.txt | 97026820.B04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 4ff7e6d6022c9e590cd0374aac3ad1f24d603029630764a3b9e00ffc098f3210 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
2682
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืื
ืฉืืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืข"ืฉ 1082/97 ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืืืื
14.4.97 ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืื ืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ืืื ื ืืืืืจ
ืืืืื
ืืืงืื
ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืฉื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (3.6.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97026820.
B04
| 1997-06-04T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026820.B04 | [
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื"
] | 1997-06-04 | 1997-05-01 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืฉืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 2682/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืืืฉืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
424 | 2022-09-17T15:07:32 | 4 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\G02\97026820_G02.txt | 3,481 | 424 | 1997-05-02T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:19 | 2,682 | ืืฉ"ื 2682/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\G02 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 97026820_G02.txt | 97026820.G02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 5b0ae4cf5ca374d5798bf0863eef0828f24b52173d015313173de18858974aeb |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื
2682/97
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืื: ืฉืืื
ืจืืื ืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื
ืื ืฆืจืช ืืืื 14.4.97 ืืข"ืฉ 1082/97
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืื ืืื
ื
ื ื ื ื
ื ืืชื ืืืืช ืฆื ืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืขื ืืืืจืขื ืืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ, ืืื ืชืื ืชื ืืจืฉืืช - ืขื ืืืืจืขื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืคื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื
(1.5.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
| 1997-05-02T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026820.G02 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื"
] | 1997-05-02 | 1997-05-01 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 2682/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืฉืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
424 | 2022-09-17T15:07:32 | 4 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\F06\97026820_F06.txt | 7,859 | 424 | 1997-06-30T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:18 | 2,682 | ืืฉ"ื 2682/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\820\026\F06 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 97026820_F06.txt | 97026820.F06.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 5dd5fff0cbca29aac69071c48cd3fe22527dcb60900ad87da578684c1d1cdaf5 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื 2682/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืฉืืื ืจืืื ืืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 62ื'
ืืคืงืืืช
ืืชื ืืกืืืจ [ื ืืกื ืืืฉ], ืชืฉื"ื1971-
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื:
ื' ืืกืืื
ืืชืฉื "ื
(
25.06.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช: ืขื"ื
ืืื ื ืืืืืจ
ืืืฉืื ืืขืฆืื
ืค ืก ืง - ื ื ื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
:
ืืขืงืืืช ืืชืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืชืื ืืืช ืืกืืืจ, ืืืืจื
ื ืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืฉืชืงืฃ ืืกืืจ ืืืจ, ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืืขืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ ืืืขืืืจ
ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืช-ืืกืืืจ ืืขืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจ ืฆืืืื. ืืฉืืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืขืชืจ ืืืฉืื ืืคื ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืงืืื. ืืฉืืคื ืืืืืื ืงืืข ืฉืื
ืขื ืืื 1.5.97 ืื ืืืืฉ ืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืขืฉื ืื ื ืืฉื, ืืืื ืขื ืฉืืจืืช
ืืชื ืืกืืืจ ืืืืืืจื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจ ืืขืฉืืื.
ืืืืื ื ืืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืฉืฉืืขื ื
ืืช ืืขื ืืช ืืฆืืืื ืื ื ื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืงืื ืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ. ืืืื ืคืกืืงื ืืื
ืฉืืืืจืืืช ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืกืืืจ ืืืืืช ืขื ื ืฆืื ืืชื ืืกืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืขืชืืจืืช ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืช
ืืคื ืื ืจืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืฆืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื
ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืฉืื ืขืฆืื ืืืงืื ืื ืฆืื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืช
ืฉืืงืื-ืืขืชื ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื (ืจืข"ืค 2410/93 ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื ' ืจืื ื ืืื, ืค"ื
ื"ื(3) 802, 803; ืืจืืื ืืืจืื).
ื ืจืื ืื ื ืื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืืื ืืจื ืื ืืืงืืื
ืืืชืขืจืื ืืืืืื. ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืฆืืงืช ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช
ืืืฉืื ืืืืช ืกืืืจ ืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืกืืก ืืืฆืืง. ืืชื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืกืืฃ, ืืื ื ืืืืฉ ืื ืื ืืืืื
ืืืืฉ ืื ืืื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืขืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืคื ื ืืขืืช ืืืขืืจืืช ืืื ืืืงืื ืืกืื ืกืืืจ ืืืฉืฉ
ืฉืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืืกืืจืื ืื ืืฆืื ืืืืช ืกืืืจ ืืื (ืื ืื ืฉืืืืืืจ ืืืืชืงื ืืืืื ืืืกืืช
ืคืชืื ืืืขืฉืืื) ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ืชืื ืื ื ืจืื
ืืืืขืื, ืื ืืืืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืจืืืช ืืชืงืจืืช, ืืืืื ืืืขืืืจื ื'ืืขืฉืืื'.
ืืืืืื ืืืช, ืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ืื ืคืื. ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืจ ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืช ืืืขืืจืืช ืืืชืืกืกื
ืขื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื.
ืืคืืื ืื ื ื ืืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื. ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืชื ื ืืช ืืขืชื ื ืื ืืืฆืืงืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื, ืฉืืืืืชื
ื"ืืขืฉืืื" ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืชืืื ืืืกืืื ืฉื ืฉืืงืื, ืืื ื - ืขื ืืขืืจืชื ื'ืฆืืืื'
- ืืืืื ืืืขืืืืชื ืืื. ืืงืฉืชื ืืื ืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืื, ืฉืื - ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืื - ืืฉ
ืืกืืื ืฉืืงืื. ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืฉืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืงืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืขืืช ืืืขืืจืืช, ืืื ืชืืืฉ
ืขื-ืืืื ืืงืฉื ืืืืช ืืืงื ืขื ืืืืขืื ืฉืืื ืชืืื ืืืชื ืืืืคื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (25.6.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97026820.
F06
| 1997-06-30T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืื ืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026820.F06 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื"
] | 1997-06-30 | 1997-05-01 | 6 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื",
"ืืืืจ",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืจืข"ื 2682/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | null | [
"ืืืืื",
"ืืฆืืง",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 2 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
425 | 2022-09-17T15:07:33 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\120\094\A01\96094120_A01.txt | 434 | 425 | 1997-07-22T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:17:51 | 9,412 | ืืฉ"ื 9412/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\120\094\A01 | ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื ื . ืืืืกืืื ืืืื | 96094120_A01.txt | 96094120.A01.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 46d32d51cade5e95251dd089a9470ff5b2e49b23a9ebfc1a544054b6339411ab |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
9412/96
ืืคื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืืืืกืืื
ื'ืื ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืกืืื ืืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ืืืืกื ืืจ ืฉืืจืืื ื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืงืฉืช ืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช
ืืื ืืชื
ืืืืจ ืืืชืงืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง
ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969- (ืืืื - ืืืืง),
ืืจืื ื ืืืจื, ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง ืื "ื ืืชืงื ื 10 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1984- (ืืืื - ืืชืงื ืืช), ืื ืชืชืืงืฉ
ืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืจ ืืืื: ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืจื ืืงืืืขื ืืกืขืืฃ
2(ื) ืืืืง ืืืชืงื ื 11(ื) ืืชืงื ืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(22.7.97).
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96094120.
A01
/ืื/
| 1997-07-22T00:00:00 | ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื ื . ืืืืกืืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96094120.A01 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื",
"ืืืืกืืื ืืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-07-22 | 1996-12-31 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืื"ื 9412/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืฉืืจืืื ื ืืืืกื ืืจ"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
425 | 2022-09-17T15:07:33 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\120\094\B02\96094120_B02.txt | 14,394 | 425 | 1997-09-29T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:17:51 | 9,412 | ืืฉ"ื 9412/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\120\094\B02 | ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื ื . ืืืืกืืื ืืืื | 96094120_B02.txt | 96094120.B02.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 0bf209bda540a9d4e633c692e46607d8b41e8c4277c3af6277cb03aa3192fd0a |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
9412/96
ืืคื ื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืืกืืื
ื'ืื ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืกืืื ืืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ืืืืกื ืืจ ืฉืืจืืื ื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืืจ ืฉืขืืื ืชื ืืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื
ืืืืื, ืื ื ื ืงืืืข ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 1(ื) ืืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-, ืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืื
ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืืกืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(25.9.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96094120.
B02
/ืื/
| 1997-09-29T00:00:00 | ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื ื . ืืืืกืืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96094120.B02 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืืกืื ื'ืื ื",
"ืืืืกืืื ืืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-09-29 | 1996-12-31 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืื"
] | ืื"ื 9412/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืฉืืจืืื ื ืืืืกื ืืจ"
] | [
"ืฉืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
426 | 2022-09-17T15:07:33 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\870\015\J01\97015870_J01.txt | 435 | 426 | 1997-04-14T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:31:01 | 1,587 | ืืฉ"ื 1587/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\870\015\J01 | ืืืื ืืืื ื . ืขื"ื ืื ื ืื ืืืจ | 97015870_J01.txt | 97015870.J01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 6d3fea974d1e81dba7f5e60bb79843ca75fe576a50d215c4116561b590fa9703 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
1587
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืขืจืขืจืื
:
1.
ืืืื ืืืื
2.
ืืจ ืืฉื ืืจืืจ
3.
ื.ื.ื.ื. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข"ื
4.
ืืืื ืืช ื ืฆืจืช ืืข"ื
5.
ื ืืืจื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขื"ื ืื ื ืื ืืืจ
2.
ืฆืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืื
3.
ืฆืืชื ืืื ืืข"ื
4.
ืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืื ืื"ื ืืข"ื
5.
ืขื"ื ืืื ืชื ืฉืจืื
6.
ืจืืคืืืก ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืข"ื
7.
ืื ืง ืืคืืขืืื ืืข"ื
8.
ืื ืง ืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ืืข"ื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืืขืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื
ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื ืืืื 6.2.97
ืื"ืค
1503/96 (ืืืจ' 1554/96)
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื. ืงืืื ื
ื"ื
ืืืืงืฉืื: ืขื"ื ื. ืืืืฉืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืงืื ื ืจืืืช ืื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืงืื
ืืืชืขืจื ืื.
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (14.4.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97015870.
J01
| 1997-04-14T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืืืื ื . ืขื"ื ืื ื ืื ืืืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97015870.J01 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืื ืืืื",
"ืืจ ืืฉื ืืจืืจ",
"ื.ื.ื.ื. ืืฉืงืขืืช ืืข\"ื",
"ืขื\"ื ืื ื ืื ืืืจ",
"ืืืื ืืช ื ืฆืจืช ืืข\"ื",
"ื ืืืจื ืืข\"ื",
"ืฆืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฆืืชื ืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืื ืื\"ื ืืข\"ื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืื ืชื ืฉืจืื",
"ืจืืคืืืก ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ืง ืืคืืขืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ืง ืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ืืข\"ื"
] | 1997-04-14 | 1997-03-09 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 1587/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืฉืืืื ืืจื",
"ืฉืจืื ืืื ืชื",
"ืื ืืช ืกืืจืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
427 | 2022-09-17T15:07:34 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E04\97026860_E04.txt | 436 | 427 | 1997-09-17T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:21 | 2,686 | ืืฉ"ื 2686/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E04 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 97026860_E04.txt | 97026860.E04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 71893bed98510775bfc362e77462754d3622fc2f3b953febdb2ce11e20c54d4d |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
2686/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืื ืฆืืจ
ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื
2.
ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืจืช ืคืก"ื
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ: ืืขืฆืื
ืืืืื
ืืฉ ืืืขืืืจ ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื,
ืืช ืืขืชืง ืืืชืื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ, ืขื ืื ืช ืฉืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ืื' ืืืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(17.9.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืขืื/
97026860.
E04
| 1997-09-17T00:00:00 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026860.E04 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ"
] | 1997-09-17 | 1997-05-04 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2686/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
427 | 2022-09-17T15:07:34 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\Q01\97026860_Q01.txt | 5,429 | 427 | 1997-05-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:22 | 2,686 | ืืฉ"ื 2686/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\Q01 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 97026860_Q01.txt | 97026860.Q01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 98c1ef505b3dab311e0278f211d513d31f63cac8be655b22534a99b24c518042 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 97 /
2686
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืืืืงืฉ
:
ืื ืฆืืจ
ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื
2.
ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ
ืืงืฉื ืืคืืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืืืจื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืืขืฆืื
ืืืืื
ืคืืืจ ืืืืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื
(4.5.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97026860.
Q01
| 1997-05-04T00:00:00 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026860.Q01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ"
] | 1997-05-04 | 1997-05-04 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2686/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
427 | 2022-09-17T15:07:34 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E05\97026860_E05.txt | 8,948 | 427 | 1997-10-05T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:21 | 2,686 | ืืฉ"ื 2686/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E05 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 97026860_E05.txt | 97026860.E05.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 5302bd4cc4f04daa02a43fb097d5de1079ceb17496f24d5aa1c06f2c3e02c0c8 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
2686/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืื ืฆืืจ
ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื
2.
ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืจืช ืคืก"ื
ืืืืื
ืืคืกืง ืืื ืืืื 4.6.97 ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืชืืจื
ืืชืืง ืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืขื ืืืขื ืืืฉืืืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืชืื ืชื ืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืงืจื
ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืื ืชื ื ืืขืช ืืขืช.
ืืืื 6.9.97 ืืืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืงืฉื ืืืืืืจ
ืืช ืื ืืฉื, ืืื ืฉืืืืคืฉืจ ืืืฉืช ืืขืืชืจ ืืืงืจื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืขื ืคื ืืืืขืช ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืฉืจ
ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืงืฉื, ืจืฉืืืช ืืฉืช ืืขืืชืจ ืืืงืจื ืขื ืคื ืืืชืจืื ืืฉืจ ืื ืชื ื ืื ืืืื ืคืขื ืืืื
ืืื ืืืื.
ืืฉ ืืืืฆืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืขืชืง ืืืืืขืช ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื
ืืืืืืจื ื ืืฉื ืื.
ืืื ืืื ืืืงืฉื ืขื ืคืชืจืื ื, ืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืื ืื
ื ืืกืคืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืฉืจื ืืชืฉื "ื
(5.10.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืขืื/
97026860.
E05
| 1997-10-05T00:00:00 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026860.E05 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ"
] | 1997-10-05 | 1997-05-04 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2686/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
427 | 2022-09-17T15:07:34 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\G02\97026860_G02.txt | 15,496 | 427 | 1997-05-06T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:22 | 2,686 | ืืฉ"ื 2686/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\G02 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 97026860_G02.txt | 97026860.G02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 8e7909f6e011a0ef134976c92f1ea67398d48945550cafecda2db691ac5e966d |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฆ 97 /
2686
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืขื
ืชืจ: ืื ืฆืืจ
ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1. ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื
2.
ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ
ืขืชืืจื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื
ืืืื 20.5.97. ืืชืืง ืืืงืืข ืืฉืืืขื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืจ ืืื.
ืืืื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (6.5.97)
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
| 1997-05-06T00:00:00 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026860.G02 | [
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ"
] | 1997-05-06 | 1997-05-04 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2686/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืืืฉืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
427 | 2022-09-17T15:07:34 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E03\97026860_E03.txt | 16,293 | 427 | 1997-06-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:43:21 | 2,686 | ืืฉ"ื 2686/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\026\E03 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 97026860_E03.txt | 97026860.E03.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 601f5771ca0eb46cc0ae6ace059070e24ad870d3e33e52210b749cc41d7e5a5d |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 97 /
2686
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืขืืชืจ: ืื ืฆืืจ
ืืืื
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื
2.
ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ
ืืงืฉื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื: ืื'
ืืืืืจ ืืชืฉื "ื (4.6.97)
ืืฉื ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื
ืืืก
ืคืกืง
ืืื
ืื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืืขื ื, ืฉืคืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืขื
ืืืขื ืืืฉืืืื ืชืื ืชื ืื ืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืงืจื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืื ืชื ื ืืขืช
ืืขืช. ืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจ ืขื ืกืืคืืงื ืืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ืื' ืืืืืจ ืืชืฉื "ื (4.6.97).
ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืขืื/
97026860.
E03
| 1997-06-04T00:00:00 | ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื ื . ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97026860.E03 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืื ืฆืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืืฃ ืคืืงืื ืืืจืื",
"ืฉืืจืืช ืืชื ืืกืืืจ"
] | 1997-06-04 | 1997-05-04 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2686/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | null | [
"ืชืืืืืจ",
"ืืืื",
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\G07\96041340_G07.txt | 437 | 428 | 1997-09-18T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:01:56 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\G07 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_G07.txt | 96041340.G07.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 74723b94bd5518313e47576758b61669481d44a96cfb460df51a810fee23181e | null | 1997-09-18T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.G07 | [
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1997-09-18 | 1996-06-10 | 7 | null | false | [
"ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืฉืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\G08\96041340_G08.txt | 10,647 | 428 | 1997-09-18T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:01:56 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\G08 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_G08.txt | 96041340.G08.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d1c171e9fa3aa4d03f98747bd862992dccdc0025c249f0909630c57562ba2959 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
4134/96 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1. ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
2.
ืืื"ื ืืืืคืกืื
3.
ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื
4.
ืืื"ื ืืืืืืื
5.
ืืื"ื ืืื ืืคื
6.
ืืื"ื ืืจืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืืงืฉ.
ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (18.9.97)
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
07.96041340
G
| 1997-09-18T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.G08 | [
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1997-09-18 | 1996-06-10 | 8 | null | false | [
"ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืฉืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\I10\96041340_I10.txt | 18,486 | 428 | 1997-12-04T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T17:00:19 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\I10 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_I10.txt | 96041340.I10.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | e37c2ecc597476afb83c295b603ab7dc3bc80f1df7501d05d87d9da7dfa6744b |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
4134/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืื ืืืจื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช
:
ืงืจ ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
2.
ืืื"ื ืืืืคืกืื
3.
ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื
4.
ืืื"ื ืืืืืืื
5.
ืืื"ื ืืื ืืคื
6.
ืืื"ื ืืจืืืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื
(4.12.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืขื"ื
ืืืจืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
: ืืืืืื
ืืืก
ืืืืื
1. ืืืื 2.12.97 ืืืืืข ื"ื ืืืฉืื 1 ืื ืืืชื
ืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืขื ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืช ืืฉื ื ืฉืชืืื ืืชืืืืฅ ืชืื
ืืื ืกืืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืชืืงืื ืชืงื ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืขื (ืืืฉืืจืื ืจืคืืืืื ืืืืืืื),
ืืชืฉื "ื1994-. ืื ืืื ืืฆืืข ื"ื ืืืฉืื 1 ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืช, ืืื
ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืื.
2. ืขื-ืคื ืืฆืขื ืืืช, ืืืืกืืืชื ืฉื ื"ื ืืขืืชืจืช,
ืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืช.
3. ืขื ืกืืื ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉื
ืืื ืกืช ืืืืืจ, ืืืืฉ ื"ื ืืืฉืื 1 ืืืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืืจืืช ืชืงืืข ืืืขื
ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืงืื ืืืคืฉืจื ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืืืข ืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืื
ืืขืชืืจื.
4. ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคื ืืช ืงืืื ืืื
ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืฉื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื, ืืืขืชื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืช ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืืื ืืชืืฉืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืกืืืจ ืื ืื ืืื ืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืฆืืืงืืช
ืืืช.
5. ืจืฉืื ื ืืคื ืื ื ืื ืืืฉืื 1 ืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืชืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืืขื ืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืชื ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืชืช ืืฆืืื ืงืืืืช. ืื ืืืื
ืฉืื ืื ืืขืืืช ืืืฉืื 1, ืืื ืืชื ืืืืขื ืืืงืืืช ืขื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื, ืื ืชืจืื
ืื ืืื, ืืคื ืืช ืืขื ืื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื (4.12.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืช ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96041340.
I10
| 1997-12-04T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.I10 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ",
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ",
"ืืฆืืง ืื ืืืจื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1997-12-04 | 1996-06-10 | 10 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ",
"ืืื ืืฉ",
"ืื ืืืจื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง",
"ืืืจืืช",
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\P12\96041340_P12.txt | 52,914 | 428 | 1999-10-11T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T14:13:54 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\P12 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_P12.txt | 96041340.P12.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | ffb00ac86e57db3fe8d95aecc7b2f9f2dd629b17b90822f6974f101bb499417d |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
4134/96 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืืืื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช
:
ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
2.
ืืื"ื ืืืืคืกืื
3.
ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื
4.
ืืื"ื ืืืืืืื
5.
ืืื"ื ืืื ืืคื
6.
ืืื"ื ืืจืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืงืช ืขืชืืจื
ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืจืื ืื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืื ื ืืืจื ืขื ืืืืงืช ืืขืชืืจื.
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืฆืืืช, ืฉืชืืืฉ ืชืื
ืืจืืขื-ืขืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืฉืื ืชืฉ"ืก (11.10.99).
ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96041340.
P12
| 1999-10-11T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.P12 | [
"ืืืื ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1999-10-11 | 1996-06-10 | 12 | null | false | [
"ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\P13\96041340_P13.txt | 61,526 | 428 | 1999-12-16T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T14:13:54 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\P13 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_P13.txt | 96041340.P13.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 6d0126ffdb2b61ce06fc9c88553580e6b9e31c4ad70f2364ab3fd306a4373545 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
4134/96 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืืืื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช
:
ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
2.
ืืื"ื ืืืืคืกืื
3.
ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื
4.
ืืื"ื ืืืืืืื
5.
ืืื"ื ืืื ืืคื
6.
ืืื"ื ืืจืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืจืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื ืืืืืื ืืืก
ืืืืื
ืืคื ื ืืงืฉื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฆืืืชืื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช
- ืืืจืช ืงืจ ืฉืืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื - ืืขืชืืจื ืื.
ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืฆืืืชืื ืืืกืืจืช
ืืขืชืืจื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจืจ ืื ืขืชืืจืชื ืฆืืืงืช ืืืืืจ ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืกื ืืืฉืง
ืืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืกืจืืงื ืฉื ืคืืืืช ืงืจื ื ืืื (ืืืื: "ืืฆืืืืช ืืื"). ืืขืงืืืช
ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืฆืืื, ืื ื ืืขื, ืืืคืกืงื ืคืขืืืช ืืืง ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืคืขืื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื
ืคืขืืืช ืืืง ืืืจ ืืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืืืืฉืจื ืขืงื ืืชืงื ืช ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืกืืก ืืืืืงืชื ืฉื
ืขืชืืจื ืื.
ืขืื ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉ
ืืืชืืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉืืืื ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืื ืืกืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื
ืฉื ืืืืช ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืจืืฉืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืื.
ืืืฉืืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืฉืืืช ืคืกืืงืช ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืงืื
ืืขืชื, ืืคืืฃ ืืืชืืฉืืืช ืืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื.
ืืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืงืื ืืืขืฉื ืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืง
ืฉืืขืฆื ืืืฉืช ืืขืชืืจื, ืื ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืขืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืงืืืื (ืกืขืืฃ 6 ืืชืืืืช
ืืืฉืืืื). ืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืฆืืืชืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืขืชืืจื (ืจืื: ืื"ืฅ
842/93,
ืื ื ืกืืกืจื
ื ืื
ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 217).
ืืฉืืืช ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉ ืืงืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืช
ืืืืจืืื ืืืืื:
ืจืืฉืืช, ืืขืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฆืืืขื ืขื ืชืืคืขื
ืฉืืืชื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืคืกืืื ืืกืืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืฆืข ืืช ืชืคืงืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ื ืืืืื
ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืืื.
ืฉื ืืช, ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืฉืืื, ืขืืืื ืืื
ืืืฉืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื, ืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ื ืืืืง ืฉืืฉ ืืืืงืคื ืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืฉืื ืื
ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืคืืขืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื ืืขืชืืจื, ืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื
ืขืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืขืื.
ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืื, ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช,
ืืช ืืชืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื; ืืช ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืงืจ ืืืื ื ืฉื
ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืืช ืืจืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืืืจ ืืืฆืขืช
ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืคืืงืื ืื ืงืจืื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืืชืจื ืืืืจ
ืขื ืืื ืชืืืืจืื, ืืื ื ืกืืืจื ืื ืืฉ ืืืชืืฉื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืคืกืืงืช ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืกืืจืช
ืืงืฉื ืื.
ืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืื, ืืืจื ืื ื ืื ืืืฉืืืื
ืืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืช ืขืืจื-ืืื ืืกื ืืืื ืฉื 5,000 ืฉ"ื ืืฆืืจืืฃ
ืืข"ื ืืืืง.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืช ืชืฉ"ืก (16.12.99).
ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96041340.
P13
| 1999-12-16T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.P13 | [
"ืืืื ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1999-12-16 | 1996-06-10 | 13 | null | false | [
"ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
428 | 2022-09-17T15:07:35 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\I11\96041340_I11.txt | 66,774 | 428 | 1999-09-01T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T14:13:53 | 4,134 | ืืฉ"ื 4134/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\340\041\I11 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 96041340_I11.txt | 96041340.I11.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 64d2c1118d112a4ff0b0c87cc875a6913b61fcf1848d41f2a0fb709e74ab1c55 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
4134/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช
:
ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
2.
ืืื"ื ืืืืคืกืื
3.
ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื
4.
ืืื"ื ืืืืืืื
5.
ืืื"ื ืืื ืืคื
6.
ืืื"ื ืืจืืืื
ืขืชืืจื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืฆื ืืืื ืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื
4.12.97, ืืืืชืืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืืื, ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืืข ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืขืชืืจื ืขืืืื
ืืงืืืืืืช.
ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืขืืืื ืืืงืฉืช ืืงืืื ืืืื
ืืขืชืืจื, ืืื ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืขื ืืขืืื ืช ืืืืจ ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืืจื.
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืขื
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืชืื 30 ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (1.9.99).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96041340.
I11
| 1999-09-01T00:00:00 | ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข"ื ื . ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96041340.I11 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงื ืฉืจืืชื ืจืคืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืื ื\"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืคืกืื",
"ืืืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืข\"ืฉ ืืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืืืืืื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืื ืืคื",
"ืืื\"ื ืืจืืืื"
] | 1999-09-01 | 1996-06-10 | 11 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4134/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืกืืจ ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\H04\97009610_H04.txt | 438 | 429 | 1997-02-12T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:24:26 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\H04 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_H04.txt | 97009610.H04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | a788c3769833f3c085a32177b7c1992f0c6c496a36d14c73a75ae72cb468f725 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืคืืืืืื
ืข"ื
961/97
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื. ืงืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืจืืงื
ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืืงืฉื
ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืื.ืค. 1335/89
ืืืื
5.12.96 ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื
ืข.
ืืืืจ
ื ื ื ื ื
1.
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื (ืืชืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื), ืชืื 10 ืืืื
ืืืืื.
ืื ืืืฉืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืขื ืชืืฉื ืืืกืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืฆืืข.
2.
ืขื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืื ืื ืงืื ืฆืขืืื ืืกืืืืง ืืื
ืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช.
3.
ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืขืืืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืชืืง
ืืคื ื
ืืืื 24.2.97 .
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื' ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (12.2.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื ืืื
ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
/ืจื
COURT
| 1997-02-12T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.H04 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1997-02-12 | 1997-02-10 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F08\97009610_F08.txt | 2,734 | 429 | 1997-05-18T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:24:25 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F08 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_F08.txt | 97009610.F08.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 092492490a3536203d766e89b69e7bf7eac1b1827f55e4875786ebb6498b73f5 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 961/97
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืจืืงื
ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืืื ืคืกืง-ืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืกืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืืขืฆืื
ื ื ื ื ื
ืืืืงืฉืช ืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืื ืคืกืง-ืืื ืฉืืฆื ืืืคื ืื ื ืขื
ืืกืื ืืกืืืช ืืขืื ืืืื. ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืจ, ืื ืืืืจืช ืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืฉืืืื ื ืื
ืืืืงืฉืช ืชืืืขื ื ืืืฉื. ืืขื ืช ืืืืงืฉืช ืืื, ืื ืืกืืืชื ืืืกืืจ - ืฉืืืืจื ืืืจื ืื ืืขืจืขืืจื
ืืฉืขื ืืกืืื ื ืืชื ืคืกืง-ืืื ื ื - ืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืฉื ืงืฅ ืืืชืืืื ืืช; ืืฉืืืื ืืืชื
ืขืจื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉื ื ืืื ืชืืืขื ื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืชื ืืกืืืื ืืืกืืจ. ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื,
ืืืขื ืช ืืืืงืฉืช, "ืืื ืืืคืืช ืขืืื ืืืฆืืข ืคืกืง ืืื ืืืกืืื, ืขื ืืกืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืืื ืื
ืจืฆืชื".
ืื ืจืืื ื ืืงืื ืืืงืฉ ืชืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืืื. ืืคื ืฉืืืกืืจ
ืื ืคืขื, ืืคืกืง-ืืื ืฉืืืกืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืชื ืชืืื ืืช, ืฉื ืืกืื ืืฉื ืคืกืง-ืืื. ืขื ืืขื-ืืื,
ืืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืคื ืคืกืง-ืืื ืืื, ืืืืช ืคืื ืืืกืื ืฉืขืืื ื ืชืืกืก ืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื,
ืืืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืกืื ืชืืืขื ื ืืืืืื ืืืกืื; ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืชืืืขืชื,
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืชืืื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืขืื (ืจืื, ืืืฉื, ืข"ื 108/83
ืืืืืฉืืืื ื ' ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 780; ืข"ื 690/88
ืจืืืื
ื ' ืจืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 459; ืืข"ื 2536/90
ืกืืืืื ื ' ืกืืืืื
,
ืค"ื ืื(2) 573).
ืืื ืื ืืคื ืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื. ืืืืงืฉืช ืืื ื ืืืขื ืช
ืืคืื ืืืืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืืคื ืื ื, ืืฉืืืืจื ื ืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื. ืืขื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืกืื, ืฉืืืืื
ื ืืชื ืคืกืง-ืืื ื ื, ื ืคืื; ืื ืืืืช ืืขืืชื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืขืืืชื ืขื-ืืื ืืืฉืืืื. ืืคืื,
ืขืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืงืฉืช, ืืขืื ืืืืื; ืืื ืื ืจืืืฅ ืขื ืืืืงืฉืช. ืืืื ืืืืงืฉืช, ืื ืจืฆืื ื ืืื,
ืืืืืฉ ืชืืืขื ื ืืืืืื ืืืกืื; ืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืจ, ืฉืขื ืกืืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืชืืืขื ื ืืืืช
ืืื ื ื ืืืืขืื ืื ืืขื.
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (15.5.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
| 1997-05-18T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.F08 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1997-05-18 | 1997-02-10 | 8 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืืืื",
"ืืืื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 2 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F03\97009610_F03.txt | 6,766 | 429 | 1997-03-13T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:24:24 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F03 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_F03.txt | 97009610.F03.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 20deed03c2944678bf5924d5fad462a2ce8e371fbf86253cac64d979fddb551c |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 961/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช
:
ืจืืงื ืงืืื ืืืืฅ'
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2. ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืืงืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข
ืคืกืง ืืื
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื:
ื' ืืืืจ ื ืืชืฉื "ื
(
11.03.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช:
ืขื"ื ืื ืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืฆืื ื ืืจ
ื
ื ื ื ื
ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืงืืข ืืคื ืื ื ืืฉืืืขื ืืืืขื ืงืจืื ืืื
ืืืืืจ
10 ืืืคืจืื 1997 (ืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืฉืขื 8 ืืืืงืจ). ืืคืจืงืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืขืืงืจื
ืืืขืื: ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืจืืื. ืื ื ื ืืขืืืื
ืืืฆืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื, ืฉืขืืื ืกื ืืขืจืขืืจ, ืขื ืืืชื ืคืกืง ืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื ื' ืืืืจ ื ืชืฉื "ื (11.3.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
| 1997-03-13T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.F03 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1997-03-13 | 1997-02-10 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืืืื",
"ืืืื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\H01\97009610_H01.txt | 10,514 | 429 | 1997-02-13T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:24:25 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\H01 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_H01.txt | 97009610.H01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 00c2abd35a92fd9e1ff375e435932c275106fc9a7ded8d3c575f59cdb6811e2b |
ืข"ื
961/9
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื. ืงืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืจืืงื
ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืืงืฉื
ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืื.ืค. 1335/89
ืืืื
5.12.96 ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื
ืข.
ืืืืจ
ื ื ื ื ื
1.
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื (ืืชืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื), ืชืื 10 ืืืื
ืืืืื.
ืื ืืืฉืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืขื ืชืืฉื ืืืกืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืฆืืข.
2.
ืขื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืื ืื ืงืื ืฆืขืืื ืืกืืืืง ืืื
ืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช.
3.
ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืขืืืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืชืืง
ืืคื ื
ืืืื 24.2.97 .
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื' ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (12.2.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
/ืฉืก
| 1997-02-13T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.H01 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1997-02-13 | 1997-02-10 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F07\97009610_F07.txt | 12,989 | 429 | 1997-10-26T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:24:25 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F07 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_F07.txt | 97009610.F07.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | a2cf1507bcc0d6681602adbe513d247f6cee32450aa0ab5e5accaf5320a5bef9 |
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื
ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 961/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช
:
ืจืืงื ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืขืจืขืืจ
ืขื ืคืกืง ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืชื
ืืืื ืืืื 5.12.96 ืืชืืง ื.ืค. 1335/89
ืฉื ืืชื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืข' ืืืืจ
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื'
ืื ืืกื ืืชืฉื "ื
(
9.4.97
)
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช:
ืืขืฆืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืฆืืืงื ื ืืจ
ืค ืก ืง - ื ื ื
ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืจื ืื ืื ืืขืจืขืืจ. ืืขื ืืื ืคืื ืื
ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืขื ืืฆืืืื, ืืคื ืืฆืขืชื ื, ืืืกืืื ืืืืื:
ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืชืคื ื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืกืืจ ืืช ืืืืงื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืืื ืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืคืฅ, ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื 9.7.97. ืขื ืืคืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืื-ืืื
ืืืฉืืืื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืงื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืื ืชืื
ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืืช ืืคืืงืืื ืฉืืืคืงื ืขื-ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืืคืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
ืื ื ื ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืฉืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื
ืืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืฉืืจ-ืืจืืช ืขืืจื-ืืื ืืกื
15000- ืฉ"ื, ืื ืืืกืืืช ืื-ืืื
ืืืฉืืืื ืื ื ื ืงืืืขืื ืื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืชืืื ืคืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืชืคื ื ืืช ืืืืจื
ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืขื ืื "ื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื' ื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (9.4.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97009610.
F07
| 1997-10-26T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.F07 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1997-10-26 | 1997-02-10 | 7 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืืืื",
"ืืืื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 2 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
429 | 2022-09-17T15:07:36 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F09\97009610_F09.txt | 37,573 | 429 | 1998-05-26T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T17:12:29 | 961 | ืืฉ"ื 961/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\610\009\F09 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 97009610_F09.txt | 97009610.F09.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | f7bbaae2d8440ab086d7edd7cd1f069e4780cd1412b46f3d0893e0dddf030de4 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 961/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืจืืงื
ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
2.
ืืืจื ืื ืืจื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืจืช ืคืกืง-ืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืืขืฆืื
ื ื ื ื ื
ืืืื 9.4.97 ื ืืชื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืคืกืง-ืืื ืฉืืชืืกืก ืขื
ืืกืืจ ืืืกืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื. ืืืชื ืคืกืง-ืืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืช ืืืืืชื. ืืงืฉืช ืืืืงืฉืช
ืืืืืจืช ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืชืงืื. ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืจืืจ ืืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืืจื; ืืืงืฉืช
ืืืืงืฉืช, ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืืื ื ืืืืืจืช ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืคืช ืชื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืกืื ืฉืขื
ืืกืืื ื ืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื. ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืช ืืื ืืงืฉื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืืงืฉืชื ืืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืงืฉืช
ืืืืืื ืคืกืง ืืืื, ืฉื ืืืชื ืขื-ืืื ื ืืืื 15.5.97; ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืฉื
ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืคื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืืืช.
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ืื' ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (25.5.989).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97009610.
F09
| 1998-05-26T00:00:00 | ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื ื . ืื ืืจื ืืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97009610.F09 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืจืืงื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื",
"ืื ืืจื ืืืจื"
] | 1998-05-26 | 1997-02-10 | 9 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 961/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืฉืืื ืื",
"ื ืืจ ืฆืืืงื"
] | [
"ืืืืื",
"ืืืื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
430 | 2022-09-17T15:07:38 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\300\051\H01\97051300_H01.txt | 439 | 430 | 1997-08-27T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:16:53 | 5,130 | ืืฉ"ื 5130/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\300\051\H01 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืื ืฉืืฉื ืืืืื | 97051300_H01.txt | 97051300.H01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 2d4bc4afbe6badefb72c0fb623d83b642b4a901f4c754565bcd4a2276762ed77 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
5130/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืงืืื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืื
ืฉืืฉื ืืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืคืืืื
[ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื1982-
ืืืืื
1. ื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืชื
ืืืฉืื (ืช.ืค. 140/96), ืื ืืืืกื ืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืงืืื ืื ืืกืืื, ืกืืจ ืืกื ืืกืืื,
ืืืืงืช ืกื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืืฆืจืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืกื ืืกืืื.
ืขื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ื ืชืืงืฉ ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขื
ืชืื ืืืืืืื; ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ื ืขืชืจ ืืืงืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืชืื.
2. ืฉื ืช ืืืขืฆืจ ืืกืชืืืืช ืืืื 3.9.97. ืืชืืืขื ืืืงืฉืช
ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืฆืจ ื45- ืืืื; ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืช ืืกืืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืืขืฆืจ ืืืืืงืฉ.
ืคืจืฉืช ืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืกืชืืืื, ืืฆืืืื ืกืืืื
ืขืืืืชืืื ืืืืจืขืช ืืืื ืชืื ืชื ืืงืจืื.
3. ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ื ื ื ืขืชืจ ืืชืืืขื ืืืืจื ืขื
ืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืื 3.9.97 ืืขื ืืืื 16.10.97 ืื ืขื ืืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืช.ืค.
140/96 ืื "ื, ืืคื ืืืืขื ืืืืงืื ืืืชืจ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(27.8.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97051300.
H01
| 1997-08-27T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืื ืฉืืฉื ืืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97051300.H01 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืื ืฉืืฉื ืืืืื"
] | 1997-08-27 | 1997-08-25 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 5130/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 2 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
431 | 2022-09-17T15:07:38 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\350\088\E03\96088350_E03.txt | 440 | 431 | 1997-02-17T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T14:15:17 | 8,835 | ืืฉ"ื 8835/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\350\088\E03 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืืจืื ืจืื | 96088350_E03.txt | 96088350.E03.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 3036d75f118315c506ab889d01da037543dea5327e3d93e0ee0f01233afa78ab |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื 96 / 8835
ืืคื ื:
ืื' ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืืขืจืขืจ
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืืจืื
ืจืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืื 11.11.96
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืช.ื.
6054/94 (ืืืจ' 7640/96)
ืืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืชืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืจ
ืืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืืง ืข.ื. 1069/96.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื ื' ืืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื (17.2.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96088350.
E03
| 1997-02-17T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืืจืื ืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96088350.E03 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืืจืื ืจืื"
] | 1997-02-17 | 1996-12-10 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืจืข"ื 8835/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืขืจื ืืืื",
"ืฉืืืื ืืจืื"
] | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
432 | 2022-09-17T15:07:39 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F01\97061340_F01.txt | 441 | 432 | 1997-10-15T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:27:31 | 6,134 | ืืฉ"ื 6134/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F01 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 97061340_F01.txt | 97061340.F01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 0de81240221209869287d3e604b686cde5583a9b15a189427333c44c38ecaab0 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
6134/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืื
ืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืฆืืง
ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืฉืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจ ืืฉื ื
ืืคื
ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื
[ื ืืกื
ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื1982-
ืืืืื
ืืงืืืข ืืืงืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื 27.10.97 ืฉืขื 08:30.
ืืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฉื"ืก.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืชืฉื "ื (15.10.97)
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97061340.
F01
| 1997-10-15T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97061340.F01 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื"
] | 1997-10-15 | 1997-10-15 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 6134/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืคืชื ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
432 | 2022-09-17T15:07:39 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F03\97061340_F03.txt | 8,383 | 432 | 1997-10-31T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:27:32 | 6,134 | ืืฉ"ื 6134/97 | 4 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F03 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 97061340_F03.txt | 97061340.F03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | af82820aa39f020503a35ce3dec63b3ee87a1406b2ffad774e4571de51cf3a6d |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
6134/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ื
ืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืฆืืง
ืืืืืืฉืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจ ืืฉื ื
ืืคื
ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื
[ื ืืกื
ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื1982-
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืืชืฉื "ื (27.10.97)
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ื' ืืจืฆื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ื' ืืคืชื, ืขื"ื ื' ืืจืื
ื ื ื ื ื
ืืืฉืื ืขืืื ืืืื, ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืืืคื, ืืืฉืืช ืจืฆื ืืืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืง. ืขื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืื (ืืืื 2/5/96) ืืืจื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื - ืืืกืืืช ืืกื ืืืืจ - ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืขื ืืชืื ืืืจืืจ ืืฉืคืื. ืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชื
ืืืืฉืื ืืืคื ืขืืจื ืงืจืื ืืฉืืื ื-ืขืฉืจ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืื.
ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืฉืช ืืืืฉืื, ื ืขืชืจื ืืฉืืคืืช ืืื ืืฉ ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื
ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื; ืืืฉืืืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื, ื ืขืชืจื ืืฉืืคืืช ืืืจื ืจ ืืืงืฉืชื
ืื ืืกืคืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืขืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืขืชื ืืืืจืช ืืืืื ื
ืืืืงืฉืช ืืืืจืื, ืืฉืืืฉืืช, ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืกื ืืืืจืื ืฉื
ืืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืงืฉื. ืืืขื ืชื, ืืฉืืชืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืฉืืชืืจื, ืืฉืื ืขืงื ืืืืื ืืืื ื,
ืฉืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืฆืืงืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืฉ ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืฉืืจืืจื.
ืืขืืื ืืงืืจืืช ื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืขืืื, ืื ืฉืืืขืช
ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืงืฆื ืืฉืืืข ืจืฆืื. ืืฉื ืช ืืืขืฆืจ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืฆืืชืืื.
ืืืืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ื (ืืฉ"ืค 2629/97) ืฆืืื ื ืืฉืืคืืช
ืืื ืืฉ, ืื "ื ืจืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืงืฉืช ืื ืืกืคืืงื ืืกืืื
ืืืฉืคื, ืืฃ ืื ืืฉ ืกืืืื ืกืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืคืจืฉืช ืืชืืืขื ืืชืงืืคื ืื". ืืืืืืืชื
ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืืช (ืืฉ"ืค 4531/97) ืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ืืืจื ืจ, ืื ื ืืชื
ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืชืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื. ืื ืขืงื ืฉืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืื
ืืงืฆื ืฉืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืคืืจ ืืกืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืงืืืืืช, ืฉืืืขืช ืคืจืฉืช
ืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืชืืืขื ืืกืชืืืื ืจืง ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืจืื ืืฉื ืื; ืืืฃ ืฉืฉืืืขืช ืคืจืฉืช ืืจืืืืช ืฉื
ืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืื, ืืืืฉืคื ื ืชืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืขืช ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื, ืงืฆื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ื ืื ืื
ืืช ืืืขืช. ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืจืง ืืจืืข ืืฉืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช (ืฉืืืืจืื ื ืืื ืงืืืขื
ืืืื 17/12/97) ืืืืจื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืขืืื ื ืืจืืื: ืืืืช ืืงืืจืชื ืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืื,
ืืขืืืื ืืืชืคืจืก ืขื ืคื ื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืช, ืืชืืืื ืื ืืกื ืืืืจืื, ืืืืจืืื, ืืืื ืื ืขืื
ืืื ื. ืื ืืฉ ืืื ืื, ืื ืืฉืืขืช ืกืืืืื ืืืขื ืืช ืชืฆืจืื ืืื ืื-ืงืฆืจ, ืืขื ืฉืืขืื ืืืื ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืจืื ืืืฉืืข ืืช ืืืจืขืช-ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืฃ ืขืื ืืื ื ืืกืฃ.
ืขืืืืช ืืชืืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืืขืืจ ืชืืืืช ืืจืืจื
ืืกืืืื ืืงืจืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืงืช ืฉืืจืืจื ืืืขืฆืจ ืฉื ื ืืฉื. ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืื
ืืื ื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืข ืืช ืืืฃ. ืฉืืงืื ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืขื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืืจืื ืืืฉืคืขืชื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืขืฆืจ ืขื ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืืง:
ืื ืืืืจืช ืืขืืืจื, ืืฉืืขืฆืื, ืืื ืื ืืชื ืช, ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืื ื ืืขื ืืื ืกืื ืืืืื
ืืกืื ื ืื ืฉืงืคืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืฉืืจืืจื ืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืจ. ื ืืฆื ืฉืืืืจืขื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื
ืฉืืงืืืื ืกืืชืจืื. ืืืืจืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืงืฉืช
ืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืขืืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืฆืืื ืืืืง:
"ืืืื
ืืื, ืฉืืฉืคื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืื ืชืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืชืื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื. ืกืืืืชื
ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืฉื ื ื ืชืื ื ืืฉืืืจื ืืืื
ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืกืืืืช ืื ืืฉ ืืขืฉืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืฉ ืืืฆื ืฉืื
ืืืจืื ืืืคืื ืืืื. ืืืื, ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ: ืืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืฆืืืงื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื
ืืืืชืืืื, ืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืชืืื, ืืืื ืืคื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืื ืืขืืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืืืขื
ืืกืขืืฃ 53. ืื ืืงืื ืฉืืฉืืงืืืื ืขืฆืื ืชืงืคืื, ืืฉืงืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื. ืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืขืฆืจ ืฉืืืจืืชื ืื ืชืืคืืข, ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืืืืื
ืฉืืฉืื ืืืืขื ื ืืชืืจ ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืช ืืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืืงื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืฆืจ. ืืจื, ืืฉืืืคื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืคื ืืจื ืืกืชืืื, ืืฉืงืื
ืืืืกื ืฉื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชื ื, ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืฉื
ืฉืืืจืืชื ืื ืชืืคืืข ืืืขืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืกืขืืฃ 53, ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืืื. ืืจืืื
ืืื ื ืืืฆืืงืช ืจืง ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ื ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืขืฆืจื ืืืืชืืฉืืืช
ืืืืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืคื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืชืืืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืขืชืื
ืื ืจืื ืืขืื, ืืืจืืขืื ืืช ืืืฃ ืืืืจืืจ ืืืฆืืงืช ืืืฉื ืืืขืฆืจ" (ืืฉ"ืค 3669/97
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื ื '
ืืื-ืืืื
- ืืจื ืคืืจืกืื).
ืืื ืชื ืืช ืืงืจืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืช-ืืืื ืื
ืืืืขืชื ืืืื ืืกืงื ื ืื ืืื ืื ืืก ืืืืขื ืืช ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืื ื. ืชืืืืจ ืืขืฉื ืืจืฆื, ื ืฉืื
ืืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืจืื. ืงืจืื ืืจืฆื ืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืฉืืชืคื ืฉื ืืืฉืื. ืขื-ืคื ืื ืืขื
ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืืืคืืฉ ืืื ืืื, ืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืื, ืืืงืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื;
ืืืฉื ืคืืข ืืื ืื ืืืช, ืืฆืืช ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืคืชื ืืืืจ-ืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืคืกืืืช ืืืขืจืืช
ืืืจืื ืืืืกื ืืืชื ืืืื ืื. ืื ื ืื ืื, ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืฆื ืืชืืื ื ืฉืืืฆืข ืืื ืงืจ,
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืฉื ืืืขืฉื ืืขืืืืช ืขื ืืกืืื ืืชื ืืจืื ืฉื ืขืืฉืื. ืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืจ, ืื ืื
ืืืืฆืข ืคืฉืข ืืืืจ ืฉืืื, ืืื ืกืืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืช, ืขืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืืืืจื ืืืืฉื ืืขืฆืจื ืืืืืง
ืขื-ืคื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืืืช. ืื ืืืืื ืชืืคืกืช ืืื ืื, ืฉืืฉืืงืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื
ืืืืชืืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืชื ืขืืฆืื; ืืืื ืฉืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืื ื ืชืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืชืืจืืช, ืืืืจ
ืืฉืงืื ืฉื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืจื. ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืจืฉืชื ืื ืืืืก ืืืฉืื. ืืืกืื
ืืืืืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืจื ืฉืืืฃ ืืื ืืขืฆืจื ืืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืกืืืืช
ืืช ืืกืืื ืืชื. ืขื ืืืช ื ืจืื ืื, ืื ืืกืื ื ืื ืฉืงืคืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืฉืืจืืจื ืขืืื ื ืืืืื; ืืื,
ืืขืช ืืืืช, ืืืืจื ืืืืฉื ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืจื.
ืืฉืจ ืขื ืื ืื ื ื ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืช
ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืื 2/11/97. ืขื ืืืช, ืืื ืืื
ืืชืืฉืืืชื ืืืชืจื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืื ื ื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืขืฉืืช ืืช ืื
ืืกืืืืจืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืฉืืคื ืื ืืชื ืื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืชืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืฉืจื ืชืฉื "ื (3110.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97061340.
F03
| 1997-10-31T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97061340.F03 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื"
] | 1997-10-31 | 1997-10-15 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 6134/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืคืชื ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 4 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
432 | 2022-09-17T15:07:39 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F02\97061340_F02.txt | 18,223 | 432 | 1997-10-22T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:27:31 | 6,134 | ืืฉ"ื 6134/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\340\061\F02 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 97061340_F02.txt | 97061340.F02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 44fd27a701bea660cca8d39d9f45fcb319e92f8a950fd363c5a30f2372f50824 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
6134/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืื
ืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืฆืืง
ืืืืืืฉืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืชืงืืื ืืืื 27.10.97 ืฉืขื 13:00.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืชืฉื "ื
(22.10.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97061340.
F02
| 1997-10-22T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97061340.F02 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืฉืืืื"
] | 1997-10-22 | 1997-10-15 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 6134/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืคืชื ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
433 | 2022-09-17T15:07:39 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\660\035\J02\97035660_J02.txt | 442 | 433 | 1997-07-13T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:53:18 | 3,566 | ืืฉ"ื 3566/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\660\035\J02 | ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ ื . ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื | 97035660_J02.txt | 97035660.J02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | b29a2c7e2f1cfaba8b521141df1f3334d3a978866c780649fd5e7967576834ab |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
3566/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืกืืฅ
ืคืจืฅ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื
2.
ืืืชื ืืืืื -ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืื
3.
ืืืืก ืืฆืืง -ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช
ืืืืืขืื
ืขืชืืจื
ืืืชื ืฆื-ืืื ืืื
ืคืกืง-ืืื
ืืคื ืืงืฉืช ืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจ ืฉืืืืืข ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขื
ืืกืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ื ืืืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืื ืฆื ืืืืฆืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื (10.7.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืื356697/
97035660.
J02
| 1997-07-13T00:00:00 | ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ ื . ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97035660.J02 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ",
"ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื",
"ืืืชื ืืืืื -ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืื",
"ืืืืก ืืฆืืง -ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขื"
] | 1997-07-13 | 1997-06-10 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3566/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืกืืื ืืฉื",
"ืืืืก ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
433 | 2022-09-17T15:07:39 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\660\035\J01\97035660_J01.txt | 3,550 | 433 | 1997-06-12T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:53:18 | 3,566 | ืืฉ"ื 3566/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\660\035\J01 | ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ ื . ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื | 97035660_J01.txt | 97035660.J01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 59cc7be2c128f8b6581a175f7f3e51aa82c840dd8c6c323e22882792f1e0a42c |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืื"ืฆ 97 /
3566
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจ:
ืกืืฅ
ืคืจืฅ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื
2.
ืืืชื ืืืืื -ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืื
3. ืืืืก ืืฆืืง -ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืื
ืขืชืืจื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืื
ืืืืื
1. ืืขืืชืจ ืืชืืงืฉ ืืืืืืข ืืืชื ืขืืืืช
ืื ืืจืื ืืืื-ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืขื-ืื ืช ืื ืกืืช ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืื
ืฆืืจื ืืืชืขืจืืืช ืฉืืคืืืืช.
2. ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืงืฉื ื
ืฆื ืืืื ืืื
ืชืื 15 ืืื ืืขื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืืืฆืืข ืฆื ืืืคืกืงื ืืื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื (10.6.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97035660.
J01
| 1997-06-12T00:00:00 | ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ ื . ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97035660.J01 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืกืืฅ ืคืจืฅ",
"ืืืขืฆื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืขืื",
"ืืืชื ืืืืื -ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืื",
"ืืืืก ืืฆืืง -ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขื"
] | 1997-06-12 | 1997-06-10 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3566/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืกืืื ืืฉื",
"ืืืืก ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
434 | 2022-09-17T15:07:40 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\050\H04\97050510_H04.txt | 443 | 434 | 1997-08-26T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:16:14 | 5,051 | ืืฉ"ื 5051/97 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\050\H04 | ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97050510_H04.txt | 97050510.H04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 3c47530f8482e9daf0737083f1d7a8f84dba506aaa8e1fdd31380ed6abe27a37 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
5051/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื. ืงืืื
ื
ืขืืจืจ
:
ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืขืจืจ
ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื
ืืืื 20.7.97 ืื"ืฉ 1228/97
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืืจ
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉื "ื (25.8.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืจืจ: ืขื"ื ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืจ
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืื: ืขื"ื ืืจืื ืคืืจ
ืืืืื
1. ื ืื ืืขืืจืจ - ืื ืืฉื ื ืืกืฃ - ืืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืชื-ืืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื (ืช.ืค. 142/97), ืื ืืืืืกืืช ืื ืืืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื
ืื ืืืช ืจืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืชื (ืืืฉืื ืจืืฉืื) ืืฉื ืืืืืช ื ืฉืง (ืืืฉืื ืฉื ื).
ืขื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ื ืชืืงืฉ ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ
ืืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ื ืขืชืจ ืืืงืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืชืื; ืืืืื ืืขืจืจ
ืฉืืคื ื.
2. ืื ืืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืืกืช ืืขืืจืจ - ื ืขืืฆื ืืขืืืืช
ื ืืืืชื ืืจืื ืื ืื ืฉืืกืคืจื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืคื; ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืฉืง - ื ืขืืฆื ืืื ืฉืืชื
ืืืคืคืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืขืฆืจ - ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืฉื ืืฆืืื -
ื ืืฆืื: ืืงืื ืื ืื ืืชืืืืฉืช ืืืงืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืคืืช, ืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืคืืื ืืื
ืงืจืืืื.
ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืงืื
ืืืชืืืืฉืช; ืืืฉืจ ืืขื ืชื ืืื: ืื ืื ืืืข ืฉืืจืื "ืื ืื" ืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืืืง
ื"ืืื ื ืขืฆืืืช".
3. ืื-ืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืขื ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืฉืื
ืืื, ืฉืจืื ืืคืจืืืื ืฉืืืืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ - ืืฆื ืืืงืื ืืืชืืืืฉืช - ืืกืืก
ื"ืืกืืื ืืชื" ืฉื ืืฉื ืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื; ืืืืช - ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืงืืืืช ืจืืื
ืืืฆืืืขื ืขื "ืืืื ื" ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืคืืืื ืืคืจืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื
ืืจืฉืืชื, ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืจืฉื ื ืืคื ืืืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช, ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื.
ืกืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืื-ืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื
ืืื ืืจืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืฉื ืืื, ืฉืขืืจื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืขืืจ
ืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉื.
4. ืืื, ืืฉ ืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืื ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื
ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ ืืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื; ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืื ื ืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื - ืืื ืืงืื ืืฉืงืื
ืืืืคืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืืืื.
ืื ืขืงื, ืฉืืขืืจืจ ื ืชืคืฉ ืืืืจืืชื ืขื ืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื,
ืืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉืจ ืื ืฉืง ืืืคืจืืืื ืืืืจืื ืขืืืืื, ืืืืืจื, ืืจืฉืืช
ืฉื ืืื. ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื, ืืฉืืื ืขืืจื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคื ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ, ืขื
ืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจืื; ืืืงื ื ืืืืืงืช ืืคืจืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืขื - ืื
ื ืจืื - ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืขืฆืจ ืืืงื.
ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืชื ืืงืื ืืืขื ืืืชืขืจื
ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื; ืืืขืจืจ ื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(26.8.97).
ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97050510.
H04
/ืฉื
| 1997-08-26T00:00:00 | ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97050510.H04 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-08-26 | 1997-08-20 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 5051/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืฉืื ืืจ ืืืจืื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 3 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
434 | 2022-09-17T15:07:40 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\050\H02\97050510_H02.txt | 16,236 | 434 | 1997-08-20T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:16:14 | 5,051 | ืืฉ"ื 5051/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\050\H02 | ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97050510_H02.txt | 97050510.H02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d1832727feff4c9b975add12e05b7fd1729f07e50cd6436ddd8ecda1b5bbc6fe |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
5051/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื. ืงืืื
ืืขืืจืจ
:
ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืืืื
ืืงืืืข ืืืืื ืืขืจืจ ืืืื ืจืืฉืื, 24.8.97, ืฉืขื
09:30; ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืขืืจืจ ืื"ื ืืื ืืช ื"ื ืืคืจืงืืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(20.8.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97050510.
H02
| 1997-08-20T00:00:00 | ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97050510.H02 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืื'ืื ืืืื ืืขื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-08-20 | 1997-08-20 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 5051/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืฉืื ืืจ ืืืจืื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
435 | 2022-09-17T15:07:40 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\93\250\038\A01\93038250_A01.txt | 444 | 435 | 1997-06-15T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:50:28 | 3,825 | ืืฉ"ื 3825/93 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\93\250\038\A01 | ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก ื . ืจืื ืจืืก | 93038250_A01.txt | 93038250.A01.doc | 1,993 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 63c72b7996011a28790eb03d355ecfff667c03886326d7d376cbe70b1e89abce |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 93 /
3825
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืงืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืขืจืขืจืื
:
1.
ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก
2.
ืืจืื ืืกืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืจืื ืจืืก
2.
ืจืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื
ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืคืกืง ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืืืคื,
ืืืื 30.5.95, ืืช.ื. 984/90,
ืฉื ืืชื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื. ืกืืืฆืงื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื'
ืืกืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(
09.06.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืื
:
ืขื"ื ืขืืื ืคืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืืฉืจ ืจืื
ืืืืื
ืื ื ืกืืืจืื ืื ืขืจืขืืจ ืื ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืจื ืืคืฉืจื.
ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืขื ืืืฉ ืฉืืืงืืข ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืจืืช. ืื ื ืืืงืฉืื
ืืืืขืจืขืจืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ื ืืืืื (ืืฆื ืขืืจืื ืืื ื). ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืคืขื
ื ืืกืคืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืคืฉืจื. ืืืืืืจืืช ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืงืืืข ืืืืฉื ืืืงืื (ืืฉืขื 08:00 ืืคื ืื ื).
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (09.06.97),
ืืคื ื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
93038250.
A01
/ืื/
| 1997-06-15T00:00:00 | ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก ื . ืจืื ืจืืก | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 93038250.A01 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก",
"ืืจืื ืืกืื",
"ืจืื ืจืืก",
"ืจืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื"
] | 1997-06-15 | 1993-07-13 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืงืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 3825/93 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืคืืืื ืขืืื",
"ืจืื ืืฉืจ"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืขืงื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
435 | 2022-09-17T15:07:40 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\93\250\038\M02\93038250_M02.txt | 30,126 | 435 | 1998-09-01T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T16:52:00 | 3,825 | ืืฉ"ื 3825/93 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\93\250\038\M02 | ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก ื . ืจืื ืจืืก | 93038250_M02.txt | 93038250.M02.doc | 1,993 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | b0f0069fb134fc69e888805f7cfad98e2d72d474e3427e893467188731a78cb6 |
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื:
ืขืืืืืช
ืืจืงืข ืฉื ืืคืจืฉื
1. ืืืฉืืื ืืก' 1,
ืื' ืจืื ืจืืก (ืืืื - "ืืืฉืืื") ืืืจ ืืจืื ืจืืก ื"ื (ืืืื -
"ืืื ืื") ื ืืฉืื ืืฉื ืช 1968 ืืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืืืื ืืฉื ืืื. ืื ื ืืืื
ืืชืืืจืจื ืืืืจื ืฉืืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืคื ืงืกื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืืืื (ืืืื -
"ืืืืจื"). ืืืื 27.3.74 ืขืจื ืืื ืื ืฆืืืื ืื ืฆืืืื ืืช ืื ืจืืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืื, ืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก ืืื' ืืจืื ืืกืื ืจืืก
(ืืืื - "ืืืขืจืขืจืื"). ืืฆืืืืชื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืชืืืจืจ ืืืืจื ืื
ืืื ืืืื. ืืืื 19.2.90 - ื22- ืฉื ืื ืืืจื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื16- ืฉื ืื ืืืจื ืขืจืืืช ืืฆืืืื -
ืืืจ ืืื ืื ืืื ืชืืืจื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืื 7.3.90 ื ืจืฉื ืืืงื ืฉื ืืื ืื
ืืืืจื ืขื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื.
ืืื ืื ื ืคืืจ
ืืืื 3.8.91. ืืืื 9.10.90, ืืืืฉืื ืืกืคืจ ืืคื ื ืคืืืจืชื, ืืืืฉ ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืก' 1 ืชืืืขื
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืื
"ืืืื ืืืืืืืช" ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืื. ืืขืื
ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืชืืืขื ืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื "ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืจ ืืฉืื
ืคืขืืื ืืฉืคืืืช", ืืืืช ืืื ืฆืื ืืกืื ืืืฆืืืืืจ; ืืืขื ืื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืืืคื ืืืื 2.10.90 ืฉืืื ืคืกืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืก' 1 ืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช
ืืคืืืจืืคืกืื ืขื ืืืคื ืืขื ืจืืืฉื. ืืืจื ืคืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืงืืื ืฆืืืืชื ืชืืงื ืืชื ืืชืืืขื
ืขื ืืื ืฆืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืก' 2 ืืชืืืขืช ืืขื ืืื ืชืืงืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืืคื ืฉื ืชืืงืฉ
ืื ืฉื ื ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืืืจืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื.
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืืืคื (ืืืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืชืืจื ืื, ื' ืกืืืฆืงื), ืืคืกืง ืืื ื ืืืื 30.5.93, ืงืืข
ืื "ืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืชื ืขื ืืืกืืืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืขืืืชื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจื ืื "ื ืื ืชืืขืช
(ืืืฉืืื - ื' ื'), ืืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืขืืกืงื ืืื ืืืชืืืชื ืขืืืื ืืื ืืงื ื
ืื ืชืืขืช ืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืืงื ืืืืจื ืื "ื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืงื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื - ืืชืืืขืื
(ืืืขืจืขืจืื - ื' ื')". ืืคืืื ืืื ืืช ืืชืืืขื. ืืืื ืขืจืขืืจื ืฉื ืืืขืจืขืจืื.
ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
2. ืืืจื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืื ืขืื ืื ืฉื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฆืืงืช ืืกืงื ืืชืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืขืืจ ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืฉืืคื ืื ื
ืืืชื ืืคื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืชืจ ืืฉืืคื ืื ืืืืจืขื ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืืจืขื ืฉืืืืช - ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื
ืืืชืืช ืืืืืืงืช ืืื "ืงืจืืืื ืฉื ืขืฉื ืจืืืงืื" (ืืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืจ ืืืกืืช ืฉืืช
ืงื "ื ืข"ื) - ืืื, ืืืื, ื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ื ื, ืืืืจื,
ืืืื ืืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืคืืื ืืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืื. ืืขื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืจ ืืื
ืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืฉืขืืืื ื ืืชื ืืกืืื - ืืืืืง ืื ืืจืืื -
ืืกืงื ืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืฃ ืกืืชืจืืช, ืืคื ืฉืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืขื ืืื. ืฆืจ ืื ืขื ืฉืืืืืืงืช ืื ืืืฉืื
ืื.
3. ืืืขื ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ื ืจืืคืืื ืืื ืืขืื
ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืก' 1, ืฉืืฃ ืืื ืจืืคื, ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืื ืืืจืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืขืชื ืขื ืืฆืื
ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืื. ื"ืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืจืื-ืคืจืฅ
ืืืงื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืื 7.1.90. ืขื ืคื ืืืชื ืืืืงื ืขืจืื ืืืื 21.3.90 ืกืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืขื
ืคืื ืขืจืื ืืืืช ืืขืช - ืฉืฆืืจืคื ืืชืขืืืช ืจืืคื ืฉืชืืจืืื 27.6.90 - ืืคืื ืืื ืื "ืืืืื
ืืืืื ื ืชืคืงืืืืช ืืชืฉืืฉ ื ืคืฉ ืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืขื ืื ืื ืืืืืืข ืืขืชื ืืืื
ืืฆืื". ืคืจืืค' ืืคืจืื ืื ืื, ืืืง ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืื 28.9.90, ืืืืืืช ืืขืชื ืืืื
1.10.90 ืืชื ืื "ืืื ืื ืกืคืง ืฉืืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืขืกืงืื ืืืกืคืืื ืืื
ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืขื ืื ื ืจืืืฉ ืืืืื". ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืื
"ืืืืจ ืืืฆื ืื ื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืื ืจื ืืจื ืื ืืชืืืืช ืืฉื ื ืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืขืื ืืืืชื
ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืื ืืช ืขืกืงืื". ืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืขืื ืื ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืืก' 1.
ืืืขื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืคืงืืืื ืฉื ืื ืง
ืืคืืขืืื, ืฉืขืืื ืืกื ืืฃ ืฉืื ืืชื ืื ืืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืื, ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉืขืฉื ืืื ืื ืืื ืง
ืืขื ืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืชื, ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืื 2.10.89 ืืืื 27.8.90. ืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืงืืจืื
ืืฉืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืฉืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ, ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืจ, ืคืืจืืืจ ืืืจืฅ 1990,
ืืขื ืืืคืืืื ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืืืจืชื ืืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืื ื, ืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืืืชื
ืชืงืืคื. ืื ืืขืื ืืืขืื ืขืืจื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืฅ ืฉืืืฆืข ืืช ืืขืืกืงื ืฉื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืื
ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืขื ืืืกืืืื. ืืืืจืื "ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืขื ืื, ืขื ื
ืชืฉืืืืช ืขื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขื
ืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืชื, ืืืืื ื: ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืฉื ืืฉืชื" (ืกืขืืฃ 5
ืืชืฆืืืจื). ืื ืืืงืืจืชื ืื ืืืืช ืขืื ืขื ืื ืฉืืื ืื "ืืฉืื ืืขื ืื", ืืื
"ืืขืืจื ืืขื ืื" ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืช ืืืขืืจื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื
ืืืืจื. ืืคืกืืืืืืจ ื"ืจ ืื ืืื ื ื ืคืชืื, ืฉืืขืื ืืฃ ืืื ืืืขื ืืืฉืืื, ืขืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืขืช ืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืืื ืฉืืขืืื ืืคื ืื. ืืืืืช ืืขืชื ืืืื 11.2.93 ื ืืืจ ืื
"ื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืคืขืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืื 19.2.90 ืขืช ืืขืืืจ ืืืงื ืืืืจื
ืข"ืฉ ืืฉืชื, ื ืขืฉืชื ืชืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืชื ืืขื ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืคืื". ืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืื
ืืืงืืจืชื ืื ืืืืช.
ืืืขื ืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ
4. ืืจืื ืืืชื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืืืขืจืขืจืื, ืืชืืฆืืช, ืืื
ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืงื ืื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืขืช ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืจืคืืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืช
ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืงื ืืืชื ืืืื 7.1.90, ืืืชืจ ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืชืื
ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืขื ืชื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืืืฃ ืืืืช ืืขืช ืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืขืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืฉืืื
ืืืื ืขืืื ืืงืืืข ืื ืืขืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจ
ืืคืขืืื ืืฉืคืืืช. ืขืื ืืขื ื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืคืืขื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืฉืคืขื ืืืชื ืืืื ืช ืฉืืจืื ืื
ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืืชืื.
ืื ืืื ืืขื ื ืืืฉืืื, ืืชืืฆืืช, ืื ืืกืงื ืืชืื ืฉื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืขืืจื ืืืื ืฉืืืขืืื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืขื ืืกืืื
ืืืขืืจื, ืืขืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืคืงืืื ืืื ืง, ืฉืคืขืื ืืคื ืืืจืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืคื ื ืืืขืืจื
ืืืืจืื, ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืชืืจื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืฆื ืื, ืืื ืืขืืืชื ืฉื
ืคืกืืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืงืืข ืขื ืคื ืคืขืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื
ืฉืืืขืืจื "ื ืขืฉืชื ืชืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืชื ืืขื ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืคืื".
ืืืกืงื ืืช
5. ืื ืืขืจืืืื ืืช ืจืืืืชืืื ืืืขื ืืชืืื ืฉื ืืขืื
ืืืื ืืืืืฆืืชืืื ืืืฉืคืืืืช ืืชืืื ืื ืืืืจืขื ืืืืืืงืช ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืขืืืืชืืช ืืจืืื
ืืืืืงืื ืขืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืขืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืขืืืฃ: ืืจืืคืืื ืืืืืืื
ืฉืืืื ืืขืชื ืขื ืืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืื, ืืคื ืืืืงื ืืืช ืฉืขืจื ืื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ื, ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืก' 1
- ืฉืืฃ ืืื ืืืืื - ืฉืื ืจืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืขืชืื ืงืจืืืืช; ืื ืขืืจื ืืืื ืฉืจืื ืืืชื ืืืื
ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื, ืคืงืืื ืืื ืง ืฉืืืชื ื ืคืืฉ ืืคื ื ืืืขืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืชื
ืขืื ืชืืช ืงืืจืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืจื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืฉื ื23- ืฉื ืื.
ืืื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืกืืจ ืฉืืื
"ืืจืื ืขืื ืื" ืฉื ืขืื ืืืฉืืื ื"ืืื ื ืคืฉ" ืฉื ืืืืืืื (ืื ื ืื ื
ืื, ืืืฉืื ืงืืืช (ื',ื'), ืืช ืืืืช ืืืขืช ืืืงืฆืืขืืืช ืฉืืื)? ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืงืืข - ืขื ืคื
ืขืื ืืืฉืืื ืืขื ืคื ืืืืช ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืคืกืืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืขืื - ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืฆืื ืืกืื
ืืืฆืืืืืจ ืืชืคืชืื ืืฆื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืจื "ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช" ืืื ืืื ืื "ืืืื
ืื ืืฃ ืฉืขืืช ืืืืืช"? ืืื ืืืคืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืขื"ื ืืฅ, ืืืืจ ืืฆืื
ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืขืืจื, ืขื ืืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืกืงื ื ืืืช?
ืืืื ื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืฉืืืืช ืขืฆืื.
ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืืกืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืืช ืขืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืขืื ืืจืืื,
ืฉืฆืคื ืืื ืื, ืขืงืื ืืืจื ืคืขืืืืชืื ืืฉืืขื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืื, ืขื ืคื ื ืืืึนืช ืืืขืช ืฉื
ืืืืืืื; ืฉืืืืข ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืงื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืจื ืขืื
ืืจืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืกืื ืืงืืืขืชื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืขืืช ืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืฆืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืื ืืืชืขืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืขื"ื ืืฅ.
ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืื ืฉืงืืข
ืืขื ืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืืืจืื:
"ืืืขืชื
ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืชื ืขื ืืืกืืืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืขืืืชื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจื ืื "ื ืื ืชืืขืช,
ืืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืืื ืืืชืืืชื ืขืืืื ืืื ืืงื ื ืื ืชืืขืช ืืช ืืืขืืืช
ืืืืงื ืืืืจื ืื "ื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืืืื - ืืชืืืขืื.
ืืงืืืืช
ืขืื ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืขื"ื ืืฅ ืื ืืชืจืฉื ืืขืช ืขืจืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืืืืชืืช ืืื ืื ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืขืืจื
ืื ืืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืืื ืขืืฉื. ืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืขืืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืช ืื ืืื
ืขืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืื, ืฉื "ืืืื ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืื" ืฉืื ืืืชื
ืืขืชื ืฆืืืื ื"ืืืื ืืฉืขืืช ืจืขืืช", ืืจื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืกืื ืืช ืืขืกืงื,
ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืคื ืขืืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืขืื, ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืข ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืืื ืขืืฉื.
ืคืขืืืืชืื
ืืืกืคืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืื ืง ืืชืงืืคืืช ืฉืืคื ื ืืงื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืื ืชืืขืช ืืืืืจืื,
ืืฆืืืขืืช ืขื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช ืืชืืื ื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืข. ืื ื ืืขื, ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืื
ืคืขืืืืช ืกืจืง ืฉื ืขืฉื ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืขืฉื." (ืขื' 9 ืืคืกืง ืืืื).
6. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืงืืข ืื "ืืื ืจืืืืช ืฉืืฉ
ืืื ืืื ืืืกืก ืืฉืคืขื ืืืชื ืืืื ืช" ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืื. ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ ืื ืืช
ืืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจื ืจืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืช ืชืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืขื ืืืคืืื
ืื ืืกืืื. ืืคื ืฉืืืจ "ืืืชื ืืื ืื ืกืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืชืืื ืื ืชืืขืช, ืืืืืข ืืช
ืชืืืชื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืงื ืืืช ืืืงื ืืืืจืช ืืืฉืคืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืื ืชืืขืช. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืฆื
ืืืจืื ืื ื ืจืืืช ืื ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืขืฉื ืกืืืจ ืืืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืื" (ืขื' 11 ืืคืกืง ืืืื).
ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืฉ ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืฉืืช ืฉื ื23- ืฉื ืื,
ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืืชืืืื ืืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื, ืฉืืฃ ืชืจืื ืืืง ื ืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉ
ืืฆืืจื ืจืืืฉืชื, ืืืืชื ืื ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืื, ืืคืื,
ืืงืื ืืืชืขืจื ืืืกืงื ืชื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืืขื ืื ืื.
7. ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืืื ืืืืกืงื ืืช ืืืขืื ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืื
ืืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืขืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื
ืคืกืื ืืื (ืืขื ืื ืื ืขืืื ื ื' ืคืจืืืื, ื ' ืืื
ืืืืื
(ืชืฉื "ื ืืจื ื')
1014; ื' ืื ืืืจื
ืืืง ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืคืืืจืืคืกืืช, ืชืฉื"ื - 1962
(ืืืืืจื
ืฉื ืื ืชืฉื "ื) 152-151 ืืืืกืืืชืืืช ืฉื); ืืื ื ืชืงืืืื ืืื ืืกืืืืชืื ืฉื ืขืืืช ืืขืืฉืง
ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 18 ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืชืฉื"ื - 1973 (ืืขื ืื ืื ืขืืื ื ืข"ื
403/80
ืื ืกืืกื ืืื' ื ' ื ืขืืื ืงืืงืืื,
ืค"ื ืื (1) 762; ืข"ื
1912/93
ืฉืืฉื ื ืฉืื ื ' ืจืคืื ืื ืก
(ืืจื ืคืืจืกื)
(
;
ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืขืืืช ืืขื ืช ืืฉืคืขื ืืืชื ืืืื ืช (ืขืืื ื ืืืขืืช ืืฉืื ืืช
ืฉืืืืขื ืืื "ื 1516/95
ืจืื ื ืืจืื ื ' ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
(ืืจื ืคืืจืกื)
ืืืืกืืืชืืืช ืฉื); ืืืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืืื ืกืขืืฃ 30 (ื) ืืืืง
ืืืจืืฉื, ืชืฉื"ื - 1965 (ืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืช ืขืืื ื ื' ืคืจืืืื, ื ' ืืื
ืืืืื
(ืชืฉื "ื ืืจื ื') ืขื' 771-770; ืขื' 995-993; ืืืืืืื ืขื' 1003-1002).
8. ืืคืืื ืื ื ืืฆืืข ืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืขืจืขืจืื
ืืฉืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืช ืขืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืก' 1 ืืกื 25,000.- ืฉ"ื.
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
:
ืื ื ืืกืืื.
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืงืืื
:
ืื ืื ืืฆืจืฃ
ืงืืื ืืืืจืขืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืื ืืื, ืืฉืืคื ื. ืืืจืงื; ืืืืืชื ืื ืื ืื ืืืขื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืช
ืืขืจืขืืจ.
ืขื ืืืช,
ืจืืื ืื ื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืขืจื ืืืื. ืฉืชื ืืชืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืื ืืคื ื ืืืื"ืฉ ืืืืืื ืืฆืืื
ืฉืชื ืืขืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืช - ืืคืืืืช - ืืืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืกืงื
ืฉืขืฉื ืืืืืช ืืฉืชื.
ืืชืช ืืขืืื ืืืืช - ืืฆืืื ืืืื ื ืจืคืืืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืขืืช;
ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืจืช - ืืฆืืื ืืชืจืฉืืืช ืืืชื ืืืฆืขืืช ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืขืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืืข ืืืืจ.
ืืืืืจื,
ืืื ืขื ืืืื"ืฉ ืืืืจืืข ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืขืจืืืช ืฉืืฆืืื ืฉืชื ืืชืืช ืืขืืื. ืืจื, ืืฉืืืชื ืื
ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืื. ืืฉืืชืืจืจ - ืืคื ืฉืฆืืื ืืืจื ืืคืกืง ืืื ื - ืฉืืืขืจืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ื ืฉืืืืช ืืช
ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืขืจืื ืืืขืฉืืช ืืฆืืื, ืืคืื ืฉืชื ืืืขืจืืืช ื"ืฉืงืืืืช"; ืืืืืืข,
ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืฉืงืืืืช ืคืืขืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฆื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืื ืืืืืื.
ืืืขืจืขืจืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืื ืขืกืงื ืฉืขืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืื; ืืืชืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืฉ ืืจืืืชื - ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื
ืืจืืืืช - ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืชื, ืฉืืืืืข "ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืขืืื ืืจืืื".
ืืืื
ืืืื, ืืืคืื, ืืืืืช ืืชืืืขื, ืืื ื ืคืืืขืช ืืืื ืื ืืืขืจืื ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืฉืืืฆืื
ืืืืื"ืฉ, ืืฉื ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืคื ืื ืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืขืฉืืช. ืฉืชื ืืืขืจืืืช
ืืชืืคืืื ืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืืืฉืจ; ืืืืืจืขื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืขื ื ืขืืฆื ืืื, ืฉืืืขืจืื ืืืืขืืช
ืืื ื ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืจืขืืชื.
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืกืง ืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (1.9.98).
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
93038250.
M02
- /ืืค
| 1998-09-01T00:00:00 | ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก ื . ืจืื ืจืืก | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 93038250.M02 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื",
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืคืจืืค' ืืืื ืืขื ืจืืก",
"ืืจืื ืืกืื",
"ืจืื ืจืืก",
"ืจืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื"
] | 1998-09-01 | 1993-07-13 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืงืืื",
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืข"ื 3825/93 | ืืืืื | [
"ืคืืืื ืขืืื",
"ืจืื ืืฉืจ"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืขืงื",
"ืืขืงื"
] | 6 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
436 | 2022-09-17T15:07:41 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\040\027\A01\96027040_A01.txt | 445 | 436 | 1997-12-21T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:00:01 | 2,704 | ืืฉ"ื 2704/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\040\027\A01 | ืืฉืืฃ ื ืชื ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืื ื ืืืจ(1982) ืืข"ื ื . ืกืืื ืืจ ืืข"ื | 96027040_A01.txt | 96027040.A01.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 6907389319f6470b29f4d490c5165589e4930e187eabc8ea0c28fc043a97d9ef |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื
2704/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืขืจืขืจืื
:
1.
ืืฉืืฃ ื ืชื ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืื
ื ืืืจ (1982) ืืข"ื
2.
ืฉืืขืื ืกืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืกืืื ืืจ ืืข"ื
2.
ืืื ืื ืกืื
ืกืืืืืื ืืืชื
ืฆ
ื
ืขื ืืกืื ืชืงื ื 448 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื,
ืืชืฉื"ื1984-, ืื ื ืืืจื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืขื ืืชืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฆืืื ืฉืืืฉื
ืืขืชืงืื ืืืกืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื, ืืืขืชืง ืืฆื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืื ืื ืืืฉืืจ. ืืืงืฃ
ืืกืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืขืื ืขื ืชืฉืขื ืขืืืืื ืืืืื 4
A
. ืชืฉืืืช ืืืขืจืขืจืื, ืืืคืืจื ืืกืขืืฃ 3 ืืืื, ืื ืชืขืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืขืืืืื.
ืืืืคืกื ืชืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฆื ืืคืืืช ืชืื ืืฉืืจืช ืฉืืืืื ืืกืคืืงืื.
ืืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืฉืช ืืืขื ืืช:
1. ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืขื ืืชืืื ืชืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืื
ืืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืืื ืื. ืืืชื ืืืขื ืืช ืืฆืืจืฃ ืขืืชืง ืืคืจืืืืงืื ืืืืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืงืื;
2. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืชืฉืืืชื ืืืขื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืชืื
ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขื ืืช ืืืขืจืขืจืื;
3. ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืื ืืชืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืชืื
ืืืืฉื-ืขืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืื, ืื ืชืื ืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืืืข ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืื ืืื ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ. ืืืขืืจ ืชืฉืืื ืชืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืืืขื ืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืื ืื ืืื ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ.
4. ืืื ืืืืืจืฉ ืืืื, ืืื ืืืงืืข ืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืืฃ
ืืืืฉ ืืื ื 1998. ืืืื ืช ืืฆืืืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืขื
ืฉืคืืจืกืื ืืค"ื ื (1) 1.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืกืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(21.12.97).
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96027040.
A01
/ืื/
| 1997-12-21T00:00:00 | ืืฉืืฃ ื ืชื ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืื ื ืืืจ(1982) ืืข"ื ื . ืกืืื ืืจ ืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96027040.A01 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืฉืืฃ ื ืชื ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืื ื ืืืจ(1982)",
"ืฉืืขืื ืกืื",
"ืกืืื ืืจ ืืข\"ื",
"ืืื ืื ืกืื"
] | 1997-12-21 | 1996-04-15 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืข"ื 2704/96 | ืฆื | [
"ืืกืจืฆืื ืืืจื",
"ืงืฉืช ืืฉื"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 2 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
437 | 2022-09-17T15:07:41 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\470\012\M02\97012470.M02 | 446 | 437 | 1997-03-01T22:00:00 | 2008-02-27T12:31:25 | 1,247 | ืืฉ"ืค 1247/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\470\012\M02 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืื ืืจ ืืืื | 97012470.M02 | 97012470.M02 | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 5a70f915dec1d253b64c781dbe2cc2fd000e46dc30b9a17e8ca3bf58f0ad0ae7 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 / 1247
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื
ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืื ืืจ ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ
ืืฉื ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืขื"ื
ื ืขืื ืฉืืจืืืก
ืืฉื ืืืฉืืื:
ืขื"ื
ืืจืืืืื ืืจืื
ื
ื ื ื ื
1.
ืขื ืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื. ืืชื
ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืงื ืืืืืก ืืืฉืื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืก, ืชืงืืคื, ืืชืขืืืืช, ืืขืฉืื ืืืื ืื, ืืขืฉื ืกืืื,
ืืขืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืคืื, ืขืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืืืื. ืื ืืขืืืจืืช ื ืขืืจื, ืืคื ืื ืืขื, ืืืคื
ืืฉืชื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืงืืื ืื.
ืืืื
ืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืงืืจื - 27.2.96 - ืืืจื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืืฉืื ืขื ืชืื
ืืืืืืื. ืืฉืชืื ืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืขืฆืจื ืืืฉืคืื ืืจื ื ืืืจ ืืคืกืง ืืื, ืืืงืฉืช ืืืช ืืื
ืืืืื ื ืืฆืืืช ืขื ืืืจืืช ืืืขืฆืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื, ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืคืืืื (ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื) ืืชืฉื"ื - 1982.
2.
ืืืงืฉืชื ืืืขื ืช ืืืช ืืื ืืืืงืฉืช ืื "ืืชืืง ืื ื ืืื ืชืืง ืฉืืื
ืื ืื ืืจืข ืืืืืจืชื ืืืืืืื. ืฉืืจืืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื ืื ืขืืื ืืกืื ืืช ืืฉืชื ืืฉืขืืจ ืฉืืจื
ืืขืืื ื ืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืขืืืชื ืืื ืืขืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืจืืฉืื ื ืืืขืื ืืชืืง ืื". ืืืขื ืชื ืืจืื
ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืงื ืื "ืืืฉืื ืืคืจืขืช ืืืฉืืืช ืขืืืงื, ืื ืืื ืืืืกืกืืื ืืืขื ืฆืืจื ืืืง
ืืืืช ืขื ืคื ืงื ืืืฉืืืชืื". ืืืฉืื ืขืืื, ืืคืื, ืื ืกืืช ืืื ืืข ืืืฉืชื ืืืขืื ืืื
ืขืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืฉืื ืฉืขืฉื ืืื ืืขืืจ. ืืื ืื ืืขื ืืืจืืืช ืืคืืื,
ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืฆ'ืืื, ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืชืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืจืืืชื ืืฉื ืื.
ืืขืืืชื
ืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉื, ืื ืจืื, ืืื ืจื ืืืื ืืงืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืกืชืืื
ืชืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืืฉืื. ืขืื ืืขื ืื ืืืขืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืืืกืื
ืืืฉืื ื ืขืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืขื 1988 ืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืขืฉื ืืขืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืืขืชื, ืื
ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืขืจืืื ืืืชื ืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืืืช ืฉืื ืืื ืืชืืืจืจ ืขื ืืฉืชื ืืืืฉื ืืืจืืืื, ืื ืืืื
ืขืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืคืืข ืืืฉืชื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืืชืืืจืจืื ืืืืขืื. ืขืื ืกืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืกืืื
ืจืง ืืืฉืคืืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืื.
3.
ืขืืื ืชื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื, ืืคืจืืืืงืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืืืืืืืชืื, ืืื ืืชืขืืืช ืจืืคื ืืืื 22.12.96 ืฉื ืขืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืคืกืืืืืืจ ื"ืจ ืค'
ืืืื.
ืืื ื
ืจืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืคืจื ืืื ืืช ืคืจืฉืช ืืขืฉืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื. ืืืื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืื
ืืืขืฉืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืืชื ืขืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืฉืืช; ืืื ืื ืจืื,
ืืชืื ืฉืื ืืข ืคื ืืื ืขืืืง ืืฆืืืงืช ืืฉืงืคืืชืื ืืืขืฉืื. ืื ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืืฉืื ืขืืื ืืื, ืืคืื,
ืืืืืจ ืขื ืืขืฉืื - ืืคืืื ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืขืจืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืื - ืืืคืืืข ืืืฉืชื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืื ื
ืืฉืคืืชื. ืืื ืืฉืฉ ืจืฆืื ื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืืช ืขื ืืืจืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืืขืฆืจ. ืืคื ืื ืืขื ืืืชื
ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืงื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืืชืืื ื ืช ืฉืืคืืข ืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืฉ
ื ืืกืฃ.
ืืฉืจ
ืืืขื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืฉื, ืื ืจืื, ืืื ืจื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืงืืืช ืฉืืขืื
ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืฉืงืืข. ืืคื ืฉืื ื ืืชืจืฉื ื ืขืฉื ืืืืฅ ืืงืืืข ืืจืืฉ
ืืกืคืจ ืืกืคืืง ืฉื ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉื ืื.
4.
ืืคืืื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉื
ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืื 27.2.97, ืื ืขื ืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืช.ืค. 28/96 ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื ืืืืคื, ืืื ืืคื ืืืืงืื.
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (2.3.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97012470.
M02
/ืืค
| 1997-03-02T00:00:00 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | Word.Document | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | null |
|
437 | 2022-09-17T15:07:41 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\470\012\M01\97012470_M01.txt | 1,638 | 437 | 1997-02-25T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:27:04 | 1,247 | ืืฉ"ืค 1247/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\470\012\M01 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืื ืืจ ืืืื | 97012470_M01.txt | 97012470.M01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 40e8da90cd3188991c929f8fca316159a260bb2fd0dcaf02558d8e8f679e3968 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 / 1247
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืื ืืจ ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (25.2.97)
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ื ืขืื ืฉืืจืืืก
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืื: ืขื"ื ืืจืืืืื ืืจืื
ื
ื ื ื ื
ืืืืืื ืชื ืชื ืืืืขื ืืืจ.
ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื
(25.2.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
/ืืค
| 1997-02-25T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืื ืืจ ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97012470.M01 | [
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | 1997-02-25 | 1997-02-24 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 1247/97 | ืืืืื | null | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
438 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\065\I03\97065860_I03.txt | 447 | 438 | 1997-11-09T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:32:08 | 6,586 | ืืฉ"ื 6586/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\860\065\I03 | ืืชืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ื . ืืืืื ืขืจืื (ืืืืจ ืืืืื) ืื | 97065860_I03.txt | 97065860.I03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 2dcf86e62b9ffaeeaa9d54c4e9d3ed144a8b916b9106721527bb2267c3a8b9be |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
6586/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
:
ืืชืืืืืช
ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืื ืขืจืื (ืืืืจ ืืืืื) ืืืื
2.
ืืืืจื ืืคืืชืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืื ืืข"ื
3.
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืช ืืื ืืข"ื
4.
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
5.
ืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืืช
6.
ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื
7.
ืจืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืฉืืชืืืช
8.
ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ -ืืืฉื ืืืืื
9.
ื ืฆืื ืืืื
ืขืชืืจื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืืืืื
ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ืืืื
23.11.97 ืืคื ื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืื ืืื"ืฅ 5298/97. ืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื
ืืฉืชื ืืขืชืืจืืช. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉื ืชืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืงืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืฉื
ืืงืืฆืืจ, ืืืคื ืืช ืื ืืชืืืื ืืื ืกืคืืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืื"ืฅ 5298/97, ืืคื ืืฆืืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืฉืื ืชืฉื "ื
(9.11.97).
ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97065860.
I03
| 1997-11-09T00:00:00 | ืืชืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ื . ืืืืื ืขืจืื (ืืืืจ ืืืืื) ืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97065860.I03 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืชืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื",
"ืืืืื ืขืจืื (ืืืืจ ืืืืื) ืืืื",
"ืืืืจื ืืคืืชืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืช ืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื",
"ืฉืจ ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืืช",
"ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื",
"ืจืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืฉืืืืช",
"ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ -ืืืฉื ืืืืื",
"ื ืฆืื ืืืืื"
] | 1997-11-09 | 1997-11-06 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 6586/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืงืืจ ื ืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
439 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A04\97001640_A04.txt | 448 | 439 | 1997-09-11T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:18:39 | 164 | ืืฉ"ื 164/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A04 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 97001640_A04.txt | 97001640.A04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | fed6a7cd53ba57deffaf588071c7c9d8b2fedb302a2b95f753cf2ed6da518735 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
164/97
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืงืื ืืจื
ืืข"ื
ื
ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ - ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื
2.
ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื
3.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช
ืืชื ืืืืช
ืืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื (25.3.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืืฉืข ืืืืฃ; ืขื"ื ืืขืงื
ืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื ืืก' 1 ื2-: ืขื"ื ืื ื ืืจืืงืกืื
ืืฉื
ืืฉืืื ืืก' 3: ืขื"ื ืืขืงื ืืืจื
ืคืกืง
- ืืื
ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืืช. ื ืืืืงืื ืืื ืชื ื ืื ืคืจื.
ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืืฉื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืก' 1 ื2- ืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื
ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืก' 3 ืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (10.9.97).
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื, ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97001640.
A04
/ืื/
| 1997-09-11T00:00:00 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97001640.A04 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงืื ืืจื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข\"ื",
"ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื",
"ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช"
] | 1997-09-11 | 1997-01-07 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 164/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืฃ ืืฆืืง",
"ืืืจื ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
439 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A03\97001640_A03.txt | 4,981 | 439 | 1997-10-07T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:18:39 | 164 | ืืฉ"ื 164/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A03 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 97001640_A03.txt | 97001640.A03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 89fe0d065743edf9b1cfe99e5740ee8c326dc4c5453e878385b224a0c1bd79f9 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 97 / 164
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช
:
ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ - ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื
2.
ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื
3.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช
ืืงืฉื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื"ื
ืืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื
(
25.02.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช:
ืขื"ื ืืฆืืง ืืืืฃ; ืขื"ื ืืขืงื ืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืฉืืืื
1
ื2-: ืขื"ื
ืื ื ืืจืืกืงืื
ืืฉื
ืืฉืืื 3: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืืื
ื ื ื ื ื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง:
ืฆื-ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืืืืงืฉ. ืืืืฉื-ืขืฉืจ ืืื ืืชืฉืืื. ืืจืฉืืื
ืืขืืื ืืขืื ื ืขื ืืืืื ืืคื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื (25.2.97), ืืคื ื
ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97001640.
A03
ืื/
| 1997-10-07T00:00:00 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97001640.A03 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงืื ืืจื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข\"ื",
"ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื",
"ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช"
] | 1997-10-07 | 1997-01-07 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 164/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืฃ ืืฆืืง",
"ืืืจื ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
439 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 5 | EnglishVerdicts\97\640\001\I07\97001640.I07.txt | 11,423 | 439 | 1998-02-04T20:00:00 | 2008-02-14T08:55:54 | 164 | ืืฉ"ื 164/97 | 134 | EnglishVerdicts\97\640\001\I07 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 97001640.I07.txt | 97001640.I07.doc | 1,997 | 7 | ืคืกืงื ืืื ืืื ืืืืช | null | 0 | ec91bd9187c19a45ebe9edcf38a3c9418a2cddfffc4a6bd5d42de3923295327f |
This document is a
draft, and is subject to further revision.
HCJ 164/97
Conterm Ltd.
v.
1.
Finance Ministry, Customs and VAT Division
2.
Customs Officer,
Ashdod
3.
Port and Train Authority
The Supreme Court
Sitting as the High Court of Justice
[
February 4, 1998
]
Before President A. Barak and Justices M.
Cheshin,
I.
Zamir
Petition to the Supreme Court sitting as the High
Court of Justice.
Facts:
The petitioner acquired a
license from the Customs Authority to operate a licensing warehouse on land in
dispute between it and the Port and Train Authority. The Customs Authority
asked for proof that the petitioner had a right in the land, as required by the
regulations, and in return it received an agreement that did not appear to
address such a right. The Customs Authority granted the license anyway. When it
became aware of the dispute over the land, it refused to renew the license. The
central question is whether the petitioner had a duty to disclose the existence
of the dispute to the Customs Authority, and more broadly, whether individuals
owe a duty of fairness in their dealings with administrative agencies.
Held:
All three justices held that the
Customs Authority had a right to refuse to renew the license, each on different
grounds. Justice Zamir held that not only does the government owe a duty of
fairness to citizens, but citizens owe a reciprocal duty of fairness to the
government, including a duty to disclose information material to a request for
a license. Such duty stems from the social contract, in which citizen and
government are partners in the democratic enterprise. The petitionerโs breach
of such duty in failing to disclose material information of primary importance
justified refusing to renew the license. President Barak held that the
individual owes no general duty of fairness to the government. Any duty owed by
the individual to the government must be specific to the issue in question and
dependent on the proper balance between the interests of society as represented
by the government and the rights and freedoms of the individual. The petitionerโs
duty of disclosure owed to Respondents 1-2 stems from the fact that a proper
exercise of governmental authority requires the individual to make appropriate
disclosures to the government concerning material facts which serve as the
basis for the governmental decision. Justice Cheshin held that in his or her
dealings with the government, the individual bears no duty to disclose
information at its own initiative. The government is better situated to know
what information is material and to ask for it. The Customs Authorityโs
decision not to renew the license, however, does not warrant judicial
intervention because the petitioner did not meet a material condition set by
the Regulations regarding a right in the land.
Objection to order-nisi of February 25, 1997. Petition denied. Order-Nisi rescinded.
For
the petitionerโYehoshua Wolf and Yaakov Yaniv
For
Respondents 1-2 โDana Briskman, Executive Deputy State Attorney
For
Respondent 3 โYaakov Liraz.
Basic
Laws Cited:
Basic
Law: Human Dignity and Liberty.
Basic
Law: Freedom of Occupation.
Basic
Law: The Judiciary โ s.1(a).
Basic
Law: The Government โ s.1.
Israeli
Legislation Cited:
Port
and Train Authority Law, 1961.
Contract
Law (General Part), 1973 โ ss.12, 13, 15, 39, 61(b).
Interpretation
Law, 1981 โ ss.11, 17(b).
Land
Law, 1969 โ s. 14.
Legal
Capacity and Guardianship Law, 1962.
Mandatory
Education Law, 1949.
Penal
Law, 1977 โ ss.262, 491.
Traffic
Ordinance [new version] โ s.64a.
Shipping
Law (Sailors), 1973 โ s.39.
Law
of Return, 1950.
Business
Licensing Law, 1968 โ s.1(a)(1).
Customs
Ordinance [new version] โ s.70(b).
Regulations
Cited:
Customs
Regulations, 1965 โ numbers 12, 14, 14(b), 12-23, ch.7, sixth addendum, part 3.
Traffic
Regulations, 1961 โ numbers 144, 146.
Israeli
Supreme Court Cases Cited:
[1]
HC 233/53
Alspector v. Mayor of Beit Shean,
IsrSC 8 659.
[2]
HC 9/49
Bloi v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 2 137.
[3]
HC 56/53
Kakanda v. City of
Ramla
,
IsrSC 7 949.
[4]
HC 56/76
Berman v. Police Minister,
IsrSC 31(2) 687.
[5]
HC 799/80
Shallam v. Gun Law, 1949 Licensing Clerk
,
Oil Administration
of Petach Tikvah, Interior Ministry
, IsrSC 36(1) 317.
[6]
HC 475/81
Deak & Co. Inc. v. Governor of the Bank of
Israel
,
IsrSC 36(1) 803.
[7]
CA 433/80
I.B.M. Israel Assets, v. Property Tax Director and Compensation
Fund of Tel-Aviv
, IsrSC 37(1) 337.
[8]
CA 736/87
Yaakobovitch v. Land Appreciation Tax Director
of
Nazareth
,
IsrSC 45(3) 365.
[9]
CA 1928/93
Securities Authority v. Gabor Savarina Textile Factories.
,
IsrSC 49(3) 177.
[10]
CA 338/85
Speigelman v. Chapnik
, IsrSC 41(4) 421.
[11]
HC 707/80
Ilanot Housing, Building and Development Co. v.
Arad
Local Council
, IsrSC 35(2) 309.
[12]
CA 391/80
Mira Lesserson v. Workers Housing Ltd.
, IsrSC 38(2) 237.
[13]
CA 402/76
Azaranikov v. State of
Israel
, IsrSC 31(1) 270.
[14]
HC 640/77
Baranovsky v. Department of Customs and Excise Director,
IsrSC
32(2) 75.
[15]
HC 566/81
Amrani v. Chief Rabbinical Court,
IsrSC 37(2) 1.
[16]
HC 221/86
Kanafi v.
National Labor Court
, IsrSC 41(1) 469.
[17]
FH 22/82
Beit Yules Ltd .v. Raviv Moshe & Partners, Ltd.,
IsrSC
43(1) 441.
[18]
HC 376/81
Lugassi v. Communications Minister,
IsrSC 36(1) 449.
[19]
HC 4422/92
Efran v.
Israel
Land
Administration,
IsrSC 47(3) 853.
[20]
HC 840/79,
Center for Contractors and Builders in
Israel
v.
Government of
Israel
,
IsrSC 34(3) 729.
[21]
HC 549/75
Noach Film Company, Ltd. v. Film Review Council,
IsrSC 30(1)
757.
[22]
HC 135/75
Cy-Tex Corporation Ltd. v. Trade and Industry Minister
, IsrSC
30(1) 673.
[23]
HC 3/58,
Berman v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 12 1493.
[24]
HC 335/68
Israeli Consumer Council v. Chair of the Gas Services
Investigatory Committee
, IsrSC 23(1) 324.
[25]
HC 135/71
Fresman v. Traffic Supervisor
, IsrSC 25(2) 533.
[26]
HC 1930/94
Nathan v. Defense Minister,
IsrSC 48(4) 643.
[27]
HC 656/80
Abu Romi v. Health Minister
, IsrSC 35(3) 185.
[28]
HC 337/66
Estate of Kalman Fital v. Assessment Committee, Town of
Holon
,
IsrSC 21(1) 69.
[29]
HC 421/86
Ashkenazi v. Transportation Minister
, IsrSC41(1) 409.
[30]
HC 727/88
Awad v. Religious Affairs Minister
, IsrSC 42(4) 487.
[31]
HC 2911/94
Baki v. Interior Ministry Director-General,
IsrSC 48(5) 291.
[32]
HC 2918/03
City of
Kiryat Gat
v. State of
Israel
,
IsrSC 47(5) 832.
[33]
HC 442/71
Lansky v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 26(2) 337.
[34]
HC 987/94
Euronet Golden Lines (1992) Ltd. v. Communications Minister,
IsrSC
48(5) 412.
[35]
HC 1635/90
Zharzhavski v. Prime Minister,
IsrSC 45(1) 749.
[36]
HC 669/86
Robin v. Berger,
IsrSC 41(1) 73.
[37]
HC 142/70
Shapira v. Bar Association
Jerusalem
Regional
Council
, IsrSC 25(1) 325.
[38]
HC 6163/92
Eisenberg v. Housing and Construction Minister,
IsrSC 47(2)
229.
[39]
CA 6821/93
United Mizrachi Bank. v. Migdal Agricultural
Cooperative
Village
,
IsrSC 49(4) 221.
[40]
HC 1601/90
Shalit v. Peres,
IsrSC 44(3) 353.
[41]
CA 148/77 S.
Roth v. Yeshufa Construction Ltd
., IsrSC 33(1) 617.
[42]
CA 207/79
Raviv Moshe & Partners, Ltd. v. Beit Yules Ltd.
IsrSC
37(1) 533.
[43]
HC 59/80
Beโer Sheva Public Transportation Services Ltd. v.
National
Labor Court
in
Jerusalem
,
IsrSC35(1) 828.
[44]
HC 8507/96
Orin v. State of
Israel
,
IsrSC 51(1) 269.
[45]
HC 3872/93
Mitral Ltd. v. Prime Minister and Religious Affairs Minister,
IsrSC47(5) 485.
[46]
CrimA 119/93
Lawrence
v. State of
Israel
, IsrSC 48(4) 1.
[47]
HC 1/49
Bazherno v. Police Minister,
IsrSC 2 80.
[48]
HC 192/61
Kalo v. City of
Bat Yam
, IsrSC 16 1856.
[49]
HC 328/60
Musa v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 17 69.
[50]
HC 43/76
Amitar Company, Ltd. v. Tourism Minister,
IsrSC 30(3) 554.
[51]
HC 208/79
Ineis v. Health Ministry General Director
, IsrSC 34(1) 301.
[52]
HC 758/88
Kendel v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 46(4) 505.
[53]
HC 740/87
Bentali v.
Interior Minister
, IsrSC 44(1) 443.
[54]
CA 186/52
Jerusalem
โ
Eden
โ Hotel v. Dr. Gerzon,
IsrSC 8 1121.
[55]
HC 1921/94
Sukar v. Jerusalem District Committee on Construction, Residence,
and Industry
, IsrSC 48(4) 237.
[56]
HC 35/48 M.
Breslov & Partners Ltd. v. Trade and Industry Minister,
IsrSC 2 330.
[57]
HC 132/57
First v. City of
Lod
, IsrSC 11 1324.
[58]
HC 280/60 โ
Avikโ Ltd. v. Voluntary Authority on Importation of
Pharmaceutical Preparations ,
IsrSC 16 1323.
[59]
HC 115/61
Yakiri v. City of
Ramat Gan
, IsrSC 16 1877.
[60]
HC 27/62
Alt v.
Tel Aviv-Jaffa
Local
Town
Building
and Planning Committee
, IsrSC 25(1) 225.
[61]
HC 278/62
Sarolovitch v. City of
Jerusalem
, IsrSC 17 508.
[62]
HC 329/64
Guri v.
Bnei
Brak
Local
Town
Building
and Planning Committee
, IsrSC 19(1) 365.
[63]
HC 109/70
Orthodox Coptic Metropolitan in
Jerusalem
v. Police
Minister,
IsrSC 25(1) 225.
[64]
HC 37/49
Goldstein v.
Jaffa
Guardian of Abandoned Property,
IsrSC 2 716.
[65]
HC 143/62
Schlesinger v. Interior Minister
, IsrSC 17 225.
[66]
HC 58/68
Shalit On His Own Behalf and On Behalf of His Children v. Interior
Minister,
IsrSC 23(2) 477.
[67]
HC 5364/94
Welner v. Chair of Israeli Labor Party,
IsrSC49(1) 758.
[68]
HC 305/82 Y.
Mor v. Central District Regional Planning and Construction Committee,
IsrSC 38(1) 141.
[69]
HC 107/59 Mei-Dan v.
Tel-Aviv-Jaffa
Local Planning and Construction
Committee,
IsrSC 14 800.
United
States Cases Cited:
[70]
Commodity Futures Trading Commโn v. Schor
, 478 U.S. 833 (1986).
[71]
Thomas v. Union Carbide Agric. Products Co.
473 U.S. 568 (1985).
English
Cases Cited:
[72]
Scruttons v.
Midland
Silicones
[1962] 1 All E.R. 1 (H.L.).
[73]
Donoghue v. Stevenson
[1932] A.C. 52.
[74]
Reg v. Home Secretary, Ex p. Zamir
[1980] A.C. 930.
[75]
Reg. v. Home Secretary, Ex p. Khawaja
[1984] A.C. 74.
Israeli
Books Cited:
[76]
H. Klinghofer,
Mishpat Minhali [Administrative Law]
(1957).
[77]
G. Shalev,
Dinei Chozim [Contract Law]
(1995).
[78]
A. Barak,
Shikul Daโat Shiputi [Judicial Discretion]
(1987).
[79]
2 I. Zamir,
Hasamchut Haminhalit [Administrative Authority]
(1996).
[80]
M. Mautner,
Yiridat Haformalism Vialiyat Haarachim Bamishpat Hayisraeli
[Decline of Formalism in Israeli Law]
(1993).
[81]
1 B. Aktzin,
Torat Hamishpat [Jurisprudence]
(2nd ed. 1968).
[82]
G. Shalev,
Chozei Rishut Biyisrael [Contracts]
(1985).
[83]
1 B. Bracha,
Mishpat Minhali [Administrative Law]
(1987).
[84]
M. Cheshin,
Mitaltilin Bidin Hanizikin [Chattel in Torts]
(1971).
Foreign
Books Cited:
[85]
L.H. Tribe,
Constitutional Choices
(1985).
[86]
L.H. Tribe,
American Constitutional Law
(2nd ed. 1988).
Jewish
Law Sources Cited:
[a]
Babylonian Talmud, Order Tractate Shabbat 31:1; 104:2.
[b]
Leviticus 19;18; 25;17.
[c]
Isaiah 58:7.
[d]
Micah 6: 8.
[e]
Exodus 21:15, 16.
[f]
Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Baba Metzia 59:1.
[g]
Mishnah, Tractate Avot, 2:3; 1:10.
[h]
Genesis 4:22.
JUDGMENT
Justice I. Zamir
1. The petitioner, Conterm Company Ltd., received
a customs license to operate a licensing warehouse
.
By law, the license had to be renewed yearly. The Customs
Authority refused to renew the license. The petitioner is challenging that
refusal; it claims that it has a right to a renewal of the license.
A central question raised in this
petitions is the duty of fairness between the administrative agency and the
citizen. Usually, that question is directed at the administrative agency: What
kind of duty does it owe the citizen? This time, the question is directed at
the citizen: Does the citizen owe a duty of fairness (or, in other words, a
duty to behave properly) to the administrative agency?
The Facts
2. For over 20 years, the petitioner has
operated a freight terminal in
Ashdod
. The terminal operates as a licensing warehouse
through a license granted by the customs director, under the seventh chapter
(beginning at Regulation 12) of the Customs Regulations, 1965 (hereinafter โ
the Regulations). The license authorizes the storage of goods for which customs
duties apply. The warehouse operates on land which the petitioner owns, in the northern
industrial zone of Ashdod, about 50 meters from the railway leading to the
Ashdod Port (hereinafter: the main railway).
The petitioner wanted to take advantage of
the warehouseโs convenient location by using the railway to make the process of
shipping the freight to and from the facility more efficient, minimizing the
use of trucks and saving on transportation costs. The petitioner submitted a
proposal to the Port and Train Authority, under which it would build, at its
expense, an extension of the tracks from the main railway to the warehouse. The
extension would allow the petitioner to load freight from the port onto the
train, then unload it close to the warehouse and store it there, as well as to
load freight from the warehouse onto the train, to send to the port.
The Port and Train Authority, a statutory
corporation created by the Port and Train Law, 1961 (hereinafter โ the Port
Authority), owns and operates the railway. It also owns 44 dunams [4.4 hectares
โ trans.] of land bordering the main railway on one end, and the warehouse on
the other (hereinafter โ the land). The petitioner wanted to build the railway
extension on the land, which was vacant and unused, so that the railway would
reach the warehouse. Toward the end of 1992, it approached the Port Authority
with its request.
On
June 6, 1994
,
following extensive negotiations, the petitioner and the Port Authority signed
a contract (hereinafter โ the contract). Section 2B of the contract declared
the following:
All lines and systems of the extension will be built
on land belonging to the Authority [The Port Authority โ I.Z.] and will become
its property upon their construction. The company [the petitioner โ I.Z.] has
no right whatsoever to the Authorityโs land in general, and to the land on
which the extension is built, in particular.
As an appendix to the contract, the parties attached a
scheme marking the route of the main railway and the planned extension: The
Chief Engineer of Israel Railways signed it on January 3, 1994, and later the
petitioner, the Trainโs Deputy Director-General for Commerce, Economics, and
Finance, and the Trainโs Deputy Director-General for Operations signed as well
(app. R/7 of the Port Authorityโs Statement).
3. Not long after the parties signed the scheme
designating the route of the extension (hereinafter โ the first scheme), the
petitioner approached the Port Authority with a request to change the route of
the extension. According to the petitioner, the change was necessary to allow
it to set up and operate machinery for loading and unloading bulk seeds. The
change would mean that the route of the extension, which, under the first scheme,
was to reach the border of the warehouse, would be moved further from the warehouse,
close to the main railway. The change would enlarge the open area between the
extension and the warehouse.
The Port Authority agreed to the proposed
change. The new route of the extension was drawn on a new scheme prepared by
the petitionerโs planner, and on May 15, 1995, the Director of the Engineering
Department in Israel Railways signed it (hereinafter โ the second scheme). The
new route was not the only change between the first and second scheme; on the
second scheme, the parties labeled the area between the extension and the warehouse
as a โstorage area.โ
4. The appendix to the contract, signed at
the same time as the contract itself, gave the petitioner a limited right to
use the land (referred to in the appendix as โthe plotโ). The petitioner was to
be allowed to use the land to load and unload freight and to transport it from
the train to the warehouse and from the warehouse to the train. According to
the appendix:
3. The company [the petitioner โ I.Z.] may make use of
the plot running along the tracks of the train stationed in the extension
exclusively for purposes of loading and/or unloading trains which are stationed
at the extension for that purpose, so long as they are stationed there.
Unloading and/or loading trains include transporting
or shipping the freight from the extension to the companyโs storage facilities
adjacent to the plot and the reverse.
4. Any change of any kind to the plot and/or anything
attached and/or connected to it requires the advance written approval of the Director-General
of Israel Railways.
5. The petitioner, however, had a larger
plan: It intended to use the area of the land not just to load and unload
freight from the train and onto the train, as the contract provided, but also
to store freight. It planned to enlarge the area of the warehouse to include
the area of the land, as well. In order to accomplish this, it needed to do two
things. First, it needed to do work on the land, in order to prepare it for use
as a licensing warehouse, including fencing in the land to prevent freight from
being added or removed without undergoing inspection. This task posed a problem
with the Port Authority, which owned the land. The second thing the petitioner
needed was a license to use the land as a licensing warehouse. That task posed
a problem with The Customs Authority, which is authorized to grant such
licenses.
6. The petitioner began working on the
first task: preparing the land for storing freight. Under the terms of the
contract, the petitioner could not make โany change, of any kindโ to the land,
without โthe advance written approval of the Director-General of Israel
Railways.โ
Para
. 4,
supra
. However, the petitioner began work
on the land without obtaining such approval. Nor did it obtain permission once
the work was completed. Without such approval, the petitioner paved the land
with asphalt, erected a fence around the perimeter, installed lighting, and
built gates. It finished its preparatory work on
March 18, 1996
.
7. The petitioner and the Port Authority
disagree over when the Port Authority became aware of the work that the
petitioner was doing on the land. According to the petitioner, the work was
done in the presence of representatives of the Port Authority. The Port
Authority, on the other hand, claims that it became aware of the work only by coincidence,
in early January, 1996, during a tour that its employees took of the land.
In any event, immediately after the tour,
on
January 8, 1996
, the Deputy Director-General for Commerce, Economics,
and Finance at Israel Railways (hereinafter: the Railways Deputy) sent the
following letter to the Director-General of the petitioner:
Pursuant to my tour of the site and the measurements
we conducted, I wish to call your attention to the following points:
1.
Our measurements
show that Conterm has annexed an area of 38.5 dunams [3.85 hectares โ trans.].
2.
That area is being
used to store containers, in violation of the contract.
3.
The areas have been
fenced in, paved, and marked, and Contermโs equipment and installations have
been placed there.
4.
According to the appendix
of the contract, you are permitted to use a strip of land along the length of a
train only, for loading and unloading trains exclusively.
5.
Seizure and use of
the land constitute a violation of the contract.
6.
Be advised that,
according to the appendix, we may give anyone approval to use the land.
7.
You must immediately
vacate the areas noted above.
8.
Be advised that you
will be charged taxes and rent on the areas seized, for the period of time from
the seizure until you vacate, as determined by an assessor.
I would appreciate your taking immediate action to vacate
the area and to avoid violating the contract between us.
The petitioner gave no response whatsoever
to this letter. On
March 10, 1996
, the Railways Deputy sent another letter to the
petitionerโs Director-General. This letter warned of the petitionerโs
violations of the contract in a few ways, including violation related to โuse
of the areas.โ It noted that Israel Railways considers the violations to be severe
and added that if they are not corrected, Israel Railways will feel free to
take action to preserve its rights. The petitionerโs Director-General responded
to this letter on
March 19, 1996
. Regarding the use of the land, he wrote the
following:
During our last three meetings, we discussed the
above-stated issue, and to the best of my recollection, we agreed to find a way
to resolve the issue.
At this stage, as you agreed, I am waiting to set a
date for another meeting with you.
By the way, at this stage, the area is being used
exclusively for loading and unloading containers.
The
dispute, however, remained unresolved. On
April 18, 1996
,
counsel for the Port Authority wrote to the petitioner, alerting it to the
encroachment onto the Port Authorityโs land and the illegal use of the land,
including fencing it in and using it for storage. Counsel demanded that the
petitioner vacate the land immediately. The Railways Deputy also wrote the
petitioner, again, on
April 21, 1996
, demanding that it vacate the land immediately. The
letters went unanswered.
On May 19, 1996, the petitioner wrote to
the Deputy Director-General for Operations at Israel Railways in a letter that
made no mention whatsoever of the letters sent by the Port Authority demanding
evacuation of the land. The petitioner wrote, in part, that,
We intend to begin storing empty containers, before
they are transported to the ports, and we ask that you price our requests,
addressing the factor of the substantial quantities to be transported.
On
May 23, 1996, The Railways Deputy Director-General for Operations responded by
saying that Israel Railways did not intend to transport containers from the
Ashdod Port to the petitionerโs warehouse. He also wrote that:
I remind you that the contract is about transporting
containers between
Ashdod
and
Haifa
, not storing empty containers or vehicles in the terminal
station.
The Port Authority and the petitioner
continued their correspondence and discussions. The former repeatedly demanded
that the latter vacate the land. On
June 20, 1996
,
the Director of the Commerce and Transportation Department of Israel Railways
wrote the following to the petitioner:
1. Pursuant to the discussion that took place in the
office of Israel Railwaysโ Deputy Director-General for Economics, Finance, and
Commerce, it became clear that the Conterm Company seized about 40 dunams [four
hectares โ trans.] of territory belonging to Israel Railways, in the area of
the Conterm Ashdod extension. Conterm fenced it in without permission and even
placed hundreds of vehicles belonging to the Universal Motors Company and the
Mazda Company in the area.
2. In that same discussion mentioned above, we
demanded that you vacate the area. Thus far, you have failed to do so and
continue to seize the area.
3. I wish to advise you that in the coming days, Israel
Railways intends to sell the area through a public auction. You are therefore asked
to vacate the area immediately, removing every object, person, and thing.
The
Port Authority sent additional letters containing similar contents on
July 21, 1996
,
October 14, 1996
, and
November 28, 1996
.
Throughout the correspondence between the
Port Authority and the petitioner, when the Port Authority claimed that the
petitioner was trespassing on its property in violation of the contract, the
petitioner did not claim that it had a right to the land as renter or lessee,
or that it had permission to fence in the land and use it for storage. Only on
June 30, 1996
, did
the petitioner address its right regarding the land. It wrote:
โฆ
3. There is no doubt that Conterm has rights to the
above-mentioned area for purposes of loading and unloading trains that are
stationed in the extension.
4. As you must know, we invested a substantial amount
of money in the extension and in preparing the above-mentioned area for
operating the extension.
5. In addition, there is no doubt that Conterm has
certain rights in the area by virtue of the [written โ trans.] agreement and
the agreements between the parties.
โฆ
8. On the other hand, given the current circumstances,
we suggest that the parties negotiate in order to find a mutually-agreed upon
solution for how the above-mentioned area will be operated.
The Railways Deputy responded to that
letter on
July 21, 1996
:
โฆ
2. Conterm has no rights to the above-mentioned area,
even if it made investments. Such investments were done without our approval,
and there were no agreements over use of the area.
3. Areas cannot be allocated except through a bidding
process, except in rare circumstances, which do not exist in this case.
8.
When the parties did not resolve the dispute through negotiation, as the
petitioner suggested, the Port Authority brought an action of ejectment against
the petitioner in Ashdod Magistrateโs Court. That action is still pending in
the Magistrateโs Court.
The Magistrateโs Court will decide the
dispute between the Port Authority and the petitioner, and its resolution,
whatever it may be, is not the concern of this court. If that is the case, then
how is their dispute relevant to the issue before us? That dispute is also the
root of the argument between the petitioner and The Customs Authority at the
heart of this petition. How?
9.
The petitioner took the first route โ preparing the land for storage of freight
โ at the same time that it took the second route: On June 8, 1995, a year after
the contract was signed and shortly after the second scheme was signed, the
petitioner asked the Customs Authority branch in Ashdod for a license to
enlarge the area of the warehouse to include the area of the land, as well,
meaning the area between the extension and the warehouse. The petitioner and
Customs engaged in a process of verification to make sure that the petitioner
met the criteria necessary to receive a license to operate a licensing
warehouse.
According to Regulation 14 of the
Regulations, an application for a license must be submitted to the Customs
branch โin the form provided in the Sixth Addendum.โ The Sixth Addendum details
what must be included in an application, including the following:
Below are the details of the warehouse:
We declare that we own the warehouse registered in the
Land Registry as Block Number โฆ Parcel โฆ we are in possession of it under the
terms of a rental contract or lease with โฆ for a period of โฆ years, beginning
on โฆ. and ending on โฆ attached is a schematic description of the warehouse and
the marked areas of the requested warehouse โฆ
According
to the addendum, these details must be submitted whether the application is for
a new license or โif changes are made in the area or in the size of the warehouse.โ
The implication is that the Regulations require applicants to declare that they
own, rent, or lease the warehouse, as a condition of receiving a license for a
new licensing warehouse or of expanding an existing one.
This condition seems appropriate, or at
least reasonable. In any event, the petitioner does not challenge the legality
of the condition or of any other provision of the Regulations.
10. Pursuant to this regulation, and after
the petitioner applied for a license for the land, on
December 5, 1995
, the
Ashdod Customs branch wrote to the petitioner asking for various details and
documents, including โa rental or lease contract for the additional area.โ
In response, on
December 11, 1995
, the
petitioner sent the Customs branch the
June 6, 1994
contract and attached a map prepared by its surveyor on
December 7, 1995
(Appendix 7 to the Petition).
The Customs Authority presumed that the
petitioner met all the conditions set forth in the Regulations for receiving a
license. Among other things, the Customs Authority presumed that the petitioner
held rights to the land, as required by the Regulations. It was unaware of the
fierce dispute between the Port Authority and the petitioner over the rights to
the land, a dispute expressed in a number of ways, including in letters that
the Port Authority sent the petitioner on
January 8, 1996
.
Therefore, once the Customs Authority concluded that the land had been properly
prepared for use as a licensing warehouse, it decided to grant the petitioner
the license it had requested, on
July 1,
1996
.
11. So long as the petitioner communicated
in these two parallel tracks, with the Port Authority on one hand, and the
Customs Authority on the other, each agency separate from the other, it seemed
as though the petitioner had achieved what it set out to obtain. When the two
agencies communicated with each other, however, their relationships with the
petitioner hit a snag.
In September 1996, the Customs Authority
learned of the dispute between the Port Authority and the petitioner over
rights to the land. On
September 25, 1996
, the Customs Authority wrote to the Port Authority
asking for the precise status of the petitioner with respect to the land and
โwhether, under the contract signed with you, the Conterm Company has a right
to store containers in the area.โ The Port Authority responded by saying that
the petitioner has a right to load and unload the trains stationed at the
extension but not to store containers on the land. After receiving this
response, the Customs Authority asked the petitioner for an explanation. On
November 18, 1996, the petitioner responded by telling the Customs Authority
that it had an โunderstandingโ with representatives of the Railway allowing the
petitioner to store freight on the land and that, โthe arrangement has not been
put on paper because of Israel Railwaysโ limitations.โ It attached the second
scheme, on which the area of the land was labeled โstorage area.โ The petitioner
added that โthis document is irrefutable, decisive evidence of the Authorityโs
intentions, beyond what is said in the agreement.โ The Customs Authority,
however, was unconvinced. It decided not to renew the petitionerโs license for
the land. On
December 26, 1996
, the Customs Authority informed the petitioner that it
was canceling the authorization it had granted the petitioner to use the land
as a licensing warehouse, and that the license granted the petitioner for 1997
would be renewed exclusive of the area of the land. In the same notice, the
Customs Authority also demanded that the petitioner remove the freight from the
land and put it into a licensing warehouse within 30 days.
12. The petitioner claims that the Customs
Authority did not have the right to revoke the license it had granted to use
the land as a licensing warehouse. It therefore filed this petition against the
Customs Authority, later joining the Port Authority as respondent. The
petitioner is asking for an order obligating the Customs Authority to include
the area of the land in the license for 1997.
At an early stage of the proceedings, we
issued an order-nisi and decided that the license to use the area of the land
as a licensing warehouse would remain valid in the interim.
On
September 10, 1997
,
we decided to deny the petition without giving an explanation at the time, and
we imposed court costs on the petitioner in the sum of 25,000
NIS
to be paid
to Respondents 1 and 2 and 25,000
NIS
to Respondent 3.
We now explain our decision.
The Reasons for Revoking the License
13.
The Customs Authority gives two reasons for its refusal to include the area of
the land in the license granted the petitioner for 1997: the first โ
substantive; the second โ procedural.
The
first reason: Under the Regulations, the petitioner is not eligible to receive
a license for the area of the land. The Regulations stipulate that without
rights to the land (through ownership, rental, or lease), there is no right to
a license. If it becomes clear that a license was granted to someone who has no
right in the land, because of misrepresentation or mistake, that license can be
revoked. Therefore, the Customs Authorityโs realization that the petitioner had
no right in the land is reason enough not to renew the license for the area of
the land.
This
reason, of course, touches on the private law dispute between the petitioner
and the Port Authority over rights to the land.
The
Custom Authorityโs second reason is the petitionerโs procedural obligation to
disclose all material information regarding its application for a license,
including information about rights to the land. By failing to disclose material
information on this issue to the Customs Authority, the petitioner violated
this obligation. This violation alone is reason enough not to renew the license
for the area of the land.
This
second reason is entirely the province of public law: the claim is that a
citizen applying for a license has an obligation to disclose information material
to the license to the administrative agency.
The
petitioner, on the other hand, argues that neither the substantive nor the
procedural reason justify the Custom Authorityโs decision. First, the
petitioner claims that its dispute with the Port Authority over rights to the
land is not the concern of the Customs Authority. In any event, the petitioner
claims, the dispute does not constitute a reason to revoke a license already
granted. Second, the petitioner claims, it fulfilled any disclosure obligation
to the Customs Authority that may have existed by submitting the
June 6, 1994
contract
it signed with the Port Authority regarding the rights to the land.
We
will examine each of these reasons in order.
Rights to the Land
14.
The petitioner claims that, โWith all due respect, the relations between the
petitioner and the PTA [Port and Train Authority โ I.Z.] are not the concern of
the Customs Authority.โ It also argues that, โIt is inconceivable that, at a
point at which a dispute has yet to be decided, and it could go either way, the
Director of Customs should take a stance and adopt the PTAโs version.โ
Indeed,
it is an old precedent that an agency authorized to grant a license must make
that decision based on considerations from the field of public law, not private
law. HC 233/53
Alspector v. Mayor of Beit Shean
(hereinafter โ the
Alspector
case[1]), held that a local council may not condition receipt of a license to
operate a business in an apartment on the consent of the apartment owner. As
Justice Berinson held (at 665):
By opening a store in his apartment without the
consent of the apartment owner, the applicant may indeed be violating the terms
of his lease. If that is the case, the apartment owner may fight his fight with
the applicant. That is not the concern of the municipality, however, and it cannot
serve as the basis for refusing to grant the license.
See also
HC
9/49
Bloi v. Interior Minister
[2]; HC 56/53
Kakanda v. City of Ramla
[3].
This precedent would seem to construct a
high wall between private and public law.
See
H. Klinghofer,
Mishpat
Minhali
[76] at 128-30. That is not the case. Today, it is well-known that there
is no clear and rigid separation between these two fields. They are separated
by a widely-spaced net, easily passed through or jumped over. The two fields are
becoming more and more intermingled, and there is nothing wrong with that. In
principle, therefore, considerations from the field of private law may
influence an administrative agencyโs decision. In any event, it depends on the
context: the nature of the power, the nature of the agency, and the
circumstances in question. For example, is it illegitimate for a municipality
to refuse to grant a license to operate a business, or for a planning and
building committee to refuse to grant a license to erect a building, when it is
clear that the license applicant has no rights to the land of which he or she
has taken possession?
The
Alspecter
case,
supra
,
provided for this possibility. Justice Berinson qualified the rule he stated:
If the case involved a construction permit to make changes
to the building, which could not be issued without the request or consent of
the building owner, then the reason would be valid.
The same is true in the case before us. The Regulations
require that an applicant for a license declare that he or she has a right in the
land. See para.9,
supra
. It is therefore clear that the question of
rights in the land is relevant. The Customs Authority may and even must take it
into consideration. It may and even must clarify the answer. Under the Regulations,
it should require a license applicant to declare what kind of right he or she
has in the land. If a license applicant declares that he or she has no right in
the land, the Customs Authority may and even must deny the application for a
license. The same is true of a situation in which the applicant declared that
it has a right in the land, but an investigation by the Customs Authority
reveals the declaration to be false or misleading. In either case, under the Regulations,
the Customs Authority need not, and may not even be permitted, to give a
license to a trespasser.
If the petitioner does not have a right in
the land, the Customs Authority was under no obligation to grant the license.
Indeed, the Customs Authority claims that if it had known that the petitioner
had no such right, it would not have granted the license.
15. The petitioner, however, argues that
even if the Customs Authority could have refused to grant the license from the
outset, it may not revoke a license already granted. There is a difference
between prospectivity and retrospectivity: the holder of a license purchased a
right, and revoking a vested right is different, and more difficult, than
refusing to grant the right in the first place. Therefore, not every
consideration sufficient to refuse to grant a new license justifies refusing to
renew an existing license.
The case law distinguishes between
refusing to grant a new license and refusing to renew an existing license. The
considerations relevant for renewing a license are not identical to the
considerations for granting a license; the weight of the considerations may
vary. More so than is the case for granting a new license, in renewing an
existing license, the balance tips toward the citizen, in order to protect the
right that the license gave him or her.
However, if the agencyโs grant of the
license stemmed from a substantive error, it generally may revoke the license
or refuse to renew it, particularly if the applicant is responsible for the
mistake.
See
e.g.
HC 56/76
Berman v. Police Minister
[4].
As Justice Barak said in HC 799/80
Shallam v. Gun Law, 1949 Licensing Clerk
,
Oil Administration of Petach Tikvah, Interior Ministry
[5] at 331:
As is known, the administrative law rule is that an
administrative agency may generally review its decision and correct it โfor the
following reasons: deceit, fraud, mistake, surprise, inadvertence, new evidence
that has come to light, changed conditionsโ โฆ
There seems to be no doubt that deceit by the license
applicant is generally grounds in itself to justify revoking a license โฆ what
happens, however, if the problem is pure mistake, not caused by the applicant,
but rather solely the fault of the agency? In a case like that, the license may
still be revoked, but the power to do so must be exercised only in special
circumstances.
Justice Barak continued in HC 475/81
Deak & Co.
Inc. v. Governor of the Bank of
Israel
[6] at 807:
Once a license is granted, its holder may assume that
the application was investigated with the required care and that he or she may
now invest money and effort into running the business for which a license was
granted, without having to worry that the administrative agency will change its
mind. At the same time, where the agency has the formal authority to revoke a
license, under extraordinary circumstances, it may be justified in exercising
it. Such circumstances may involve facts in existence prior to the granting of
the license but which became apparent to the administrative agency only
afterward โฆ they may also involve new facts which came about after the license
was already granted.
Deciding
whether a set of facts justifies revoking a license or refusing to renew it
depends on the balance of interests in each set of circumstances, primarily the
balance between the license-holderโs interests and those of the general public,
which the administrative agency represents.
In balancing these interests, the
ramifications of the mistake in the administrative process are of particular
importance. Did the mistake cause the administrative agency to make an
ultra
vires
decision or a decision that violates the law in some other way? Or is
the decision, though undesirable from the point of view of the agency,
nevertheless legal? In
CA 433/80
I.B.M. Israel Assets v. Property Tax
Director and Compensation Fund of Tel-Aviv
[7] at 351, Justice Bach
classified the different kinds of administrative mistakes into three
categories:
1. A decision that violates the law or is
ultra
vires
in some other way;
2. A decision resulting from a technical bureaucratic
mistake, made inadvertently;
3. A decision involving an oversight, meaning that a
clerk improperly implemented the agency policy or exercised discretion
unreasonably.
What is the difference between each kind?
Public agencies generally can go back on the first two
types of decisions which are mistaken or in other ways contrary to the law and
make new decisions in their place;
The third kind of decision, involving only some kind
of โoversightโ in an exercise of discretion, is different. The agency will
generally be bound by its decision, especially when the citizen has already
begun to take action in accordance with the original decision.
Id.
at
351-52 (Bach, J.).
See also
CA
736/87
Yaakobovitch v. Land Appreciation Tax Director
of
Nazareth
[8] at 372; CA 1928/93
Securities
Authority v. Gabor Savarina Textile Factories
[9] at 191-92.
16. Under the case law, then, whether the
Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the petitionerโs license was justified
depends on the circumstances. If the Customs Authority mistakenly believed that
the petitioner had rights in the land, as required by the Regulations, and only
after granting the license did it realize the mistake, particularly if the
petitioner is to blame for the mistake, then the petitioner holds a license to
which it is not entitled under the Regulations, and the balance will tip toward
refusing to renew it. Are those the circumstances in this case?
Before discussing whether the
circumstances justify the Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the petitionerโs
license, I will examine the second reason cited for the refusal to renew. The
Customs Authority also claims that the petitioner violated its duty to disclose
information material to the license, meaning information material to its rights
in the land. Does the petitioner owe such a duty to the Customs Authority?
The Citizenโs Duty to the Agency
17. Contract law imposes a duty on contractual
parties, regardless of their identities, to disclose information material to
the circumstances at hand. That duty derives from the duty to negotiate a
contract formation in good faith and using acceptable forms of behavior, under
section 12 of the Contract Law (General Part), 1973. It also derives from the
obligation to act in good faith and use acceptable forms of behavior in
fulfilling a duty and exercising a right stemming from the contract, under section
39 of the Law. Section 15 governs the consequences of failing to disclose
information which must be disclosed under the circumstances. According to
Section 15, a party who enters a contract because of a misrepresentation made
by the other party has the right to void the contract. What is considered misrepresentation?
Under the section, it includes, โnondisclosure of facts which the other party
should have disclosed by law, by custom, or under the circumstances.โ The rule
incorporates the duty of good faith under sections 12 and 39 of the Law,
including the duty to disclose facts.
See e.g.
CA 338/85
Speigelman
v. Chapnik
at 426 [10].
See also
G. Shalev,
Dinei Chozim
[77]
at 55, 223. Contract law imposes a duty to disclose material facts, and
non-disclosure of such facts is grounds for voiding the contract.
This duty applies to contracts between the
citizen and the administrative agency, obligating the citizen as well as the
agency.
See
,
e.g.
, HC 707/80
Ilanot Housing, Building and
Development Co. v.
Arad
Local Council
[11] at 312.
See also
Shalev,
supra
[77] at 652.
In public law, however, there is no
similar statute imposing a duty to disclose material facts on parties in a
power relationship involving a lawful exercise of authority, such as in a citizenโs
application for a license. Must we conclude that, in the context of this
relationship, both the administrative agency as well as the citizen may conceal
material facts from each other?
No properly-functioning society could
accept that possibility. If the law forbids people from misleading each other,
including concealing material facts,
a fortiari
it forbids people from misleading
an administrative agency, which is the embodiment of the public. A person who
misleads an administrative agency misleads the public, even if only indirectly.
The result may be that the agency, in the name of the public and sometimes at
its expense, grants a benefit to a person who misled the agency and who is not
entitled to the benefit. Misleading an administrative agency harms the public
as a whole. If contract law forbids a person from misleading another, including
by concealing material facts, could public law permit a person to mislead the
public? Justice Alonโs comments on good faith are instructive here:
Just as the legal system forbids a contractual party
from โusing the contract to play the scoundrel,โ so it also forbids and
prohibits the party from using the law or public activity, in any area of law,
to play the โscoundrel.โ
CA 391/80
Mira Lesserson v. Workers Housing Ltd.
[12] at 262.
The legal system cannot allow that
possibility to take place. It delineates two ways of preventing
misrepresentation, including the concealment of material facts, in public law
as well. The first way is to copy the duty to act in good faith, as established
by the Contract Law (General Part), from private law into public law. The
second way is to establish a special public law rule.
First, we will evaluate whether the duty
to act in good faith applies in public law, and whether it applies to a citizen
in his or her dealings with an administrative agency.
The Duty of Good Faith
18. Although they are designed primarily
to apply to contracts, the provisions of the Contract Law (General Part) have
other applications as well:
Where appropriate and with the necessary changes, the
provisions of this law apply to legal actions not involving contracts and to
obligations that do not stem from a contract.
Id.
at
sec. 61(b).
Under the simple language of the statute, the
provisions of sections 12 and 39, which impose a duty of good faith, can also
apply to the actions of an administrative agency, so long as they are โlegal
actions.โ Undoubtedly, an administrative agency, acting by law to grant rights
to a citizen or to impose obligations on him or her, engages in legal actions.
Such actions may, for example, include granting a license or pension,
confiscating land, and assessing taxes. It would therefore seem right to say
that the Contract Law (General Part) imposes a duty of good faith on the agency
to the citizen and on the citizen to the agency, when they engage in these
actions.
Indeed, the case law supports this
position. President Sussman addressed the principle established by section 39
of the Contract Law (General Part), imposing a duty of good faith:
As an expression of a universal rule of behavior
between persons and between a person and an agency, this principle imposes
obligations beyond this context, and it also applies in public law.
CA 402/76
Azaranikov v. State of
Israel
[13]
at 274.
See also
HC
640/77
Baranovsky v. Department of Customs and Excise Director
[14] at
78; HC 566/81
Amrani v. Chief Rabbinical Court
[15] at 10; HC 221/86
Kanafi
v. National Labor Court
[16] at 476-77.
True, thus far, the Courtโs application of
this principle in public law has been limited to imposing a duty on the
administrative agency,
vis ร vis
the citizen. The principle,
however, as established by the Contract Law (General Part), applies to both
parties. It would seem, therefore, that we can use the principle to impose a
duty of good faith on the citizen
vis ร vis
the administrative
agency.
The duty of good faith requires one party
to disclose material information to another.
See
para. 17,
supra
.
It would therefore seem that a citizen who applies to an administrative agency
for a license or other benefit has an obligation to disclose the information
material to the application. If the citizen violates this duty, and the agency,
as a result, grants the license or other benefit, the agency may void its
decision.
19. The public law duty of good faith that
we might impose on both parties to the legal actions of an administrative
agency is not necessarily the same duty as that imposed on parties to a
contract. The duty of good faith varies with the circumstances. Good faith in
the relationship between parties to a sales contract is not necessarily the
same as the good faith between trustee and beneficiary or principle and agent.
See
FH 22/82
Beit Yules Ltd .v. Raviv Moshe & Partners, Ltd.
[17] at 484.
If good faith changes according to the type of contract, it certainly changes
according to the field of law. Section 61(b) of the Contract Law (General Part)
applies the statutory provisions, including those addressing good faith, to legal
actions not involving contracts, only โwhere appropriate and with the necessary
changes.โ In translating the duty of good faith into public law, we can
therefore adapt it to the special nature of that field.
See
HC 376/81
Lugassi
v. Communications Minister
[18] (hereinafter โ the
Lugassi
case) at
465.
It is possible, then, to apply the duty of
good faith, with adaptations, into the field of public law and to require the
citizen to disclose material information to the agency. Is that what the rule is?
20. The question is not whether it is
possible, but rather whether it is desirable, to copy the duty of good faith,
with the necessary changes, from private law into public law. Section 61(b) of
the Contract Law (General Part) says that the statutory provisions apply to
legal actions not involving contracts only โwhere appropriate.โ Is it
appropriate to impose a duty of good faith in public law? As noted, some
justices have said yes.
Para
. 18,
supra
. However, some justices believe
that the duty of good faith, as established in private law, is inappropriate
for public law.
Justice Shamgar discussed this issue in
the
Lugassi
case [18]. He said that while an administrative agency must
act in good faith, that duty does not arise from the Contract Law (General
Part). In his words (at 455-56):
The intention [of Section 61(b) of this law โ I.Z.]
was not that a norm from contract law would be adopted as is into
administrative law, which, for a long time, has already had a robust, existing
rule about good faith, derived from another source. In any event, the condition
that the provisions of the statute will be applied โwhere appropriate and with
the necessary changesโ means there should not be a simplistic standardization
of private law and public law rules. It is preferable not to take things out of
the context of their subject matter and primary legal source. In any case, we
do not need to look at what is said in section 61(b) in order to evaluate the
good faith of an administrative agency, the way it acts, and its fulfillment of
its duties โฆ
Justice Ben-Porat concurred in that opinion (
Id.
at
465).
I, too, agree with Justice Shamgar. From
the outset, administrative agencies had a duty of proper behavior
vis
ร vis
the citizen, irrespective of the duty of good faith established
in the Contract Law (General Part). There is no need, and it would not be a
good idea, to uproot the agencyโs duty of proper behavior, which sprouted long
ago in public law soil, and to replace it with a good faith duty that sprouted
later, in a different kind of soil, namely that of private law. This is
especially true because there is a difference between the two duties. The soil
of private law bore one species of the duty of good faith, while the soil of
public law bore a different species. The fact that those species bear the same
name might blur the distinction. Differentiating the names can help make the
difference more pronounced and preserve the distinction in substance, and
indeed, today we do use different names: in private law, there is a duty of
good faith; in public law, there is a duty of fairness.
To be sure, there is a duty of good faith
in public law, as well, but it generally has a different meaning: we say that
an administrative agency is not acting in good faith when it knows it is not
acting according to the law, such as when it makes a decision based on an
irrelevant consideration, knowing the consideration is illegitimate.
See
e.g.
the
Lugassi
case [18] at 459-60. We should preserve the
distinction between the meanings of each phrase: in public law, good faith
refers to the mental state of the administrative agency (which can also be
called arbitrariness or malice), while fairness refers to the behavior
(including omissions) of the administrative agency.
21. What, then, is the difference between
the duty of good faith in private law and the duty of fairness in public law?
The difference in the nature of the duties reflects a difference in the nature
of the relationships. First of all, the relationship between an administrative
agency and a citizen is generally a relationship of authority, under the law,
while the relationship between citizens is generally one of equality, under an
agreement. Moreover, the relationship between an agency and a citizen, as is
common in relationships of authority, is one of trusteeship. Professor A. Barak
explained that well in his book,
Judicial Discretion
[78]:
In determining the content of an administrative duty
of fairness, the judge must compare it to the contractual duty of good faith. The
two are not one and the same. The contractual duty of good faith sets a minimum
level of fairness based on contractual โrivalry.โ Each contractual party seeks
to achieve his or her self-interest, and the rules of good faith are designed
to guarantee โa fair game,โ set by the ethical perspective of enlightened
Israeli society. The administrative duty of fairness is different. It is not
based on rivalry between the self-interest of the public agency and the
interest of the citizen. The public agency takes care of the general interest,
including the interest of the citizen. The public agency has no โselfโ interest
of its own. The duty of fairness in administrative law therefore imposes a
higher-level duty than the โcontractualโ duty of good faith. This is not
minimal fairness, but rather the fairness imposed on a body charged with
achieving the collective interest.
Id.
at 487-88.
See also
Id.
at 473-75.
Justice
Dorner addressed this point as well:
The duty of administrative fairness โ rooted in the
status of the agency as a trustee of the public โ is more exacting than the
duty of good faith required of an individual.
HC 4422/92
Efran v.
Israel
Land
Administration
[19] at 860.
I think these principles lead to an
additional conclusion. For administrative agencies, we should distinguish
between two areas: actions in the field of private law and actions in the field
of public law. When an administrative agency acts in the field of private law, such
as by forming a contract, it bears a double duty: the private law duty of good
faith and the public law duty of fairness. In practice, however, because the
duty of fairness is more exacting, it will generally encompass the duty of good
faith. As a practical matter, within the field of private law, the duty of
fairness suffices. On the other hand, when the agency acts in the field of
public law, such as by considering an application for a license, the duty of
good faith does not apply at all. Because the agency bears a similar duty โ the
duty of fairness โ we might say, in the language of section 61(b) of the
Contract Law (General Part), that the duty of good faith is not appropriate.
See
also
Shalev,
supra
[77] at 45. Practically, we can say that the
administrative agency is subject to the duty of fairness in all its actions,
whether in public or private law, and there is no need to subject it to the
duty of good faith.
What, then, is the duty of fairness?
Duty of Fairness
22. A cornerstone of public administrative
law is that the administrative agency, as the trustee of the public, must
behave fairly.
See e.g.
HC 840/79,
Center for Contractors and Builders in
Israel v. Government of Israel
[20] at 745-46. The administrative agency owes
a duty of fairness, first and foremost, to the public. This is the duty of a
trustee to a beneficiary. In practice, because the public is composed of
people, the duty does not just apply to the public as an abstract body but also
to every person.
It is often said that the administrative
agency owes a duty of fairness to the citizen. One can say that, but we should
bear in mind that, in this context, citizen means person, including a resident
who is not a citizen and a collective body such as a corporation.
The duty of fairness that an
administrative authority owes the citizen is the conceptual source for various
rules governing the relationship between the agency and the citizen. An example
of this is the rule requiring the agency to grant the right to be heard to
those affected by its decisions. As President Agranat said:
The reason for the above-stated rule [the citizenโs
right to be heard before the administrative agency โ I.Z.] is to guarantee that
the administrative agency will address the citizenโs concern with fairness โฆ
HC 549/75
Noach Film Company, Ltd. v. Film Review
Council
[21] at 767.
The same is true of the rule about
fulfilling administrative promises. In Justice Berinsonโs words:
[If โ trans.] a promise is given by an official, within
the bounds of his or her authority, with the intention of giving it legal
validity, where the other party accepted it as such, then public fairness
demands that the promise in fact be fulfilled, even if the citizen did not
change his or her position for the worse in reliance on the promise.
HC 135/75
Cy-Tex Corporation Ltd. v. Trade and
Industry Minister
[22] at 676.
23.
Such is the duty of fairness imposed on the administrative agency to the
citizen. Does just the administrative agency bear the duty of fairness, while
the citizen is exempt from the obligation to treat the agency fairly?
The
answer is that the relationship between the agency and the citizen is, in fact,
two-sided. In my opinion, the citizen should therefore owe a duty of fairness to
the agency, as the agency owes a duty of fairness to the citizen. This
requirement is deeply rooted: it springs from the social contract at the
foundation of the state. Under this contract, as it is understood in a
democratic state, the agency and the citizen stand not on opposite sides of the
barricade but rather side-by-side, as partners in the state. In a democracy, as
Justice Silberg said, โthe government is part of the very body of the citizen
โฆโ HC 3/58,
Berman v. Interior Minister
[23] at 1511. The government [โฆ
โ ed.] has a duty to serve the public โ to guarantee safety and order; to
provide essential services; to protect the dignity and liberty of every
citizen; to do social justice. The public administration, however, which has
nothing of its own, can only give the public what it receives from the public. It
is desirable, indeed, necessary, that the relationship between the
administration and the public be a reciprocal relationship of give-and-take.
The same is true of the relationship between the public administration and the
citizen. As a moral and a practical matter, the citizen cannot assume that he
or she may demand and receive from the agency without being obligated to
provide anything. A citizenโs right
vis ร vis
the agency is
coupled with an obligation
vis ร vis
the agency. This is the essence
of the social contract among citizens and between citizens and the public
administration. It is also the root of the existence of the state.
24.
The citizenโs obligations to the state, in essence, to the public, are
generally delineated in the statute books: the duty to pay taxes, to go to
school until a certain age, to serve in the army, and others. Duties may also,
however, arise from judicial case law. That is how the administrative agencyโs
duty of fairness to the citizen arose. That is also how the citizenโs duty of
fairness to the administrative agency arises.
If
the citizen did not bear a duty of fairness to the administrative agency, we
might say that the citizen bears a duty of good faith in his or her
relationship with the agency, under section 61(b) of the Contract Law (General
Part).
See
para. 18,
supra
. The duty of fairness, in this
context, however, is preferable to the duty of good faith. First, the duties
involved in the relationship between the administrative agency and the citizen
should not come from different sources, meaning that the agency bears the duty
of fairness, whose source is public law, and the citizen bears the duty of good
faith, whose source is private law. The harmony between the citizen and the
agency will be enriched if reciprocal duties arise from a single source, namely
public law.
Second,
the relationship between the citizen and the administrative agency, which
represents the public, is substantially different from the relationship between
citizens. When the agency acts within the field of public law, therefore, we
should not copy the duty of good faith from private law and apply it, even with
changes, to the relationship between the citizen and the agency. It is better
to allow the case law to develop the duty that arises from this relationship in
its own way, appropriate to the environment in which the duty lives, namely the
environment of public law. I call this duty, arising from public law, the duty
of fairness.
25.
What does the duty of fairness include? There is no comprehensive answer, even
within the context of the agencyโs duty to the citizen, except to say that this
court has long recognized such a duty. Indeed, we would do well not to give a
comprehensive answer. The concept of the duty of fairness, by nature, is opaque.
It can and should be filled with content from time to time, according to
changing needs, rather than delineated into a rigid definition. It should be
open-ended, so that new rules can be added and subtracted as necessary.
The
same is certainly true of the citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency. This
duty is a new concept. It must develop gradually, as the common law does, from
case to case, until the time is ripe to formulate rules.
Having
said that, and without pretending to make any final ruling, I would like to
suggest guidelines to characterize a citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency:
(a)
In a well-ordered society, the duty of fairness must express the appropriate
relationship between the public administration, which acts as the trustee of
the public, and citizens, who are the public. This relationship is a reciprocal
relationship between partners in a goal-oriented activity, based on respect,
trust, and reliability. The duty of fairness should develop from this
foundation, gradually becoming a system of flexible rules by which both citizen
and agency must and can abide. Compare this with the nature of the duty of good
faith, FH 22/82 [17] at 484-85.
(b)
As noted, an agencyโs duty of fairness to the citizen is different from the
citizenโs duty of fairness to another citizen, because of the different nature
of the two kinds of relationships.
See
para. 21,
supra
.
Similarly, the citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency may differ from his or
her duty of good faith to a fellow citizen.
(c)
It would seem that a citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency differs from the
agencyโs duty of fairness to the citizen, because of the difference between the
status of a citizen and the status of an agency. The agency is a trustee of the
public, including of the citizen, and the duties stemming from that status
differ from the duties owed by a citizen.
(d)
The citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency, like the agencyโs duty of
fairness to the citizen, varies with the circumstances of each case. One
example is the agencyโs duty to hear the citizen, which derives from the duty
of fairness. Ordinarily, the agency fulfills that duty by providing an
opportunity for the citizen to submit something in writing; in certain
circumstances, the duty of fairness may obligate the agency to conduct an oral
hearing or even to allow the citizen to examine witnesses. As Justice Sussman
said in HC 335/68
Israeli Consumer Council v. Chair of the Gas Services
Investigatory Committee
[24] at 334:
There is no standard rule we can set for the way the
agency must proceed on every issue, except to say that it must treat the
citizen with fairness. The appropriate level of fairness depends on the
circumstances.
We can say the same thing about the citizenโs duty of
fairness to the agency: the decision about whether, in a particular case, the
citizen must behave in a certain way toward the agency depends on the
circumstances.
26. While I will not attempt to define the
citizenโs duty of fairness to the agency, I will suggest, again, without
setting a rigid rule, examples of duties that derive from the duty of fairness.
In my opinion, the duty to act with the
speed appropriate to the circumstances derives from the duty of fairness. The
agency owes such duty to the citizen.
See
sec. 11 of the Interpretation
Law, 1981.
See also
HC 135/71
Fresman v. Traffic Supervisor
[25]
at 540. In my opinion, the citizen owes a similar duty to the administrative
agency.
Similarly, the requirement that a citizen
not shirk obligations that he or she has undertaken to the agency derives from
the duty of fairness.
See e.g.
HC 1930/94
Nathan v. Defense Minister
[26],
p. 655 and thereafter.
Elsewhere I noted an additional example:
It is a question whether a person who alleges that an
agency is acting outside the scope of its authority may suppress that
allegation, only to raise it later, if and when it becomes convenient to do so.
For example, may a person choose to wait and see how the agency decides: to
keep quiet if it decides in his or her favor, not saying a word about
authority, but if the agency decides against him or her, to argue that the
action was
ultra vires
from the outset? That question remains open. In
my opinion, the right rule is that a person who has allegations against an
administrative agency must compile them and present all of them to the agency
at the earliest opportunity to do so, rather than suppress part of them until
he or she feels like raising them. That rule applies to an allegation of
ultra
vires
actions. Such an allegation means that the agency must remove itself
from the case and that perhaps another agency can and must deal with it. It is
inappropriate to let the administrative agency continue to take the trouble,
and possibly to trouble others, for a pointless discussion. We might say that
alongside the agencyโs duty to treat the citizen with fairness, a parallel duty
is imposed on the citizen to treat the agency with fairness. The duty of
fairness obligates a citizen who claims that an agency acted without authority
to raise that claim at the earliest opportunity.
2
I.
Zamir,
Hasamchut Haminhalit
[79] at 696-97.
The Duty to Disclose
27. The duty of fairness is the source of
the duty to disclose information material to the matter at hand. This duty is
owed, first and foremost, by the administrative agency to the citizen. It is
expressed in the agencyโs obligation to hear the citizen before making a
decision that could harm his or her interests. As Justice Barak said in HC
656/80
Abu Romi v. Health Minister
[27] at 189:
The right to a hearing is not properly observed unless
[the agency โ trans.] brings information that has been received in the
citizenโs case to his or her attention and provides an opportunity to respond
to it appropriately.
It is also expressed in the agencyโs duty,
in certain circumstances, to grant a citizen access to the agency file
connected to his or her case. As Justice Witkon said in HC 337/66
Estate of
Kalman Fital v. Assessment Committee, Town of
Holon
[28]
at 71-72:
A legitimate administration in a free society does not
approve of all of this โsecrecy,โ which erects a barrier between the government
and the citizen ....
The petitionerโs demand [to see the agency file โ I.Z.]
is justified, not just because his right to access the documents stems from the
provisions of the statute, but โ and primarily โ because the common sense and
elementary fairness in the public relations between government and citizen
inexorably lead to this conclusion.
The agencyโs obligation to disclose information to the
citizen has been expressed in additional contexts, in legislation and in case
law, and it continues to develop.
28. The citizen also owes a duty to
disclose material information. As noted, in private law, a citizen owes a duty
of disclosure to other citizens, as part of the duty to act in good faith.
Para
. 17,
supra
.
A citizen who petitions the court for a remedy against an administrative agency
also owes that duty. For example, President Shamgar discussed that duty (which
is part of the duty to act with clean hands) in HC 421/86
Ashkenazi v.
Transportation Minister
[29] at 410:
A primary rule that has always guided this court is
that someone who petitions the High Court of Justice must disclose all relevant
facts to the Court. Someone who conceals facts that bear on the petition does
not deserve a remedy from the Court.
The citizen bears a similar duty to the
administrative agency, not just in the field of private law, but also in public
law. That duty may be imposed by legislation, as a condition of receiving a
certain license or benefit. However, even if there is no statutorily-imposed
duty, it exists under the common law as an expression of the duty of fairness.
Fairness does not tolerate a situation in which a citizen seeks a license or
benefit from an administrative agency to which he or she is not entitled or in
some other way tries to influence the agencyโs decision through
misrepresentation, including by concealing information. Disclosure of material,
reliable information by a citizen applying to the agency is not just a moral
imperative, it is also a practical need. After all, an agency must make its
decision based on the relevant considerations. If the citizen conceals material
information, it is likely to eliminate relevant factors from the agencyโs
awareness, obstruct the work of balancing considerations, and distort the
agencyโs decision. As a result, the agency is likely to make a wrong or perhaps
even illegal decision, to the detriment of the public. For example, it may
grant a license to someone who is not qualified, or give a money grant from the
public treasury to someone who is not eligible. Hence the rule, derived from
the duty of fairness, that a citizen must disclose to the agency material and
reliable information related to the issue at hand.
29. The Court articulated this rule in HC
727/88
Awad v. Religious Affairs Minister
(hereinafter โ the Awad case)
[30]. There, the Minister of Religious Affairs authorized the appointment of
the petitioner as chair of the religious council in Rosh Haayin. The minister
later discovered that the petitioner had been convicted of stealing in the
course of his job as treasurer of the religious council. The minister rescinded
his approval of the appointment, and the petitioner challenged that decision. The
Court held that a candidateโs qualifications for a job, including whether he
has a criminal past, are relevant considerations that the minister properly
took into account in deciding about the appointment. Justice Barak added:
In formulating his position on these qualifications,
the minister accessed a set of facts that did not comport with reality. The
minister knew nothing about the petitionerโs conviction in the past. Moreover,
under the circumstances, the petitioner had a duty to inform the local council
about his conviction, and both the local council and the petitioner had a duty
to inform the minister about the conviction. The duty of good faith and
fairness require nothing less โฆ
Id.
at
492.
30. What does the citizenโs duty to
disclose material information to the agency require? At this stage, the answer
is unclear. At this stage, the circumstances of each case will determine what
the duty to disclose requires in that particular case. As time goes by, a
clearer answer will surely arise from the case law. Even at this stage,
however, the following thoughts emerge:
(a) Regarding the scope: The duty does not
necessarily apply to every relationship between the citizen and the
administrative agency. It primarily applies to cases in which a citizen requests
something from the administrative agency, such as a license, appointment, or
other benefit, in contrast to cases in which the agency exercises power without
being asked to do so by the citizen, particularly if such power harms the
citizen. There may definitely, however, be exceptional cases in which the scope
of the duty expands or contracts, depending on the special circumstances of
each case.
(b) Regarding the substance: The citizen
is only obligated to give the agency information that he or she has or can
access and that is relevant to the issue at hand. Such a consideration should
be taken into account by the agency, and it may affect the content of the
decision. In other words, the citizen need not give the agency information
about an irrelevant consideration, which the agency, in any event, is barred
from taking into account.
(c) The relevant considerations are often
numerous and diverse, some of which are primary and some of which are
secondary. Generally, as a practical matter, the agency cannot and is not
required to take all relevant considerations into account, but rather only the
primary ones. There is therefore no need, and it would be impractical, to
require the citizen to disclose all relevant considerations to the agency, with
no exceptions. It suffices if the citizen discloses the primary considerations
that could substantially influence the agencyโs decision. The citizen, like the
agency, must behave reasonably. In other words, the right test for the level of
disclosure is the test of the reasonable citizen, and perhaps more accurately,
the test of the reasonable and fair citizen.
(d) The citizenโs duty to disclose does
not exempt the administrative agency from its duty to do its own check of the
facts that form the basis for its exercise of authority.
31. An additional question of great
practical importance is the question of the consequences of the citizenโs breach
of this duty. Does a breach of the citizenโs duty to disclose necessarily lead
to revoking the agencyโs decision? The answer is no. The consequences of breaching
the duty depend on every case and its circumstances. In some cases, the breach may
justify revoking the decision, whether itโs a decision to give a license, award
a pension, make an appointment, or do something else; in other cases, the breach
may justify changing an aspect of the decision, declining to renew the license,
or another choice that does not rise to the level of revoking the original
decision; and sometimes, the circumstances will not justify making a change to
the citizenโs detriment.
As a matter of principle, on this issue and for
others, we should distinguish between breach of a duty and the implications of the
breach. That is the case when an administrative agency breaches a duty; not
every breach voids the decision. On this issue, I noted:
We should distinguish carefully between a rule
obligating an administrative agency and the remedy that the court grants for
violating the rule. The rule exists on one plane, and the remedy on another.
Ex
poste
, the considerations that the court weighs may differ from the
considerations binding the agency
ex ante
. Therefore, the agency should
fulfill its duty under the case law to grant a hearing, without regard to the
anticipated or potential result of breaching the duty.
HC 2911/94
Baki v. Interior Ministry Director-General
[31] at 304.
See
also
HC 2918/03
City of Kiryat Gat v. State of Israel
[32] at 848.
32.
The same is true of a citizenโs duty of disclosure owed to the administrative
agency โ we should distinguish between the duty to disclose and the
implications of breaching that duty. The duty of disclosure exists in its own
right, and the citizen is not exempt from it, even in circumstances in which breaching
the duty would not justify voiding the agencyโs decision or taking other steps
against the citizen. The set of considerations requiring the citizen to fulfill
the duty differs from the set of considerations guiding the agency (or, at the
stage of review, the court) in its response to the breach.
Any
response to a citizenโs breach of duty must take into account the need to
respect and carry out administrative decisions. The administrative decision may
grant a right to a citizen or create an expectation upon which he or she
relies, and denying that right, frustrating that expectation, or undermining
either of them by voiding or changing the decision should be done only after
seriously considering the matter. Which considerations come to bear on the duty
of disclosure?
First,
it matters what information the citizen failed to disclose to the agency. Was
it of primary or secondary importance for the matter at hand? Was it
information that the citizen had, should have had, or should have taken the
trouble to obtain? Was it information of which the agency was aware or should
have been aware from its own sources, or information that, by its nature, is
available to the citizen but not the agency? The important question here is
whether the citizenโs disclosure of the information was reasonably likely to
have changed the agencyโs decision. If the information is a relevant consideration
of substantive importance, and the agency did not take it into account before
making the decision, then the decision is flawed, irrespective of the citizenโs
breach of the duty, and that flaw is sometimes enough to justify voiding the
decision.
An
additional consideration of substantial importance concerns the citizenโs
intention. Do the circumstances indicate that the citizen intended to mislead
the agency in order to influence its decision, or did the citizen willfully
remain blind or act negligently? If so, breach of the duty is very serious, and
in some cases may even rise to the level of criminal behavior. In any event, in
a case like that, the citizenโs reliance interest becomes so weak as perhaps to
disappear entirely. A citizen who knowingly misleads the agency, knowing that
the agencyโs decision will be based on the misinformation, cannot use his or
her reliance interest to prevent the agency from changing or voiding its
decision.
Similarly,
it is always relevant to consider the harm to the public interest that is
likely to result from the citizenโs breach of the duty, weighed against the
damage that the citizen will likely suffer if the agency changes or cancels its
decision.
There
may be additional considerations. Consider, for example, HC 135/71,
supra
[25]. In that case, the Traffic Supervisor decided to revoke a taxi license
after finding out that in applying for the license, the license-holder gave
misleading information about the period of time in which he had worked as a
taxi-driver. Acting President Sussman said:
The petitioner misled the agency about the time in
which he had worked as a taxi-driver. That mistake is what led the agency,
against the rules, to award him more points than he was entitled to receive.
Had the agency known the truth, it would not have awarded him the license. Just
as a contracting party who is misled may void the contract, so too, in
administrative law, can an agency revoke a license it granted, if it did so
because of fraud or misrepresentation โฆ
Id.
At
539.
Nevertheless,
the Court held that, under the circumstances of that case, the Traffic
Supervisor erred in revoking the license. Why? Primarily โbecause the
respondents failed to act with the required promptness. They delayed the matter
too long, for no reasonable purpose.โ
Id.
at 541.
Whether
the administrative agency may revoke the decision, change its terms, refuse to
renew a license or take other action against a citizen who violated the duty to
disclose depends on the balance of the relevant considerations. It is incumbent
upon the administrative agency to exercise caution before taking action against
a citizen who violated the duty of disclosure, to make sure it does not shirk
the proper execution of its job, does not treat the citizenโs minor violations strictly,
as if they were major, and does not cause more harm to the citizen than is
warranted by the circumstances.
What,
then do the circumstances warrant in the case before us?
The Case at Bar
33.
The case at bar requires us to examine two claims which, according to the
Customs Authority, justify its refusal to renew the petitionerโs license.
Supra
para. 13. The first claim concerns the petitionerโs rights in the land for
which the license was granted: the Customs Authority was justified in refusing
to renew the license once it learned that the petitioner had no rights in the
land, as required by the Regulations. The second claim concerns the
petitionerโs duty of disclosure owed to the Customs Authority: the petitioner breached
its duty when, prior to receiving the license, it failed to disclose material
information about its rights in the land to the Customs Authority. According to
the Customs Authority, the very breach of that duty justifies refusing to renew
the license.
34.
First, regarding the petitionerโs rights in the land: As mentioned, under the Regulations,
a license applicant must declare to the Customs Authority that it is the owner,
renter, or lessee of the land for which the license is requested.
Supra
para. 9. That right in the land is, according to the Regulations, a condition of
or at least a relevant consideration in applying for the license. Did the
petitioner have such a right?
When
asked by the Customs Authority to produce a rental agreement or lease for the
land, the petitioner sent the contract.
Supra
para. 10. The contract,
however, is neither a rental agreement nor a lease, and it does not appear to
be one either on its face or upon close scrutiny. Indeed, the petitioner itself
does not claim that the contract, by itself, grants a right to rent or lease the
land. Paragraph 12 of the petition says that, โthe contract itself contains no
explicit prohibition against the petitioner storing freight in the area.โ Of
course, the absence of an explicit prohibition on storage is not the same as
the petitionerโs receiving permission to store freight on land that doesnโt
belong to it. Does the contract grant that permission? The petitioner fails to
point to a single clause of the contract that says that the petitioner was
granted a right to lease or rent or even permission to store freight on the
land. Moreover, paragraph 13 of the petition says that, โAfter signing the
agreement, the representatives of the P.A. [Port Authority โ I.Z.] and the
petitionerโs representatives reached an agreement that โฆ among other purposes,
the area would be used for storing freight.โ In other words, the agreement on
storage was reached only after the contract was signed. Paragraph 29 of the
petition says that, โThe understanding regarding the size of the area, its
boundaries, and its designations was reached after the signing.โ The
petitioner, however, in response to the Customs Authorityโs request to produce
a rental or lease agreement, produced only the contract, as though it granted
it a right to rent or lease the land. It added nothing about an agreement or
understanding reached after the contract was signed. In other words, to the
Customs Authority, the petitioner produced only the contract, as though it
granted it a right of rental or lease, even though the petitioner itself
acknowledged that the contract granted no such right, and that is the right
that the Regulations require.
It
is therefore necessary to clarify whether the petitioner was granted such
right, as it claims, after the contract was signed. Recall that according to
the appendix to the contract, signed along with the contract, the petitioner
may use the land โexclusively for the purposes of loading and/or unloading
trainsโ and that, โAny change of any kind to the plot and/or anything attached
and/or connected to it requires the advance written approval of the Director-General
of Israel Railways.โ
Supra
para. 4. The petitioner, however, does not
claim to have any such permission from the Director-General of Israel Railways
or from anyone else authorized or pretending to be authorized to write on
behalf of the director-general.
Moreover,
on January 1, 1996, a year and a half after the contract was signed, the Railways
Deputy told the petitioner in writing that it was not permitted to use the land
for purposes other than loading and unloading, that โ[s]eizure and use of the
land constitute a violation of the contract,โ and that โ[y]ou must immediately vacate
the areas noted above.โ
Supra
para. 7. One would think that the
petitioner, consistent with its version of the story, would rush to tell the Railways
Deputy that the agreement reached after the signing of the contract gave it a
right to store freight on the land. However, the petitioner failed to respond
to the letter entirely. Only two months later, in response to an additional
letter sent by the Railways Deputy, did the petitioner address the question of
use of the land. In that response, however, it did not claim that there was no
basis for the charge of contractual violation or that there was no basis for
demanding that it vacate the land, because it was using the area pursuant to an
agreement. The Director-General of the petitioner wrote to the Railways Deputy,
saying only that, during the course of the last meetings on the subject, โto
the best of my recollection, we agreed to find a way to resolve the issue.โ
Even afterward, in the months during which the Port Authority repeated its
demands that the petitioner immediately vacate the land, the petitioner never
said that it had a right of rental or lease in the land or that it had a right
to fence in the land and use it to store freight.
Supra
para. 7.
During
the course of this petition, the petitioner had another chance to produce proof
about its right to rent or lease the land. Bear in mind that the petitioner is
challenging the Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew its license for the land,
after the Customs Authority concluded that the petitioner did not and does not
have a right in the land. How does the petitioner respond to this stance of the
Customs Authority? Its answer is based on two claims, outlined in paragraph 30
of the petition:
The scheme clearly contains a notation that the area in
question is intended for storage. That document was signed by the Director of
the Engineering
Department in the P.A./Israel
Railways, and the petitioner claims that it is binding in every way. This
scheme comes in addition to the oral understandings and agreements reached
between the P.A. representatives and the petitioner, and together they
constitute the basis for the extensive project and investment undertaken in
reliance on the [written โ trans.] agreement and the additional agreements and
understandings.
The petitioner, however, provides no details
whatsoever about those agreements and understandings (who agreed or understood,
what was agreed or understood, etc.), and it provides no documents to support
that claim. It merely makes the claim, which is unsupported by the
correspondence between the petitioner and the Port Authority and has no weight
as a evidence. We should further recall that, according to the contract, the
oral agreements and understandings that the petitioner claims took place are
insufficient to authorize transferring a large piece of land to the possession
and use of the petitioner, contradicting the contractโs explicit provisions,
including the provision requiring โthe advance written approval of the
Director-General of Israel Railways.โ
The sole piece of evidence left for the
petitioner is the scheme, that is, the second scheme from
May 15, 1995
, in
which the area of land is marked as โstorage area.โ
Supra
para. 3. The
petitioner presents the second scheme (signed a year after the contract was
signed) as if it were the only scheme. That is not the case. The first scheme
was prepared as early as
January 3, 1994
(a year and a half before the contract was signed)
and signed by the petitioner and two deputies director-general of the Railways,
who also signed the contract itself. The first scheme outlines the route of the
extension, and it includes no marks designating land use, whether for storage
or any other purpose. The second scheme was prepared, as noted above, a year
and a half later, by the petitionerโs planner, in order to mark the new extension
route proposed by the petitioner. It was signed not by the two deputies
director-general who signed the first scheme, but rather only by the Director
of the Railways Engineering Department.
The petitioner claims that the second
scheme is proof that the Port Authority agreed to let it use the land for
storage. The Port Authority counters that in signing the second scheme, the Director
of the Israel Railways Engineering Department intended only to approve the new
route of the extension from an engineering point of view and not to approve the
use of the land, something he was neither involved in nor even authorized to
decide. In paragraph 7 of its response affidavit, the Port Authority claims
that:
According to what he told me, all that Mr. Doron Rubin,
Director of the Israel Railways Engineering Department, was asked to do was to
sign the back of the scheme from 1995, to indicate approval of the extension
route from an engineering point of view. Under these circumstances, claiming that
his signature granted rights in the land to the petitioner, just because the
petitionerโs planner added the words โstorage areaโ in the margins of the plan,
without bothering to call it to Mr. Rubinโs attention, is pure temerity, and it
stems from a failure to behave in good faith.
35. Are these claims and evidence enough
to rule that the petitioner has no right in the land? Definitely not. Whether
the petitioner has a right in the land is an open question, currently pending
before the Magistrateโs Court in
Ashdod
, as part of the action of ejectment brought by the
Port Authority against the petitioner. The Magistrateโs Court will rule on that
question in light of the arguments and evidence brought before it.
Supra
para. 8. That, however, is not the question that the Customs Authority faced,
and it is not the question before this court. The question before us is
whether, in considering whether to renew the license, the Customs Authority had
sufficient evidence to decide the issue. As is known, the evidence required to
base a decision by an administrative agency differs in substance and in weight
from the evidence required to base a judgment by a court. Administrative
agencies act according to the test of administrative evidence, not the rules of
evidence used in court. Under this test, the administrative agency must have
before it sufficient evidence upon which a reasonable person would rely, under
the circumstances, in order to make the decision in question.
See
HC
442/71
Lansky v. Interior Minister
[33] at 357; HC 987/94
Euronet
Golden Lines (1992) Ltd. v. Communications Minister
[34] at 423-24. Such
evidence may be sufficient to form the basis for a refusal to renew a license
or a revocation of the license.
See
e.g.
HC 475/81,
supra
[6] at 808.
In my opinion, under the test of
administrative evidence, the Customs Authority could have decided at the outset
that the petitioner had no right in the land, as required by the Regulations
for receipt of a license. The contract itself, which on its face is neither a
rental or lease agreement, would have been sufficient evidence for that
decision.
A fortiari
, it would have been sufficient afterward, in view
of the Port Authorityโs opposition to the petitionerโs seizure and possession
of the land. Under the test of administrative evidence, the evidence, which
would have been sufficient for a refusal to grant the license at the outset, is
also sufficient to determine, for purposes of renewing the license, that the
petitioner has no right in the land, as required by the Regulations.
The conclusion is therefore that the
Customs Authority granted the license to the petitioner based on a mistake
caused by the petitionerโs representation regarding its right in the land. Once
the mistake was discovered, and it became clear that, under the Regulations,
the petitioner was not entitled to the license, the Customs Authority had the
grounds needed under the case law to refuse to renew the license or even to
revoke it.
36. Nevertheless, under the facts of this
case, I have doubts as to whether these grounds by themselves are sufficient to
justify the Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the license for the land. My
doubt stems from two sources: First, the Customs Authority is not absolved of
responsibility for the mistake that, once discovered, motivated it to decline
to renew the petitionerโs license. As noted, when the petitioner applied for
the license, the Customs Authority asked it to send a rental or lease agreement
for the land, and it sent the contract. The contract, on its face, is neither a
rental nor a lease agreement, and that is obvious to a lawyer after a surface
reading of it. However, the Customs representative who handled the petitionerโs
application did not bother to read the contract at all. The Customs Authority
explained that in paragraph 8 of its response affidavit:
The Customs Authority representatives who approved the
petitionerโs request assumed, based on the relationship of trust that had
developed between the two and in light of the assumption that the petitioner
was acting in good faith, that the contract submitted by the petitioner indeed
granted it storage rights in the area in question and that there was no reason
not to approve the request.
This explanation does not absolve the
Customs Authority of responsibility. In every case, the Customs Authority, like
any administrative agency, must take reasonable steps to clarify whether the
conditions set by the statute or regulations for its exercise of authority have
been met. This is the administrative agencyโs duty owed to the public, which
has endowed it with authority, subject to certain conditions. The agency may
not exempt itself of the responsibility to investigate those conditions just
because it assumes, hopes, or trusts that the citizen will act in good faith.
Furthermore, the citizen can assume that
the agency conducts a reasonable investigation of the conditions necessary to
exercise its authority, and that if the agency grants the request, the citizen
may generally rely on the that decision. As Justice Barak said:
A license grantee may assume that the necessary checks
were done and that the he or she may begin investments and activities without
fear that everything will be re-opened just because of a mistake. There is
another reason, and it is connected to proper public administration.
Administrative agencies should establish a system of checks and investigations
that will allow it to arrive at its stance in advance, before the license is
granted. Only under an illegitimate and dangerous system of administration
would the agency first grant a license and only afterward investigate.
HC 799/80,
supra
[5] at 331.
The
question therefore becomes whether, under the circumstances of this case, the
mistake regarding the petitionerโs rights in the land was sufficient to justify
the Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the license.
The
second source of doubt is the fact that the balance of damages seems to tip
toward the petitioner. On the one hand, the petitioner invested a lot of money
in preparing the land to serve as a licensing warehouse, negotiated with
clients, has operated the warehouse for months, and will certainly suffer
substantial damage when forced to stop using the land as a licensing warehouse,
particularly if it is forced to do so immediately. On the other hand, what
damage would result if the petitioner continues to use the land as a licensing
warehouse until the civil court rules on the Port Authorityโs action to eject
the petitioner from the land? From the point of view of the Customs Authority,
there is no practical damage, because the land has been properly prepared for
use as a licensing warehouse, and only the question of the petitionerโs rights
in it remains open. There is therefore no concern that the petitioner will
store goods on which customs duties are owed unsafely or unsupervised. What of
the damage caused to the Port Authority? Such damage does not appear to be a
relevant consideration for the Customs Authorityโs decision whether to renew
the petitionerโs license. In any event, should the civil court rule that the
petitioner has no right in the land and that it is occupying the land as a
trespasser, the Port Authority may, should it so desire, sue the petitioner for
money damages in the form of the appropriate amount of rent, purging the petitioner
of unjust enrichment, or request any other remedy.
If
that is the case, should the Customs Authority renew the petitionerโs license
temporarily, pending the civil courtโs ruling on its right in the land? In the
final balance, were I required to rule on this case based exclusively on the
question of the right in the land, I think that I would rule against the
petitioner, despite my doubt. The primary reason is that, based on the
administrative evidence, the Customs Authorityโs granting of the license was
not just an error in judgment but was actually illegal, because it contradicted
the Regulations requiring that a license-holder have a right in the land. In
principle, an administrative agency is not supposed to accept an illegal
situation. Indeed, if it were a question of freezing the current situation for
just a brief period, pending a final ruling on the question of the right in the
land, it would have been possible to maintain the status quo, out of
consideration for the damage that the petitioner would otherwise suffer. In
practice, however, years may pass before the courts will give a final ruling,
including on any appeals. It would not serve the public interest to allow the
petitioner, which apparently received the license in violation of the Regulations,
to maintain the license and benefit from it for a long period of time, while
the authorized agency is helpless to correct the problem. Therefore, as noted,
if I had to rule on this case based on this reason alone, I think that, despite
the doubt, I would deny the petition.
However,
if any doubt remained about whether this reason is sufficient to justify the
Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the petitionerโs license for the land, the
second reason, namely breach of the duty to disclose, removes any doubt I might
have harbored.
37.
As noted, as part of the petitionerโs duty to disclose owed to the Customs
Authority, the petitioner had an obligation to disclose information material to
the license requested.
Supra
text beginning on para. 27. I have no doubt
that the petitioner violated that duty.
This
was the case from the petitionerโs first step in this case. When asked by the
Customs Authority to produce a โrental contract or leaseโ for the land, the
petitioner sent the Customs Authority the contract (in December 1995), noting
in its cover letter that, โEnclosed is the rental/lease agreement with the Port
Authority and the Railways.โ However, as noted, that contract is neither a
rental agreement nor a lease. Even the petitioner acknowledges in its petition
that its claim to a right in the land is based on understandings and agreements
made later.
Supra
para. 34. The petitioner, however, did not tell the
Customs Authority that its right in the land derives not from the contract but
rather from later understandings and agreements. Had it said that in the letter
sent to the Customs Authority, the Customs Authority would likely have sought
to clarify what those understandings and agreements are and why they are not
included in the appendix to the contract or in another document.
Moreover,
the petitioner sent the contract to the Customs Authority without attaching the
first scheme, which presents the extension route as it was first established.
Supra
paras. 2-3. Therefore, the picture presented to the Customs Authority was
incomplete and inaccurate. Had the petitioner attached the first scheme as
well, which left a smaller area between the extension and the warehouse, along
with an explanation about the change in the route, the Customs Authority might
have investigated and discovered the situation as the Port Authority viewed it.
In
any event, the petitioner knew very well that the Customs Authority required it
to have a right of rental or lease in the land, and that after it submitted the
contract, the Customs Authority believed that the petitioner did indeed have
such a right.
Even
if the petitioner believed it had such a right, not long after it submitted the
contract to the Customs Authority, it learned that the Port Authority thought
otherwise. The letter sent to the petitioner on
January 8, 1996
said, in the name
of the Port Authority, that the petitioner had seized the land in violation of
the contract and that it must immediately vacate the land. The Port Authority
repeated that stance over and over for a period of months.
Supra
para.
7. During that time, the petitionerโs application for a license was pending
before the Customs Authority until it decided, on
July 1, 1996
, to grant the
license requested. The petitioner should have known, if it did not in fact know,
that this information about the stance of the Port Authority was material to the
Customs Authorityโs decision on its application for a license. The petitioner
itself submitted the contract to the Customs Authority as proof of its rental
or lease right in the land. That being the case, during the months in which it
engaged in regular communications with the Customs Authority about the license,
how could the petitioner have neglected to inform it that the other party to
the contract vehemently denied that the contract imparted any such right
whatsoever to the petitioner?
If
the case involved private individuals, we might have said that the petitioner
was obligated to disclose that information to the other party as part of its
duty to act in good faith during negotiations leading to the formation of a
contract, under section 12 of the Contract Law (General Part), and that the
other party could consider the failure to disclose as a misrepresentation under
section 15 of that law and therefore void the contract. In this case, because
we are dealing with an administrative agency and not a private individual, we
can say that the petitioner breached its duty owed the Customs Authority to
disclose material information.
Violation
of the duty to disclose may result from a random mistake or from deliberate
misrepresentation. It is often difficult to distinguish between the two, and in
any event it is difficult to prove that the violation resulted from that
latter. Generally, however, there is no need to prove that. It is sufficient
that, under the facts of the case, the citizen, as a reasonable and fair
person, had a duty to disclose the material information to the agency, and that
the citizenโs violation of such duty caused the agency to be misled.
38.
Misleading an administrative agency by a citizenโs failure to disclose
information material to its application for a license or other benefit causes
substantial harm, not just to the agency but also to the public. It is clearly
in the public interest to avoid such misrepresentation. The public also has an
interest in revoking a license or other benefit given by the agency as a result
of such misrepresentation. Such misrepresentation, if it is not
de minimus
,
is therefore likely to justify a decision by the administrative agency to
revoke the license or other benefit granted, especially if there are grounds to
believe that the agency would not have granted the license or benefit, but for
the misrepresentation.
This
is the case before us. The Customs Authority says that, had the petitioner
disclosed the full picture of its rights in the land, either at the start of
the license application process or at any time before the decision was made, it
would not have given the petitioner the license it requested. This claim is
persuasive.
The
consequence is thus that the Customs Authorityโs refusal to renew the
petitionerโs license for the land was justified.
I
therefore conclude that the petition should be denied, and the petitioner
should pay court costs.
Addendum: Person and State
39.
Finished but not complete. President Barak responds to me: He agrees with the
outcome I reach but not with the route I take to reach it. As for the result,
he agrees that the petitioner owes the Customs Authority a duty of disclosure,
that it violated such duty, and that the petition should therefore be denied.
As for the route, he does not agree that the duty of disclosure imposed upon
the petitioner derives from a general duty of proper behavior owed by the
citizen to the public administration. In his opinion, the duty of disclosure is
circumscribed, and it is wrong and perhaps even dangerous to impose a general
duty of proper behavior on the citizen, toward the public administration.
Because
there is no dispute over the outcome, the dispute over the way to get there may
seem abstract and marginal. In actuality, however, it is a dispute of principle
and importance. It reflects a difference in world views about the nature of the
state or, at least, the proper relationship between a person and the state.
What
is the proper relationship between a person and the state? The point of
departure is rooted in the general rule, which is essentially the basic rule of
jurisprudence, that every person, including every legal entity, must behave
properly in every case, according to the circumstances. That, in my opinion, is
the entire body of jurisprudence in a nutshell. As for the rest: go and learn.
Indeed, jurisprudence has developed an extensive system of different rules for
the proper way to behave in various situations. Beyond those rules, however,
and in addition to them, there is a general duty of proper behavior.
In
private law, which governs relationships between individuals, the general duty
is a duty of good faith. That duty applies to contractual relations as well as
to other legal acts. It can serve as a conceptual explanation for the existing
rules, a legal source from which new rules are derived, and even a duty in
itself.
In
public law, which governs relationships between an individual and the public,
the duty is customarily called the duty of fairness. Like the duty of good
faith, the duty of fairness requires proper behavior under the circumstances of
the case.
There
is no dispute that the public administration owes a duty of fairness to the
citizen. Does the citizen, however, owe a parallel, if not identical, duty to
the public administration? The Court has yet to address that question. Now that
it has come before us and created a dispute, I see fit to add a few words to
explain my position.
40. President Barak does not see a
justification for imposing on the citizen a duty of fairness parallel to that
owed by the public administration, because the relationship between the citizen
and the public administration is asymmetrical. I agree that there is no
symmetry. However there is, or at least ought to be, reciprocity.
There is no symmetry because the public
administration is the trustee of the public, meaning that of every citizen,
while the citizen is not the trustee of the public administration. To clarify:
the loyalty owed by the public administration to the citizen is not a legal
duty. It is not even a legal relationship. In that way, it differs from the
duty of loyalty in private law. In public law, as opposed to private law, loyalty
is just a conceptual duty. It expresses the idea that the public administration
draws its authority from the public and must exercise that authority for the
sake of the public, in the way that public decides.
Inter alia
, it must
exercise its authority with fairness. Various duties owed by the public
administration to the citizen arise from fairness, including the duties that
the legislature imposes and those that the courts impose.
The citizen, on the other hand, is not the
trustee of the public administration but rather the beneficiary. Obviously,
then, the citizenโs legal duties owed the public administration cannot be
identical to the legal duties owed by the public administration to the citizen.
However, it is just as clear that the citizen is not exempt from owing legal
duties to the public administration. The citizen is subject to various legal
duties imposed by the legislature and by the courts. For example, it is agreed
that the citizen must produce a driverโs license to a police officer; may not
insult a public servant; and must disclose material information to an agency
from which he or she applies for a license to operate a business. These and
other duties are not imposed upon the citizen arbitrarily. They are supposed to
express the proper way for the citizen to treat the public administration. In
that way, they share common ground โ a general duty of proper behavior. That
duty constitutes a central ingredient in the culture of our lives. It is also
necessary for society to function efficiently and legitimately. What, then, is
that duty, and how is it distinct from the duty which the public administration
owes the citizen?
41. As a conceptual matter, the duty of
loyalty owed by the public administration to the citizen
is expressed in legal duties which can be roughly
divided into three groups: first, authority; second, reasonableness; and third,
fairness.
On the issue of authority, every
administrative agency has a duty to refrain from exceeding the bounds of its
statutorily delineated-power. That is the duty of authority in the broad sense.
The duty of authority, in this sense, requires the agency to do only what the
statute authorizes it to do, using only the means that the statute authorizes
it to use. It includes, for example, the duty to consult with a certain body or
to receive authorization from another body, depending on what the statute
stipulates. That duty, of course, does not apply to the citizen, who has not
been granted authority by the statute.
In addition, the administrative agency has
a duty to act, not just within the bounds of authority defined by the statute,
but also with reasonableness. That is the duty of reasonableness in the broad
sense. The duty of reasonableness, in this sense, tells the agency to exercise
its discretion properly. It is composed of two secondary duties: the agency
must exercise its authority for a proper purpose; it must consider the relevant
considerations and ignore the irrelevant ones; it must give each relevant
consideration the proper weight and balance the various considerations (that is
the duty of reasonableness in the narrow sense); and it must not harm the
citizen to an extent greater than necessary. The citizen also does not owe the
duty of reasonableness, because such duty relates to the discretion entailed in
authority [which has been delegated โ trans.], and the citizen has no such authority.
The duty of fairness relates to the
administrative process, meaning the way in which the administrative agency
exercises its authority
vis ร vis
the citizen. It is expressed in
various duties, like the duty to conduct a reasonable investigation into the
circumstances of the case, to lend an ear to the claims of the citizen, to
allow the citizen to access documents concerning the matter at hand, and to
explain its decision. The common denominator in these duties is the duty to
behave properly toward the citizen. It is commonly said that such duty derives
from the duty of loyalty that the public administration owes the citizen. That
is true, but it is not the only source. The status of the agency as the trustee
of the public adds another dimension to this duty, but the duty, at its core,
derives from a different source. It derives, first of all, from the basic duty
of proper behavior in societal relationships, which includes fairness. Because
it derives from this duty, which is not unique to the relationship between the
public administration and the citizen, it can apply to the public
administrationโs duty to the citizen as well as to the citizenโs duty to the
public administration.
There may therefore be uncertainty over
whether the duty of fairness, as opposed to the duty of authority and the duty
of reasonableness, creates a parallel duty which the citizen owes the public
administration. President Barak answers that question in the negative. However,
his answer gives the duty of fairness a broad meaning. It includes the duty of
procedural fairness but also substantive fairness, like, for example, the duty
not to discriminate and not to work for an illegitimate goal. In my opinion,
the duty of substantive fairness, which concerns administrative discretion, is
not part of the duty of fairness but rather part of the duty of reasonableness.
That duty is obviously not imposed on the citizen, because the citizen has no
authority and therefore cannot be obligated to consider the relevant
considerations or fulfill other conditions of exercising authority.
The dispute between President Barak and me
is limited to the question of whether the citizen bears a general duty of
proper behavior toward the public administration within the field that
President Barak refers to as procedural, as opposed to substantive.
42. President Barak objects to imposing a
general duty of proper behavior on the citizen
vis ร vis
the
public administration, irrespective of its nature and scope, on two primary
grounds: one concerns the reason, and the other concerns the result.
President Barak believes that, first of
all, the reason which leads to imposing a duty of proper behavior on the public
administration, owed to the citizen, does not lead to imposing a parallel duty
on the citizen, owed to the public administration. โA general duty like this,โ
he says (in paragraph 8), โis inappropriate.โ Why? The major reason is this:
โฆ The view that the government is the trustee of the
public is the basis for imposing a general duty of fairness that government
owes to the individual. This view is based on a democratic perspective which
puts individual liberty at the basis of the social structure. These reasons for
imposing a duty do not exist in a relationship between the individual and the government.
The individual is not the trustee of the government โฆ the proper perspective on
democracy means that there is no room to impose a duty of fairness that the
citizen owes the government. Imposing a general duty of fairness would
radically alter the perspective on democracy and the place that the individual
occupies within it.
Para
. 6.
What, however, is the proper perspective
on democracy? Obviously, there are many perspectives on democracy โ from
popular democracy to Western democracy; from formal democracy to substantive
democracy; and within substantive democracy, there are different perspectives
on what the substance is. There is no dispute that the State of Israel is not
just a formal democracy that makes do with choosing representative institutions
every few years, primarily the legislative and executive branches. The State of
Israel is a substantive democracy, all of whose representative institutions are
guided by basic values, at the center of which is human dignity and liberty, in
order to serve the human being as a human being. The Court has used that
perspective on democracy to establish basic human rights, develop them, and
defend them against violation by other institutions. However, even within the
context of substantive democracy, with human rights as the consensus, there may
still be different perspectives on the proper relationship between the state
and the individual.
President Barak believes that, โA
democratic regime is based on the recognition of each individualโs human rights
โฆ the role of the government is to maintain a society that respects human
rights.โ
Para
. 3,
infra
. Indeed currently, that is the prevalent
perspective on the democratic regime here. In my opinion, however, it only
captures part of it. A democratic regime is more than recognition and
protection of human rights. Human rights are indeed a value of the utmost
importance, but they are not the only value. A person is more than a bundle of
rights. A person is also a bundle of needs, proclivities, and aspirations. We
cannot, therefore, say that the role of the government is to respect human
rights โ period. That is indeed a role of the utmost importance, but it is only
one role among others. In the same breath, we must also say that an additional
role is to advance the well-being of people โ all people. Another role is to
achieve social justice โ justice for all. Human rights are not supposed to
overshadow personal well-being and social justice. Human rights must not be just
for those who have enough. Every person must have enough, so that he or she can
enjoy human rights, in actuality and not just by law. This role is integrated,
and the government is not the only one who must fill it. It is, first and
foremost, the role of society. In other words, each of us must fill that role. Need
we fill the role by helping the public administration? Yes. May we shirk the
role and impose it on the public administration? No. In fulfilling that role,
each of us must take a system of duties upon himself or herself, not just
toward other people but also toward society. That, in my opinion, is the proper
perspective on a democratic society โ rights existing side-by-side with duties.
While there is no symmetry in the relationship between the individual and
society, there is reciprocity.
That is my view on the social contract. It
is not a historical fact whose content is determinable, and it is not even a
legal document whose meaning is debatable. The social contract is nothing but
an idea that expresses the character that society should have. In my opinion,
the desirable character of a society should guarantee not just human rights but
also personal well-being and social justice. Toward that end, society does not
make do with imparting people with rights; it also imposes duties upon them.
That is the soul of democracy.
The State of Israel is a Jewish and
democratic state. The Court, as a branch of the state, must be guided by the
very democratic values it simultaneously advances. It unquestionably does that
and always has. The Court primarily develops and cultivates human rights.
However, to be hand-on-heart honest, does it not do so at the expense of other
values? The Court devotes it primary efforts and dedicates its first rung on
the ladder of priorities to human rights. That is the case in practice, even
more so in the rhetoric, and appropriately so: human rights should stand at the
top of the ladder of priorities. However, the perspective on democracy as a government
which protects human rights is a one-dimensional perspective. Democracy is more
complicated and, frankly, better than that. The right perspective on democracy
must put personal well-being and social justice together with human rights at
the top of the ladder of priorities. The practice and rhetoric of the Court
ought to reflect that perspective more clearly.
43. In my opinion, President Barakโs
perspective on democracy derives from a feeling of tension or even conflict
between the state and the citizen. The state, through this perspective, is a
regime that stands against the citizen. Indeed, the government of today is no
longer what it was: it is not a totalitarian regime, either monarchical or
colonial. Today, in a democracy, the government is the trustee of the people,
and it therefore bears a general duty to take care of the public, which
includes a duty to protect human rights. That perspective, however, still views
the government as a body external to the citizen. It may be a new government,
but it has grown from the roots of a totalitarian regime, meaning the roots of
paternalism. Even today, the government is like a big brother or beneficent
mother whose duty it is to take care of the child, while the child owes obedience
and gratitude in return.
This perspective is reflected in the very
way we talk about the government. Indeed, the government as trustee. A government,
at best, which is legitimate and enlightened. But still a government. It
operates externally. And I, as a citizen, am subject to it. Fear its heavy
hand. Ask that it leave me alone. Look for ways of restraining it.
It is not the term which is determinative.
The perspective is determinative. The term only reveals the perspective.
Therefore, even if we find another expression, and replace โgovernmentโ with
โpublic administration,โ nothing will change unless we change the perspective.
44. I reject this perspective. I would
like to see the state as a partnership. Of course, not a partnership in the private
law sense, and not even a partnership as a legal relationship, but rather a
partnership as a conceptual perspective which replaces the perspective of the
state as a regime.
According to this perspective, the state
is the joint project of all citizens. It includes a division of roles. Those
roles dictate the legal relationships. Civil servants play an important role,
which entails authority and duties. It gives them control and obligates them as
trustees. They are not, however, a regime above me. They are still our partners.
The partnership perspective has
implications for the system of rights and duties that apply to both the citizen
and the public administration. The partnership is not limited to periodic
elections in which the citizen empowers the Knesset and the government to
manage national affairs as it sees fit for a few years, until the next
elections. Partnership means giving the citizen a real opportunity to
participate in the daily running of the countryโs national life, and an
opportunity, in practice, to act and influence on a daily basis, not just
through elections. It requires more publicity and openness of the public
administration; additional avenues for early consultation with the relevant
bodies outside the public administration; willingness to incorporate those bodies
in its regular activities. Administrative regulations stand out as an example.
On a regular basis, ministers and other agencies issue a tremendous number of
regulations, many of which have the same practical importance as statutes. Unlike
the case of statutes, however, the agency authorized to issue regulations does
not tend to publish a draft of the regulations and does not hold a public
discussion before those regulations enter into force. That process reflects
aspects of the government perspective. It is inconsistent with the partnership
perspective. The partnership perspective advances democracy to a higher level.
It correctly expresses the idea of rule of the people.
The government perspective encourages the
citizen to demand personal benefits from the government. It does not encourage
the citizen to contribute to society. It tempts the citizen to think: I gave
the government power and responsibility, and it should repay me with rights and
services. It owes me. This is not a perspective of partnership.
45. The partnership perspective also has
implications for the duty that the citizen owes the public administration. The
public administration is essentially a public servant. The public servant is
flesh of my flesh. He or she works for me and for my benefit. We are partners
who have different jobs within the state. According to that perspective, I owe
a general duty of proper behavior to the public servant. It is inconceivable
that I would owe such a duty such a duty to my employer, my neighbor, as a bus
driver or shop salesperson (and it doesnโt matter if we call it good faith or
anything else) but not to a public servant, who works for me and for my
benefit. Such a duty arises obviously from the partnership relationship between
the citizen and the public servant.
I
call this duty the duty of fairness. It is a term of convenience. It does not
matter very much. We could also call it a duty of good faith. It means a
general duty of proper behavior. Proper behavior is an elementary duty. All
persons owe it to all other persons. In my opinion, perhaps even
a fortiori
,
the citizen owes it to the public servant.
The
general duty of proper behavior, like the general duty of good faith, does not
pretend to be a positive description. In reality, good faith is often lacking
in interpersonal relationships. That does not, however, invalidate the duty.
The duty is a legal norm, and it exists as such even when breached in practice.
The same is true of the duty of fairness that the administrative agency owes
the citizen. In reality, the administrative agency may not behave fairly toward
the citizen. Nevertheless, and perhaps for that very reason, the duty of
fairness is necessary as a legal norm. The norm sends a message, educates, and
serves as a tool for adjudicating disputes. For this reason, we also need the
norm of a duty of proper behavior owed by the citizen to the administrative
agency.
46.
President Barak objects to imposing a general duty of proper behavior on the
citizen, to the public administration, not just because he sees no conceptual
reason to do so, but also because he is concerned about the practical
consequence that will result. In paragraph 13, he says:
The
theoretical basis determines how the arrangement develops. The theory
determines the practice. In my view, the individual does not owe a general duty
of fairness to the government, because such a duty would be inconsistent with
the way we view the individual in society ... โFairnessโ is a concept that may
lead to the creation of duties whose nature is inconsistent with individual
liberty in a democratic state.
Indeed,
theoretical perspectives have practical importance. However, the court is
responsible for translating the theoretical perspectives into rules of behavior.
That principle applies to the theoretical perspective on the duty of fairness
owed by the public administration to the citizen. The Court used that
perspective to say that various duties that have long been imposed on the
public administration, such as the duty to hold a hearing and the duty to
disclose, derive from the duty of fairness. The Court, however, has not imposed
any additional duties just because they arise from the theoretical perspective
on the duty of fairness. The Court will determine that a duty derives from the
duty of fairness only after it concludes that the relevant considerations
justify imposing such duty on the public administration.
The
same holds true in the opposite direction. In this judgment, the Court holds
that, under certain circumstances, the citizen owes a duty of disclosure to the
public administration. The Court established that duty by balancing the good of
the public against human rights. Having established that duty, I suggest
holding that it derives from the duty of fairness. This is the expected course
of things. It is also the appropriate course. It may be presumed that if the
Court determines that a citizen owes a general duty of fairness to the public
administration, the theoretical perspective will not motivate the Court to
impose a particular sub-duty on the citizen, unless it concludes that the
relevant considerations justify it. It may also be presumed that the Court will
only impose additional duties on the citizen through a careful and controlled
process, exercising restraint, in order to maintain an appropriate balance in
the relationship between the citizen and the public administration.
47.
Clearly, the system of rules derived from the citizen's duty of fairness will
differ from the system of rules derived from the public administration's duty
of fairness. The name may be the same, but the content is different. In this
sense, there is no difference between the duty of fairness and the duty of good
faith. For example, the duty of good faith owed by an agent to the principal
differs from the duty of good faith owed by the principal to the agent.
See
para.
25,
supra
.
However,
in this case, President Barak and I do not dispute the content of the duty of
fairness. On that question, I don't think we would disagree. In this case, we
agree that, under certain circumstances, the citizen owes a duty of disclosure
to the public administration. I expect that there are additional cases in which
we would agree that the citizen does or does not owe additional duties. Our
disagreement is not over one duty or another, but rather over a prior question
which expresses a theoretical perspective: whether the citizen owes the public
administration a general duty of fairness, regardless of what the content of
that duty may be.
48.
In my opinion, the theoretical perspective that a citizen owes a general duty
of fairness to the public administration causes no damage and poses no risk. To
the contrary: this perspective adds a helpful theoretical and practical benefit
to law and to society. It sends an appropriate message. Fairness is an
appropriate message in every human relationship. That is true (in the garb of
good faith) of the way people treat each other, and it is true (in the garb of
fairness) of the way the public servant treats the citizen. Could it be
possible that the way the citizen treats the public servant is the sole
exception to this rule? As a person and as a citizen, I willingly assume a duty
of fairness to public servants.
President
A. Barak
I
agree with the result at which my colleague, Justice Zamir arrived: that the
petition should be denied. That conclusion is based on the view that the
petitioner violated the duty of disclosure owed to Respondent 1. My colleague
also recognizes the petitioner's duty of disclosure. The difference in our
positions concerns the source of that duty. My colleague sees the duty of
disclosure as part of a general duty of fairness which the individual owes the government.
I disagree. I will briefly explain my position.
1.
Today, it is universally agreed that the government owes the individual a duty
of fairness. This duty is owed by anyone who wields governmental authority. It
is owed to any individual, as part of his or her personhood. It applies to
every governmental function (legislative, executive, judicial). At first, the
legal system recognizes particular duties which the government owed the
individual, such as the duty to hear opposing sides, the duty to give reasons,
and the duty to behavior reasonably and not arbitrarily. After a while, the
system sought and found a general principle at the core of each particular
duty. This is the duty of fairness.
See
HC 840/79,
supra
[20] at
745. At first, it was just a principle that summarized the particular duties
that had already been recognized. Later, it came to be recognized as a
super-principal which gives rise to the various duties. The view is that the
principle has a life of its own. It is not just a summary of the specific
duties recognized in the past. Over the years, new duties that had not been
recognized in the past arose from this principle. Indeed, that is โ in the
Viscount Simonds' words โ the "genius" of case law.
Scruttons v.
Midland
Silicones
(1962) [72] at 7. It
recognizes particular duties that, over time, come to be viewed as an
expression of a general principle from which new particular duties arise, which
come to be viewed as an expression of a general principle (new or old) from
which new particular duties arise, and so on. In the case before us, first the
specific duties were recognized, such as the duty to conduct a hearing and
avoid a conflict of interests. Later, the legal system derived from them the
general principle that, in relationships between the government and the
individual, the government must behave fairly toward the individual. Such
fairness is both procedural and substantive. Procedural fairness requires the government
to establish a procedure that is fair to the individual. For example, the government
must hear the individual before making a decision in his or her case, and it
may not subject itself to a conflict of interests. Substantive fairness
requires the government to consider appropriate considerations (for example,
the duty to act reasonably, without discrimination or arbitrariness and not for
an inappropriate purpose). The categories of fairness (procedural and
substantive) are never closed or rigid, and they never rest on their lees. HC
1635/90
Zharzhavski v. Prime Minister
[35] at 841.
Why
does the government owe a general duty of fairness to the individual? Such duty
stems from the view that the governmental authority does not act for itself but
rather on behalf of the public. In our legal system, the governmental authority
is seen as the trustee of the public who owes the public a duty of fairness. I
said as much in one case:
The
state, through those who act in its name, is the trustee of the public, put in
charge of the collective interest and public assets in order to use them for
the collective good โฆ
This special status subjects the state to a duty to
behave with reason, integrity, purity of heart, and good faith. The state may
not discriminate, act arbitrarily, or in bad faith, or allow itself to be
subject to a conflict of interests. It must maintain the rules of natural
justice. In short, it must act fairly.
HC 840/79,
supra
[20] at 745-46.
Indeed,
my view is that the government is the trustee of the collective. My position is
that the government is nothing in itself, and anything that it has, it has for
the sake of the public.
See
HC 669/86
Rubin v. Berger
[36] at 78.
Justice H. Cohen articulated this position:
The individual is different from the public body. The
former does as he or she pleases, granting or refusing as he or she wishes,
while the latter exists only to serve the collective. It has nothing of its
own. All that it has, it holds in trust. On its own, it has no rights or duties
beyond, different, or separate from those arising from the trusteeship or
granted it or imposed upon it by statutory provisions.
HC 142/70
Shapira v. Bar Association
Jerusalem
Regional Committee
[37] at 331.
My
theoretical point of departure is therefore that the government is a trustee,
trusteeship requires fairness, and fairness (procedural and substantive) requires
behavior based not on self-interest but rather on the need to advance the
collective good.
See
HC 1635/90,
supra
[36] at 841.
See also
HC 6163/92
Eisenberg v. Housing and Construction Minister
[38] at 258.
3.
Why do I see the government as the public trustee? The reason is that a democratic
society is based on the recognition of individual human rights. These rights
are natural to people by virtue of their personhood. The government does not
grant these rights to people; the rights pre-exist the government. The role of
the government is to maintain a society that establishes human rights. Of
course, as a matter of daily life in society, human rights sometimes must be
infringed. We cannot protect human rights without infringing on human rights. A
democratic government is not characterized by the fact that it never violates
human rights. Human rights are not a recipe for national destruction. A
democratic society is characterized by the fact that an infringement of human
rights must be done for a purpose which advances human rights, and the infringement
must be to an extent no greater than necessary. A democratic society allows
human rights to be infringed upon in order to maintain a social framework that
preserves human rights. The right of the individual and its violation derive
from a common source. CA 68211/93
United Mizrachi Bank. v.
Migdal
Agricultural
Cooperative
Village
(hereinafter โ the
Mizrachi Bank
case [39]) at
433. Within the context of this view, the role of the government is to take
care of the public. The government in itself has no โprivateโ interest of its
own. The government exists for the sake of individuals. The government does not
exist for its โownโ sake. Those who represent the government have no โselfโ
interest that must be protected. They must act to achieve the collective
interest. Indeed, there is a serious concern โ a concern which history has
repeatedly validated โ that representatives of the government will develop
their own interests and use the tremendous power granted them for purposes that
do not reflect the collective good. The duty of loyalty seeks to prevent that.
The duty of loyalty seeks to guarantee that the government takes care of the
public and not itself; the general duty of loyalty seeks to guarantee that the government
takes care of the public and not itself; the general duty of fairness seeks to
guarantee that governmental authority is exercised in a way that serves the
collective, and not the government itself.
4.
These reasons, which lie at the core of the general duty of loyalty, determine
its content. The general duty of loyalty seeks to guarantee that the government
does not achieve โits own self-interestโ but rather the collective interest.
The duty of loyalty does not set the โrules of the gameโ between โrivals.โ It
sets rules of behavior for โfriends.โ Indeed, like the trustee of a private
trust, the government must suppress any โprivateโ or โselfโ interest. It must
exercise its powers for the sake of the public and the collective. Therefore,
the government must act with integrity and purity of heart; it must abide by
the rules of natural justice; its actions must recognize the equality of
persons; it must keep its promises (
see
HC 135/75,
supra
[22] at
676); it must provide the public with information (HC 142/70,
supra
[37]); it must take only relevant considerations into account; it must abide by
public ethics in its actions (
see
HC 1601/90
Shalit v. Peres
[40]
at 365); it must act in a way that allows it to achieve the public task imposed
on it.
5.
Do individuals, in their relationships, bear a general duty of fairness to each
other? The answer is no. The law takes as its point of departure that people
have rights (in the broad sense)
vis ร vis
each other. The law
recognizes the individual's self-interest and the power of the individual to
protect that interest and achieve it. The law does not require an individual to
suppress his or her self-interest and give priority to the interest of another
person (who would also have to suppress his or her own self-interest). The law
does not ask for that level of altruism. The law recognizes the self-interest
of the individual and his or her will to achieve it. Of course, the individual
may not cheat or defraud, but he or she is not asked to ignore his or her
personal interest in dealings with others. Our legal system does not recognize
that โquality of righteousnessโ (as Justice Alon called it in CA 148/77
Roth
v. Yeshufa Construction Ltd.
[41] at 635). However, over the years, our
perspective on the proper relationship between individuals has changed. The
perspective that has developed is that the โbuyer bewareโ maxim is
inappropriate in interpersonal relationships; it would be wrong to allow each
individual to achieve his or her desire without considering those with whom he
or she comes into contact. There was a need to raise the threshold for what is
considered proper behavior between individuals in their relationships. In
private law, emerging principles of social solidarity and social justice set a
standard of achieving the reasonable expectations of parties in private law.
See
M. Mautner,
Yiridat Haformalism Vialiyat Haarachim Bamishpat Hayisraeli
[80] at 57. Altruistic [in Jewish tradition: โangelicโ โ trans.] behavior is
not required, but it is no longer acceptable for the individual to ignore the
interests of others (in Jewish tradition: โwolfishโ behavior โ trans.]. The
accepted view is that individuals must act in good faith in their interpersonal
relationships [in Jewish tradition: behave like a person].
See
CA 207/79
Raviv Moshe & Partners, Ltd. v. Beit Yules Ltd
. (hereinafter โ the
Raviv
case [42]) at 543. The legal system recognizes a general duty of good faith
in contractual negotiations and in executing legal actions in private law. Sec.
12, 39, and 61(b) of the Contract Law (General Part). It has also recognized
the prohibition on abusing a right. Sec. 14 of the Land Law, 1969. These
duties, as important as they are, do not impose a duty of altruism. They do not
require the individual to ignore his or her own self-interest. In contracts,
the duty of good faith does not require a contractual party to relinquish the
self-interest he or she has in the contract and its execution. The duty of good
faith imposes a duty on a contractual party to consider the interest that is
common to himself or herself and the other party to the contract. The duty of
good faith requires the holders of a contract to act to realize their common
intent, through dedication to the joint goal that they had in making the
contract and consistency in achieving their joint expectations. HC 59/80
Beโer
Sheva Public Transportation Services Ltd. v.
National Labor Court
in
Jerusalem
[43] at 834. As a rule, for relationships between
individuals, the law does not impose the duty of fairness it imposes on the government
in its relationships with the individual. The duty of good faith imposed on
individuals in their interpersonal relationships is โeasierโ than the duty of
fairness imposed on the government in its dealings with individuals. HC 4422/92
[19] at 860. Good faith starts with the assumption that the individual takes
care of his or her own interests. Good faith seeks to guarantee that he or she
does so appropriately, taking into consideration the justified expectations of
the other party. Good faith does not assume that each party will take care of
the interests of the other, at the expense of his or her own interests. Good
faith is based on the assumption that each contractual party takes care of his
or her own interests, but it seeks to guarantee that he or she exercises
integrity in doing so, safeguarding the joint mission of the parties, as befits
a civilized society.
See
FH 22/82,
supra
[17] at 485. Good faith
sets rules for a fair game between โrivals.โ In contrast, the duty of fairness
sets rules for a fair game between โfriends.โ The duty of fairness does not
view the government and the individual as โrivals.โ The government must take
care of the collective to which the individual belongs. The government's duty
of fairness โ like, in some ways, an agent's duty of fairness to the principal,
a director's to a company, a guardian's to those with whose care he or she is
charged โ is a โheavierโ duty than the duty of good faith.
6.
Does an individual owe a general duty of fairness to the government? In order
to answer that question, we must return to the discussion of the reasons for
imposing on the government a general duty of fairness to the individual. As we
have seen, the view that the government is the trustee of the public is the
basis for imposing a general duty of fairness that government owes to the
individual. This view is based on a democratic perspective which puts
individual liberty at the basis of the social structure. These reasons for
imposing a duty do not exist in a relationship between the individual and the
government. The individual is not the trustee of the government. The individual
does not seek to advance the liberty of the government. Democracy recognizes
the liberty of the individual from the government, but not the liberty of the government
from the individual. An individual may do anything that the law does not
prohibit. The government may do nothing that the law does not permit. 1 B.
Aktzin,
Torat Hamishpat
[81] at 128. A democratic perspective recognizes
the individual's independent will and independent interest. A democratic
perspective does not recognize the government's independent will and
independent interest, because the government acts for the sake of the public
and the collective. In a democratic society, we cannot say that the individual
has nothing for himself or herself, and that all that he or she has is for the
sake of the collective. These words are true of the government. The proper
perspective on democracy means that there is no room to impose a duty of
fairness that the citizen owes the government. Imposing a general duty of
fairness would radically alter the perspective on democracy and the place that
the individual occupies within it. My colleague, Justice Zamir, says that the
social contract is the source of the general duty of fairness. I would not draw
that conclusion from the social contract. Our accepted view of the social
contract is that it establishes a limited government authorized to serve the
people and allow them to realize their natural rights. This view gives rise to
the government's general duty of fairness to the individual. It does not give
rise to a general duty of fairness owed by the individual to the government.
7.
This analysis does not mean that the individual has no duties to the government.
Democracy is not just human rights. Democracy is also human duties โ duties to
other individuals and duties to the government. Indeed, democracy is based on
social life and national interests. The government acts for the sake of the
public. To facilitate that activity, we must give it rights (in the broad
sense), because otherwise it would not be able to achieve the collective
interest. Giving rights to the government means imposing duties on the
individual, to the government. The purpose of these duties is to make it possible
for the government to achieve the objectives imposed upon it in a democratic
society. They derive from social life and the need to advance the liberty of
every individual. They are based on a view of a social welfare state and social
solidarity. They derive from a proper view of the individual as someone who is
shaped by society and therefore whose personality necessarily includes a โsocial
aspectโ that gives rise to an internal need to take the collective into
consideration. These duties also derive from society's demand of the
individual, as a member of society, to act for the sake of the collective. They
are the product of the balance between the needs of the collective and the
needs of the individual. We should recall, however, that the individual's
duties to the government and the government's duty to the individual are
different. They stem from different sources; they have different scopes. The
existence of the government's general duty of fairness to the individual does
not entail โ as a matter of neither logic nor policy โ the existence of a
general duty of fairness owed by the citizen to the government.
8.
What duties does the individual owe the government, and how do they differ from
the government's duty of fairness to the individual? The individual's duties
are based on a view of the individual in a democratic society and the role of
the government in a democracy. Their point of departure is individual liberty,
on one hand, and the role of the government on the other. There is tension
between those two poles, because the government must act for the collective
good, and the collective good is likely to conflict with the rights of the
individual. That tension is released in various and sundry duties imposed on
the individual, to the government. These duties are not based on a general duty
imposed on every individual. Creating such a general duty would be
inappropriate. By their nature, the duties that the individual owes the government
are the product of balancing conflicting values. They are a compromise between
the individual's human rights and the collective interest of the public. In
this balance, as the infringement on individual rights intensifies and the
public interest weakens, the duty owed by the individual will become more
moderate. In contrast, as the infringement on individual rights becomes more
moderate and the public interest becomes stronger, the duty owed by the
individual becomes stronger. Between those extremes lie the hard cases in which
the violation of human rights is severe and the public interest is strong. In
these situations, each society finds a balance point โwhich gives rise to the
individual's duty โ depending on its views about the appropriate relationship
between the individual and the collective, between the person and the public.
9.
The complex relationship between the individual and the government is not based
on a one general duty owed by the individual to the government. The
individual's duties are sporadic, and their content changes according to the
circumstances. The individual owes no general duty to the government beyond the
duty to obey the law, and he or she certainly owes no general duty of fairness.
The individual's duties are โspecific.โ For some issues, the individual's
duties to the government are weaker than the duties of good faith that
individuals owe each other in private law, and they may be limited to a duty
not to mislead. For other issues, the individual's duties may be identical in
scope to the duties of good faith that individuals owe each other. Indeed, in
order to facilitate the government's activities in the field of private law, in
his or her private law dealings with the government, the individual should bear
the same duties of good faith that he or she owes to other individuals. The individual
should not be given a break in his or her dealings with the government as it
forms contracts or engages in other legal actions in order to fulfill its role.
The provisions of sections 12 and 39 of the Contract Law (General Part)
therefore apply to every legal action (see section 61(b) of the Contract Law
(General Part)) in which the individual engages
vis ร vis
the government.
See
G. Shalev,
Chozei Rishut Biyisrael
[82] at 59. For other
issues, the individual's duties may be similar in scope to the duties of
fairness imposed on the government. Sometimes, the individual may owe even more
serious duties. Indeed, the individual must sometimes sacrifice his or her
life in defense of the state. We must, however, keep in mind, that the duties
of the individual โ unlike the general duty of fairness โ are specific in
nature and different in character. They result from the balance, at various
points, between individual liberty and the collective good. They depend on the
special circumstances of each case, entailing an investigation into whether the
individual fulfilled his or her duty to the government, the source of the duty,
and its scope. I therefore cannot concur with the position of my colleague,
Justice Zamir, that the relationship between the agency and the individual is
two-sided, such that โthe citizen should therefore owe a duty of fairness to
the agency, as the agency owes a duty of fairness to the citizen.โ No such
symmetry exists. The agency's duties to the individual are separate from the
individual's duties to the government. The philosophy at the root of each duty
differs, as does the scope of each. The relationship between the individual and
the government may be two-sided, but they are neither reciprocal nor equal. As
my colleague, Justice Zamir, rightfully points out, the proper relationship
between the administrative agency and the citizen is โa reciprocal relationship
of give-and-take.โ
Supra
para. 23. However, the โgiveโ and the โtakeโ
are not identical. The individual gives part of his or her liberty in exchange
for a social life that defends his or her liberty. My colleague correctly notes
that, โAs a moral and a practical matter, the citizen cannot assume that he or
she may demand and receive from the agency without being obligated to provide
anything.โ
Id.
However, that does not mean that the duty of the
individual and the duty of the agency are identical in content. A principal is
not entitled to the loyalty of an agent unless he or she fulfills his or her
duties to the agent. However, the principal's duty to the agent differs from
the agent's duty to the principal. The agent owes a duty of loyalty and
fairness. The principal does not. My colleague points out that, parallel to the
right that citizen enjoys from the agency, the citizen bears a duty to the
agency. That does not mean that the individual's duty to the agency is the same
as the agency's duty to the individual. Parallel to the right that the
individual enjoys from the agency, the agency bears a duty to the individual.
That duty includes the duty of fairness. Parallel to the right that agency
enjoys from the individual, the individual owes a duty. The right of the agency
is not general, and therefore neither is the duty of the individual (beyond the
duty to obey the law). The right of the agency is specific, and it changes
according to the issue in question. The individual's duty, derived from that
right, is also specific, and it changes according to the issue in question.
10.
Under the circumstances of this case, does the petitioner owe a duty to
Respondents 1 and 2? If so, what is the scope of that duty, and what are its
sources? My answer is that the petitioner indeed owes a duty of disclosure to
Respondents 1 and 2. It must disclose the fact that it has a civil-law
relationship with Respondent 3 (The Port Authority). In my opinion, this duty โ
grounded in the Regulations โ includes the duty to disclose its relationship
and communications with the Port Authority. Such information is relevant to the
execution of a governmental task. It is only natural for the Customs Authority
to seek to ensure that it does not give the authority to store goods on which
customs duties have yet to be paid to someone whose possession of the land โ
and therefore, of the goods โ is in question. In order for there to be security
in protecting goods on which customs duties have yet to be paid, the protector
must have stable rights in the land. For that reason, information about the
civil-law relationship between the petitioner and Respondent 3 (the Port Authority)
โ including the information that there is a dispute between them โ is material
to the decision of Respondents 1 and 2 (Customs). The source of the duty of
disclosure is the power of the government to grant a license to the individual
(the petitioner). Granting the license must be done for the relevant reasons,
based on the proper factual infrastructure. We want the government's decision
to be proper and to advance the social interests that justified giving the government
the power to make it. That is why the decision must be based on the proper
factual infrastructure. Hence, the agency has a duty to collect the factual
data, assess them as necessary, and use them to determine โ within the rules of
administrative evidence โ the factual infrastructure relevant to making the
governmental decision. While the governmental agency bears the burden of
collecting the data and assessing them, the individual must assist the
governmental agency in building the factual infrastructure that serves as the
basis for the governmental decision of whether or not to grant the license. The
harm to the individual in imposing this duty is minimal, while the advancement
of the collective interest is substantial. In the final balance, it is
therefore appropriate to require the individual โ who is applying for the
license or permit from the government โ to disclose the factual data material
to the factual infrastructure which will serve as the basis of the government's
exercise of discretion. This is particularly true of information which the
applicant knows, but the agency does not. If the individual requests a license
or permit from the government, and in order to exercise its discretion, the
government needs facts known to the individual, the individual bears the burden
of disclosing those facts to the government, unless there is another social
interest that weighs against disclosure (such as privacy). The basis for the
duty of disclosure is two-fold:
First
, it is a particular aspect of the
principle of good faith, which, through parallel reasoning from private law,
applies. If two rivals negotiating a contract bear a duty of disclosure, then
it is only natural that such duty applies to negotiations over a governmental
license, which is intended for the good of the collective, including the
individual. However, the good faith that individuals owe each other is
different from the good faith that individuals owe the government. Good faith
between individuals is rooted in a conflict of interests. It is good faith
between โrivals.โ In contrast, the good faith owed the individual to the government
is based on the agency's governmental role to act for the collective good,
including that of the individual requesting the license. The difference in
these basic positions means that good faith differs in these two situations,
despite their commonalities concerning the duty to disclose.
Second
, we
can view the basis for the duty as part of a special administrative law that
applies to the relationship between the individual and the government, having
nothing to do with the principle of good faith. Either way, the duty of
disclosure does not derive from a general duty of fairness. Furthermore, there
is no recognized general duty of disclosure owed by the individual to the government.
The duty of disclosure is always the product of the balance between the right
of the individual and the needs of the collective. It exists only where the
balance between these values justifies it. It does not always exist. For
example, a suspect has the right to remain silent during a criminal proceeding.
He or she need not disclose information to the government, if such information
may be incriminating. The duty of disclosure I discuss is a duty which is
limited to the kinds of issues addressed in this petition. It applies to
licensing governments through which an individual applies for a license. Under
those circumstances, I accept that the individual should be required to
disclose the facts he or she knows which are relevant to the exercise of
governmental discretion. Of course, the duty of disclosure may exist in
additional areas. We will address that question when the time comes, by
balancing the conflicting values. The duty of disclosure may exist for Issue X,
but not for Issue Y.
11.
Of course, we might see a general trend of raising the threshold of what is
considered proper behavior of the individual toward the government. We might
say that, just as Israeli society raised the threshold of morality in behavior
between individuals by requiring them to act in good faith, so should it raise
the threshold of morality in behavior of individuals
vis ร vis
the government. We might try to avoid introducing competition into the
relationship between the individual and the government, such that the
individual could exploit any mistake by the government for his or her personal
benefit. However, that trend should be approached with caution. Taken to an
extreme, it could turn things topsy-turvy, making the individual the trustee of
the government, thereby destroying the democratic nature of the government. We
would do well to use the standards of Israeli democracy to evaluate carefully
any trend toward stepping up the individual's duty of proper behavior to the government.
Such trend must withstand the balance between individual liberty and the
collective interest.
12.
One might ask how my approach differs from that of my colleague, Justice Zamir.
After all, he also recognizes the individual's duty of disclosure to the government
under the circumstances of the present case. Indeed, we do not disagree that,
under the circumstances of this case, the individual bears a duty of
disclosure. Our dispute concerns the source of that duty. My colleague's
position is that the duty derives from a general duty of fairness owed by the
individual to the government. In my opinion, there is no such general duty of
fairness, because the individual is not the trustee of the government. The
source of the duty of disclosure in the present case is the view that a proper
exercise of governmental authority requires the individual to make appropriate
disclosures to the government concerning material facts which serve as the
basis for the governmental decision. In this case, our paths meet. My
colleague's general duty of fairness imposes a duty of identical scope as the
one I would require, for the special circumstances raised by this petition. Our
agreement in this particular zone does not mean we agree on the entire front.
Our paths may part ways in other circumstances.
13.
One might argue that the difference in our positions is purely semantic. Isn't
the duty of disclosure that I espouse the same as my colleague's duty of
fairness? After all, my colleague, Justice Zamir, thinks that the individual's
duty of fairness to the government may change with the circumstances of each
case. Why not adopt his view, while making sure that a general duty of
fairness, of a flexible nature, always leads to the same solutions as I would
reach using my approach? There are three reasons not to do so:
First
,
the theoretical basis of a legal arrangement is significant for determining its
content and boundaries. The theoretical basis determines how the arrangement
develops. The theory determines the practice. In my view, the individual does
not owe a general duty of fairness to the government, because such a duty would
be inconsistent with the way we view the individual in society. The
individual's duty to the government must be specifically defined according to
the special circumstances of every case, by balancing the conflicting values.
The scope of the duty and its content change according to the circumstance, and
the principle of fairness โ which derives from the principle of loyalty โ is
not the common denominator of all these duties.
Second
, words have a
force of their own. They have a life of their own. โFairnessโ is a concept that
may lead to the creation of duties whose nature is inconsistent with individual
liberty in a democratic state. There is some concern that, in the future, if we
face the problem of whether the individual owes a particular duty to the
government, the question we will ask is whether such a duty flows from the
principle of fairness. The law will then try to answer that question, and the
duty of fairness will determine how we address the issue. In my opinion, we
need to ask a different question. The question is whether the right balance
between individual liberty and the collective good allows us to recognize that
duty. These two questions are different, and they should not be interchanged.
Third
,
โfairnessโ โ and the duties derived from it โ should not be given a
double-meaning, sometimes referring to duties arising from a relationship of
trusteeship and sometimes referring to duties that have nothing to do with
trusteeship. Justice Zamir correctly notes that:
The fact that those species bear the same name might
blur the distinction. Differentiating the names can help make the difference
more pronounced and preserve the distinction in substance.
Para
. 20.
This
approach itself warns against using the term fairness to describe both the duty
that the individual owes the government as well as the duty that the government
owes the individual. The sources of these duties differ, the scope of each
differs, and they develop differently. They may sometimes intersect โ as is the
case of the duty of disclosure in this petition โ but that does not mean we
should blur the differences between them.
14.
One might wonder: Can we โreallyโ say that the individual does not owe a duty
of fairness to the government? Should we recognize an individual's freedom not
to be fair to the government? Of course, if fairness means not to defraud or
cheat, then of course the individual owes a duty of fairness to the government
(and to other individuals). However, the term fairness is not just the opposite
of deception. Fairness is a normative concept. It is an objective concept. It
determines standards of behavior. It is a โcodeโ which activates various duties
of proper behavior. For the government's dealings with the individual โ which
derive from the role of the government as a trustee โ fairness means the
highest standard of proper behavior. It is a standard of behavior that
originates in the view that the government has no self-interest, and that it
can only aspire to ensure the collective good. Private law imposes a similar
(but not identical) duty only on those who owe a duty of loyalty, such as a
trustee, agent, director, or guardian. That is the reason we do not say that
individuals owe (objective) duties of fairness to each other. The duty of good
faith (as stated in the Contract Law (General Part)) applies to relationships
between individuals, not the duty of fairness. That is why I believe that the
individual owes no general duty of fairness to the government.
For
these reasons, I concur with my colleague's conclusion but disagree with his
reasons.
Justice M. Cheshin
1.
Not long after the close of the proceedings, we decided that the petition
should be denied, and that is how we ultimately ruled. However, from the
outset, we knew that we arrived at that conclusion from different places and in
different ways. Now is the time for each of us to name those places of origin
and to map our routes to our common destination.
2.
My colleaguesโ opinions laid out in front of me are comprehensive. They stretch
out into a broad, panoramic view of fairness and good faith, of the individual
and the government, of the relationships among individuals and between
individuals and the government, of friends and not-friends, of the social
contract, and of brotherhood. I wish to address two of these: the duty of
fairness that the individual owes the government and the status and authority
of a public agency to decide disputes between individuals. I will start with
the first and end with the second.
Disagreements over the Issue of Fairness
3.
My two colleagues, each in his own way, present two different theses that, in
some senses even oppose and rip each other. My colleague, Justice Zamir, soars
to heights of noble and lofty principles like fairness and good faith โ the
principles and what lies between and around them โ seeking to create a pillar
of fire and a pillar of smoke [biblical: guiding light for desert travel โ
trans.] by which the camp can navigate, mapping the duties of the individual to
the government. Truth be told, my colleague presents fairness as a central
pillar upon which the entire tent hangs. In our language โ the language of
jurists โ he says that within the context of the reciprocal relationship
between the individual and the government, in principle, the individual owes a
duty of fairness to the government. My colleague carves out secondary duties
from the general duty of fairness: daily duties which are outlined in the case
law and in books on administrative law.
My
colleague, the President, opposes this view and, holding buckets of water,
throws cold water on the flames of fairness. Unlike my colleague, Justice
Zamir, who steers a course between basic principles โ primarily fairness โfrom
which he derives the individualโs duties to the government, my colleague, the
President, believes that the individualโs duties to the government are โspecificโ
and โsporadic,โ and that their content changes, depending on the issue. In the
opinion of my colleague, the President, the individualโs duties to the government
derive from the balance that is conducted, for every issue, between opposing
forces; fairness, as such, is not a primary foundation โ if you like, not a
necessary foundation โ for the creation of these duties.
4.
As for our issue, my two colleagues are of the same mind. Our issue is the case
in which the individual applies for a license from the government, and the
question is this: what duty does the individual owe the government to disclose
โ at his or her initiative โ factual information relevant to the governmentโs
exercise of discretion? My colleague, Justice Zamir, believes that a secondary
duty to disclose that information can be carved out of the duty of fairness
owed by the individual to the government. The idea is that the individualโs
duty to disclose information to the government is just subsidiary to the parent
duty of fairness that the individual owes the government. My colleague, the
President, agrees that such a duty of disclosure should be imposed. In his
words, โ
the individual should be required
to disclose the facts he or she knows that are relevant to the exercise of
governmental discretion
.โ He also says
that, โ
the individual must assist the
governmental agency in building the factual infrastructure that serves as the
basis for the governmental decision of whether or not to grant the license.
โ As for the source of that duty to disclose relevant
information, President Barak says, โ
The
source of the duty of disclosure in the present case is the view that a proper
exercise of governmental authority requires the individual to make appropriate
disclosures to the government concerning material facts which serve as the
basis for the governmental decision.โ
5.
My colleague, Justice Zamir, concerns himself with basic principles which are
supposed to govern the relationship between the individual and the government โ
meaning, the fairness that the individual, in his opinion, owes the government.
On the other hand, President Barak believes that the process of discovering and
creating the individualโs duties to the government is the same as the process
of discovering and creating any right or duty in law โ for our purposes, in
administrative law. These processes do not use the duty of fairness, as such,
as a generative foundation. For our purposes, President Barak grounds himself
in the daily plane of administrative law: the duties that the individual owes
the government in the gray area of administrative law and the individualโs duty
to supply the government with the information that allows it to exercise
discretion properly and decide as we would expect it to decide. In any event,
President Barakโs opinion is that the individual does not owe a general duty of
fairness to the government.
6.
To sum up: My colleague, Justice Zamir, inserts the foundation of fairness as a
primary, generative foundation in founding the duties of the individual to the
government. In contrast, my colleague, President Barak, rejects this thesis of
fairness. In his opinion, we should predicate the individualโs duties to the
government within each system by considering the interests appropriate to each
issue and studying their force (โthe balancing processโ).
7.
The careful reader will understand that my colleague, Justice Zamir, seeks to
inject a foundation of content โ a foundation of fairness โ into the process of
creating the individualโs duties to the government. He believes that this
foundation of content should influence the development and determination of the
extent of these duties. My colleague, President Barak, denies that such
foundation of content exists within this context. He applies the balancing
formula used throughout our legal system (for our purposes, within the field of
public law) to the creation of duties that the individual owes the government.
My
colleagues would appear to take very different positions, such that their paths
crossed through happenstance, to bring them to the same place. Just as someone
crossing from east to west might meet someone crossing from north to south,
after which the two part ways, so did my colleagues meet for a fleeting moment,
shake hands in greeting, and then continue on their way, one going west and the
other, south. That is how it would appear. I personally am not convinced that
that is how it really is. Upon close inspection, it seems to me, that the
difference between my colleagues is primarily a difference in rhetoric. That it
was not blind fate that brought them to the same destination.
8.
First, I will say that each of my colleagues creates models made of different
materials and belonging to different orders. My colleague, Justice Zamir, is
concerned with a
model of content
to determine the individualโs
relationship to the government. He sees fairness as a cornerstone of the
relationship between the individual and the government and builds a model for
creating the individualโs duties to the government around that principle. My
colleague, President Barak, disagrees with the use of fairness as a primary
generative foundation for determining the individualโs duties to the
government. At the same time, as an alternative model to the model of content,
he presents us with a
structural model
. In his words, โ
The individual's duty to the government must be
specifically defined according to the special circumstances of every case, by
balancing the conflicting values. The scope of the duty and its content change
according to the circumstance, and the principle of fairness โ which derives
from the principle of loyalty โ is not the common denominator of all these
duties.
โ
Para
. 13 of his opinion. My
colleague, the President, does not determine the
content
of the
individualโs duties to the government, but rather the
technique
for
determining those [duties โ trans.]. He therefore does not see himself as
rejecting the possibility that a consideration of fairness, even in its broad
sense, could sometimes enter the mix of considerations which determine the
creation of the individualโs duties to the government. Indeed, in the
Awad
case, President Barak imposed, in certain cases, a โduty of good faith and
fairnessโ on the individual to the government.
Supra
[30] at 492.
See
also
para. 28 and subsequent text,
infra
. My colleagues, then, are
not as far apart as they seem upon first glance.
9.
There is more. My colleague, President Barak, objects to the all-encompassing
doctrine of fairness of my colleague, Justice Zamir. He even objects to the use
of the term โfairnessโ as such. He therefore says,
inter alia
, that โ
words have a force of their own. They have a life of
their own.
โ
Fairness
โ
is a concept that may lead to the creation of duties
whose nature is inconsistent with individual liberty in a democratic state.
โ
Para
. 13 of his opinion. Upon reading these words, I hurry
to shake my colleagueโs hand firmly and warmly. I have also believed โ and
still believe โ that words can have a magical kind of power, and we should stay
as far away from magic as possible.. That is one of the reasons I so strongly
objected to using the phrase, โconstitutional revolutionโ to describe the accumulated
weight of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and
Liberty
and the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation. In the
Mizrachi Bank
case
[39], I expressed this opinion about adding the words, โconstitutional
revolutionโ (on p. 567, para. 135):
I
see the label, โrevolutionโ as problematic. Isnโt it sufficient to say that
there has been a โchangeโ in the path of the legal system? I say this because
labels can sometimes blind us, leading us to allow our wishes to fulfill
themselves. Moreover, even if we said that the Basic Laws have the potential to
work very important changes in the Israeli legal system โ and we have said that
โ the term, โconstitutional revolutionโ means a lot more than the term, change.
It not only creates over-excitement, but also, by adding force and energy to
one side of the equation, it sucks away force and energy from the other side.
Is that the right way for us to build a constitution?
I
fear that careless words will create an entity with a force of its own. If that
is our concern, however, let us proclaim loudly and clearly that in discussing
the duty of fairness that the individual owes the government, we do not intend
to create a dynamic, creative, generative doctrine. We seek only to note what
is appropriate and desirable in interpersonal relationships. If we take this
course, we, along with everyone else, will know that we have only stated the
obvious about the proper way for the individual to behave. That is not,
however, what my colleague, Justice Zamir, means. He intends to create a real,
live, generative principle. We must address that principle, and not something
similar.
10.
Generally: My colleague, Justice Zamir, created a general principle of fairness
as a principle that binds the individual in his or her dealings with the government.
My colleague, President Barak, objects to creating this general principle, but
he does not rule it out as a factor in determining the individualโs duties to
the government in these and other legal contexts.
On the Duty of Fairness
11.
My colleague, Justice Zamir, demands that we impose a general duty of fairness
on the individual, to the government. In his opinion, that duty derives from
the social contract at the core of the existence of the state, a contract that
makes the citizen and the government partners in the same act of creation: โ
As a moral and a practical matter, the citizen cannot
assume that he or she may demand and receive from the agency without being
obligated to provide anything. A citizenโs right
vis ร vis
the
agency is coupled with an obligation
vis ร vis
the agency. This
is the essence of the social contract among citizens and between citizens and
the public administration. It is also the root of the existence of the state.โ
Para
. 23 of his
opinion.
Who
could disagree with these noble words of my colleague? How could we help but
agree? The individual owes a duty of fairness to the government, says my
colleague. Can we say that this is not the law? Can we say that the individual
may not behave with fairness โ or may behave without fairness โ to the
government? Can a court say such things? Are these the proper norms of behavior
to establish for the relationship between the individual and the government?
Indeed, the requirement of fairness captures the heart and lifts the spirit.
Only someone apathetic to things beautiful would rise up against the duty of
fairness suggested to us. We would appear to be in a sort of trap. We have no
choice but to agree to my colleagueโs words, or risk being thought of as
troublemakers upsetting the proper order of things. And still, I find it
difficult to agree.
12.
We measure the relationship between the individual and the government and
administrative state using the relationship that members of society have with
each other as the model. We can build a few models of human relationships to
understand the reciprocal relationships among individuals within society.
Hillelโs saying is the foundation, the basis: โWhat is hateful to you, do not
do to your neighbor.โ Babylonian Talmud, Order Tractate Shabbat 31, 1 [a].
Hillel goes on to say: โThat is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and
learn.โ Of course, that is not the minimum level of conduct we need present to
a well-ordered society and for the proper education of the individual. For now,
however, we will allow it to suffice. That is one model. We might resort to a
higher level, primarily through the use of โLove your neighbor as yourselfโ (Leviticus
19:18
[b]), which is the second model. This level is higher than the first because,
among other reasons, it does not just impose prohibitions on the individual โ negative
commandments โ it imposes positive duties on the individual. An even higher
level of conduct โ the third model โ stems from the principle that, โIs it not
to share your bread with the hungry,
and bring the homeless poor into your house;
when you see the
naked, to cover him,
and
not to hide yourself from your own flesh?โ Isaiah 58:7 [c]. That is the highest
degree of love of humanity and of kindness. As Micah the Prophet coined in his
wonderful saying โ wonderful throughout the generations โ about human
relationships:
He has showed you, O man, what is good;
and what does the Lord require of you
but to do justice, and to love kindness,
and to walk humbly with your God?
Micah 7:8 [d].
โDo
justiceโ is primarily about โwhat is hateful to youโ and a little about โloveโ:
mostly negative commandments, and a few positive ones. โLove kindnessโ is the purest
form of love of humanity. If you like: love of love. This is not the place to
discuss โhumbly.โ
13. Lawโs primary objective is to order the
relationships between individuals in society and to make sure that society is
organized properly. A person is a wonderfully complex creature. The
relationships between individuals in society are also complex, and in some
ways, they are more complex than the complexity of the individual. From among
the wealth of relationships between individuals, the law cuts out a part that
seems appropriate for organization and definition by the legal system, and it
imposes a network of legal norms on that part.
Among
the three models presented, the law is primarily interested in the first model
(the minimal model of โdonโt doโ): Donโt murder, donโt steal, donโt lie, whoever
strikes his father or mother shall be put to death (Exodus
21:15
, [e]), and whoever
curses his father or mother shall be put to death (
Id.
, verse
17). Lord Atkin discussed this point in the well-known case of
Donoghue v.
Stevenson
(1932) [73], saying what has become a classic:
The rule that you are to love your
neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyerโs
question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take
reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee
would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who, then, in law is my neighbour?
The answer seems to be โ persons who are so closely and directly affected by my
act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected
when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in
question.
Id.
at 580
.
The law borrows from the second model, as well, but
very lightly. Honor your father and mother (a positive commandment whose reach
is broader than the negative commandment not to hit or curse). Remember the
Sabbath day, to keep it holy (a positive commandment alongside a negative one:
donโt do any work, etc.) The third model is supposed to serve the law
primarily as a source of inspiration. It is just an illustration of the
statement that the law seeks to impose itself on a certain segment of human
relationships while leaving other parts of those relationships alone.
14. Against the backdrop of three alternative โ or
partially cumulative โ models, let us evaluate the duty of fairness that
individuals in society may owe each other. A superficial glance shows that the
duty of fairness is a duty that knows no boundaries. It exists in each of the
three models, differently in each, derived from the fundamental principles at
the core of each. Examine, consider, and you will know. We will thus find,
perhaps surprisingly so, that the term โfairnessโ โ as well as the term, duty
of fairness โ is a kind of โframework-term,โ whose content varies with the
model constructing it, the world surrounding it, and the world in which it
lives. โFairnessโ in the first model differs from fairness in the second, and
โfairnessโ in the second model differs from fairness in the third. โFairnessโ
in the second model, for example, includes the โfairnessโ of the first model,
but the reverse is not the case.
15. To the issue of concern to us: When my colleague,
Justice Zamir, said that the individual owes the government a duty of fairness,
what kind of fairness did he mean? My colleague told us only that the duty of
fairness can vary from issue to issue, depending on the circumstances. But what
is the content of that fairness, and which circumstances will fill the fairness
with its content? What functioning order did the duty of fairness join, and
which model shall we use? Perhaps it is a different model from the three we
mentioned? We canโt do anything until we answer that question, which is the
central issue. I said, and I will repeat: The duty of fairness is a duty that
knows no boundaries โ it lives and exists in law and outside law. For example, it
exists in the realm of morality โ and we therefore must define things
precisely: Which part of that all-inclusive duty of fairness โ fairness in the
broad sense โ is the law supposed to take under its protective wing and
establish legal sanctions for violating the duty? Which part of โfairnessโ will
the law adopt, and which part will it leave to other systems of norms?
I will give an example from another context: It is
strictly forbidden for a person to shame another in public. If Rueben embarrasses
Simon in public, the law will come to Simonโs aid by granting him a right in
the form of the law against defamation. The law has taken this part under its
protective wing. However, if Gad shames Zevulun in public, the law may not
grant Zevulun a legal right, even though Gadโs deed was worse than Ruebenโs. Of
Gadโs deeds, we might say: โHe who publicly puts his neighbor to shame has no
portion in the world-to-come.โ Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Baba Metzia, 59:1
[f]. We might say that, and no more. Both Rueben and Gad owed a duty of
fairness to Simon and Zevulun (respectively); Both Rueben and Gad breached the
duty owed; and nevertheless, Rueben is subject to the legal sanction, while Gad
is given no sanction (in this world). The question for our purposes is: Which
part of the all-inclusive duty of fairness should the law cloak with a legal
sanction โ by creating a legal duty of fairness โ and which part of the
all-inclusive legal duty of fairness should the law leave to other systems of
norms, like the educational system, the ruling culture, discussions among
members of society, and the like.
And perhaps tomorrow I will be asked: Must the
individual be fair to other individuals and to the government? Does the
individual owe a duty of fairness to other individuals in society and to the
government? My answer to that question will be unequivocally: Yes, the
individual owes a duty of fairness. That, however, is not the question which currently
troubles us. The question currently before us does not just concern the duty of
fairness. It concerns the
legal
duty of fairness that the individual
owes the government. We have yet to understand the nature of that duty, its
content, and its way.
16. Our discussion so far: To say that the individual
owes a (legal) duty of fairness to the government โ by itself โ is just a label
on a jug, a formal legal-conceptual framework. Until we find out the criteria
for creating this โduty of loyalty,โ which beverage to pour into the jug, what
is the formula for creating the beverage, we have as good as said nothing. To
be precise: Because we have created the label โ the label and not the content โ
it would not seem appropriate to discuss the existence of a general โduty of
fairness.โ After all, it is possible that, after determining the formula for
creating the duty, we will learn that we have only the tail-end of a duty or
the tip of fairness, such that it would be inappropriate and incorrect to talk
about a โgeneral duty of fairness.โ As such, it would be misleading if, prior
to determining the scope of the duty โ prior to determining the criteria for
outlining its borders โ we were to talk about its existence. I therefore deny โ
with full force โ the existence of a general duty of fairness owed by an
individual to the government, until we learn what that duty is, what bounds
have been set for it, and of what materials it is made.
On the Individual, the State, and the Individualโs
Duty of Fairness to the State
17. I have been asked to hold that the individual owes
a general duty of fairness to the government, and that the content of that duty
will be determined periodically by the case law and by analyzing this or that
set of facts. According to my colleague, Justice Zamir, the duty of fairness
arises from the social contract at the foundation of the state, a contract
which holds that the individual and the agency are not rivals but rather
partners in a joint enterprise. And just as partners in a project owe each
other a general duty of fairness, so do the government and its individuals owe
a reciprocal duty of fairness. The general duty of fairness that the state owes
its individuals is well-established, and now my colleague suggests that we
impose a duty of fairness on the individual toward the government.
18. Section 12 of the Contract Law (General Part)
tells us that, โIn negotiations to form a contract, a person must behave in an
acceptable way and in good faith.โ In the
Raviv
case [42], the Court had
to interpret this statutory provision and its applications on private bidding (in
other words, bidding not held by a public agency). The question asked was what
duty of good faith is imposed on individuals in negotiations between themselves
to form a contract, how should the law be interpreted, how will the bounds of
that duty be outlined. In short: On which track should we put the relationship
between individuals in commercial negotiations they conduct. Using the metaphor
that Thomas Hobbes created, my colleague, Justice Barak, held that this
relationship would not be one in which โperson to person โ behaves like a wolfโ
(
Homo Homini Lupus
). At the same time, we will not put this relationship
on the path of โperson to person โ behaves like an angelโ (
Homo Homini Deus
(vel Angelus)
). My colleague suggested that the relationship between people
should move along the lines of โperson to person โ behaves like a personโ (
Homo
Homini โ Homo
). We will, of course, agree; how could we not? We will not
agree to establish a norm of behavior of person to person โ behaves like a wolf
(really, person to person, like a wolf to a lamb; we should recall that a wolf
has no better friend than his or her fellow wolf who lives together in the same
pack). At the same time, it would be inappropriate to establish that person to
person โ behaves like an angel. Establishing this standard of behavior would
not be realistic, and there is no point in setting a norm by which people will
not abide. The recommended and appropriate standard of behavior is therefore
that person to person โ behaves like a person.
I have established, and not just by the process of
elimination, the formula for the duty of fairness between people: person to
person โ behaves like a person. This formula, however, like the formula for
fairness, merely presents us with a label on an empty jug. We are now supposed
to pour a beverage into the jug, because only then will we know the content of
fairness. The question is: what
norm
will we establish for relationships
between people? How
should
a person behave toward another person? What
standard of behavior will we require that people use toward each other? What
will be the
content
of the good faith established by law? We have
returned to our starting point, and again, we must continue to grope around in the
dark.
19. Before we touch on fairness itself, let us talk a
bit about those who share in the duty of fairness, about the individual and
about the government. My colleague, Justice Zamir, feels a certain discomfort
in holding that the individual owes a duty of fairness to the โgovernment.โ The
government is always the government, and the term โgovernmentโ sounds to us
like a body that rules us and instructs us what to do and what not to do. The
determination that the individual owes a duty of fairness to the โgovernmentโ grates
on my colleagueโs ears. Donโt call it the government, he tells us, but rather
an agency, an administrative agency, the state. As if changing the name and
switching the label will change the content. Of course, I will not object to
calling the government an agency or an administrative agency, but I will add
that, even after changing the name, we are talking about the government, about
the relationship between the individual and the government, and about the duty
of fairness that we are asked to impose on the individual toward the government.
By the way: the term โagencyโ [also โauthorityโ โ trans.] is, in some ways,
harsher than the term government. As the sages teach us: โBe wary of the
government [authorities โ trans.], for they get friendly with a person only for
their own convenience; They look like friends when it is to their benefit, but
they do not stand by a person when he is in need.โ Mishnah, Avot 2:3 [g].
Pinhas Kehati interprets it to mean, โWhen dealing with the ruling powers, do
not reveal to its agents too much of your affairs, and do not rely on their
promises โฆโ
See also
Mishnah, Avot
1:10
[g]: โShemaiah says, โLove work. Hate authority.
Donโt get friendly with the government.โโ Is the relevance of this advice of
our sages limited to the time at which they wrote it?
20.
We could or could not agree with the statement that people owe each other a
duty of fairness. In either event, we
understand
what is being said to
us. However, when we hear that a person owes a duty of fairness to an
administrative agency, we struggle to understand the words. For all that
concerns a
prohibition
on doing certain things, we can understand
imposing this duty on the individual โ whether the prohibition concerns other
individuals or an administrative agency. A prohibition imposed on someone, from
whatever source, sort of concentrates itself on the person bound by the
prohibition, and therefore it can be understood to exist in its own right. The
term โfairnessโ is different, because it is more than just a prohibition
against doing certain things. โFairnessโ implies โ and it should imply โ not
just a prohibition against doing something but rather an obligation to do
something, a positive obligation to do something for another person. The term
โfairnessโ itself implicates the relationships people have with each other. A
person may or may not be fair to another person, and he or she will still be a
person. In this context, what content shall we pour into the statement that the
individual owes a duty of fairness to the agency, if the agency is not a person
at all? How can we impose a duty of fairness on a person to someone who is not
a person at all?
21.
An administrative agency โ every administrative agency, and we can add all the
governmental powers, meaning the state itself โ is just a term, a concept, the
product of our thoughts. Furthermore, an administrative agency โ like the state
โ is not a tool, a device, an instrument, for achieving certain purposes, like
the wheel in the hand of a sailor and the axe in the hand of the woodworker.
The state, as such, has no life of its own. We can agree that we could not
exist without the framework of the state, but that statement of reality cannot
make the state into something it is not. That is true of the state, and that is
true of the administrative agency.
An
administrative agency charged with giving licenses in a certain field, for
example, licenses to operate a business, seems like a machine, like the
machines that dispense cafรฉ au lait or bottles of cold drinks. Like the
machine, the administrative agency has licenses to operate a business in its
stomach. Press a series of buttons โ one after the other in a certain order โ
pay what you are required to pay (a fee), and you get what you asked for. If
you do not press the right buttons, or you press them in the wrong order, you
will not get what you asked for: cafรฉ au lait, a bottle of a cold drink,
a license to operate a business. Indeed, in this way, an authorized agency may
differ from a machine, because an agency is imparted with discretion, while it
is difficult to grant discretion to a machine (is it?). Perhaps we should
recall that a machine โ unlike an authorized agency โ does not operate
arbitrarily, discriminatorily, or condescendingly. In any event, just as we
would find it difficult to outline a duty of fairness owed a machine, so will
we find it difficult to establish a duty of fairness toward an โagencyโ that is
anything more than a legal concept.
Perhaps
you might say: Arenโt the โagency,โ the โgovernment,โ indeed bodies to which we
should owe a duty of fairness? After all, they are no more than virtual
creations (although they can hurt an individual). And what about those who work
for the agency, who are flesh-and-blood? Why shouldnโt we say that the
individual owes a duty of fairness to them? The answer to that question is that
those employees of the agency are just the agents of the (conceptual) agency,
who do its bidding. They have nothing but what the agency has, because they do
not operate for themselves but rather for the agency. And if we found it
difficult to hold that the individual should owe a duty of fairness to an
โagency,โ we may not create something out of nothing by identifying the
employees of the agency with the agency.
22.
To remove any doubt, I will quickly clarify that we should not identify state
with โhomelandโ (with โsociety,โ with โpeople,โ or with โnationโ). A homeland
is the birthplace of a person: it is the land in which he or she grew up and
was educated, it is the landscape of his or her childhood, it is the society in
which he or she lives. A homeland is our home, a homeland is our family: โLove
of the home is the mother of love for the homeland.โ Someone who loves the
homeland is a patriot. โHomelandโ is not โstate.โ The term homeland is
intangible, and therefore we must resort to symbols: the flag, the symbol. In
the not-so-distant past, a person of authority called the state flag a stick
with a rag stuck to it, and I had this to say about it:
The flag of
Israel
is not โjust an expression of a stick with a blue-and-white
rag stuck to it.โ The flag of
Israel
is me and you, he and she, they, we, and our
children. Even for those who have left and will not return to us, we, all of
us, we are not a rag.
HC 8507/96
Orin v. State of
Israel
[44] at 277.
The state is a tool and an instrument to achieve
certain purposes. It is not like my extended family, the homeland. Licenses to
operate a business are given by the state โ not the homeland โ and we should
therefore be careful not to confuse unlike things.
23. I will return to our subject and note โ as an
opening comment โ that conceptually, I find it difficult to recognize the
individualโs duty of fairness toward the administrative agency. That is just
the beginning of the journey, however. After trampling for a long time through
the hallway, the time has come for us to put ourselves into the drawing room
and examine our surroundings.
24. Unlike my colleague, Justice Zamir, I do not think
that the relationship between the individual and the government is a โfriendlyโ
relationship, as though the two were friends, between whom the duty of fairness
would naturally arise. On my station of embarkation for the journey โ the
journey to discover the duties that the individual owes the government โ hangs
a sign, and on the sign, written in big letters, is the word, โfreedom.โ My
view about the status of the individual in his or her relationship with
government agencies and the administration is that the individual may and is
entitled to do anything (or to omit doing anything) that he or she is not
prohibited from doing (or required to do), unless he or she bears a duty to do
it (or not to do it).Most of the duties that the law imposes on the individual
are negative duties โ donโt murder, donโt steal โ and that is the minimal level
required for a properly-functioning society. The individual may owe some
positive legal duties, but the law explicitly sets out these duties, and they
are few. Examples include: the duty to serve in the military; the duty to pay
taxes; parentsโ duties to their children under the Legal Capacity and
Guardianship Law, 1962 and the Mandatory Education Law, 1949; the duty certain
people owe protected persons; the duty to prevent a crime (sec. 262 of the
Penal Law, 1977), and others.
Beyond those explicit negative and positive duties,
the individual owes no legal duty to the government, and in my opinion, it
would not be proper to obligate him or her with additional duties. The
individual has a right to do as he or she pleases, and he or she acts on his or
her own account. The individual has a right, a right of the highest virtue: a
right to freedom and permission which has the virtue of law (or the virtue of a
basic law).
Cf
. HC 3872/93
Mitral Ltd. v. Prime Minister and
Religious Affairs Minister
[45] at 29 and subsequent text. The individual
is born free in the law and remains free in the law all the days of his or her
life, until it is established that he or she owes some kind of duty. Someone
who abstains from prohibited acts and performs the positive duties explicitly
imposed on him fulfils his or her duty in law. He or she owes nothing to no one
and nothing to the government. He or she is not a saint. He or she is not a
righteous person. He or she does what is required of him or her. He or she is
an ordinary citizen.
In my opinion, this is the liberal-democratic station
of embarkation, and I personally think that we should adopt it and cultivate it.
A healthy, appropriate society does not exist without volunteer works,
altruism, and assistance to โthe poor and the elderly,โ but these exist โ for
the most part โ outside the framework of law. Indeed, the law does sometimes
adopt a duty that can be characterized as an altruistic duty, such as: the duty
to offer assistance to the victim of a traffic accident and duties incident to
it (sec. 64A of the Traffic Ordinance [New Version] and Regulations 144 and 146
of the Traffic Regulations, 1961); the duty to save lives at sea (sec. 39 of
the Shipping Law (Sailors), 1973); the duty to offer assistance to a public
servant under certain circumstances (sec. 491 of the Penal Law).
See also
,
CrimA 119/93
Lawrence v. State of Israel
[46] at 29 and subsequent text;
A. Barak,
Shikul Daโat Shiputi
[78] at 463-64. These, however, are
exceptions to the rule.
25. That is generally the case in law, and that is the
case, in my opinion, of the relationship between the individual and the
government. In principle, I am not prepared to recognize the duty of an
individual toward the government, whether we call such duty a duty of fairness
or something else, unless that duty is explicitly or implicitly required by
law. Because of the Basic Laws, once a duty is established by law, that duty is
supposed to adjust to the restrictions imposed by the Basic Laws. That is all.
My colleague, Justice Zamir, will forgive me, but I am hard-pressed to shake
off the impression that, in his opinion, he sketches a Utopian state of
fairness, a state in which the majority breathes fairness, a state in which
people hurry to inquire into the welfare of each other, a state in which the
majority seeks the collective good, all the time. What can we do if we donโt
live in a Utopian state of this kind? And since that is the case, in my
opinion, it is inappropriate to impose a duty of fairness on the individual to
the government, a duty that a Utopian state could impose on its individuals.
Moreover, the individual and the government do not
have equal rights. They do not have equal powers, and they are not of equal
status. Nor are they friends. The government has most of the power, most of the
force, most of the wealth, such that the individual โ however much power,
force, and wealth he or she may have โ is not in the same league. The
government has nothing of its own; anything it has, it holds in trust โ for the
good and benefit of the individual. However, the normative-legal statement that
this is the status of the government
vis ร vis
the citizen cannot
take away from the phenomenon we witness on a daily, hourly basis: the
individual standing in line at the government counter, and the line winds and
plods forward, longer and longer. Some call this phenomenon, โbureaucracy,โ and
others call it something else. Whatever its name, it is all-too-familiar to us
all. This is why, in the past, the courts were called to the aid of the individual
facing this huge machine โ they were called in the past, are called today, and
will continue to be called in the future. This is the reason that the courts
established the principle of the trust that the government owes the individual.
For the same reason, the case law has established a duty of fairness that the
government owes the individual. This principle and this duty stem from the
agencyโs abundant authority, its excess power, and its ability to deprive the
individual of a benefit which he or she could have enjoyed, had it not been
prohibited.
The duty of fairness owed by the government to the
individuals in society derives from the excess power that the government
wields, from the tremendous force that the government holds. The duty of fairness
is designed to serve, among other means, as a check on the power and a
restraint of the force. Can we say the same thing about the individual
vis
ร vis
the government? The individual, after all, is Gulliver in the land
of the giants: The giants surround the feast, and Gulliver stands on the dining
table, the entire tiny length of him, every bone in his body, quivering in
terror. He is like a salt shaker to them, like the stub of a carrot. One simple
exhalation of breath, and Gulliver is no more. I could understand imposing a
โduty of fairnessโ on the giants, owed to Gulliver. I find it difficult to
understand imposing a duty of fairness โ a matching duty โ on Gulliver. Duties
โ including the duty of fairness โ are intended to restrain power, force,
wealth. What power does the individual have, relative to the government?
26. Consider a license required to establish and
operate a business. Originally, the individual was permitted and allowed to
engage in any business or profession in order to support himself or herself and
his or her family. Abel shepherded his sheep without a shepherding license;
Cain worked the land without a license to plough and plant; and Tubal-Cain forged
instruments of bronze and iron (Genesis,
4:22
[h]), without having obtained a business license. It
was their natural right, and โevery person has a natural, imparted right to
engage in the job or profession he or she chooses, so long as engaging in that
job or profession is not prohibited by law.โ HC 1/49
Bazherno v. Police
Minister
[47] at 82 (S.Z. Cheshin, J.). When the legislature forbad some
professions unless certain preliminary conditions were met โ it made its
prohibition, and we must abide by it in letter and in spirit. However, that
very prohibition and the exemption from the prohibition are what create the
governmentโs duty to the individual, the duty of fairness and the other duties
similar to it in form and character. The individualโs duty to equip himself or
herself with a license to engage in a certain business, as well as the
governmentโs ability to provide the individual with that license, are what
create the duty of fairness owed by the government to the individual. Despite
my searching and poking around, I found no source from which we could hew a
duty of fairness owed by the individual to the government. The principle is the
principle of individual liberty, and this principle โ by itself โ does not
generate a duty of fairness.
27. A final word on the duty of fairness, a duty which
I am not prepared to recognize. Because the proposed duty of fairness is a duty,
violating the said duty is supposed to create a legal counter-action, a
sanction that will be applied against the violator for violating a duty imposed
on him or her. Because the individualโs duty is owed to the government, that
would mean that the government could impose a sanction against the individual,
if the latter violated his or her duty. It is as though we are being asked to
equip the government with a kind of penal authority against an individual who
violated a duty of fairness owed the government. For example: by suspending or
revoking the license.
Indeed, in addition to other obstacles that this legal
structure would create for us โ problems entrenched in the principle of
legality and the principle of separation of powers โ this path would collide
with a doctrine well-established in the case law. The doctrine is that an
authorized agency may not take into account, as part of its considerations, the
consideration that the individual acted with unclean hands. For example, in HC
192/61
Kalo v. City of Bat Yam
, the petitioner opened a butcher shop
without receiving a license. When he applied for a license, the municipality
responded by saying that it would not consider his application because โhe
opened the butcher shop without a license, taking the law into his own hands.โ
The Court responded by saying that the doctrine of unclean hands is a
consideration that the Court may consider โ the Court and not the
administrative agency. The Court held that:
The municipality is different from this court. Section
7 of the Courts Law, 1957 authorizes this court to grant a remedy, at its
discretion, while the municipality must consider an application submitted to it
and make a decision on the merits, irrespective of the applicantโs behavior. I
do not approve of the decision of the municipalityโs licensing committee not to
consider the applicantโs request because he opened the store without a license.
Moreover, the applicant has already been subject to criminal proceedings for
that deed, and he has been convicted of violating that ordinance. A local
authority must serve as an example for its citizens by stringently abiding by
the law, because if it fails to do so, the citizen will follow its example. The
licensing committeeโs
June 25, 1961
decision disregards this duty โฆ
HC 192/61,
supra
[48] at 1858 (Sussman, J.).
See
also
HC 328/60
Musa v. Interior Minister
[49] at 79 (Sussman, J.).
The difference between an act (or omission) that
constitutes unclean hands and a breach of the duty of fairness โ if you prefer,
the difference between the clean-hands requirement and the duty of fairness โ
is minimal. It would not be difficult for us to locate a violation of the duty
of fairness within the bounds of the doctrine of unclean hands. In other words,
recognizing the proposed duty of fairness would seriously erode the doctrine
well-established in the case law, namely that an agency cannot consider an
applicantโs lack of clean hands. This would be done without giving the
Kalo
[48]
doctrine an opportunity to defend itself and justify its continued
applicability. And if we were to examine the matter a bit more closely, we
would see that the
Kalo
[48] doctrine clearly and appropriately
expresses the principle of separation of powers and the principle of legality.
Would it be right for us to give up on this expression of principles lying at
the base of the legal system?
The
Individualโs Duty of Fairness to the Government As Derived from the Agencyโs
Authority
28. My colleague, President Barak, disagrees with my
colleague, Justice Zamir, about imposing a general duty of fairness on the
individual, owed to the government. In his opinion, there is no appropriate
legal source for this duty of fairness, and in any event, the duty has no place
in Israeli law. So far, my colleague, the President, and I are traveling in the
same carriage, side by side. However, at this point, we will part company, he
to travel in his carriage, and I to continue in mine.
29. According to my colleague, the President, the individual
does not owe a general duty of fairness to the government, but he or she may,
in the balance of rights and duties between him or her and the government, owe
certain duties to the government. For our purposes, as my colleague, the
President says โ meaning, in a system in which an individual requests any sort
of license from the government โ the individual owes a duty to the government.
And what is that duty? The duty is to bring to the agencyโs attention the facts
that the agency needs in order to appropriately and properly exercise its
lawful authority. The governmental decision, my colleague says, โmust be based
on the proper factual infrastructure. Hence, the agency has a duty to collect
the factual data, assess them as necessary, and use them to determine โฆ the
factual infrastructure relevant to making the governmental decision.โ This is
the source from which we learn about the individualโs duty, which is the duty
to โassist the governmental agency in building the factual infrastructure that
serves as the basis for the governmental decision of whether or not to grant
the license.โ Therefore, an individual applying for a license or permit from
the government bears a duty โto disclose the factual data material to the
factual infrastructure which will serve as the basis of the government's
exercise of discretion.โ In a slightly different formulation, โIf the
individual requests a license or permit from the government, and in order to
exercise its discretion, the government needs facts known to the individual,
the individual bears the burden of disclosing those facts to the government โฆโ
Again, โThe duty of disclosure I discuss โฆ applies to licensing regimes through
which an individual applies for a license. Under those circumstances, I accept
that the individual should be required to disclose the facts he or she knows which
are relevant to the exercise of governmental discretion.โ
We therefore find that, instead of the
all-encompassing duty that my colleague, Justice Zamir, seeks to impose on the
individual
vis ร vis
the government โ the general duty of
fairness โ within a system in which an individual seeks a license from the
government, my colleague, President Barak, seeks to impose a duty to disclose
โthe facts he or she knows which are relevant to the exercise of governmental
discretion.โ Instead of the duty that my colleague, Justice Zamir establishes โ
a duty that emanates a whiff of social morality โ my colleague, the President,
makes do with an ordinary duty belonging to the ranks of day-to-day administrative
law. An ordinary duty โ but a duty nonetheless.
30. To these ideas, I will add my own contribution:
just as I found it difficult to accept the yoke of a general duty of fairness
owed by the individual to the government, so do I find it difficult to add my
support to a duty to make the appropriate disclosures of facts relevant to
exercising discretion. If my opinion were to hold sway, the individual would
owe the government neither a general duty of fairness nor a duty to disclose
relevant facts. I am not saying that an individual is released from the yoke of
any duty owed the government. I do, however, say that the individualโs duties
to the government are far more limited than those that my colleagues โ each in
his own way โ seek to impose. I will discuss those duties later. For now, I
will try to explain why I find it difficult to concur with President Barak on
the issue of a duty to disclose the facts relevant to the exercise of
discretion.
31. We read the sign hung on the embarkation point of
our journey, and I will remind you that engraved upon it is the word โfreedom.โ
โFreedomโ means that the individual owes no duty to the government other than
the duties that a provision of law โ including of case law โ imposes upon him
or her, whether it is a positive or negative duty. The penal code, for example,
which is filled to the brim with negative duties, constitutes negative duties
which are explicitly imposed by law (however they may be formulated), and they
are the minimum duties that make a society human. These duties restrict the
individualโs freedom, the freedom with which we began our journey. Alongside
these negative duties reside positive duties which the law imposes on the
individual. Examples of these duties include the duty to serve in the military
and the duty to pay taxes. Other examples are the duties that parents owe their
children and those that certain individuals owe to protected persons and to
helpless persons. It is superfluous to note something which everyone knows โ
that there are far fewer positive duties than negative duties. That is not for
naught. We have decided that, in principle, negative duties burden the
individual less than positive duties, meaning that negative duties invade an
individualโs area of freedom less than positive duties. In other words,
consistent with liberal democracy and individual rights โ among other things โ
it is easier to impose negative duties on the individual than positive duties.
We learn from this that before imposing a positive duty on an individual, we
must consider and reconsider whether our decision goes too far, whether we have
exceeded what is appropriate and permissible under the basic perspective
accepted in our society.
Why do I say all this? Because my colleague, President
Barak, seeks to impose on a license or permit applicant a positive duty to
disclose details relevant to the exercise of the authority imparted to the
government. And I say that before imposing this positive duty on the
individual, we carefully examine if we have exhausted other ways of achieving
the goal we seek to achieve, without imposing a positive duty on the
individual.
32. I personally found it difficult to understand
where the duty of disclosure that my colleague, President Barak, seeks to
impose on a license applicant came from. We all agree, of course, that an
authorized agency which has the power to give โ or to refuse to give โ a
license to an individual bears a primary duty to assemble all the relevant
information necessary to lay a factual basis for exercising its discretion.
However, this duty to assemble information is imposed on the agency, not on the
individual seeking to receive a license. The agency is the trustee of the
public, and as a faithful trustee, it must rest on its lees until is assembles
all the information relevant to the issue, because only on a solid foundation
can one build a house that will not collapse. What is the basis for saying, as
does my colleague, President Barak, that, โThe source of the duty of disclosure
in the present case is the view that a proper exercise of governmental
authority requires the individual to make appropriate disclosures to the
government concerning material facts which serve as the basis for the
governmental decision?โ What does the duty imposed on the
agency
tell us
about the duty imposed on the
individual
? Arenโt these two duties, in
some ways, contradictory? What is the basis for saying that the duty imposed on
the government in itself breeds a duty imposed on the individual?
Another Opinion
33.
I think that just one bridge can bridge the gap between the duty imposed on the
agency and the duty that has been said to be imposed on the individual. The
bridge is this: in the course of fulfilling its duty to assemble information,
the governmental agency may โ may, and even must โ ask the license applicant to
hand over the facts which he or she has (and of which the agency may not know
from other sources). This is the case, for example, where the written law
itself โ the statute or regulations โ sets pre-conditions for receiving a
license. In our case, the law requires an applicant for a license to operate a
licensing warehouse to possess a warehouse it owns, rents, or leases.
Regulation 14 and the Sixth Addendum to the Customs Regulations. Once the law
sets preconditions for applying for a license, it is elementary that the
government agency can require the applicant to provide reliable information regarding
the existence of those preconditions (unrelated to any duty of fairness). We
should recall the holding that, if the law explicitly sets certain
preconditions for granting a license, and the law does not impart the agency
with additional discretion, the agency may not add conditions to the ones
established. HC 43/76
Amitar Company, Ltd. v. Tourism Minister
[50] at
559-60; HC 208/79
Ineis v. Health Ministry General Director
[51] at 304;
1 B. Bracha,
Mishpat Minhali [Administrative Law]
[83], n.52 on p.164.
If the agency lacks the authority to add conditions to the conditions, as a
matter of course, it lacks the authority to demand information about those
conditions which it has no authority to set for a license applicant.
34.
Therefore: where the law explicitly sets preconditions for granting a license, the
agency has the authority and may โ may and even must โ require a license
applicant to convince it that those conditions have been met, that it disclose
the information necessary to prove that those conditions have been met. Another
typical case is where the written law does not explicitly set preconditions for
granting a license, but we know the scope of the agencyโs discretion โ meaning,
the authority of the agency to set the conditions that must be met for it to
grant the license โ through the purpose of the statute. Once we know learn and
discover that the agencyโs discretion depends on certain considerations, we
know for ourselves that the agency is authorized to collect information about
those issues in order to fulfill its role. This authority to set conditions includes
the secondary authority to require a license applicant to provide the requested
information (unless the applicant has a right under the law not to disclose the
information, and if that is the claim, the applicant bears the burden of
establishing that right), because only if the license applicant fulfills that
requirement, can the agency properly perform what the law requires of it. Section
17(b) of the Interpretation Law, under which โauthority to do something or to
require it to be done โ means the secondary authorities necessary thereto, to an
acceptable extent.โ Authorizing a governmental agency to grant a license โ or
to refuse to grant a license โ includes the secondary authority to demand
information from the license applicant. This secondary authority is necessary
for the agency โto an acceptable extent,โ to allow it to exercise its
discretion properly.
35.
This is the bridge that bridges the gap between the duty imposed on a
governmental agency to exercise its discretion in the best way possible and the
duty imposed on a license applicant to provide information to the agency; if
receiving the information from the license applicant is necessary for the
government agency to exercise its discretion properly, it has the authority,
and it may require the individual โ via a law, regulations, or internal
regulations, or on a case-by-case basis โ to provide information in the area of
its exercise of discretion. When asked to provide information, the individual
must provide the required information, to the extent it is required and in the
way it is required. However, the government bears the burden of initiating the
requirement โ by setting preconditions normatively or on a case-by-case basis โ
and the individual bears no duty other than the duty to respond to the demands
placed on him or her. I personally would not agree to impose a case-law duty on
the individual โ as my colleagues propose โ whether it is a general duty of
fairness, as my colleague, Justice Zamir proposes, or a duty of the individual
to provide, at his or her own initiative, information relevant to the agencyโs
exercise of discretion, as my colleague, President Barak, suggests.
36.
The agency is the one with the experience, as its job is to grant license of
the kind discussed: in our case, licenses to operate a licensing facility. In
other case: a business license. In yet another situation: a driverโs license. The
daily business of a governmental agency allows it to accumulate experience and
knowledge about the requirements that it should impose on license applicants
including the questions it should ask them. That is how the governmental agency
acquires experience โ precept upon precept, precept upon precept, line upon
line, line upon line [
Isaiah
28:10 โ trans.] โ and when a license
applicant approaches it, it can ask him or her questions and demand answers and
information. Who are we to impose a duty on the individual โ be it a general
duty of fairness or a duty to provide relevant information โ when the agency,
in the course of the proper fulfillment of its role, knows how to ask for the
information it desires?
Moreover,
because it is experienced in its field, the governmental agency knows what
relevant information it needs to exercise its discretion properly. On the other
hand, how will the individual know what information the agency needs โ meaning,
what information is relevant โ if the agency does not explicitly ask him or her
to provide it? Doesnโt the individual have a right to assume that information
which the agency does not explicitly request is not relevant information? Is it
relevant that he was convicted of beating his wife ten years prior to
submitting the application? Is it relevant that she has refused to make
maintenance payments to dependents? And if the individual has not been
explicitly asked to give the agency information about prior convictions, why
should we require him or her to volunteer information that is embarrassing to
him or her? May he or she not assume that such information is not relevant,
because he or she was not asked to provide it to the agency? Furthermore, the
duty to disclose information would be imposed on the individual only if the
agency omitted something โ did not fulfill its duty properly โ and did not ask
the individual to provide this or that important piece of information. If the
agency omitted something by not demanding a certain piece of information from
the individual, why should we require the individual to โknowโ that such
information is relevant and to provide it to the agency at his or her
initiative?
37.
In our case, a precondition for granting a license to operate a licensing
warehouse is that the applicant possess a warehouse that he or she owns, rents,
or leases for a particular time, from day X to day Y. Sixth Addendum to the
Customs Regulations. The license applicant has a duty to give the agency
information about the โwarehouseโ he or she possesses. The regulations
explicitly provide, in detail and in a way that leaves no room for doubt, that
the applicant must give the agency information about his or her rights in the
warehouse. We have no need for a duty of fairness or any other case-law duty
imposed on the individual to provide relevant information to the agency. The
license applicantโs duty is explicitly written and established in the law, and
we have no need to resort to a duty from any other source.
To
draw a comparison, assume,
arguendo
, that the Customs Regulations did
not explicitly require โ as they currently do โ that an applicant for a license
to operate a licensing warehouse possess a licensing warehouse which he or she
owns, rents, or leases. Let us further assume that the agency does not
explicitly require the applicant to prove ownership or a rental right in the
licensing warehouse. Can we say that the applicant must โ at his or her
initiative โ provide the agency with information about the warehouse or be
viewed as someone who violated a duty owed, because the information is relevant
information? I wonder.
38.
Here, we should differentiate between the duty of disclosure that the
individual owes an agency and the duty of disclosure that the individual owes
another individual with whom he or she is supposed to form a contract. Under
section 15 of the Contract Law (General Part), someone who forms a contract
because of a mistake stemming from the other partyโs misrepresentation may void
the contract. For this purpose, โmisrepresentationโ means: โnondisclosure of
facts which the other party should have disclosed by law, by custom, or under
the circumstances.โ We learn about the scope of this duty that the law imposes
on those about to enter into a contract from the positions that parties occupy
in relation to each other. The two are not just โrivals,โ but they are also
supposed to have equal power.
A priori
,
one may not require and
has no authority to require the other to provide material or relevant
information about the contract. This is the source of the duty which the law
imposes on the parties โ mutually โ and the sanction it imposes for failing to
fulfill such duty. On the other hand, the relationship between the individual
and the government is different from North to South, if only because of the
position of power which the government occupies in relation to the individual. When
the individual applies for a license or permit from the government, the
government has the right and authority to require the individual to provide information
material and relevant to the license. Once the government has been granted this
power, there is no need to impose a duty on the individual
vis ร vis
the
government.
More on the Individualโs Duty of Fairness to the
Government
39.
In the
Awad
case [30], the petitioner was a member of the Rosh Haayin
Religious Council and was even chosen to be its chairman. It became clear that
the Minister of Religious Affairs agreed to the petitionerโs appointment without
knowing that he had previously โ in the context of his tenure as the treasurer
of the Religious Council โ been convinced of crimes of theft. Because of a
prior petition submitted to the High Court of Justice, the Minister of
Religious Affairs informed the petitioner that this appointment [as chairman โ
trans.] was terminated, as was his appointment as a member of the Religious
Council, because it became clear that approval of the appointment to the
Religious Council (the petitioner was the candidate of the local council) โwas granted
through a mistake and/or misrepresentation, namely concealment of the fact that
the petitioner had been convicted of a crime of moral turpitude and therefore
is not suited to serve as a member of the Religious Council.โ
Id
at 490.
In considering the
Awad
[30] petition challenging the decision of the
Minister of Religious Affairs, the Court held that the prior conviction of a
candidate for the Religious Council is an appropriate consideration in the
question of whether or not to select him as a member. The Court then considered
the next question, whether the minister could โrevoke his approval of the
petitionerโs candidacy as submitted by the local council, based on the claim
that at the time he gave his approval, the minister did not know that the
petitioner had committed a crime of moral turpitude?โ
Id.
at 492. The
Court held that the minister could revoke his approval. On this issue, Justice
Barak wrote:
Personal integrity, the lack of a
criminal past, etc. are considerations material to this issue. The minister
arrived at his stance regarding these considerations by examining a set of
facts that does not comport with reality. The minister knew nothing about the
petitionerโs prior conviction. Moreover, under the circumstances, the
petitioner had a duty to disclose the fact of his conviction to the local
council, and both the local council and the petitioner had a duty to inform the
minister of it. The duty of good faith and fairness require this step to be
taken.
Reg. v. Home Secretary, ex p. Zamir
(1980) at 950. Therefore, we
are dealing with a material mistake in the ministerโs approval, because of a
lack of information about facts which were required to be brought to the
attention of the minister. The result is that an appointment was made which
seriously undermines the integrity and image of the civil service, as well as
public faith in it. I think the combined weight of these facts is another
reason to allow the minister to revoke his approval. In the proper balance
between the public interest in the integrity of the civil service and public
faith in the public administration, on the one hand, and the public interest in
the uninterrupted activities of the administrative agency and the petitionerโs
personal interest in the continued validity of his appointment, on the other
hand, the first interest trumps.
Id.
My
colleague, Justice Zamir, uses these words to establish,
inter alia
, the
general duty of fairness which he tries to impose on someone who applies for a
license from an agency.
Para
. 29 of his opinion. I wish to tarry and ponder this a
bit.
40.
No one would disagree that a candidate for a Religious Council must be an
honest person; the question of a candidateโs integrity โ if you like, his
criminal past โ is a primary consideration in the authoritiesโ discretion
whether or not to choose him as a member of the Religious Council. There is
further agreement that โ from the publicโs perspective โ a candidate for the
position should disclose โ at the beginning of the process โ his unsavory past.
The question is whether the candidate bears a
legal duty
to disclose his
criminal past to the authorities selecting him; and if such a legal duty does
exist, what sanction might the candidate bear if he omits fulfilling the duty
imposed on him? It seems to me that the question of the duty โ โthe duty of
good faith and fairnessโ โ was not relevant in the
Awad
case [30], and
to the extent it was relevant, it remained hidden in the margins.
Justice
Barak held that the question of Awadโs criminal conviction constituted an
important factor in his appointment, and that the ministerโs ignorance of that
criminal past constituted a serious deficiency of discretion. As he held, โwe
are dealing with a
material mistake
in the ministerโs approval โฆ
(emphasis added โ M.Ch.).โ I will, of course, agree. However, if that is the
case, of what relevance is the duty of good faith and fairness? Let us assume,
for example, that because of an omission or negligence, Awad was not asked
about his criminal past, and the subject came up only by coincidence. In that
case, wouldnโt the ministerโs approval still be tainted by a โmaterial
mistake?โ And in that case, wouldnโt Awadโs appointment as a member of the
Religious Council still be an appointment which, in the words of Justice Barak,
โseriously undermines the integrity and image of the civil service, as well as
public faith in it?โ If so, how is the โduty of good faith and fairnessโ
relevant? Another case: assume, for example, that Awad was asked about his
criminal past; that he responded honestly to the questions asked; but that his
answers got lost somewhere on the way to the minister. In a case like that,
wouldnโt his appointment still seriously undermine the integrity of the civil
service and so forth? Wouldnโt the ministerโs approval under these
circumstances still be tainted by a material mistake? Indeed, in this last
case, we might feel personal empathy for Awad, but I doubt it would change the
conclusions and results of the court decision.
41.
From this we learn, in my opinion, that the primary question does not concern
the duty of fairness that Awad owed the authorities but rather the material
mistake they made in exercising their discretion. Once the agency learned that
it had made a material mistake in its discretion, it was allowed โ in principle
โ to revoke its decision, even if it doesnโt always have such power.
See
e.g.
the
Awad
case [30] at 492;
see also
the citations in
para. 15 of Justice Zamirโs opinion. The primary question concerns the substantive
aspects of the discretion, as Justice Barak held:
We face the following question: May the Minister of
Religious Affairs revoke his approval of the petitionerโs candidacy, as
proposed by the local council, with the claim that at the time he gave his
approval, the minister did not know that the petitioner had committed a crime
of moral turpitude? In my opinion, the answer to that question is in the
affirmative.
Id.
at
492.
Indeed,
a candidateโs knowing concealment and denial of negative information about his
character is likely to work to his disadvantage. It seems to me, however, that the
main issue is not the duty of fairness or its violation, but rather the very
fact that the authorized agency made a material mistake in exercising its
discretion.
42.
The main point: in any case in which an authorized agencyโs decision is tainted
by a material mistake, the agency may and has the authority โ as a matter of
principle โ to revoke the decision. The question of the duty of fairness that
an individual owes (or does not owe) to the government is not relevant, because
the agencyโs mistake was and remains material, whether or not we say the
individual owed a duty of fairness.
43.
In order to ground the duty of fairness owed by an individual to the
government, Justice Zamir relies on Justice Barakโs comments in the
Awad
case [30] (see the citation in para. 39,
supra
). Justice Barak, for his
part โ in the
Awad
case [30] โ extrapolated from the comments of Lord
Wilberforce in
Reg v. Home Secretary, Ex p. Zamir
(1980) (hereinafter โ
the
Zamir
case [74]). In that case, Zamir, a citizen and resident of
Pakistan
,
applied for an entrance visa to the
United
Kingdom
, in order to join his father,
who had been living in the
United Kingdom
for ten years. This took place in 1972. Zamir
completed an application form for a visa and described himself as a bachelor,
as he indeed was (at the time, he was 15 years old). His application was
granted in 1975. In 1976, while still in
Pakistan
, Zamir married, and one month later, he traveled to
the
United Kingdom
on the visa he had received. At the time he entered
the
United Kingdom
, he did not disclose to the authorities that he had
married, and he was not asked about his marital status. An immigration clerk
approved Zamirโs entrance into the
United
Kingdom
for an unlimited period of
time. After a while โ when Zamirโs wife and son applied to join him โ the truth
was discovered, and the agencies sought to deport Zamir from the
United Kingdom
.
Zamir petitioned the court, challenging the decision to deport him, and his
petition was rejected by two levels of the court system. His case now reached
the House of Lords. The House of Lords also rejected Zamirโs petition. In the
course of his opinion, Lord Wilberforce said:
It is clear on general principles of law that
deception may arise from conduct, or from conduct accompanied by silence as to
a material fact. It can be no answer to a claim that such deception has
occurred to say that no question was asked... I would, indeed, go further than
this
โ
a
point so far left open in the Court of Appeal. In my opinion an alien seeking
entry to the United Kingdom
owes a positive duty of candour on all material
facts
which denote a change of circumstances since the issue of the entry
clearance (emphasis added
โ
M. Ch.).
Id.
at 950.
In
other words: Lord Wilberforce recognizes a duty of fairness owed by the
individual to the government. โA positive duty of candourโ means that the
individual owes a duty to disclose information to the agency, even if he or she
is not asked about it. My colleague, Justice Zamir, calls it the duty of
fairness.
44.
However, this rule โ in that formulation โ did not last long. It was overruled
(with the concurrence of Lord Wilberforce) four years after the
Zamir
case
[74], in the decision made in
Reg. v. Home Secretary, Ex p. Khawaja
(1984) (hereinafter โ the
Khawaja
case [75]). The facts in the the
Khawaja
case [75] were similar to the facts of the
Zamir
case [74], except that
this time, the House of Lords rescinded the duty of fairness that Lord
Wilberforce established in the
Zamir
case [74]. In the later case, the
House of Lords held that a person applying for an entrance visa to the
United Kingdom
does not bear a duty to disclose material information (โduty of fairnessโ). The
individualโs only duty is not to engage in fraud or deception. Regarding the
Zamir
case [74] (which was the law in the the
Khawaja
case [75]), the House of
Lords held that Zamirโs behavior, in fact, rose to the level of deception
(because in entering the United Kingdom, he implicitly presented himself as a
bachelor, when he was in fact married). Lord Fraser says in his opinion (with
which the other judges concurred) that Lord Wilberforceโs comments (cited
above) in the
Zamir
case were dicta. He went on to hold that:
At the time when his [Lord Wilberforceโs โ M. Ch.] speech
was delivered I agreed with all of it ...
but on further reflection, in the light of the arguments
in the present appeal, has convinced me that it would be wrong to construe the
Immigration Act 1971 as if it imposed on persons applying for leave to
enter a duty of
candour approximating to
uberrima fides
. But, of course, deception may
arise from silence as to a material fact in some circumstances; for
example, the silence
of the appellant Khawaja about the fact of his marriage to Mrs. Butt and the
fact that she had accompanied him on the flight to Manchester were, in my view,
capable of constituting deception, even if he had not told any direct lies to
the immigration officer.
Id.
at 97.
Lord
Wilberforce himself agreed (
Id.
at 99) that his comments in the
Zamir
case
[74] were dicta, and that the case in question had been a typical case of
deceit (by Zamir). The other judges agreed with Lord Fraser.
See
Lord
Bridge
โs
opinion at 118-19, 126; Lord Scarmanโs opinion at 107, 108. Lord Scarman also
expresses reservations about Lord Wilberforceโs comments in the
Zamir
case [74], and goes on to say the following: All
agree that an applicant to enter the
United
Kingdom
bears a duty to answer the
questions he or she is asked honestly and to provide the information requested.
He or she bears no additional duties. The applicant does not know which facts
are material. The immigration clerk is the one who knows which facts are
material to his or her decision, and therefore the individual should not bear a
duty to provide material facts. Lord Scarman writes:
It is certainly an entrantโs duty to answer truthfully
the questions put to him and to provide such information as is required of
him... But the Act goes no further. He may, or may not,
know what facts are material. The
immigration officer does, or ought to, know the matters relevant to the
decision he has to make. Immigration control
is, no doubt,
an important safeguard for our society... To allow
officers to rely on an entrant honouring a duty of positive candour,
by which is meant a
duty to volunteer relevant information, would seem perhaps a disingenuous
approach to the administration of control... The Immigration Act does impose a
duty not to deceive the immigration officer. It makes no express provision for
any higher or more comprehensive duty: nor is it possible, in my view, to imply
any
such duty.
Accordingly I reject the view that there is a duty of positive candour imposed
by the immigration laws and that mere non
-
disclosure by an entrant
of material facts in the absence of fraud is a breach of the immigration laws.
Id.
at 107-08.
The
English law perspective is clearly that the individual does not owe a โduty of
fairnessโ to the government, and therefore, he or she does not owe a duty to
disclose information. This is the case where the individual does not engage in
an act of fraud and deceit.
45.
A note: Even though I express reservations about Lord Wilberforceโs comments in
the
Zamir
case [74] regarding the duty the individual owes the
government, I liked the comment he made in the
Khawaja
case [75]
regarding his comments in the
Zamir
case [74]. In his opinion in the
Khawaja
case [75], Lord Wilberforce said that his comments in the
Zamir
case
[74] about โa positive duty of candourโ owed by the individual to the
government were not necessary to reach the decision, because that case was โa
case of clear deception.โ He went on to say that:
I ventured the opinion that a system of consideration
of individual cases for the privilege
of admission to this country can only work humanely and
efficiently on a basis of candour and good faith on the part of those seeking
entry. If here I trespassed on to the ground of moral judgment, I am unrepentant.
Id
.
at 99.
That
is what we said in another place: there is a legal โduty of fairnessโ and there
is a โduty of fairnessโ belonging to social morality, and the two are not the
same. Lord Wilberforce sought to take a โduty of fairnessโ from the institution
of social morality and bring it to the order of law. His intention was good โ
we all agree โ but establishing the norm as he suggested would have the legal
system adopt a mode of proper behavior that is best left to other normative
orders.
Lord
Wilberforce concludes his comments with a statement the likes of which we are
not accustomed to hearing in judgments of the House of Lords (or in judgments
of other courts). If, in founding a duty of fairness in the
Zamir
case
[74], he says โ the same duty of fairness that the individual owes the
government โ I trespassed into the area of moral adjudication, I do not regret
my words. Lord Wilberforceโs speech is among the noblest of any made in the
United Kingdom
at that time.
By
the way: There is reason to think that the duty of fairness that Lord
Wilberforce discusses in the
Zamir
case [74] was not presented as an
all-encompassing
doctrine
of law but rather as a duty limited to the
subject of immigration. He alludes to that in his comments in the
Zamir
case [74], in which he presents immigrants as those requesting a privilege,
meaning those who have a lower-ranked right.
Id.
at 950 (In Israel, the
law is that someone who is not a citizen or an immigrant under the Law of
Return, 1950, does not have a right to enter or remain in Israel except by
permission.
See e.g.
HC 758/88
Kendel v. Interior Minister
[52]
at 520; HC 740/87
Bentali v.
Interior Minister
[53]; and
citations therein). As a fundamental rule, the state does not owe a duty to
foreigners seeking to settle in its territory. And if, in an immigrantโs first
step on the territory of the homeland that adopted him or her, he or she tries
to trick the authorities, we can understand โ if not necessarily justify โ the
view that in doing so, the applicant forfeits his or her right to immigrate.
46.
My opinion, as noted, is that the individual does not owe a duty of fairness to
the government. In other words, for our case, the individual need not disclose,
at his or her initiative, material information that the agency needs to
exercise its authority. Of course, that does not mean that the individual owes
no duty whatsoever to the agency. It means only that such duty is limited to
the duty not to deceive, to lie, to cheat, to mislead, to spin a web of lies
about the agency. As it is written, โYou shall not wrong one another, but you
shall fear your God โฆโ Leviticus 25:17 [b]. It goes without saying that I am
referring not only to active deceit โ such as when the individual gives the
agency false information โ but also to implied deceit, through silence or
behavior. This was the case of the Pakistani citizen, Zamir, who in entering
the
United Kingdom
, implicitly presented himself as single, knowing full
well that his entrance was permitted under an entrance visa in which he
presented himself as a single.
The
same is true of our case: the petitioner knew full well about the precondition
it had to meet, namely that it possess the warehouse for which it sought a
license as an owner or through a rental contract. From the outset, it was
required to produce certain documents, including โa contract of rental or lease
for the additional area.โ Despite that requirement, the petitioner sent the
Customs Authority documents that did not give it โ as it knew โ a right to rent
or lease. The petitioner knew those documents did not meet the precondition required
of it. The fact that the customs agents did not properly check what they were
supposed to check and did not demand what they were supposed to demand, cannot
absolve the petitioner of responsibility for the serious deed it did. As a
matter of fact, the petitioner spun a web of lies about the Customs Authority, breaching
the duty it owed the agency. When the agency therefore sought to revoke the
license, the petitioner could not deny the act of misrepresentation it
committed, and in any event, it could not raise a claim worth hearing. A
license issued through an act of deception by the grantee is a license flawed
from inception, and the necessary conclusion is that the agency had a right to
revoke the license. There are exceptions to the rule, but these would be
mandated by the special circumstances of a particular case.
See e.g.
HC
135/71 [25]. The main point of our case is that the petitioner complicated
things for itself not just by failing to disclose information, meaning by breaching
the duty of fairness that it allegedly owed the Customs Authority, but also by intentionally
misleading it. The Regulations imposed a serious of preconditions which needed
to be met before the petitioner could receive a license for a licensing
facility; not only did the petitioner fail to meet those conditions, but it
intentionally misled the agency about their fulfillment, exacerbating its sin.
47.
Thus far, we have discussed the duty of fairness. I now want to move on to the
second issue that I wish to address, and it is the issue of a public agencyโs
authority to adjudicate a dispute between individuals.
On
the Status of an Administrative Agency in a Dispute Between Individuals
48.
What is the status, and what is the authority, of an administrative agency to
adjudicate โ directly or indirectly โ a dispute between individuals? An
administrative authority is born and conceived in public law, its formation is
a formation of public law, it breathes the air of public law, its gait is the
gait of public law. Knowing all this, I will ask: When an administrative
authority is called to address an issue within its authority, must it limit its
considerations to public law considerations, or can we say, perhaps, that it
may consider considerations from the field of private law? And if we take this
latter path and say that the administrative agency may consider considerations
from the field of private law, does this statement conceal a subsidiary
statement that the administrative agency may and has the authority โ as a
derivative of its exercise of powerโ to adjudicate disputes between
individuals?
49.
My colleague, Justice Zamir, tells us that, โit is an old precedentโ that an
agency authorized to grant a license is supposed to limit itself to
considerations from the field of public law, and to take care not to cross into
considerations from the field of private law. At first, I thought that the descriptive
โoldโ refers to a dignified rule, like a fine wine which improves as it ages. However,
upon further reading, I realized that my colleague was actually referring to
the opposite. โOldโ meant obsolete. That realization kept me up at night.
50.
We will never, never change a precedent nor apply a precedent without knowing
where it comes from โ who were its mother and father, in what environment it
was born and grew up โ and where it is headed. Know from where you come and to
where you go. Let us recall that, if we only knew the force motivating
precedent and law, we would know their boundaries and their limitations. Regarding
precedent (but not law), we will add:
cessante ratione legis cessat lex ipsa
.
When the reason of
the precedent ceases, the precedent itself ceases. What is the precedent in our
case, and what is the force urging it along its way? According to my colleague,
what
was
the precedent in our case, and what
was
the force urging
it forward, at the time?
51.
Personally, I have never encountered an all-encompassing rule that an
administrative agency many not take into account, as part of its quorum of
considerations, considerations from the field of private law. Reuben, a
cafรฉ owner, asks for permission to hire a band that will play and make
his guestsโ stay more pleasant. Can anyone say that the municipality may not
clarify how much the playing will intrude upon the neighborsโ peace and quiet?
Would we bar the municipality from considering this factor of the neighborsโ
quality of life? Would we tell the municipality โ and the neighbors โ that the
subject of the nuisance is a subject โfrom the field of private lawโ which the
agency therefore must ignore, referring the irate neighbors to a civil court? We
have never encountered a case-law rule like this, if only because it has never
been established. Indeed, a license that a municipality gives to hire a band in
a cafรฉ does not include a license to permit playing that rises to the
level of nuisance. CA 186/52
Jerusalem
โ
Eden
โ Hotel v. Dr. Gerzon
[54] at 1132-33. This rule is self-evident, because a
municipality does not have the legal authority to permit a nuisance. We would
not hold that a municipality, at the outset, may not include, in its quorum of
considerations, the possibility that the bandโs playing will rise to the level
of a nuisance. The case law has not held as such, and in my humble opinion, it
should not hold as such. I would not know for what purpose a rule like this โ
were it established โ would be designed, or what social or other objective it
would serve. On the contrary: a rule like this, if established, would place the
burden on the neighbors, and in the overall social balance, this burden is
inappropriate and unjustified. This is true of a license to hire a band in a
cafรฉ, and it is true of any other administrative act. The rule is not โ
nor was it โ that an administrative agency may not include, in its quorum of
considerations, considerations from the field of private law simply because
they are from the field of private law.
By
the way, โsuitable environmental quality and the prevention of nuisances and hazardsโ
is, today, one of the declared purposes of the Business Licensing Law, 1968
(sec. 1(a)(1)). The authorized agency therefore may โ indeed, must โ consider
the issue of nuisance. Even if that were not part of the law โ in the absence
of an explicit prohibition โ the agency may, and even must, consider the issue
of a nuisance to the neighbors.
52.
Similar things have been said about the traditional distinction between private
and public law. We are told that times have changed, and that today โ unlike in
the past โ the distinction between private and public law is not so clear and
rigid. In the end, we are told, private and public law are one โ they frequent
the same places, and a natural process of osmosis takes place between them: principles
and doctrines from one area penetrate and seep into the other, and on chance
occasions, we discover that a rule from one area has made its way into the
other. This integration of fields, we hear, breeds โhybrid creaturesโ โ a kind
of amphibian โ and these creatures, at least some of them, take their orders
from private and public law.
I
confess: These statements, and others like them โ although I, too, have written
them โ have troubled me in the past, and they continue to trouble me today.
Indeed, regarding the division of jurisdiction between the High Court of
Justice and the civil courts, the legislature has forced us to divide the law
into two.
See e.g.
HC 1921/94
Sukar v. Jerusalem District Committee
on Construction, Residence, and Industry
[55]. Regarding the substantive
law, however, I see no difference between our era and bygone days. As a matter
of fact, when was there a โclear and rigidโ distinction between public and
private law? The opposite is true: English common law jurists always took pride
in the fact that in
Britain
, the common law ruled, and that administrative law is
just an extension of the common law.
53.
Having said all that we have said, we cannot, of course, ignore the historic
legal development, the development which presented us with the legal system as
we have it today. The legal system is divided into families, and this division
is designed to affect the content of the norms themselves. This is true of the
family of contract law, the family of tort law, the family of property law, the
family of administrative law, and other legal families. It is superfluous to
note that, throughout the years, there have been intermarriages โ an inevitable
phenomenon within the areas of a single legal system โ and โhybrid creaturesโ
have been born. We cannot avoid determining, however, that this historic
development has had a prominent effect on the formation of the legal system as
we know it today.
54.
The division of the legal system into private and public law is similar โ
similar but not identical โ to the internal division of private law into
different branches of law. This is the case, for example, of the division
between contract law and tort law. These two kinds of legal classifications,
while not identical, bear a resemblance to each other. This is certainly true
of the technique of division. I said as much in another context:
Classification imposes order on the primordial rules
of law. The legal system's basic principles determine the categories of classification
[โฆ ed.] The doctrines applicable to the rules associated into one category
(capacity, consideration, mitigating damages, etc.) derive from the
classification, and the classification derives from them. At particular points
in time, the classification is made
based on
equality of the doctrines
that apply to particular rules of law. Once the classification is made, and
once the doctrine has been created and applied to a particular section of law,
the doctrine rules over those associated rules of law,
because
they are
located in a single section of law. That is true, making the necessary
adjustments, when a specific rule of law is born, which is included in a
particular section of law (whether explicitly or via its โinterpretationโ),
because it will then be ruled by that sectionโs doctrines. This, of course, is
merely a presumption (sometimes, it is not the case). The different points of
departure of a classification may bring about a change in the legal rule. The
point of departure may be chosen,
a priori
or
a postiari
, and in the
latter case, great importance attaches to the historical events that had a hand
in shaping the legal system.
M. Cheshin,
Mitaltilin Bidin Hanizikin [Chattel in
Torts]
[84], n. 2 on p. 161.
In Israeli law, because of the jurisdictional divide
between the courts, the distinction between public and private law became particularly
sharp. The general view was that the High Court of Justice specializes in
public law, while the civil court specializes in private law. If you add a few
doctrines that have always governed in the High Court of Justice (clean-hands,
delay, taking the law into oneโs own hands, a done deed, intervention โfor
reasons of justice,โ etc.), you will understand why the classification between
public and private law has been so deeply rooted. However, it is nearly certain
that, if public law petitions were brought before the ordinary civil court, the
division of law between private and public law would be similar โ though not
identical โ to the division of the law between contract law and torts.
55. Let us return to the matter in question. As I
noted above, I know of no doctrine prohibiting an administrative agency from
benefiting from private law considerations, simply because they belong to
private law. Does that mean that
every
administrative agency may
consider
every
private law consideration for
every
issue it
addresses? Of course that is not the law. In the
Alspector
case [1], the
local council refused to give the petitioner โ a tenant โ a license to open a
convenience store in his apartment. The reason for the refusal: the landlord
did not agree to turn a room in the apartment into a store. The court held that
this consideration by the local council was illegitimate, as Justice Berinsonโs
opinion stated:
We fail to see the validity of that explanation โฆ
while in opening a store in his apartment without the landlordโs approval, the
applicant may violate his lease, if that is the case, the landlord may come and
fight his fight with the applicant. None of that however, is the municipalityโs
concern, and it cannot serve as the basis for refusing to grant the license.
Id.
at
664-65.
How
are we to understand Justice Berinsonโs comments? In my opinion, Justice Berinson
did not intend to establish a doctrine that private law considerations, as such,
are illegitimate considerations for an administrative agency to use. For if he
intended to make that ruling, we would protest: what is the source of that
doctrine, and what is the justification for it? The Court, however, did not
make that ruling. The Courtโs holding did not concern private law
considerations as such, but rather an attempt by the administrative agency to
decide a dispute that arose between landlord and tenant by refusing to give the
tenant a license. The Court thought in the following way: it would seem as
though the petitioner is entitled to a license to open a store, because he
fulfilled all the preconditions established by law for opening a store. So? The
landlord claims that operating the store would violate the lease he signed with
the tenant? The landlord is welcome to come and sue in the court with the
proper jurisdiction to hear the complaint. The agency is not authorized to
decide the dispute between the parties, and once the petitioner has fulfilled
all the preconditions necessary to open a store, it must approve his
application.
56. We therefore find the following: at the very
least, in the absence of explicit statutory authorization, it seems that an
administrative agency may not adjudicate civil disputes between individuals. It
would seem as though an administrative agency may not take a dispute between
individuals into account as a consideration in its decision over whether or not
to approve an application. The consideration of a dispute between the applicant
and a third party is external to the agencyโs decision-making process. We are
not talking about invalidating a consideration because it belongs to private
law. The rule is the following: an administrative agency may not take into
account considerations which the statute does not permit it to consider,
whether they originate in private or public law. And one of the forbidden
considerations is that the agency may not adjudicate a dispute that has arisen
between the petitioner and another individual.
To be precise: there is no doubt that, once the
preconditions necessary to receive a license have been filled, the
administrative agency must approve the application submitted. There is nothing
remarkable about that, and what we just said falls under the category of
idem
per idem
. The novelty is in the statement that adjudicating disputes
between individuals would seem to be outside the administrative agencyโs scope
of activity, and that the consideration of a dispute of the kind discussed
above is a consideration that will be summarily rejected.
57. This rule โ forbidding the
administrative agency from deciding โ even indirectly โ disputes between
individuals, has been accepted in the case law as a doctrine, and I have never
found a reservation to it.
See e.g.
HC 9/49 [2]; HC 35/48 M.
Breslov
& Partners Ltd. v. Trade and Industry Minister
[56]; HC 56/53,
supra
[3]; HC 132/57
First v. City of Lod
[57]; HC 280/60 โ
Avikโ Ltd. v.
Voluntary Authority on Importation of Pharmaceutical Preparations
(the
Avik
case [58]); HC 115/61
Yakiri v. City of Ramat Gan
[59]; HC 27/62
Alt
v. Tel Aviv-Jaffa Local Town Building and Planning Committee
(the
Alt
case
[60]); HC 278/62
Sarolovitch v. City of Jerusalem
(the
Sarolovitch
case [61]); HC 329/64
Guri v. Bnei Brak
Local Town Building and
Planning Committee
at 370.
58. One extension of this rule is that the
police may not eject someone from land on grounds of incursion unless the
incursion is "recent." If the incursion is not "recent,"
the police must refer the complainant to the court authorized to grant a
remedy.
See e.g.
HC 109/70
Orthodox Coptic Metropolitan in Jerusalem
v. Police Minister
(the
Coptic Metropolitan
case [63]) at 240-44
(Agranat, J.); HC 37/49
Goldstein v. Jaffa Guardian of Abandoned Property
[64] at 726 (Agranat, J.). By the way, the same doctrine governs other areas of
law, like a registrar clerk's duty to record the documented information given
him or her into the Population Registry (like the fact of marriage), without
the authority to investigate the legal validity of that information (for
example: whether or not the marriage is valid).
See
HC 143/62
Schlesinger
v. Interior Minister
[65]; HC 58/68
Shalit On His Own Behalf and On
Behalf of His Children v. Interior Minister
[66].
59. What is the logic of the rule? What
motivates and maintains it all these years? In my opinion, the answer lies in
our legal system's structural need
to designate and to allocate
the
primary functions and areas of activity to each of the three branches of
government. To express it in the negative: the structural need of our legal
system and system of government โ as a matter of principle โ to remove the
primary powers designated for one branch from the domain of the other two. When
we place the three branches side-by-side, we know for certain that the judicial
branch is designed to judge. As section 1(a) of the Basic Law: The Judiciary
says, "These are the courts given the authority to judge โฆ" The
authority of the judiciary is to judge, meaning to decide disputes.
See
HC 5364/94
Welner v. Chair of Israeli Labor Party
[67] at 786 (Barak,
Dep. Pres.). Unlike the judiciary, the primary function of the government and
the public administration is to execute. As section 1 of the Basic Law: The
Government says, "The government is the executive branch of the state."
For our purposes, we can say that the structural principle in our system is the
need to designate the power to judge โ the power to decide disputes โ to the
judiciary, and to deprive the executive branch of that power. Thus, for
example, in the
Alspector
case [1] and in subsequent related cases, had
we recognized the power of the administrative branch to refuse to grant a
license to an applicant because a third party claimed โ claimed, and may even have
proven by documentation โ that receipt of the license and operation of the
business would lead to his right being violated, we would have augmented the
powers of the administrative branch, equipping it with the authority to judge.
Because we are bound by the presumption that, in the absence of explicit and unambiguous
authorization, the courts โ and only the courts โ will judge, as a matter of
course, we prohibit the administrative branch from making itself judge in a
dispute outside its domain.
For those who insist on precision, I will
add that I am aware of the phenomenon that the borders separating the powers are
not hermetic, and that a system of separation of powers is based on
"checks and balances." I will recall, however, that the foundation is
the principle of separation, and that those very "checks and
balances" are built on that same foundation.
60. I will further note that in the
U.S.
legal
system, a similar question arises concerning Congress's authority to pass
legislation imparting the executive branch with judicial powers. The question
is whether such grant of authority undermines constitutional principles, according
to which the power to judge rests with the court system. The development of the
case law on this issue is a fascinating story in itself, but I will not expand
on it here.
See e.g.
L.H. Tribe,
Constitutional Choices
[85];
L.H. Tribe,
American Constitutional Law
[86];
Commodity Futures
Trading Commโn v. Schor
(1986) [70];
Thomas v. Union Carbide Agric.
Products Co.
[71].
We negate the authority of administrative
and governmental agencies to adjudicate and issue rulings โ even temporarily โ
in a dispute between individuals for the principled reason of separation of
powers (using โchecks and balancesโ), and the main point of doing so is to
prevent one branch from encroaching on the domain of another. That is the way
to preserve the distinct function of the judiciary to judge, guaranteeing the
right of litigants to a just trial conducted by an independent body. There is a
supplemental reason โ a daily reason โ and it is that the executive branch
lacks the appropriate work tools to issue rulings and adjudicate disputes. Each
of the three branches has adapted to its environment and role โ it has
specialized in its area of activity and created work tools to execute its function
to the best of its ability. Just as the court lacks the appropriate tools to
engage in execution, so does the executive branch lack the appropriate tools to
judge. The (surviving) plants and animals have adapted to their environments,
as have the three branches of government. The best way to adjudicate disputes
is the courtโs way, and we therefore prevent administrative and governmental
agencies from adjudicating disputes. They were not trained for it, and they are
not the ones who bear the burden of doing justice for individuals who have
quarreled. As Justice Berinson wrote in the
Alt
case [60], regarding a
local planning and construction committee:
The local committee โ like the regional committee โ is
not a legal body for determining the rights of conflicting parties. Neither is
capable of deciding factual and legal questions concerning the mutual rights
and duties of the assetโs owners and the actual or potential harm they would
suffer. Their considerations are considerations of town planning and
construction, and no more. The possibility that the rights of another will be
infringed by construction done pursuant to a license issued by the local
committee is not for the respondents to address, unless the opposing party
alleging the infringement of rights has direct legal standing in the subject of
the hearing โฆโ
Id.
at
1334.
See also
HC
305/82 Y.
Mor v. Central District Regional Planning and Construction Committee
[68] at 148-49 (Or, J.).
62. My colleague, Justice Zamir, seeks to
prove that private law considerations can affect the decision of an
administrative agency, and that there is โnothing wrong with that.โ Along those
lines, he writes:
For example, is it illegitimate for a municipality to
refuse to grant a license to operate a business, or for a planning and building
committee to refuse to grant a license to erect a building,
when it is clear
that the license applicant has no rights to the land of which he or she has
taken possession
(emphasis added โ M.Ch.)?
Later,
my colleague addresses the subject of the petitioner, saying that โunder the
Regulations, the Customs Authority need not, and may not even be permitted, to
give a license to a trespasser.โ
63.
Now I will say my opinion. I do not disagree with my colleague that private law
considerations may enter into a governmental or administrative agencyโs quorum
of considerations. That is my position, too. I personally think that statement,
to some extent, amounts to bringing apples to an orchard. Not only is there
nothing wrong in it, but it may bring about a lot of good. I agree with my
colleague concerning the example he cites, namely that where it is
unambiguously clear that an applicantโs request is based on an obstruction of
justice, the authorized agency may โ may, and perhaps even must โ reject the
application. However, as a matter of methodology, we cannot, from this example,
deduce the rule that my colleague seeks to deduce. The reason is simple: the
example is an extreme one, and it wouldnโt be right to learn the median from
the extreme.
Our
sages teach us: โFools cannot serve as an example.โ Tractate Shabbat 104:2 [a].
The reason is self-evident: fools act differently than those who are not fools.
Their thought processes are not like those of an ordinary person; they do
things that ordinary people would not do. We therefore do not deduce examples
from either their thought processes or from their acts and omissions, and we do
not analogize from their behavior to the general behavior of people. Just as we
do not draw generalizations from fools, so do we not draw generalizations from
extreme events. An extreme, by nature, has no choice but to carry the mental or
emotional baggage characteristic of an extreme. In trying to draw analogies
from extreme to median, therefore, we are likely to be led astray by that same
baggage which is relevant โ perhaps even essential โ to the extreme, but
nonexistent in the median, because it is the median. The extreme is graced with
the qualities of an extreme, its unique value is the value of an extreme, and
the qualities of the median are not necessarily the qualities of the extreme.
For the matter of our concern, it is interesting to note that the rule about a
โrecentโ incursion (
supra
para. 58) is explicitly founded the extremity
of the case, and the rule is therefore limited to that same extreme case. As
Justice Agranat held in the
Coptic
Metropolitan
case [63]:
The duty of the police to come to the aid of a person
in the above situation and to help him or her extract the asset from the one
who has seized it depends on two conditions, both of which must be met: (a) the
request for police assistance is made at the time the incursion is still โrecentโ;
(b) it is clear to the police that there is no doubt and no question about the fact
of incursion without permission.
Id.
at 240.
Only in cases of a disturbance of the
peace โ as demonstrated by Justice Agranatโs comments โ may (and even must) the
police intervene in a dispute between individuals. And if the disturbance of
the peace is not immediate or the fact of incursion is in doubt, the police may
not intervene in a dispute between individuals. Justice Agranat made the same
point, with the necessary adjustments, in the
Avik
case [54],
supra
,
as did Justice Landau in the
Sarolovitch
case [61], p. 514, and it is
applicable here, too.
64. Finally: So far, we have discussed the
principle of
negating
the authority of the governmental and
administrative agencies to intervene in a civil dispute between individuals.
The substantive authority of the agencies, on the other hand, depends on the
law for the issue in question. The law sets the framework for the agencyโs
authority, which in turn determines the range in which it may operate and exercise
discretion. The
Alt
case [60], for example, made that holding,
distinguishing a prior ruling on the same issue (HC 107/59 Mei-Dan v.
Tel-Aviv-Jaffa
Local Planning and Construction Committee
(the
Mei-Dan
case [69])
at 805). In the
Mei-Dan
case [69], because the law explicitly granted
standing to the owner of the asset, the agency was permitted to include, within
its quorum of considerations, โdisputesโ between the owner of the asset and its
possessor. In the
Alt
case [60], on the other hand, the law, as
interpreted by the Court, did not grant standing to the owner of the asset, and
the Court therefore held that such disputes were outside the agencyโs field.
65. Returning the case at bar: We began
our journey with section 70(b) of the Customs Ordinance [new version],
according to which, โIn the Regulations, the government may establish the
conditions under which warehouse licenses will be granted โฆโ I will discuss the
broad consensus which the government enjoys to issue regulations concerning
licensing warehouses, thus paving the road for understanding how to treat the
Regulations. In addressing the Customs Regulations, we find (in Regulation
14(b)) that a license application โwill be according to the formulation in the
Sixth Addendum,โ and the Sixth Addendum in effect establishes the preconditions
which a person must fulfill in order to be awarded a license for the warehouse.
We are primarily interested in Part 3 of the Sixth Addendum, according to which
the license applicant must make,
inter alia
, the following declarations:
We declare that we own the warehouse, and that it is
recorded in the Land Registry under the documentation Block number โฆ Parcel โฆ
in our possession via a rental or lease contract with โฆ for a period of โฆ
years, commencing on โฆ and ending on โฆ Attached is a scheme of the warehouse
and markings of the areas of the requested warehouse, approved by Engineer โฆ
the address of the warehouse: โฆ
This tells us that the applicant must be
the owner, renter, or lessee of the warehouse, and the applicant must prove as
much to the Customs Authority. These conditions are reasonable and appropriate.
A licensing warehouse is an extension of the Customs Authority itself, in all
its dignity, because it stores goods on which customs have not been paid. This
is the reason for the requirement of ownership, rental, or lease โ a
requirement declaring that the applicant possesses the warehouse by right.
Should we understand from this that the
Customs Authority can investigate an applicantโs right, as a court would?
Indeed, the question of the applicantโs right in the warehouse is a relevant
question. It would be wrong to grant a license โ more precisely, to interpret
the law as though it ordered the granting of a license โ to a blatant
trespasser or someone whose right in the warehouse is eroded on all sides.
However, how deep may the Customs Authority go to clarify the applicantโs
right? Do the Regulations mean that the applicant must prove his or her right
in the asset beyond a reasonable doubt? By a preponderance of the evidence?
Assume, for example, that Gad possesses a warehouse by virtue of a rental
contract, but Naftali, the warehouse owner, claims that Gad violated the rental
contract; that the contract is therefore terminated; and that Gad must vacate
the warehouse immediately. May the agency refuse the application, based on the
fact that Gad has not proven his right in the warehouse? Let us further assume
that Naftali filed an eviction action against Gad, and that the action is
pending at the time the application is submitted to the Authority. May the
Authority refuse to grant the application for this reason alone?
66. In our case, there is no dispute that
the petitioner possesses and exercises control over the area, as the holder of
a right should possess and exercise control over a licensing warehouse. As for
the petitionerโs
right
to possess and exercise control over the area, we
cannot say for certain that it is a blatant trespasser. Moreover, for now (even
if that was not the case at the outset), the petitioner has, at the very least,
preliminary evidence regarding its right to possess the area, in the form of
the map that was exchanged between the petitioner[ ] [trans.] and the Port and
Train Authority (PTA) marked with the words, โstorage area.โ Against this
background, I will insist and ask: Did the Customs Authority have a right not
to
renew
the petitionerโs license, a license that it itself issued to
the petitioner? In other words, I agree that, at the outset, the Customs
Authority could have refused to grant the petitionerโs request, because the
petitioner did not prove its rights in the licensing warehouse. However,
considering what transpired since the petitioner received the license, and
considering our holding today, that the question is the
renewal
of the
license, and not the issuance of a new license โ couldnโt one claim that, as of
today, for purposes of
renewing
the license, things have changed to the
benefit of the petitioner? Furthermore, since we know that the PTA has sued the
petitioner to vacate the area, and the suit is pending in the authorized court,
doesnโt the Customs Authorityโs decision not to renew the petitionerโs license
constitute intervention in a dispute between the petitioner and the PTA? Canโt
we add that we are witnessing not mere intervention in a civil dispute but
rather an adjudication of that dispute (even temporarily)? I will go further: I
personally found it difficult to avoid the impression that the Customs
Authority was called to the aid of its good friend โ the PTA โ and that its
failure to renew the license was intended to adjudicate, even temporarily, the
civil dispute that arose between the petitioner and the PTA. Indeed, the
Customs Authority did not explain to us โ it did not even try to explain โ
which state interests would likely suffer harm if the petitionerโs license were
renewed, even just until the court ruled on the eviction action.
6[7 โ trans.]. I have explained my serious
trepidations โ from this angle โ in joining the camp of my colleague, Justice
Zamir. And if I decided, for now, to drag myself into my colleagueโs camp, it is
only because I couldnโt say that the Custom Authorityโs considerations were
flawed โ or flawed enough โ such that a court should intervene in its decision.
Had the issue been a basic right of citizens and residents, I would hold
otherwise. I imagine that my colleague, too, would reach a different holding.
However, the issue is not a basic right of citizens and residents but rather a
statutory right that a person is requesting. The petitioner is asking to be the
trustee of the Customs Authority, to be permitted to hold goods in the
warehouse in trust for the Customs Authority. Where a person asks to be
recognized as a trustee, asks to be permitted to stop by anytime as an insider
in the Customs Authorityโs house, I canโt say that it is inappropriate to undertake
a meticulous investigation as to whether the preconditions have been met. A
similar โ but not identical โ thing may be said about those immigrants who
sought to adopt the
United Kingdom
as their homeland.
Supra
para. 45. โDraw me
after you โ let us make hasteโ [
Song of Solomon
1:4 โ trans.]. I was
drawn, and I made haste after my colleague.
6[8 โ trans.]. The end: At the relevant
time, I concurred that the petition should be denied. My concurrence remains as
is.
The petition is therefore denied. The petitioner will
pay court expenses in the sum of 25,000
NIS
to Respondents 1-2 and 25,000
NIS
to
Respondent 3.
February 4, 1998
.
| ??"? 96 / 6972 | 1998-02-04T00:00:00 | null | 0 | null | 97001640.I07 | [
"Aharon Barak",
"Mishael Cheshin",
"Itzhak Zamir"
] | null | null | 1998-02-04 | 1997-01-07 | 7 | null | null | null | null | null | null | null | 134 | null | null |
439 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A02\97001640_A02.txt | 15,074 | 439 | 1997-10-07T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:18:39 | 164 | ืืฉ"ื 164/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\A02 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 97001640_A02.txt | 97001640.A02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 406110b6f56936e074e3643d31eec28dfcead1c58d3edbfb67699da440cae9d3 |
ืื"ืฆ 97 / 164
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช:
ืงืื ืืจื
ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื
2.
ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื ืืฆื
ืืื ืืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื'
ืฉืื ืืชืฉื "ื (28.1
.9
7)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ
ืช:
ืขื"ื ืืืืฃ ืืฆืืง; ืขื"ื ืืขืงื ืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืื ื ืืจืืกืงืื
ื
ื ื ื ื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง:
ืืฆืขื ื - ืืืืฆืขื ื ืชืงืืื - ืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื
ืืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืืื ื ืืกืคืช. ืื ืื ื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืงืืข ืืคื ืื ื ืืืงืื
ืืืคืฉืจื (ืืชืื ืฉืืืขืืื). ืจืฉืื ื ืืคื ืื ื ืืฆืืจืช ืื' ืืจืืกืงืื ืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืื ื ืขื
ืืชืฉืืืชื ื ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืฉืื ืืชืฉื "ื (28.1.97),
ืืคื ื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืื/
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97001640.
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] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
439 | 2022-09-17T15:07:43 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\I07\97001640_I07.txt | 34,607 | 439 | 1998-02-04T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T17:11:04 | 164 | ืืฉ"ื 164/97 | 91 | HebrewVerdicts\97\640\001\I07 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 97001640_I07.txt | 97001640.I07.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | a52f948dc12059cbd2bccb3999f61d9473e2cfa5be576af861c660d934f770a6 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ 164/97
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืช: ืงืื ืืจื
ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื: 1.
ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื
2.
ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื
3.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช
ืืชื ืืืืช
ืืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืื
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (25.3.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจ: ืขื"ื ืืืืฉืข ืืืืฃ, ืขื"ื ืืขืงื
ืื ืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื 1-2: ืขื"ื ืื ื ืืจืืกืงืื
ืืฉื
ืืฉืืื ืืก' 3: ืขื"ื ืืขืงื ืืืจื
ืคืกืง - ืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
:
1. ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืจืช ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื, ืงืืืื ืื ืืืืก
ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืขื ืคื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืฉื ื. ืืืืก ืกืืจื ืืืืฉ ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื. ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืืงืคืช ืืช ืืกืืจืื: ืืื ืืืขื ืช ืืขืชืืจื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืื.
ืฉืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืจื ืืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช:
ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืคื ืืืืจื? ืืคืขื ืืืคื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืจื: ืืื ืืืืืช
ืื ืขืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช (ืื, ืืฉืื ืืืจืช, ืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื) ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช?
ืืขืืืืืช
2. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืขืืื, ืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืฉืจืื ืฉื ื, ืืกืืฃ
ืืืขื ืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืคืืขื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื (ืืืื - ืืืืกื) ืืืื ืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืขื ืืื
ืื ืื ืืืืก ืืคื ืืคืจืง ืืฉืืืขื (ืชืงื ืืช 12 ืืืืื) ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืืก, ืืชืฉื"ื1965- (ืืืื
- ืืชืงื ืืช). ืืจืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืกื ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืื-ืืืก. ืืืืกื ืืืงื ืืคืืขื ืขื ืืงืจืงืขืื
ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืืจ ืืชืขืฉืื ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืื, ืืืจืืง ืฉื 50 ืืืจ ืืขืจื ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื
ืืืืืขื ืื ื ืื ืืฉืืื (ืืืื - ืืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช).
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืฉื ืื ืฆื ืืช ืืืืงืื ืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืกื
ืืื ืืืืขื ืืช ืฉืื ืืข ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืืกื ืืื ืืืืกื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืืช, ืืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ
ืืืฉืืืืช, ืืืืืืื ืืช ืขืืืช ืืฉืื ืืข. ืืื ืคื ืชื ืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืฆืืขื ืืื ืืช
ืขื ืืฉืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืกื. ืฉืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืชืืคืฉืจ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขืืืก
ืขื ืืจืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืคืจืืงื ืกืืื ืืืืกื, ืืื ืฉืืืืืกื ื ืืืืกื, ืืื ืืืขืืืก ืขื
ืืจืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืืืกื ื ืืืืกื, ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืขืื.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช, ืฉืืืงืื ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืื
ืืืง ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืชืฉื"ื1961-, ืืืืืงื ืืืคืขืืื ืื ืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืจืื
(ืืืื - ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื). ืืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืฉืื ืฉื 44 ืืื ื,
ืืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืืืืกื (ืืืื - ืืืงืจืงืขืื). ืขื ืืืงืจืงืขืื,
ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ, ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืื ืืช ืฉืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืื ืฉืืื
ืชืืืข ืกืืื ืืืืกื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืจืื, ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 1992, ืขื ืจืฉืืช
ืื ืืืื.
ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืฉื, ื ืืจืช ืืืื ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื 6.6.94 (ืืืื - ืืืืื). ืืื ืืืชืจ, ื ืงืืข ืืกืขืืฃ 2ื ืฉื
ืืืืื ืืืืงืื:
"ืื
ืงืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืขืจืืืชืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช [ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื] ืืืืคืืื ืืจืืืฉื
ืขื ืื ืืืชื. ืืื ืืืืจื [ืืขืืชืจืช] ืื ืืืืช, ืืื ืกืื ืฉืืื, ืืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืื
ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจื".
ืืืืื ืฆืืจืฃ ืื ืกืคื ืชืฉืจืื ืฉืฆืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืฉื
ืืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืชืืื ื ืช: ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื 3.1.94 ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืก ืืจืืฉื ืฉื
ืืจืืืช, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฆื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืืจ, ืืืืื
ืืืกืคืื ืืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืชืคืขืื ืืฆื ืฉื ื (ื ืกืคื ืืฉ7/ ืืืืืขื ืืืขื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื).
3. ืื ืืืฃ ืืื ืจื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืชืืืื
ืืฉืืืื (ืืืื - ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื), ืืืขืืชืจืช ืคื ืชื ืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืงืฉื ืืกืืืชื ืืฉืื ืื
ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืงืฉ, ืืืืจื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืคืขืื ืืืืกื
ืืชืงื ืืืขืื ื ืืคืจืืงื ืฉื ืืจืขืื ืื ืืชืคืืืจืช. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืชืืืื ืืฉืืืื,
ืฉืืคื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืืข ืกืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืกื, ืืืจืืง ืืืืื ืืืืกื ืืืชืงืจื
ืื ืืืกืืื ืืจืืฉืืช. ืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืชืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืคื ืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืกื.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ื ืืกืืืชื ืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืชืืงืฉ.
ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืชืื ืืฉืื ืื ืื, ื ืจืฉื ืขื ืืื ืชืฉืจืื ืืืฉ, ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืื
ืืชืื ื ืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืชื ืืืื 15.5.95 ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืกื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื (ืืืื -
ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื). ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืืชืฉืจืื
ืืจืืฉืื: ืขื ืืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ื ืจืฉืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืกื ืืืื ืืื:
"ืฉืื ืืืืกื ื".
4. ืืคื ืื ืกืคื ืืืืื, ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืขื ืืืชืืื ืขื
ืืืืื, ืืืขื ืงื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื (ืืืฉืื ืื ืกืคื: ืืืืจืฉ), ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉ
ืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืฆืืจื ืคืจืืงื ืืืขืื ื ืฉื ืืืขื ืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืืกื ืืื
ืืืืกื ืื ืืจืืืช. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืกืคื:
"3.
ืืืืจื [ืืืืืจ, ืืขืืชืจืช] ืจืฉืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืจืฉ ืฉืืืืจื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืจืง
ืืฆืืจื ืืขืื ื ื/ืื ืคืจืืงื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืขืื ืื ืืืฆืืืช
ืฉื.
ืืขืื ื
ื/ืื ืคืจืืงื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืขืืจื ื/ืื ืฉืื ืืข ืืืืขื ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืกื ื ืืืืจื
ืืกืืืืื ืืืืจืฉ ื/ืื ืืืืคื.
4.
ืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืกืื ืฉืืื, ืืืืจืฉ ื/ืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ื/ืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืขืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืงืื
ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื"ื ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื".
5. ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืชื ืชืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ: ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืฉืื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืจืง ืืฆืืจื ืคืจืืงื ืืืขืื ื ืฉื ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืขื ืืจืืืช, ืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ
ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืขื ืื. ืืืจืชื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืืกื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืื
ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืชื ืืจืืื. ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืฆืข
ืขืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืช ืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืจ ืืืชื
ืืืืคื ืฉืืื ืข ืืื ืกืช ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืฆืืช ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืงืจื. ืืืจื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขืื ืขื
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืจื ืืฉื ืื, ืืื ืขืืื ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ
ืืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืืืจื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขืื ืขื ืืืืก, ืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืืชืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื.
6. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืช ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื: ืืืืฉืืจ ืืช
ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืขื ืื. ืืคื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื, ื ืืกืจ
ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขืฉืืช "ืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืกืื ืฉืืื" ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืื "ืืืฉืืจ
ืืืงืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื"ื ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื". ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 4. ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื
ืืขืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืื, ืื ืืคื ื ืชืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฃ ืื
ืืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืกืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกืชื ืืืชื ืืืกืคืื, ืืงืืื
ืืืจ ืกืืื ืืฉืื, ืืชืงืื ื ืชืืืจื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืขืจืื. ืืื ืกืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืื 18.3.96.
7. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืฉืืื ืืชื ื ืืืข
ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืชืืฆืขืช ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืช ืื
ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืขื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืฆืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื. ืืืืื, ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืช ืื ืื ื ืืืข
ืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืงืจืื, ืืชืืืืช ืื ืืืจ 1996, ืืืืื ืกืืืจ ืฉืื ืฉืื ืขืจืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืื ืืงืื, ืืื ืืืืจ ืกืืืจ ืื, ืืืื 8.1.96,
ืฉืื ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืืจ, ืืืืื ืืืกืคืื (ืืืื - ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช) ืืืชื ืื
ืื ื"ื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืืืืื:
"ืืืืฉื
ืืกืืืจื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืืื ื, ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืคื ืืช ืชืฉืืืช ืืื ืื ืงืืืืช ืฉืืืื:
1.
ืืืชืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืงืื ืืจื ืกืืคืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืฉื ื38.5- ืืื ื.
2.
ืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืกื ืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืื.
3.
ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจื, ื ืกืืื, ืกืืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืชืงืื ืฉื ืงืื ืืจื.
4.
ืขืค"ื ืื ืกืคื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืฆืืขืช ืงืจืงืข ืืฆืืจื ืืขืื ื ืืคืจืืงืช ืจืืืืช ืืืื,
ืืืืจื ืจืืืช ืืืื.
5.
ืชืคืืกืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืื ืืคืจืชื.
6.
ืืชืฉืืืช ืืื ืขืค"ื ืื ืกืคื ืื ื ืจืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืจื.
7.
ืขืืืื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื "ื ืืืืชืจ.
8.
ืืชืฉืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืชืคืกื ืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืขื
ืืคืื ืืืื ืืคื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืื.
ืืืื
ืืื ืชืคืขืื ืืคืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืคืจืช ืืืกืื ืืื ืื ื".
ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืื. ืืืื 10.3.96
ืฉืื ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืืชื ื ืืกืฃ ืื ืื ื"ื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืืืชื ืื ืืชืจืืข
ืืกืื ื"ื ืขื ืืคืจืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืก
"ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืืืื". ืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืื ืจืืืื ืืช ืืืคืจืืช ืืืืืจื ืจืื, ืืืืกืืฃ
ืื ืื ืืืคืจืืช ืื ืชืชืืงื ื, ืืจืืืช ืชืจืื ืขืฆืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืคืขืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืืืืชืื. ืขื ืืืชื
ืื ืืฉืื ืื ื"ื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืื 19.3.96, ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืจ ืื:
"ืืืืื
ืฉืืืฉืช ืคืืืฉืืชืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ื ื ืงืืข ืื ืชืืฆื ืืืจื
ืืืฉื ืื ืืฉื.
ืืฉืื
ืื ืืืคื ืกืืืื ืขืื, ืื ื ืืืชืื ืืืืขื ืคืืืฉื ืขืื.
ืืื,
ืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืคืจืืงื ืืืขืื ืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื".
ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช ื ืืชืจื ืืขืื ื. ืืืื 18.4.96 ืืชื
ืขืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืชืจืืข ืขื ืคืืืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืขื
ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืฉืื ืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืกืื, ืืืจืฉ ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ืชืคื ื ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื
ืืืืคื ืืืืื. ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืื 21.4.96, ืืืจืฉ
ืืื ื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื. ืืืชืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืื.
ืืืื 19.5.96 ืืชืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืกืื ื"ื
ืืจืืืช ืืชืคืขืื, ืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืจืฉืื ืคืื ืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืืื
ืืืชืจ ืืืจื ืื:
"ืืืืื ืชื ื
ืืืชืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืกื ืช ืืืืืืช ืจืืงืืช, ืืคื ื ืืขืืจืชื ืื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ื ืืชืืงืฉ ืืชืืืจ ืืช
ืืงืฉืืชืื ื ืืชืื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฉื ืข ืืืืช ื ืืืื".
ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืชืคืขืื ืืฉืื, ืืืื 23.5.96,
ืื ืืจืืืช ืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืช ืืืขืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืกืืฃ:
"ืืืืืืจื
ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืคื ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืืืช ืจืืงืืช ืื ืืื
ืจืื ืืชืื ืช ืืืกืืฃ".
ืืืชืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ื ืืฉืื, ืืืขืืชืจืช ื ืืจืฉื ืฉืื ืืฉืื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืื 20.6.96 ืืชื ืื ืื ืืืืงืช
ืืกืืจ ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืจ:
"1.
ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืฉืจื ืกืื ื"ื ืืืืื ืืกืคืื ืืืกืืจ ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืชืชืคืืชื
ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืจืช ืงืื ืืจื ืชืคืกื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืืืช ืงืื ืืจื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื
ืฉื ื40- ืืื ื, ืืืืจื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืฃ ืืืืืกื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืืืื
ืืื' ืืื ืืืจืกื ืืืืืจืก ืืืืจืช ืืืื.
2.
ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืจืฉืชื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืฉืื ืื ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืชืคืืก ืขื ืืืื ืืื
ืคืื ื.
3.
ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืืืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืช ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืคืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืื
ืืขื ืื ืืืงืฉื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืจ, ืืคืฅ ืืืื".
ืืืชืืื ื ืืกืคืื ื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืชื ืจืื, ืืืืื 21.7.96, 14.10.96 ื28.11.96-.
ืืืืื ืืืชืืชืืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืื ืืขื ื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืชืืืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืื ืืฉ
ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืื ืืฉ ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื
ืืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื. ืจืง ืืืื 30.6.96 ืืชืืืืกื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืื ืืชืื:
"...
3.
ืืื ืื ืกืคืง ืื ืืงืื ืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืื "ื ืืฆืจืื ืืขืื ื ืืคืจืืงื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืฉืจ
ืืืฆืื ืืฉืืืื.
4.
ืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืข ืืื ืืฉืงืขื ื ืืกืคืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืฉืจืช ืืฉืื ืื "ื ืืฆืืจื
ืชืคืขืื ืืฉืืืื.
5.
ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืื ืื ืกืคืง ืื ืืงืื ืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืื "ื ืืืื ืืืกืื
ืืืืกืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืฆืืืื.
...
8.
ืืืืื ืืืกื, ืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืคืชืจืื ืืื"ื ืืื ืืฆืืืื
ืืฉืืืขืืช ืจืฆืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฆื ืืชืืคืขื ืืฉืื ืื "ื".
ืขื ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืช ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช,
ืืืื 21.7.96, ืืืืืจ:
"...
2.
ืืื ืืงืื ืืจื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืื "ื ืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืืฉืงืขืืช. ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืื
ืืืฉืืจื ื, ืืื ื ืืชื ื ืืกืืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืื.
3.
ืืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืงืฆืืช ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ื ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืืชืงืืืืืช ืืืงืจื
ืื".
8. ืืฉืื ื ืืฆื ืคืชืจืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืฉื-ืืืชื ืืื
ืืฆืืืื, ืืคื ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ืืฆืืขื, ืืืืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืชืืืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื, ื ืื
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืกืืืืง ืื ืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืชืืืขื ืืืช ืขืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืฉืืื.
ืืืืืืงืช ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืชืืื ืขื
ืคืชืจืื ื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื. ืื
ืื, ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืช ืืืขื ืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื? ืฉืืืืืงืช ืืืช ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืฉ ืืกืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืื ืืืืก, ื ืฉืื ืขืชืืจื ืืืช. ืืืืฆื?
9. ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืขืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืืืฆืขืช
ืขืืืื ืืืืฉืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืขื ืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืฉื ืื: ืืืื 8.6.95, ืืฉื ื
ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื, ืคื ืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืก ืืืฉืืื
ืืืืงืฉื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืืกื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืืืืจ, ืืช ืืฉืื
ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืกื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ื ืขืจืื ืืืจืืจืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืืก, ืืื ืืงืืืข
ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืขืืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื.
ืืคื ืชืงื ื 14 ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืงืฉื ืืจืฉืืื ืชืืืฉ ืืืืช
ืืืืก "ืืคื ืื ืืกื ืฉืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืฉืืช". ืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืฉืืช ืืฆืืื ืช ืืช ืืคืจืืื ืฉืืฉ
ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื. ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืช ืื:
"ืืืื
ืืคืจืืื ืขื ืืืืกื: ืืจืื ื ืืฆืืืจืื ืฉืืืืกื ื ืืฆื ืืืขืืืชื ื ืืจืฉืื ืืคื ืงืกื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืคื
ืืกืืืชื ืืืฉ ืืก'... ืืืงื... ืืืืืง ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืขื ... ืืชืงืืคื
ืฉื .... ืฉื ืื ืืืื....ืขื ืืื ... ืจืฆ"ื ืชืฉืจืื ืืืืกื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืืกื
ืืืืืงืฉ...".
ืคืจืืื ืืื, ืืืกืืคื ืืชืืกืคืช, ื ืืจืฉืื ืื ืจืง ืืืงืฉื
ืืจืฉืืื ืืืฉ, ืืื ืื "ืื ื ืขืฉื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืคื ืืืืกื". ืืฉืืข, ืืคื
ืืชืงื ืืช ืชื ืื ืืื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืืืฉ ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืงืืื, ืฉืืืงืฉ
ืืจืฉืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืขืืื, ืืฉืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืกื.
ืชื ืื ืื ื ืจืื ืจืืื ืื, ืืคืืืช, ืกืืืจ. ืืื ืืงืื,
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืชืืงืคืช ืืช ืืืืงืืืช ืฉื ืชื ืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืช ืืชืงื ืืช.
10. ืขื ืืกืื ืชืงื ื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืืืืก ืืืฉืืื ืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื 5.12.95, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืืงืฉ ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืช ืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื,
ืืืืงืฉ ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืืฆืื ืื ืคืจืืื ืืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื "ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื
ืขื ืืฉืื ืื ืืกืฃ".
ืืขืืชืจืช ื ืขื ืชื ืืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืืืก, ืืืื 11.12.95,
ืืช ืืืืื ืืืื 6.6.94, ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืื ืืคื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื 7.12.95
(ื ืกืคื ื ืืขืชืืจื).
ืืืืก ืื ืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืงืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืชื ืืื
ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืชืงื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืื ืืืืก ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืขืืช ืืืืืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช. ืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืงืช ืืงืฉื ืฉืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืขื
ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื 8.1.96. ืืฉืจ ืขื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืข ืืืืก ืืืกืงื ื ืื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืฉืจื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืฉืืฉ ืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืื, ืืืื 1.7.96, ืืืขื ืืง ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืืงืฉ.
11. ืื ืืื ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ื ืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืกืื ืืคืืื, ืขื
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืขื ืืืืก ืืฆื ืฉื ื, ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืจืืื ืืงืืืืืช, ืฉืืื ืจืฉืืช
ืืืช ื ืืืขืช ืืจืฉืืช ืฉื ืื, ื ืจืื ืืื ืฉืฆืื ืืคืฆื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื. ืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ื ืืฆืจ ืืืข
ืืื ืฉืชื ืืจืฉืืืืช, ื ืืฆืจ ืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช.
ืืกืคืืืืจ 1996 ื ืืืข ืืืืก ืขื ืืืืืืงืช ืฉืืื ืจืฉืืช
ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืื 25.9.96 ืืชื ืืืืก ืื ืจืฉืืช
ืื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืืง ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื "ืืื ืืฉ ืืื' ืงืื ืืจื
ืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืืชืงืฉืจืืช ืืื ืืื". ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื
ืืืืก ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉ ืืืืช ืคืจืืงื ืืืขืื ื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช
ืืืืกื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืขื ืืกืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืช ืคื ื ืืืืก ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืงืฉ ืืกืืจ.
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืก, ืืืื 18.11.96, ืื ืืื "ืกืืืื" ืืื ื ืืืื ื ืฆืืื
ืืจืืืช, ืืคืื ืชืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, "ืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืกืืื ืขื
ืืืชื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื", ืืืื ืฆืืจืคื ืืช ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื, ืื ื ืจืฉื ืฉืื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืชืืจ "ืฉืื ืืืืกื ื", ืืืืกืืคื ืื "ืืกืื ืื ืืฉืืฉ ืจืืื ื ืืฆืืช
ืืืืจืขืช ืืืืื ืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืกืื". ืื ืืืืก ืื ืืฉืชืื ืข. ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื
ืืืืฉ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืื 26.12.96 ืืืืืข ืืืืก ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืืืฉืืจ
ืฉื ืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืืชืืื, ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉื ืช 1997 ืืืืฉ
ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืก ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืชื ืืืืขื, ืฉืชืคื ื ืืช
ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืชืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืื.
12. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืืืก ืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืืคืืื ืืืืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืขืชืืจื ืืืช ื ืื
ืืืืก, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฆืืจืคื ืื ืืช ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืืืงืฉื ืืงืื ืฆื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืืก
ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืฉื ืช 1997 ืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืื ื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืืขืืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืชืืงืคื.
ืืืื 10.9.97 ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืชืืจื, ืืืืชื
ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืงืื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื
ืืืฉืืืื 1 ื2- ืืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื ืืืฉืืื 3.
ืืืื ื ืืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืืช.
ืืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืื
13. ืืืืก ืืืกืก ืืช ืกืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื
ืืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉื ืช 1997 ืขื ืฉื ื ืืขืืื: ืืจืืฉืื - ืืืืชื; ืืฉื ื - ืืืื ื.
ืืืขื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื, ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืื
ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช. ืฉืืจื ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื (ืืขืืืช,
ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื) ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืจืจ ืื ืจืฉืืื ื ืืชื, ืื ืืฉื ืืืขืื
ืืื ืืฉื ืืขืืช, ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืฉืจ
ืขื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืจืจ ืืืืก ืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืขื ืื ืืืืฉ ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืกืืกืื
ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืืขื ืืฉื ื ืืคื ืืืืก ืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช
ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืคื ืืืืก ืืืืืช ืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืข ืืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืืงืฉืช ืืจืฉืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืข
ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืขืืชืจืช, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืืก ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืขื ืืื ืื, ืืคืจื ืืืื
ืืืช. ืืคืจืช ืืืืื, ืืฉืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืขื ืื ื ืขืืฅ ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื: ืืคื ืืืขื ื,
ืืืื ืขื ืืืจื, ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื, ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืจืฉืืื.
ืื ืื ืืืืก, ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืื,
ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืชื ืืืฃ ืื ืืืขื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืก. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืืขื ืช
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืกืืกืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก,
ืืืื ืืงืื, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืจืฉืืื, ืืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืฉื ืืช, ืืืขืช
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืก, ืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืงืืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืืก
ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื 6.6.94 ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืื, ืจืืฉืื ืจืืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ื.
ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื
14. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืช ืื "ืืกืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืจื "ืจ [ืืืืืจ, ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช] ืืื ื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืก",
ืืื ืื "ืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืืขืช ืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืกืืกืื ืืจื ืืืืจืข, ืืืฉ ืื ืคื ืื ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืื ืงืื ืื ืื ืืืืก ืขืืื ืืืขืืืฃ ืืช ืืจืกืช ืจื "ืจ".
ืืื, ืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืชืช
ืจืฉืืื, ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืื"ืฅ 233/53
ืืืกืคืงืืืจ ื ' ืจืืฉื ืขืืจืืืช ืืืช ืฉืื
, ืค"ื
ื 659, ื ืคืกืง ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืื ื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืชื ืืช ืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืื ืขืกืง ืืืืจื ืืืกืืื ืฉื
ืืขื ืืืืช. ืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืจื ืืื (ืืขื' 665):
"ืืื ื
ืืชืื ืฉืืืืงืฉ, ืืคืชืื ืื ืืช ืืืืจืชื ืืื ืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืขื-ืืืืช, ืืคืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช ืฉืื.
ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืช ืจืืื ืขื ืืืืงืฉ. ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ื ืฉื
ืืขืืจืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืืกืื ืืกืจื ืืชืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืื."
ืจืื ืื ืื"ืฅ 9/49
ืืืื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
,
ืค"ื ื 136; ืื"ืฅ 56/53
ืงืืงื ืื ื ' ืขืืจืืืช ืจืืื
, ืค"ื ื 949.
ืืืืืจื, ืืืื ืืืช ืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืคืจืืื
ืืื ืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืจืื ื' ืงืืื ืืืืคืจ,
ืืฉืคื ืืื ืืื
(1957), 130-128. ืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืข ืฉืืื ืืคืจืื ืืจืืจื ืื ืืงืฉื ืืื ืชืืื ืื
ืืืื ืชืืื ืื. ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืจืฉืช ื ืืืื, ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืงืืฉื ืจื ืืืกืชื ื ืืจืื ืื ืืืื
ืืขืืื. ืืชืืืืื ืืชืขืจืืืื ืื ืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ, ืืืื ืืื ืจืข. ืืคืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืคื
ืขืงืจืื ื ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช. ืืืืจ
ืชืืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืงืฉืจ: ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื. ืืื, ืืืืืื, ืืฉ
ืคืกืื ืืื ืฉืขืืจืื ืืกืจืืช ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืงืืช ืขืกืง, ืื ืืขืื ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืจืืช ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื
ืืืงืืช ืื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืจืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืชืคืก ืืช ืืืืงื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช?
ืื ืขืืื ืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืกืคืงืืืจ
(ืืขืื).
ืืฉืืคื ืืจื ืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืจ (ืืขื' 664):
"ืืืื
ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืื ืืืืฆืืข ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืขื ืคื ืืงืฉืชื
ืื ืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืขื-ืืื ืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืง ื ืืืืง."
ืืื ืื ืืคืจืฉื ืฉืืคื ืื ื. ืฉืืจื ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืจืฉืืช
ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 9. ืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืจืืจ ืื
ืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื. ืืืืก ืจืฉืื, ืืืฃ ืืืื, ืืืชืืฉื ืืฉืืงืื ืื.
ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืจืฉืื, ืืืฃ ืืืื, ืืขืจืื ืืืจืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืื: ืืืชืื ืืชืงื ืืช ืขืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืงืฉ
ืืจืฉืืื ืฉืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืชื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื,
ืืืืก ืจืฉืื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืจืฉืืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื
ืืฉ ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืืืก ืืืจืจ ืืืฆื ืฉืืืฆืืจื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืขืืช. ืื ืื ืื, ืืคื
ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืืก ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืื ื ืจืฉืื, ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืกืื ืืืื.
ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืื
ืืืืก ืืืื ืืชืช ืื ืจืฉืืื. ืืื, ืืืืก ืืืขื ืื ืืืื ืกืืจ ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืช, ืื
ืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื.
15. ืืืื, ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืคืืื ืืื ืืืืก ืจืฉืื ืฉืื
ืืชืช ืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืชืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืขืื. ืฉืื ืืฉ ืืืื
ืืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืืื ืืืืขืื: ืื ืฉืงืืื ืจืฉืืื ืงื ื ืืืืช, ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืงื ืืช ืฉืื ื,
ืืงืฉื ืืืชืจ, ืืกืืจืื ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืช. ืืคืืื, ืื ืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืืกืก ืกืืจืื ืืชืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉ, ืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืกืก ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืงืืื.
ื ืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืกืืจืื ืืชืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืืืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืงืืื. ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืืื
ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื; ืืฉืงื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ื; ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ
ืจืฉืืื ืงืืื ื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืฉืืจืฉืืื ืืงื ื ืื, ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืชื
ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉ.
ืขื ืืืช, ืืืื ืืื, ืื ืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืช
ืืจืฉืืช ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื,
ืืืืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืขืืช. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืื"ืฅ 56/76
ืืจืื
ื ' ืฉืจ ืืืฉืืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 687. ืื ื ืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืืื"ืฅ 799/80
ืฉืืื
ื ' ืคืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืื ืืืจืื
, ืชืฉ"ื1949-, ืค"ื ืื(1) 317, 331:
"ืืืืืข,
ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืจืฉืืืช, ืืืจื ืืื, ืืขืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืืืชื
ืืืชืงื ื 'ืื ืืืขืืื ืืืืื: ืชืจืืืช, ืืื ืื, ืืขืืช, ืืคืชืขื, ืืืกื-ืืืขืช, ืจืืื ืืืฉื
ืฉื ืชืืืชื, ืชื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืชื ื'... ืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืกืคืง, ืื ืชืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืฉ ืื, ืืืจื
ืืื, ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืื... ืื ืื ืืืื, ืื ืขื ืืื ืื ื ืืืขืืช ืืจืืื,
ืืืขืืช ืื ืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืืื ืืขื-ืืจืฉืืื, ืืื ื ืืจืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื? ืื ืืืงืจื ืื
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืขืฉืืช ืจืง ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืช."
ืืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืจ ืืื"ืฅ 475/81
Deak & Co. Inc.
ื ' ื ืืื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1)
803, 807:
"ืืฉื ืืชื
ืจืืฉืืื, ืจืฉืื ืืขื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืื, ืื ืืืืืงืืช ืืืืงืืืืช ื ืขืฉื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืืจืืฉื, ืืื
ืขืชื ืจืฉืื ืืื ืืืฉืงืืข ืืืกืคื ืืืืจืฆื ืื ืืืื ืืขืกืง ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืชืื ืืกืืืื, ืื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืืืจ ืื ืืืืืืชื. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืืงืื ืฉืืกืืืืช ืืคืืจืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืจืืฉืืื ืงืืืืช, ืขืฉืืืื ืืืชืงืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืชืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฆืืงืช
ืืขืฉืืชื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืืืช ืื. ืืฉ ืฉืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืขืืืืืช, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ื ืืชื
ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืฉืจ ื ืชืืืืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืจืง ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืชื... ืืฉ ืฉืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืงืฉืืจ
ืืขืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืฉืืื ืืืจ ื ืืชื."
ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฆื ืืืืจืื ืืฆืืืง ืืืืื
ืจืฉืืื, ืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื, ืืื ืคืืขื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื,
ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืขื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืจืื, ืฉืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืืชื.
ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืื ืื ื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืืช ืจืื ืืฉืืื ืื
ื ืคืงืืช ืืืขืืช ืฉื ืคืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื: ืืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืงืื ืืืืื
ืืืืฅ ืืชืืื ืกืืืืชื ืื, ืืืืคื ืืืจ, ืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืืฃ ืฉืืืขืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืื
ืืืชื-ืจืฆืืื, ืขืืืื ืืื ืืืงืืช? ืืข"ื 433/80
ื ืืกื ื.ื.ื. ืืฉืจืื ืืข"ื ื '
ืื ืื ืืก ืจืืืฉ ืืงืจื ืคืืฆืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 337, 351, ืกืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืื ืืช ืืื
ืืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืกืืืื, ืืืืงืื:
"ื.
ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืช ืืืืง ืื ืฉืืฆืืจื ืืืจืช ืืฉ ืื ืืขืืื ืืฉืื ืืจืืื ืืกืืืืช;
ื.
ืืืืื, ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืขืืช ืืฉืจืืืช ืืื ืืช, ืฉื ืขืฉืชื ืืืืกื ืืืขืช;
ื.
ืืืืื, ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืคืงืื ืืืฉื ืืฆืืจื ืืืชื ื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉื
ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืฉืืงืื-ืืขืชื ืืืืคื ืืืชื ืกืืืจ."
ืืื ืืื ืกืื ืืกืื? ืืฉืื ืืฉืืคื ืื ืืืืจ (ืืขื'
352-351):
"ืืืื
ืฉื ื ืกืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืืจืื ืืขืื, ืชืืืื ื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืจ
ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืื ืืืืช ืืช ืืืืง ืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืจืช ืชืืชืื; ืืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืฉืืืฉื, ืืืื ื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืฉืื 'ืืฉืื' ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืืื - ืฉืื ื. ืืื
ืชืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืงืฉืืจื ืืืืืืชื, ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืกืคืืง ืืืจ ืืคืขืื ืขื ืคื
ืืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช."
ืจืื ืื ืข"ื 736/87
ืืขืงืืืืืืฅ ื ' ืื ืื
ืืก ืฉืื ืืงืจืงืขืื ื ืฆืจืช
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 365, 372; ืข"ื 1928/93
ืจืฉืืช
ื ืืืจืืช ืขืจื ื ' ืืืืจ ืกืืจืื ื ืืคืขืื ืืืกืืื ืืข"ื
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 177,
192-191.
16. ืืคื ืืืืื ืืืฆื, ืื ืื, ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืื, ืื
ืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืืฆืืง, ืชืืืื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืื ืืืืก ืกืืจ ืืืขืืช ืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉ ืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืจืง ืืืืจ ืืชื ืืจืฉืืื ืืชืืืชื ืื ืืืขืืช,
ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืช ื ืืจืื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืงื ืืจืฉืืื ืืฃ ืฉืืคื
ืืชืงื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฆื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืื,
ืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช?
ืขื ืฉืืืจืจ ืืช ืื ืกืืืืช, ืื ืื ืืฆืืืงืืช ืืช ืกืืจืื
ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืืง ืืช ืืืขื ืืฉื ื ืขืืื ืืืกืก ืืืืก ืืช ืืกืืจืื. ืืืขื
ืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืจื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืืก ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืืืจ,
ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืืืชืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื
ืืืืก?
ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
17. ืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื, ืืืื
ืืฉืจ ืืืื, ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืคื ื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืช ื ืืืจืช ืื ืืืืื
ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืืชืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืงืจืืช ืืจืืชืชื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 12 ืืืืง
ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1973-, ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืืชืื ืื ืืงืืื
ืืืื ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืื, ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 39 ืืืืง ืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืื-ืืืืื ืืืืข,
ืืงืื ืฉืืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช, ื ืงืืขื ืืกืขืืฃ 15 ืืืืชื ืืืง. ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ ืื, ืื ืฉืืชืงืฉืจ
ืืืืื ืขืงื ืืืขืื ืฉืืืขืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื, ืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืขืื? ืืกืขืืฃ ืืฉืื ืื
ืืื ืืืืืช "ืื-ืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืคื ืืื, ืืคื ื ืืื ืื ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืขื
ืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืืืืืชื". ืืขื ืืื ืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืืคื ืกืขืืคืื 12
ื39- ืืืืง ืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืขืืืืืช. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืข"ื 338/85
ืฉืคืืืืื
ื ' ืฆ'ืคื ืืง
, ืื(4) 421, 426. ืจืื ืื ื' ืฉืื,
ืืื ื ืืืืื
(ืืืืืจื 2,
ืชืฉื "ื), 55, 223. ืืืื ืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช,
ืืื-ืืืืื ืขืืืืืช, ืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืชื, ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื.
ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืื ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืจืฉืืช
ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืจื ืืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืจืื, ืืืืืื,
ืื"ืฅ 707/80
ืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืข"ื ื ' ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช
ืขืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 309, 312. ืจืื ืื ื' ืฉืื,
ืฉื
, 652.
ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืืง ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืกื ืืจืืช, ืืืืืจ, ืืงืฉืจ ืืืคืขืืช ืกืืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืื,
ืืืื, ืืืงืฉืช ืืืจื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืกืงื ื ืืื ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื
ืจืฉืืื ืืืขืืื ืื ืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืืกืื ืืืื?
ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืช ืืื ื ืืชืงืืืช ืขื ืืืขืช ืืืืจื
ืืชืืงื ืช. ืื ืืื ืืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืืขืืื ืขืืืืืช
ืืืืชืืืช, ืงื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืืืขืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืฉื
ืืฆืืืืจ. ืื ืฉืืืขื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืขื, ืืื ืจืง ืืขืงืืคืื, ืืช ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืชืืฆืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช
ืืื, ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืชื ืืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืขืชืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืืืชื,
ืืืืช ืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืขืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืื, ืื ืื, ืคืืืขื ืืฆืืืืจ
ืืจืื. ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืกืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืจ, ืืจืืืช ืืืจื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืขืืืืืช
ืืืืชืืืช, ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืจืฉื ืืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืช ืืฆืืืืจ? ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืคืื ืืืจืื
ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืจ:
"ืืฉื
ืฉืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื 'ื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ', ืื ืืืจืฉืช
ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืื 'ื ืื' ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืง, ืืจืฉืืช ืืขืฉืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืชืืื ืืฉืคืื
ืฉืืื". (ืข"ื 391/80
ืืกืจืกืื ื ' ืฉืืื ืขืืืืื ืืข"ื
, ืค"ื
ืื(2) 237, 262).
ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืื ืืข ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืช. ื ืืื,
ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืชืืื ืฉืชื ืืจืืื ืืฉืจ, ืืืืืจื, ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืขืื,
ืืจืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืขืืืช ืขืืืืืช, ืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืคืฉืจ
ืืืขืชืืง ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืื
ืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืงืืืข ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื.
ื ืืื, ืจืืฉืืช, ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช.
ืืืืช ืชืื ืื
18. ืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืฃ ืฉืื
ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืงืืืข ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง
ืื:
"ืืืจืืืช
ืืืง ืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืชืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืื ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช
ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ื ืืืขืื ืืืืืื".
ืืคื ืคืฉืืื ืฉื ืืงืจื, ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืืกืขืืคืื 12 ื39-
ืืืืง ืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืชืื ืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช
ืืื ืฉืื "ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช". ืืื ื, ืืื ืกืคืง ืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืคืืขืืืช
ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื, ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืช, ืขืืฉืืช ืคืขืืืืช
ืืฉืคืืืืช. ืืืื ืื, ืืืืืื, ืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืจืฉืืื, ืืขื ืงืช ืืืืื, ืืคืงืขืช ืืงืจืงืขืื ืืฉืืืช
ืืก. ืื ืื, ืืืืืจื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืจ ืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง
ืืืื), ืชืื ืื: ืืฆื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื ืืืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช.
ืืื, ืืฉ ืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืคืกืืงื. ืืข"ื 402/76
ืืืจื ืืงืื ื ' ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 270, 274, ืืชืืืืก ืื ืฉืื ืืืกืื
ืืขืงืจืื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืกืขืืฃ 39 ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืชืื ืื, ืืื ืืืจ:
"ืขืงืจืื
ืื ืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืื, ืืืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืื ืืื
ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืฉืจ-ืขื-ืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื."
ืจืื ืื ืื"ืฅ 640/77
ืืจื ืืืกืงื ื ' ืื ืื
ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 75, 78; ืื"ืฅ 566/81
ืขืืจื ื ื ' ืืืช
ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 1, 10; ืื"ืฅ 221/86
ืื ืคื ื ' ืืืช
ืืืื ืืืจืฆื ืืขืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 469, 477-476.
ืืื ื, ืขื ืื ืื ืืกืชืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขื ืขืงืจืื ืื
ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื
ืืืืจื. ืื ืขืงืจืื ืื, ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืื ืื,
ืืืืืจื ื ืืชื ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืขืงืจืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช.
ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฆื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืชื
ืืฆื ืืฉื ื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 17. ืื ืื, ืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจื, ืืคืื ื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืฉื
ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืช, ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืืงืฉื; ืืื ืืคืจ ืืืืจื
ืืืื ืืืช, ืืขืงื ืื ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืชืช ืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืช, ืจืฉืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื
ืืช ืืืืืชื.
19. ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื, ืขื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืชื
ืืืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืชืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื
ืฆืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืชืื ืืื ืฉืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ื ืื ื ืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื
ืฉืืื ืืืื ืฉืืื. ืจืื ื"ื 22/82
ืืืช ืืืืก ืืข"ื ื ' ืจืืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืช'
ืืข"ื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 441, 484. ืื ืื ืืื ืืชืื ืชืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืื
ืืื ืืืืฅ ืืชืืื ืืืืืื. ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื) ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืืืง,
ืืจืืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืจ ืชืื ืืื, ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืช ืืืื, ืจืง "ืืื
ืฉืืืืจ ืืชืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื". ืืืื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื
ืืื, ืืฉืืขืชืืงืื ืืืชื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืื. ืจืื
ืื"ืฅ 376/81
ืืืืกื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 449, 465.
ื ืืชื, ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืชืืื ืืชืืื ืื, ืืืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืข
ืืืืชื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื?
20. ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืื, ืื ืื ื ืืชื, ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื
ืืืขืชืืง ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื. ืฉืืจื ืื ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื) ืืืืจ ืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืง ืืืืื ืขื
ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืจืง "ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืชืืื ืืขื ืืื". ืืื
ืืชืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืชืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื? ืืืืืจ, ืืฉ ืฉืืคืืื ืืืฉืืืื
ืืืืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 18. ืืืื ืืฉ ืื ืฉืืคืืื ืืกืืืจืื ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืขื
ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืืฉืืคื ืฉืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืื"ืฅ 376/81
ืืืืกื
ื ' ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 449. ืืืขืชื, ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืชืื ืื,
ืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื). ืืื ืืืจ (ืืขื' 456-455):
"ืืืืื ื
[ืฉื ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืื] ืื ืืืชื ืืื, ืฉื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืฅ
ืืชืืจ ืฉืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื, ืื ืฉืจืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืื, ืขืช ืจืื, ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืชืื ืืื, ืฉื ืฉืืื
ืืืงืืจ ืืืจ. ืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืคืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืง 'ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืชืืื
ืืขื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื', ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื
ืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืขื-ืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืืงืฉืจื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืืงืืจื ืืืฉืคืื
ืืขืืงืจื. ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช, ืืจืื ืคืขืืืืชืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืชืื ืืื ื ื
ืืงืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืงื".
ืืืฉืืคืืช ืื-ืคืืจืช ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืขื ืืืช (
ืฉื
,
ืืขื' 465).
ืื ืื ืืขืชื. ืืจืืจ ืฉืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืืช
ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืง
ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื). ืืื ืฆืืจื, ืืืฃ ืืื ืืขื ืืื, ืืขืงืืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช, ืฉืฆืืื ืืคื ื ืืื ืจื ืขื ืืงืจืงืข ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืขืช ืืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื
ืืื ืฉืฆืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืขื ืงืจืงืข ืืืจืช, ืืื ืืงืจืงืข ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืฉ
ืฉืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืื. ืืงืจืงืข ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืฆืืืื ืชืื ืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืงืจืงืข
ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืฉื ื. ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืื ื.
ืืื, ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ื, ืืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืื ืคืจืืช, ืจืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืื.
ืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉื: ืื ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืงืืื ืืืืจ ืขื
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืืื, ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืงืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืชืื ืื.
ืื ืชืื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ื ืืืขืช ืื, ืืืจื ืืื, ืืฉืืขืืช ืฉืื ื: ืืงืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืจืฉืืช
ืืื ืืืืช ืืื ื ืคืืขืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืขืช ืื ืืื ืคืืขืืช ืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืื
ืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืขื ืฉืืงืื ืืจ ืืืืืขื ืฉืืฉืืงืื ืคืกืื. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืื"ืฅ 376/81
ืืืืกื
ื ' ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 449, 460-459. ืจืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉืืขืืช
ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืื: ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืชืื ืื ืืชืืืืก ืืืฆื ื ืคืฉื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช
(ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืงืจืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืจืืจืืช ืื ืืืื), ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืชื ืืืืช (ืืจืืืช
ืืืื) ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช.
21. ืืื, ืื ืื, ืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืคืจืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื? ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืงืฃ ืืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืืกืื. ืงืืื ืื, ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืกืื ืฉื
ืืจืืช, ืืืื ืืืืง, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืคื ืขืงืจืื ื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืื,
ืืืื ืืกืื. ืืืช ืืขืื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืื, ืืคื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืขืชืื ืืืืกื
ืืจืืช, ืื ืืืกืื ืฉื ื ืืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจ ืืืช ืคืจืืค' ื' ืืจืง ืืกืคืจื
ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช
ืฉืืคืืื
(1987), ืืขื' 487, ืืืื ืืืจืื:
"ืืงืืืขืช
ืชืื ื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช, ืขื ืืฉืืคื ืืืฉืืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช.
ืฉืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ื ืื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืงืืืขืช ืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืช, ืืืืืกืกืช
ืขื 'ืืจืืืืช' ืืืืืช. ืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ื
ืชืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื 'ืืฉืืง ืืืื', ืขื ืคื ืชืคืืกืชื ืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืื ืืืจื.
ืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืขืฆืื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืืื, ืืจืืืช
ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจืก 'ืขืฆืื' ืืฉืื. ืืืื, ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื 'ืืืืืืช'. ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืช
ืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืื ืฉืืืคืงื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืื".
ืจืื ืื
ืฉื
, ืืขื' 475-473. ืืืื ืฉืืืจื
ืืฉืืคืืช ืืืจื ืจ ืืื"ืฅ 4422/92
ืขืคืจื ื ' ืืื ืื ืืงืจืงืขื ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื
ืื(3) 853, 860:
"ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช - ืฉืืกืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืื ื ืืืคื ืืฆืืืืจ - ืืืืืจื ืืืชืจ
ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืช ืื ืืคืจื".
ืืื ืืชืืงืฉืช, ืืืขืชื, ืืกืงื ื ื ืืกืคืช. ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืชืืืืื: ืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืืื ืคืขืืืืช
ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืฉืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืคืืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืชืงืฉืจืช
ืืืืื, ืืื ืขืืื ืืืื ืืคืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืขื ืืืช, ื ืจืื ืื ืืคืืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืจื
ืืืชืจ, ืชืืืข ืืืจื ืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื. ืื ืื, ืืืืื ื ืืขืฉืืช ืืคืฉืจ ืืืกืชืคืง, ืื ืืชืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืคืืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื,
ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื, ืืื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื: ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืจ, ืืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืืืืืื
(ืืืง ืืืื), ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืขื ืืื. ืจืื ืื ื' ืฉืื,
ืืื ื ืืืืื
(ืืืืืจื 2, ืชืฉื "ื), 45. ืืืืื ื ืืขืฉืืช, ืื ืื, ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช
ืืคืืคื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืจ ืชืขืฉื, ืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื,
ืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืคืืฃ ืืืชื ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื.
ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช?
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
22. ืืื ืคืื ื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืืชื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืื"ืฅ
840/79
ืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ' ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 729,
746-745. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืจืืฉ ืืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืืคื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื
ื ืืื ืืืคื ืื ืื ื. ืื ืืคืืขื, ืืืืื ืฉืืฆืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืจืง ืืืคื
ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืืฃ ืขืจืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืคื ืื ืืื.
ืืืืจืื ืื ืคืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืื. ืื ืืืช ืืืขืช ืื ืืืืจื, ืืืงืฉืจ ืื, ืคืืจืืฉื ืืื,
ืืจืืืช ืชืืฉื ืฉืืื ื ืืืจื, ืืื ืืืจ ืื ื ืืื, ืืจืืืช ืชืืืื.
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื ืืื
ืืืงืืจ ืืจืขืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืกืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืื,
ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืฉืืืืข. ืืื"ืฅ 549/75
ืืืจืช ืกืจืื ื ื ืืข"ื ื '
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืจืช ืกืจืื ืงืืื ืืข
, ืค"ื ื(1) 757, 767, ืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ื:
"ืืขืื
ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืจ [ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืขืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช] ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืฉืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืชืชืืืืก ืืืืื ืืช (
with fairness
) ืืืคื ืขื ืืื ื
ืฉื ืืืืจื...".
ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช.
ืืื"ืฅ
135/75, 321/75
ืกืื-ืืงืก
ืงืืจืคืืจืืืฉื ืืข"ื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืืกืืจ ืืืชืขืฉืื
, ืค"ื ื(1) 673, 676, ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื
ืืจื ืืื:
"ืืืืื
ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื-ืืื ืืขื ืฉืจืจื ืืืืจ ืกืืืืชื ืืืืงืืช ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืื ืชืืงืฃ ืืฉืคืื ืืืฆื ืืฉื ื
ืืงืื ืืืชื ืืฆืืจื ืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืฉืืืืืื ืชืงืืืื ืืืื ืืืขืฉื, ืืืฉืจ
ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืคืืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืจื ืืช ืืฆืื ืืจืขื ืืขืงืืืช
ืืืืืื".
23. ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืจืง ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืื
ืืืืจื ืคืืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช?
ืืชืฉืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืืกืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืื,
ืืืื ืืืขืฉื, ืืืกืื ืื-ืกืืืจืืื. ืืื, ืืืขืชื, ืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ื ืืจืฉืช
ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืืจืืฉื ืืืช ืืฉ ืฉืืจืฉืื ืขืืืงืื: ืืื ืฆืืืืช ืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช
ืฉืืืกืื ืืืืื ื. ืืคื ืืื ื ืืืช, ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืื ื ืืืืงืจืืืช, ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ืืื ื ืขืืืืื
ืื ืืื ืื, ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืืชืจืก, ืืื ืื, ืื ืืฆื ืื, ืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืืืงืจืืื,
ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืืืจื, "ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืจื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืื". (ืื"ืฅ
3/58
ืืจืื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื 1493, 1511). ืืฉืืืื (ืืืขืื ืจืืื ืืืืจ:
ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื) ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืช ืืช ืืฆืืืืจ: ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืกืืจ, ืืกืคืง ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืื ืืื,
ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืจื, ืืขืฉืืช ืฆืืง ืืืจืชื. ืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืฉืืื ืื
ืืฉื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืืชืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืืกืื
ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืขืฆื ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืืืื, ืื ืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชื
ืืงื. ืื ืื, ืืคืืขื ืืืฆื, ืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืืจื ืืื ื
ืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืกืจืืช ืื ืืขืฉืืช, ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืงืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืื
ืืืื ืืชืช ืืื ืืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืื ืชืืฆืืช
ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืื
ืฉืืจืฉ ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื.
24. ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืขืฆื ืืืคื ืืฆืืืืจ,
ืืชืืืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืขื ืกืคืจ ืืืืงืื: ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืกืื, ืืืืื ืืืืกื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื
ืืืื, ืืฉืจืช ืืฆืื, ืืขืื. ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืื ืชืฆืื ืื ืืคืกืืงื. ืื ืฆืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืื ืฆืืืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช.
ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช, ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืขืืื, ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืขื
ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืืื ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 18. ืื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืขืืืคื, ืืืงืฉืจ ืื, ืขื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช
ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืชืืืื ื ื ืืืขืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืฉืื ืื: ืขื
ืืจืฉืืช ืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืชืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืืจืืื ืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื
ืชืฆื ื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืชืืืื ื ื ืืืขืืช ืืืงืืจ ืืื, ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืฉื ืืช, ืืืืก ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช,
ืืืืืฆืืช ืืช ืืฆืืืืจ, ืฉืื ื ืืืืืชื ืื ืืืืก ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืจื. ืืคืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืจืฉืืช
ืคืืขืืช ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืืืขืชืืง ืืช ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื
ืืืืืื ืืืชื, ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื, ืขื ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืื ืืชืช ืืคืกืืงื
ืืคืชื ืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืขืช ืืืืก ืื ืืืจื ืืฉืื, ืฉืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืกืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื, ืืื
ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืื ืืืช, ืืฆืืืืช ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืื ื ืงืืจื ืืฉื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช.
25. ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช? ืืื ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืฆื
ืืคืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืฃ ืฉืืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืื.
ืื ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืฉืชืื ืชื ืชืฉืืื ืืืฆื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื, ืขื ืคื ืืืื, ืืืฉื ืขืืื ืฉื ืืชื
ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืชืืื ืืขืช ืืขืช ืืคื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืฉืชื ืื. ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืจื
ื ืืงืฉื. ืฆืจืื ืืืฉืืืจ ืื ืงืฆืืืช ืคืชืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืืื
ืืืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืืจืฉ.
ืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื
ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืฉ. ืืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืืืจืื, ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืื,
ืืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืขื ืฉืชืืื ืืฉืื ืืืชืืืฉ ืืืืืื.
ืขื ืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืงืืืข ืืกืืจืืช, ืื ื ืืืงืฉ
ืืืฆืืข ืงืืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช:
(ื) ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื
ืืจืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืงื ืช ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืคืืขื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืืจืืื,
ืฉืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืื ืื ืืืกืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืชืคืื ืืขืฉืืื ืืืืืจื, ืฉืืืกืืื ืืืื, ืืืื
ืืืืื ืืช. ืขื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชื ืืืืชืืืฉ ืืืืจืื ืืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืื
ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืจื ืฆืจืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืื. ืืฉืื, ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื
ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื, ื"ื 22/82
ืืืช ืืืืก ืืข"ื ื ' ืจืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืช' ืืข"ื
,
ืค"ื ืื(1) 441, 485-484.
(ื) ืืืืืจ, ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื
ืืืืจื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืจื, ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืคื
ืืืืชื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 21. ืืืืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืชืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืจื.
(ื) ืืืขืช ื ืืชื ืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื
ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืฉืื ืฉืืืขืื ืฉื ืืืืจื
ืฉืื ื ืื ืืืขืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืจืฉืืช ื ืืฆืืช ืืืขืื ืฉื ื ืืื ืืืคื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืจืืืช ืืืืจื,
ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืขืื ืื ืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื.
(ื) ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช,
ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืขืฉืืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช.
ืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืืช ืืฉืืืืข ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืฉืืฃ ืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช: ืื ืกืืืืช ืจืืืืืช, ืืจืฉืืช ืชืฆื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืืืข ืืืชื; ืื ืกืืืืช
ืืกืืืืืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืงืืื ืฉืืืืข ืืขื-ืคื; ืืืฉ ืื ื ืกืืืืช
ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืชืืืจืฉ ืืคืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืืงืืจ ืืคื ืื ืขืืื. ืืคื ืฉืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืกืื
ืืื"ืฅ 335/68
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืฆืจืื ืืช ื ' ืื"ืจ ืืขืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืขื ืืื
ืืชื ืฉืืจืืช ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 324, 334:
"ืื
ื ืืชื ืืงืืืข ืืื ืืืื ืขื-ืคืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ืฆืขืืื ืืื ืขื ืื ืืขื ืื, ืืืืช ืื
ืฉืขืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืืืจื ืืืก ืืืื (
fairness
). ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืื, ืชืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืื".
ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช: ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืื, ืืขื ืืื ืืกืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืช ืื
ืืืจืช ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช, ืชืืื ืืืฉืคืขืช ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื.
26. ืืฃ ืื ืื ืื ืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื
ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืืฆืืข, ืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืข ืืกืืจืืช, ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช.
ืืืขืชื, ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืื
ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืืื ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืจืื
ืกืขืืฃ 11 ืืืืง ืืคืจืฉื ืืช, ืืชืฉื"ื1981-. ืจืื ืื ืื"ืฅ 135/71
ืคืจืกืื ื '
ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืขืืืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 533, 540. ืืืขืชื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื
ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช.
ืืื ืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืืขืช ืืจืืฉื ืฉืืืจื ืื
ืืชืืืฉ ืืืชืืืืืืช ืฉืงืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืคื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืื"ืฅ 1930/94
ื ืชื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 643, 655 ืืืืื.
ืืื ื ืืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืงืื ืืืจ:
"ืฉืืื
ืืื, ืื ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืขื ื ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืกืืืืช ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืจืฉืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืขื ื ืืืืื
ืืืืขืืืช ืืืชื ืืคื ืื ืจืง ืืฉืื ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ื ืื ืืื. ืืืฉื, ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืื
ืืืืจ ืืขืฆืื ืฉืืืชืื ืืืจืื, ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช ืชืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืฉืชืืง, ืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืช ืืขื ืช
ืืกืืืืช, ืืื ืชืืืื ืืจืขืชื, ืื ืื ืืืขื ืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช ืฉืืืืชืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืื ืกืืืืช?
ืขืืืื ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืกืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืช. ืืืขืชื, ืจืืื ืืงืืืข ืืื, ืื ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืขื ืืื ืขื
ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืฆืื ืืคื ืื ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืช ืฉืืฉ ืื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื
ืฉื ืืชื ื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืื, ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืง ืื ืืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฉืืืคืืฅ. ืื ืื ืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉื ืืืกืจ
ืกืืืืช. ืืขื ื ืืืืช ืืืืจืช ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืจื, ืืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืจืช ืืืืื
ืืฆืจืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืืืชื ืืงืจื. ืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืฉืื
ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืช-ืืื ื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืขืงืจ. ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืืืืื
ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืื ืืื
ืืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืขื ื ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืกืืืืช,
ืฉืืขืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื". (ื' ืืืืจ,
ืืกืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช
(1996),
696).
ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข
27. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข
ืืืืชื ืืคื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืช, ืืจืืฉ ืืืจืืฉืื ื, ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื
ืืืืจื. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืข ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ืืงืืืช ืืืืื
ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืจื. ืืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืืื"ืฅ 656/80
ืืื ืจืืื ื ' ืฉืจ
ืืืจืืืืช
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 185, 189:
"ืืื
ืืงืืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืช ืืืืช ืืฉืืืขื, ืื ืืื ืืคื ืื ืืช ืชืฉืืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืคืื ื ืืืืืข ืฉื ืชืงืื
ืืขื ืืื ื, ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืจืืื".
ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคืฉืจ
ืืืืจื ืืขืืื, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช, ืืชืืง ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืข ืืขื ืืื ื. ืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืชืงืื
ืืื"ืฅ 337/66
ืคืืื ื ' ืืขืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1)
69, 71, 72:
"ืื
ืืกืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืฆื ืืคืืจืฉืช ืืกื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืจื ื ืืงืืื ืืืื ืื
ืชืงืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืคืฉื...
ืืขืืชืจ
ืฆืืืง ืืืจืืฉืชื [ืืขืืื ืืชืืง ืืจืฉืืช] ืื ืจืง ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืขืืื ืืืกืืืื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืจืืืช
ืืืืง, ืืื - ืืืขืืงืจ - ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืกื ืฆืืืืจ ืฉืืื
ืฉืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืกืงื ื ืื".
ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืชืืืงื ืืืคืกืืงื, ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชืคืชืืช.
28. ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืื ืขื ืืืืจื.
ืืืืืจ, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืจื, ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืืง ืื ืืืืื
ืื ืืื ืืชืื ืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 17. ืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืกืขื ื ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืช (ืฉืืื ืืืง ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืงืืื ืืคืืื) ืืื ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืืืืืื, ืืื"ืฅ 421/86
ืืฉืื ืื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืชืืืืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(1)
409, 410, ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืจ:
"ืืื
ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืช-ืืฉืคื ืื ืืื ืืืชืืื, ืืืื, ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืคืื ื ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื
ืืฆืืง ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืช ืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืืืช, ืืื ืฉืืกืชืืจ ืขืืืืืช, ืืฉืจ ืืื
ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืื ืืขืชืืจื, ืืื ื ืจืืื ืืื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืื ืื ืกืขื".
ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช, ืื ืจืง ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืื ืขืฉืืืื
ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืงืืง, ืืชื ืื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืกืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืกืืืืืช. ืืืื,
ื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ืื ืืงืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืงืืง, ืืื ืงืืืืช, ืืคื ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉื
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืกืืืืช ืืฆื ืื ืืืจื ืื ืกื ืืืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืจืฉืืื ืื
ืืืืช ืื ืื, ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืื, ืื ืื ืกื ืืืฉืคืืข ืืืืคื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช,
ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืข ืืืขื, ืืจืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืข. ืืืืื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจื
ืืคืื ื ืืืงืฉื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื, ืื ืจืง ืฆืืืื ืืืกืจื, ืืื ืื ืฆืืจื ืืขืฉื. ืฉืืจื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืกืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื
ืืืืจื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืขืื ื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื
ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื, ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืขืืช, ืืืื
ืื ืืืชื-ืืืงืืช, ืืคืืืขืช ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืื, ืขื ืืื ืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืื ืืชื
ืืขื ืง ืืกืคื ืืชืื ืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืื. ืื ืืืขื ืืืื, ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช, ืืคืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืื.
29. ืืื ืื ืขืื ืืืกืื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืื"ืฅ 727/88
ืขืืื
ื ' ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 487. ืืื ื ืชื ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช ืืกืืื
ืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืขืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืชืืจืจ ืืฉืจ ืื
ืืขืืชืจ ืืืจืฉืข ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืขืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช. ืืฉืืชืืจืจ ืืืืจ
ืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืขืืชืจ ืชืงืฃ ืืืืื ืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืงืืข ืื ืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ื, ืืจืืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืขื ืขืืจ ืคืืืื, ืืื ืืืืจ
ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืฉืขื ืืฉืจ ืืงืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง (ืืขื' 492)
ืืืืืจ:
"ืืขื ืืื
ืืืืืฉ ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืื, ืขืืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืจ ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืชืืืืช
ืืช ืืืฆืืืืช. ืืฉืจ ืื ืืืข ืขื ืืืจ ืืจืฉืขืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืขืืจ. ืืืช ืืขืื: ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื,
ืืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืขื ืืืจ ืืจืฉืขืชื ืืืื, ืืืื ืื
ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืขื ืืืจ ืืืจืฉืขื ืืืื. ืืืืช ืชืื
ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฆืขื ืื."
30. ืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืข
ืืืืชื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช? ืืชืฉืืื, ืืฉืื ืื, ืืื ื ืืจืืจื. ืืฉืื ืื, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืงืืขื ืืื
ืืงืจื ืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื. ืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืชืฆืื ืื ืืืงืจืื ืชืฉืืื
ืืจืืจื ืืืชืจ. ืขื ืืืช, ื ืืชื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืื:
ื) ืืืื ืืืืงืฃ: ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื
ืขื ืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืจื
ืืืงืฉ ืืงืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืจืฉืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืช, ืืืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืขืืื ืกืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืจื, ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืคืืืขืช. ืืืื ืืืชืื ื
ืืืืืื ืื ืืงืจืื ืืจืืืื, ืืื ืืืงืฃ ืืืืื ืืฆืืืฆื ืื ืืชืจืื, ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื
ืืืงืจื.
ื) ืืืื ืืืืืช: ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆืื
ืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืข ืืืฆืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืฉื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืขื ืืื
ืื ืืื. ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืชืืื
ืืืืืื. ืคืฉืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืฉืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืงืื ืืจ, ืฉืืืืื
ืืกืืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืืชืืฉื ืื.
ื) ืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืืืช
ืืขืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืฉืืงืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืื, ืืื ืขืืงืจืืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืื. ืขื ืคื ืจืื,
ืืืืื ื ืืขืฉืืช, ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืกืืืืช, ืืืื ืืฃ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืช, ืืงืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืื
ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืขื, ืืฃ ืืื ืื ืืขืฉื,
ืืืจืืฉ ืื ืืืืจื ืฉืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืช ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืฆื ืื ืืืื. ืื ืืื
ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืช ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื, ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืืืืคื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืืืืช
ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืจืฉืืช, ื ืืจืฉ ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื ืกืืืจ. ืืฉืื ืืืจืช, ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื
ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืกืืืจ, ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืกืืืจ
ืืืืืื.
ื) ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืื ื
ืคืืืจืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืจืจ, ืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืช ืืขืืืืืช
ืืืฉืืฉืืช ืชืฉืชืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืกืืืืชื.
31. ืฉืืื ื ืืกืคืช, ืืขืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืจืื, ืืื ืฉืืืช
ืื ืคืงืืช ืฉื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื: ืืื ืืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื
ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช? ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืช. ืื ืคืงืืช ืฉื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื
ืชืืืืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื: ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืคืจื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืืืื
ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื, ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืื, ืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืช;
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืคืจื ืชืฆืืืง ืฉืื ืื ืชื ืื ืืืืืื, ืื-ืืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืช
ืฉืืื ื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช; ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ืกืืืืช ืื ืืฆืืืงื ืืื ืืืืื
ืืืฉื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืคืืืขื ืืืืจื.
ืืืืคื ืขืงืจืื ื ืืฉ ืืืคืจืื, ืืืงืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืืืงืฉืจืื
ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ื ืคืงืืช ืืืคืจื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืช
ืืื ืืืืช: ืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืืจืจืช ืืืืืช. ืืื ืืืจืชื ืืขื ืืื ืื:
"ืืฉ
ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืกืขื ืขื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืชื
ืขื-ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืืื ืืฆืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืื, ืืืกืขื ืืฆืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืจ. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขืฉืื
ืืฉืงืื, ืืืืจ ืืขืฉื, ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืคื ื ืืขืฉื. ืืื,
ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืฉืืืืข, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืืฆืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืชืืฆืื
ืืฆืคืืื ืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื." (ืื"ืฅ 2911/94
ืืืงื ื ' ืื ื"ื
ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(5) 291, 304).
ืจืื ืื ืื"ืฅ 2918/93
ืขืืจืืืช ืงืจืืช ืืช
ื ' ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(5) 832, 848.
32. ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช: ืืฉ ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืคืงืืช ืืืคืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืช. ืืืืช ืืืืืื
ืขืืืืช ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื, ืืืืืจื ืืื ื ืคืืืจ ืืื ื, ืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืื
ืชืฆืืืง ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ื ืงืืืช ืขืืฆืืืื ืืืจืื ื ืื ืืืืจื. ืืขืจืืช
ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืจื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืขืจืืช ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืื ืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช
(ืื, ืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืงืืจืช, ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื) ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื.
ืื ืชืืืื ืขื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ืฆืจืืื
ืืงืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืขืฉืืืื ืืืขื ืืง
ืืืืช ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฆืื ืฆืืคืืื ืขืืื ืืื ืืกืชืื, ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืืช ืื
ืืฆืืคืืื, ืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืขื ืืกืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืืื-ืืฉืงื. ืื ืื
ืฉืืงืืืื ืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื?
ืจืืฉืืช, ืืฉ ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืข ืฉืืืืจื ื ืื ืข
ืืืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช: ืืืืข ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืจืื, ืื ืืืืข ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉื ืืช, ืืืงืฉืจ
ืื ืืื; ืืืืข ืฉืืื, ืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืข ืฉืืืืจื ืฆืจืื ืืืจืื ืืื
ืืืฉืืื; ืืืืข ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืชื ืืืืขืช ืื, ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืขืช ืื, ืืืงืืจืืช ืฉืื, ืื
ืืืืข ืฉืืฆืื, ืืคื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช? ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืื ืืื, ืื
ืืืืื ืืืืืข ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ืขืฉืื ืืื, ืืืืคื ืกืืืจ, ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช. ืื ืืืืืข
ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืชืืช, ืืืื ืื ื ืฉืงื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืคื ื ืฉืงืืืื
ืืช ืืืืืื, ืืจื ืื ืคืื ืืืืืื, ืืฃ ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื, ืืืขืชืื ืื
ืืคืื ืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืืืื ืืืืืื.
ืฉืืงืื ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืืืช ืจืื, ื ืืืข ืืืืื ืช
ืืืืจื. ืืื ืืคืฉืจ, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื, ืืืืืก ืืืืจื ืืืื ื ืืืืขืืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืช, ืืื ืืืฉืคืืข
ืขื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืืืก ืื ืขืฆืืืช ืขืื ืืื ืื ืจืฉืื ืืช? ืฉืื ืื, ื ืืืขืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืจื ืืืคืจืช
ืืืืื, ืขื ืฉืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืข ืืื ืขืืืจื ืคืืืืืช. ืืื ืืงืื, ืืืงืจื
ืืื ื ืืืฉ ืืื, ืื ืื ื ืขืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืจืก ืืืกืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื: ืืืจื ืฉืืืขื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืืืขืื, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืขืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืชืืกืกืช ืขื ืืื ื ืฉืืื, ืืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืืขืื ืื ืื
ืืจืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืจืก ืืืกืชืืืืช ืฉืื ืืื ืข ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื.
ืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืฉืงืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืช ืื ืืง ืฉื ืืจื ืื
ืขืฉืื ืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื, ืืขืืืช ืื ืืง ืฉืขืฉืื
ืืืืืจื ืืืืจื ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช.
ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืื. ืื ื, ืืืืืื,
ืื"ืฅ 135/71
ืคืจืกืื ื ' ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืขืืืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 533. ืืื
ืืืืื ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืขืืืจื ืืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืชืืื ืื ืื ืืขื ืืจืฉืืื ืืกืจ,
ืืืกืืจืช ืืืงืฉื ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืืข ืืืขื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืขืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืช. ื"ื
ืื ืฉืื ืืืกืื ืืืจ (ืืขื' 539):
"ืืขืืชืจ
ืืืขื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืฉื ืขืืกืืงื ืื ืื ืืื ืืช, ืืืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืืืชื ืฉืื
ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ื ืงืืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืงืื. ืืืื ืืืขื ืืช ืืืืช, ืื ืืืชื ืืขื ืืงื ืื ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื. ืืืจื ืฉืืืขืืืช ืืื ืฉืืชืงืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืฉืจ, ืื ืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืจืฉืืช ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืจ ืื ืืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืชื ื, ืื ื ืชื ื ืืืชื ืขืงื ืชืจืืืช ืื
ืืฆื-ืฉืื."
ืืฃ-ืขื-ืคื ืื ืคืกืง ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื
ืื ืืื ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืขืืืจื ืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืืืืข? ืืขืืงืจ, "ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืื
ืคืขืื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืจืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจ, ืืื ืืขื ืกืืืจ, ืืฉื ืชืงืืคื
ืืจืืื ืืื". (
ืฉื
, ืืขื' 541).
ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืข ืื
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืจืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืฉื ืืช ืชื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืกืจื ืืืืืฉ
ืจืฉืืื ืื ืื ืงืื ืฆืขื ืืืจ ื ืื ืืืจื ืฉืืคืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืขื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืขื ืฉืืื ื ืืงืืช ืฆืขื ื ืื ืืืจื ืขื ืฉืืคืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืฉืื
ืชืคืจืืง ืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืืื ืชืคืงืืื ืื ืืจืฉ, ืฉืื ืชืงืคืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืืืืจื ืืฉืื ืชืคืืข ืื
ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื.
ืืื, ืื ืื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืขืืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื
ืื ืืื?
ืืืงืจื ืื ืืื
33. ืืืงืจื ืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืง ืืช ืฉืชื ืืืขื ืืช ืืฉืจ, ืืคื
ืืืืก, ืืฆืืืงืืช ืืช ืกืืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 13. ืืืขื ื ืืจืืฉืื ื
ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืื. ืืคื ืืขื ื ืืืช, ืืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืง ืืืืจ ืฉืืชืืจืจ ืืืืก ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืคื
ืืชืงื ืืช. ืืืขื ื ืืฉื ืื ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืคื ืืืืก. ืืคื ืืขื ื
ืืืช, ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืจื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ื ืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืก, ืงืืื ืฉืงืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื,
ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืืืชืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืคืจืช ืืืืื, ืืืขื ืช ืืืืก, ืืฃ ืืื ืืฆืืืงื ืืช
ืืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื.
34. ืจืืฉืืช, ืื ืื, ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืืืจ, ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืืฆืืืจ ืืคื ื ืืืืก ืื ืืื ืืืขืืื,
ืืฉืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ื ืฉืื ืืืงืฉื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 9. ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื
ืืื, ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืชื ืื ืื, ืืคืืืช, ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืฆืืจื ืงืืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืชื ืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืช?
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืฉืืชืืงืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก ืืืืฆืื ืื ืืืื
ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 10. ืืืื
ืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืจืืืช ืขืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืืง. ืืื,
ืืคืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืขืฆืื ืืื ื ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืงื ื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืกืขืืฃ 12 ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืจ ืื "ืืืกืื ืื ื ืืฆื ืืืคืืจืฉ ืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืืฉืื". ืืืื, ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืฉ ืขื ืืืกืื,
ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ื ืชืื ื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืขื ืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืื. ืืื ืืืืื
ื ืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืจืฉืืช ืืืืช? ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืืฆืืืขื ืืฃ ืขื ืกืขืืฃ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืงื ืืช ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช, ืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื, ืืคืืื, ืจืฉืืช ืืืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืื ืื ืืืื. ืกืขืืฃ 13 ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืจ ืื "ืืืืจ ืืชืืืช ืืืกืื ืืืืขื ื ืฆืืื ืจื "ืจ
[ืืืืืจ, ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื] ืื ืฆืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืกืืื ืื... ืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืกื ืช
ืืืขื ืื". ืืืืจ ืืขืชื, ืืืกืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืชืืืช ืืืืื. ืื ื ืืืจ ืื
ืืกืขืืฃ 29 ืืขืชืืจื: "ืืืื ื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืฉืื, ืืืืืืชืื ืืืขืืื, ืืชืืืฉื ืืืืจ
ืืืชืืื." ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืฉื ืชืืงืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก ืืืฆืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื, ืื
ืืฆืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืงื ื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืื
ืืืกืืคื ืืืจ ืืืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืื ื ืฉืืชืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืื. ืืฉืืข, ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฆืืื
ืืคื ื ืืืืก ืืช ืืืืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืงื ื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื, ืืฃ ืฉืื ืืืืจืื
ืืื ืืื ืืงื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืช ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช.
ืื ื ืืชืจ, ืื ืื, ืืื ืืืจืจ ืื ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืงื ืชื
ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืขื ืชื, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืืจ ืื, ืืคื ืื ืกืคื ืืืืื, ืฉื ืืชื
ืืืืขื ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืื, ืืขืืชืจืช ืจืฉืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื "ืื ืืจืง ืืฆืืจื
ืืขืื ื ื/ืื ืคืจืืงื ืฉื ืจืืืืช", ืืื ืื "ืื ืฉื ืื, ืืื ืกืื ืฉืืื, ืืืืจืฉ ื/ืื
ืืื ืืืืืืจ ื/ืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืขืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืงืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื"ื ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื".
ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 4. ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืฉ ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช
ืื ืื ืฉืืืกืื ืื ืืชืืืืจ ืืืชืื ืืฉื ืืื ื"ื.
ืืืช ืืขืื. ืืืื 8.1.96, ืืฉื ื ืืืฆื ืืืืจ ืืชืืืช
ืืืืื, ืืชื ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืจืฉืืืช ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื
ืืฆืืจื ืืขืื ื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืื, ืื "ืชืคืืกืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืื
ืืคืจืชื", ืืื "ืขืืืื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื "ื ืืืืชืจ". ืจืื ืืขืื
ืคืืกืงื 7. ืืืขืช ื ืืชื ืช ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืชืื ืืืืจืกืชื, ืชืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืฉืขื
ืคื ืืกืืื ืฉืืชืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืชืืืช ืืืืื ื ืชืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืขื ืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืื. ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืื, ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืชื ื ืืกืฃ ืฉื
ืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช, ืืชืืืืกื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืื ืืชืฉืืืชื ืืื ืืื
ืืืขื ืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืกืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืืฆืืื, ืืืื ืืกืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืื ื ืืคื ืืช ืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืกืืื. ืื ืฉืื ื"ื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืชื
ืืกืื ื"ื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืื ืืื,
"ืืืืื ืืืจืื ื ื ืงืืข ืื ืชืืฆื ืืืจื ืืืฉื ืื ืืฉื". ืื ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืจืฉืืช
ืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืจืฉื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืคืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืฉืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืืื ืคืขื ืืืช ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืื ืืฉ ืื ืจืฉืืช
ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืขื ืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 7.
ืืขืืชืจืช ื ืืชื ื ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืคืช, ืืืกืืจืช ืขืชืืจื
ืืืช, ืืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืืช ืืฉ ืืืืืจ:
ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืืงืคืช ืืช ืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืก ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื
ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืืชื ืืฉืขืชื, ืืืฃ ืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืื, ืื ืื, ืืฉืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืก? ืชืฉืืืชื ืืชืืกืกืช ืขื ืฉืชื ืืขื ืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืช (ืืกืขืืฃ 30 ืืขืชืืจื):
"ืขื
ืืชืฉืจืื ื ืจืฉื ืืืืจืืจ, ืื ืืฉืื, ืืื ืืฉืื ื ืฉืื ืขืชืืจื ืื, ืืืืขื ืืืืกื ื. ืืกืื ืื ื ืืชื
ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืกื ืืจื "ืจ/ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืื, ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจ
ืืขื ืื. ืงืืืื ืฉื ืชืฉืจืื ืื ืืื ื ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืื ืฉื ืขืฉื ืืขื ืคื ืืื ื ืฆืืื
ืจื "ืจ ืืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืก ืืืืฆืืข ืืคืจืืืืงื ืจืื ืืืืืื
ืืืืฉืงืขื ืืืกืืกืืช ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืืืกืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช".
ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืืคืจืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืืชื ืืกืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช (ืขื ืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืืื, ืืชื, ืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืืื, ืืื'), ืืืฃ ืืื ื ืชืืืืช ืืขื ื
ืืืช ืืฉืื ืืกืื. ืืืื ืืขื ื ืืขืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ื ืชืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืชืืชืืืช ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืฉืงื ืืจืืื. ืื ืื ืืืื. ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืคื ืืืืื
ืืื ืื ืืืกืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืขื-ืคื, ืืืขื ืช ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืฉืื ืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืื ืืืืงืชื
ืืฉืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืจืฉืช "ืืืฉืืจ
ืืืงืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื"ื ืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื".
ืื ื ืืชืจื, ืื ืื, ืจืืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื
ืืชืฉืจืื: ืืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื, ืืืื 15.5.95, ืื ืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ื"ืฉืื
ืืืืกื ื". ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 3. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื (ืฉื ืืชื ืืฉื ื ืืืืจ
ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื) ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืื. ืงืืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจ ืืืื
3.1.94 (ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื) ืื ืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืขื ืืื ืฉื ื
ืืกืื ื"ืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืช, ืืืชืืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืื ืขืฆืื. ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืกืืื ืชืืืื
ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืขืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืืืกื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืช. ืืชืฉืจืื
ืืฉื ื ืืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืืฆื, ืขื ืืื ืืชืื ื ืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืฆืืจื ืกืืืื ืืชืืืื
ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืืืฆืข ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืื ืื ื ืืชื ืขื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืกืื ื"ืืื,
ืฉืืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืขื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืง ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืกื ืืจืืืช.
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืืื
ืืืกืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื. ืืขืืืชื ืืืขื ืช ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื
ืื ืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืกื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืชื ืขื ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉ
ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืกืืช, ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืขื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืื ืืืฃ ืื
ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืื. ืืื ืืืขื ืช ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืชืฆืืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืื (ืกืขืืฃ
7):
"ืื
ืฉื ืชืืงืฉ ืืจ ืืืจืื ืจืืืื, ืื ืื ืืืฃ ืืื ืืกื ืืจืืืช, ืืคื ืฉืืกืจ ืื, ืืื ืืืชืื ืขื ืืื
ืืชืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1995, ืืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืชืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืกืืช. ืืืขืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื
ืื ืืชืืืชื ืืขื ืืงื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืจืง ืืฉืื ืฉืืืชืื ื ืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืกืืฃ
ืืฉืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืช ืืืืื 'ืฉืื ืืืกื ื', ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืืกื ืืช ืชืฉืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืจ ืจืืืื
ืืื, ืื ืขืืืช ืืฆื ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืกืจืช ืชืื ืื".
35. ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืคืกืืง ืฉืืขืืชืจืช
ืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื? ืืืืื ืื. ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืชืืืื ืืขืืืืช
ืขืืฉืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืืชืืืขื ืืกืืืืง ืื ืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืฉืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื
ืืืืฉื ื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืช ืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืจืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืช
ืฉืืืขืื ืืคื ืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 8. ืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืขืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืก, ืืื ืื ืืฉืืื
ืฉืขืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื. ืืฉืืื ืืขืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจืง ืืื, ืื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืก, ืฉืขื ืฉืฉืงื
ืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืฉื ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืื ืจืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืื. ืืืืืข, ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื
ืืืกืก ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืงื ืื ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืกืก ืคืกืง
ืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืฉืคื. ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ื ืงืฉืืจื ืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืื
ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืื ืื ืืืจืฉ, ืืืกืชืคืง ืืื, ืฉืืคื ื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืจืืืืช ืฉืืื ืกืืืจ ืืื ืืกืชืื ืขืืืื, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื, ืืฆืืจื ืงืืืช
ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ื. ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 442/71
ืื ืกืงื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(2)
337, 357; ืื"ืฅ 987/94
ืืืจืื ื ืงืืื ืืื (1992) ืืข"ื ื ' ืฉืจืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช
,
ืค"ื ืื(5) 412, 424-423. ืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืคืืง ืื ืืื ืืืกืก ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉ
ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืฃ ืืืืื ืจืฉืืื. ืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืื"ืฅ 475/81
Deak
& Co. Inc.
ื ' ื ืืื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1)
803, 808.
ืืืขืชื, ืืคื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืช, ืจืฉืื ืืื
ืืืืก ืืงืืืข ืืืืชืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืฆืืจื ืงืืืช
ืืจืฉืืื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืก ืืืืื, ืฉืขื ืคื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื. ืงื
ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืืจ ืืื, ื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืชืคืืกืช ืืืืงื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืขื ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืช. ืจืืืืช ืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกืจื ืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืชืืืื, ืืกืคืืงืืช ืื, ืืคื
ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืช, ืืื ืืงืืืข, ืืขื ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืชืงื ืืช.
ืืืกืงื ื ืืื, ืื ืืืืก ื ืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืขื
ืืกืื ืืขืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืขืงื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืขืืช
ืืชืืืชื, ืืืชืืจืจ ืื ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืื, ืงืื ืืืื ืืืืก ืขืืื, ืืคื
ืืืืื, ืืกืจื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื.
36. ืืฃ-ืขื-ืคื ืื, ืกืคืง ืืขืื ื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื ืื
ืืขืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื.
ืืกืคืง ื ืืืข ืืฉื ื ืืขืืื. ืืืขื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื, ืฉืืืืก ืืื ื ื ืงื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืขืืช ืืฉืจ, ืืืืจ
ืฉืืชืืืชื, ืื ืืขื ืืืชื ืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืืืืจ, ืืืฉืจ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืฉื ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืื ื ืืืืก ืื ืชืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืืื
ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืืืื, ืขื ืคื ืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืคืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืช. ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืงืฉืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืืืืก ืื ืืจื ืืื ืืขืืื
ืืืืื. ืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืืช ืืืืก ืืชืฆืืืจ ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืื (ืกืขืืฃ 8):
"ื ืฆืืื
ืืืืก, ืืฉืจ ืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืงืฉ ืืขืืชืจืช, ืื ืืื, ืขื ืกืื ืืืกื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืจื ืขื
ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืคืืขืืช ืืชืื ืื, ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืจ ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื
ืืงื ื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืง ืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืจ
ืืืืืงืฉ".
ืืกืืจ ืื ืืื ื ืื ืงื ืืช ืืืืก ืืืืจืืืช. ืืืืก, ืืื
ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืจืจ ืืืืคื ืกืืืจ, ืืื ืืงืจื, ืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืง ืื
ืืชืงื ืืช ืงืืขื ืืืคืขืืช ืืกืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฆืืืืจ ืฉืืคืงืื ืืืืื ืืช
ืืกืืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืืกืืืืืื. ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืจืฉืืืช ืืคืืืจ ืขืฆืื ืืืืจืืจ ืืชื ืืื ืจืง ืืฉืื ืฉืืื
ืื ืืื, ืืงืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืฉืืืืจื ืื ืื ืืชืื ืื.
ืืืช ืืขืื. ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืจืืช
ืืืจืืจ ืกืืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืคืขืืช ืืกืืืืช, ืืื ืืื ื ืขืชืจืช ืืืงืฉืชื, ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืจื
ืืื ืืกืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง:
"ืืงืื
ืืจืฉืืื ืจืฉืื ืืื ืื, ืื ืืืืืงืืช ืื ืืืฆืืช ื ืขืฉื, ืืื ื ืคืชื ืืคื ืื ืคืชื ืืืฉืงืขืืช
ืืืคืขืืืืช, ืืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืื ืืืคืชื ืืืืฉ ืืฉื ืืขืืช ืืจืืื. ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืขื ื ืืกืฃ,
ืฉืขื ืืื ื ืืกืืจื ืืืื ืื. ืื ืืจืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืงืืข ืืขืฆืื ืกืืจ ืืืืงื ืืืืื ื, ืฉืืืคืฉืจ
ืื ืืืืฉ ืขืืืชื ืืจืืฉ, ืืืจื ื ืืชื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืื ืฉืืื ืคืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืชื ืชืืืื ืจืืฉืืื ืืจืง ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืง, ืื ืืื ืืื ืฆืืืืง" (ืื"ืฅ 799/80
ืฉืืื ื ' ืคืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืื ืืืจืื
ืชืฉ"ื1949-, ืค"ื ืื(1) 317,
331).
ืืื ืืชืขืืจืจืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื ืื ืืืขืืช
ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืื.
ืืขื ืฉื ื ืืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืงืื ื ืืื, ืื ืจืื, ืืืืืช
ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืฆื ืืื, ืืขืืชืจืช ืืฉืงืืขื ืืกืฃ ืจื ืืืืฉืจืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืืชืงืฉืจื
ืขื ืืงืืืืช, ืืชืคืขืืช ืืช ืืืืกื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืื ื ืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืฉืจ ืชืืืืฅ
ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืืืืืืื ืื ืชืืืืฅ ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืคื
ืืืืื. ืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื, ืื ืื ืืง ืฉืืืืจื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื
ืขื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืคืกืืง ืื ืืืืขื ืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืชืืืขื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืกืืืืง
ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื? ืืืืื ืช ืืืืก ืื ืืง, ืื ืจืื, ืืื ื ืืขืฉื, ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืฉืจื
ืืฉืืฉ ืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืื ืืจืฉ, ืืจืง ืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ื ืืชืจื ืคืชืืื. ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืฉ ืื
ืืืืื ืืื-ืืืก ืืืืืกื ื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืคื ืืืชื-ืืืื ืื ืืืชื-ืืืืงืจ. ืืื ืืืืจ
ืื ืืง ืฉื ืืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื? ื ืจืื ืื ื ืืง ืื ืืื ื ืฉืืงืื ืืจ ืืืืื ืช ืืืืก ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื
ืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืื ืืงืื, ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืคืกืืง ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืืงื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืกืื ืืืื, ืชืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื, ืื ืชืจืฆื, ืืืืืฉ
ืชืืืขื ืืกืคืืช ื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช: ืื ืชืืืขื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืจืืืืื, ืื ืชืืืขื ืืืฉืื ืืคื ืืื ื
ืขืฉืืืช ืขืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืฉืคื, ืืื ืชืืืขื ืืกืขื ืืืจ.
ืืืืื ืฉืื, ืืื ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืฉืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืคื ืืื ื, ืขื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืคืกืืง ืื ืืฉ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื?
ืืกืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืชื ืฆืจืื ืืคืกืืง ืืืงืจื ืื ืจืง ืืคื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ื ืจืื
ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืคืืกืง, ืขื ืืฃ ืืกืคืง, ื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช. ืื, ืืขืืงืจ, ืืฉืื ืฉืืคื ืืจืืืืช
ืืืื ืืืืืช, ืืชื ืืจืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก ืื ืืื, ืืืืื ืช ืืืืก, ืจืง ืืขืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช, ืืื
ืืื ืืฃ ืืืชื-ืืืงื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืช ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืืจืฉืืช ืฉืืขื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืืคื ืขืงืจืื ื, ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืืชื-ืืืงื. ืืื ื,
ืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืงืคืืช ืืืฆื ืืงืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืงืฆืจื ืืืื, ืขื ืืืืจืขื ืกืืคืืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืช
ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืคืฉืจ ืืื, ืืชืื ืืชืืฉืืืช ืื ืืง ืฉืืืืจื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืฉืืืจ ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆื
ืืงืืื ืืคื ืฉืืื. ืืืื, ืืคืืขื, ืขื ืฉืชืชืงืื ืืืจืขื ืกืืคืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืจืืืช
ืืืืื ืขืจืขืืจ, ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืืคื ืฉื ืื. ืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืขืืชืจืช, ืืฉืจ
ืืืืืจื ืงืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืืชืื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืชืืจืฉื ืืืืืืง ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืฉื
ืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื, ืืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืชืืื ืืกืจืช-ืืื ืื ืืชืงื ืืช ืืชืงืื. ืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืื
ืขืื ืืคืกืืง ืืืงืจื ืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืขื ืื ืืืื, ื ืจืื ืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืืกืคืง, ืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืช
ืืขืชืืจื.
ืืืื, ืื ื ืืชืจ ืื ืกืคืง ืืฉืืื ืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืืื
ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืขื ืืฉื ื,
ืืืืืจ, ืืืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืกืืง ืืช ืืกืคืง.
37. ืืืืืจ, ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืคื ืืืืก, ืืืชื ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืก ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืืืข ืืจืฉืืื ืฉืืืงืฉื. ืจืื
ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 27 ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืกืคืง ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืืช.
ืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืขื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืงืจื ืื.
ืืืฉืจ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืืงืฉื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก ืืืืฆืื "ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื" ืืืื
ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืก (ืืืฆืืืจ 1995) ืืช ืืืืื, ืืฆืืื ื ืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ:
"ืจืฆ"ื ืืืื ืืกืื ืฉืืืจืืช/ืืืืจื ืขื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช". ืืืื,
ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืคืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืขืชืืจืชื ืื
ืืืขื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืชืืกืกืช ืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืชืจ. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื
34. ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืฆืืื ื ืืคื ื ืืืืก ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ื ืืืขืช, ืื ืื ืืืืื, ืืื
ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืชืจ. ืื ืฆืืื ื ืืืช ืืืืชื ืฉืฉืืื ืืืืก, ืกืืืจ ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืก
ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืจืจ ืื ืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช, ืืืืืข ืืื ืื ื ืืืืืช ืื ืกืคื ืืืืื ืื
ืืืกืื ืืืจ.
ืืืช ืืขืื. ืืขืืชืจืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืก ืืช ืืืืื ืืื
ืฉืฆืืจืคื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืจืืฉืื ื. ืจืื
ืืขืื ืคืืกืงืืืช 3-2. ืืชืืฆืื, ืืชืืื ื ืฉืืื ืื ืืคื ื ืืืืก ืื ืืืชื ืฉืืื ืืืฃ ืื ืืืืืืงืช.
ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืฆืืจืคื ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืช ืืชืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืฉืืฉืืืจ ืฉืื ืงืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืื ืืืืกื, ืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืืชืืืื, ืืื ืืืืก ืืืจืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืช ืืืฆื, ืืคื
ืฉืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืจืืชื ืืืชื.
ืืื ืืงืื, ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืืจืืจ ืื ืืืืก ืืืจืฉ ืฉืืื
ืชืืื ืืขืืช ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืื ืขื ืืืฉืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืก
ืืื ืืืขื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ื, ืืื, ืืขืืช ืืืืช ืืืืช.
ืืื ื, ืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืชื ืกืืืจื ืื ืืฉ ืืืื
ืืืืช ืืืืช, ืืชืืจืจ ืื, ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืก, ืื ืืืขืช ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื
ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืช. ืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื 8.1.96 ื ืืืจ ืืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืชืคืกื ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืืืชืจ.
ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืขื ืขืืื ืืืช ืคืขื ืืืจ ืคืขื ืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 7. ืื ืืืชื
ืขืช ืืืชื ืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืชืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืก, ืขื
ืฉืืืืก ืืืืื, ืืืื 1.7.96, ืืชืช ืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืืงืฉ. ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืชื ืฆืจืืื ืืืขืช, ืื
ืื ืืืขื ืืคืืขื, ืื ืืืืข ืื, ืืืืจ ืืขืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืืชื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืช
ืืืืก ืืืงืฉืช ืืขืืชืจืช. ืืืจื ืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืก ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช
ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืืฆื ืื, ืื ืื, ื ืื ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืืข ืืืืก, ืืชื
ืงืืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืืืคืื ืืงืฉืจ ืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืชืืงืฃ ืฉืืืืื ืืื ื ืืงื ื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืงืจ?
ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืคืจืืืื, ืืื
ืืงืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืชืื ืื
ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืงืจืืช ืืจืืชืชื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 12 ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืื ืืฆื
ืืฉื ื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืจืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 15 ืืืืชื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืืื. ืขืืฉืื, ืฉืืืืืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืคืจืื, ืืฉ ืืืืจ ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืจื ืืช
ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืคื ืืืืก.
ืืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืชืืฆืื ืฉื
ืืขืืช ืืงืจืืช ืื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืช. ืืขืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืงืฉื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืื,
ืืืื ืืงืื ืงืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืช. ืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืฆืืจื
ืืืืืื ืืืช. ืื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื ืืืชื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืื ืกืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืคื ื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืืชื, ืืื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืื ืืืืขืืืช ืืจืฉืืช.
38. ืืืขืืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืื-ืืืืื ืืืืข
ืืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืืงืฉ ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืช, ืคืืืขืช ืงืฉื, ืื ืจืง ืืจืฉืืช,
ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืจืืจ ืฉืงืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืืืขืื ืืืืช. ืงืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืก ืฆืืืืจื
ืืฉืืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืงื ืืืขืื ืืืืช. ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืช, ืื
ืืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืฉื ืื ืืื, ืขืฉืืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืจืฉืืื ืื
ืืืืช ืื ืื ืฉื ืชื ื, ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืืกืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืชื ื ืืชื ืช ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื.
ืืื ืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื. ืืืืก ืืืขื ืื ืืืื
ืืืืชื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืชืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืงืฉืช
ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืงืฉื, ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืื
ืืืืืงืฉ. ืืืขื ื ืืฉืื ืขืช.
ืืชืืฆืื ืืื, ืฉืกืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืื ืืืฆืืง.
ืืฉื ืื ืืืขืชื ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
ืชืืกืคืช ืืืจืื: ืืื ืืืืื ื
39. ืชื ืืื ื ืฉืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืฉืื ืื ืืืจ: ืืื ืืกืืื
ืืชืืฆืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืืข, ืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืจื ืื ืื ื ืืืื. ืืฉืจ ืืชืืฆืื, ืืื ืืกืืื ืื
ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืก, ืื ืืื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืช
ืืขืชืืจื. ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช, ื ืืืจืช
ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืขืชื, ืืืืช
ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืงืืืชืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืืืชื-ืจืืื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืกืืื, ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื
ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืงืช ืขื ืืชืืฆืื, ืืืืืืงืช ืขื ืืืจื
ืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืคืฉืืช ืืฉืืืืช. ืื, ืืคืืขื, ืืืืืืงืช ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืื
ืืชืคืืกืช ืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืื, ืืคืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื.
ืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื?
ื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ื ืขืืฆื ืืืื ืืจืื, ืืื ืืขืฆื ืืืื ืืืกืืกื ืฉื ืชืืจืช ืืืฉืคื, ืฉืื ืืื, ืืจืืืช
ืื ืืืฃ ืืฉืคืื, ืืืื ืืืชื ืื, ืืื ืืงืจื, ืืืืคื ืจืืื ืืืชืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื. ืืืื,
ืืืขืชื, ืื ืชืืจืช ืืืฉืคื ืขื ืจืื ืืืช. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ. ืืื, ืชืืจืช ืืืฉืคื ืคืืชืื ืืกืืช
ืืกืืขืคืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืื, ืื ืืกืฃ
ืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื.
ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื,
ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืชืื ืื. ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืขื ืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืคืขืืืืช
ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืกืืจ ืจืขืืื ื ืืืืืื ืงืืืืื, ืืงืืจ ืืฉืคืื ืืื ื ื ืืืจืื
ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื.
ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืื
ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืงืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืื ืืืช, ืืื ืืืืช ืชืื
ืืื, ืืืจืฉืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืคื ื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื.
ืืืกืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืืื, ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื
ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื? ืฉืืื ืืืช ืืจื ื ืืื ื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืขืืฉืื, ืฉืืื ืขืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืขืืจืจืช
ืืืืืงืช, ืื ื ืจืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืขืืืชื.
40. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืกืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืฆืืงื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืกืืืืจืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืกืืื: ืืื ืกืืืืจืื. ืื ืืฉ, ืืืคืืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืช,
ืืืืืืช.
ืืื ืกืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ื ื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจื, ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ืืฉ
ืืืืืืจ. ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืื ืืืคื ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืืช. ืืื ืืคืืื ืืื ื
ืืืก ืืฉืคืื. ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืืื
ืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืื ืจืง ืืืื ืจืขืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืจืขืืื ืฉืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืขืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืขื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืืคื
ืฉื ืงืืข ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืื ืืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืชืื ืืืืื ืืช
ืฆืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืื ืืืืืงืง ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
ืืืืจื, ืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื, ืืื ื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ื ืื ื. ืืื ืืจืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื
ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืจืืจ ืื ืื
ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืคืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืืคืืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช
ืฉืื ืืช, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืืงืง ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืืืืื, ืืืกืื
ืฉืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืจืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืืจ, ืืกืืจ ืื ืืืขืืื ืขืืื ืฆืืืืจ, ืขืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืชืืงืฉืช ืืชืช ืื ืจืืฉืืื ืขืกืง. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืืืจื ืืืืคื ืฉืจืืจืืชื. ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืก ืืจืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืืฉ ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืชืฃ: ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืืช
ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืจืืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืื. ืืขืืจ ืืื, ืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืฆืืจื ืชืคืงืื ืชืงืื ืืืขืื ืฉื
ืืืืจื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื
ืืืืจื?
41. ืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื
ืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืจืขืืื ืืช, ืืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืื ืืืงืืช, ืืืืคื ืืก, ืืฉืืืฉ ืงืืืฆืืช:
ืจืืฉืืช, ืืขื ืื ืืกืืืืช; ืฉื ืืช, ืืขื ืื ืืกืืืจืืช; ืฉืืืฉืืช, ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืช.
ืืขื ืื ืืกืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช
ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช, ืืคื ืฉืืืชืืืชื ืืืืง. ืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืื. ืืืืช
ืืกืืืืช, ืืืืื ืื, ืืืจืฉืช ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืชืขืฉื ืจืง ืื ืฉืืืืง ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืขืฉืืช ืืชืื ืจืง ืืืจื
ืื ืืืืง ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช. ืืื ืืืืืช, ืืืืืื, ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืืขืฅ ืขื ืืืฃ ืคืืื ื ืื
ืืงืื ืืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืืืฃ ืคืืืื ื, ืืื ืืคื ืฉืืืืง ืงืืข. ืืืื ืืืช, ืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืื ืขื
ืืืืจื, ืฉืืืืง ืื ืืขื ืืง ืื ืกืืืืช.
ื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช
ืืคืขืื, ืื ืจืง ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืง, ืืื ืื ืืกืืืจืืช. ืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช
ืืืืื ืืจืื. ืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืืื ืื, ืืืืจืช ืฉืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืฉืื
ืืืืคื ืจืืื. ืืืื ืืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช-ืืฉื ื: ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืชืืืืช
ืจืืืื; ืขืืื ืืฉืงืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืืชืขืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืจืื; ืืื ืืืืืช ืืชืช
ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืงื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืฉืื ืื (ืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช
ืืืืื ืืฆืจ); ืืื ืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืจื ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืืจืืฉื. ืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืชืืืืกืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืกืืืืช, ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืกืืืืช.
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืืืืจ,
ืืืจื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืคืขืืื ืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช,
ืืืื, ืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืงื ืกืืืจื ืฉื ื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจื, ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืขื ืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืื
ืขืืื ืืืกืืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืขื ืืื, ืื ืืง ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืฉ ืืื ื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืื: ืืืืื
ืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืคื ืจืืื. ืืงืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืช ื ืืืขืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืื. ืื ืื ืจืง ืื. ืืืขืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืกืืฃ
ืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืขืช, ืืืกืืื, ืืืงืืจ ืืืจ. ืืื ื ืืืขืช, ืงืืื ืื, ืื ืืืืื
ืืืกืืกืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืืืืกืื ืืืจืชืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืื
ืืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืขื
ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืืคืืื, ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืืช
ืืกืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืขืฉืืื ืืืชืขืืจืจ ืืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื
ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ื ืืชื ืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืกืช ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืจืื. ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื
ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืชืืช, ืืืฉื, ืืืื ืฉืื ืืคืขืื ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืจืืช. ืืฉืืืชื, ืืืืื ืฉื
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืชืืช, ืืืชืืืืกืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืืื ืืื, ืืื ื ื ืชืคืกืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืื
ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช. ืคืฉืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื, ืฉืืจื ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช,
ืืืคืืื ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืคืขืืช ืืกืืืืช, ืืืืืฆื ืืื.
ืืฉืืข, ืืืืืืงืช ืฉืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืื ื ืืฉืชืจืขืช ืจืง
ืขื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื,
ืืชืืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืงืืจื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืชื.
42. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืชื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช
ืจืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืงืคื ืืฉืจ ืืืื, ืืฉื ืฉื ื ืืขืืื
ืขืืงืจืืื: ืืืื ื ืืืข ืืกืืื ืืืฉื ื ื ืืืข ืืชืืฆืื.
ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืกืืืจ, ืงืืื ืื, ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื
ืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืื ืืงืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. "ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื" ืืื ืืืืจ
(ืืคืืกืงื 8), "ืืื ื ืจืืืื". ืืืืืข? ืขืืงืจ ืืขืื ืืื ืื (ืืคืืกืงื 6):
"ืืืกืื ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื
ืืคืจื ืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืชืคืืกื
ืืืืงืจืืืช, ืืืขืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืจื ืืืกืืก ืืจืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชื. ืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืงืืืืื
ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจื ืืฉืืืื. ืืคืจื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืชืคืืกื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื
ืืืืืื ืืืกืงื ื ืื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืจืืืงืื ืืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื
ืื".
ืืืื ืืื ืชืคืืกื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื? ืืื ืฆืืจื
ืืืืจ ืฉืงืืืืืช ืชืคืืกืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื: ืืืืืงืจืืื ืขืืืืช ืขื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืขืจืืืช;
ืืืืืงืจืืื ืคืืจืืืืช ืขื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืชืืช; ืืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืชืืช ืงืืืืืช ืชืคืืกืืช ืฉืื ืืช
ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื. ืืื ืืงืจืื ื ืืืืืงืช ืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืจืง ืืืืงืจืืื ืคืืจืืืืช,
ืืืกืชืคืงืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืกืืืช ืืฆืืืื, ืืืจืืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืงืงืช ืืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช, ืืื ืฉื ืื
ืืืืืช. ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืชืืช, ืฉืื ืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื
ืขืจืื ืืกืื, ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื, ืืืืจื ืืฉืจืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื. ืืชืื
ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืคืขื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืคืชื
ืืืชื ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืคื ื ืคืืืขื ืขื ืืื ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื. ืืืื, ืื ืืืกืืจืช ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื
ืืืืชืืช, ืืขื ืืืกืืก ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืขืืืื ืืคืฉืจืืืช ืชืคืืกืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืกืื
ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืื.
ืืคื ืชืคืืกืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง, "ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื
ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื... ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืืจื ืืฉืจ ืชืืื
ืืืืืืช ืืื" (ืคืืกืงื 3). ืืื, ืืืช ืืื ืชืคืืกื ืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืงืจืื ืืืืื ื
ืืืืงืืื ื. ืื, ืืฉืืืชื, ืืืช ืืื ืชืคืืกื ืืืงืืช. ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืจื
ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืื, ืืื ื, ืขืจื ืขืืืื. ืื ืื ืขืจื ืืืื. ืืืื ืืื
ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฆืจืืื, ื ืืืืช ืืฉืืืคืืช. ืืคืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืื
ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื. ื ืงืืื. ืืื, ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉืื ืืืขืื. ืื ืืื
ืจืง ืืื ืืชืคืงืืืื. ืืฉ ืืืืจ ืื, ืื ืฉืืื ืืืช, ืฉืชืคืงืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืื. ืื
ืืื. ืืขืื ืชืคืงืื ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืฆืืง ืืืจืชื. ืฆืืง ืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืขื
ืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืขื ืืฆืืง ืืืืจืชื. ืืกืืจ ืฉืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืฉื ืจืง ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืข. ืฆืจืื ืฉืื
ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืข, ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืืขืฉื ืืื ืจืง ืืืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืื ืชืคืงืื
ืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื. ืืื, ืืจืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืชืคืงืื ืืืืจื.
ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ื. ืืืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืกืืืข ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื - ืื;
ืืคืจืืง ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืขืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื - ืื. ืืืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืืื
ืืืชื ื ืฆืจืื ืืงืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช, ืื ืจืง ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืคื ืืื, ืืื ืื
ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืืช ืืื, ืืืขืชื ืืชืคืืกื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืงืจืืืช: ืืืืืืช
ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืช. ืืื, ืืื ืกืืืืจืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื, ืื ืืฉ ืืืืืืช
ืืืืกืื.
ืื ืื ื ืจืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช. ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช
ืืื ื ืขืืืื ืืืกืืืจืืช, ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืงืืืข ืืช ืชืืื ื, ืืฃ ืื ืืกืื ืืฉืคืื, ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืืชืืืื ืขื
ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืจืขืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืขืื ื,
ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื, ืื ืจืง ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืื
ืืืช ืืฆืืง ืืืืจืชื. ืืฆืืจื ืื, ืืื ืืืืจื ืืกืชืคืงืช ืืืงื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืื
ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืื ื ืคืฉ ืืืืืงืจืืื.
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืืช. ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื, ืืจืฉืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืฆืจืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืขื ืืื ืขืจืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืงืื
ืขืจืืื ืืื. ืืื ืขืืฉื ืืืช, ืืื ืกืคืง, ืืื ืืืชืืื. ืืขืืงืจ ืืื ืืคืชื ืืืืคื ืืช ืืืืืืช
ืืืื. ืืืื, ืื ืขื ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืขืืฉื ืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืื ืขืจืืื ืืืจืื? ืขืืงืจ ืืืืืฅ
ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืขืืืคืืืืช, ื ืืชื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืคืจืงืืืงื.
ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืจืืืจืืงื. ืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืจืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืกืืื ืืขืืืคืืืืช. ืืืื
ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืชืคืืกื ืื-ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื.
ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืชืคืืกื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ
ืกืืื ืืขืืืคืืืืช, ืืฆื ืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืื ืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืฆืืง ืืืืจืชื. ืชืคืืกื ืืืช
ืจืืื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืจ ืืืชืจ ืื ืืคืจืงืืืงื ืืืจืืืจืืงื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
43. ืืืขืชื, ืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ื ืืืขืช
ืืชืืืฉื ืฉื ืืชื, ืืืืื ืืคืืื ืขืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืืื ื, ืืคื ืชืคืืกื ืืืช,
ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืจื. ืืื, ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืคืขื: ืื ืื ืฉืืืื
ืืืืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืงืืืื ืืืื. ืืืื, ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื, ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืฉื
ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืชืืงืฃ ืืืื ืืืช ืขืืื ืืืื ืขื
ืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืขืืืื ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืจืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืฆืื ื ืืืืจื. ืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืื
ืืกืื ืืืฉ, ืื ืืื ืฆืื ืื ืืฉืืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืฉืื ืฉื ืคืืจื ืืืื.
ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื,
ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืช ืืืชืืื.
ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืืฉืชืงืคืช ืืขืฆื ืืืืืืจ ืขื ืฉืืืื. ืืื,
ืฉืืืื ืื ืืื. ืฉืืืื, ืืืงืจื ืืืื, ืชืงืื ืื ืืืจ. ืื ืขืืืื ืฉืืืื. ืืื ืคืืขื ืืืืืฅ.
ืืื ื, ืืืืจื, ืืคืืฃ ืื. ืืืฉืฉ ืืคื ื ื ืืช ืืจืืขื. ืืืงืฉ ืฉืื ืืคืจืืข ืื. ืืืคืฉ ืืจืืื ืืจืกื
ืืืชื.
ืื ืืืืืื ืงืืืข. ืืชืคืืกื ืืื ืืงืืืขืช. ืืืืืื ืจืง
ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืชืคืืกื. ืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืืฃ ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืงืื ืื ื ืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื, ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืช, ืื ืื ืชืืืืฃ ืื ืืชืคืืกื.
44. ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืืื ื ืืงืืืืช ืขืื. ืื ื ืจืืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืช
ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืชืคืืช. ืืืืื, ืื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืฃ ืื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืืก ืืฉืคืื,
ืืื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืจืขืืื ืืช, ืฉืชืืื ืืืงืื ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืืื.
ืืืืื ื, ืืคื ืชืคืืกื ืืืช, ืืื ืืคืขื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉื ืื
ืืืืจืืื. ืืฉ ืื ืืืืงืช ืชืคืงืืืื. ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืคืืืื. ืืขืืืื
ืืฆืืืืจ ืืฉ ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื. ืชืคืงืื ืื ืืจืื ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืื ืืงื ื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืืื
ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืืช. ืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืื. ืขืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ื ืฉืืชืคืื.
ืชืคืืกืช ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืขืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช
ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื. ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืื ื ืืชืืฆื ืืืืืจืืช ืชืงืืคืชืืืช,
ืืื ืืืืจื ื ืืชื ืืคืื-ืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืช ืขื ืืื ื ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืฉืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉื
ืฉื ืื ืืืืืช, ืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช. ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืคืืจืืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ
ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืฃ ืฉื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืืื ื, ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืืคืขืื ืืืืฉืคืืข ืืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืจืง
ืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืชืจ ืคืืืืืืช ืืคืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื; ืืจืืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืชืืืขืฆืืช
ืืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืคืื ืืขืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืฅ ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื; ื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืืคืื ืืืื ืืคืขืืืืช
ืฉืืืคืช. ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืืื ืืืืช. ืฉืจืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฆืืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืฃ
ืืืืช ืขืฆืืื ืฉื ืชืงื ืืช, ืฉืืขืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืฉ ืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืงืื. ืื, ืืืืืื
ืืืืงืื, ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืืชืงืื ืชืงื ืืช ืืื ื ื ืืืืช ืืคืจืกื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืื ื
ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืื ืคืืืื ืืคื ื ืืชื ืชืืงืฃ ืืชืงื ืืช. ืืฉ ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืืื. ืื
ื ืืื ืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคืืช. ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืงืืืช ืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื
ืืืชืจ. ืืื ื ืืชื ืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืขืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืขื.
ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืข ืืขืฆืื
ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ืืื ื ืืขืืืืช ืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืจืื ืืืืจื. ืืืืจื ืืชืคืชื ืืืฉืื:
ื ืชืชื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืืช, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืืืข ืื. ืืื ืื
ืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคืืช.
45. ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืฉืคืืขื ืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืขืฆื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื
ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื. ืืื ืคืืขื ืืืขืื ืืืืขื ื. ืื ืื ื ืฉืืชืคืื, ืืขืื ืชืคืงืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืื ื.
ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืืืืื ืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืคื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืื ืื ืืชืงืื
ืขื ืืืขืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืืืช ืขืื ืืืคื ืืขืืื, ืฉืื, ื ืื ืืืืืืืก ืื ืืื ืืื ืืช
(ืืืืช ืืื ืื ื ืงืจื ืื ืืฉื ืชืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืจ), ืืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืืช ืขืื (ืืฉื ืื ืื
ืืฉื ืืืจ) ืืืคื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืคืืขื ืืืขืื ืืืืขื ื. ืืืื ืืืืช ื ืืืขืช, ืืืืจ ืืืืื
ืืืืื, ืืืืกื ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ.
ืื ื ืงืืจื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืื
ืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืืืืช. ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืช ืจืื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืงืจืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื. ืืืืื ื ืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื. ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืช. ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืื
ืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืื. ืืืขืชื, ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืืจ ืงื ืืืืืจ, ืขื ืืืจื ืืืคื ืขืืื
ืืฆืืืืจ.
ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื
ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืื ืื, ืืื ื ืืชืืืืจืช ืืชืืจ ืืฆื ืงืืื. ืืื, ืืคืืขื, ืืืงืจืื ืจืืื ืืื ืชืื
ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืจืื ืืฉืคืืืช.
ืืื ืงืืืืช ืื ืืจืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืฆืืืืช. ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืคืืขื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืฃ-ืขื-ืคื ืื, ืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืฉื ืื, ืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืจืื
ืืฉืคืืืช. ืื ืืจืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืกืจ, ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืจืขื ืืกืืกืืืื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ื ืืจืฉืช
ื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื ืื ืืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื.
46. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืชื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช
ืจืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืื ืจืง ืืคื ื ืฉืืืขืชื ืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืจืขืืื ืืช,
ืืื ืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืฉ ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืขืฉืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืืจ (ืืคืืกืงื 13):
"ืืืกืืก ืืจืขืืื ื ืงืืืข ืืช ืืจืื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉื
ืืืกืืจ. ืืชืืืืจืื ืงืืืขืช ืืช ืืคืจืงืืืงื. ืขื ืคื ืืฉืงืคืชื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืขืืื ืืงื ื ืืื ืขื
ืชืคืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืจื... 'ืืืื ืืช' ืืื ืืืฉื ืืขืฉืื, ืืชืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื
ืฉื ืืืืืช, ืฉืขื ืคื ืืืืชื ืืื ื ืขืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืืื ื
ืืืืงืจืืืช".
ืืื, ืืฉ ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืชืืืืจืืืช. ืืืื
ืืชืจืืื ืฉื ืืชืคืืกื ืืชืืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืคืงื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืื ืืืื ืืชืคืืกื
ืืชืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืฉืืืฉื
ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืช
ืืฉืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืืื, ื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื ืืฃ ืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืจืง ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืืข ืื ืืชืคืืกื ืืชืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช.
ืืชืืืื ืืคืื. ืจืง ืืืืจ ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืงืื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ืขืฉืื ืืงืืืข ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช.
ืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืื. ืืคืกืง ืืื ืื ืงืืืข ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืงืืข ืืืื ืืืช ืขื ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื
ืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืขืืฉืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืงืืข ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ื ืืฆืืข ืืงืืืข ืื ืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืฆืคืื. ืืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืจืืื. ืืืงื ืขื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืื ืืงืืข ืื
ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืื ืืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืชืืืืจืืืช
ืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืกืืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืื
ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืงืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืืงื ืขื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื
ืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืงืจ, ืืื ืงืืืฆื, ืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืกืื
ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื.
47. ืืจืืจ ืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื
ืืืืจื ืชืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ืื
ืืฉื ืืื, ืืชืืื ืฉืื ื. ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื.
ืืืืืื, ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืคื ืฉืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืฉืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื. ืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืกืงื 25.
ืืืื, ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื, ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืืงืช ืืื
ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืื ื ืืื ื ืืชืืืืกืช ืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ื ืกืืืจ ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืช ืื ืื
ืฆืคืืืื ืืืืืงืช ืืื ืื ื. ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืื ืื ื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื, ืื ืกืืืืช
ืืกืืืืืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ื ืฆืืคื ืฉื ืกืืื ืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืจืื ืื
ืืฉ ืืงืื, ืื ืืื ืืงืื, ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืื ื ืืกืคืช, ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืช. ืืืืืืงืช ืืื ืื ื
ืืื ื ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืช, ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืชืคืืกื ืชืืืืจืืืช, ืื ืืฉ
ืืงืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืืื
ืืฉืจ ืืืื.
48. ืืืขืชื, ืื ืฆืคืื ื ืืง, ืืืฃ ืื ืกืืืื, ืืขืฆื ืืชืคืืกื
ืืชืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืคื,
ืืชืคืืกื ืืืช ืืืื ื ืชืืขืืช, ืขืืื ืืช ืืืขืฉืืช, ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื. ืืฉ ืื ืืกืจ ืจืืื. ืืืืื ืืช
ืืื ืืกืจ ืจืืื ืืื ืืงืฉืจ ืื ืืฉื. ืื (ืืืืืฉ ืฉื ืชืื ืื) ืืืชืืืืกืืช ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืื. ืื
ืื (ืืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื ืืช) ืืืชืืืืกืืช ืฉื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืคื ืืืืจื. ืืจืง ืืืชืืืืกืืช ืฉื
ืืืืจื ืื ืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืช? ืื ื, ืืืื ืืืืืจื, ืืงืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ื
ืืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืคื ืขืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ.
ืฉ ื ืค
ื
ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
:
ืืกืืื ืื ื ืืืกืงื ืชื ืฉื ืืืจื, ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืื
ืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืืืืช. ืืืกืื ืืกืงื ื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืคืจื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื
ืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืคื ืืืฉืืื ืืก' 1. ืื ืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช.
ืืฉืื ื ืืื ืขืืืืชืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืจื ืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืขื ืื ืื ื ืืืืง. ืืกืืืจ ืืงืฆืจื ืืช ืขืืืชื.
1. ืืงืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืื, ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืืคื ืืคืจื. ืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืกืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืื ืคืจื
ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืคืื ืงืฆืื ืฉืืืื ืืช (ืืงืืงืชืืช, ืืืฆืืขืืช, ืฉืืคืืืืช).
ืชืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืข ืืช ืืฆื ืฉืื ืื,
ืืืืื ืืืชื ื ืืืืงืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืืจืืช ืืืื ืฉืจืืจืืช. ืืืืื ื ืชืืงืฉ ืื ืืฆื ืขืงืจืื
ืืืื, ืืืื ื ืืืกืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช. ืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืช (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 840/79
ืืจืื
ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ' ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 729, 745). ืชืืืื ืื
ืืื ืื ืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืฉืจ ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืจื ืืืขืืื. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ
ืืขืงืจืื-ืขื, ืืฉืจ ืืชืืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช. ืืชืคืืกื ืืื ื ืื ืืขืงืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉื
ืขืฆืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืคืฆืืคืืืช ืฉืืืืจื ืืขืืจ. ืืืืื ืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืืื ืื
ื ืืฆืจื ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืขืืจ. ืืื, ืืืื - ืืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื
ืกืืืื ื (
Viscount Simonds
) -
"ืืืื ืืืชื" ืฉื ืืืืื ืืคืกืืงื (ืืคืจืฉืช
Scrutton
Ltd. v. Midland Silicones
[1962] 1 All E.R. 1, 7
),
ืืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืชืคืกืืช ืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืื, ืืื ื ื ืืืจืืช
ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืื ืชืคืกืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืื (ืืฉื ืื ืืืฉ), ืืื ื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช
ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืขื ืืื ื ื, ืืืืจื ืชืืืื ืืืืืช ืกืคืฆืืคืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืช
ืฉืืืขื ืืื ืืขืช ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื. ืืืืื ืืืกืง ืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืืื, ืืคืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืื ืืคืจื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืคืจื. ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืงืืืขืช ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืงืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื. ืื,
ืืืฉื, ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืฉืืืข ืืช ืืคืจื ืืืจื ืืืจืืข ืืขื ืืื ื, ืื ืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืืื
ืขื ืืื ืื. ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืงืืืขืช ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืจืืืืื (ืืืื, ืืืืื
ืืคืขืื ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืคืืื ืืฉืจืืจืืช, ืฉืื ืืืืจืืช ืืจืืช). ืืงืืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืช
(ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืืช) ืืขืืื ืืื ื ืกืืืจืืช, ืืขืืื ืืื ื ื ืืงืฉืืช ืืืขืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืงืืืช ืขื
ืืฉืืจืื (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 1635/90
ื'ืจื'ืืกืงื ื ' ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1)
749, 841).
2. ืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื
ืืคืจื? ืืชืฉืืื ืืื ื, ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืขืช ืืืชืคืืกื, ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืคืืขืืช ืขืืืจ
ืขืฆืื ืืื ืขืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช ื ืชืคืกืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืื ื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ,
ืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช. ืขืืืชื ืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืืช, ืืฆืืื ื:
"ืืืืื ื
ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืืขืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืืืื ืืืคืงื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืกืื
ืืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื... ืืขืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืืคืขืื
ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืืฉืจ, ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืชืื ืื. ืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืคืืืช, ืืคืขืื ืืชืื ืฉืจืืจืืช ืื
ืืืกืจ ืชืื ืื ืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื. ืขืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืืขื.
ืงืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืขืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืช" (ืื"ืฅ 840/79 ืื "ื, ืืขื' 745).
ืืื, ืืืฉืชื ื ืืื ื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื. ืขืืืชื ื ืืื ื
ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื, ืืืขื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืฉ ืื (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ
669/86
ืจืืืื ื ' ืืจืืจ
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 73, 78). ืขืื ืขื ืื ืืฉืืคื ื. ืืื,
ืืฆืืื ื:
"ืื
ืืจื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืืจื ืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจ, ืฉืื ืืชืื ืฉืื ืืื ืขืืฉื, ืืจืฆืืชื ืืขื ืืงื ืืืจืฆืืชื
ืืกืจืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืฆืจื ืื ืื ืืฉืจืช ืืช ืืืื, ืืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื: ืื
ืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืื ืืืคืงื ืืืืื ืื ืืื, ืืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืขื ืืื, ืื
ืฉืื ืืช ืื ืคืจืืืช ืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืื ื ืืืขืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืื ืื ืืืงื ื ืื ืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืจืื
ืืืจืืืช ืืงืืงืืช (ืื"ืฅ 142/70
ืฉืคืืจื ื ' ืืืืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื,
ืืจืืฉืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 325, 331).
ื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืืื, ืืืคืื, ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืื;
ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช (ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืืช), ืฉืืื ื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื
ืืื ืืจืก ืขืฆืื ืืื ืขื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืื (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 1635/90 ืื "ื,
ืืขื' 841, ืืื ืื"ืฅ 6163/92
ืืืืื ืืจื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื
, ืค"ื
ืื(2) 229, 258).
3. ืื ืืืืข ืื ื ืจืืืื ืืฉืืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื?
ืืชืฉืืื ืืื ื, ืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื. ืืืืืืช ืืื
ืืืขืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืงืืืืืช
ืืฉืืืื. ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืืจื ืืฉืจ ืชืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื. ืืืืื, ืืืืื
ืืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืขืชืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืื
ืืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืื ื ืืชืืคืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืคืืืข ืืืืืืืช
ืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ื ืืจืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืชืืคืืื ืืื ืื ืืคืืืขื
ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืชืืืืช ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืคืืืขื ืืื ื ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืืจืืฉื.
ืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืคืืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืฉืืืจืช ืขื ืืืืืืช
ืืืื. ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคืืืขื ืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืงืืจ ืืฉืืชืฃ (ืจืื ืข"ื 6821/93
ืื ืง
ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืข"ื ื ' ืืืื ืืคืจ ืฉืืชืืคื
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 221, 433). ืืืืจื
ืฉื ืืืฉื ืื, ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืฉืืืื ืืชืืจ ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืจืก
"ืคืจืื" ืืฉืื. ืืฉืืืื ืงืืื ืขืืืจ ืืคืจืืื. ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืงืืื ืขืืืจ
"ืขืฆืื". ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืก "ืขืฆืื" ืฉืืฉ ืืืื ืขืืื. ืขืืืื
ืืคืขืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืจืก ืืืื. ืืื, ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ ืจืฆืื ื - ืืฉืฉ ืฉืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืื
ืคืขื - ืื ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืชืื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืืฉื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืชืืฉื ืืขืืฆืื ืืจืื ืฉืืืขื ืงื ืืื,
ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืข. ืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืื
ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืขืฆืื; ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช
ืชืืคืขื ืืืืคื ืืืฉืจืช ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื.
4. ืืขืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืืช, ืงืืืขืื ืืช ืชืืื ื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืฉืื
"ืืื ืืจืก ืขืฆืื ืืฉืื", ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืก ืืืื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืื
ืืงืืืข "ืืืื ืืฉืืง" ืืื "ืืจืืืื". ืืื ืืื ืืงืืืข ืืืื ืืชื ืืืืช
ืฉื "ืืืืืื". ืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืื (
trustee
)
ืื ืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืืช, ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืง ืื ืืื ืืจืก "ืคืจืื" ืื
"ืขืฆืื". ืขืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืขื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืขื ืื ืฆืจืื ืืฉืืืื
ืืคืขืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืจ ืื; ืขืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืืขื; ืขืืื ืืคืขืื ืืชืื ืืืจื
ืืฉืืืืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื; ืขืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 135/75
ืกืื-ืืงืก
ืืข"ื ื ' ืฉืจ ืืืกืืจ ืืืชืขืฉืื
, ืค"ื ื(1) 673, 676); ืขืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืข
ืืฆืืืืจ (ืื"ืฅ 142/70 ืื "ื); ืขืืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืื; ืขืืื
ืืคืขืื ืืชืื ืืชืืงื ืฆืืืืจืืช (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 1601/90
ืฉืืื ื ' ืคืจืก
, ืค"ื
ืื(3) 353, 365); ืขืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืืื
ืขืืื.
5. ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื
ืคืจืืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืขืฆืื? ืืชืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื. ื ืงืืืช ืืืืฆื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื
ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช (ืืืืื ืืจืื) ืืืคื ืืืืชื. ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืคืจื,
ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืก ืื ืืืืืฉืืื. ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื ืืืจืฉ ืืืคืจื ืืืื ืืง ืืช ืืืื ืืจืก
ืืขืฆืื ืืืืขืืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืืืช (ืืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืง ืื ืืื ืืจืก
ืืืฉื ืืฉืื). ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื ืืืจืฉ ืืืืช ืืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉื
ืืคืจื ืืืจืฆืื ืืืืฉืืื. ืืืืื, ืืกืืจ ืื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืช. ืื ืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืื ื ืืืชืขืื
ืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืชื. "ืืืืช ืืกืืืืช" ืืขืื ืื (ืืืฉืื ื ืฉื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืื ืืข"ื 148/77
ืจืื ื ' ืืฉืืคื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 617, 635) ืื
ืืืืจื ืืืฉืคืื ื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืืฉืชื ืชื ืืชืคืืกื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืื.
ืืชืคืชืื ืืชืคืืกื ืื ืืื ืื ืจืืื, ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืคืจืืื ืืฉืจืืจ ืืขืงืจืื ืฉื "ืืืืจ
ืืงืื ื"; ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืคืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืจืฆืื ื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืชืืฉื ืืจืขืื,
ืขืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืข. ืืืจืืฉ ืืฆืืจื ืืืขืืืช ืืช ืจืฃ ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืื ืืืืกืืื
ืืืืืืื. ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืชืคืชืื ืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืกืืืืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืฉื ืฆืืง ืืืจืชื ืืฉืจ ืืืงืฉื
ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืฆืืคืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื (ืจืื ื. ืืืืื ืจ,
ืืจืืืช
ืืคืืจืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืขืจืืื
57 (1993)). ืืืช, ืื ื ืืจืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืจืืืืกืืืช
("ืืื ืืืื - ืืืื"). ืื ื ืืืชื ืืืฉืงืคื ืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืคืจื ืฉืื ืืืชืืฉื
ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืืชื ("ืืื ืืืื - ืืื"). ื ืชืงืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืื ืืคืจืืื ืฆืจืืืื
ืืืชื ืื ืืืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืื ืื ("ืืื ืืืื - ืืื"; ืจืื ืข"ื 207/79
ืจืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืช' ืืข"ื ื ' ืืืช ืืืืก ืืข"ื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 533,
543). ืืืืจื, ืืืคืื, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืงืจืืช ืืจืืชืช ืืืื
ืืืืืฆืืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื (ืกืขืืคืื 12, 39 ื61-(ื) ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง
ืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1973-). ืืืืจ ืืืืกืืจ ืขื ื ืืฆืื ืืจืขื ืฉื ืืืืช (ืจืื ืกืขืืฃ 14 ืืืืง
ืืืงืจืงืขืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1969-). ืืืืืช ืืื, ืขื ืื ืืฉืืืืชื, ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื
ืืืืืจืืืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืขืื ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉืื. ืื ื ืคื ื
ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฆื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืืขื ืืื ืืขืฆืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืืื
ืืืืืฉืืชื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืฆื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืฉื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉืืฉ ืื
ืืืฆื ืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืชื
ืืืฉืืชืคืช, ืชืื ืืกืืจืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉืขืืื ืื ืื ืขืื ืืื, ืืชืื ืขืงืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืฆืืคืืืชื
ืืืฉืืชืคืช (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 59/80
ืฉืืจืืชื ืชืืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืื ืืืจ-ืฉืืข ืืข"ื ื ' ืืืช
ืืืื ืืืจืฆื ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 828, 834). ืื ื ืื ืื, ืืืื,
ืืืฉืคื ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืกืื ืืื ืคืจืืื, ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืกืื ืขื
ืืคืจื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจืืื ืืืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื "ืงืื" ืืืชืจ
ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจื (ืจืื ืื"ืฅ 4422/92
ืขืคืจื ื '
ืืื ืื ืืงืจืงืขื ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(3) 853, 860). ืชืื ืืื ืื ืื, ืื ืงืืืช ืืืฆื,
ืฉืืคืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืขืฆืื. ืชืื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืชืืขืฉื ืืืืคื ืจืืื
ืืชืื ืืชืืฉืืืช ืืฆืืคืืืช ืืืืฆืืงืืช ืฉื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื. ืชืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืฆื
ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืขืฆืื. ืชืื ืืื ืืืืกืก ืขื
ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืฆื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืขืฆืื, ืื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืชืขืฉื
ืืืืฉืจ, ืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืชืจืืืชืืช (ืจืื ื"ื
22/82
ืืืช ืืืืก ืืข"ื ื ' ืจืืื ืืฉื ืืข"ื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 441,
485). ืชืื ืืื ืงืืืข, ืืืคืื, ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืื "ืืจืืืื". ืืขืืืช
ืืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืงืืืขืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืื "ืืืืืื". ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืื ื ืืฉืงืืคื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคืจื ืืขื "ืืจืืืื". ืืฉืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื
ืืฉืชืืื ืืคืจื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื - ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืกืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื
ืฉืืื ืืืคื ืฉืืื, ืืืจืงืืืจ ืืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืคืืืจืืคืืก ืืืคื ืื ืชืื ืืคืืงืืื - ืืื ืืืคืื
ืืืื "ืืืื" ืืืชืจ ืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื.
6. ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืกืื
ืขื ืืฉืืืื? ืืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืื, ืขืืื ื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืืื ืขื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืกืื
ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื. ืืคื ืฉืจืืื ื, ืืืกืื ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืฉื ืื
ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืชืคืืกื ืืืืงืจืืืช, ืืืขืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืจื ืืืกืืก ืืจืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชื. ืืขืืื
ืืื ืืื ื ืงืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจื ืืฉืืืื. ืืคืจื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืคืจื ืื ืื
ืืงืื ืืช ืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืชืคืืกืช ืืืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื. ืืคืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืืื.
ืืฉืืืื ืืกืืจ ืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืื (ืจืื ื. ืืงืฆืื,
ืชืืจืช ืืืฉืืจืื
128
(1963)). ืชืคืืกื ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืจื ืืจืฆืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืคืจื. ืชืคืืกื
ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืจืฆืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืื ืืฉืืืื ืคืืขื ืขืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ
ืืขืืืจ ืืืื. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืืจ, ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื, ืื ืืคืจื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืฉืืฉ
ืื, ืืืขื ืืืื ืืฉ ืื. ืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื. ืื ื ืื ืื, ืชืคืืกื
ืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืงื ื ืื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืจืืืงืื ืืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืงืจืืื
ืืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืื. ืืืจื, ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืฆืืื ืื ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช
ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช. ืืืื, ืฉืืืื ื ืืืจืชืืช ืื ืืื ืืืกืืง ืืช ืืกืงื ืชื. ืชืคืืกืช ืืืื ื
ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืขืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืฉืกืืืืชื ืืื ืืฉืจืช ืืช ืืืื, ืืืืคืฉืจ
ืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืขืืืช. ืืชืคืืกื ืื ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื
ืืคืจื. ืื ื ืืืจืช ืืื ื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
7. ืื ืืชืื ืื ืื ื ืืืข ืื ืืคืจื ืืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืช
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ื ืจืง ืืืืืืช ืืื. ืืืืงืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืื - ืืืืืช
ืืืคื ืืคืจืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื, ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืืชืคืื,
ืืขื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืืื. ืืฉืืืื ืคืืขื ืืืขื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืฉื ืื ืืฉ ืืืขื ืืง ืื ืืืืืืช
(ืืืืื ืืจืื) ืฉืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืืื. ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื
ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืช
ืืืขืืื ืืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืงืจืื. ืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืฆืืจื ืืงืื ืืช
ืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืื ืคืจื ืืคืจื. ืื ืืืืกืกืืช ืขื ืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืจืืืื ืืืืจื ืืช ืืขื ืกืืืืืจืืืช
ืืืจืชืืช. ืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ืฉืืขืืฆื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื, ืืืคืืื ืงืืื
ืืืืฉืืืชื, ืืืืจื, "ืคื ืืืจืชื" ืืื ื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืืจื ืืคื ืืื ืืืชืืฉื ืืืื. ืืื
ืื ืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืช ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืคืจื, ืืืืืชื ืืืง ืืืืืจื, ืืคืขืื ืืืขื ืืืื. ืื ืคืจื
ืืืืืื ืืื ืฆืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืคืจื. ืื ืืืช ืืฉ ืืืืืจ: ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืงืืจื ืืื ืฉืื ื; ืืืงืคื ืืื ืฉืื ื. ืงืืืื
ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืืื ื ืืืจืจ ืืืจืื - ืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืืืืื
ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืช - ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
8. ืืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืื
ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื? ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืกืกืืช ืขื ืชืคืืกืช
ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืขื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืงืจืื. ื ืงืืืืช ืืืืฆื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืจืืช
ืืคืจื, ืืื ืืืกื, ืืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืกื. ืืื ืฉื ื ืงืืืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืชื, ืฉืื
ืืฉืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืื ืขืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืฉ ืขื ืืืืช ืืคืจื. ืืชื ืื ืืืฆื
ืืช ืคืืจืงื ื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ื
ืืืืกืกืืช ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืื ืคืจื. ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืจืืืื. ืืืืข ืืืืจืื,
ืฉืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืคืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืชื ืืฉืื. ืื ืคืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื
ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืืืื ืื, ืืื ืฉืืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ืืืงื
ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืืชืจ, ืชืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืชืื ื ืืืชืจ. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืื
ืฉืืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืืง ืืืชืจ, ืชืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื
ืืืืจื ืืืชืจ. ืืชืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืงืฉืื, ืืื ืืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ืืืงื ืืืืื ืืจืก
ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืืง. ืืืฆืืื ืืื ื ืงืืขืช ื ืงืืืช ืืืืืื - ืืืื ื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืช ืืคืจื - ืขื ืคื
ืชืคืืกืืช ืืืชื ืืืจื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืคืจื ืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจ.
9. ืื ื ืื ืื, ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืื ืคืจื ืืฉืืืื
ืืื ื ืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืื ืืืืืช
ืกืคืืจืืืืช, ืืขืืืช ืชืื ืื ืืฉืชื ืื, ืืคื ืฉืืชืืงืฉ ืืชืื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืง - ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช. ืืืืืชืื
ืฉื ืืคืจื ืื "ื ืงืืืชืืืช". ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื
ื ืืคืืืช ืืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืคืจื ืืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืฆืืืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืื
ืืืืขืืช. ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืช ืืืืงืคื ืืืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืจืขืื
ืืคืจื. ืืื, ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืฉืคืจื ืืืชืงืฉืจ ืขื
ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืขื ืฉืืื ืืชืงืฉืจ ืขื ืคืจื ืืืจ. ืืื ืื
ืจืืื ืืืงื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืชืงืฉืจืืืืชืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืขื ืฉืืฉืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืคืขืืืืช
ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืฉืืช ืชืคืงืืืื. ืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืกืขืืคืื 12 ื39- ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง
ืืืื) ืขื ืื ืคืขืืื ืืฉืคืืืช (ืจืื ืกืขืืฃ 61(ื) ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื)) ืืืชืืฆืขืช ืขื ืืื
ืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื (ืจืื ื. ืฉืื,
ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืฉืจืื
59 (ืืชืฉื"ื)).
ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืงืคื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื. ืืขืชืื
ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืื, ืืขืชืื ืฆืจืื ืืคืจื ืืชืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืชื. ืื
ืืืช ืืฉ ืืืืืจ: ืืืืืช ืืคืจื - ืืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช - ืื ื ืงืืืชืืืช ืืืืืชื
ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืคืืื. ืื ืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืขืจื ืื ืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืจืก
ืฉื ืืืื. ืื ืืืืกืกืืช ืขื ื ืกืืืืชืื ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืชืื ืืืืงื ืื ื ืชืงืืืื
ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืืงืืจื ืืืื ืืืงืคื. ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ
ืืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืคืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืจื ืื ืืืกืื ืื-ืกืืจืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืื
"ืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืจื". ืกืืืืจืื ืืื
ืืื ื ืงืืืืช. ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื. ืืคืืืืกืืคืื
ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืืงืคื ืฉืื ื. ืืืช, ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจื ืื ืื-ืกืืจืืื,
ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืื. ืืฆืืง ืืฆืืื ืืืจื, ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืื ืืืืกืื
ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื "ืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืงื" (ืคืกืงื
23). ืืื ื"ืชื" ืื"ืงื" ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืคืืื. ืืคืจื ื ืืชื ืืืง
ืืืืจืืชื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืืจืืชื. ืฆืืืง ืืืจื ืืฆืืื ื, ืื "ืืืืจื
ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืกืจืืช ืื ืืขืฉืืช, ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืงืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืื
ืืื ืืืื ืืชืช ืืื ืืืื" (ืฉื). ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืข ืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืช
ืื ืืชืืื ื. ืื ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื
ืืืคืื. ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืื. ืืฉืืื ืื
ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื. ืืืจื ืืฆืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจื
ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช. ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืข ืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื
ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืคืจื. ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื
ืืคืจื. ืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ืื ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืขืืืืช ืืืืช
ืืคืจื. ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ื ืืืืืช (ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืช
ืืืืง). ืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืงืืืชืืช, ืืืฉืชื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืขื ืืื. ืืืืช ืืคืจื, ืื ืืืจืช ืืื ื ืืฃ ืืื
ื ืงืืืชืืช, ืืืื ืืฉืชื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืขื ืืื.
10. ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืคื ืืืฉืืืื 1 ื2-, ืืื ืื ืื ืืืงืคื ืืืื ืืงืืจืืชืื? ืชืฉืืืชื ืขื ืฉืืื ืื
ืืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืฉืืืื 1 ื2-. ืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื
ืืื ืืช ืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื 3 (ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื). ืืืื ืื - ืืืขืืื ืช
ืืชืงื ืืช - ืืืืืช ืืืขืชื ืืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืืงืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื. ืืืืข ืื ืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืข ืืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื ื. ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืก
ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืฉื ืืชื ืช ืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืก ืืืื ืืขืฉืืช
ืื, ืืื ืฉืืืงืชื ืืืงืจืงืขืื - ืืขืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืื - ืชืขืืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจื
ืขื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืก ืืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืจ. ืขื ืื,
ืืืืข ืขื ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืฉืืื ืืก' 3 (ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื) - ืืจืืืช ืืืืข ืขื
ืงืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืกืืื ืืื ืืื - ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืก' 1 ื2- (ืืืืก). ืืงืืจื ืฉื
ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื ืืคืจื (ืืขืืชืจืช). ืืขื ืงืช ืืจืฉืืื ืฆืจืืื
ืืืืขืฉืืช ืืืขืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืกืืก ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช ืจืืืื. ืื ื ืืขืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืช
ืืฉืืืื ืชืื ืจืืืื, ืืชืงืื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืฉืืฆืืืงื ืืช ืืขื ืงืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืื.
ืืฉื ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช ืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืกืืฃ ืืช ืื ืชืื ืื ืืขืืืืชืืื, ืืืขืจืืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืงืืืข ืขื ืคืื - ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ
ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืช - ืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช ืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช. ืื ืื ืืืื ืขื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืฃ ืืช ืื ืชืื ืื ืืืืขืจืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืขื ืืคืจื ืืกืืืข ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืืฉ ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช, ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืกืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืง ืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืื.
ืืคืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื, ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื, ืืื ืืืขืจืืช. ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืจ.
ืขื ืื ืจืืื ืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืขื ืคืจื - ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืืื - ืืืื
ืืืืืช ื ืชืื ืื ืขืืืืชืืื ืฉืื ืืืืชืืื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช ืขืืื ื ืกืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื.
ืืืืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ื ืชืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืืขืชื ืืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื
ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืจืฉืืื
ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื ื ืืจืฉืช ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืคืจื,
ืืืื ืื ืื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืฉืืฃ ื ืชืื ืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืื ืงืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืชื ืืืจ (ืืืื
ืืื ืืจืก ืจืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจ ืคืจืืืืช) ืืื ืืฉืืคืชื. ืืืกืืก ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืคืื:
ืจืืฉืืช
,
ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืชืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืื ืืืืจื ืืฉื
ืืืชื ืืืจืืช ืืืื - ืืืื ืืื ืืจืืืื - ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื, ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืฉื
ืืืชื ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืื - ืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืขืืื ื ืื ื ืืคืจื - ืชืืื ืืืืช
ืืืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืืจื ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืคืจื ืืืคื ืคืจื ืืืจื ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
ืชืื ืืื ืืื ืคืจืืื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืชืคืืกื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื. ืืื ืชืื ืื ืืื
"ืืจืืืื". ืืขืืืชื, ืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืืื ื
ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืคืืขืืช ืืืขื ืืืื, ืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืืืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ื ืจืฉืืื. ืืฉืื ื
ืื ืชืื ืื ืืืกืืกืืื ืืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืชืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืฆืืื, ืืจืฃ ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืข
ืืืืืช ืืืืืื.
ืฉื ืืช
, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจื
ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืื ืงืฉืจ ืืขืงืจืื ืชืื ืืื. ืื ืื ืื, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช. ืืืช ืืขืื: ืืื ื ืืืืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืช
ืืืืืื ืืื ืชืืื ืคืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืื. ืืื ืงืืืืช ืจืง ืืงืื ืื
ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืฆืืืง ืืืช. ืืื ืืื ื ืงืืืืช ืชืืื. ืื, ืืืฉื, ืืืฉืื ื ืชืื ื ืืืืช
ืืฉืชืืงื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืคืืืื. ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืข ืื, ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืืืข
ืื ืขืฉืื ืืืคืืืื. ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขืืื ืื ื ืขืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืื ืืขื ืืื ืื
ืืื ืื ื ืขืืกืงืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืฆืืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืจืืฉืื ืืคืจื ืืืงืฉ
ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืฉืื. ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืงืืื ืขืื, ืื ืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื
ืืืชื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืจืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื. ืืืืื, ืขืฉืืื
ืืืชืงืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืขืืชื, ืชืื ืืืืื ืืื
ืืขืจืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืื. ืืื, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืชืชืงืืื ืืกืืืื ืคืืื ืืช ืืื ืชืชืงืืื ืืกืืืื
ืืืืื ืืช.
11. ืืืืื, ืขืฉืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืจืฃ
ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ื ืืชื ืืืืจ, ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืขืืชื ืืช
ืืจืื ืืืืกืจืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืคืจื, ืืืจืฉื ืชืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื, ืื ืจืืื ืืื
ืืืขืืืช ืืช ืืจืื ืืืืกืจืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ื ืืชื ืืืืจ ืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืข ืืืฆื
ืฉืื ืืืกื ืืคืจื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืกื ืชืืจืืช, ืฉืื ืืคืจื ืจืฉืื ืื ืฆื ืื ืืขืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืืืชื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืจืื ืืคืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื. ืืงืืฆืื ืืืชื ืืื ืขืืืื
ืืืคืื ืืช ืืงืขืจื ืขื ืคืื, ืืืืคืื ืืช ืืคืจื ืื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืคืื ืืืืืงืจืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืช ืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืฆืจืืื
ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช. ืืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืื ื
ืืฉืืงืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจืืช ืืคืจื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืื.
12. ืืฉืื ืืฉืืื: ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืฉืชื ืื ืืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื
ืืืืจ? ืืจื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื
ืฉืืคื ืื ื? ืืื, ืืื ืืืืืงืช ืืื ืื ื ืืขื ืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื. ืืืืืืงืช ืืื ืขื ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืื. ืขืืืช ืืืจื ืืื ื, ืื ืืืื ืื
ื ืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืขืชื, ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช
ืืื ืืื ื ืงืืืืช, ืฉืื ืืคืจื ืืื ื ื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืื
ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืชืคืืกื, ืืคืื ืืคืขืื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื
ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจ ื ืชืื ืื ืขืืืืชืืื ืืืืชืืื ืขืืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช. ืืื, ืื ืกืืืืช
ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืฆืืืืืช ืืจืืื ื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืงืคื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืืฉืชื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืื ื
ืฉืงืืื ืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืขืฉืืืืช ืืจืืื ื ืืืืคืจื.
13. ืืืขื ืืืืขื: ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืขืืืชื, ืกืื ืื ืืจืืื? ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืชื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจื? ืืจื ืื ืืืจื, ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืกืืืจ ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื
ืืจืฉืืช ืขืฉืืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืืืืข, ืืืคืื, ืื ื ืืืฅ ืืช ืืืฉืชื ืชืื
ืฉืชืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืขืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืืฉ, ืชืืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืื
ืืืื ืืืชืงืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืฉืชื? ืชืฉืืืชื ืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืืขืืื:
ืจืืฉืืช
,
ืืืกืืก ืืขืืื ื ืฉื ืืืกืืจ ืืืฉืคืื ืืฉืื ืืงืืืขืช ืชืืื ื ืืืืืืืชืื. ืืืกืืก ืืขืืื ื ืงืืืข ืืช
ืืจืื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืืืกืืจ. ืืชืืืืจืื ืงืืืขืช ืืช ืืคืจืงืืืงื. ืขื ืคื ืืฉืงืคืชื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื
ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืขืืื
ืืงื ื ืืื ืขื ืชืคืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืคืจื ืืืืจื. ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืงืืข ื ืงืืืชืืช
ืขื ืคื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืงืจื, ืชืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืื. ืืืงืคื ืฉื
ืืืืื ืืชืืื ื ืืฉืชื ื ืืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืืืื ืฉืขืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืช - ืื ืืืจ ืืขืงืจืื ืื ืืื ืืช -
ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื;
ืฉื ืืช
, ืืืืื ืขืืฆืื ืืฉืืื. ืืฉ ืืื ืืืืช
ืืฉื ืขืฆืื. "ืืืื ืืช" ืืื ืืืฉื ืืขืฉืื, ืืชืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื
ืืืืืช, ืฉืขื ืคื ืืืืชื ืืื ื ืขืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืืงืจืืืช. ืงืืื
ืืฉืฉ, ืื ืื ื ืขืืื ืืขืชืื ืืคื ื ืืืขืื ืื ืืืื ืคืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื,
ืืฉืืื ืืฉืจ ืชืืฉืื ืชืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ืืชืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืคืื
ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืืชื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืฉืชืงืืข ืืช ื ืงืืืืช ืืืชืืืืกืืช. ืืขืืืช ืืืช,
ืืืขืชื, ืืฉืืื ืฉืจืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืื ื. ืืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืจืืช
ืืคืจื ืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืื, ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืื. ืฉืชื ืฉืืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืื, ืืจืืื ืฉืื
ืืืืืืฃ ืืื ืืื;
ืฉืืืฉืืช
, ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืืื ืื ื ืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืืจ
"ืืืื ืืช" - ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืืช ืขื ืคืื - ืืืืื ืืคืื: ืคืขื ืืชืืืืจ ืืืืืช
ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืคืขื ืืชืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืงืฉืจ ืืืขืื
ืื ืืื ืืช. ืืฆืืง ืฆืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืื:
"ืืืืืช
ืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืื ื. ืืื, ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ื ืืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืื ืคืจืืช, ืจืืื
ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืื" (ืคืกืงื 20).
ืขื ืคื ืืืฉื ืื ืขืฆืื, ืืื ืื ืจืฆืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืช
ืืชืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืคืจื ืืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืืช
ืฉืืงืืจื ืฉืื ื, ืืืงืคื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉืื ื. ืื ืขืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืขื ืืื ืื
ืืกืืืืืื - ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืขืชืืจื ืื - ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืฉืืืฉ
ืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืื.
14. ืืชืื ืืชืื: ืืื "ืืืืช" ื ืืชื ืืืืจ ืื
ืืคืจื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื? ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืช
ืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื? ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืืืช,
ืืืืืื ืฉืืคืจื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื (ืืืืคื ืืคืจืืื ืืืืจืื). ืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืช
ืืื ื ืื ืืืคืืื ืฉื ืืชืจืืืช. ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืืจืืืืื. ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืืืงืืืื. ืืื
ืงืืืข ืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช. ืืื "ืงืื" ืืืคืขืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื.
ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจื - ืื ืืืจืื ืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืื - ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืืื ืืช ืจืื
ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืื. ืื ืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืช ืืืชืคืืกื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืจืก
ืขืฆืื, ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืฉืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืื ืืืื (ืื ืื ืืื) ืืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืจืง ืขื ืืื - ืืืื, ืื ืืื, ืืฉืืื, ืืืืจืงืืืจ, ืืืคืืืจืืคืืก - ืืืฆืืืื
ืืืขืื ืฉื ื ืืื ืืช. ืขื ืื ืืื ื ื ืืืจืกืื ืื ืคืจื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช (ืืืืืืงืืืืืช) ืืคืจื
ืืืจ. ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื (ืืืืืจ ืืืืง ืืืืืื) ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช.
ืืืื ืชืคืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช.
ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจืคืชื ืืืกืงื ืชื ืฉื ืืืจื, ืื ืื
ืืฆืืจืคืชื ืืื ืืงืชื.
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
:
ืกืืื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืกืืื ื ืืื ืื ื ืืฉืืืฉื
ืื ืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื, ืืื ืคืกืงื ื ืืืื ื. ืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืขื ื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืื ืืืชื ืืฆืจ
ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืขืชื ืืืืขื ืขืช ืื ื ืฆืืืข - ืื ืืื ืืืืชื ื - ืขื ืืืชื
ืืงืืืืช, ืื ื ืชืืื ืืช ืืจืืื ื ืื ืืฆืจื ื ืืืฉืืชืคืช.
2. ืืืืช-ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืช ืืคื ื ืืื
ืืืืคืง-ืื-ืืืคืง. ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืคื ืื ื ืืืื ืคื ืืจืื ืจืื-ืืจืืขื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืขื ืชืื-ืื, ืขื
ืืืืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืื, ืขื ืืืกื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื-ืืืื-ืขืฆืื ืืขื ืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืขื
ืืืืืื ืืขื ืื-ืฉืืื ื-ืืืืืื, ืขื ืืื ื ืืืจืชืืช ืืขื ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ื, ืขื ืฉื ื ืืื ืืืงืฉืชื
ืืืืจ ืืืจืื: ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืขื ืืขืืื ืืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช
ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืคืชื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืจืื.
ืืืืืงื ืืขืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืช
3. ืฉื ื ืืืจืื, ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื, ืืฆืืืื ืืคื ืื ื
ืฉืชื ืชืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืื-ืืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืืช ืื-ืืช-ืื ืืฉืืจืืืช ืื-ืืื. ืืืจื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืืื-ืขืืฃ ืื-ืขืืจ ืขืงืจืื ืืช ื ืขืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืื-ืื - ืืืืื ืืื
ืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืกืืืืืชื - ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืขืืื-ืืฉ ืืขืืื-ืขื ื ืืคื ื ืืืื ื,
ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืฆืื ืืืจื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืชืืจื-ืืจืื ืขืืื ืึดืชึฐืึถื ืืืืื ืืืื. ืืฉืคืชื ื - ืฉืคืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉื-ืืืฉืคื - ืืืืจ ืืื, ืื
ืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืืืื - ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืงืจืื - ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืจื ืืืืืช-ืืืฉื ื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืช
ืืืคืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืกืคืจืื ืขื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื.
ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืฉืืคื ืืื
ืฆืื ื ืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืืคืืก ืืจืื ืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช-ืืกืื -
ืืจืืฉื ืืืื ืืช - ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืกืืืจ
ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืื "ื ืงืืืชืืืช"
ื"ืกืคืืจืืืืช", ืืื ืชืืื ื ืืฉืชื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืขื ืืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื
ื ืืืจืืช, ืืืขืช ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืขืจืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช
ืืืืฉืืื-ืืฆืืืื; ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืกืื-ืืืฆืจ ืขืืงืจื - ืื ืชืจืฆื ืืื
ืืื ืืกืื-ืืืขืืื-ืืื - ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืื.
4. ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื, ืฉื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืชืืืื-ืืขืื.
ืขื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืชึทื ืจืฉืืื ืืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืื ืฉืืืช
ืืื: ืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืคื ื ืืฉืืืื - ืืืืืืชื - ืืืืข ืขืืืืชื ืจืืืื ืื
ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื? ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืกืืืจ ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื, ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืื ื ืืืืช-ืืืฉื ื ืืืฉืืคืช ืืืชื ืืืืข. ื ืืข ืืืื, ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื
ืืืฉืืคืช ืืืืข ืืคื ื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช-ืึธืึตื ืืจืืฉื, ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืฉืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืฃ-ืืื ืืืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืืืช-ืืืืื ืื;
ืืืืฉืื ื: "ืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืจืืืื ืืืืช
ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื". ืืืืงืื ืืืจ: "... ืขื ืืคืจื ืืกืืืข ืืจืฉืืช
ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช, ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืกืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืง ืื ืจืฉืืื
ืื ืืื". ืืฉืจ ืืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืฃ ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื, ืื ืฉื ืื ื ืื ืฉืื
ืืจืง: "ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืชืคืืกื, ืืคืื ืืคืขืื ืจืืืื ืฉื
ืกืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจ ื ืชืื ืื ืขืืืืชืืื ืืืืชืืื
ืขืืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช".
5. ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืืขืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืขืกืืง
ืขืฆืื ืืขืืงืจื-ืืกืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื - ืงืจื: ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืืื
ืื, ืืืขืชื, ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืกืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืื
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืคื - ืืขื ืืื ื ื:
ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื - ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืชืืจืช ืฉืืื, ืืฉืืฉืช ืื ืืกืื-ืืืฆืจ. ืืฉืจ
ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื ื ืืืจ, ืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืฆืื ืืช ืจืืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืื: ืขื
ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืคืืจืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื, ืขื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื
ืืกืคืง ืืฉืืืื ืืืืข ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืื (ืืฉืืืื) ืืฉืงืื ืืืขืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืข ืืคื ืฉืืฆืคืื ืื ื
ืืื ื ืื ืืืจืืข. ืืื ืืงืื, ืืขืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืื ื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
6. ืืกืืืื: ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืก ืืช ืืกืื
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืืืฆืจ ืขืืงืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืื ืื, ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื
ืืจืง ืฉืืื ืชืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืืขืชื ื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช
ืืขืฆืื, ืชืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืช ืืขืชื ื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืืชื
ืืื ืืจืกืื ("ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืื").
7. ืืืขืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ
ืืืงืฉ ืืืืจืืง
ืืกืื-ืชืืื ื
- ืงึฐืจึธื: ืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช - ืืชืืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื
ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืืืขืชื ืจืืื ืืื ืืกืื-ืชืืื ื ืื ืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื ืืขื ืงืืืขืช
ืชืืื-ืืชืคืจืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืฉืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืกืื-ืชืืื ื ืื ืืืืชื
ืืงืฉืจ, ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืืช-ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืืืช ืขืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื (ืืืขื ืืื ื ื - ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื).
ืืืืืจื, ืจืืืงืื ืื ืืืจืื ืื-ืืื, ืืื ืื-ืืืงืจื
ืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืชื ืื ืืืชื ืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืื ืื ืชืฆืืืืื ื ืื-ืขื-ืื. ืืฉื ืฉืึตืึถื
ืขื ืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืขืจื ืืืื ืฉืืคืืืฉ ืึตืึถื ืขื ืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจืื, ืื
ืืืืจ ืคืืืฉื ืืืคืืจื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืฉ-ืืืฉ ืืืจืื, ืื ื ืคืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืจืงืข-ืงื, ืืืฆื ืื ืืฉืืื
ืืืืฉืืื, ืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืจืื, ืื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืืจื ืื ืื ืคื ื ืืืืจืื. ืืฉืื ื
ืืขืฆืื, ืืื ื ื ืืฉืืื ืข ืื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืคื ืืื. ืืืื ื ืืงืจืื ืชืืืื ื, ืื ืืืื ืขืื, ืื
ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืื, ืืขืืงืจื, ืืืื ืืจืืืืจืืงื. ืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืขืืืืจ ืฉืืืื
ืืืชื ืื ืืฆืจ ืืืช.
8. ืจืืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืืจ, ืื ืืืจืื ืืืฆืจืื, ืื ืืื ืืื
ืืขืฆืื, ืืืืืื ืืขืฉืืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉืชืืืืื ืืืืกืืจืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ
ืขื ืืื ื ืืื ื
ืืืื ืชืืื ื
ืืงืืืขืช ืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื. ืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืื
ืืื-ืจืืฉื ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืกืืื ืขืืงืจ ืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืื-ืืืฆืจ
ืขืืงืจื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืื-ืืขืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื ืืชืืื ื,
ืืฆืื ืืื ืืคื ืื ื
ืืืื ืืืื ื
(ืกืืจืืงืืืจืื). ืืืืฉืื ื: "ืืืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืงืืข ื ืงืืืชืืช ืขื-ืคื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืงืจื, ืชืื ืืืืื ืืื
ืืขืจืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืื. ืืืงืคื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืืื ื ืืฉืชื ื ืืืงืจื ืืืงืจื, ืืืื ืฉืขืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืช -
ืื ืืืจ ืืขืงืจืื ืื ืืื ืืช - ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื" (ืืคืืกืงื 13
ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื). ืืชืื ืฉืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืงืืืข ืืช
ืชืืื ื
ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื - ืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืงืืืข ืืช
ืืืื ืืงื
ืืงืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช - ืืืืื ืืื
ืืื ืฉืืื (ืืืฉืงืคืชื) ืืคืฉืจืืช ืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืืื ืืช - ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืจืื - ืึดืืึธืกึตื ืืขืืชืื
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืงืืืขืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ื, ืืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
ื '
ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช
(ืื"ืฅ 727/88, ืค"ื ืื(4) 487,
492), ืืืฆืืื ืื ื ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื, ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช, "ืืืืช ืชืื
ืื ืืืืื ืืช" ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืจืื ืขืื ืืืื, ืคืืกืงื 28 ืืืืื. ืืืจืืง ืืื ืืืจืื
ืืื ื ืื ืจื, ืืืคืื, ืืคื ืฉืขืฉืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืจืืฉืื.
9. ืืขืื. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืชื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืื-ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ. ืืชื ืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืฉื "ืืืื ืืช"
ืืืฉืจ-ืืื. ืขื ืื ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืื "ืืืืืื ืขืืฆืื ืืฉืืื. ืืฉ ืืื ืืืืช
ืืฉื ืขืฆืื. 'ืืืื ืืช' ืืื ืืืฉื ืืขืฉืื, ืืชืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืืช, ืฉืขื-ืคื
ืืืืชื ืืื ื ืขืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืงืจืืืช..." (ืืคืืกืงื
13 ืืคืกืง-ืืืื). ืืงืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืขืื. ืื ืื ื
ืกืืจืชื ืืขืืจ - ืืกืืืจ ืื ื ืืฃ ืืืื - ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืขืื-ืืืื, ืืจืืื ืื ื
ืื ื ืจืืง ืื ืืืืืื ืืื-ืฉื ืืื. ืืืขื ืื, ืืื ืฉืืจ ืืขืืื, ืืชื ืืืชื ืืื-ืชืืงืฃ ืืฉืืืืฉ
ืืืืืื "ืืืืคืืื ืืืืงืชืืช" ืืชืืืืจ ืืืฉืงืื ืืืฆืืืจ ืฉื ืืืง-ืืกืื: ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืจืืชื ืืฉื ืืืง-ืืกืื: ืืืคืฉ ืืขืืกืืง. ืืคืจืฉืช
ืื ืง ืืืืจืื
(ืข"ื 6821/93,
1908/94, 3363/94
ืื ืง ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืข"ื ืืื
' ื '
ืืืื ืืคืจ ืฉืืชืืคื
ืืื'
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 221), ืืืจืชื ืืืจืื ืืื ืขื ืฆืืจืืฃ ืืชืืืืช "ืืืืคืืื
ืืืืงืชืืช" (ืืขื' 567, ืคืืกืงื 135):
"ืืชืืืืช
'ืืืคืื' ืงืฉื ืืขืื ืื. ืืื ืืืืจื ืื ื ืชืืืื 'ืฉืื ืื' ืืืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื - ืืื ืื
ืื? ืืืืืจ ืื ื ืืืจืื ืืื, ืืฉืื ืฉืชืืืืืช - ืืฉืื ืืขืฆืื - ืืฉ ืืื, ืืขืชืื, ืืื ืืืืืช
ืืกื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืขืฆืื. ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืื ืื ืืืจื ื ืื ืืฉ ืืื
ืืืืงื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืจืื - ืืืื ืื ื ืืืจ -
ืื ื ืืืืฉื 'ืืืคืื ืืืงืชืืช' ืืฉ ืื ืืจืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืฉืื ืื. ืืฉ ืื ืื ืื ืืื
ืืืืืื ืืชืจ ืขื ืืจืืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืกืืคื ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืจืข ืืื
ืื ืืขืช ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืืจ, ืื"ื. ืืื ืจืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืงื?"
ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืื ืื ื ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืื ืืืื-ืคื ื ืืฆืืจ ืืืฉืืช ืื ืืฉืืช ืืช
ืขืฆืื. ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืฉื ื, ืืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืฆืืืจ ืืงืื-ืจื, ืื ืืืืจื ื ืืืืืช-ืืืืื ืืช
ืฉืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืชื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืงืืจืื ื ืืื ืืืช, ืืืฆืจืช ืืืคืจื. ืื
ืื ืจืฆืื ื ื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืจืืื ืืืจืฆืื ืืืืกื-ืื ืืฉ. ืื ืื ื ืขืฉื, ื ืืข ืื ื
ืืืืืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืจื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืื
ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืขืืงืจืื ืืืืชื, ืื ืืืคืจื. ืขื
ืขืืงืจืื ืื - ืขืืื ืืื ืขื ืื-ืืืืชื - ืขืืื ื ืืฉืืจืืช.
10. ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื: ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืฆืจ ืขืืงืจืื
ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืงืจืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืชื ืื
ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืขืืงืจืื ืืืื ืื, ืื ืื-ืืขืช ืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืงืืืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื
ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืช.
ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
11. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืชืืืข ืื ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืขืชื ื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช ืฉืืืกืื ืงืืืื
ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืื ื ืืขืืฉื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืชื ืืขืฉื ืืฆืืจื:
"ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืกืจืืช ืื ืืขืฉืืช, ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืงืื ืื
ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืช ืืื ืืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืคื
ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืื ืชืืฆืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื
ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืฉ ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื" (ืืคืืกืงื 29 ืืืืืช-ืืืขืช).
ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืฆืืื
ืืื ืฉื ืืืจื? ืืืฆื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืืื ืืื? ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืงืืืข
ืืืจื. ืื ืืืจ ืื ื ืื ืื ืื ืืื? ืื ืืืจ ืื ืจืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช -
ืื: ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช - ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื? ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืฆืื ืืืืช-ืืฉืคื? ืืืื ื ืืจืืืช
ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืืืืช ื ืงืืข ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื? ืืื, ืืจืืฉืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืฆืืืืช
ืืช ืื ืคืฉ. ืืจืง ืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืึธืคึถื ืืชืงืืืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืื ื.
ืืืืืจื, ืืืคืื, ืืฆืืืื ืื ื ืืืขืื-ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืคืืืื ืื ื ืืืกืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจื, ืฉืื
ื ืืืฉื ืคืืจืฆื-ืืืจ ืืคืืจืขื-ืกืืจ-ืจืืื. ืืืื ืืืช ืืชืงืฉื ืืืกืืื.
12. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืืืืื
ืื ื ืืืชื ืขื-ืคื ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื-ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื. ืืฉืจ ืืืืกืืื
ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื-ืืืืจื, ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืกื-ืื ืืฉ. ืจืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช, ืขืืงืจ
ืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืื: "ืืขืื ืกื ื - ืืืืจื ืื ืชืขืืื" (ืืกืืช ืฉืืช, ืืฃ
ืื, ืขืืื ื'): ืื ืฉืฉื ืื ืขืืื ืื ืชืขืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจ: "ืื ืื ืืชืืจื
ืืืื, ืืืืื ืคืืจืืฉื ืืื - ืืื ืืืืจ (ืื ืืื)". ืืื ืื, ืืืืื, ืืจืื ืื ืืืื
ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืงื ืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืื ืื ื - ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืขืชื -
ื ืกืคืง ืขืฆืื ื ืื. ืื ืืืืื ืืืื. ืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืชืืืฆื ืื ื ืืขืืงืจ ืฉื
"ืืืืืช ืืจืขื ืืืื" (ืืืงืจื ืื, ืื), ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ื. ืจืื ืื ืืืืื
ืืงืืืืชื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืจืื ืขื ืืืืื - ืืืืืช ืื-ืชืขืฉื -
ืืื ืืืกืืคื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืช ืขืฉื. ืจืื ืืืืื ืืื - ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื - ืชืืืฆื
ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจื ืืืชื ื: "ืืื ืคืจืึนืก ืืจืขื ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืชืืื ืืืช, ืื ืชืจืื
ืขืจืื ืืืืกืืชื ืืืืฉืจื ืื ืชืชืขืื" (ืืฉืขืืื ื ื, ื). ืื ืืืขืื ืื ืขืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื
ืืืืกื. ืืืืืืจื ืื ืคืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืื - ืื ืคืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจืืช - ืขื ืืืกืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื,
ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื (ืืืื ื, ื).
"ืืืื
ืื ืืื ืื ืืื
ืืื
ื' ืืืจืฉ ืืื
ืื
ืื
ืขืฉืืช
ืืฉืคื
ืืืืืช
ืืกื
ืืืฆื ืข
ืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื"
"ืขืฉืืช ืืฉืคื" ืืื, ืืขืืงืจื, "ืืขืื ืกื ื"
ืืืขื ื"ืืืืืช": ืจืื ืืืฆืืืช ืื ืชืขืฉื ืืืืขืื ืืืฆืืืช ืขืฉื. "ืืืืช
ืืกื" ืืื ืืืขืื ืืฆืจืืคื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืชืจืฆื: ืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืจ
ืขื "ืืืฆื ืข".
13. ืืืฉืคื ืืืขืืื ืืื, ืืขืืงืจื, ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืกืืื ืฉื
ืืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืจื ืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืื
ืืฆืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืกื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืจืืืื ืืฃ-ืื,
ืืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืื ืืฃ ืืืืจืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืชืื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืืื
ืืืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืงืืข ืื ืจืื ืจืืื ืืขืื ืื ืืืกืืจื ืืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื, ืืขื ืงืืข ืื ืืืื ืืื
ืจืฉืช ืฉื ื ืืจืืืช-ืืฉืคื.
ืืชืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืฆืื ื ื ืื ืขืื ืื ื,
ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืขืฆืื, ืืขืืงืจื, ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื (ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื "ืื
ืชืขืฉื"): ืื ืชืจืฆื, ืื ืชืื ืื, ืื ืชืขื ื ืืจืขื ืขื ืฉืงืจ, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืช
(ืฉืืืช ืื, ืื), ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืช (ืฉื, ืฉื, ืื). ืขืื ืขื-ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืื
(Lord Atkin)
ืืคืจืฉื ืืืืืขื ืฉื
Donoghue
v.
Stevenson
[1932] AC 562
, ืืืืืจื ืืืจืื
ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืคืื ืงืืืกืืงื (ืฉื, 580):
โThe rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law,
you must not injure your neighbour ; and the lawyerโs question, Who is my
neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid
acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure
your neighbour. Who, then, in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be -
persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought
reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am
directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question.โ
ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ื ืืื ืืืฉืคื, ืื ืื ืืคืขื ืืืฉืืจื. ืืื ืืช
ืืืื ืืืช ืืืื (ืืืฆืืืช ืขืฉื ืืจืืื ืืชืืื ืืชืคืจืฉืืชื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืื-ืชืขืฉื ืฉื ืื ืชืื ืืื
ืชืงืื), ืืืืจ ืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืงืืฉื (ืืืฆืืืช ืขืฉื ืืฆื ืืืฆืืืช ืื-ืชืขืฉื: ืื ืชืขืฉื ืื ืืืืื
ืืื'). ืืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฉืคื, ืืขืืงืจื, ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืขืฆืื ืื ืขื ืืืงืืข ืืกืืืื ืืืืกื-ืื ืืฉ ืืขืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืงืื
ืืืจืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืขืฆืื.
14. ืขื ืจืงืข ืื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืคืืื - ืื
ืืฆืืืจืื ืืืืงืื - ืืื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืฉ-ืืจืขืื.
ืืืื ื ืงืื ืชืืืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆื-ืืืืืืช. ืืื ืชืืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืืื
ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืขื-ืคื ืืจืื ืืื ืืืจืช ืืขืืงืจ-ืืืกืื ืืืืฉื ืชื. ืึผึฐืืึนืง,
ืึฒืฉืึนื ืืืืขืช. ืื ืืืืฆื ืื ื, ืืืื ืืืคืชืขืชื ื, ืื ืืืฉื ื"ืืืื ืืช" - ืืขืืื
ืืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช - ืืื ื ืืขืื "ืืืฉื-ืืืกืืจืช", ืืืฉื ืฉืชืื ืื ืืฉืชื ืื ืขื-ืคื
ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืชื, ืขื-ืคื ืืขืืื ืืกืืื ืืืชื, ืขื-ืคื ืืขืืื ืื ืืื ืื. ืื ืืจื
"ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืจื "ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืจื
"ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจื "ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื.
"ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืฉื ื, ืืืฉื, ืืืืืช ืืช ื"ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื,
ืื ืื ืืืืคื.
15. ืืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื. ืึผึถืึฑืืึนืจ ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืื
ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืชื? ืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืื ื
ืืื ืืืช, ืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืื ืฉืชืฉืชื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืขื ืืื, ืขื-ืคื ืื ืกืืืืช. ืืืืื ืื
ืืื ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ื ืืืชื ื ืกืืืืช ืฉืชืืืื ื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืื? ืืืืื
ืืืกืืจ ืชืคืงืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ื? ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืืฉื
ืืื ืฉืื ืื ื? ืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืื ืืข ืืืขืืื, ืืืจื ืื ืขืืงืจ. ืืืจื ื, ืื ืืืืจ:
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆื-ืืืืืืช - ืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืจ-ืืืฉืคื;
ืืืฉื, ืืืืกืืจ ืืืืกืจ - ืืขื-ืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืง: ืืืื ืืืงืืข ืืืืชื
ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืื-ืืืืืช - ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืจืื - ืืืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืืฉ ืขืืื ืืกืืช, ืืืืืกืืฃ
ืืืงืืืข ืกื ืงืฆืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืคืจืช ืืืืื? ืืืื ืืืงืืข ืฉื "ืืืื ืืช"
ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืคื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืงืืข ืืืชืืจ ืืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉื ื ืืจืืืช?
ื ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืจ: ืืืกืืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืื
ืฉืื ืืืืื ืคื ื ืืืจื ืืจืืื. ืืฉ ืฉืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืคื ื ืฉืืขืื ืืจืืื ืืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืขืืจืช
ืฉืืขืื ืขื ืืจื ืืงื ืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืฉืื ืืจืข. ืืืงืืข ืื ื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืฉ ืืกืืชื
ืขืืื. ืืืืื ืืฉ ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืคื ื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื, ืืืฃ-ืขื-ืคื ืฉืืขืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ
ืืืขืฉืื ืฉื ืจืืืื, ืืื-ืืืช ืื ืืงื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืขื ืืขืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืจ:
"ืืืืืื ืคื ื ืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืืง ืืขืืื ืืื" (ืืื ืืฆืืขื ื ื ืข"ื);
ืื - ืืื ืขืื. ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืื ืจืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืื ืืืืืืืื
(ืืกืืืจื); ืื ืจืืืื ืืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืื ืื; ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉื ืจืืืื ืืกื ืงืฆืื
ืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืื ืกื ืงืฆืื (ืืขืืื ืืื). ืืฉืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืื: ืืืื ืืืงืืข
ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื-ืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืคื ืืกื ืงืฆืื ืืฉืคืืืช - ืขื ืืจื ืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื
ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืคืืืช - ืืืืื ืืืงืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื-ืืืืืช ืืืชืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืืขืจืืืช
ื ืืจืืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืฉื: ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื, ืืชืจืืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืืืจืื-ืฉืื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืืจื
ืืืืืฆื ืืืื.
ืืืื ืื ืึถืฉึผึธืึตื ืืืจ ืืืืืจ: ืืื ืืืื ืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืชื, ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื? ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื
ืืืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืื? ืชืฉืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืชืืื, ืืืืืจื ืื-ืืฉืืขื: ืืื ืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช. ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืชื ื ืขืชื. ืืฉืืื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืื ื ืกืื ืขื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืขื-ืืจื-ืืกืชื. ืืฉืืื ืกืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืืืฉืคืืืช
ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื.
ืขื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืขื ื, ืื ืขื ืชืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืจืื.
16. ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื: ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
(ืืฉืคืืืช) ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืืฉืืื ืืขืฆืื - ืืื ื ืืื ืชืืืืช-ืฉืขื-ืงื ืงื, ืืกืืจืช
ืืฉืคืืืช-ืืืฉืืืช ืคืืจืืืืช. ืื ืขืื ืื ืืืขื ื ืื ืื ืืืืช-ืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืชื
"ืืืืช ื ืืื ืืช", ืื ืืฉืงื ื ืืฆืืง ืื-ืชืืื ืฉื ืงื ืงื, ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืืฆืืจืชื
ืฉื ืืืฉืงื, ืืื ืื ืืืจื ื ืืื-ืืืื. ื ืืืืง: ืืชืื ืฉืืืฆืจื ื ืื ืชืืืืช - ืชืืืืช ืืื ืชืืื
- ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื "ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืืช. ืฉืื
ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืืจ ืงืืืขืชื ืฉื ืื ืืกืื ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืืกืชืืจ ืื ื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืืืืงืื
ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ืื ืืื-ืืืื ืืช, ืืื-ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืจ ืขื
"ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช". ืืฉืื ืื ืคื ื ืืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืงืืื ืงืืืขืช
ืชืืื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืืื - ืงืืื ืงืืืขืช ืืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืืืชืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืืช - ื ืืืจ ืขื
ืงืืืื. ืื ื ืืืคืจ ืืืคืื - ืืื ืขืื - ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื, ืื-ืขืื ืื ืืืกืืคื ืืืืืืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืื, ืื ืืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืื, ืื
ืืืืจืื ืืขืฉื ืืืชื.
ืขื ืืืืื, ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืื ื
17. ืืฆืืขืื ืื ื ืืงืืืข ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืงืืข ืืขืช-ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืื ืืขืจืื-ืขืืืื
ืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืฆืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืชืืช
ืฉืืืกืื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ื ืืงืืืขืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืจืืืื ืื-ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืคืื ืืืขืฉื
ืืฆืืจื ืืื. ืืืื ืฉืืชืคืื-ืืืขืฉื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืจืขืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช, ืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ื
ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืขื ื
ืื-ืืืืจ, ืืขืชื ืืฆืืข ืืืจื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
18. ืกืขืืฃ 12 ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื),
ืืชืฉื"ื1973-, ืืืจื ืืืชื ื ืื "ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืงืจืืช ืืจืืชืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื
ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืืชืื ืื". ืืคืจืฉืช
ืจืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืช' ืืข"ื
ื '
ืืืช
ืืืืก
(ืข"ื 207/79, ืค"ื ืื(1) 533) ื ืืจืฉ ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืคืืจืืฉื ืฉื
ืืืจืืช-ืืืง ืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืืืจืืื ืคืจืืืื (ืงืจื: ืืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจ
ืืืจืืื ืขืืืื). ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืชื, ืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืฉื-ืืืชื
ืืื ืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืจืืชืชื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืืฆื ืืคืืจืฉ ืืืืง, ืืืฆื ืืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื.
ืืงืืฆืืจ: ืขื ืืืื ืืกืืื ื ืฆืื ืืช ืืืกื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืฉื-ืืืชื ืืกืืจื
ืฉืืื ืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืก (
Thomas Hobbes
)
ืงืืข ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืจื ืฉื "ืืื ืืืื - ืืื":
Homo Homini Lupus
. ืื-ืืขืช ืื ื ืฆืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืขื ืืกืืื ืฉื
"ืืื ืืืื - ืืืื (ืื ืืืื)"
Homo Homini
(
vel Angelus
)
Deus
.
ืืืกื ืื ื-ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื, ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืงืืข ืืืจื, ืื ืืขื ืขื ืคืกืื ืฉื "ืืื
ืืืื - ืืื":
Homo Homini - Homo
. ื ืกืืื, ืืืืื,
ืืืืจืื; ืืืฆื ื ืืื ืืืจืช? ืื ื ืกืืื ืืงืืืข ื ืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืื - ืืื (ืงืจื:
ืืื ืืืื - ืืื ืืืืฉ; ื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื
ืืืืืจื ืืืช). ืื-ืืขืช ืื ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืงืืืข ืื ืืื ืืืื - ืืืื (ืื ืืืื).
ืงืืืขืชื ืฉื ืจืืช-ืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืชืื ืจืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขื ืืงืืืข ื ืืจืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืื
ืืคืื. ืจืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืืฆืช ืืืจืืืื ืืื, ืืืคืื, ืื ืืื ืืืื - ืืื.
ืงืืขื ื, ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืื ืฉื
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืื: ืืื ืืืื - ืืื. ืืืืื ื ืืกืื ืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืช
ืืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืงื ืงื ืจืืง ืืขืืื ืชืืืืช. ืขืชื ืืืืจืื ืื ื ืืืฆืืง
ืืฉืงื ืื ืชืืื ืฉื ืงื ืงื, ืฉืื ืจืง ืื ื ืืข ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช. ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืื ื: ืื
ื ืืจืื
ื ืงืืข ืืืืกื ืื ื-ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฆืื? ืืืฆื
ืจืืื
ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืื? ืื
ืจืืช-ืืชื ืืืืช ื ืืจืืฉ ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืืคื ืจืขืื? ืื ืืื
ืชืืื ื
ืฉื ืืืชื
ืชืื-ืื ืืงืืืข ืืืืง? ืืืจื ื ืื ืชืื ืช-ืืืืฆื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืฉ ืืืคืื.
19. ืขื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืคื, ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืขื ืขื
ืืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืื. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืฉ
ืื-ื ืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืงืืืขืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ื"ืฉืืืื". ืฉืืืื
ืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืืืื, ืืืืฉื ื"ืฉืืืื" ืืฉืืืข ืื ื ืืืฃ ืืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืืืืจื
ืืืชื ื ืื ื ืขืฉื ืืื ืื ื ืขืฉื. ืืงืืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ื"ืฉืืืื"
ืฆืืจืืช ืืืคืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืจื. ืื ืชืงืจึตื ืฉืืืื, ืืฆืืข ืืื ืื ื, ืืื ืจืฉืืช, ืจืฉืืช
ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืื ื. ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืืคืช ืืชืืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืช ืืชืืื. ืื ื ืชื ืื, ืืืืื,
ืืื ืืช ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืื ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืข - ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืืฉื -
ืื ืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืื ื ื, ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืงืฉืื ืืืืชื ื ืื ื ืืื ืขื
ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืจื ืืื: ืืืืฉื "ืจืฉืืช" ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื
ืืืืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืจื ืืืชื ื ืื"ื: "ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืฉืืื ืืงืจืืื ืื
ืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืขืฆืื; ื ืจืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืขืช ืื ืืชื, ืืืื ืขืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืขืช
ืืืงื": ืืืืช ื' ื'. ืืคืืจืืฉ ืคื ืืก ืงืืชื: "ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืฉืืช - ืืื ืืืืจืื
ืืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื, ืฉืื ืชืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืชืกืืื ืขื
ืืืืืืชืืื...". ืืจืื ืขืื, ืืืืช ื' ื': "ืฉืืขืื ืืืืจ: ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉื ื
ืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืืื ืชืชืืืืข ืืจืฉืืช...". ืืื ืืืืจื ืื"ื ืื ืืืืืื-ืฉืืื?
20. ืึผึถืึฑืืึนืจ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืจืขืื,
ืืืืืื ืื ื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืื ื ืฉืื ืืืกืืื ืื. ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืช,
ืืืื ืื
ืื ื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืื ื. ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช,
ืืชืงืฉืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืื. ืืื ืฉืืืืจืื ืื ื ืขื
ืืืกืืจ
ืืขืฉืืช ืืขืฉืื
ืืกืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื - ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืคื
ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช. ืืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืื, ืืื ืืงืืจื ืืฉืจ-ืืื, ืืื ืืจืื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืกืืจ
ืชืืคืฉ ืื, ืืขื-ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืชืคืฉ ืืื ืืขืฆืื. ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืฉื ื"ืืืื ืืช",
ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืฉืื ืืกืืืืืื. "ืืืื ืืช" ืืฉืืืขื - ืืืืืจื
ืืื ืืืฉืืืข - ืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืขืฉืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืฉื, ืืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืขืฉืืื
ืืืคื ืืืืืช. ืื ืืืฉื ื"ืืืื ืืช" ืืืคื ืืฉืืืข ืื ื ืืืกื ืื ื-ืืื, ืืื ืืื
ืืืื ืขืฆืื. ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื - ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื - ืืืคื ืืืจื, ืืื ืืฃ ืืื. ืืืงืฉืจ
ืืืจืื ืื, ืื ืชืืื ื ืืฆืืง ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื
ืืื ืืื? ืืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืคื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืื?
21. ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช - ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืืชื ืฆืืจืืฃ
ืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืื, ืงืจื: ืืืืื ื ืขืฆืื - ืืื ื ืืื ืืืฉื, ืงืื ืกืคื, ืืฆืืจ-ืืืฉืืชื ื.
ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช - ืืืืืชื ืืืืื ื - ืืื ื ืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืืจ, ืืื ืกืืจืืื ื,
ืืืฉืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืึถืึธืจึธืฉ. ืืืืื ื - ืืชืืจืช
ืฉืืื - ืืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืขืฆืื. ื ืกืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชืงืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืจืชื ืฉื
ืืืืื ื, ืืืืื ืืืืจืช-ืืฆืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืื. ืื ืืื
ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช.
ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืขื ื ืชืื ืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืชืืื
ืืกืืืื - ืืืฉื: ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืชื-ืขืกืง - ื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืคืงืืช ืื ื
ืงืคื ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืงื ืืฉืงื ืงืจ. ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืงืืืงื-ืฉืชืื ืืฉื ืืืืจืื
ืืขืฉืืืช ืงืคื ืืืื. ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืฉ ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืชื-ืขืกืง.
ืืืฅ ืขื ืกืืืจืช ืืคืชืืจืื - ืืื-ืืืจ-ืื ืืืกืืจ ืืกืืืื - ืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืจืฉ ืืื (ืืืจื),
ืืงืืืืช ืืช ืฉืืืงืฉืช. ืื ืืืฆืช ืขื ืืืคืชืืจืื ืื ืืื ืื, ืื ืฉืืืฆืช ืขื ืืคืชืืจืื ืฉืื ืืกืืืจื,
ืื ืชืงืื ืืช ืฉืืืงืฉืช: ืื ืงืคื ืืืื, ืื ืืงืืืง ืืฉืงื ืงืจ, ืื ืจืฉืืื ืืขืกืง. ืืื, ืืคืฉืจ ืื
ืืืืช ื ืืืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืืช ืืืงื ื ืฉืืงืื-ืืขืช ืืขืื ืฉืงืฉื ืืืงื ืืช
ืฉืืงืื-ืืขืช ืืืืื ื (ืืืื ื?). ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืช ื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ื - ืืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืืช
- ืื ืชืคืขื ืื ืืฉืจืืจืืช, ืื ืืืคืืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืืช. ืืื ืืงืื, ืืฉื ืฉื ืชืงืฉื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืื ื, ืื ื ืชืงืฉื ืืงืืืข ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื "ืจืฉืืช" ืฉืืื ื ืืื
ืืืฉื ืืฉืคืื.
ืืฉืื ืชืืืจ: ื"ืจืฉืืช",
ื"ืฉืืืื", ืืื ืื, ืืื ื, ืืืคืื ืฉืจืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช - ืฉืืจื
ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืืืืืืื (ืื ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื) - ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจ
ืืขืืืื-ืืจืฉืืช, ืืื ืืฉืจ-ืืื? ืืืืข ืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืืืคืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช?
ืืชืฉืืื ืืงืืฉืื ืืื, ืฉืืืชื ืขืืืื-ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืจืฉืืช (ืืงืื ืกืคืืืืืืช)
ืืขืืฉื ืืืจื. ืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืจืฉืืช, ืฉืืจื ืื ืืฉืืื ืขืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืจืฉืืช.
ืืืฉื ืชืงืฉืื ื ืืงืืืข ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ื"ืจืฉืืช", ืื ื ืึผืชึทืจ ืืืืืช
ืืช ืขืืืื-ืืจืฉืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉ-ืืืื.
22. ืืืกืืจ ืกืคืืงืืช ื ืืืจ ืื ืืกืืฃ, ืฉืืืืื ืื ื ืื ื ืืื
ืืืื ื ืขื "ืืืืืช" (ืขื "ืืืจื", ืขื "ืขึทื", ืื ืขื
"ืืืื"). ืืืืืช ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื: ืืื ืืืจืฅ ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ื, ืืื
ื ืืฃ ืืืืืชื, ืืื ืืืืจื ืฉืืชืืื ืืื ืื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืชื ื, ืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืืชื ื:
"ืืืืช ืืืช ืืื ืึตื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช". ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืคืืจืืื.
ื"ืืืืืช" ืืื ื "ืืืื ื". ืืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืื ื ืื-ืืืฉืืฉ ืืขื-ืื
ื ืืจืฉืื ืื ื ืืกืืืื: ืืืื, ืืกืื. ืืขืืจ ืืื-ืจืืืง ืืื ื ืืืฉ-ืฉืจืจื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ื
ืืืงื ืืขืืื ืกืืจืืื, ืืขื ืื ืืืจืชื ืื ืืื:
"...ืืื
ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืื 'ืกื-ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืงื ืขื ืกืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืขืืื'. ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื
ืื ื ืืืชื ืืืช, ืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืื, ืื ืื ื ืืืืืื ื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื,
ืืื ื ืืืื ื, ืืื ืื ื ืกืืจืืื." (ืื"ืฅ 8507/96
ืืืจืื
ื '
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
, ืืจื ืคืืจืกื; ืืคืืกืงื 7 ืืืืืช-ืืืขืช).
ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช. ืฉืื ืืืืชื
ืืื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืืจืืืช, ืืืืืืช. ืจืฉืืื ืืช ืืขืกืง ื ืืชื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื - ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช -
ืืขื-ืื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืขืจื ืืื-ืืฉืืื ื-ืืื ื.
23. ื ืืืืจ ืืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืื ืขืืจ - ืืืขืจืช-ืคืชืืื - ืื
ืืชืงืฉืื ืื ื, ืงืื ืกืคืืืืืืช, ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืืื
ืืื ืื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืจื. ืืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืืฉื ื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืจืืืืืจ, ืืืืขื ืขืช ืื ื ืื ืืก ืขืฆืื ื
ืืืจืงืืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืกืืืื ื.
24. ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืื ื ื ืกืืืจ ืื ืืืกื
ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืกื "ืืืืืืช", ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืฆืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืื. ืชืื ืช ืืืืฆื ืฉืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืกืข - ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืชืืื ืขืืื ืฉืื ืืขื ืืฉืื ืจืฉืื ืืืืชืืืช ืืืืืืช "ืืืคืฉ".
ืืฉืงืคืชื ืืืฉืจ ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืื, ืฉืืืืื ืจืฉืื
ืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืื ืืืจ (ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืฉื) ืืื ืื ื ืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืฉืืช (ืื ืืืืื), ืืื
ืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืฉืืช (ืื ืืืืื). ืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืชืขืฉื - ืื ืชืจืฆื, ืื ืชืื ืื - ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืจื
ืืชืืงื ืช. ืืฉ ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืืืืช ืฉื "ืขืฉื", ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืข
ืืืชื ืืืืง ืืคืืจืฉืืช, ืืื ืืขืืืช: ืืืฉื: ืืืืช ืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืื; ืืืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืืกืื; ืืืืช
ืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืคืืืจืืคืกืืช, ืชืฉื"ื1962- ืืืคื ืืืง
ืืืืื ืืืื, ืชืฉ"ื1949-; ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืืกืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืกืื; ืืืืื
ืืื ืืข ืืขืฉื ืคืฉืข (ืกืขืืฃ 262 ืืืืง ืืขืื ืฉืื, ืชืฉื"ื1977-), ืืขืื.
ืืขืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืฉื ืื-ืชืขืฉื ืืฉื ืขืฉื,
ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืขืชื ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืื ื ึธืืึผื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช
ื ืืกืคืืช. ืขืืืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืคืฆื, ืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืื ืขืืฉื. ืืืืืชื ืื ืฉื
ืืืืื, ืืืืช ืื ืืืขืื ืื ืขืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื: ืืืืช ืืืืคืฉ ืืืืืชืจ ืฉืืขืืชื ืืขืืช-ืืืง ืืื (ืื
ืืขืืช ืืืง-ืืกืื). ืจืื ืืืฉืื: ืื"ืฅ 3872/93
ืืืืจืื ืืข"ื
ื '
ืจืืฉ
ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืจ ืืืชืืช
, ืค"ื ืื(5) 485. ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื-ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคื, ืื-ืืืจืื
ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืื-ืืืื, ืืืื ืขื ืื ืืืงืืข ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื. ืืืื ืข ืขืฆืื
ืืืขืฉืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืงืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืคืืจืฉ, ืืฆื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืฉืคื. ืืื
ืืื ืื ืืืจ, ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ืืื ื ืืกืื. ืืื ืืื ื ืฆืืืง. ืืื ืขืืฉื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉ
ืืื ื. ืืื ืืืจื ืื-ืืฉืืจื.
ืื, ืืืขืื, ืชืื ืช-ืืืืฆื ืืืืืืงืจืืืช-ืืืืืจืืืช,
ืืืฉืื ื ืืขืฆืื ืกืืืจื ื ืื ืจืืื ืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืืืคืื. ืืขืฉื-ืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืืจืืืืื, ืืขืืจื
"ืืื ืืืืงื", ืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืชืงืื ืืืขืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื - ืืขืืงืจื -
ืืืื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืืกืืจืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืฉ, ืืื ื, ืฉืืืฉืคื ืืืืฅ ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืคืืื ื ืืืืื
ืืืืจืืืืกืืืช. ืืืฉื: ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืขืืจื ืื ืคืืข ืืชืืื ืช ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืช ืื (ืกืขืืฃ
64ื ืืคืงืืืช ืืชืขืืืจื [ื ืืกื ืืืฉ] ืืชืงื ืืช 144 ื146- ืืชืงื ืืช ืืชืขืืืจื;
ืืชืฉื"ื1961-); ืืืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืื (ืกืขืืฃ 39 ืืืืง ืืกืคื ืืช (ืืืืื),
ืืชืฉื"ื1973-); ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืขืืจื ืืขืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช (ืกืขืืฃ 491
ืืืืง ืืขืื ืฉืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1977-). ืจืื ืขืื: ืข"ืค 119/93
ืืืจื ืก
ื '
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 1, 29 ืืืืื; ืืืจื ืืจืง,
ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช ืฉืืคืืื
(ืคืคืืจืืก, ืชืฉื"ื1987-), 464-463. ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืื.
25. ืื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืขื ืืจื ืืืื, ืืื ืืื, ืืืขืชื,
ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื. ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืงืจืื, ืืื ื ื ื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื
ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืจืช, ืืื ืื ื ืงืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืคืืจืฉ ืื
ืืืืื-ืืืืืืืช-ืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืงื-ืืืกืื, ืืืืืงืืข ืืืื ืืืืง, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืชื
ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืขืฆืื ืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืขืืช ืืืืงื-ืืืกืื. ืื - ืืชื ืื. ืืกืื ืื ืืืจื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืื ื ืชืงืฉืืชื ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืชืจืฉืืืช ืื ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื ืืฆืืืจ ืืื ืื ื
ืืืื ืช-ืืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช, ืืืื ื ืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืืื ื ืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืื ืจืขืื, ืืืื ื ืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื, ืื ืืขืช. ืื ื ืขืฉื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื
ืืืืื ืช ืืืืืคืื ืืขืื-ืื. ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืื ืจืืื, ืืืขืชื, ืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืช-ืืืืืคืื - ืืคืฉืจ - ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืื.
ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืื-ืืืืืืช,
ืืื ืื ืฉืืื-ืืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืฉืืื-ืืขืื. ืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืง
ืืืื ืจืื ืืื, ืจืื ืขืืฆืื ืืจืื ืขืืฉืจ, ืขื ืฉืืืืื - ืืืื ืืืื, ืขืืฆืืชื ืืขืืฉืจื ืจืืื
ืืื ืฉืืืื - ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืื, ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื; ืื ืืฉืจ
ืืืืืง ืืื ืื, ืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืง - ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืืชื. ืืืืื, ืืืืืจื
ืื ืืจืืืืืืช-ืืืฉืคืืืช ืื ืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืกืจ ืืืื-ืื ืื
ืืชืืคืขื ืฉืื ื ืขืืื ืื ืืื-ืืื, ืฉืขื-ืฉืขื, ืฉืืืืื ืขืืื ืืชืืจ ืืคื ื ืืืคืง-ืืฉืืืื, ืืืชืืจ
ืืฉืชืจื ืืืชืคืชื ืขืื ืืขืื. ืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืชืืคืขื ืื "ืืืืจืืงืจืืื" ืืืฉ ืืืื ืื
ืืืชื ืืืจืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืคืขื ืืฉืจ ืืื, ืืชืืคืขื ืืืืขื ืืืืืจืช ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืื.
ืืืขื ืื ืืฃ ื ืืืฆื ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจ ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืช-ืขื ืง -
ื ืืืฆื ืืขืืจ, ืืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืืืฅ ืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ ืืขืชืื. ืืืขื ืื ืืฃ ืงืืขื
ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื ืืช ืขืงืจืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืืชื ืืขื ืงืืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช
ืฉืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืื. ืขืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืงืืจื ืืกืืืืชื ืืืชืืจื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืืื-ืืืชืจ,
ืืืืืืชื ืืื ืืข ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืกืจื ืขืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ื.
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคื ืืืืื ืืืืจื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืฉืืืื ืืืืืง ืื, ืืขืืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืื-ืจืื. ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืขืื
ืืฉืืฉ - ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืขืื ืืืจืื - ืืื ืืืื ืืจืกื ืืขืืฆืื. ืื ืืชื ืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืื ืขื
ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื? ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืขื ืงืื: ืืขื ืงืื ืืกืืื ืืกืขืืื ืืืืืืืืจ
ืขืืื ืขื ืฉืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืื-ืงืืืชื ืืืขืืจื ืืื ืขืฆืืืชืื ืจืืืคืืช ืืืจืื. ืืึดืืืืึธื ืืื
ืืขืื ืืื, ืืื ื-ืืืจ. ื ืฉืืคืช ืคื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืืืจ ืืื-ืืื-ืืื. ืืืืื ื ืืืืื "ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช" ืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืขื ืงืื ืืืคื ืืืืืืืจ. ืืชืงืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช -
ืืืื-ืฉืื ืื - ืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืืจ. ืืืืืช - ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช - ื ืืขืื ืืจืกื
ืืื, ืขืืฆืื, ืขืืฉืจ. ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืืื?
26. ืืื ืจืฉืืื-ืขืกืง ืฉืืืืื ื ืืจืฉ ืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืื
ืขืกืง. ืืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืกืืง ืืื ืขืกืง ืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืคืจื ืก ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืช
ืื ื-ืืฉืคืืชื. ืืื ืจืขื ืืช ืฆืื ื ืืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืจืขืื; ืงืื ืขืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืจืฉ
ืืจืฉืืื ืืจืืฉื ืื ืืืขื; ืืชืืื-ืงืื ืึธืึทืฉ ื ืืืฉืช ืืืจืื (ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืื) ืืจืฉืืื ืขืืกืืง ืื
ืืื ืืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืขืืช ืืืชื ืื, ืืืจื "ืืื ืืื ืงื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืขืืช ืืขืกืืง
ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื-ืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืืขืฆืื, ืื ืืื ืฉืืืชืขืกืงืืช ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื-ืื ืืื ื
ืืกืืจื ืืืขื ืืืืง" (ืืฉืืคื ืฉ' ื' ืืฉืื ืืื"ืฅ 1/49
ืื'ืจื ื
ื '
ืฉืจ
ืืืฉืืจื
, ืค"ื ื 80, 82). ืืฉืื ืืืืืงืง ืืืกืจ ืขื ืขืืกืืงืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืื
ื ืชืงืืืื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืกืืืืืื - ืืืกืืจื ืืืกืืจ, ืืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืงืืืื ืืจืืื
ืืืืฉืื ื. ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืชืจ-ืืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืคื
ืืืืื, ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืืืฆืืื. ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืขืฆืื
ืืจืฉืืื ืืขืืกืืง ืคืืื ื, ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืืื ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื, ืื-ืื
ืืืืฆืจืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืชื ืื ืืจืชื ืื ืืฆืืชื ืืืืื
ื ืืฆืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืขืืงืจืื ืืื ืขืงืจืื-ืืืืคืฉ ืฉื ืืืืื,
ืืขืืงืจืื ืื - ืืฉืืื ืืขืฆืื - ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืช-ืืืื ืืช.
27. ืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ื
ื ืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืื, ืืคืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืฆืจ
ืคืขืืืืช-ื ืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื, ืกื ืงืฆืื ืฉืชืืคืขื ื ืื ืืืคืจ ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืคืจ ืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืขืืื. ืืืชืื
ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืฉืืืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืื ืงืื ืืกื ืงืฆืื
ืืืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืืจืื ืืคืจ ืืช ืืืืชื. ืืื ืืืฆืข ืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืกืืืืช
ืฉื ืืขืื-ืขื ืืฉื ืืืคื ืืืืื ืฉืืคืจ ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืฉื: ืขื ืืจื ืืฉืขืืืชื
ืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืื.
ืืื ื, ืืื ืืงืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืฉืคืื ืื ืืขืืื
ืขื ืืจืื ื - ืงืฉืืื ืืืึผืึฐื ึดืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืืงืืืช ืืืขืงืจืื ืืคืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช - ื ืืื ืขื ืืจื
ืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืชืงืืื ืื-ืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืืื, ืฉืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืืช ืืกืืจื
ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืขื ืืื ื ืื-ื ืงืืื ืืคืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืื, ืืืฉื, ืืื"ืฅ
192/61
ืฉื-ืืื ืงืื
ื '
ืขืืจืืช ืืช-ืื
, ืค"ื ืื 1856, ืคืชื ืืขืืชืจ
ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืงืืื ืขืืื ืจืฉืืื. ืืฉืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื, ื ืขื ื ืื ืืขืืจืื ืื ืืงืฉืชื ืื ืชืืืื
ืืืืื ื"ืคืชื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืขืฆืื". ืขื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื
ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืฉืืงืื ืฉื ืื-ื ืงืืื ืืคืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืขื ืืช ืื -
ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื. ืืืืฉืื ื:
"...
ืื ืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืื ืืืช-ืืฉืคื ืื. ืืชื ืกืขื ืืืืช-ืืฉืคื ืื ืืกืืจ ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 7 ืืืืง
ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื, ืชืฉื"ื1957-, ืืฉืืงืื-ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืช- ืืืฉืคื, ืืืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืฉื ืขื ืื, ืชืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืงืฉ ืืฉืจ ืชืื.
ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืขืืจืื ืฉืื ืชืืื ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืงืฉ, ืืืืื ืืืื ืคืชื ืืช ืืื ืืช
ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืจืช ืจืืื, ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืงืฉ ืืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืฉื ืืืขืฉื ืืืืจืฉืข
ืืขืืืจื ืขื ืืคืงืืื ืื "ื. ืจืฉืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืืืจื ืงืคืื ืืช
ืขื ืืืืง, ืฉืื ืื ืชืขืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืขืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืช ืืืื
25.6.61 ืืชื ืืจื ืืืืื ืื..." (ืืขืืื 1858, ืืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืืกืื)
ืจืื ืขืื: ืื"ืฅ 328/60
ื'ืืื ื ื'ืื ืืืกื
ื '
ืฉืจ
ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื 69, 79 (ืืฃ ืืื ืืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืืกืื).
ืืืจืืง ืืื ืืขืฉื (ืื ืืืื) ืืขืืื ืืื
ืื-ื ืงืืื-ืืคืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช - ืื ืชืจืฆื: ืืืจืืง ืืื ื ืงืืื ืืคืืื ืืืื
ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช - ืืื ื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืชืจ. ืื ืืงืฉื ืขืืื ื ืืืฆืื, ืื ืืคืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืงืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืื-ื ืงืืื-ืืคืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจืื
ืืื, ืฉืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืข ืื ื ืชืืจืกื ืขืืืงืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืชืงืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื
ืืืฉืจ ืืคืื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืช ืื-ื ืงืืื ืืคืื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ. ืืืช
ื ืขืฉื, ืืื ืฉื ืชื ื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื
ืฉื ืืื ืงืื
ืืืชืืื ื ืขื ื ืคืฉื ืืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืืฉื
ืงืืืื. ืืื ื ืขืืืง ืืขื, ื ืืื ืื ืืืงืืจืื ื
ืงืื
ื ืืชื ืช ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืขืงืจืื
ืืคืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืขืงืจืื ืืืืงืืืช ืืฃ-ืืื. ืืืื ื ื ืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืื
ืืขืงืจืื ืืช-ืชืฉืชืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื?
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืจืช ืืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช
28. ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ
ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืขืชื, ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืฉืคืื
ืจืืื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืชืืฆื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืฉืจืื. ืขื ืืื ื ืืกืขืื ืื ื - ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื - ืืืืชื ืืจืืจื, ืืืฉ ืืื ืจืขืื.
ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืขื ื ืืืื, ืชืืคืจืื ื ืืจืืื ื, ืืื ืืกืข ืืืจืืจื-ืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืกืข ืืืจืืจื-ืืฉืื.
29. ืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืืืช-ืืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช-ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืช. ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื - ืงืจื:
ืืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืื - ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื.
ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื? ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืจืฉืืช ืขืืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืื, ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืคืขืื
ืจืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืกืืืืชื ืขื-ืคื ืืืง. ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืืจื, "ืฆืจืืื...
ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช ืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืฃ ืืช ืื ืชืื ืื ืืขืืืืชืืื,
ืืืขืจืืื ืื ืืจืฉ, ืืืงืืืข... ืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช ืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืื
ืืฉืืืื ืืช." ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื "ืืกืืืข ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช
ืืืืืืฉ ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช, ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืกืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืง ืื ืจืฉืืื ืื
ืืื". ืืฉืจ-ืขื-ืื, ืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืฉืืืื "ืืืื [ืืืืืช]
ืขืืื ืืืืืช ื ืชืื ืื ืขืืืืชืืื ืฉืื ืืืืชืืื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช ืขืืื ื ืกืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช
ืืฉืืืื ื". ืืื ืืกืื ืืขื ืืืจ: "ืืืฆืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืจื ืืืชืจ ืื ืจืฉืืื
ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื ื ืืจืฉืช ืชืฉืชืืช ืขืืืืชืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืคืจื,
ืืืื ืื ืื ืขื ืืคืจื ืืืฉืืฃ ื ืชืื ืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืืืื...". ืืฉืื: "ืืืืช ืืืืืื
ืขืืื ืื ื ืขืืื... ืืื ืืืืชื ืืฆืืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืจืืฉืื ืืคืจื ืืืืงืฉ ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื
ืืืืืจื ืืฉืืจ ืืจืืฉืื. ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืงืืื ืขืื, ืื ืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื
ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืจืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืื ื".
ื ืืฆื ืื ื, ืืืคืื, ืื ืชืืช ืืืืื ืืื-ืืืืืช
ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช -
ืืืงืฉ ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื - ืืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื - ืืืืช
ืืืืืืื "ืฉื ืืืชื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืจืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช
ืืฉืืืื ื". ืชืืช ืืืืื ืฉืงืืืข ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ - ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืืืจืชื ืขืืื
ืืื ื - ืืกืคืง ืขืฆืื ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืื-ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื.
ืืืื ืื-ืืื ืืื - ืืืื-ืืืช ืืืื ืืื.
30. ืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืกืืฃ ืืคืื ืชื-ืฉืื: ืืฉื
ืฉื ืชืงืฉืืชื ืืงืื ืขืื ืขืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืชืงืฉื ืื ื ืืชืช
ืจืืฉื ืืกึทื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืช ืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช. ืื ืืขืชื
ืชืืฉืืข, ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืืช
ืจืืืื ืืืืช. ืืื, ืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืคืืืจ ืืขืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืื
ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ื, ืืืขืชื, ืืฆืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื - ืื ืืื
ืืื ืืืจืื - ืืืงืฉืื ืืืืื ืขืืื. ืืื ืฉืขื ืืืืืช ืืื ื ืขืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืจืื ื. ืืขืช ืืื
ื ื ืกื ืืืกืืืจ, ืืืืข ืืชืงืฉืื ืื ื ืืฆืจืฃ ืืขืชื ื ืืืขืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืขื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืื
ืฉื ืืขืืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช.
31. ืงืจืื ื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืชืื ืช ืืืืฆื ืืืกืขื ื,
ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฉื "ืืืคืฉ" ืืจืืช ืขืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ื"ืืืคืฉ" ืืื, ืฉืืืืื
ืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืช-ืืื ืืืฉืื - ืืจืืืช ืืืจืืช-ืืืื - ืืืืืืช
ืืืชื ืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืืช-ืขืฉื ืืื ืืืืช-ืื-ืชืขืฉื. ืืงืืืงืก ืืคืืืื, ืืืฉื, ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืช
ืื-ืชืขืฉื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืื-ืชืขืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืื (ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืฉืจ ืืื), ืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืฉืืช ืืืจื ืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืฉื ืฉื ืืืืื,
ืืืชื ืืืคืฉ ืฉืื ืืืืืื ื ืืช ืืกืขื ื. ืืฆื ืืืืืช ืืื-ืชืขืฉื ืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืืื
ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืฉื ืื, ืืืฉื, ืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืกืื. ืืืืื
ื ืืกืคืช ืชืืืฆื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืืื ืืืคื
ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืกืจื-ืืื ืื. ืืืืชืจ ืืืืจ - ืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืช - ืื ืืืืืช ืขืฉื ืืขืืืช ืื
ืืืกืคืจื ืืืกืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืื-ืชืขืฉื. ืืื ืืืื ืื. ื ืืชื ืืขืชื ื ืืืืจ, ืฉืืืืืช ืืื-ืชืขืฉื
ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื - ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืงืจืื - ืคืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขืฉื, ืงืจื: ืืืืืช ืืื-ืชืขืฉื
ืคืืืฉืืช ืื ืชืืื ืืืคืฉื ืฉื ืืืืื ืคืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืขืฉื. ืืฉืื ืืืจ: ืืจืื ืืืืืืงืจืืื
ืืืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืคืจื - ืื ืื ืืืจืช - ืงื ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืื-ืชืขืฉื ืืืฉืจ
ืืืืืช ืขืฉื. ื ืืข ืืืื, ืฉืขื ืืฉืจ ื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืขืฉื, ืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืฉืงืื ืืืืืืจ
ืืืฉืงืื ืืืขืชื ื ืฉืื ืืจืืงื ื-ืืืช ืืืืืืชื ื, ืฉืื ืืจืื ื ืื-ืืขืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืืืชืจ ืขื-ืคื
ืืฉืงืคืืช-ืืืกืื ืืืงืืืืืช ืขื ืืืจืชื ื.
ืืืืืข ืืืจื ื ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืื
ืฉืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืขืฉื ืขื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืคืจืืื
ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืคืขืืชื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืืงื ืืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ื ืืืืจ, ืฉืขื ืืฉืจ ื ืืื ืขื
ืืืืื ืืืืช-ืขืฉื ืื, ืืืื ื ืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ื ืืืืืง ืืืื-ืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืจืืื
ืืืฉืืช ืืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืงืฉืื ืื ื ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืฉื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืช-ืขืฉื.
32. ืืฉืื ื ืืขืฆืื, ื ืชืงืฉืืชื ืืืฆืื ืื ืื ืืื ืขืืื ื
ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ื
ื ืกืืื, ืืืืื, ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืชื - ืื ืืกืจื ืืืชื - ืจืฉืืื ืืืืื,
ืืืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืช ืื ืืืืืข ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืจืืืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืขืืืืชืืช
ืืฉืืงืื-ืืขืชื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืข - ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืืช, ืขืืื ืืื ืขื
ืืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืืจืฉ ืื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื. ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืื ึถืช ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืื ืืื ืช ื ืืึธื ึธื ืื
ืชืฉืงืื ืืื ืชื ืื ืขื-ืื ืชืืกืืฃ ืืช ืื ืืืืืข ืฉืืขื ืืื, ืฉืืจื ืจืง ืขื ืืกืื ืืืฆืง ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช
ืืืช ืฉืื ืืงืจืืก. ืขื ืืกืื ืื ื ืืืจ, ืืืืจื ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง, ืื "ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืืช
ืืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืชืคืืกื ืืคืื ืืคืขืื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื
ื ืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจ ื ืชืื ืื ืขืืืืชืืื ืืืืชืืื ืขืืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืื
ืืฉืืืื ืืช"? ืืืฆื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืืืืื
?
ืืืจื ืฉืชื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ื - ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืืืื - ืืืื ืช ืชืจืชื-ืืกืชืจื? ืื ืืกืื ืืืืฆื
ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืช - ืืืืคื - ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื?
ืืขื ืืืจืช
ืืืื ื ืื ืจืง ืืฉืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืื ืฉืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืื
ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืคืจื. ืืืืฉืจ ืืื ืื: ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชื
ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืข, ืจืฉืืืช ืจืฉืืช-ืืฉืืืื - ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืฃ ืืืืืช - ืืืงืฉ ืืช ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืื
ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืขืชื (ืืืฉืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืช ืขืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืจืื). ืื, ืืืฉื, ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืช ืขืฆืื - ืืืืง ืื ืืชืงื ืืช - ืงืืืข ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื
ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื. ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื ืชืืืข ืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืื
ืืืืืง ืืืกื ืืืขืืืชื, ืืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืืจื (ืชืงื ื 14 ืืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืืก).
ืืฉืืฆืื ืืืื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืคืฉืื ืืื ืฉืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืจืฉืืืช
ืืชืืืข ืืื ื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืข ืืืื ืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื (ืืื ืื ืงืฉืจ
ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช). ืืืงืฉืจ ืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื, ืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืงืืืข
ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืฆืืจื ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืงืืื ืืขื ืงืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืื, ืืืฆื
ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืง ืืจืฉืืช ืฉืืงืื-ืืขืช ื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืชืจืช ืืืืกืคืช ืชื ืืื ืขื
ืืืชื ืชื ืืื. ืจืื: ืื"ืฅ 43/76
ืืืจืช ืขืืืชืืจ ืืข"ื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืชืืืจืืช
ืืื'
, ืค"ื ื(3) 554, 560-559; ืื"ืฅ 208/79
ืื ืืืก
ื '
ืืื ืื
ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 301, 304; ืคืจืืค' ืืจืื ืืจืื,
ืืฉืคื
ืืื ืืื
, ืืืฆืืช ืฉืืงื, ืชืฉื"ื1986-, ืืจื ืจืืฉืื, ืขื' 164 ื"ืฉ 52. ืืฉืื
ืงื ืชื ืืจืฉืืช ืกืืืืช ืืืืกืืฃ ืชื ืืื ืขื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืงื ืชื ืกืืืืช ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืข ืืืืืช
ืืืชื ืืชื ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืฆืื ืขื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื.
33. ื ืืฆื ืื ื, ืืืคืื, ืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืงืืืข ืืคืืจืฉืืช
ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืขื ืงืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืื, ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช - ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืฃ ืืืืืช -
ืืืจืืฉ ืืืช ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืข ืืืชื ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืชื ืืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืข
ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืืื ืื ื ืชืงืืืื ืืืชื ืชื ืืื. ืืงืจื ืืืคืืื ื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ื
ืงืืืข ืืื ื ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืขื ืงืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืื, ืื ื ืืข ืขื ืืืงืฃ ืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช - ืงืจื: ืขื ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืงืืืข ืืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืื ืขื ืฉืชืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื
- ืชืื ืืืืื ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืง. ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืขื ื ืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ืก ืื-ืชืืื
ืฉืืงืืืื ืืื ืืืื, ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืข ืืขืฆืื ื ืื ืืืืืื ืชืคืงืืื ืืืกืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืข
ืืืืชื ื ืืฉืืื. ืกืืืืช ืื ืฉึถืึธึผืจึธืฉืึผืช ืืฉืืืขื ืืขืฆืื ืกืืืืช-ืืืฉื ื ืืงื ืืื ืื, ืืืจืืฉ
ืืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืืงืฉ (ืืื ืื ืงื ื ืืืืช ืขื-ืคื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืช
ืืืชื ืืืืข, ืืืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืกื ืืช ืืืืชื), ืฉืื ืจืง ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืงืฉ
ืืจืฉืืื ืืืจืืฉื ืชืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืกืขืืฃ 17(ื)
ืืืืง ืืคืจืฉื ืืช, ืืชืฉื"ื1981-, ืฉืืคืื "ืืกืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืจ ืื ืืืคืืช ืขืฉืืืชื -
ืืฉืืขื ืื ืืชื ืกืืืืืืช ืขืืจ ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืช ืขื ืืืขืช". ืืกืืืชื ืฉื
ืจืฉืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื - ืื ืืกืจื ืืืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื - ืืืืงืช ืืื ืืืื ืื ืกืืืืช-ืขืืจ
ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืข ืืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื. ืกืืืืช-ืืืฉื ื ืื ืืจืืฉื ืืจืฉืืช "ืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืช ืขื
ืืืขืช" ืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืืืช.
34. ืื ื-ืืื ื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื
ืจืฉืืช-ืฉืืืื ืืืคืขืื ืกืืืืชื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืงืฉ-ืจืฉืืื ืืืกืืจ
ืืืืข ืืจืฉืืช: ืืืงืื ืฉืงืืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืคืขืื
ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืืืช, ืจืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืื ืืืืื - ืืืืง, ืืืงืืงืช-ืืืฉื ื,
ืืื ืืืืช-ืคื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืคืจืื ื - ืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืข ืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืคืขืื ืื ืืช
ืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื. ืืฉื ืืจืฉ ืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืข, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืข ืฉื ืืจืฉ, ืืื
ืฉื ืืจืฉ ืืืคื ืฉื ืืจืฉ. ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืชืื ืืืจืืฉื - ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืืฆืืชื ืฉื
ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืจื ื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืืจืืฉื ืคืจืื ืืช - ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืื ืื
ืืืื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืช ืืืจืืฉื ืืืืคื ืืช ืืืื. ืืฉืื ื ืืขืฆืื, ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืชืืช
ืขื ืืืืื - ืืืืฆืข ืืืื ืืืจืื - ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืฆืขืช ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ, ืืื
ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ, ืืืืืืชื, ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื ืืืคืขืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช, ืืืฆืขืชื ืฉื
ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง.
35. ืืขืืช-ืื ืืกืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช, ืฉืืจื ืขืืกืืงื ืืื ืืขื ืงืช
ืจืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืกืื ืื ืืืืืจ; ืืืขื ืืื ื ื: ืจืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืืขื ืืื ืืืจ: ืจืฉืืื ืขืกืง.
ืขืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืจ: ืจืฉืืื ื ืืืื. ืขืืกืืงื ืืจืฆืืฃ ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืฆืืืจ ื ืืกืืื
ืืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืช ืฉืจืืื ืื ืชืขืืื ืืคื ื ืืืงืฉื-ืจืฉืืื, ืืจืืืช ืฉืืืืช ืฉืชืฉืื ืืืชื. ืื
ืชืืกืืฃ ืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ื ืืกืืื - ืฆื-ืืฆื-ืฆื-ืืฆื ืงื-ืืงื-ืงื-ืืงื - ืืืฉืืืื ืืคื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื
ืชืืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืจืืฉ ืืื ื ืชืฉืืืืช ืืืืืข. ืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื - ืืื
ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื - ืฉืขื ืฉืจืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืืช ืชืคืงืืื
ืืืืื ืชืืข ืืืจืืฉ ืืื ื ืืืืข ืืืคืฆื?
ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืืืืชื ืืขืืช-ื ืกืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืขืช
ืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืฆื ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืข ื ืืจืฉืช ืืจืฉืืช - ืงืจื: ืื ืืื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื - ืื
ืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืจื ืืจืฉืืช? ืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืืข ืฉืื ื ืชืืงืฉ
ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื? ืืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืจืฉืข ืืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืชื ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื
ืงืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืื ืจืืืื ืืืช? ืืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืกืจืื-ืืืื ืืช ืืื, ืืื ืขืืืื ืจืืืื ืืืช? ืืื
ืื ื ืชืืงืฉ ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืขืืช ืงืืืืืช ืฉืืืจืฉืข ืืื - ืืืืข ื ืืืื
ืืืชื ืื ืื ืืืืข ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืื? ืืื ืืื ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื ืื
ืืืฉืจ ืื ื ืชืืงืฉ ืืืืกืจื ืืจืฉืืช? ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืคืช ืืืืข ืชืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืจืง
ืืืงืื ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืื - ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืช - ืืื ืืจืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ
ืื ืืืืข ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืจ. ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืจืฉื ืืืืข ืคืืื ื ืื ืืืืื, ืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืจืืฉ
ืื ืืืืื ืื "ืึตืืึทืข" ืฉืืืชื ืืืืข ืืื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืกืจื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืืชื?
36. ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื. ืชื ืื ืืืงืื ืืื
ืืืขื ืงืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื, ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืกื ืฉืืืขืืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื
ืืืืืจื ืืชืงืืคื ืื-ืืื, ืืืื ืคืืื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืื ื. ืจืื ืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืืก.
ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืช ื"ืืืกื" ืฉืืื ืืืืืง ืื
ืงืืืขื ืืืคืืจืฉ ืืืืคืืจื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืืืชื ืืืกืืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืกื ืืื ื
ืืืขืื-ืืื-ืคืงืคืืง. ืืื ืื ืฆืืจื ืื ื ืืืจืฉ ืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืจืช ืืืืืืช
ืขื ืืืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืงืืืขื ืืืจืืชื ืืืื
ืืืคืืจืฉ, ืืืื ืื ืืงืื ืื ื ืืืจืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืืจ.
ื ืืฉืื ืืฉื ืื ื ืื ืื ืชืงื ืืช ืืืืก ืื ืงืืขื
ืืคืืจืฉืืช - ืืคื ืฉืงืืืขืืช ืื ืืืื - ืื ืขื ืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืืืืืืง ืืืขืืืชื,
ืืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืืจื ืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื ืชืืืขืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืืงืฉ
ืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืกื ืจืฉืื ืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืงืฉ
- ืืืืืืชื - ืืกืคืง ืืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืจืฉืืช, ืฉืื-ืื-ืื ื ืจืื ืืืชื ืืื ืฉืืคืจ ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืข ืืื ืืืืข ืจืืืื ืื? ืืชืืื.
37. ืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื
ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจ, ืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืงืฉืจ ืืืืื.
ืืืชืื ืืืืจืืืช ืกืขืืฃ 15 ืืืืง ืืืืืื (ืืืง ืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1973-, ืื ืฉืืชืงืฉืจ ืืืืื
ืขืงื ืืขืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืืืขืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืจ, ืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ื"ืืืขืื"
ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืื: "ืืจืืืช ืื-ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืคื ืืื, ืืคื ื ืืื ืื ืืคื
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืืืืืชื". ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืง ืขื ืื ืฉืขืืืืื ืืงืฉืืจ
ืขืฆืื ืืืืื, ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ-ืืืคื-ืจืขืื. ืืฉื ืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื
ืฉ"ืืจืืืื" ืื ืืืฉ ืืจืขืื, ืืื ืฉืฉืืื-ืขืืฆืื ืื, ืืืืืจื. ืืื ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืกืื - ืืคืจืืืจืืช - ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืจื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืื ืจืืืื ืื ืืกื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืื
ืฉืืืืง ืืืื ืขื ืืฆืืืื - ืืืืื - ืืืกื ืงืฆืื ืฉืืื ืืฆืืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืกื
ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืงืฆื-ืื-ืงืฆื, ืืื ืืฉืื ืขืืืช-ืืืื ืฉืืฉืืืื ืืืืืง ืื ืืืคื
ืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืฉ ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืฉ
ืืื ื ืื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืืจืืืื ืื ืืกื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื. ืืืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืื
ืืชืืืชืจ ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคืื.
ืขืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื
38. ืืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
ื '
ืืืืืื ืืืจ, ืืฉืจ
ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช
(ืื"ืฅ 727/88, ืค"ื ืื(4) 487), ืฉืืืฉ ืืขืืชืจ ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื
ืืืชืืช ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืขืื ืืืฃ ื ืืืจ ืืืืืชื ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืขืฆื. ืืกืชืืจ ืื ืฉืจ ืืืชืืช ื ืชื
ืืกืืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืื ืฉืืืข ืื ืืฉื ืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืฉืข - ืืืกืืจืช
ืืืื ืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช - ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืขืชืืจื ืงืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉื
ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืืืข ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช ืืขืืชืจ ืขื ืคืงืืขืช ืืื ืืื ืืืคืกืงืช
ืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช, ืืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืกืชืืจ ืื ืื ืืืกืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื
(ืืขืืชืจ ืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืงืืืืช) "ื ืืชื ื ืืชืื ืืขืืช ื/ืื ืืืขืืื, ืืืื ื
ืืขืืืช ืขืืืื, ืฉืืขืืชืจ ืืืจืฉืข ืืขืืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืขืืื ืงืืื ืืขื ืื ืืื ื ืจืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืจ
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช". ืืืื ื ืืขืชืืจืชื ืฉื ืขืืื ื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช, ืงืืข
ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ื ืืฉื ืืจืฉืขืชื ืฉื ืืืขืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช ืืื ื ืฉืืงืื ืจืืื ืืฉืืืช
ืืืืจื ืื ืื-ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื. ืืืื ืขืืจ ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืื, ืืืื, ืืื ืจืฉืื
ืืื ืืฉืจ "ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืกืืืชื ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืขื ื ืื
ืืฉืขืช ืืชื ืืืกืืื ืื ืืืข ืืฉืจ, ืื ืืขืืชืจ ืขืืจ ืขืืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืขืืื ืงืืื?" ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื
ืงืืข ืื ืืฉืจ ืจืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืกืืืชื, ืืืืงืฉืจ ืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง (ืฉื, 492):
"ืืืฉืจ
ืืืฉื, 'ืืื ืืืจืืื', ืืขืืจ ืขืืจ ืคืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืืืชืืื ืืขื ืืื
ืื. ืืื ื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืื, ืขืืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืจ ืชืฉืชืืช
ืขืืืืชืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืชืืืืช ืืช ืืืฆืืืืช. ืืฉืจ ืื ืืืข ืขื ืืืจ ืืจืฉืขืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืขืืจ. ืืืช
ืืขืื: ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืขื ืืืจ
ืืจืฉืขืชื ืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืขื ืืืจ
ืืืจืฉืขื ืืืื. ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฆืขื ืื (ืจืื
Reg
. V.
Home
Secretary, Ex p. Zamir
[1980] AC 930 at 950)
). ืขื-ืื, ืขื ืืื
ืื ื ืืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืคืื ืืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ, ืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืกืจ ืืืืข ืืขื ืืื ืขืืืืืช, ืฉืืืื
ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืฉืจ, ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ื ืขืฉื ืืื ืื ืืคืืืข ืคืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ
ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืชืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืื. ื ืจืื ืื, ืื ืืฆืืจืคืืชื ืฉื
ืืืจืืื ืืื, ืื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืกืืืชื. ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื
ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืืืจื ืืคืขืืืืช
ื ืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืก ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืงืืื ืืืื ืื, ืื ืืืื ืืจืก ืืจืืฉืื
ืขื ืืขืืืื ื."
ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืืกื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืช ืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช (ืจืื ืืคืืกืงื 29
ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื). ืืืืื ืื ื ืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืชืืืช ืืืืจืืจ ืืขื.
39. ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืงืื ืขื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืขืฆื
ืืชืืช ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจ; ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืฉื ืืืืขืื - ืื ืชืจืฆื: ืฉืืืช ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื -
ืืื ื ืืืจื ืขืืงืจื ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืื ืชืืืจื ื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช ืืื
ืชืืืื ื. ืืขืื ืืกืืืื ืืื, ืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืืืจ - ืืืืื ื ืฆืืืืจืืช - ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื
- ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืืื - ืงืืคื-ืฉื-ืฉืจืฆืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืืืจื ืืื. ืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืคืืืช
ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืช ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื; ืืื ืืืื
ืืฉืคืืืช ืืื - ืื ืกื ืงืฆืื ืขืืื ืืืืขืื ืืฉืืช ืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืช
ืขืืื? ืืื ื, ืืืื ืขืื ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืืื - "ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช" - ืื
ืืืชื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
, ืืืื ืฉืืืชื ืืขื ืืื, ืืฆื ืืขื ืื ืขืฆืื ืืฉืืื
ืืืืจื.
ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืงืืืข ืื ืฉืืืช ืืจืฉืขืชื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืืื
ืคืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืืจื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืื-ืืืืขืช ืืฉืจ ืขื ืืืจ ืืืชื ืขืืจ ืคืืืื
ืืืืื ืึถืกืจ ืืืืจ ืืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช. ืืืืฉืื ื: "ืขื ืื ืื ื
ืืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช
ืฉื ืคืื
ืืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ..." (ืืืืืฉื ืฉืื - ื' ื'). ืืืืจืื ืืื ื ืกืืื, ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื
ืื, ืื ืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช? ื ื ืื, ืืืฉื, ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืื ืจืฉืื ืืช ืื
ื ืฉืื ืขืืื ืขื ืืืจ ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื, ืืื ื ืืฉื ืขืืจื ืืื ืืชืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืงืจื. ืืื ืืืงืจื
ืื ืื ืืืชื ืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ื ืืืขื ื"ืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช"? ืืื ืืืงืจื ืื ืื ืืื
ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืชืืช, ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง, "ืืื ืื ืืคืืืข ืคืืืขื
ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืชืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืื"? ืืื ืื -
ืื ืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืืชื "ืืืืช ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช?" ืืงืจื ื ืืกืฃ: ื ื ืื, ืืืฉื,
ืื ืขืืื ืืื ื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืจ ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื; ืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืื; ืืื
ืฉืชืฉืืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืื-ืฉื ืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืจ. ืืื ืืืงืจื ืืขืื-ืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืคืืืข
ืคืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื'? ืืื ืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืื ืืืชื
ื ืืืขื ืืืงืจื ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช? ืืื, ืืืงืจื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืช
ืืขืืื, ืื ืกืคืง ืืขืื ืื ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืกืงื ื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืกืง-ืืืื.
40. ื ืืข ืืื ืืื, ืืืขืชื, ืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืกืื
ืขืฆืื ืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืขืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืขื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืคืื ืืฉืืงืื
ืืขืชื. ืืฉื ืชืืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืื ื ืคืื ืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื, ืจืฉืืืช ืืื - ืขื ืืจื
ืืขืืงืจืื - ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ืื ืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืืื ืื (ืจืื, ืืืฉื, ืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
,
ืฉื, 492. ืจืื ืขืื ืืืกืืืชืืืช ืืคืืกืงื 15 ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ). ืืฉืืื ืืขืืงืจืืช
ืืื ืฉืืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืช ืืืืคื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืืืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง (ืฉื, ืฉื): "ืืืื,
ืฉืืฉืืื ืื ืืฆืืช ืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืื: ืืื ืจืฉืื ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืืช ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืกืืืชื
ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืขื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืขื ื ืื ืืฉืขืช ืืชื ืืืกืืื ืื ืืืข ืืฉืจ, ืื
ืืขืืชืจ ืขืืจ ืขืืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืขืืื ืงืืื? ืืชืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื".
ืืื, ืืงืื ืฉืืืืขืื ืืกืชืืจ ืืืืืขืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืข
ืฉืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืคืื, ืขืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืืชื, ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืื ืขืืงืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืช - ืืืืคืจืชื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื - ืืื ืืขืฆื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืคืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช.
41. ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื: ืืื ืืงืจื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช
ืืช-ืกืื ื ึดืืึทืขึทืช ืืืขืืช ืืืืชืืช, ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช - ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืงืจืื - ืืืืืจ
ืื ืืืืืืชื. ืฉืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืื (ืื ืืื ื ืืืื) ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ื ืื ืืขื ืืื,
ืฉืื ืืืขืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืชื ืืชืืฉืืจ ืืืืชืืช ืืื ืื ื ืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืื
ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืจ ืื.
42. ืืืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื
ืืกืชืื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
(ืจืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืกืงื
38 ืืืขืื). ืืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืจืง ืืฆืืื - ืืคืจืฉืช
ืขืืื
- ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื
ืฉืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก
(Lord Wilberforce)
ืืคืจืฉืช
Reg
v.
Home
Secretary, Ex p. Zamir
[1980] AC 930
. ืืืืชื ืคืจืฉื
ืืืงืฉ ืืืืจ, ืืืจื ืืชืืฉื ืฉื ืคืงืืกืืื, ืืฉืจืช ืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืื
ืฉืืชืืืจืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1972. ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืคืก ืฉื ืืงืฉื
ืืืฉืจื ืืชืืืจ ืขืฆืื ืืจืืืง, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืืื (ืืืชื ืขืช ืืื ืื ืืืฉ-ืขืฉืจื). ืืงืฉืชื ื ืขื ืชื
ืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1975. ืืฉื ืช 1976, ืืืืืืชื ืขืืืื ืืคืงืืกืืื, ื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืฉื, ืืืืืืฉ
ืืืืจ-ืืื ื ืกืข ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื-ืกืื ืืืฉืจื ืฉืงืืื. ืืขืช ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืื
ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืจืฉืืืืช ืื ื ืฉื ืืฉื, ืืืื ืืฃ ืื ื ืฉืื ืขื ืืขืืื ืืืืฉื. ืคืงืื ืืืืืจื ืืชืืจ
ืืช ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืงืืคื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืื - ืืฉืืืงืฉื ืืืฉืชื
ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืื - ื ืชืืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืืจืฉ ืืช ืืืืจ ืืชืืืื
ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืขืชืจ ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืฉ ืืขืชืืจืชื ื ืืืชื ืืฉืชื ืขืจืืืืช. ืขืชื
ืืืืข ืขื ืืื ื ืืืืช ืืืืจืืื. ืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืื ืืช ืขืชืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืจ, ืืืืืื
ืืืืช-ืืขืชื ืืืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืืจืื ืืื (ืืขื' 950):
โIt is clear on general principles of law that deception may
arise from conduct, or from conduct accompanied by silence as to a material fact.
It can be no answer to a claim that such deception has occurred to say that no
question was asked... I would, indeed, go further than this - a point so far
left open in the Court of Appeal. In my opinion an alien seeking entry to the
United Kingdom
owes a positive duty of candour on all material facts
which denote a change of circumstances since the issue of the entry
clearance...โ. (italics supplied - M. C.)
ืคืืจืืฉ: ืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืืื ืื
ืืฉืืืื.
โa positive duty of candour"
,
ืคืืจืืฉ: ืืืืืช ืขืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืืฃ ืฉืื ื ืฉืื ืขืืื. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื
ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช.
43. ืืื ืฉืืืื ืื - ืื ืืกืืื ืื - ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืื.
ืืื ื ืืคืื ืขื-ืคืื (ืืืกืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก) ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
,
ืืคืกืง-ืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืคืจืฉืช
Reg
. V.
Home
Secretary, Ex p. Khawaja
[1984] AC 74
. ืืขืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืช
ืงืืืื'ื
ืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
, ืืื ืฉืื ืืคืขื ืืืื ืืืช
ืืืืจืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืงืืขืึผ ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
. ืืคืจืฉื ืื
ืงืืข ืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืฉืจืช ืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื
ืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช ("ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช"). ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื
ืืืืื ืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืื. ืืฉืจ ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
(ืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืงืืืืื'ื
),
ืงืืข ืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืขืืชื, ืืืขืฉื, ืืื ืืื ืื (ืฉืื ืืื ืืกืชื ืืืืืื
ืืืืืืืช ืืฆืื ืขืฆืื, ืืืืื, ืืจืืืง, ืืขืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืฉืื). ืืืืจื ืคืจืืืืจ
(Lord Fraser)
ืืืืจ ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื (ืขืืื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืคืืื
ืืืืจืื) ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก (ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืืขืื) ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
ืืื
ืืืืจืช-ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืจ (ืฉื, 97):
โAt the time when his [Lord Wilberforceโs] speech was delivered
I agreed with all of it... but further reflection, in the light of the
arguments in the present appeal, has convinced me that it would be wrong to
construe the immigration Act 1971 as if it imposed on persons applying for
leave to enter a duty of candour approximating to uberrima fides. But, of
course, deception may arise from silence as to a material fact in some
circumstances; for example , the silence of appellant Khawaja about the fact
of his marriage to Mrs. Butt and the fact that she had accompanied him on the
flight to Manchester were, in may view, capable of constituting deception, even
if he had not told any direct lies to the immigration officer.โ
ืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืขืฆืื (ืฉื, 99) ืืกืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
ืืื ืืืืจืช-ืืื, ืืื ืืืชื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืคืืื ื ืฉื ืจืืื (ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ). ืืฉืืคืืื
ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืคืจืืืืจ: ืจืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืจืืื'
(Lord Bridge)
ืืขืืืืื 119-118 ื126-, ืืืืจื ืืืืจื ืกืงืจืื (
Lord Scarman
) ืืขืืืืื 107 ื108-. ืืืืจื ืกืงืจืื ืืกืชืืื ืืฃ
ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
, ืืืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืื: ืืื
ืืกืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืก ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช
ืฉืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืข ืฉืืื ืืชืืงืฉ ืืืกืืจ. ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืื ืืื
ืืืืข ืืื ืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช. ืคืงืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืข ืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช ืื
ืืืืืืชื, ืืขื-ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืช. ืืืืฉืื ื (ืฉื,
108-107):
โIt is certainly an entrant's duty to answer truthfully the
questions put to him and to provide such information as required of him... But
the Act goes no further. He may, or may not, know what facts are material. The
immigration officer does, or ought to, know the matters relevant to the
decision he has to make. Immigration control is, no doubt, an important
safeguard for our society...To allow officers to rely on an entrant honouring a
duty of positive candour, by which is meant a duty to volunteer relevant
information, would seem perhaps a disingenuous approach to the administration
of control... The immigration Act does impose a duty not to deceive the
immigration officer. It makes no express provision for any higher or more
comprehensive duty: nor is it possible, in my view, to imply any such duty.
Accordingly I reject the view that there is a duty of positive candour imposed
by the immigration laws and that mere non-disclosure by an entrant of material
facts in the absence of fraud is a breach of the immigration laws.โ
ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืจ ืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืื ื
ืื "ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช" ืืฉืืืื, ืืื ืืืจ ืืืื - ืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืื
ืืืืข. ืืืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืขืฉื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืฉืงืจ.
44. ืืขืจื: ืืืจืืช ืฉืืกืชืืืืื ืื ื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืจื
ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืชื ืืขืจื ืฉืืขืืจ
ืืคืจืฉืช
ืงืืืื'ื
ืขื ืืืจืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
. ืืืืืช-ืืขืชื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืงืืืื'ื
ืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืื ืืืจืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
ืืืฉืจ ื
โa
positive duty of candourโ
ืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืื ืืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืจืืจ ืฉื ืืื ืื
(โa case of clear
deception"
) ืืืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืืื (ืืขืืื 99):
โI ventured the opinion that a system of consideration of
individual cases for the privilege of admission to this country can only work
humanely and efficiently on a basis of candour and good faith of those seeking
entry. If here I trespassed on to the ground of moral judgment, I am
unrepentant.โ
ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจื ื ืืืงืื ืืืจ: ืืฉ "ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช" ืฉื
ืืฉืคื ืืืฉ "ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช" ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืืืจืชื, ืืื ืืจื ืื ืืืจื ืื. ืืืืจื
ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื "ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช" ืืืืกืืจ ืืืืกืจ ืืืืจืชื ืืืืืืื ืื
ืืืกืืจ ืืืฉืคื. ืืืื ืชื ืืืชื ืจืฆืืื - ืืืื ื ื ืกืืื ืืื - ืื ืงืืืขืชื ืฉื ืื ืืจืื ืืืฆืขืชื
ืืืชื ืืืืฆืช ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืจื ืืชื ืืืืช ืฉืจืืื ืืืฉืืืจื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืกืืจื-ื ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื.
ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืจื
ืฉืืื ื ื ืจืืืืื ืืฉืืืืชื ืืคืกืงื-ืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืืจืืื (ืื ืืคืกืงื-ืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืฉืคื
ืืืจืื). ืื ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
, ืื ืืืืจ ืืื - ืืืชื ืืืืช
ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืืื - ืืืกืืชื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืฉืืคืื ืืืืกืจื, ืืื ืื ื
ื ึดืืึธื ืขื ืืืจืื. ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก, ืื ืืืฆืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื
ืืื.
ืืจื ืืื: ืืฉ ืืกืื ืืกืืจื, ืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืขืืื
ืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจืคืืจืก ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
, ืื ืืฆืืื ืขืฆืื ื
ืืืงืืจืื ื
ืื-ืืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืฆืืช ืขืฆืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืืจื. ืจืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืืจืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืจ
, ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืืงืฉื ืคืจืืืืืืืื, ืงืจื: ืืืขืื ืืืืช ื ืืืชื (ืฉื,
950) (ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืฉืจืื: ืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืจื ืืฉืจืื ืื ืขืืื ืืคื ืืืง ืืฉืืืช,
ืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืช ืื ืืกื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืจืื, ืืืฉื: ืื"ืฅ 758/88,
431/89, 2901/90
ืงื ืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(4) 505, 520;
ืื"ืฅ 740/87
ืื ืืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 443;
ืืืืกืืืชืืืช ืืื). ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคื ืืจืื ืืืืงืฉืื
ืืืชืืืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืื ืืืจ ืืคืกืืขืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช-ืฉืืืืฅ-ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืจ
ืืืขืจืื ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืช, ื ืืชื ืืืืื - ืื ืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืืง - ืืฉืงืคื ืืกืืืจืช ืื ืืืขืฉืื
ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืจื.
45. ืืขืชื ื ืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืฉืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช
ืืฉืืืื. ืงืจื, ืืขื ืืื ื ื: ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืืชื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืฉืืจืฉืืช
ื ืืจืฉืช ืื ืืืคืขืืช ืกืืืืชื. ืืื ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ, ืืืืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืจืฉืืช. ืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืฆืืฆืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืช, ืฉืื ืืฉืงืจ, ืฉืื ืืจืืืช, ืฉืื
ืืืืขืืช, ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฉ. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืื: "ืืื ืชืื ื ืืืฉ ืืช ืขืืืชื ืืืจืืช
ืืืืืืื..." (ืืืงืจื ืื ืื). ืืืื ืชื ื ืืื, ืืืืชืจ ืืืืจ, ืืจืืื ืืคืืขื - ืืืื
ืฉืืืืื ืืืกืจ ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืข ืฉืืื ื-ืืืช - ืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื, ืืฉืชืืงื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืช. ืื
ืืื, ืืืฉื, ืขื ืืื ื ืฉื
ืืืืจ
ืืคืงืืกืืื ื, ืฉืืืืื ืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฆืื ืขืฆืื
- ืืืืื - ืืจืืืง, ืืืืืขื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืกืชื ืืืชืจื ืขื-ืคื ืืฉืจืช ืื ืืกื ืื ืืฆืื ืขืฆืื
ืืจืืืง.
ืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื: ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืืืื ืขื
ืืชื ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ืืงืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืื ืชืืืืง ืืืืกื ืฉืืื ืืืงืฉืช ืขืืื ืจืฉืืื ืืื
ืืืขืืื ืืื ืขื-ืคื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช. ืืืจื ืืืืชืืืื ื ืืจืฉื ืืืืฆืื ืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื,
ืืืื ืืื "ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืฉืื ืื ืืกืฃ". ืืืจืืช ืืืช ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืืืงื ื ืื - ืืืืืขืชื - ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื.
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืขื ืื ืืืชื ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืืงืืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืื ื, ืืืขืืืื ืื
ืคืงืืื ืืืืก ืื ืืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืง - ืืื ืืจืฉื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉ - ืืื
ืื ืืื ืื ืงืืช ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืื ืืืขืฉื ืืืืืจ ืฉืขืฉืชื. ืืืื ืืืขืฉื ืกืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืจืฉืืช
ืืืืก ืืืืฉ, ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืคืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืื ืืช
ืจืฉืืื ื, ืื ืืืชื ืืขืืชืจืช ืจืฉืืืช ืืืชืืืฉ ืืืขืฉื ืืืืขืืื ืฉืขืฉืชื, ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืชื
ืืืขืืืช ืืขื ื ืฉืจืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืืข. ืจืฉืืื ืื ืืืฆึธื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืฉืืื, ืคืืื
ืืื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืื, ืืืกืงื ื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืื
ืืืงืืื. ืืืืฆืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืืจืฉื ืื ืกืืืืชืื ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืขื ืืื ืคืืื ื ืื
ืืืืื ื (ืจืื, ืืืฉื: ืื"ืฅ 135/71
ืคืจืกืื
ื '
ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืขืืืจื
,
ืค"ื ืื(2) 533). ืขืืงืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืื, ืฉืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืื ืื ืืื-ืืืืื ืฉื
ืืืืข ืขื ืืจื ืืกืชื - ืงืจื: ืืืคืจืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืก - ืืื
ืืืืขืืื ืืืืื ืช-ืืืืื. ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืืื ืขืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืงืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืชื
ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืืืกื ืจืฉืื; ืืืืื ืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืจ ืืืชื ืชื ืืื, ืืื
ืืืกืืคื ืืืืืขืชื ืืืืืขืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืงืืืื, ืืืื ืืืกืืคื ืืื ืขื ืืื.
46. ืขื ืืื - ืืืจืื ื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช. ื ืขืืืจ ืขืชื
ืืกืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืขืชื ื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื, ืืขื ืืื ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืจืืข
ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื.
ืขื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื
47. ืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื
ืืืืจืืข - ืืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืขืงืืคืื - ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื? ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืืจืชื ืืืืืชื
ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืขืืฆืืื ืืื ืขืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืช ืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื, ื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื,
ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืืขื ื ืื ืืื ื ืขืืื ืื ืฉืื: ืืืืืจืฉ ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื
ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืชืืื ืกืืืืชื, ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืงืืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื, ืื ืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืฃ-ืืื? ืืื ื ืื
ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืจืกื ืืชืจื ืื ืืืจ ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืช-ืืืื ืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืคืจืื, ืืื ืชืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืจื-ืืช ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืช-ืืืื ืื -
ืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืืืชื - ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื?
48. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืื ื, ืื "ืืืื ืืฉื ื
ืืื" ืฉืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืืืจ ืคื ืชืืืืฉ ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืชืืืื ืกืืจืชื ืื ืชืืืืจื
ื"ืืฉื ื" ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืช-ืคื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืขืช ืื ืืืื ืช ืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืืงื ืืืืคืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื. ืื
ืืชืืืจ "ืืฉื ื" ืฉืงืื ืื ืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืื ืืืชื.
49. ืืขืืื, ืืขืืื ืื ื ืฉื ึถื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืื
ืื ืืืขื ื ืื ืื ืืื - ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืกืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืื - ืืืื ืืืขืืืช
ืคื ืื. ืืข ืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืชื ืืืื. ืืืืืืจื ื, ืื ืจืง ืื ืืืขื ื ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืื
ืืืื, ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืข ืืช ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืชืืื. ืืขื ืืืื (ืื ืื ืขื ืืื) ื ืืกืืฃ
ืื ืืืจ:
cessante
ratione legis cessat lex ipsa
: ืืืืืื ืืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืฃ-ืืื.
ืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื, ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืชื ืืืจืื? ืืืืืจืกืช ืืืจื: ืื
ืืืชื
ืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื, ืืื
ืืื
ืืืื ืฉืืจืืฅ ืืืชื ืืืื ื?
50. ืขื ืฆืืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ, ืื ืื ื ืงืจืชื ืขื ืืจืื ืืืื
ืื-ืืืืืช ืืงืืืขืช ืื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืกืืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืคืจืื. ืื ื ืืื ืจืืืื, ืืขื ืืืช-ืงืคื, ืืืืงืฉ ืื ืืืชึทืจ ืื ืืืขืกืืง ืชืืืืจืช ืฉืชื ืื ืืชื ืขืื
ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืงืื. ืืืืืฆื ืื ืฉืืืืจ ืื ืืกืืจื ืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืจืจ ืขื ืืื ืชืคืจืืข
ืื ืืื ื ืืช ืื ืืืช ืืฉืื ืื? ืื ืืกืืจ ืขื ืืขืืจืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื
ืืฉืื ืื? ืื ืืืจ ืืขืืจืื - ืืืฉืื ืื - ืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืฉื "ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืคืจืื" ืืฉืจ-ืขื-ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืชืขืื ืืื ื ืืืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืจืืื ืื
ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื? ืืขืืื ืื ื ืงืืขื ืขื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืขืื-ืื, ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉืื
ืื ืื ื ืงืืขื ืืขืืื. ืืื, ืจืฉืืื ืื ืชืืชื ืขืืจืื ืืืขืกืืง ืชืืืืจืช ืืืืช-ืงืคื, ืื ืืืื ืื
ืืจืฉืืื ืืื ืืืชืืจ ื ืืื ื ืืขืืื ืืื ืืืืจื: ืข"ื 156/52
ืืืื "ืขืื"
ืืจืืฉืืื
ื '
ื"ืจ ืืืืืจื ืืจืืื
, ืค"ื ื' 1121, 1133-1132. ืืืื
ืื ืืกืชืืจืช ืืืืื, ืฉืืจื ืขืืจืื ืืื ื ืืขืืช-ืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืชืืจ ืืขืฉื-ืืืืจื. ืืื-ืขื-ืืืช,
ืื ื ืงืืข ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืกืืจื ืืื ืขืืจืื, ืืืืชืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืื
ื ืืื ืช ืืชืืืืจืช ืชืขืื ืืืืจื. ืื ื ืงืืข ืื ืืืืื, ืืืขื ืืืช ืืขืชื ืืฃ ืื ืจืืื ืืื ืื ืื
ืืืงืืข. ืืืื ืืขืื-ืื - ืืึผ ื ืงืืขื - ืื ืืืขืชื ืื ืชืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืขืืื ืื, ืืืืื
ืืืจื ืืืจืชืืช - ืื ืืืจืช - ืืืชื ืืื ืืฉืจืชืช. ื ืืคืื ืืื: ืืืื ืืขืื-ืื, ืื ื ืงืืขื, ืืืชื
ืืืืื ื ืื ืขื ืืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืชื-ืจืืื ืืืืชื-ืืืฆืืง. ืื
ืืืฉืจ ืืจืฉืืื ืืืขืกืืง ืชืืืืจืช ืืืืช-ืงืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืฉื-ืืื ืื ืืืจ. ืืื ืืืื - ืืื
ืืืชื ืืืื - ืื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืกืืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื
ืื ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืชืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืื.
ืืจื ืืื: ืืชืืืืช ืฉื "ืืืืืช ื ืืืชื ืฉื
ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืคืืขืื ืืืืจืืื" ืืื ื, ืืืื, ืืืช ืืชืืืืืชืื ืืืืฆืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืง
ืจืืฉืื ืขืกืงืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1968- (ืืกืขืืฃ 1(ื)(1) ืื). ืืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช
- ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืืืืช ืืื - ืืฉืงืื ืืืขืชื ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืืืืจื. ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืื -
ืืืืืขืืจ ืืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืฉ - ืืืชื ืืจืฉืืช ืจืฉืืืช, ืืฃ ืืืืืช, ืืฉืงืื ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืืืืจื ืืฉืื ืื.
51. ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ึนืืืจ ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืคืจืื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืจืื ืื ื ืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืขืืจื, ืืื ืืืื -
ืฉืื ืืืขืืจ - ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ื ืื ื ืืงืฉื ืืืจืืจื.
ืืกืืฃ-ืื-ืืกืืคืืช, ืื ืืืกืืคืื ืืืืืจืื ืื ื, ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื - ืฉื ืืื ืืืื
- ืืกืชืืคืคืื ืชืืช ืงืืจืช-ืื ืืืช, ืืืืจื ืืืืข ื ืืฆืจ ืืื ืืื ืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืืืื: ืขืืงืจืื
ืืืืงืืจืื ืืช ืื ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืจ - ืืืืืคื - ืืืขืชืื
ืืืืื ืืช ื ืึทืื ืื ืืื ืคืืื ื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืช ืืงืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืจ. ืขืืจืืื
ืืชืืืืื, ืื ืฉืืืขืื ืื ื, ืืืืื "ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืื" - ืืขืื ืื-ืืืื - ืืืฆืืจืื
ืืื ืกืจืื, ืืื ืืืืงืื, ืื ืืืฉืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืื ืืืฉืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื.
ืืืื ืืืชืืืื: ืืืืจืืช ืืื - ืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื -
ืขื-ืืฃ ืฉื ืืขื ืื ืืขืื, ืืืงืฉื ืขืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืืงืฉืืช ืขืื ืืฃ ืืืื. ืืื, ืืขื ืืื
ืืืืงืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืื ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืืืื, ืืคื ืืืชื ื
ืืืืืงืง ืืืืืงืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฉื ืืื. ืจืื, ืืืฉื: ืื"ืฅ 1921/94
ืกืืงืจ
ื '
ืืืืขืื
ืืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืชืขืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื
, ืค"ื ืื (4) 237. ืืืืื ืืืฉืจ
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืชื, ืื ืืืขืชื ืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืจืื: ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืืชื
ืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจืื "ืืจืืจื ืื ืืงืฉื" ืืื ืืฉืคื ืฆืืืืจื ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื? ื ืืคืื
ืืื: ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืชืืื ืขื ืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืคื
ืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจ-ืืื-ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืื.
52. ืืืืจื ืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืจื ื, ืื ื ืืื, ืืืืื,
ืืืชืขืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืกืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืคื, ืืชืคืชืืืช ืฉืืฆืืื ืืคื ืื ื ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคื ืฉืืื
ื ืืฆืืช ืืคื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืื. ืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ื ืืืงืช ืืฉืคืืืช-ืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืืืงื ืื, ืืฉืืื
ืืขืฆืื, ื ืืืขืช ืื ืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืืช ืขืฆืื. ืื ืืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืืืื, ืื
ืืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืืงืื, ืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืฉืคื ืืงื ืืื, ืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื, ืืื
ืืฉืคืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืืืชืจ ืืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื-ืชืขืจืืืช - ืชืืคืขื
ืืืชื-ื ืื ืขืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืช - ืื ืืืื "ืืฆืืจื-ืืืืืืื". ืืืืื
ืื ื ืืื ืข ืืงืืืขื ืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืื, ื ืืืขื ืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืขืืฆืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืฆืืช ืืคื ืื ื ืืืื.
53. ืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืฉืคื
ืฆืืืืจื ืืื, ืืืื ืืื - ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืื - ืืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืืชื-ืคื ืืื,
ืืขื ืคื-ืืฉืคื ืฉืื ืื. ืื, ืืืฉื, ืืืืืงื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืงืื. ืฉืชื ืืจืื
ืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื ืืื ืืืฉืคื - ืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืื ืื ืืฉืคื ืฆืืืืจื, ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืื
ืืฉืคื ืื ืืืืงืื - ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืื-ืืื, ืืืืืช ืื ืื-ืืื. ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืงื ืฉื
ืืืืืงื. ืืืจื ื ืขื-ืื ืืืงืื ืืืจ (ืืฉืื,
ืืืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืื
(ืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจืื
ืข"ืฉ ื"ื ืืืื ืก, ืืจืืฉืืื, ืชืฉื"ื) 161, ื"ืฉ 2:
"...ืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื
ืืฉืืืื ืกืืจ ืืืืื ืืื 'ืืืืืืื' ืืืืฉืชืชืช ืืื ืขื ืขืงืจืื ืืช-ืืกืื ืืงืืืขืื ืื. ืืกืื
ืืืฉืืื ืื ืฆืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืืืื. ืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื
ืืื ื ืืืงืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืจืื ืืืช (ืืืฉืจ, ืชืืืจื, ืจืืืืง ื ืืง,
ืืืื"ื). ืื ืงืืืช ืืื ืืกืืืืืช ื ืขืฉืืช ืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื
ืขื ืืกืื
ืฉืืืืื
ืืืืงืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืขืฉืืืช ืืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื, ืืืืืืืฆืจ ืืืงืืจืื ื
ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืกืืืืืช, ืชืฉืืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ,
ืืฉืื
ืฉืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืช. ืืื ืืืื, ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื, ืขื ืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคื
ืกืคืฆืืคื ืื ืื ื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืกืืืืืช (ืืื ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืื ื'ืคืืจืืฉื'), ืฉืื ืืืฉืื ืืื
ืข"ื ืืืืงืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืื. ืื ืืืืืจ - ืืื ืื ืืืืืจื (ืืขืชืื ืื ืื ืื).
ื ืงืืืืช ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืืช ืืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื ืขืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ืืืืจืช ื ืงืืืช
ืืืืฆื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืชืืื ืืคืจืืืจืืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืชืืื ืืคืืกืืจืืืจืืช, ืืืืงืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืชืื
ื ืืืขืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืฉืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืขืืฆืื ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื." (ืืืืืฉืืช
ืืืงืืจ - ื' ื')
ืืืฉืคื ืืืจืฅ ื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืคื
ืฆืืืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืืฉื ืืืืงืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืื ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื. ืืชืคืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืื,
ืฉืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืขืื ืืฉืจ ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืืื
ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืงืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืื
ืืฆืืง (ื ืงืืื ืืคืืื, ืฉืืืื, ืขืฉืืืช-ืืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืขืฉื ืขืฉืื, ืืชืขืจืืืช "ืื
ืืฆืืง" ืืืืืฆื ืืืื), ืืืืขืช ืืืืข ื ืฉืชืจืฉื ืืชืืื ื ืขืืืงืืช ืงืืกืืคืืงืฆืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืฆืืืืจื
ืืืืฉืคื ืคืจืื. ืืืืื, ืงืจืื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ื ืฉืืขื ืขืชืืจืืช ืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืคื ื
ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืจืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืงืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืืืืฉืคื ืฆืืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืื -
ืืื ืฉืื ืืืชื ืืื - ืืืืืงืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืงืื.
54. ื ืืืืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ื. ืืคื ืฉืืืจื ื ืืืขืื, ืื ืืืขื ื ืืืืืช
ืืืงืืจืื ื ืืืืืืืช ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืขืฆืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืื ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืงืืื
ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืื. ืืื ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืืื ืื
ืื
ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืฉืงืื
ืื
ืฉืืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื
ืืื
ืขื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืื? ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื. ืื ื-ืื-ืื,
ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืฉื ืืืกืคืงืืืจ
ื '
ืจืืฉ ืขืืจืืช ืืืช-ืฉืืยญ
, ืค"ื ื' 659, ืกืืจืื
ืจืฉืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืชื ืืขืืชืจ - ืฉืืืจ ืฉื ืืืจื - ืจืฉืืื ืืคืชืื ืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืจืชื. ืืขื
ืืกืืจืื: ืืขื-ืืืืช ืื ืืกืืื ืืืคืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืื ืืช. ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืงืืข ืื ืฉืืงืืื ืื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืคืกืื, ืืืืจ ืขื-ืื ืืฉืืคื ืืจื ืืื (ืืขื' 665-664):
"ืืื ื ื
ืจืืืื ืืืฉ ืื ืืืืง ืื... ืืื ื ืืชืื ืฉืืืืงืฉ, ืืคืชืื ืื ืืช ืืืืจืชื ืืื ืืกืืืชื ืฉื
ืืขื-ืืืืช, ืืคืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช ืฉืื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืขื-ืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืช ืจืืื
ืขื ืืืืงืฉ. ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืขื ืื ื ืฉื ืืขืืจืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืืกืื ืืกืจื ืืชืช ืืช
ืืจืฉืืื."
ืืืฆื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืจื ืืื? ืืืขืชื, ืื ื ืชืืืื ืืฉืืคื
ืืจื ืืื ืืงืืืข ืืืงืืจืื ื ืื ืฉืืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื - ืืืฉืจ ืื - ืฉืืงืืืื ืคืกืืืื ืื ืืขืฉืืืชื
ืฉื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื. ืฉืืึผ ื ืชืืืื ืืคืกืืง ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ื ืืงืฉืื ืขืืื ืขื-ืืชืจ: ืืืงืืจืื ื ืื,
ืื ืืงืืจื ืืื ืึถืฆืืง ืืืืฆื ืื? ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืคืกืง ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื. ืืืจืขืชื ืฉื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืกืื
ืขืฆืื ืื ืขื ืฉืืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืืืฉืจ-ืื, ืืื ืขื ื ืกืืื ื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช-ืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืข
ืืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช ืฉื ืชืืืขื ืืื ืืขื-ืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจ, ืขื ืืจื ืกืืจืื ืืขื ืงืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืื
ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื: ืืืืืจื, ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืงืื ืจืฉืืื ืืคืชืืืชื ืฉื
ืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืชืืืื ืื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืืื ืืงืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืคืขืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืช. ืืื ืื?
ืืขื-ืืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืืคืขืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืช ืืคืืจื ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืจืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืจ?
ืืืืื-ื ื ืืขื-ืืืืช ืืืชืืข ืืช ืขืืืื ื ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืกืื ืืืืจ. ืืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืกืืื
ืืืืจืืข ืืืืืืงื-ืืืขืืช ืืื ืื ืืฆืื, ืืืืชืืื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืคืชืืืชื ืฉื
ืื ืืช, ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขืชืจ ืืขืืชืจ.
55. ื ืืฆื ืื ื ืืืคืื ืืืช: ืืืืฆืขืจ, ืืืืขืืจ ืืกืืื
ืืคืืจืฉืช ืืืืง, ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืกืืืช - ืืืืืจื - ืืืืจืืข ืืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืื
ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจื ืืกืืจื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉื ืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืื
ืืฉืืงืื-ืืื-ืฉืืงืืืื ืืขืช ืืืจืขืชื ืื ืชืืขืชืจ ืืืงืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืคื ืื. ืฉืืงืื ืืืืืงื-ืืืขืืช
ืฉืืฉ ืืืืงืฉ ืขื ืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืืืืฅ-ืืชืืื. ืืื ืืืืืืจ, ืืืคืื, ืืคืกืืืช ืฉืืงืื ืื
ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืื ืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื. ืืืื ืืื ืื: ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืจืฉืืืช ืืฉืงืื ืืืขืชื
ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉืืืืง ืืื ื ืืชืืจ ืื ืืฉืงืื, ืืื ืื ืืงืืจื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืงืืจื ืืืฉืคื
ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืืืื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืกืืจืื ืืืืฆื ืืฉืืงืื ืื ืืกืืจื ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืจืืข
ืืืืืืงื-ืืืขืืช ืฉื ืชืืืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจ.
ืืื ื ืืืืง: ืืื ืกืคืง ืื ืืืชืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืืื
ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืงืืืช ืจืฉืืื, ืืืืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืขืชืจ ืืืงืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืคื ืื. ืืื ืืื
ืื ืจืืืชื, ืืืืืจื ืฉืืืจื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืช
idem per idem
. ืืจืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืจืขื ืืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช
ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื - ืืืืืจื - ืืืืฅ ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื, ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉื ืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช
ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืืืืื ืขื ืืกืฃ.
56. ืืืื ืื, ืืืืกืจืช ืขื ืจืฉืืช-ืืื ืื ืืืืจืืข - ืืื
ืืขืงืืคืื - ืืกืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื, ื ืชืงืืื ืืคืกืืงื ืืืืงืืจืื ื, ืืื ืืฆืืชื ืื ืื-ืคืขื
ื ืจืฉืื ืืกืชืืืืืช ืืฆืืื. ืจืื, ืืืฉื: ืื"ืฅ 9/49
ืืืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
,
ืค"ื ื 136; ืื"ืฅ 35/48
ืืจืกืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืืกืืจ ืืืชืขืฉืื
,
ืค"ื ื 330; ืื"ืฅ 56/53 ยญ
ืงืืงืื ืื
ื '
ืขืืจืืช ืจืืื
, ืค"ื
ื 949; ืื"ืฅ 132/57
ืคืืจืฉื
ื '
ืขืืจืืช ืืื
, ืค"ื ืื 1324;
ืื"ืฅ 280/60
"ืืืืง" ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืข"ื
ื '
ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืืกืืืช ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืชืืฉืืจื ืจืืงืืืช
, ืค"ื ืื 1323; ืื"ืฅ
115/61
ืืงืืจื
ื '
ืขืืจืืช ืจืืช-ืื
, ืค"ื ืื 1877; ืื"ืฅ 27/632
ืืื
ื '
ืืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืื ืขืืจ, ืช"ื
, ืค"ื ืื 1330;
ืื"ืฅ 278/62
ืกืจืืืืืืฅ
ื '
ืขืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืื
, ืค"ื ืื 508;
ืื"ืฅ 329/64
ืืืจื
ื '
ืืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืื ืขืืจ, ืื ื-ืืจืง
,
ืค"ื ืื(1) 365, 370.
57. ืืืช ืืฉืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืงืืืขืช, ืื ืืกืืจื ืืื
ืืืฉืืจื ืืกืืง ืืื ืืขื ืงืจืงืข ืืขืืื ืฉื ืคืืืฉื, ืืื ืื ืืืชื ืื ืคืืืฉื "ืืจืื".
ืืืืื ืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืื ื ืคืืืฉื "ืืจืื" ืื ืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ืขื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืคื ืืช ืืช
ืืืชืืื ื ืืงืื ืกืขื ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืกืื ืืืืจ. ืจืื, ืืืฉื: ืื"ืฅ 109/70
ืืืืืจืื
ืืงืืคืื ืืืืจืชืืืืืกื ืืืจืืฉืืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืืฉืืจื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 225, 240 ืขื
244 (ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ื); ืื"ืฅ 37/49
ืืืืืฉืืืื
ื '
ืืืคืืืจืืคืืก ืื ืืกื
ื ืคืงืืื, ืืคื
, ืค"ื ืื 716, 726 (ืืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจื ื). ืืจื ืืื: ืืืชื ืืืงืืจืื ื
ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคื, ืืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืคืงืื ืืืืจืฉื ืืจืฉืื ืืืืจืฉื ืืืืืืืกืื
ืืืืข ืื ืืกืจ ืื ืืืืชืืขื ืืืืกืื (ืืืื ื ืืฉืืืื), ืืื ืฉืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืชืืงืฃ
ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืข (ืืืื: ืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืชืคืฉื, ืื ืืื). ืจืื ืืืฉืื: ืื"ืฅ
143/62
ืคืื ืง ืฉืืืื ืืจ
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื 225; ืื"ืฆ 58/68
ืฉืืื
ื '
ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื
, ืค"ื ืื(2) 477.
58. ืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื? ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืข
ืืืชื ืืืืงืืื ืืืชื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืื? ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื, ืืืขืชื ื, ืืฆืืจื ืืืึผืื ึถื ืืฉืืืช
ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืืืช ืขืืื ื
ืืืงืฆืืช ืืืืืื
ืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืช ืขืืงืจื
ืชืคืงืืืื ืืืช ืชืืื ืคืขืืืืชื. ืขื ืืจื ืืฉืืืื: ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ึถื ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืฉืืจ ืฉืื ื
- ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืงืจืื - ืืืืฆืื ืื-ืืืืฅ ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืช ืขืืงืจื
ืืกืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืจืช. ืืืขืืืื ื ืืช ืฉืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืืืช ืื-ืืฆื-ืื, ืืืขื ื ืื ืืืขืืื
ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช ืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืฉืคืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืกืขืืฃ 1(ื) ืืืืง-ืืกืื: ืืฉืคืืื: "ืืื
ืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืฉืกืืืืช ืฉืคืืื ื ืชืื ื ืืืืืื...". ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืื,
ืงืจื, ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื (ืืฉืื: ืื"ืฅ 5364/94
ืืื ืจ
ื '
ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืคืืืช
ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 758, 786, ืืคื ืืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืง). ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืฉืืคืืช, ืขืืงืจ ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืฆืืข. ืืืืฉืื ืกืขืืฃ 1
ืืืืง-ืืกืื: ืืืืฉืื: "ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื". ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื
ื ืืืจ, ืื ืขืืงืจืื ืืึผืื ึถื ืืืฉืืจื ื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืกืืืืช ืืฉืคืืื - ืืช ืืกืืืืช
ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื - ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช, ืืื-ืืขืช ืืฉืืื ืกืืืืช ืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช. ืื,
ืืืฉื, ืื ืืืืจื ื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืกืคืงืืืจ
ืืื ืืชืื ืกืืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื ืืกืจื ืืืชื
ืจืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืขื - ืืืขื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืื - ืื
ืงืืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืคืขืืช ืขืกืง ืืืืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืืชื, ืืื ืืืกืคื ื ืืฆืืืื ื ืืช ืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื
ืืกืืืืืืช ืฉืคืืื. ืืฉืืืงื ืขืืื ื ืืืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืขืืจ ืืกืืื ืืคืืจืฉืช ืืื-ืืฉืืขืืช ืืขืกืงื
ืืฉืืคืื ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื - ืืื ืืืื - ืืกืงื ื ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืกืืจ ืขื ืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืื
ืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืฉืืคืืช ืืจืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืืืืื.
ืืืืงืืงืื ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ: ืขืจืื ืื ื ืืชืืคืขื ืื
ืืคืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ื ืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืคืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ื ืืื ื ืขื "ืืืืื ืื
ืืืืืื". ื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืืช, ืื ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืชื "ืืืืื ืื
ืืืืืื" ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืชื ืชืฉืชืืช.
59. ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ืขืืจ, ืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืจืฆืืช-ืืืจืืช
ืืชืขืืจืจืช ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืขื ืืง ืกืืืืืืช ืฉืคืืื - ืขื ืืจื ืฉื
ืืงืืงื ืจืืฉืืช - ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช. ืืฉืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืงืช ืกืืืืช ืื ืืชืืจื ืชืืช
ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืืงื ืืงืืืขืช ืื ืกืืืืช ืืฉืคืืื ื ืืชื ื ืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืชื-ืืืฉืคื? ืืฉืชืืฉืืืช ืืืืื
ืืืฉืคื ืืจื"ื ืืื ืกืืคืืจ ืืจืชืง ืืขืฆืื, ืื ืื ื ืื ื ืืจืื ืืืืจืื. ืจืื, ืืืฉื:
Tribe,
Constitutional Choices
(Harvard University Press, 1985),
84 ff.; id,
American
Constitutional Law
(2
nd
ed.,
1988) 23 ff., esp. 49 ff.;
Commodity Futures Trading Commission
v.
Schor
478 U.S. 833, 106 S.Ct. 3245 (1986);
Thomas
v.
Union Carbide
Agricultural Co.
, 473 U.S. 568, 105 S.Ct. 3325 (1985).
60. ืฉืืืืช ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืคืกืืง
ืืืืืจืืข - ืืื ืืื ืืช - ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืกืืืืช ืขืฆืื ืขื ืืขื ืขืงืจืื ื ืฉื ืืคืจืืช
ืืจืฉืืืืช (ืชืื "ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื"), ืืขืืงืจื ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืคืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืช
ืืชืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืชื. ืขื ืืจื ืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช ืืขืกืืง ืืฉืคืืื, ืืื
ืืืืืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืฉืคื ืฆืืง ืฉืืืขืฉื ืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืชื ืชืืื. ืื ืืขื ืขืืงืจื ืื
ื ืืืื ืืขื ื ืืกืฃ - ืืขื ืฉื ืืืืืื - ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืื-ืขืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช
ืืืืฆืขืช ืืคืกืืง ืืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื. ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืชืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืกืืืืชื
ืืืชืคืงืืื - ืืชืืืชื ืืชืืื ืขืืกืืงื ืืืฆืจื ืืื-ืขืืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืขืืื. ืืฉื
ืฉืืืช-ืืฉืคื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฆืืข, ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืืืื
ืจืืืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืคืืื. ืืื ืืืฆืืื (ืฉืฉืจืื) ืืชืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืกืืืืชื, ืืืืืชื ืฉืืืฉ
ืืจืฉืืืืช. ืืจื ืืืืจืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื, ืืขื ืื ื ืื ืข
ืืช ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืข ืืกืืืกืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื, ืืื ืขืืืื
ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืขืฉืืช ืฆืืง ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืชืืกืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืจื ืืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืื
(ืฉื, 1334) ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืื:
"ืืืืขืื
ืืืงืืืืช - ืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช - ืืื ื ืืืฃ ืืฉืคืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืื ืืืชื ืฆืืื
ืืื ืืื. ืืฃ ืืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืขืจืืื ืืืืจืืข ืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืคืืืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืืืืืช
ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืื ืืก ืืืคืืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื. ืฉืืงืืืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืื
ืื ืื ืืชืื ืื ืขืจืื ืืชื ืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืคืืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื-ืืื ืื ืื ืฉืชืืขืฉื ืขื-ืคื
ืจืฉืืื ืฉืืืฆื ืขื-ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ื ืขื ืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืขื ืืช ืื, ืืื ืื ืืืงื ื ืืฆื
ืืืชื ืื ืืืืขื ืืคืืืขื ืืืืืืืชืื ืืขืื ืืืงื ืืฉืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืืืื..."
ืจืื ืขืื: ืื"ืฅ 353,305/82
ืืืจ
ื '
ืืืืขืื
ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืื, ืืืื
ืืืจืื
, ืค"ื ืื(1) 141, 149-148 (ืืคื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืจ).
61. ืืืจื ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืื ืืฉืคื
ืคืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืคืืขื ืขื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืขื-ืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืื "ืืื ืจืข
ืืื". ืืืืฉืื ืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืงืฉืจ:
"ืืื,
ืืืืืื, ืืฉ ืคืกืื ืืื ืฉืขืืจืื ืืกืจืืช ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื ืืืงืืช ืขืกืง, ืื ืืขืื ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื
ืืกืจืืช ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืงืืช ืื ืื,
ืืืฉืจ ืืจืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืชืคืก ืืช ืืืืงื ืืืงืจืงืขืื
ืืื ืื ืืืืช?
" (ืืืืืฉื ืฉืื - ื' ื')
ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืืจื ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืื
ืื "...ืืคื ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืืก ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืฃ ืืื ื ืจืฉืื, ืืชืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืกืื
ืืืื".
62. ืืขืชื ืืืึทืจ ืืช ืืืจึดื. ืื ืืืืืง ืขื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืืจื
ืื ืฉืืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืืฉื. ืื ืื
ืืขืชื. ืืฉืื ื ืืขืฆืื, ืืฉ ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืกืช ืชืื ืืขืคืจืืื. ืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืจืข ืืืืจ, ืืื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืื ืชืฆืื ืืื. ืืขืื ืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืื,
ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืจืืจ ืืขืื-ืื ืื ืืงืฉืช ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืกืืช ืขื ืคืจืืขืช-ืืืง, ืจืฉืืืช ืืื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืช - ืจืฉืืืช ืืื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฃ ืืืืืช ืืื - ืืกืจื ืืืงืฉืชื. ืืืืื ืขื ืืจื
ืืืชืืืืงื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ื. ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืื
ืคืฉืื: ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช-ืงึธืฆึถื, ืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืื ืืงืฆื ืื ืืืืฆืข.
ืืืืืื ื ืื"ื: "ืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืื
ืืฉืืืื" (ืฉืืช ืง"ื ืข"ื). ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืกืชืืจ ืืขืฆืื: ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื
ืืื ืืืื ืื ืื-ืฉืืื ื-ืฉืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืื-ืืืืฉืื;
ืขืืฉืื ืื ืืขืฉืื ืฉืื ื-ืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืขืฉื; ืืขื-ืื ืื ื ืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืชื
ืืื ืืืขืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ื-ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืืืื.
ืืืฉื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืจืืข-ืงืฆื. ืงืฆื, ืขื-ืคื ืขืฆื ืืืื
ืืืืืืชื ืื ืฉืืื, ื ืืฉื ืขืืื ืืืืขื-ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืขื-ืจืืืฉื ืืืืคืืื ืงืฆื. ืืื, ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉ ืืงืฆื ืื ืืืฆืข, ืขืืืืื ืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืืขื, ืฉืืื ืจืืืื ืื - ืืืื ืืฃ
ืืืืชื - ืืงืฆื, ืื ื ืขืืจ ืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆืข ืืื. ืืื, ืืงืฆื ื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉื ืงืฆื,
ืขืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืขืจื-ืฉื-ืงืฆื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืข ืื ืชืืืื ื ืืืืจื ืชืืื ืืช ืืงืฆื. ืืฉืจ
ืืขื ืืื ื ื, ืืขื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืคืืืฉื ื"ืืจืื" (ืจืื ืคืืกืงื 57 ืืขืื),
ืืืืกืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืขื ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืงืฆื, ืืขื-ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืงืฆื. ืืืืฉืื ื ืฉื
ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืืจืื ืืงืืคืื
(ืฉื, 240):
"...ืืืืชื
ืฉื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืฉ ืืขืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืชืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืืข ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ืื ืืก ืืื
ืืชืืคืก ืืืชื ืืช ืืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืื, ืืื: (ื) ืืคื ืื ืืขืืจืช ืืืฉืืจื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืืื
ืฉืืคืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขืืืื 'ืืจืื'; (ื) ืืืฉืืจื ื ืชืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืจื ืื ืืขืฉื-ืืคืืืฉื, ืืื
ืจืฉืืช, ืืื ื ืืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืื ืืคืงืคืง ืื."
ืจืง ืืืคืจืช ืฉืืื ืืฆืืืืจ - ืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ื - ืจืฉืืืช
ืืืฉืืจื (ืืฃ ืืืืืช ืืื) ืืืชืขืจื ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืืคืจืช ืฉืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ื
ืืืืืืช ืื ืฉืืขืฉื ืืคืืืฉื ืืืื ืืกืคืง, ืื-ืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืชืขืจื ืืกืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืขื
ืืืชื ืืืจืื, ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืื ืืขื ืืื, ืขืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจื ื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืืืง
(ืืขืื), ืืืฉืืคื ืื ืืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืกืจืืืืืืฅ
(ืืขืื, ืฉื, 514), ืืืืชื ืืืื.
63. ืืืืกืืฃ: ืืืืจื ื ืขื-ืื ืืขืืงืจืื ืฉืขื ืืื ื
ืฉืืืืช
ืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืืชืขืจื ืืกืืืกืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฉืจ ืืกืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืคื, ืกืืืืช ืื ืชืืงืืข ืขื-ืคื ืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืื. ืืืื ืงืืืข ืืช ืืกืืจืช ืกืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืจืฉืืช, ืืขื-ืคืื ืืืงืืข ืืืืชืื ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืื ืืข ืืืฉืงืื ืืืขืชื. ืื, ืืืฉื, ื ืงืืขื
ืืืืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืื
(ืืขืื), ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืงืฉืจ, ืืื ืืืืื
ืฉืืื ืื ืืคืจืฉืช
ืื-ืื
ื '
ืืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืื ืขืืจ, ืช"ื-ืืคื
,
ืื"ืฅ 107/59, ืค"ื ืื 800, 805. ืืคืจืฉืช
ืื-ืื
ืืขื ืืง ืืืื ืืคืืจืฉืืช
ืืขืื ืืืขื-ื ืืก, ืืขื-ืื ืืืชืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืื "ืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช"
ืืื ืืขื-ืื ืืก ืืืื ืืืืืืง ืื. ืืคืจืฉืช
ืืื
, ืืืืื ืืืกื, ืื ืืืงื ื ืืืื -
ืขื-ืคื ืคืืจืืฉื ืืืื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื - ืืขืื ืืืขื ืื ืืก, ืืขื-ืื ืงืืข ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืชื
ืืืืืงื-ืืขืืช ืื ืืืืฅ ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช.
64. ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืคืจื. ืชืืืืช ืืกืขื ื ืืื ืืกืขืืฃ 70(ื)
ืืคืงืืืช ืืืืก [ื ืืกื ืืืฉ], ืืืคืื "ืืืืฉืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืงืืืข, ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืช ืืชื ืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืจืฉืืื ืืช-ืืืกื...". ื ืืชื ืืขืชื ื ืืืกืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืื
ืืืชืงื ืช ืชืงื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืกื ืื ืจืฉืืืื, ืืขื ืืจื ืื ื ืืข ืืืฆื ืื ืืื ืืชืงื ืืช.
ืืคื ืืชื ื ืื ืชืงื ืืช ืืืืก, ืืืืฆื ืื ื (ืืชืงื ื 14(ื)) ืื ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืจืฉืืื "ืชืืื
ืืคื ืื ืืกื ืฉืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืืฉืืช", ืืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืื ืืงืืืขืช, ืืืื ืืืขืฉื, ืืื
ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืื ืืืืกื. ืขืืงืจ ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืฆืื ืืืืง ื'
ืฉื ืืชืืกืคืช ืืฉืืฉืืช, ืืืคืื ืืืืจ ืืืงืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืจ, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืฆืืจืืช ืืื:
"ืืจืื ื
ืืฆืืืจืื ืฉืืืืกื ื ืืฆื ืืืขืืืชื ื ืืจืฉืื ืืคื ืงืกื ืืืงืจืงืขืื ืืคื ืืกืืืชื ืืืฉ ืืก'...
ืืืงื... ืืืืืง ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจื ืขื ... ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื ... ืฉื ืื ืืืื...
ืขื ืืื... ืจืฆ"ื ืชืฉืจืื ืืืืกื ืืกืืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืืืกื ืืืืืงืฉ, ืืืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืก...
ืืขื ืืืืกื: ..."
ื ืืข ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืืงืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืืื, ืืฉืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื
ืืืืกื, ืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืก. ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืกืืืจืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืืกื ืจืฉืื
ืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืืืขืฆืื, ืฉืืจื ืื ืึถืืึฑืกื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืก
ืขืืืื. ืืืื ืืจืืฉืช ืืืขืืืช, ืืฉืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืืจื - ืืจืืฉื ืืืฉืืืขื ืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืืง
ืืืืกื ืืืืืช.
ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืืืงืืจ
ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืืชื ืืืช-ืืฉืคื? ืืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืกื ืืื ืฉืืื
ืฉืืขื ืืื. ืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื - ืืืชืจ ืืืืง: ืืคืจืฉ ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืื
ืืืขื ืืง ืจืฉืืื - ืืืกืื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืกื ืืืืจืกืืช ืืื ืฆืืืื. ืืืืื,
ืขื ืืืืื ืขืืืง ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืืืืืข ืืฉื ืืืจืืจ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ? ืืื ืคืืจืืฉ
ืืชืงื ืืช ืืื ืฉืืืืงืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืก ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืกืคืง ืกืืืจ? ืขื-ืคื ืืืื
ืืืกืชืืจืืืืช? ื ื ืื, ืืืฉื, ืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช, ืืื ืฉื ืคืชืื, ืืขื
ืืืืกื, ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืคืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช; ืื ืืืขื ืื ืคืงืข ืืืืื; ืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ืขื
ืื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืชืจ. ืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืกืจื ืืืงืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืชื ืขื ืื ืฉืื
ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืกื? ื ืืกืืฃ ืื ื ืื ืื ื ืคืชืื ืืืืฉ ืชืืืขืช ืคืื ืื ื ืื ืื, ืืื
ืชืืืขื ืื ืชืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืฉืช ืืืงืฉื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืกืจื ืืืงืฉื ืื ืืืขื
ืื ืืืื?
65. ืื ื-ืื-ืื, ืืขื ืืื ื ื-ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืืืงื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืคื ืฉืืขื ืืืืช ืจืืื ืื ืฉืืืืืง ืืืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืจืฉืื. ืืฉืจ ื
ืืืืชื
ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืืืืง ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืื, ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืจืืจ ืื ืืกืืืช-ืืืื ืืขืืื ืืื.
ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืขืช ืืื (ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืชืืืื) ืืฉ ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืชืืืืช-ืจืืื
ืืืืืชื ืืืืืืง ืืฉืื: ืชืืืืช-ืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืคื ืฉืืืืืคื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืื ืจืฉืืช
ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช (ืจื "ืจ), ืืืฉืจ ื ืืชื ืขืืื "ืฉืื ืืืืกื ื". ืขื ืจืงืข ืื
ืืื ื ืฉืื ืื ืงืฉื: ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืชื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืฉืื
ืืืืฉ
ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืจืฉืืื ื, ืจืฉืืื
ืฉืืื ืขืฆืื ืืขื ืืงื ืืขืืชืจืช? ืืฉืื ืืืจ: ื ืกืืื ืื ืืืืชืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืชื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืืกืจื
ืืชืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืืืงืฉื, ืื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืขืื ืืืืื (ืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช) ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืกื
ืืจืฉืื. ืืืืื, ืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจืข ืืื ืงืืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืชืืชื ื ืืขืชื ื ืืื
ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื
ืืืืืืฉ
ืจืฉืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืงืช ืจืฉืืื ืืืืชืืืื - ืืื ืื ื ืืชื
ืืืขืื ืื ืคื ื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉืชื ื - ืืืืืช ืืขืืชืจืื - ืืืืื ืืื, ืงึฐืจึธื: ืืขืช
ืืืืืฉ
ืืจืฉืืื? ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื: ืืืืืขื ื ืื ืจื "ืจ ืชืืขื ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืช ืคืื ืื, ืืื
ืชืืืขื ืื ืชืืืื ืขืชื ืืขืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืกืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก -
ืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืืชืจืช ืืช ืจืฉืืื ื - ืฉืงืืื ืื ืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืกืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื
ืจื "ืจ? ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืกืืฃ: ืื ืื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืกืืืกืื ืืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืขืื ืื ื, ืืื ืืืจืขื
ืืืืชื ืกืืืกืื (ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ื)? ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืขืื ืืืช: ืืฉืื ื ืืขืฆืื, ื ืชืงืฉืืชื
ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืชืจืฉืืืช ืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ื ืืืฆื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืจืชื ืืืืื - ืจื "ืจ - ืืื
ืืื-ืืืืืฉ ืืจืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืืืจืืข, ืืื ืืื ืืช, ืืกืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืชืืืข ืืื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืืื
ืจื "ืจ. ืืื, ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก ืื ืืกืืืจื ืื ื - ืืฃ ืื ื ืืกืชื ืืืกืืืจ - ืืื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืฉื
ืืืืื ื ืขืืืืื ืืืืคืืข ืื ืืืืืฉ ืจืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช ืืื ืขื ืืืืจืขืช ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืชืืืขืช
ืืคืื ืื.
66. ืื ื ืื ืืกืืจืชื ืืช ืืืกืืกืื ืืืืืื -
ืืืืืืช-ืจืืืช-ืื - ืืกืคื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจื, ืืฉืืคื ืืืืจ. ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืขืช ืขืจื ืืืจืืจ
ืขืฆืื ืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจื, ืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืื ืฉืืงืืืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก
ื ืคืืื - ืื ื ืคืืื ืืื-ืื - ืขื ืฉืืืช-ืืฉืคื ืืชืขืจื ืืืืืืชื. ืื ืืืืจื ื ืืืืืช-ืืกืื ืฉื
ืืืืจื ืืืชืืฉื, ืืืจืชื ืืืจืช. ืื ื ืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืช. ืืืืื, ืื ื ืขื ืืื ื ื
ืืื ืืื ืืืืืช-ืืกืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืชืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืช ืื-ืืืืง ืฉืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืขืฆืื. ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืืช ื ืืึถื ึถืช ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก, ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืึผืชึทืจ ืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืกื ืื ืืื ืืช ืขืืืจ
ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก. ืืืืงืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืื ืื ืืื; ืื ืืชืืจื ืื ืืืกืชืืคืฃ ืืื-ืืืช
ืืืฆืจื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก; ืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืืงื ืืืืงืืงืช ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ื
ืืืืงื ืจืืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื - ืืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื - ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืืงืฉื
ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืชื. ืจืื ืืขืื, ืคืืกืงื 44. "ืืืฉืื ื ืืืจืื -
ื ืจืืฆื". ื ืืฉืืชื, ืืจืฆืชื ืืืจื ืืืจื.
67. ืกืืฃ: ืืืกืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืชืืจื. ืืกืืืชื
ืขื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืช ืืื.
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืชืจืช
ืืชืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื ืืืฉืืืื 2-1 ืืืกื 25,000 ืฉ"ื ืืืฉืืื
3.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื' ืืฉืื ืชืฉื "ื (4.2.98).
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97001640.
I07
| 1998-02-04T00:00:00 | ืงืื ืืจื ืืข"ื ื . ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข"ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97001640.I07 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืงืื ืืจื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ-ืืืฃ ืืืืก ืืืืข\"ื",
"ืืืื ืืืืก ืืฉืืื",
"ืจืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช"
] | 1998-02-04 | 1997-01-07 | 7 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 164/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืืืืฃ ืืฆืืง",
"ืืืจื ืืขืงื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 91 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
440 | 2022-09-17T15:07:45 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\A03\97014200_A03.txt | 449 | 440 | 1997-06-15T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:29:01 | 1,420 | ืืฉ"ื 1420/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\A03 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 97014200_A03.txt | 97014200.A03.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 631d1bd811437ff4722528b2fafe0d5351740cbde2fde2310789b32174a49810 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
1420
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืืงืฉ:
ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืืื ืจืืงื
2.
ืืืืืื ืืืจืื
ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืช ืื
ืฉืคื
ืืืืืื
ืืชื-ืืืื-ืืคื ืืืื 13.2.97 ืืืืจืฆื
8103/96,
ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช
ืจ.
ืฉืืจื ืืจื-ืืืืขื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื'
ืืกืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(
12.06.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ:
ืขื"ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืฉืืื ืจืืืื ื
ืืืืื
ืขืืื ื
ืืืงืฉื. ืฉืืขื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืงืฉ. ื ืื ืืขืชื ื ืื ืื ื ืคื ืื ืคืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืชืขืจืืืชื ื. ืืืืชืจ
ืืืืจ ืื ืืช ืืขื ืช ืืืชืืืฉื ืืช ื ืืชื ืืืขืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืจืจ.
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (12.6.97), ืืคื ื ืืื ืืื
ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97014200.
A03
/ืื/
| 1997-06-15T00:00:00 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97014200.A03 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื",
"ืืืืืื ืจืืงื",
"ืืืืืื ืืืจืื"
] | 1997-06-15 | 1997-03-03 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฆื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 1420/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ื ืฉืื ืืฉืจืื",
"ืจืืืื ื ืฉืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืืื",
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
440 | 2022-09-17T15:07:45 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\M02\97014200_M02.txt | 2,579 | 440 | 1997-05-08T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:29:01 | 1,420 | ืืฉ"ื 1420/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\M02 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 97014200_M02.txt | 97014200.M02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | e376ecbc82317927ef05d2b973947c1d2357db4d8fdaf83f58232380d40603d6 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
1420
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืจืงื
ืื
ืืงืฉ
:
ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืืื ืจืืงื
2.
ืืืืืื ืืืจืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื
ืืชื ืืืื ืืชืืง ืืืจืฆื 8103/96
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืืืื 13.2.97 ืขื ืืื ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช
ืจ' ืฉืืจื ืืจื - ืืืืขื.
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืขื"ื ืืฉืจืื ื ืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื ืฉ' ืจืืืื ื
ื
ื ื ื ื
1. ืืืงืฉื ืืืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืชืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืชื
ืชืืชื.
2. ืืืงืฆื 15 ืืงืืช ืืืืขืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืขื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (8.5.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
/ืืค
- 142097
| 1997-05-08T00:00:00 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97014200.M02 | [
"ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื",
"ืืืืืื ืจืืงื",
"ืืืืืื ืืืจืื"
] | 1997-05-08 | 1997-03-03 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืจืงื"
] | ืจืข"ื 1420/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ื ืฉืื ืืฉืจืื",
"ืจืืืื ื ืฉืืื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
440 | 2022-09-17T15:07:45 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\E01\97014200_E01.txt | 8,553 | 440 | 1997-03-17T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T14:16:31 | 1,420 | ืืฉ"ื 1420/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\200\014\E01 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 97014200_E01.txt | 97014200.E01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d5f7f0655b6120ce566ff3631cae451a9319629e1ca4b57e90c13b1f8aa011ed |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
1420
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืืืงืฉ
:
ืืคืจ
ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืืื ืจืืงื
2.
ืืืืืื ืืืจืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื-ืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืื 13.2.97 ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช
ืฉืืจื ืืจื ืืืืขื ืืชืืง ืืืจ' 8203/96
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืขื"ื ื ืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื ืจืืืื ื
ืืืืื
1. ืืืืื ืฉืืืงืฉื ืืฆืจืืื ืชืฉืืื.
2. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉื ืชืฉืืืชื ืืืงืฉื ืชืื 15 ืืืื ืืืื
ืืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืื.
3. ืขื ื ืืกื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืชืื ืฉื ืชืงื ื 406(ื)
ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984-.
4. ืืชืฉืืื ืชืืืฉ ืืืงืืื, ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืื -
ืืืืฉืจืื - ืืืืงืฉ.
5. ืืชืฉืืื ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืงืฉ ืืคืขืื ืขื ืคื ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืชืงื ื 410 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984-.
ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืฉืืื, ืื ืืืงืจื ืืื ื ืืชื
ืืจืืืช ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืกืืืืืื ืืืชื.
ืืขืืจ ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืกืืื.
ืืขืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืฆืืืช, ืขื
ืืืจืื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื ื' ืืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื (17.3.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97014200.
E01
| 1997-03-17T00:00:00 | ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื ื . ืืืืืื ืจืืงื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97014200.E01 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืคืจ ื ืืจ ืืืฉื ืขืืืืื",
"ืืืืืื ืจืืงื",
"ืืืืืื ืืืจืื"
] | 1997-03-17 | 1997-03-03 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืจืข"ื 1420/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ื ืฉืื ืืฉืจืื",
"ืจืืืื ื ืฉืืื"
] | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 2 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
441 | 2022-09-17T15:07:46 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\A06\97003700_A06.txt | 450 | 441 | 1997-07-14T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:19:43 | 370 | ืืฉ"ื 370/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\A06 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 97003700_A06.txt | 97003700.A06.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 99b1d6420c860a9fbbbfb6d2971701abd6f7a2f54fca62f0d87a58b682f0cc0c |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
370/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ืกืื ืื ืืืื
2.
ื'ืืืก ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
2.
ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื'
ืืชืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(
09.07.97
)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
ืขื"ื ื ืืฆื ื ืืจืฉื-ืืืืื ืจ
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืืืืืื ืืืก
ืืืืื
ืืืืจ ืืืืขืช ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืจืืขื ืืืืฉืื. ืืืืืืจืืช ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืงืืืข ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ. ืจืฉืื ื
ืืคื ืื ื ืืืืขืช ืืืช ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื, ืื ืื ืืชืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืชืืืฉ ืืืงืฉื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืฉืื
ืืก' 2 ืืืฉืจืื ืืฆืจืื ืืงืืจื, ืืขืืชืจืื ืืคื ื ืืืงืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (09.07.97), ืืคื ื ืืื ืืื
ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97003700.
A06
/ืื/
| 1997-07-14T00:00:00 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97003700.A06 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืืื ืืฆื",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืกืื ืื ืืืื",
"ื'ืืืก ืืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื",
"ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-07-14 | 1997-01-16 | 6 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฆื",
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 370/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจืฉื-ืืืืื ืจ ื ืืฆื ื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืืื",
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
441 | 2022-09-17T15:07:46 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\Q02\97003700_Q02.txt | 1,977 | 441 | 1997-03-05T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:19:44 | 370 | ืืฉ"ื 370/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\Q02 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 97003700_Q02.txt | 97003700.Q02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 75d3bdbaf545932c6b01cc9222119d9724fd612f3022ebeee73f34003effa0a8 |
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื
ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 97 /
370
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืืื
ืืืืงืฉืื
:
1.
ืกืื ืื ืืืื
2.
ื'ืืืก ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
2.
ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืขื ืืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืื: ืขื"ื ื ืืฆื ื ืืจืฉื-ืืืื ืจ
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืชืื 7 ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื
(5.3.97).
ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97003700.
Q02
| 1997-03-05T00:00:00 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97003700.Q02 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืกืื ืื ืืืื",
"ื'ืืืก ืืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื",
"ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-03-05 | 1997-01-16 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 370/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจืฉื-ืืืืื ืจ ื ืืฆื ื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
441 | 2022-09-17T15:07:46 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\Q04\97003700_Q04.txt | 6,039 | 441 | 1997-03-18T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:19:44 | 370 | ืืฉ"ื 370/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\700\003\Q04 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 97003700_Q04.txt | 97003700.Q04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 1a4940c275179f0e6908e4fbf78368d67632b3c4e42eedb6102877bd466e7704 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 97 / 370
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ืกืื ืื ืืืื
2.
ื'ืืืก ืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
2.
ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืงืืืขืช ืืืขื ืืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื: ืขื"ื ื ืืฆื ื ืืจืฉื-ืืืืื ืจ
ืืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื ืืงืฉื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฆื ืืื ืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื.
ืื' ืืฉืืคืืช ืืืจื ืจ ืงืืขื ืืืืืืชื ืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืฆื ืืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืจืื.
ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืฆืื ืช ืื ืืืืคืืช ืืฉืืืขืช ืืขืชืืจื.
ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืฉืื ืชืืฆืื
ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืฆื ืืื ืื.
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืชืืง ืืงืืข ืืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืคืฉืจืืืืช
ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (18.3.97).
ืืืื
ืืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97003700.
Q04
| 1997-03-18T00:00:00 | ืกืื ืื ืืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97003700.Q04 | [
"ืืืื ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืกืื ืื ืืืื",
"ื'ืืืก ืืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื",
"ืืื'ื ืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-03-18 | 1997-01-16 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 370/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืจืฉื-ืืืืื ืจ ื ืืฆื ื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
442 | 2022-09-17T15:07:47 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\Q01\96079540_Q01.txt | 451 | 442 | 1997-07-16T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:13:24 | 7,954 | ืืฉ"ื 7954/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\Q01 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 96079540_Q01.txt | 96079540.Q01.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 3d33b24b44985b69ccbbe2392a27b212e4b30558f5146590a65b9dae37c0a0a3 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืข"ื
7954/96 - 1
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
2.
ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืคืงืืช ืขืจืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ืจืื ืืืืจ
ืืืืื
ืื-ืื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืขืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื
ืืืงืฉื, ืืืืช ืชืื 5 ืืืื ืืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(16.7.97).
ืืืจืืช
ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96079540.
Q01
| 1997-07-16T00:00:00 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96079540.Q01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื"
] | 1997-07-16 | 1996-11-10 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืข"ื 7954/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจ ืจืื",
"ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื",
"ืืืจื ืฉืจื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
442 | 2022-09-17T15:07:47 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\V03\96079540_V03.txt | 69,343 | 442 | 2000-07-10T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T12:29:09 | 7,954 | ืืฉ"ื 7954/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\V03 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 96079540_V03.txt | 96079540.V03.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 67738ded7daef50afc8089867bf8923573528c1669c853d1f24a9d4c82e0a082 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืข"ื
7954/96 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืืง-ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช
:
ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ืืช
:
1. ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
2.
ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืงืช ืขืจืขืืจ
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืช: ืขื"ื ืจืื ืืืืจ
ืคืกืง-ืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืืขืจืขืจืช ื ืืืง ืืขืจืขืืจ.
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื' ืืชืืื ืชืฉ"ืก (10.7.2000).
ืืืืช ืืืง-ืงืืื ืืืืฅ
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96079540.
V03
| 2000-07-10T00:00:00 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96079540.V03 | [
"ืืืืช ืืืง-ืงืืื ืืืืฅ"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื"
] | 2000-07-10 | 1996-11-10 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืง-ืงืืื ืืืืฅ"
] | ืข"ื 7954/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจ ืจืื",
"ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื",
"ืืืจื ืฉืจื"
] | [
"ืืืืช"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
442 | 2022-09-17T15:07:47 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\O02\96079540_O02.txt | 84,900 | 442 | 2000-07-02T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T12:29:09 | 7,954 | ืืฉ"ื 7954/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\540\079\O02 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 96079540_O02.txt | 96079540.O02.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 95ba5e02cf068df2930d36b235bb163479de5edaf3826ec0eaf1e81ef03a228d |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืข"ื
7954/96 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
ืช
:
ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
2.
ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื
ืืืื ืืคื ืชืงื ื 431 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ
ืืืื
ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984-
ืืืืื
1. ืืืชืื
ืืืืืจ ืืกืืื ื' ืฉื ืคืจืง ื' ืฉืืืืง ื' ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืฉื"ื1984- ื ืงืืข
ืฉืขื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืคืงืื ืขืจืืื ืืกืืื ืฉื 20,000 ืฉ"ื, ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืืื.
2. ืืืืืขื
ืขื ืงืืืขืช ืืขืจืืื ื ืืกืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืื 23.4.99.
3. ืขื
ืืืื ืื ืืคืงืืื ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืช ืืขืจืืื ืื ืืจืฉ.
4. ืชืงื ื
431 ืืชืงื ืืช ืื "ื ืงืืืขืช:
"ืื
ืงืืื ืืืขืจืขืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืขืจืืื ืื ืืขืจืืื, ืืืจืฉื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื
ืืจืฉื, ืืชืืืฆื ืขื ืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื".
5. ืืคืืื
ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืขืจืขืจืช ืืืชื ืืขื, ืชืื 5 ืืืื, ืืืืข ืื ืชืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืืฆืืืช ืชืงื ื 431.
6. ืืขืืจ
ืชืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืงืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืื ืืืื ื ืืกืฃ.
7. ืขืืชืง
ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืฆื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉ"ืก
(2.7.2000).
ืืืืจ
ืืืืื, ืจืฉื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96079540.
O02
| 2000-07-02T00:00:00 | ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข"ื ื . ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืช | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96079540.O02 | [
"ืืืืจ ืืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืืื 9 ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื",
"ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืื"
] | 2000-07-02 | 1996-11-10 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืืื"
] | ืข"ื 7954/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจ ืจืื",
"ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื",
"ืืืจื ืฉืจื"
] | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | 2 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
443 | 2022-09-17T15:07:47 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\440\035\J01\97035440_J01.txt | 452 | 443 | 1997-06-30T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:52:59 | 3,544 | ืืฉ"ื 3544/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\440\035\J01 | ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ื . ืืืื ืืื ื | 97035440_J01.txt | 97035440.J01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | db4afc421d2381409a397099eafec818f5bab1240dfa5ca571a9b541e1897b0d |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืจืข"ื 97 /
3544
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
:
ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1. ืืืื ืืื ื
2.
ืืืืข ืืื ื
3.
ืืืื ืืื ื
ืืงืฉื
ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืคืกืง ืืื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืช.ื. 1208/92
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืฆื ืฉืื ืื ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืชืื 5
ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(30.6.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97035440.
J01
| 1997-06-30T00:00:00 | ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ื . ืืืื ืืื ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97035440.J01 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื",
"ืืืื ืืื ื",
"ืืืืข ืืื ื",
"ืืืื ืืื ื"
] | 1997-06-30 | 1997-06-09 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 3544/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืื ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
443 | 2022-09-17T15:07:47 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\440\035\J03\97035440_J03.txt | 17,097 | 443 | 1997-07-20T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:52:59 | 3,544 | ืืฉ"ื 3544/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\440\035\J03 | ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ื . ืืืื ืืื ื | 97035440_J03.txt | 97035440.J03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | aa2d5cb61fa107fd0cdd2a7188bd8604a00d30cd34997421e050f6d2610161a4 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื
3544/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืืืื
ืืืจื ืืืืืื
ืข"ื
ื"ื ืขื"ื ื. ืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืื ืืื ื
2.
ืืืืข ืืื ื
3.
ืืืื ืืื ื
ืข"ื
ื"ื ืขื"ื ื. ืืืื ืืื'
ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื
ืืืื
18.5.97
ืืช.ื. 1208/92
(ืืืจ'
23099/97) ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื-ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื. ืืจืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืกืืื, ื ืืื ื ืืืงืฉื ืืืงืฉื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืื ืจืฉืืช
ืขืจืขืืจ ืืืื ื ืืื ื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืืืงืฉื, ืืืืืืจ, ืืืืจื ืืืืขื ืขื
ืืืืฉืชื ืืคืืขื.
ืืืืคื ืฉื ืขื ืืื:
1. ืืื, ืืืื ืืืกืืกื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืืืช
ืคืกืง ืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืืชื; ืืื ืฉืืืฉืจ ืืืืฉ ืขืจืขืืจ, ื ืคืืขืช ืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืกืืคืืืชื ืฉื
ืคืกืง-ืืืื.
2. ืกืืื ืืคืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืงืืข, ืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืชืืืืช ืืืื
ืฉื ืื ืคืืข. ืืคืืื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืขื ื ืื ืืื ืืงืืง ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืื
ืืืืืฆื ืืืฆืืงื ืืืืืืช.
3. ืืืฉืจ ืืชืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืขืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื
ืกืืื ืคืกืง-ืืืื ืืืืืงืฉืช ืชืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืงืืื ืืฉืฉ ืฉื ืืืฉ ืฉืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืขืฆืื ืืช
ืืกืืื ืฉืฉืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืฉ ืืขืื ืืช ืืืฆืืข ืคืกืง-ืืืื - ืืืืคื ืืื ืื ืืืงื ืืคื ืื ืกืืืืช -
ืืืคืืฃ ืืื, ืฉืืืืืจื ื ืจืื ืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ืืื ืืจ ืกืืืื.
4. ื ืจืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืชืงืืืื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืื
ืืืง ืืกืืื ืคืกืง-ืืืื. ืืคืืื ืืืจื ืื ื ืขื ืขืืืื 50% ืืกืืื ืคืกืง ืืืื.
5. ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืจืืืื ืืืืจ
ืืกืืื ืืืื ืฉืืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืขืจืขืืจื, ืจืฉืื ืืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืขืืืช
ืืฆืขืชื, ืฉืชืืฉืงื ืขื ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื.
6. ืืืฆืืช ืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืฅ ืืคื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืื
ืืืืจืื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืืฆืื ืืจื ืืคืื ืืกืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืืฉืงืข ืืขืฆื ืืืช ืขื
ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืืคื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืขืจืขืืจื, ืืืืื ืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืกืืื ืืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืคืืจืืช ืืคื
ืืืฉืงืขื ืฉืืกืืืื ืขืืื.
ืืื ืฆื ืืืืฆืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืืื
ืชืฉื "ื (20.7.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97035440.
J03
| 1997-07-20T00:00:00 | ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ื . ืืืื ืืื ื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97035440.J03 | [
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื",
"ืืืื ืืื ื",
"ืืืืข ืืื ื",
"ืืืื ืืื ื"
] | 1997-07-20 | 1997-06-09 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 3544/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจ ืืืื",
"ืืืื ืืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 2 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
444 | 2022-09-17T15:07:48 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\950\028\A02\96028950_A02.txt | 453 | 444 | 1997-03-20T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:00:18 | 2,895 | ืืฉ"ื 2895/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\950\028\A02 | ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 96028950_A02.txt | 96028950.A02.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | f1fd1c519b1fee7a48e92b064a5a3aa42891847e7353c4435fe0dab836b8a51f |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื 96 /
2895
ืืคื ื
ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืื: 1.
ืคืจืืื ืคืืืืืืื
2.
ืืืจืืก ืคืืืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื: ืืืืขืฅ
ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืก' 1: ืขื"ื ืขืืืืื ืืืจืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืงืฉืช ืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช
ืืื ืืชื
ืืืืจ ืืืชืงืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง
ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969- (ืืืื - ืืืืง),
ืืจืื ื ืืืจื, ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง ืื "ื ืืชืงื ื 10 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1984- (ืืืื - ืืชืงื ืืช), ืื ืชืชืืงืฉ
ืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืจ ืืืื: ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืจื ืืงืืืขื ืืกืขืืฃ
2(ื) ืืืืง ืืืชืงื ื 11(ื) ืืชืงื ืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืืชืฉื "ื
(20.3.97).
ื
ื ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96028950.
A02
ืื/
| 1997-03-20T00:00:00 | ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96028950.A02 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื",
"ืคืืืืืืื ืืืจืืก",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-03-20 | 1996-04-22 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืื"ื 2895/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืื ืขืืืืื",
"ื ืืื ื ืฉืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
444 | 2022-09-17T15:07:48 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\950\028\A03\96028950_A03.txt | 1,408 | 444 | 1997-06-08T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:00:18 | 2,895 | ืืฉ"ื 2895/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\950\028\A03 | ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 96028950_A03.txt | 96028950.A03.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 21d2fc4467e01134871dbea70521b8329000eba4f4d6ea91b7a3a38c06e10560 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื 96 /
2895
ืืคื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืื:
1. ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื
2.
ืคืืืืืืื ืืืจืืก
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืืืขืฅ
ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืก' 1: ืขื"ื ืขืืืืื ืืืจืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
ืืืืจ ืฉืขืืื ืชื ืืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื
ืืืืื, ืื ื ื ืงืืืข ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 1(ื) ืืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-, ืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืื ืืืืืืืช ืชื-ืืืื
ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ืคืืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืกืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (8.6.97).
ื ื
ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96028950.
A03
/ืื/
| 1997-06-08T00:00:00 | ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื ื . ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96028950.A03 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืคืืืืืืื ืคืจืืื",
"ืคืืืืืืื ืืืจืืก",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-06-08 | 1996-04-22 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืื"ื 2895/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืื ืขืืืืื",
"ื ืืื ื ืฉืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
445 | 2022-09-17T15:07:48 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\035\F01\97035000_F01.txt | 454 | 445 | 1997-06-05T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:52:27 | 3,500 | ืืฉ"ื 3500/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\035\F01 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืฉืื ืืืขื | 97035000_F01.txt | 97035000.F01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | dba09231304c9c39bea4d7eeacd378715046501c0d17bd82765d8331ed2fa8f6 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 /
3500
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืฉืื
ืืืขื
ืืงืฉื
ืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจ ืืฉื ื
ืืคื
ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื
[ื ืืกื
ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื1982-
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืื ื, ืืืืกืืืช ืกื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื, ืื ื ื
ืืืจืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื [ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื]
ืืชืฉื"ื1982-, ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืื 10.6.97, ืื ืขื ืืืชื ืคืกืง
ืืื ืืช"ืค 214/91 ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืฆืจืช, ืืคื ืืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืขืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ืื' ืืืืืจ
ืืชืฉื "ื (5.6.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97035000.
F01
| 1997-06-05T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืฉืื ืืืขื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97035000.F01 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืฉืื ืืืขื"
] | 1997-06-05 | 1997-06-05 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 3500/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืจื ืืจืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
446 | 2022-09-17T15:07:49 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\520\070\O01\97070520_O01.txt | 455 | 446 | 1997-11-30T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:35:58 | 7,052 | ืืฉ"ื 7052/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\520\070\O01 | ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื ื . ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื | 97070520_O01.txt | 97070520.O01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | b13b0420a69cae243fe839e9d8296222a42220987ceacf43865bc23338ec8bb4 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉ"ื
7052/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉ
:
ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื
ืืืืฉื ืืงืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื (ืื ืงืืืช ืืืื)
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืืขืฆืื
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืจ ืชืืืฉ ืชืื ืืจืืขื ืขืฉืจ ืืื
ืืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื (30.11.97).
ืืืจืืช
ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97070520.
O01
| 1997-11-30T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื ื . ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97070520.O01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื",
"ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื"
] | 1997-11-30 | 1997-11-30 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ื 7052/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืืืจื ืื ืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
446 | 2022-09-17T15:07:49 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\520\070\O02\97070520_O02.txt | 14,031 | 446 | 1997-12-21T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:36:00 | 7,052 | ืืฉ"ื 7052/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\520\070\O02 | ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื ื . ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื | 97070520_O02.txt | 97070520.O02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 169f103466b4b38af014c0aad3d9662711f463d50a0ca3a50772d38b4c46d99c |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉ"ื
7052/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉ
:
ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื
ืืืืฉ ืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืืขืฆืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืื: ืขื"ื ืื ืื ืืืืืืจื
ืืืืื
ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืขืจืขืืจ ื ืืชื ืืชืืจืื 27.10.97.
ืืืงืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืืฉืช ืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืกืฃ
ืืืืฉื ืืชืืจืื 30.11.97, ืื ืืืจ ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืช ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืจื ืืฉื ืื ืฉืื-ืืื ืืืืงืฉ
ืฉืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืช ืืื"ื (ืื ื ืืกืจ ืืืืื ืชืืจืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืงืฉ
ืืื"ื).
ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืฉืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื
ื ืืกืฃ. ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืื ืื ืืคืจืง ืืืื ืืงืฆืจ ืฉื ืงืฆื ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื
ื ืืกืฃ, ืืชืฉื"ื1984- ืืืืฉืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืกืฃ. ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืคื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ืกืชืื
ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืคืจืื ืฉื ืืชืืจืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื. ืื ืื ืืื ืืืงืฉื ืคืจืื ืืืืืจ, ืืื
ืืขืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืขื ืืื ื ืขืืจ ืื ืืืจืฅ ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืืื. ืขื
ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืืขืจื ืืืขืื ืืืขื ืื ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืจืช, ืืืื ืืืงืจื ื ืืชื - ืืืงืจื
ืืชืืื - ืืืงืฉ ืืืจืืช ืืืืขื
ืืคื ื
ืืืืฃ ืืชืงืืคื. ืืืงืจื ืฉืืคื ื ืืืืฉื ืืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืืืขื ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืชืื ืืืืขื, ืืืื ื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืช
ืืืืจืืช ืขืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืืื.
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขืืจ ืืืืืช ืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ,
ืืืงืฉื ื ืืืืช. ืืื ืฆื ืืืืฆืืืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื
(21.12.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97070520.
O02
| 1997-12-21T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื ื . ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97070520.O02 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืจืื ืืืขืื",
"ืืืจ ืฆืคืืจื"
] | 1997-12-21 | 1997-11-30 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ื 7052/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืืืจื ืื ืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 2 | ืืฉ"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
447 | 2022-09-17T15:07:49 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\180\075\O01\97075180_O01.txt | 456 | 447 | 1997-12-23T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:39:55 | 7,518 | ืืฉ"ื 7518/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\180\075\O01 | ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ ื . ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ | 97075180_O01.txt | 97075180.O01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 538c5a64bdf9e5c9fb2a38ee9640535c8e09292000894abc5ecd5a2f312ad1da |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
7518/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืกืืืื ื
ืืจืืงืจ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืงืฉื ืืคืืืจ ืืืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉื ืืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฆืืจืคื ืื ืืงืฉื ืืคืืืจ
ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืฆืืืช ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืืฉ ืชืฆืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืืืจ ืืืกืจ ืืืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืช
ืืืืจื ืืชืขืืื ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืคืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืชืื ืืชืงื ื 13(ื) ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
(ืืืจืืช), ืืชืฉื"ื1987-.
ืืืืจ ืฉืฉืืื ืขืชื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืฉืื ืืช
ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืขืืื, ืืืืืชื ืืคืืืจ ืืช ืืืืงืฉืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื
(23.12.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื
ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97075180.
O01
| 1997-12-23T00:00:00 | ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ ื . ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97075180.O01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ",
"ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-12-23 | 1997-12-22 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ื 7518/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืกืืกื ื ืืื ื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
447 | 2022-09-17T15:07:49 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\180\075\A02\97075180_A02.txt | 40,534 | 447 | 1998-11-16T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T17:39:46 | 7,518 | ืืฉ"ื 7518/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\180\075\A02 | ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ ื . ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ | 97075180_A02.txt | 97075180.A02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | ba7a1302cbbeaf4bdfd6bcb4d4dab7336497a68941193b3815b2ca0e990cf395 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
7518/97
ืืคื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืกืืืื ื
ืืจืืงืจ
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ื'ืื ื ืกืืกื ื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื
ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
ืื ื ื ืงืืืข ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 1(ื) ืืืืง
ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-, ืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืื ืืืืืืืช ืชื-ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืื ื
ืืืื ืืจืืงืจ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(15.11.98).
ื ื
ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97075180.
A02
/ืื/
| 1998-11-16T00:00:00 | ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ ื . ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97075180.A02 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ",
"ืืืื ื ืืจืืงืจ",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1998-11-16 | 1997-12-22 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืื"ื 7518/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืกืืกื ื ืืื ื"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
448 | 2022-09-17T15:07:50 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\95\140\023\I05\95023140_I05.txt | 457 | 448 | 1997-07-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:52:58 | 2,314 | ืืฉ"ื 2314/95 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\140\023\I05 | ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื | 95023140_I05.txt | 95023140.I05.doc | 1,995 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d85c2f8177a111793989466c5679e0c40f47142ccf351226ef56630a8aa197f5 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ 95 /
2314
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
2.
ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
3.
ืกืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
2.
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
3.
ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื
4.
ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืืช
ืืืื
ืืงืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืขืืชืจืื, ืืขืชืืจื ื ืืืงืช.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(1.7.97).
ืฉ ื ืค
ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
95023140.
I05
| 1997-07-04T00:00:00 | ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95023140.I05 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืกืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื",
"ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืืช"
] | 1997-07-04 | 1995-04-11 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2314/95 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืื ืืฉืขืืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
448 | 2022-09-17T15:07:50 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\95\140\023\I03\95023140_I03.txt | 13,959 | 448 | 1997-05-04T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:52:58 | 2,314 | ืืฉ"ื 2314/95 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\95\140\023\I03 | ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื | 95023140_I03.txt | 95023140.I03.doc | 1,995 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d171cb9265dd1467b6c855ade9c20678b479de4b2c3c7a5dee280ee1c41e5696 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ
2314/95
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจ:
:
1.
ืืื ืจ ืกืืื, ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
2.
ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
3.
ืกืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืื
ื ื ื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
2.
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
3.
ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื
4.
ืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืืช
,
ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื
ืืืื
ืืงืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ื ื ื ื ื
ื ืจืื, ืืคื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืืื 1-2 ืืืชืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืื 3, ืื
ืืคืืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืขืืืช ืฉืืืขืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืื ืืื ืชืืื ืขื ืคืชืจืื ื.
ืืืชืืฉื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืฃ, ืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืขื ืืช
ืืืืคืื ืืขืชืืจื, ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืืงืื:
1. ืืืืืืข ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืืงืฉืื ืืงืืื
ืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืคื ื ืืจืื.
2. ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืขืืชืจืื ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืฆืจืฃ
ืืืืืขื ืขืชืืจื ืืชืืงื ืช ืืืขืืืื ืช ืืืืจ ืืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื ืขืชืืจื.
ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืชืื 30 ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (4.5.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
95023140.
I03
| 1997-05-04T00:00:00 | ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95023140.I03 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืื ืจ ืกืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืกืืขืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืืืขืฆื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื",
"ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื",
"ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืืช"
] | 1997-05-04 | 1995-04-11 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 2314/95 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืื ืืฉืขืืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
449 | 2022-09-17T15:07:50 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\510\087\B01\96087510_B01.txt | 458 | 449 | 1997-03-02T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:15:30 | 8,751 | ืืฉ"ื 8751/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\510\087\B01 | ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื . ืืืจืื ืฉืืื | 96087510_B01.txt | 96087510.B01.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 71b975f1ffd05ba89c5597d98f2dc29756edc46f4e52a4c5ffe2c20194d53512 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืจืข"ื 96 / 8751
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืืืงืฉ:
ืืืจืื
ืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืจืื ืฉืืื
2.
ืงืืืืจ ืืืืื
3.
ืืืืื ืฉืืขืื
4.
ืขืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืชืืจ ื"ื- ืืฉืืื ืคืืจืืืืช
5.
ื'ืืืก ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื
6.
ืืื ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื
7.
ืจืื ื ืฆืจืื - ืืฉืืื ืคืืจืืืืช
8.
ืืขืงื ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื
ืืงืฉืช
ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื
ืืชื ืืืื ืืื' 12475/94 ืืค'
112/89
ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉ: ืขื"ื ืืืืื ืืกืคื, ืขื"ื ืืืื
ืื'ืจื ื
ืืืืื
ืืื ืื ืฆืืง ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืช
ืืืงืฉื ืฉืขืืื ืืคื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื, ืืจื ืืฉืืืชืืจ ืืืืงืฉ ืืจื ืืืืคืืช ืืืืจืืจ ืืขื ืืชืื
ืืขื ืื ืืจืืืช, ืืื ืืชืขืืจืจืช ืืืงืจื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆืืืงื ืืชื ืจืฉืืช ืืขืจืขืจ.
ืืคืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืงืฉื, ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืงืฉ ืขืืื
ืชืฉืืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื (2.3.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96087510.
B01
| 1997-03-02T00:00:00 | ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื . ืืืจืื ืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96087510.B01 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืืจืื ืืืืื",
"ืืืจืื ืฉืืื",
"ืงืืืืจ ืืืืื",
"ืืืืื ืฉืืขืื",
"ืขืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืชืืจ ื\"ื- ืืฉืืื ืคืืจืืืืช",
"ื'ืืืก ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื",
"ืืื ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื",
"ืจืื ื ืฆืจืื - ืืฉืืื ืคืืจืืืืช",
"ืืขืงื ืืืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืืจืืื"
] | 1997-03-02 | 1996-12-08 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืืื"
] | ืจืข"ื 8751/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืคื ืืืืื",
"ืจืืืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืฉืืื"
] | 1 | ืจืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
450 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\Q01\96029110_Q01.txt | 459 | 450 | 1997-07-02T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:00:19 | 2,911 | ืืฉ"ื 2911/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\Q01 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 96029110_Q01.txt | 96029110.Q01.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 3375dd4746e7f4a1fd347392fdfdd1c5a27bbaf985b0b6f24ea0775485502bbe |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 96 /
2911
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืขืจืขืจืช
:
ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื
2.
ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื
ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืคืกืง-ืืื ืืืขืื ืฆื ืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืขืื ืืืจืืืง
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืจ ืชืืืฉ ืชืื 7 ืืืื ืืืื ืงืืืช
ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(2.7.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96029110.
Q01
| 1997-07-02T00:00:00 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96029110.Q01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื"
] | 1997-07-02 | 1996-04-19 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืข"ื 2911/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืืืจืืืง ืืืกืฃ"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
450 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\O02\96029110_O02.txt | 29,382 | 450 | 1998-02-03T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T16:59:03 | 2,911 | ืืฉ"ื 2911/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\O02 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 96029110_O02.txt | 96029110.O02.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 6fcab6858214a59d32ffa5ada42366fdb405220df21cafbd323feb17c329e851 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืข"ื
2911/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืขืจืขืจืช
:
ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื
2.
ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื
ืืงืฉื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืขื ืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจืช: ืขื"ื ืืืคืชืื ืืืืจืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื ื. ืืืขืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืืืชื ืืืื 2.7.97 ื ืืกืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื
ืืชืืจืื 6.1.98, ืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืขืืื.
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื, ืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืขืจืขืืจ
ืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืจืื ืขื ืคื ืชืงื ืืช 448(ื) ื450-(2) ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืจืื,
ืืชืฉื"ื1984-.
ืืฉ ืืงืืืข ืืืขื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืฉืื ืชืฉื "ื (3.2.98).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ
ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96029110.
O02
| 1998-02-03T00:00:00 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96029110.O02 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื"
] | 1998-02-03 | 1996-04-19 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืข"ื 2911/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืืืจืืืง ืืืกืฃ"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
450 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\A03\96029110_A03.txt | 31,586 | 450 | 1998-03-19T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T16:59:03 | 2,911 | ืืฉ"ื 2911/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\110\029\A03 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 96029110_A03.txt | 96029110.A03.doc | 1,996 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 19d5034020b15f6d93b0357ed32f415f2f5c23c5a8c9627c1a7dbcdb729320f8 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื
ืข"ื 2911/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืืืจื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
:
ืืกื
ืขืืืืืคืืชื ืืืืืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืขืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ืืืืจืื
2.
ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื ืืืืจืื
ืขืจืขืืจ
ืขื ืคืกืง ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืืืืคื
ืืืื 29.2.96 ืืชืืง 31/93
ืฉื ืืชื
ื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืขืืื ืืจืฉืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื"ื
ืืืืจ ืืชืฉื "ื
(
15.03.98
)
ืืฉื
ืืืขืจืขืจ
:
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืขืื ืืืจืืืง
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
: ืขื"ื
ืืืืื ืืขืืจื
ืค ืก ืง - ื ื ื
ืืืกืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื, ืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืชืืืขื
ืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืขื ืช ืชืจืืืช.
ืืขืจืขืืจ ื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ืื' ืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (15.3.98).
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96029110.
A03
| 1998-03-19T00:00:00 | ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื ื . ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96029110.A03 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืืจื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืืกื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ืขื' ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืขืืืืืคืืชื",
"ื ืฉืืช ืขืืืืืคืืชื"
] | 1998-03-19 | 1996-04-19 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืืืืืืจื"
] | ืข"ื 2911/96 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืขืื ืืืจืืืง ืืืกืฃ"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืืกืฃ"
] | 1 | ืข"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N03\97021690_N03.txt | 460 | 451 | 1997-04-30T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:24 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N03 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_N03.txt | 97021690.N03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 8010730293e4512cf55245f4813748027b1141617da73bca88db194d57fb9e47 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 /
2169
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืขืืจืจ
:
ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ืขืจืจ
ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืื ืฆืจืช
ืืืื 28.12.96 ืื"ืฉ 869/96
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืฉื
ืืขืืจืจ: ืขื"ื ืืกืื ืืจ
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืื: ืขื"ื ื' ืืื ืคืื
ืืืืื
ื ืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื
ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืจื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืื ืจืฉืืช (ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช), ืชืงืืคืช
ืฉืืืจ ืืฉืขืช ืืืืื ืชืคืงืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืงืจ.
ืืืขืฉืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ื
ืืืืจืื, ืืืืจืืข ืืคืืืื ืฉืืกืืคื ื ืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจืจ ืืืืข ืืฉืืื ืืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื
ืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืจื, ืชืื ื ืกืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืื ืฉืืืงืฉื ืืขืฆืจื, ืืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืขืงืื ืืืจืื ืืขืช
ืืืฆืืข ืืขืืืจืืช ืืืืืืกืืช ืื.
ืืขืืจืจ ืืืฆืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉ ืืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืงืื,
ืืืืื ืืช ืืืงืื ืืขืืจ ืืฉืืืจ ืืืฃ ืืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืืืชื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืจืืข ื ืืืฅ ืืฉืืืจ
ืืืจืืช ืืขืืจ ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื ื ืคืฆืข ืืจืืื.
ืืฉืืคื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืขื
ืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืกืืื ืืชื ืืืืชืืฉื ืืื ืฉืืขืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืฉืขื
ืฉืืขืืจืจ ืืื ืืกืืจ ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืจืฉืืื, ืืืฃ ืืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื ืืืกืจ ืขื ืชื ืื ืืจ-ืืคืขืื.
ืืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืจืจ ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืืช
ืืืขืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืชื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืฉืชื.
ืื ืืฆืืชื ืืืฉ ืื ืืืืงื ืืขืจืจ.
ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืจืืืชื
ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืกืืื ืขืื ืขืงื ืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื. ืืืชืขืืื ืืจืคืืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืฉื ืื
ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืก ืืืืืข ืขื ืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืื, ืืชืืจืจ ืื ืืื
ืืืืื ืืคืฆืืขืชื ืืื ืชืืื ืืชืื ืืืืก ืืืืืืืช ืชื ืืขื ืขืงื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ื ืงืฉืืจืืช ืืื
ืืคืฆืืขื, ืืื ื ืืืขืืช ืืืขืื ืจืคืืืืช ืฉืืืชื ืืขืืจืจ ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืืืจืืข ื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืืืฉืื.
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืกืื ื ืฉืืืชื ืืฉืืจืืจื
ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืคื ืขืงื ืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื. ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืืืชื ืืกืืจ ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืจืฉืืื
ืฉืืืกืจ ืขื ืชื ืื ืืจ ืืคืขืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืื, ืืขืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืชืช ืื ืื ืืืื
ืืืฉืืจืจื ืขื ืืจื ืฉื ืืืืคื.
ืืฉืจ ืขื ืื, ืืขืจืจ ื ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื
(30.4.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
N03
ืื/
| 1997-04-30T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.N03 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-04-30 | 1997-04-04 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 2 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N05\97021690_N05.txt | 3,865 | 451 | 1997-10-30T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:24 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N05 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_N05.txt | 97021690.N05.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | ea36f0642540055bc7db0fea1b8d1e3e23c61d637f8d68b06ae643e83411a6d0 |
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
2169/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืื
ืืงืฉ:
ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืงืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืช
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช
ืืืื
28.12.96 ืื"ืฉ 869/96
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืข"ื ืื' ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืชืื 7 ืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืืชืฉื "ื
(30.10.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
n05
| 1997-10-30T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.N05 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-10-30 | 1997-04-04 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\H04\97021690_H04.txt | 6,942 | 451 | 1997-08-26T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:23 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\H04 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_H04.txt | 97021690.H04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 25cdb784104e0f830d4a8d0d837d0ad9f04aff82505cba824e373ee230a29003 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
2169/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืงืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉ
:
ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืืฉืช ืขืจืจ ืขื ืืืืืช
ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืืื 28.12.96
ืื"ืฉ
869/96 (ืช"ืค 191/96) ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืืืื
1. ืืืืงืฉ ืืืืฉ ืืฉืขืชื (4.4.97) ืขืจืจ ืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืืืืืงื ืืืขืฆืจ ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืช.ืค. 191/96, ืื ืืืืกื ืื
ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืจื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืื ืจืฉืืช, ืชืงืืคืช ืฉืืืจ ืืื ืืืช ืืงืจ.
ืขืจืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ืืื ืืฉ ืืืื 30.4.97.
2. ืขืชื ืคืื ื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืงืฉื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืืืฉ
"ืืกืื ืจืคืืื ืฉื ืจืืคื ืืืจืืืคื ืืืกืื ืฉืืขืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืืจืืืืช" ืฉืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ
ืื ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืกืคืง ืืคืืืช ืืช ืืขื ืช ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืคืื ืื ืืฉืืืจืจ ืืขืืื ืืกืืืื ืืช
"ืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ".
3. ืืขื ืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื ืืื
ืงืฉืืจ ืืืกื ืืืืืื; ืืืืฆื ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืืืื ืืืืฉ. ืืขื ื ืื ืืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืืืื
ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืฉื ืขืืื ืืืืจ.
ืืืงืฉื ืืืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืขืจืจ ื ืืืืช; ืืืืืงืฉ ืืืื
ืืคื ืืช ืืืงืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(26.8.97).
ืฉ ื ืค
ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
H04
/ืฉื
| 1997-08-26T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.H04 | [
"ืืขืงื ืงืืื"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-08-26 | 1997-04-04 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืงืืื"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืขืงื"
] | 2 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N07\97021690_N07.txt | 8,760 | 451 | 1997-11-09T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:25 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N07 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_N07.txt | 97021690.N07.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 04875b0956ae0724a34c69e20af6df48911c73b549ad34ec481134e791584f2a |
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค
2169/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืืืงืฉ:
ืขืื ืื
ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืขืืื ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืืื 28.12.96 ืื"ืฉ 869/96
ืฉื ืืชื ื
ืขื-ืืื
ืื' ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืืืื
ืืืื 30.4.97 ื ืืื ืขืจืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช ืืืืืืงื ืืืขืฆืจ ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืช"ืค 191/96, ืื ืืืืฉื
ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืจื, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืื ืจืฉืืช (ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช), ืชืงืืคืช
ืฉืืืจ ืืฉืขืช ืืืืื ืชืคืงืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืงืจ.
ืคื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืงืฉื ืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืืืฉ
"ืืกืื ืจืคืืื ืฉื ืจืืคื ืืืจืืืคื ืืืกืื ืฉืืขืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืืจืืืืช" ืฉืื ื ืืืชื
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืงืืื, ืืืื 26.8.97.
ืืืื 29.10.97 ืืืืฉ ืืืืงืฉ "ืืงืฉื ืืขืืื
ืืืืจ", ืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืคื ื. ืืขืืืืช ืขืืืื ืืกืชืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืืงืฉืชื ืื ืฉืื ืื
ื ืกืืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืจืกืื ืืจืืืืช ืืชืืืขื ืืืืื ืฉืืชื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื.
ืืงืฉื ืื, ืืคื ืืืื, ืืื ืืื ื ืืงืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืจ.
ืืฉืจ ืขื ืื, ืืคื ืฉืฆืืื ืืฉืืคื ืงืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืื 26.8.97, ืืืจื ืืคืชืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืงืฉ
ืืืขืืืช ืืขื ืืชืื ืืื ืืงืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืจ ืชืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช. ืขื ืืืืืื
ืฉืชืื ืชื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืงืฉ, ืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื, ืืขืจืืจ ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื, ืืืืืจ ืืกืขืืฃ 53
ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื [ื ืืกื ืืฉืืื], ืืชืฉื"ื1982-.
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ื' ืืืฉืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (9.11.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
N07
ืื/
| 1997-11-09T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.N07 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-11-09 | 1997-04-04 | 7 | null | false | [
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 2 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N02\97021690_N02.txt | 16,365 | 451 | 1997-04-11T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:24 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N02 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_N02.txt | 97021690.N02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | cd2a1cd48a583b925afb830d2743804bef4109457e4e768fd8449cd0bcdd14da |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 /
2169
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืขืืจืจ
:
ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ื
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืืฉืช ืขืจืจ
ืขื
ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื
ืื ืฆืจืช
ืืืื 28.12.96 ืื"ืฉ 869/96
(ืช"ืค
191/96) ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืืืื
ื ืืชื ืช ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืขื
ืืืืฉืช ืืขืจืจ ืืืืืงืฉ.
ืืขืจืจ ืืฉืืข
ืืืื 20.4.97 ืืฉืขื 09:30.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื,
ื' ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (11.4.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
N02
| 1997-04-11T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.N02 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-04-11 | 1997-04-04 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
451 | 2022-09-17T15:07:51 | 6 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N01\97021690_N01.txt | 17,317 | 451 | 1997-04-06T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:37:23 | 2,169 | ืืฉ"ื 2169/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\690\021\N01 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 97021690_N01.txt | 97021690.N01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 740d0505e2d06a12f4bc958b9668b8c98020109118e4c5518f259fccb52c486e |
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 /
2169
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืขืืจืจ
:
ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืืื ืช
ืืฉืจืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืืฉืช ืขืจืจ ืขื
ืืืืืช
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืฆืจืช
ืืืื
28.12.96 ืื"ืฉ 869/96
(ืช"ืค
191/96) ืฉื ืืชื ื ืขื ืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืก' ื'ืจืื
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืชืื 10 ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ื' ืชืฉื "ื
(6.4.97).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97021690.
N01
ืื/
| 1997-04-06T00:00:00 | ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื . ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97021690.N01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืขืื ืื ืืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื"
] | 1997-04-06 | 1997-04-04 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 2169/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
452 | 2022-09-17T15:07:53 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\A06\96019490_A06.txt | 461 | 452 | 1997-12-02T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:58:53 | 1,949 | ืืฉ"ื 1949/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\A06 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 96019490_A06.txt | 96019490.A06.doc | 1,996 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 4a51e57ec1740812a9309c9e0f7af2156bca26f755c3b2fdd05b28d8e6c036d5 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
1949/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื' ืืจืง
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืื ืืฉ
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื
2.
ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข"ื
3.
ืืืชื
BBDO
ืคืจืกืืืืื ืืข"ื
4.
ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข"ื
5.
ืคืืื ืืืื
6.
ืืจืืืื ืืข"ื
7.
ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื
8.
ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
9.
ืืืฃ ืืื
10.
ืฆืจืคืชื-ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
11.
ืฆืืื ืืข"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง
12.
ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ืืง
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ
2.
ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช
3.
ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืจ ื10- ืฉืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื"ื ืืืฉืื
ืืชืฉื "ื (27.11.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
ืขื"ื ืืืืื ืืืจ; ืขื"ื ืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืง-ืกืืคืจ;
ืขื"ื
ืจืืขื ืืืืจ
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
: ืขื"ื
ืขืืื ืคืืืืื
ืคืกืง-ืืื
ืืืืืฆืชื ื, ืืืจื ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืขืชืืจื. ื ืฉืืจืช, ืืืืื, ืืืืชื
ืืคื ืืช ืืขืชืืจื - ืืืฃ ืฆืืื ื ืื ืืืืคื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืืื - ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื
ืืืืื ื (ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช) ืืขื ืื ืฉืืจืืชื ืคืจืกืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืืคืื ืฉืืืืฅ
ืืืืื ื.
ืืขืืชืจืื ืืฉืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืฉื 20,000
ืฉ"ื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืื ืืชืฉื "ื (27.11.97), ืื ืืืืืช
ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื.
ื ื ืฉ ื ื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96019490.
A06
/ืื/
| 1997-12-02T00:00:00 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96019490.A06 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง",
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ",
"ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื",
"ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืชื BBDO ืคืจืกืืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข\"ื",
"ืคืืื ืืืื",
"ืืจืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื",
"ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืฃ ืืื",
"ืฆืจืคืชื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืฆืืื ืืข\"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง",
"ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ืืง",
"ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ",
"ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช",
"ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืจ"
] | 1997-12-02 | 1996-03-13 | 6 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง",
"ืืืืจ",
"ืืื ืืฉ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1949/96 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื",
"ืืฆืืง",
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
452 | 2022-09-17T15:07:53 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\I03\96019490_I03.txt | 6,584 | 452 | 1997-06-23T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:58:54 | 1,949 | ืืฉ"ื 1949/96 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\I03 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 96019490_I03.txt | 96019490.I03.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | b07cf26e1e085fa05844c26d1433cd6d572649a716b861defe06b2701176c50b |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ 96 /
1949
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1. ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื
2.
ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข"ื
3.
ืืืชื
BBDO
ืคืจืกืืืืื ืืข"ื
4.
ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข"ื
5.
ืคืืื ืืืื
6.
ืืจืืืื ืืข"ื
7.
ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื
8.
ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
9.
ืืืฃ ืืื
10.
ืฆืจืคืชื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
11.
ืฆืืื ืืข"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง
12.
ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ื
ืง
ืชืงืฉืืจืช 1991 ืืข"ื
13.
ืื ืงืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ
2.
ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช
3.
ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืจ
ืืืื
ืืงืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืฃ ืื, ืืืืืจ ืืขื' 25 ืืขืชืืจื, ื ืชืื ื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืชืืจื, ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืืื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืจืืื, ืืื
ืืืงืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืชืจ.
ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืช ืืืช, ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืืืืข
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืงืืื ืชืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื
ืืืืืื; ืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืช, ืื ืืชืืงืฉืื ืืืืืืข ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืื ืืฉืืงืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืื ืืขืื ืืืชืืืื, ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื ืืขืชืืจื, ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื.
ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืชืื 30 ืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(19.6.97).
ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96019490.
I03
| 1997-06-23T00:00:00 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96019490.I03 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื",
"ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืชื BBDO ืคืจืกืืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข\"ื",
"ืคืืื ืืืื",
"ืืจืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื",
"ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืฃ ืืื",
"ืฆืจืคืชื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืฆืืื ืืข\"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง",
"ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ืืง",
"ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ",
"ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช",
"ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืจ"
] | 1997-06-23 | 1996-03-13 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1949/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
452 | 2022-09-17T15:07:53 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\I05\96019490_I05.txt | 7,252 | 452 | 1997-09-17T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:58:54 | 1,949 | ืืฉ"ื 1949/96 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\96\490\019\I05 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 96019490_I05.txt | 96019490.I05.doc | 1,996 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 007ff9030342f910cbbbbe2311fdbbaa7a42aeee4af1e9bfa242bf2d893ad2a2 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฅ
1949/96
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืจืกืื
2.
ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข"ื
3.
ืืืชื
BBDO
ืคืจืกืืืืื
ืืข"ื
4.
ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข"ื
5.
ืคืืื ืืืื
6.
ืืจืืืื ืืข"ื
7.
ืื.ืงืื
8.
ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื
9.
ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
10.
ืืืฃ ืืื
11.
ืฆืจืคืชื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข"ื
12.
ืฆืืื ืืข"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง
13.
ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ืืง ืชืงืฉืืจืช 1991 ืืข"ื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืฉืจ ืืืืฆ
ืจ
ื12- ืื'
ืืืื
ืืงืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืืืืจืืช ืืชืืงืฉืช ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืจืื ืืืื
27.11.97.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (17.9.97).
ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
96019490.
I05
| 1997-09-17T00:00:00 | ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื ื . ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 96019490.I05 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืคืืจืกืื",
"ืคืื 3 ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืชื BBDO ืคืจืกืืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืงืฉืจ ืืจืื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืข\"ื",
"ืคืืื ืืืื",
"ืืจืืืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืืื ืืจ ืจืืื ืื",
"ืืืจ ื ืกืืก ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืืืฃ ืืื",
"ืฆืจืคืชื ืฉืืจื ืฉืืก ืกืืื ืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืข\"ื",
"ืฆืืื ืืข\"ื ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืืืง",
"ืฉืืจื ืฉืงืืื ืืง",
"ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ",
"ืืฉืืช ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืฉืืชืืช",
"ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืจ"
] | 1997-09-17 | 1996-03-13 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1949/96 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
453 | 2022-09-17T15:07:54 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\A02\97028510_A02.txt | 462 | 453 | 1997-11-11T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:45:05 | 2,851 | ืืฉ"ื 2851/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\A02 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 97028510_A02.txt | 97028510.A02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | f61ff871f99c1f2ff15b7aecedf4a0b8ee388ab82d409bc040a0ecddbb1a5455 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
2851/97
ืืคื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืคื ืืืง ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื
(ืืงืจืื
ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969-
ืืืืงืฉืช:
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื
ืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืงืฉืช: ืขื"ื ื ืืื ืืืจืืืกืงื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืงืฉืช ืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืช
ืืื ืืชื
ืืืืจ ืืืชืงืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง
ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1969- (ืืืื - ืืืืง),
ืืจืื ื ืืืจื, ืืชืืงืฃ ืกืืืืชื ืืคื ืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง ืื "ื ืืชืงื ื 10 ืืชืงื ืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื
ืืขื ืืื ืืชืจืช ื ืืฉืืืื (ืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื), ืืชืฉื"ื1984- (ืืืื - ืืชืงื ืืช), ืื ืชืชืืงืฉ
ืืืืช ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืจ ืืื: ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืจืขื
ืืขืจืขืืจืื, ืืืจื ืืงืืืขื ืืกืขืืฃ 2(ื) ืืืืง ืืืชืงื ื 11(ื) ืืชืงื ืืช.
ืืืืงืฉืช ืชืืฆืื ืชืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืช
ืืืืื ืื, ืชืจืืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืขืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืงืฉื ืขื ื ืกืคืืื. ืืืกืืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืช
ืืฉืคื ืื ืืืฉืืืฉื ืขืืชืงืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืื ืืชืฉื "ื
(11.11.97).
ื ื
ืฉ ื ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97028510.
A02
/ืื/
| 1997-11-11T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97028510.A02 | [
"ืืืจื ืืจืง"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื",
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-11-11 | 1997-05-09 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืจืง"
] | ืื"ื 2851/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืกืงื ื ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
453 | 2022-09-17T15:07:54 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\Q01\97028510_Q01.txt | 13,864 | 453 | 1997-05-13T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:45:05 | 2,851 | ืืฉ"ื 2851/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\Q01 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 97028510_Q01.txt | 97028510.Q01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | b4c2bcf3b5ffb566f0d15652fd1f77ec16140479f74885ba9f21e59102e28416 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื 97 /
2851
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืคืขื-ืืืื
ืื
ืืงืฉืช
:
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
ืื
:
1. ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืงืฉื ืืคืืืจ ืืืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉื ืืืชืจืช ืื ืืฉืืืื ืฆืืจืคื ืื ืืงืฉื ืืคืืืจ
ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืฆืืืช ืืชืงื ืืช, ืืืืฉ ืชืฆืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืืืจ ืืืกืจ ืืืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืช
ืืืืจื ืืชืขืืื ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืคืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืชืื ืืชืงื ื 13(ื) ืืชืงื ืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื
(ืืืจืืช), ืืชืฉื"ื1987-.
ืืืืจ ืฉืฉืืื ืขืชื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืฉืื ืืช
ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืขืืื, ืืืืืชื ืืคืืืจ ืืช ืืืืงืฉืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (13.5.97).
ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97028510.
Q01
| 1997-05-13T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97028510.Q01 | [
"ืืืจืืช ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื",
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 1997-05-13 | 1997-05-09 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืคืขื-ืืืื"
] | ืื"ื 2851/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืกืงื ื ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืจืืช"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
453 | 2022-09-17T15:07:54 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\E03\97028510_E03.txt | 82,407 | 453 | 2000-09-20T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T12:33:38 | 2,851 | ืืฉ"ื 2851/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\E03 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 97028510_E03.txt | 97028510.E03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 5ac8f16b745f9d1e8facbd870cb33c239256bb0f67680ca3f31b9c81f17af4ca |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
2851/97 - ื'
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืช' ืืืจ
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื
ืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืืงืช ืืืงืฉื ืืงืืืขืช ืฉืืคืื ืืืืกืจ ืืขืฉ
ืืืขื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืฉื
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืื ืฉืืื
ืืืืื
ืืชืืืืช ืืืืงืฉืช ืืชืื ืืืืฉื-ืขืฉืจ ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืฆืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืื ืืชืฉ"ืก (20.9.2000).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97028510.
E03
/ืื/
| 2000-09-20T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97028510.E03 | [
"ืชืืืืืจ ืืืจ"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื",
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 2000-09-20 | 1997-05-09 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืจ"
] | ืื"ื 2851/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืกืงื ื ืืืื"
] | [
"ืชืืืืืจ"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
453 | 2022-09-17T15:07:54 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\D05\97028510_D05.txt | 123,342 | 453 | 2001-07-23T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T09:56:49 | 2,851 | ืืฉ"ื 2851/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\D05 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 97028510_D05.txt | 97028510.D05.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 3e9da3bfcca8b2f4e765f61e152f4dd67b986e4fe7679b090b8ed0f82f576acb |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
2851/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืขื ืืืงืื
ืื
ืืงืฉืช
:
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืืืงื ืืืืกืจ ืืขืฉ
ืืืืื
ืืืืงืฉืช ืื ืืืืื
ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืื 24.6.01. ืื ื ืืืจื ืขื ืืืืงืช ืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืื ืชืฉืก"ื; 23 ืืืืื 2001.
ืืขื
ืืืงืื, ืจืฉื
ืฉ ื ืค ื
_________________
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
97028510.
D05
ื ืืกื
ืื ืืคืืฃ ืืฉืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืจื ืคืจืกืืื
ืืงืืืฅ
ืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืื.
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืคืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืข, ืื' 02-6750444
| 2001-07-23T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97028510.D05 | [
"ืืขื ืืืงืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื",
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 2001-07-23 | 1997-05-09 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืืงืื"
] | ืื"ื 2851/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืกืงื ื ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืขื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
453 | 2022-09-17T15:07:54 | 5 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\D04\97028510_D04.txt | 123,442 | 453 | 2001-06-24T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T09:56:49 | 2,851 | ืืฉ"ื 2851/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\510\028\D04 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 97028510_D04.txt | 97028510.D04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 7a8afc453ffbf8538e401f93a8d0f552651cd152ba4da93ef10bdf9220268a45 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ื
2851/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืขื ืืืงืื
ืืืืงืฉ
ืช
:
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื
2.
ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื
ืืืืฉ ืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืช
ืืืจ ืืืืืช ืื' ืืฉืืคื ืืืจ ืื ืืืืงืฉืช ืขืฆืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื. ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืื
ืืื ืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืจืฉื
ืืืืืงื ืืืืกืจ ืืขืฉ ืืืื 8.7.01. ืืคืฆื ืืืืงืฉืช ืืืืฆืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืืงื ืขืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืื
ืืืชื ืขื ืืื 4.7.01. ืืชืืง ืืืขืื ืืื ืืืื 8.7.01.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืืื ืชืฉืก"ื, 24 ืืืื ื 2001.
ืืขื
ืืืงืื, ืฉืืคื
ืจ ืฉ ื
_________________
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
97028510.
D04
ื ืืกื
ืื ืืคืืฃ ืืฉืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืจื ืคืจืกืืื
ืืงืืืฅ
ืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืื.
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืคืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืข, ืื' 02-6750444
| 2001-06-24T00:00:00 | ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื ื . ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97028510.D04 | [
"ืืขื ืืืงืื"
] | ืืืจืื | [
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืจืืื",
"ืงืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืฆ'ืื ืืื",
"ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื"
] | 2001-06-24 | 1997-05-09 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืืงืื"
] | ืื"ื 2851/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืจืืืกืงื ื ืืืื"
] | [
"ืืขื"
] | 1 | ืื"ื | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
454 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\640\018\I02\95018640_I02.txt | 463 | 454 | 1997-04-08T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T19:52:44 | 1,864 | ืืฉ"ื 1864/95 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\95\640\018\I02 | ืขืืจืืช ืืืจืื ื . ืืคืงื ืืืืืช ืฆ.ื.ื ืืืื"ืฉ | 95018640_I02.txt | 95018640.I02.doc | 1,995 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 61522b269ca7eeba9e5f96bd6c3dad8bb3364f7795c85df7bb9d7be09bc1cd8b |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ 1864/95
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ืขืืจืืช ืืืจืื
2.
ืืืื ืืืกื ืืืกืจื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืืคืงื
ืืืืืช ืฆ.ื.ื ืืืื"ืฉ
ืืืื
ืืงืืื ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืื
ืืืื 20.11.96 ื ืชืชื ืืืืื ืืชืืง ืื. ืืืืืื
ืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืขืชืืจื ืืืช ืืืื 24.10.95 ื ืืื ืืืงืฉืช ืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื, ืืื
ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืงืฉื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืขื ืืืืื. ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืฉืชื ืืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจ ืฉืืืืืข ืืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืชืื 15 ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืขืชืืจื. ืื ืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืื
ืืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืงืืข ืืื ืืืืจ ืืื. ืืชืจืฉืืืช ืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืืืจืืช ืืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืืื 3.3.97 ื ืืืจ ืื ืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืชืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืขื ืืื
11.3.97, ืืงืฉื ืืืืืงืช ืืขืชืืจื. ืื ืฉืื ืืืืขื ืื ืืงืฉื ืื ืืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื ืขื ืืืื.
ืื-ืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืช ืืขืชืืจื ืืฉื ืืืกืจ
ืืขืฉ. ืืืืื ืืืช ืชืืื ืก ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืื 1.5.97, ืืื ืื ืื-ืืื ืืขืืชืจืื ืืืืืข ืงืืื ืืื
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืคื ื ืืจืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืื ืืกื ืชืฉื "ื (8.4.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
95018640.
I02
| 1997-04-08T00:00:00 | ืขืืจืืช ืืืจืื ื . ืืคืงื ืืืืืช ืฆ.ื.ื ืืืื"ืฉ | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 95018640.I02 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืขืืจืืช ืืืจืื",
"ืืืื ืืืกื ืืืกืจื",
"ืืคืงื ืืืืืช ืฆ.ื.ื ืืืื\"ืฉ"
] | 1997-04-08 | 1995-03-22 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 1864/95 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืืืืก ื'ืืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F03\97030000_F03.txt | 464 | 455 | 1997-06-29T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:39 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F03 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_F03.txt | 97030000.F03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | d163c07acd0c0e888c7f1e974b5b3325cafbc37e5fc63222f7fdd5c0d5a46051 |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืื"ืฅ 97 /
3000
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืื ืืชืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืจืื ืฉืืคื ืื ืชืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืืืงืฉื ืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(29.6.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
F03
| 1997-06-29T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.F03 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-06-29 | 1997-05-18 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F05\97030000_F05.txt | 5,656 | 455 | 1997-06-29T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:41 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F05 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_F05.txt | 97030000.F05.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 48d7f67acbb3793e67a1882eaa038ae084765835e6968b54e87e8c11b109ea0f |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืื"ืฅ 97 /
3000
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืฉืชื
ืืืืื
ืขืชืืจื ืื ืชืืงืืข ืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืจืื ืฉืืคื ืื ืชืืืื ื
ืืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ 954/97 ืืืื"ืฅ 1917/97. ืืืงืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืขืชืืจืืช
ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืขื ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจืืช ืืืงืืข ืืืงืื ืืืคืฉืจื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(29.6.97).
ืฉ ื
ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
F05
| 1997-06-29T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.F05 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-06-29 | 1997-05-18 | 5 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B11\97030000_B11.txt | 6,052 | 455 | 1997-12-07T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:39 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B11 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_B11.txt | 97030000.B11.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 4ac608a0024f1cdbd596a8810f7c8fb9784110b781df7f3e66268bc06cc28a3c |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฆ
954/97
ืื"ืฆ
1917/97
ืื"ืฆ
3000/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
2.
ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื (ืชืืืืจืช)
ืชืืจืื
ืืืฉืืื: ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื (7.12.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื: ืขื"ื ืฉืืื ืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื: ืขื"ื ืืืืื ืจืกืืจ
ืืืืื
1. ืืฉืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจ ืืืืคื ืืืจืื ืืื
ืืคืจืงืืืืื ืืืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื (ืืขื ืื ื ืืืื ืืคืจืืืืงืื) ืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืืช
ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืจื ืืงืืืชื ืืช ืืกืืจ ืืงืืื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืคืจืืืืงืื ืชืชื ืื ืื ืืงืืื ืฉื
ืืคืจืืืืงืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืกืืคืืงื ืืขื ืื ืื.
2. ืขืื ืืืืืขื ืืขืืชืจืื ืื ืืฆืขืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืงืืข
ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืขืืืช ืืฆืขืืช ืืกืืจ ืืืื
ืฉืืืืจื ืืงืืข ืื ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืคืจืง ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืขื ืืืจืืื
ืืงืืืืช ืขืืืื, ืืคื ืฉืืงืืืืช ืขืืืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืฉืชืื ืชื ืืืืขื ืืืงืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืขื
ืืืจืืื ืขื ืืฆืขืืช ืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืจ.
ืขืืจื-ืืื ืจืกืืจ ืืืงืฉ ืฉืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืขื ืขืฉืจ ืืืื
ืืงืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืจืฉืื ืืืฆืขืืช ืืื.
ืืืืื ืืืืชืื ืืืืืขืช ืืืฉืืืื ืฉืชืื ืชื ืื ื ืชืื
14 ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉื "ื (7.12.97).
ืืืฉื ื
ืื ืฉืื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
B11
/ืฉื
| 1997-12-07T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.B11 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-12-07 | 1997-05-18 | 11 | null | false | [
"ืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืฉืืื"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B07\97030000_B07.txt | 9,210 | 455 | 1997-07-20T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:38 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B07 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_B07.txt | 97030000.B07.doc | 1,997 | 2 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | false | 0 | 0383f29f01153e4abbc61c88eabbe518bb0d49224c17a766d4211acd2ef8bb24 |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
3000/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ืื
ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื (17.7.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
ืขื"ื ืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืื
: ืขื"ื
ื. ืจืกืืจ
ื ื ื ื ื
ืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื ื ืืกืฃ, ืืืจืื ืืช
ืืขืชืืจื ืืืชืืงื ืช ืืขื ืื ืื.
ืืจ ืจืกืืจ ืืืืืข ืื ื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืืขื ืืืจืืื
ืืืคืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื (17.7.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืช
ื ื ื ื ื
ืืืกืื ืฉืื ืืงืฉืืช ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืืง ืื ืชืชืงืืื ื ืืื
ืื ื ืืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื (17.7.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืช
ืฆ ื
ื ืืชื ืืื ืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืืจืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื
ืฉื ืืขืชืืจื. ืชืฆืืืจื ืชืฉืืื ืชืื 60 ืืืื (ืืืื ืืคืืจื ืืืื). ืืฆื ืขื ืชื ืื ืืชืืืืก ืื
ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขืืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื
ืฉืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืงืฉ ืืืขืืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืืืื.
ืืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืื ืืชืงืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื
ืืื"ืฆ 954/97, 1917/97.
ื ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(17.7.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
B07
| 1997-07-20T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.B07 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-07-20 | 1997-05-18 | 7 | null | false | [
"ืืืื",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืคืกืง-ืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืฉืืื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืืื"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B08\97030000_B08.txt | 14,483 | 455 | 1997-09-25T20:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:38 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\B08 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_B08.txt | 97030000.B08.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 65121d83c08e8409f515c942e2b8e72866a38f012d244063b09a456288f02451 |
ื
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
3000/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืืื
ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
2.
ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืชืืจืื ืืืฉืืื:
ื' ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(22.9.97)
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
ืขื"ื ืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
ืขื"ื ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื
ืืืืื
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ' ืืืื:
ื ืืื ืืขืืื. ื ืืืฉ ืืืชืืืช ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืขืื ืฉืืืข
ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืืช ืืืฆืขืืช ืฉืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืืืื ืชืฉื "ื (22.9.97).
ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืฉ ื ืค ื ืฉ ื ืค
ื ืช
ืืขืชืง ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
B08
/ืฉื
| 1997-09-25T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.B08 | [
"ืฉืืื ืืืื",
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื",
"ืืืื ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-09-25 | 1997-05-18 | 8 | null | false | [
"ืืืื",
"ืืฉืื",
"ืฉืืจืกืืจื-ืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืฉืืื",
"ืืืฉืื",
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\R06\97030000_R06.txt | 17,550 | 455 | 1997-07-08T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:43 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 2 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\R06 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_R06.txt | 97030000.R06.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | de7c94c05b5364bab9b58923c10e69111bf30f218aa452f897bbd6bb3b9eeb3b |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืื"ืฆ
954/97
ืื"ืฆ 1917/97
ืื"ืฆ 3000/97
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื' ืืืืื
ืืขืืชืจืื
:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืื
ืืฉื
ืืขืืชืจืื: ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื, ืขื"ื
ืืฉื
ืืืฉืื: ืขื"ื ืืืืื ืจืกืืจ
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืฆืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืืข
ืืืื 14.7.97.
ืืขืชืืจื ืชืืืื ืืืื 17.7.97 ืืฉืขื 09:00.
ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืืืืข ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืืช
ืืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืงืกืืืืืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื' ืืชืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(8.7.97).
ืืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืคืืช
ืจ ืฉ ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
R06
| 1997-07-08T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.R06 | [
"ืืืื ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-07-08 | 1997-05-18 | 6 | null | false | [
"ืืืืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 2 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F04\97030000_F04.txt | 17,855 | 455 | 1997-06-29T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:39 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\F04 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_F04.txt | 97030000.F04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 407225e78a531a13f3ce7b4a28430413f709e8add5d1427bde4bea6a368ff90b |
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืืจืืฉืืื
ืื"ืฅ 97 /
3000
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฆื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ืืืืื ืืชืฆืืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืืืืื
ืืืจืื ืฉืืคื ืื ืชืืืื ืืขืชืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืืืงืฉื ืื.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืกืืื ืชืฉื "ื
(29.6.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97030000.
F04
| 1997-06-29T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.F04 | [
"ืืืืื ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-06-29 | 1997-05-18 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืฆื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
455 | 2022-09-17T15:07:55 | 8 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\G01\97030000_G01.txt | 18,163 | 455 | 1997-05-18T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:46:42 | 3,000 | ืืฉ"ื 3000/97 | 3 | HebrewVerdicts\97\000\030\G01 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 97030000_G01.txt | 97030000.G01.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 0416e505cfa915e9f3f7059ae53f8d4f9aebff3b9f2a6a6b8c520f3d7444ab5d |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ 97 /
3000
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืขืชืืจื ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืืืืื
ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืฉื ืืขืชืืจื.
20 ืืืื ืืชืฉืืื.
ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืจืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืฉื ื ืืขืชืืจื:
ืืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืชื - ืืืืกืื ื ืคืจื - ืชืื 20 ืืืื.
ืืืขื ืืฉืืืขื ืืืืฆืืช ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืืงืืข ืืื
ืืกืืื ืืืืจ ืงืืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉื ื ืืขืชืืจื.
ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (18.5.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
COURT
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ 97 / 3000
ืืคื ื: ืืืื
ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืฉืื
ืืขืืชืจืื:
1.
ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื
2.
ืขื"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื
3.
ืขื"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืฉ
ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื
ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื
ืขื ืืกืื ืขืชืืจื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื
ืื, ืืฆืืื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืืฆื ืืืคื ืื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืชืืืฆื
ืืืืชื ืืขื ืืืืข ืื ืืขืืืจ, ืืืจืื ืืืขืืจื ืื ืื ืืื ืข ืืืขืืจื ืืขืืชืจืื ืฉื ืืขืชืงืื ืืืคืื
ืฉื ืคื ืงืก ืืคืจืืืืงืืืื ืื ืจืฉื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื
ืืื ืืืชืืืืกืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืจืืื ื18.2.97- ืื11.3.97-.
ืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืชืฉืืืชื, ืื ืจืฆืื ื ืืื, ืชืื 20 ืืืื
ืืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืื, ืืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืืืืขืื-ืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช.
ื ืืชื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (18.5.97).
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื,
ืืืืืจ
ืจืืฉื
| 1997-05-18T00:00:00 | ื"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ื . ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97030000.G01 | [
"ืืืฉืื ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ื\"ืจ ืฉืืื ืืื",
"ืขื\"ื ืืืกืฃ ืืจื ืื",
"ืขื\"ื ื ืชื ืืจืื",
"ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื",
"ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื"
] | 1997-05-18 | 1997-05-18 | 1 | null | false | [
"ืืฉืื"
] | ืื"ืฅ 3000/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืืื ืฉืืื",
"ืจืกืืจ ืืืืื"
] | [
"ืืืฉืื"
] | 3 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
456 | 2022-09-17T15:07:57 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\750\032\I02\97032750_I02.txt | 465 | 456 | 1997-06-02T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T20:49:48 | 3,275 | ืืฉ"ื 3275/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\750\032\I02 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืจืืื ืืจื ืืฉื | 97032750_I02.txt | 97032750.I02.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 927f78e7f8c4ea6ee3923a5cb1fc7820e3cc293a3298a1b7984922c114eca05c |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉ"ืค 97 /
3275
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคื ื' ืืืืจ
ืืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืื
:
ืจืืื ืืจื
ืืฉื
ืืงืฉื
ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืขืฆืจ ืืขืืจ ืืฉื ื
ืืคื
ืกืขืืฃ 54 ืืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื
[ื ืืกื
ืืฉืืื] ืืชืฉื"ื1982-
ืืืืื
ืืืงืฉืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืกืืื ืฉื ื"ื ืืืฉืื ืื ื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืฆืจื
ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื 6.6.97 ืื ืขื ืืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืช.ืค. 502/96
ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ-ืฉืืข, ืืคื ืืืืขื ืืืืงืื ืืืชืจ.
ื ืืชื ื ืืืื, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืชืฉื "ื (29.5.97).
ืฉ ื ืค ื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97032750.
I02
| 1997-06-02T00:00:00 | ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ื . ืจืืื ืืจื ืืฉื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97032750.I02 | [
"ืืฆืืง ืืืืจ"
] | ืคืืืื | [
"ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื",
"ืจืืื ืืจื ืืฉื"
] | 1997-06-02 | 1997-05-28 | 2 | null | false | [
"ืืืืจ"
] | ืืฉ"ืค 3275/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืคืจืฅ ืืืจืื"
] | [
"ืืฆืืง"
] | 1 | ืืฉ"ืค | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
457 | 2022-09-17T15:07:58 | 7 | HebrewVerdicts\97\650\044\L04\97044650_L04.txt | 466 | 457 | 1997-07-31T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:08:52 | 4,465 | ืืฉ"ื 4465/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\650\044\L04 | ืืืคื ืกืืืืื ื . ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื | 97044650_L04.txt | 97044650.L04.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 04be3968d2d06d63044f09ff0d7d45a17c02ad5cd69c57e16556b879d6b8ea2c |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
4465/97 - 2
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืืจื ืจ
ื
ืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืคื ืกืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื
2.
ืืืกืฃ ืกืืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ื ืืกืคืช ืืืชื ืฆื ืขื-ืชื ืื ืืฆื-ืืื ืืื
ืฆื-ืืื ืืื
ืขื-ืืกืื ืขืชืืจื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืช-ืืฉืคื
ืื, ืืฆืืื ืืืช-ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืฆื ืืืคื ืื ืฆื-ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืก' 1 ืืืฆืืื ืขืืื
ืืืฉืขืืช ืืช ืคืกืง-ืืืื ืืืื 3.7.97.
ืฆื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืืชืืงืคื ืขื ืืืชื ืืืืื
ืืืจืช.
ื ืืช
ื ืืืื, ืื ืืชืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (31.7.1997).
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื
ืืืืืจ
ืจืืฉื
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97044650.
L04
| 1997-07-31T00:00:00 | ืืืคื ืกืืืืื ื . ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97044650.L04 | [
"ืืืื ืืืจื ืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืคื ืกืืืืื",
"ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื",
"ืืืกืฃ ืกืืืืื"
] | 1997-07-31 | 1997-07-20 | 4 | null | false | [
"ืืืจื ืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4465/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |
|
457 | 2022-09-17T15:07:58 | 7 | HebrewVerdicts\97\650\044\L03\97044650_L03.txt | 598 | 457 | 1997-07-31T19:00:00 | 2008-02-27T21:08:52 | 4,465 | ืืฉ"ื 4465/97 | 1 | HebrewVerdicts\97\650\044\L03 | ืืืคื ืกืืืืื ื . ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื | 97044650_L03.txt | 97044650.L03.doc | 1,997 | 1 | ืืืืื | false | 0 | 2672bed06a1b2d1476a3efaf1c9281457a435d961e2b901b78102fce74ca58dd |
ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื
ืืฉืืชื
ืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืฆืืง
ืื"ืฅ
4465/97 - 1
ืืคื ื:
ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืช ื' ืืืจื ืจ
ื
ืืืงืฉืช
:
ืืืคื ืกืืืืื
ื ืื
ืืืฉืืืื
:
1.
ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื
2.
ืืืกืฃ ืกืืืืื
ืืงืฉื
ื ืืกืคืช ืืืชื ืฆื-ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืงืช ืืขืชืืจื
ืืืืื
ืฆื-ืืื ืืื ืืืืืงืฉ.
ืื ืืื ืืงืฉื ืื ืฉื ืืขืืชืจืช, ืืืืืืจืืช ืชืงืืข ืืืขื
ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ื7.8.97-.
ื ืืชื ื
ืืืื, ืื ืืชืืื ืืชืฉื "ื (31.7.1997).
ืฉ
ื ืค ื ืช
ืืขืชืง
ืืชืืื ืืืงืืจ
ืฉืืจืืื
ืืื - ืืืืืจ ืจืืฉื
97044650.
L03
| 1997-07-31T00:00:00 | ืืืคื ืกืืืืื ื . ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื | 0 | [
"ืชืืืขื",
"ืืื ื",
"ืืื ื"
] | 97044650.L03 | [
"ืืืื ืืืจื ืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ | [
"ืืืคื ืกืืืืื",
"ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื",
"ืืืกืฃ ืกืืืืื"
] | 1997-07-31 | 1997-07-20 | 3 | null | false | [
"ืืืจื ืจ"
] | ืื"ืฅ 4465/97 | ืืืืื | [
"ืื ืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ"
] | [
"ืืืื"
] | 1 | ืื"ืฅ | ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื |