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We argue that an effective representation of farmer adaptation to climate change can only be achieved by integrating different modelling approaches that are spatially and temporally multi-scale and dynamic. We introduce a modelling framework that addresses these issues. To illustrate our approach, we simulate a group of farms representing a catchment in the East Anglian region of England, with and without water trading (spatially multi-scale). Different modelling approaches are used to represent weather (year-to-year variation) and climate effects (predicted crop yields for the 2020s and 2050s). Dynamics are introduced by (i) allowing the outcome of previous years' decisions to inform decision making in subsequent years and (ii) by modelling large investment decisions (buildings and irrigation), as longer term commitments. Variability and uncertainty are captured by running the framework multiple times with inputs drawn at random. Example results demonstrate that farm-level allocation of abstraction licences constrains water abstraction at the catchment level-with water trading summer water abstraction increased from 66.4% (compared to 62.2% with no trading) for the baseline period, through 75.6% (65.9%), for the 2020s, to 93.2% (72.5%) for the 2050s. Hence, modelling the catchment as a single unit would have over-estimated water abstraction. Under the model assumptions investment in winter abstraction capacity was not justified. Due to their high value, irrigation levels were maintained on potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), resulting in relatively stable crop areas over time; in contrast, for the lower value sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) yields and areas were more variable due to their dependence on variable weather and surplus water availability. There was no major shift from native cropping to exotic crops (oilseed rape [Brassica napus L.] to sunflowers [Helianthus annuus L.]) in either the 2020s or 2050s. We conclude that omitting farm-level constraints in regional models may overestimate the degree of adaptation possible and underestimate the negative effects of climate change. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Gibbons, JM; Ramsden, SJ

Integrated modelling of farm adaptation to climate change in East Anglia, UK: Scaling and farmer decision making

Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.03.010

COVID-19 worsened urban slum dwellers' pre-existing vulnerabilities. Maintaining WHO-suggested physical distancing/isolation made planning more challenging in slums. The scenarios hint at the urgency to investigate whether these resource-scarce communities - already susceptible to climate change, poverty, health services, infrastructure, and space constraints, could build resilience against COVID-19. What lack of resources/assets made communities vulnerable there, and what adaptation measures were taken? What planning/management practices were adopted there, and to what extent could WHO's IPC guidelines (on transmission prevention and control) be followed? Findings show that pre-COVID economic, infrastructural, and health-related issues had affected slum dwellers' COVID-time vulnerabilities. While poor infrastructure and sanitation, informal employment, livelihood diversity, superstition, and comorbidities remained the key 'internal' issues, lack of institutional preparedness and safety-net programs, discontinued municipal services and inaccessible/untrustworthy healthcare services and corruption/bias/non-coordination in beneficiary selection remained the key `external' issues. Information sharing, openness to pandemic knowledge, and active participation in awareness/training programs have been the most adopted measures. Aid schemes, despite criticisms, saved dwellers from starvation. Therefore, this proved to be a critical coping element. However, NGOs systematic monetary aid gave dwellers the most flexibility in spending. On top, NGOs proved to be the most vital external stakeholder in all sectors except for built environment/planning. To increase adaptive capacity, scopes remain in maximizing the use of community infrastructure in future events. Simultaneously, spatial aspects, alongside the non-spatial, seemed crucial in tackling complex poverty profiles, resource-scarcity, and vulnerabilities of slums. Findings are based on NGO BRAC's existing dataset and fieldwork between April-August 2020 on 29 slums in Khulna, Bangladesh, using a qualitative methodology. The study contributes to a growing body of knowledge and practice on resilient planning for COVID-19 (and similar future pandemics), especially for slums, while addressing its overlooked spatial dimensions.

Akter, S; Hakim, SS; Rahman, MS

Planning for pandemic resilience: COVID-19 experience from urban slums in Khulna, Bangladesh

Journal Of Urban Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2021.08.003

The world has seen a number of natural hazards, but among them, floods are perhaps the most frequent devastating natural hazard, resulting in more human causalities and financial losses. Rural inundation has become an issue of concern in various parts of the world, including Pakistan. Over the past few decades, it has been hard for local institutions and rural populations to recover from the trauma inflicted by these events. The disaster risk management cycle is a well-known tool for coping with disasters and their consequences. Yet, the DRM cycle efficacy has been questioned in various rural settings. Thus, this paper applied a programmatic strategy to understand the challenges disaster management authorities and communities face in managing flood risks through the conventional disaster management cycle in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. The study objective was accomplished by using both qualitative and exploratory research designs. Four communities (namely, Peshawar, Charsadda, Nowshera, and Dera Ismail Khan) with a historical record of flooding were chosen for focus group discussion (32 in total) using a purposive sampling method. Additionally, 31 key informant interviews were undertaken from pertinent local disaster risk management institutions. We employed a thematic analysis to classify responses and obstacles into the various stages of the disaster management cycle. The findings of this study from interviews and focus groups provided some new insight into the conventional DRM cycle. The issues and challenges encountered by institutions and the community members were divided into four stages: 1-mitigation, 2-preparedness, 3-rescue and relief (R&R), and 4-rehabilitation and recovery (R&R). Based on the findings, it seems that local disaster management institutions still rely on reactive strategies and deal with flood hazards on an ad hoc basis. Poor governance and a lack of responses for present development trajectories were also highlighted as reasons why flood risk management is still challenging. There is an urgent need to perform susceptibility and risk assessments for multiple hazards and develop specialized plans that follow disaster risk reduction principles and adaptation to climate change. This study recommends incorporating resilience and adaptation to climate change into the current disaster management cycle to prevent or reduce future hazards and risks in rural areas.

Shah, AA; Ullah, A; Khan, NA; Shah, MH; Ahmed, R; Hassan, ST; Tariq, MAUR; Xu, C

Identifying obstacles encountered at different stages of the disaster management cycle (DMC) and its implications for rural flooding in Pakistan

Frontiers In Environmental Science

https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1088126

Purpose - Contributing to the global dialogue on disaster risk reduction (DRR), the purpose of this paper is to address a key priority for the Post-2015 Framework for DRR (HFA2) by analysing initiatives used by one local government to increase local-level engagement in DRR. Design/methodology/approach - A review of literature from the multidisciplinary areas of communication, social and political theory examines the role that communication theory and practice can play in facilitating public participation to build community resilience. Building on these insights, the authors introduce a research methodology to examine modes of communication, the quality of dialogue and opportunities for voice and listening between decision makers and local-level stakeholders during DRR planning A qualitative, case study is undertaken with data sourced from observation, document analysis and interviews to provide insights into public engagement events, policies and procedures that enhance or impede local engagement in DRR. Findings - Communication between the DRR campaign team and publics are analysed according to the range of communication practices used and opportunities provided for dialogue between parties. Findings differentiate between public information, consultation and participation events. Factors that enable and conversely, constrain local-level engagement to build community resilience, and conditions associated with each factor, are identified. Research limitations/implications - A unique analytical framework adapted from the duel lenses of participatory communication and information flow models, is used to differentiate events using one-way information from those offering opportunities for dialogue and participation. The framework provides a method for DRR practitioners to plan and evaluate local-level engagement events to meet the communication needs of particular situations. Practical implications - The framework provides a method for DRR practitioners to plan and evaluate local-level engagement events to meet the communication needs of particular situations. Originality/value - Co-authored by an Australian academic and a member of Amadora's campaign team, the paper is a combination of one city's experience in developing strategies to build community resilience, analysed using communication, social and political theory. Findings have implications for standard command-and-control management systems and styles of leadership and crisis management. Results will assist practitioners' advance their understanding of different ways that publics may be engaged to build community resilience.

Burnside-Lawry, J; Carvalho, L

Building local level engagement in disaster risk reduction: a Portugese case study

Disaster Prevention And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-07-2014-0129

While greenhouse gas emissions in Europe have reduced in recent years, there is still a considerable gap between the current situation and where we need be to limit global warming and adapt to climate change, particularly in cities. The Sustainable Development Goals and the Climate Agenda have placed great emphasis on collaborative frameworks and the private sector's crucial contribution to closing the climate gap in terms of investment and leadership in innovation. However, there has not been a concise follow-up and assessment of the private sector's practical involvement and contribution, whether policy and legislative frameworks and planning approaches are suitable to enable this involvement, and who would lead in delivering the climate agenda locally. The present article addresses this gap reporting on case observations regarding the delivery of climate interest and sustainability through urban development in London and Copenhagen-two European cities of different sizes and varying government approaches. Thereby, the article assesses patterns of private-sector involvement and governance around climate adaptation and mitigation and locates gaps around its involvement in delivering the climate agenda. The analysis clarifies overarching differences in governance and frameworks for the involvement of the private sector between the two cities, attributing this on the local level partly to city size and scale, but to a great extent to 'city leadership' in the built environment and sustainable urban innovation in general. A crucial finding highlights the importance that cities further establish platforms for collaborative learning, specifically around pilot urban projects, thereby stimulating voluntary private engagement. Another key finding is in the potential effectiveness of strategies by public agencies such as city governments to incentivise private actors and simultaneously monitor sustainability effects both broadly at the city level, and specifically at urban project level using ecological, circular and life-cycle approaches. Further implications of the analysis point to the importance of developing a more nuanced approach to understanding the different roles fulfilled by the 'private sector' in the built environment and the necessity of creating an information base addressing the life cycle of development projects and business processes and comparing their impacts. The situation also necessitates considering efforts, impacts, climate finances and data on the broad city scale. The findings of this article can inspire further research, benefit further action in these cities and inform international efforts about climate gaps related to climate adaptation and mitigation.

Alkhani, R

Understanding Private-Sector Engagement in Sustainable Urban Development and Delivering the Climate Agenda in Northwestern Europe-A Case Study of London and Copenhagen

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208431

The floodplains of rivers are relevant living spaces for population globally and provide favorable locations for economic development. However, these areas are commonly exposed to floods, and the increasing population together with the changes in storminess as a result of global warming mean that the risks from flooding are expected to rise. Most studies investigating the impact that climatic change has on flood risk are based on a cascade of global climate model simulations coupled with regional climate models, hydrologic models, inundation models, and flood impact models. However, this approach is subject to uncertainties. Model results are found to be sensitive to climate forcing, the structure of the underlying models, the choice of methods used for downscaling and bias correction, and the use of extreme value analysis for both current and future climate conditions. Moreover, uncertainties are expected to propagate through the model cascade. To overcome these problems, we propose a method for analyzing and mapping the sensitivity of population exposure in floodplains to changes in flood magnitude. The method is based on downward counterfactuals, namely perturbations of a selected flood scenario by increasing its magnitude, interpreted in this case as the worsening of a today's design flood event as a result of climatic changes. The increase in the impact of a current design flood compared to its counterfactual illustrates the sensitivity to changes in hazard. We calculate the normalized gradients of the flood exposure curves, that is, the increase in the exposure and magnitude of the perturbed event relative to the exposure and magnitude of the current scenario. We test the applicability of the method on local, national, and global scale by using existing data sets, including flood hazard maps, flood protection standards, floodplain delineation, river network definition, and spatial population distribution. The gradients were found to vary remarkably across the globe and are overall smaller in the upper range of flood magnitudes that in the lower range. Based on these results, we compare the drivers of the sensitivity in different parts of the world and identify river reaches with the highest relative gradients. These river reaches might be the most affected by climate change and thus deserve an in-depth investigation of the underlying characteristics of the floodplains and the need for climate change adaptation.

Zischg, AP; Bermúdez, M

Mapping the Sensitivity of Population Exposure to Changes in Flood Magnitude: Prospective Application From Local to Global Scale

Frontiers In Earth Science

https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.534735

Background: Due to its climate-sensitive agricultural system and low adaptive capacity of the subsistence farmers, Ethiopia is cited among the countries experiencing frequent drought and highly vulnerable to climate change associated impacts. Micro level vulnerability assessment, in the context of a changing climate, has a paramount significance in designing policies addressing climate change induced effects. Assessing vulnerability to climate change is important for defining the risks posed by the change and it provides a starting point for the determination of effective means of promoting remedial actions to minimize impacts by supporting coping strategies and facilitating adaptation options targeted at specific context. Methods: We employed cross-sectional survey research design has to examine the extent of livelihood vulnerability of 384 randomly selected smallholder farmers from three agroecologies which was supplemented by interviews. Livelihood vulnerability index, using integrated indicator approaches and principal component analysis, has been used. Chi-square test, F-test and t-test were used to examine association and mean differences among three agroecologies and between cropping types in terms of different attributes. Findings: Overall, smallholder farmers living in kolla agroecology were found to be the most vulnerable to climate change induced hazards followed by dega. In terms of type of cropping season, belg dominated areas were relatively more vulnerable than those residing in meher dominated areas. Different biophysical and socioeconomic attributes contributed their own role both for exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity differences among smallholder farmers farming in different agroecologies and different types of cropping seasons. Conclusion: We recommend that interventions undertaken to lessen the impact of climate change should be targeted to the factors which contribute to high extent of sensitivity and for those which could enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers. Specifically, we suggest that resilience-building adaptation interventions like expansion of small-scale irrigation, accessing of microfinance service, early warning and timely information, extension support, non-farm sources of income, training and skill development, expansion of infrastructure have to be promoted thereby increase the adaptive capacity of subsistence rainfed-dependent farmers to withstand the vagaries of the climate variability risk. Moreover, disparities in the same agroecology have to be addressed properly in livelihood vulnerability discourse.

Asfaw, A; Bantider, A; Simane, B; Hassen, A

Smallholder farmers' livelihood vulnerability to climate change-induced hazards: agroecology-based comparative analysis in Northcentral Ethiopia (Woleka Sub-basin)

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06761

The aim of this study is to assess livestock farmers' perception of climate change (CC)/variability and adaptation strategies in the Gera district. Rainfall and temperature were the variables taken in the CC perception study. A total of 190 smallholder livestock farmers were sampled for the survey. Primary data were collected through semi -structured questionnaire interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and meteorological data series of 2001-2020. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 was used to analyze the data. The results revealed that 79.17% of respondents perceived climate change over the past 20 years. About 84.9% and 82.9% of re-spondents perceived increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall over the past 20 years, respectively. Farmers' perception was consistent with meteorological data of the area, which also showed increasing trend in temper-ature and decreasing trend in rainfall. Farmers' perceived that anthropogenic action and natural processes, anthropogenic action, natural processes, and God's anger against human sins were the main causes of CC, in decreasing order. No statistical difference (p > 0.05) was found between AEZs regarding effects of CC except for incidence of trypanosomiasis. Decreased quality and quantity of feeds, water availability, milk production, and animal fertility, and increased calving interval, number of services per conception, incidence of animal disease, and parasite were perceived as the major impacts (indicators) of CC on livestock production and productivity in their order of importance. Diversification of mixed crop-livestock, diversification of livestock species, feed con-servation, reducing herd sizes, water harvesting, provision of supplementary feeds, and forage production were the most practiced adaptation strategies. Lack of technical know-how about water harvesting, shortage of land for forage production, lack of improved forage seeds, lack of supplementary feed, poor livestock management skill, lack of feed conservation practices and poor access to market were the most important barriers to CC adaptation. It is concluded that there is a need for policy makers and livestock development stakeholders to formulate and implement intervention that promote farmers' perception and adaptation abilities to CC impacts and address the identified barriers for improving livestock productivity in the study area.

Abazinab, H; Duguma, B; Muleta, E

Livestock farmers' perception of climate change and adaptation strategies in the Gera district, Jimma zone, Oromia Regional state, southwest Ethiopia

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12200

The Ganga Basin, one of the world's most densely populated and vulnerable regions, is also among the world's most dynamic hydrological systems. Rivers exiting the Himalaya deposit massive amounts of sediment in the plains and shift their courses regularly. The natural dynamics of this system have a direct impact on populations. On August 18th, 2008, for example, embankments on the Kosi River (a tributary to the Ganges), failed and the channel shifted by as much as 120 km (Sinha, 2008 [1]) displacing over sixty thousand people in Nepal and three and a half million in India. Transport and power systems disrupted across large areas. The embankment failure was not caused by an extreme event. Instead the breach represented a failure of interlinked physical and institutional infrastructure systems in an area characterized by complex social, political, and environmental relationships. Projected climate changes in the Ganga Basin are likely to greatly exacerbate vulnerability (Adaptation Study Team, 2008 121). While the Kosi breach had nothing to do with climate change, such events will increase if climatic variability, sediment transport, and extreme events increase. Understanding how populations can respond to the dynamic nature of rivers such as the Kosi is, as a result, essential to develop strategies for adapting to climatic change. Understanding is also essential at the policy level for building adaptive capacity. The challenge is to identify policy frameworks and their relationship to interlinked physical and institutional infrastructure combinations that create environments enabling adaptation within households, communities, and regions. This paper explores the challenges and opportunities facing the development of adaptive policy frameworks in the Ganga Basin. The characteristics of frameworks that are adaptive in themselves and enable adaptation along with their relationship to different types of interlinked institutional and infrastructure systems are explored first. Following this, the case of the Kosi embankment along with the projected impacts of climate change across the Ganga Basin is used to identify the key challenges and opportunities that are common in many regions. The paper concludes with specific observations on the development of adaptive policy frameworks for responding to climate change in complex developing country contexts. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Moench, M

Responding to climate and other change processes in complex contexts: Challenges facing development of adaptive policy frameworks in the Ganga Basin

Technological Forecasting And Social Change

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2009.11.006

Hazard mapping is essential for risk assessment and mitigation measurement design in flood prone areas. In Europe, long-term fluvial stage data, acquired since the 18th century, represent a resource of fundamental importance in this perspective, especially where rivers monitoring is completed by multiple stations distributed along the course. In these conditions, a major challenge is represented by the possibility of incorporating multiple probability models, representative of river dynamics at different distance from the mouth, in flood hazard estimation over so large areas. In this paper, we propose a new procedure of hazard estimation based on LiDAR derived flood inundation model and multiple hydrometric time series that, using a specifically developed algorithm/code of interpolation/assignation of multiple probability models, has the potential to work at local to national scale providing reliable estimation also in presence of urban areas. We applied the developed procedure and associated algorithm/code to a selected study area in southern Italy, recently hit by a destructive flood event, and quantitatively evaluate model performance. Confidence interval computation provides an overview of uncertainty related to flood magnitude estimation by extreme value analysis, indicating a substantial uncertainty related to 500 years flood magnitude estimation. Sensitivity analysis indicates a high degree of robustness of the developed procedure. Result validation through comparison against the observed 2015 flood event indicates that the method has the potential to support flood hazard analysis at regional to national scale. Limits of method application are related to the basic assumption of stationarity of hydrologic time series that might be considered too simplicistic in a changing climate also related to the limited length of some time series that only in few cases have no discontinuities. The absence of propagation modelling as part of the estimation procedure might be considered as an additional limit since in complex topographic and hydrological conditions it might provide a better evaluation of flood hazard. However, comparison of the 500 years flood derived from our procedure and 500 years flood scenarios derived by 2D hydraulic simulations indicate the capabilities of our procedure in identifying area floodable by specific events with only local overestimation that generally increase safety in human life protection perspective. This confirms the potential of considering multiple probability models distributed along the river course in flood hazard estimation perspective and indicate that our procedure can be a valid alternative to simulation based flood hazard estimation procedures.

Guerriero, L; Ruzza, G; Guadagno, FM; Revellino, P

Flood hazard mapping incorporating multiple probability models

Journal Of Hydrology

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125020

This paper analyzes flood impact on the historical objects and cultural heritage in Southern and Eastern Serbia. The basic research problem is the lack of systematized databases regarding the flood impact on the cultural heritage, in addition to the lack of official manuals or other types of educational material dealing with the management of the assets with monumental properties in flood situations. The goal of the paper is to indicate this problem to the professional and wider public through systematization and classification of the observed damages on the buildings. The paper first provides a brief overview of the development of flood protection throughout history with particular reference to the research area. In addition, the history of floods in Serbia is also analyzed in order to point to the frequency and scale of this problem in the researched area. Through the research of archival materials in the appropriate institutions as well as direct recording of assets in the field, the degree of flood impact on historical objects in the territories of Southern and Eastern Serbia is determined. It refers to both declared cultural monuments and those that are still undeclared but possess certain monumental properties. Only the material damages on the immovable cultural assets have been analyzed. The protection of the movable cultural assets has not been taken into consideration, although it represents a very important aspect of every flood damage. A classification of the damages observed on these types of buildings, which occur as a direct or indirect consequence of floods, has been carried out. Examples of structural damage are presented in the paper (such as fissures, cracks, bucklings and collapse of parts or overall objects). Examples of the damages that do not threaten the stability of buildings are also presented. Here, they are divided into two groups-moisture-induced damages and biodegradation. The paper also gives examples of the damages induced by direct or indirect impacts of floods. It is from these examples that general lessons can be drawn, namely those that would be applicable to the endangered categories of cultural heritage. The classification is conducted for the purpose of better planning of preventive or rehabilitation strategies and measures for the preservation of architectural cultural heritage. Recommendations for dealing with heritage assets in the case of floods are also given.

Petronijevic, AM; Petronijevic, P

Floods and Their Impact on Cultural Heritage-A Case Study of Southern and Eastern Serbia

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su142214680

Recent trends in governance in England, UK ? exemplified by the notion of the ?Big Society? and the 2011 Localism Act ? have seen local communities and individuals encouraged to take greater responsibility for public policy issues that were previously seen as largely or exclusively state-led. This paper examines a case study where this localism presumption has been applied to estuary flood defence and considers the appropriateness of localor community-based initiatives in dealing with sea level rise. We examine the Alde and Ore Estuary, Suffolk, England, UK, where the state has retreated as the main decision-maker for climate change adaptation and consider the impacts of this change in governance approach. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with local actors focusing on: a) perceptions of the governance of flood defence plans, b) the legitimacy of decisions reached, and c) social equity linked with localism. We find that there is a limit to what can be devolved down to local communities in the absence of structure, guidelines, funding or supervision provided by state actors. It is unrealistic that responsibility for problems such as flood defence, involving complex trade-offs; issues of public safety and public expenditure; and protection of natural assets be devolved so comprehensively to local communities without substantial co-leadership. State actors still need to co-lead and provide a link between the local scale and the national and international policy scales and to facilitate a broader sense of vision for future landscapes. Without transparent co-led processes involving a broad range of actors in the local community and state bodies, decisions made regarding flood defence initiatives may be perceived by local people to lack legitimacy. Without an independent arbiter involved in project planning and decision-making, disagreements may dissolve into intractable disputes that damage project credibility and hamper or even paralyze practical progress. Without compensation schemes that acknowledge that any flood defence plan will mean some local people lose out, some are likely to vigorously resist change, hampering progress. It will also be necessary to ensure a focus on inter-generational equity so that current generations do not deflect costs onto later generations, for whom costs may be higher and decisions more difficult.

McGinlay, J; Jones, N; Clark, J; Maguire-Rajpaul, VA

Retreating coastline, retreating government? Managing sea level rise in an age of austerity

Ocean & Coastal Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105458

Sea-level rise due to climate change will have significant effects on coastal areas and populations. Adaptation policies recommend the managed realignment of the most vulnerable assets and activities. Despite their medium-and long-term benefits, these policies face significant friction due to social acceptability in the communities where they are implemented. This article investigates the hypothesis that respecting principles of justice in the implementation of managed realignment should increase its acceptability. We compare preferences of those people who are exposed to the risk of climate-change-induced flooding and those who are not, as regards funding managed retreat policies and defining compensation criteria for assets at risk. The main theories of social justice provide the four principles included in the analysis: efficiency, need, responsibility and priority assigned to property rights. A choice experiment survey was conducted with 258 residents of coastal and hinterland communities in the south of France. Four attributes were selected to define the managed realignment policy: the dialogue arrangements, the implementation period, the policy implementation schedule and the cost. The results show support for a relatively fast launch of these policies (within 15 years) but in stages and through a process of dialogue with the population. People's perceptions of the funding criteria reveal a preference for national solidarity. Finally, national funding of managed retreat policies and compensation criteria based on market prices have a significant positive influence on the acceptability of managed realignment policies, whereas introducing responsibility-based compensation criteria tends to favour the status quo over the adaptation policy. Policy relevance Prioritization of the funding criteria reveals the preference for national solidarity. Preferences for the justice criteria underpinning compensation reveal a great diversity of values. Besides implantation modalities, preferences for managed realignment policies depend on which level they are implemented at, on the expropriation criteria (the emphasis given to property rights, i.e. market price), on the attachment (people perceived as worst off, i.e. the property is their main residence rather than a second home or they have lower levels of income) and on the degree of responsibility (related to the date of purchase, i.e. on the information given at the time on the risk).

Rulleau, B; Rey-Valette, H; Clément, V

Impact of justice and solidarity variables on the acceptability of managed realignment

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2015.1119097

The impacts of climate change are of particular concern to the coastal region of tropical countries like India, which are exposed to cyclones, floods, tsunami, seawater intrusion, etc. Climate-change adaptation presupposes comprehensive assessment of vulnerability status. Studies so far relied either on remote sensing-based spatial mapping of physical vulnerability or on certain socio-economic aspects with limited scope for upscaling or replication. The current study is an attempt to develop a holistic and robust framework to assess the vulnerability of coastal India at different levels. We propose and estimate cumulative vulnerability index (CVI) as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, at the village level, using nationally comparable and credible datasets. The exposure index (EI) was determined at the village level by decomposing the spatial multi-hazard maps, while sensitivity (SI) and adaptive capacity indices (ACI) were estimated using 23 indicators, covering social and economic aspects. The indicators were identified through the literature review, expert consultations, opinion survey, and were further validated through statistical tests. The socio-economic vulnerability index (SEVI) was constructed as a function of sensitivity and adaptive capacity for planning grassroot-level interventions and adaptation strategies. The framework was piloted in Sindhudurg, a coastal district in Maharashtra, India. It comprises 317 villages, spread across three taluks viz., Devgad, Malvan and Vengurla. The villages in Sindhudurg were ranked based on this multi-criteria approach. Based on CVI values, 92 villages (30%) in Sindhudurg were identified as highly vulnerable. We propose a decision tool for identifying villages vulnerable to changing climate, based on their level of sensitivity and adaptive capacity in a two-dimensional matrix, thus aiding in planning location-specific interventions. Here, vulnerability indicators are classified and designated as drivers' (indicators with significantly high values and intervention priority) and buffers' (indicators with low-to-moderate values) at the village level. The framework provides for aggregation or decomposition of CVI and other sub-indices, in order to plan spatial contingency plans and enable swift action for climate adaptation.

Krishnan, P; Ananthan, PS; Purvaja, R; Jeevamani, JJJ; Infantina, JA; Rao, CS; Anand, A; Mahendra, RS; Sekar, I; Kareemulla, K; Biswas, A; Sastry, RK; Ramesh, R

Framework for mapping the drivers of coastal vulnerability and spatial decision making for climate-change adaptation: A case study from Maharashtra, India

Ambio

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1061-8

Climate change is projected to have profound effects on nutritional outcomes, particularly among children under five in developing countries, where small-scale, subsistence farming and livestock production supports a majority of livelihoods. An underlying mechanism by which climate change will negatively affect nutrition is through increased food insecurity, as both crop and livestock production are threatened by changing patterns of rainfall and temperature. Climate information services (CIS) provide short and long-term weather and climate forecasts through a variety of means with the aim of increasing smallholder farmers' ability to cope and adapt to a changing environment. CIS can be used to increase climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, which in turn can increase agricultural productivity and farmer resilience, while simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Through household surveys, focus group activities, and participant observation, this research investigates linkages between CIS, uptake of CSA practices, and household food security through investigation of four research sites, two in Senegal and two in Kenya. The research sites were selected based on their various levels of engagement in CIS programs sponsored by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) at the time research was conducted. The role of gender dynamics in the relationship between CIS, CSA, and food security is also explored through 1) sex-disaggregated quantitative from household surveys, and 2) sex-disaggregated qualitative data focus groups, which focuses in part on conceptualization of women's empowerment. Findings indicate that farmers are receiving CIS and are using that information to make changes in farming practices, without major differences between men and women. This research suggests that CCAFS-CIS interventions may be leading to adoption of CSA practices; however, no direct correlation between receipt of CIS and use of CSA practices was found, nor was a relationship established between use of CSAs and food security. These findings are inconclusive, however, given the near complete coverage of CIS and widespread food insecurity across sites. Importantly, participants did not ascribe their knowledge of CSA practices to CIS, and the important role of social and informal networks as a source of climate information emerges as an important area of additional exploitation for increased uptake of CSA for improved food security.

McKune, S; Poulsen, L; Russo, S; Devereux, T; Faas, S; McOmber, C; Ryley, T

Reaching the end goal: Do interventions to improve climate information services lead to greater food security?

Climate Risk Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2018.08.002

This study determines the conditions and provides a recommendation for fostering cocreation for climate change adaptation and mitigation (CCA&M). In postulating that insufficient cocreation by stakeholders in the quadruple helix model is an important factor contributing to the low effectiveness of climate actions in the regions, we have focused our research on identifying real stakeholder engagement in climate action and identifying the needs, barriers, and drivers for strengthening the cocreation process. We identified the needs for action highlighted by stakeholders as having an impact on reducing barriers and stimulating drivers. We treated the identified needs for action as deep leverage points (intent and design) focused on three realms-knowledge, values, and institutions-in which engagement and cocreation can be strengthened and have the potential to increase the effectiveness of climate action taken by stakeholders within our quadruple helix. We recommend knowledge-based cocreation, which puts the importance of climate action in the value system and leads to paradigm reevaluation. The implementation of the identified needs for action requires the support of institutions, whereby they develop standards of cooperation and mechanisms for their implementation as a sustainable framework for stakeholder cooperation. The research has proved how the quadruple helix operates for climate action in the Poznan Agglomeration. We believe that this case study can be a reference point for regions at a similar level of development, and the methods used and results obtained can be applied in similar real contexts to foster local stakeholders in climate action. Significance Statement This study aims to understand the condition of cocreation and engagement between stakeholders included in the quadruple helix model responding to climate change challenges. We identified needs for climate actions in the Poznan Agglomeration and operationalized them as leverage points, which can strengthen engagement and cocreation and contribute to increasing the effectiveness of climate action taken by stakeholders. We show a wide range of possible climate actions, but at the same time we highlight the barriers that, in the Poznan Agglomeration case, mainly result from poor cooperation between stakeholders and insufficient use of social capital. Cities with similar problems could make use of our results and consider both weak points and recommended solutions in planning strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Fagiewicz, K; Churski, P; Herodowicz, T; Kaczmarek, P; Lupa, P; Morawska-Jancelewicz, J; Mizgajski, A

Cocreation for Climate Change-Needs for Actions to Vitalize Drivers and Diminish Barriers

Weather Climate And Society

https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-20-0114.1

Flood losses in the north central United States are the nation's highest since 1980. Losses in Iowa rank first nationally and those in two adjacent states rank fourth (Missouri) and sixth (Illinois). Explanations were sought for this three-state regional maximum of flood losses, including geophysical, societal, and climatological conditions. Comparisons of conditions with those of surrounding areas revealed the three states had more land exposure to the major flood-prone rivers (Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio) than any other state or group of states. The region also has a higher population density than surrounding areas and contains three of the five largest metropolitan areas of the Midwest. Farm land values rank just behind those of the three states to the immediate west. Further, the region is the center of the nation's complex surface and riverine transportation systems that are highly vulnerable to flooding. The assessment of regional hydroclimatic factors on enhanced flooding in the three-state region was based on a case study of historic floods on two adjacent basins located near the center of the region. Historic flood data showed systematic, long-term increases in both flood incidence and magnitude. Certain precipitation conditions on the basins also showed systematic temporal increases since the 1920s, including annual precipitation, number of seven-day heavy rain events, and the number of days with precipitation. This climatic shift to more multi-day periods of heavy rain appears to be the major reason that hydrologic flooding in the three states has increased since the 1920s. Analysis of the individual major hydrologic floods revealed five different types of precipitation conditions, including snowmelt situations that produced major floods. The primary cause of major floods was prolonged periods of four- to 13-day durations with intermittent moderate to heavy rains, and these events often included heavy, 15-centimeter rainstorms capable of producing flash floods. Climatic data reveal that the three states experience more heavy rain-producing synoptic weather conditions, cyclonic activity, and intense rainfalls than do most surrounding states. Collectively, these geophysical, hydroclimatic, and societal factors combine to cause the high flood losses in the nation's central region.

Changnon, SA; Kunkel, KE; Andsager, K

Causes for record high flood losses in the central United States

Water International

https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060108686908

In developing countries adaptation responses to climate and global change should be integrated with human development to generate no regrets, co-benefit strategies for the rural poor, but there are few examples of how to achieve this. The adaptation pathways approach provides a potentially useful decision-making framework because it aims to steer societies towards sustainable futures by accounting for complex systems, uncertainty and contested multi-stakeholder arenas, and by maintaining adaptation options. Using Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, Indonesia, as an example we consider whether generic justifications for adaptation pathways are tenable in the local context of climate and global change, rural poverty and development. Interviews and focus groups held with a cross-section of provincial leaders showed that the causes of community vulnerability are indeed highly complex and dynamic, influenced by 20 interacting drivers, of which climate variability and change are only two. Climate change interacts with population growth and ecosystem degradation to reduce land, water and food availability. Although poverty is resilient due to corruption, traditional institutions and fatalism, there is also considerable system flux due to decentralisation, modernisation and erosion of traditional culture. Together with several thresholds in drivers, potential shocks and paradoxes, these characteristics result in unpredictable system trajectories. Decision-making is also contested due to tensions around formal and informal leadership, corruption, community participation in planning and female empowerment. Based on this context we propose an adaptation pathways approach which can address the proximate and systemic causes of vulnerability and contested decision-making. Appropriate participatory processes and governance structures are suggested, including integrated livelihoods and multi-scale systems analysis, scenario planning, adaptive co-management and 'livelihood innovation niches'. We briefly discuss how this framing of adaptation pathways would differ from one in the developed context of neighbouring Australia, including the influence of the province's island geography on the heterogeneity of livelihoods and climate change, the pre-eminence and rapid change of social drivers, and the necessity to 'leap-frog' the Millennium Development Goals by mid-century to build adaptive capacity for imminent climate change impacts. Crown Copyright (C) 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Butler, JRA; Suadnya, W; Puspadi, K; Sutaryono, Y; Wise, RM; Skewes, TD; Kirono, D; Bohensky, EL; Handayani, T; Habibi, P; Kisman, M; Suharto, I; Hanartani; Supartarningsih, S; Ripaldi, A; Fachry, A; Yanuartati, Y; Abbas, G; Duggan, K; Ash, A

Framing the application of adaptation pathways for rural livelihoods and global change in eastern Indonesian islands

Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.12.004

Enhanced ways to cope with climate change and environmental change are being made at various levels across the world. In the southern African region, despite the regions' potential for economic growth, several disasters associated with climate stresses (particularly evidence made for repeated floods and droughts) can retard economic growth, development and livelihood security. In this paper, disaster inventories are argued to be useful ways of revealing nuanced analyses of extreme climate events and other challenges such as the spatial-temporal distribution of events and their impacts, particularly for vulnerable people groups. Despite repeated calls for vigilance about current and future climate variations and environmental change impacts, there are few detailed regional and country-specific inventories of disasters and records of subsequent humanitarian responses that record both impacts and possible implications of disaster events in the region. This paper draws together those data that do exist and offers a review of the occurrences, impacts and past responses to humanitarian crises in the region (for 14 countries over the period of 2000-2012). From this research a number of critical areas are profiled: first, the convergence of compound and complex shocks that occur simultaneously and/or sequentially is compounding disaster risks-including those associated with climate challenges. A review of international and regional UN agency, NGO and governmental reports all illustrates the need to articulate between internationally significant, 'signature' events and smaller, sub-national events with a higher recurrence interval that may be just as damaging to local communities. Second, the reach of disaster impacts is changing with the region becoming increasingly more mobile in terms of the movement patterns of people within countries and across borders, which brings with it new compound and complex threats such as cholera and measles outbreaks. Third, the nature of the changing disaster profile is placing strain on countries and the region. Sub-national disaster response due to personnel capacity limitations, at the national and municipal levels, is unable to effectively respond to and reduce risks associated with various shocks. In the paper, by providing an inventory of disasters and humanitarian responses in the southern African region, we point to the changing regional and national dimensions of the region's disaster risk profile that, we suggest, will require a variety of responses.

de Waal, J; Vogel, C

Disaster risk profiling in southern Africa: inventories, impacts and implications

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2527-2

Bowal, a particular form of land degradation occurs only in tropical regions. This study aims at assessing the perceptions of farmers on the causes and consequences of bowalization and the developed strategies to cope with it in semiarid and sub-humid climate zones in Benin. Data were gathered using semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. Representatives from 279 households of nine ethnic groups in the semiarid zone of Benin (Peulh, Bariba, Dendi, Nagots and Mocole) and in the sub-humid zone (Fon, Mahi, Holli and Adja) were interviewed. Pearson Chi-square Test was performed to analyze the perceptions on the causes, consequences and coping strategies with bowe in the two climate zones. Simple correspondence analysis was used to evaluate the coping strategies according to the ethnic groups. Bowalization was reported to be induced by non-adapted land use and soil erosion. An increase of farmed land and animal-drawn tillage was more perceived in the semiarid zone as cause of bowalization. Bowalization leads to loss of biodiversity in the two climates zones. Its consequences for the production of crops consist mainly in reducing water retention capacity of the soils, rooting difficulties for crops and increase of soil temperature. Farmers in the semiarid zone have adopted planting of cowpea and groundnut on bowe. Adapted cropping techniques in the semiarid zone consist in using a hoe for manual tillage and weed control. Ethnic groups of both climate zones that depend mainly on livestock herding have to practice transhumance and use food supply for the animals. The Bariba and Dendi in the semiarid zone modified their practices of tillage, weed control, sowing, fertilization, and livestock feeding most. The Mahi, Holli, Fon and Adja of the sub-humid zone mostly reduced their farmland, changed the crops and fields and adopted new off-farms activities. The Peulh mostly practiced transhumance independent from the zone. The type of coping strategies to bowe is dependent on the climate zone and ethnic group. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Padonou, EA; Fandohan, B; Bachmann, Y; Sinsin, B

How farmers perceive and cope with bowalization: A case study from West Africa

Land Use Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.09.024

Cities respond to climate concerns mainly through climate action plans (CAPs). The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was the first report from the international climate body that gave worldwide attention to urban climate change. Yet, a global situation of the content and structure of urban CAPs adopted or published after AR5 is not well represented in the literature. This literature void presents a difficulty in holistically understanding the strengths and weaknesses of existing urban CAPs, hence painting a clearer picture for future urban climate planning. Here, we performed detailed qualitative content analyses on CAPs from 278 cities worldwide. This study sought to achieve two specific objectives; (1) to critically analyse the content and structure of urban CAPs adopted or published from 2015 to 2022, and (2) to examine the extent to which sampled urban CAPs align with selected climate action best practices. There have been variations in the adoption or publication of urban CAPs from 2015 to 2022 across city types and world regions. Our analysis showed a rise in the number of CAPs adopted or published during the global COVID-19 lockdown period as compared to the post and pre-COVID-19 lockdown period. We also observed a transition from developing mainly mitigation-focused CAPs pre-COP21 to both miti-gation and adaptation CAPs. About 96% of the sampled urban CAPs are focusing on the transport sector to achieve climate objectives. More than half (55%) of cities with climate change mitigation-related urban CAPs (147 urban CAPs of 267 urban CAPs) do not have deep decar-bonization pledges, with less than a quarter of the pledges likely to be achieved by 2030. We found that about 81% of 120 cities with deep decarbonization pledges are more likely to report baseline emission inventory in their urban CAPs. A lack of inclusiveness, transparency and verification, evidence-based climate planning, comprehensiveness, and integration were the most common areas of non-alignment with best practices. The explicit consideration of synergies, trade-offs, or conflicts is significantly low. The evidence is a catalyst for understanding the dy-namics in existing urban CAPs to shape future urban climate action planning.

Aboagye, PD; Sharifi, A

Post-fifth assessment report urban climate planning: Lessons from 278 urban climate action plans released from 2015 to 2022

Urban Climate

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101550

Migration is an expression of shifting human-environment relations in response to changing risks and opportunities. Under modernist development regimes, the perceived environmental qualities of a locality have been used to justify state-led initiatives to encourage people to settle in particular places, in order to exploit favourable conditions and resources. In more recent decades, as the environmental consequences of modernist development intensify, environmental risks increasingly form part of the justification for state-led resettlement schemes to protect people or, purportedly, to protect the environment from people. The success of such resettlement schemes, in terms of contributing to improved livelihood outcomes for affected people, is greatly undermined however by the lack of large-scale support required to recover livelihoods. This paper looks at the complex relations between environmental change, resettlement and migration. It is based on research of two resettlement schemes in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam undertaken in the 2000s, that sought to reduce people's exposure to environment risks. Subsequent environmental deterioration in the resettlement areas, together with key agrarian changes, has undermined the capacity of people to recover from the disruption of resettlement and adapt their livelihoods to new risks and opportunities, resulting in increased outmigration. We argue that whilst large-scale, state-led resettlement schemes are often designed in response to life-threatening risks, without supporting the capacity of people to adapt to the everyday risks of deteriorating environmental conditions, reduced access to resources and limited employment opportunities, then livelihood precarity will persist resulting in a kind of double displacement. As such the increased out-migration from resettlement sites should not be seen as indicative of new adaptation pathways but, due to the largely involuntary nature of such migration, it should rather be understood as an expression of the limits of adaptation in the new localities. The underestimation of the level of support required for people to recover and adapt following resettlement reflects the technocratic way in which resettlement is approached and the failure to appreciate the scale of disruption associated with the cumulative and combined effect of slow-onset environmental deterioration.

Miller, F; Ha, TTP; Da, HV; Thuy, NTT; Ngo, BH

Double displacement-Interactions between resettlement, environmental change and migration

Geoforum

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.12.016

Risk-informed flood risk management requires a comprehensive and quantitative risk assessment, which often demands multiple (thousands of) river and flood model simulations. Performing such a large number of model simulations is a challenge, especially for large, complex river systems (e.g., Mekong) due to the associated computational and resource demands. This article presents an efficient probabilistic modeling approach that combines a simplified 1D hydrodynamic model for the entire Mekong Delta with a detailed 1D/2D coupled model and demonstrates its application at Can Tho city in the Mekong Delta. Probabilistic flood-hazard maps, ranging from 0.5 to 100 year return period events, are obtained for the urban center of Can Tho city under different future scenarios taking into account the impact of climate change forcing (river flow, sea-level rise, storm surge) and land subsidence. Results obtained under present conditions show that more than 12% of the study area is inundated by the present-day 100 year return period of water level. Future projections show that, if the present rate of land subsidence continues, by 2050 (under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 climate scenarios), the 0.5 and 100 year return period flood extents will increase by around 15- and 8-fold, respectively, relative to the present-day flood extent. However, without land subsidence, the projected increases in the 0.5 and 100 year return period flood extents by 2050 (under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) are limited to between a doubling to tripling of the present-day flood extent. Therefore, adaptation measures that can reduce the rate of land subsidence (e.g., limiting groundwater extraction), would substantially mitigate future flood hazards in the study area. A combination of restricted groundwater extraction and the construction of a new and more efficient urban drainage network would facilitate even further reductions in the flood hazard. The projected 15-fold increase in flood extent projected by 2050 for the twice per year (0.5 year return period) flood event implies that the do nothing management approach is not a feasible option for Can Tho.

Ngo, H; Ranasinghe, R; Zevenbergen, C; Kirezci, E; Maheng, D; Radhakrishnan, M; Pathirana, A

An Efficient Modeling Approach for Probabilistic Assessments of Present-Day and Future Fluvial Flooding

Frontiers In Climate

https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2022.798618

Due to global and regional climatic dynamics for a couple of decades, agricultural productivity, rural livelihood, and food security have been badly affected in Pakistan. This study was conducted in Punjab, Pakistan, to explore the farmers' understanding of the impacts of climate change, adaptation strategies, determinants, and benefits on agriculture using data from 1080 respondents. Perceived risks by the farmers in the rice-wheat cropping system and the cotton-wheat cropping system were weed infestation, seed rate augmented, low-quality seeds, infestation of crop diseases and pests, change of cropping pattern, increase of input use, decrease of cropping intensity and productivity, decreasing soil fertility, increasing irrigation frequency, and increase of harvesting time. To alleviate the adverse influences of climate change, the adaptation strategies used by farmers were management of crop and variety, soil and irrigation water, diversification of agriculture production systems and livelihood sources, management of fertilizer and farm operations time, spatial adaptation, access to risk reduction measures and financial assets, adoption of new technologies, institutional support, and indigenous knowledge. Moreover, the results of Binary Logistic Regression indicate that adaptation strategies are affected by different factors like age, education, household family size, off-farm income, remittances, credit access, information on climatic and natural hazards, information on weather forecasting, land acreage, the experience of growing crops and rearing of livestock, tenancy status, tube well ownership, livestock inventory, access to market information, agricultural extension services, and distance from agricultural input/output market. There is a significant difference between adapters and nonadapters. The risk management system may be created to protect crops against failures caused by extreme weather events. There is a need to develop crop varieties that are both high yielding and resistant to climate change. Moreover, cropping patterns should be revised to combat the effects of climate change. To enhance farmers' standard of living, it is necessary to provide adequate extension services and a more significant number of investment facilities. These measures will assist farmers in maintaining their standard of living and food security over the long term to adapt to the effects of climate change based on various cropping zones.

Usman, M; Ali, A; Bashir, MK; Radulescu, M; Mushtaq, K; Wudil, AH; Baig, SA; Akram, R

Do farmers' risk perception, adaptation strategies, and their determinants benefit towards climate change? Implications for agriculture sector of Punjab, Pakistan

Environmental Science And Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27759-8

In this paper, the risks of flooding hazards to the transportation system in urban Honolulu are assessed using a regional travel demand model (TDM). The approach serves to support understanding of evacuation and sheltering needs. Coastal and inland flooding hazard scenarios were modeled with four different hazard conditions. The inundation defined by the Maximum Envelope of High Water (MEOW) based on a hurricane that struck Hawaii and a tsunami run-up generated by historical earthquake events combined with a one-meter rise in sea level provided the worst possible coastal flooding scenario. A 500-year return period riverine flooding scenario was also included. The critical flooding hazard was transformed into a uniform 100 by 100 meter GIS based grid system. The Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization (OMPO) TransCAD model for 2035 provided the origin and destination trips for eleven trip types including motorized and non-motorized travel modes. The OMPO model includes personal travel, travel to the airport, commercial vehicle travel and visitor travel sub-models. Origin and destination trip matrices for Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ) and highway and transit assignment details were extracted from the model. The O-D trips and road segment traffic details were transformed to the spatial grid system and overlaid on the flooding hazard layer. The spatial categorization of the flooding along with the trip and travel data from the TDM provided a robust method to quantify and visualize risks to travelers and the transportation system. The analysis shows that flooding hazard scenarios have serious risks in Honolulu. First, a large portion of the study area is susceptible to flooding, threatening the population, economy, and infrastructure. Second, in addition to areas susceptible to flooding, a larger percentage of origins, destinations, trips and vehicle miles of travel (VMT) are affected because of the need to travel through the at-risk areas. Third, commercial, transit and non-motorized trips are disproportionately affected compared to auto travel. This paper demonstrates how hazard data and risk models can be integrated with travel demand models for purposes of evacuation planning and sheltering as well as emergency planning and hazard mitigation and adaptation of the transportation system to climate change.

Kim, K; Pant, P; Yamashita, E

Integrating travel demand modeling and flood hazard risk analysis for evacuation and sheltering

International Journal Of Disaster Risk Reduction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.10.025

Local governments' limited mandate and capacity to adequately deal with increasing climate risk and impacts means that citizen engagement is becoming increasingly important for adapting to hazards such as floods and storms. Stronger collaborative approaches are urgently needed. At the same time, there is little research and hardly any empirical evidence on what inspires adaptation engagement in different citizen groups. Against this background, this paper examines the external/material (e.g., resources, hazards, public support) and internal aspects (e.g., values and worldviews) that shape people's engagement in and for adaptation. Based on a survey of Swedish citizens at risk from severe climate events, we show that engagement is a gendered process, which is mediated by personal values, worldviews and place aspects rarely considered in public adaptation. While a high level of diverse citizen action is often related to past experiences of hazards, motivation to adapt goes beyond the idea of acting out of rational self-interest. Economic considerations (e.g., low cost) are not the only motivation to adapt; the potential of an adaptation action to contribute to green, thriving surroundings and mitigate global climate change was found nearly as (and among female respondents, more) motivating. Women were also found to be more motivated to engage in adaptation if this supports other community members at risk. At the same time, past adaptation action could not be linked to motivation to adapt, and was found to be negatively correlated with communitarian and ecological values or worldviews. This confirms that motivation to adapt does not automatically translate into action, and indicates a 'mitigation-adaptation gap' in people's climate awareness, which can lead to ineffective climate responses. Given these findings, we discuss alternative approaches to support increased citizen engagement and more effective and transformative climate action. We end with a call for public adaptation and risk communication that takes greater account of inner/subjective dimensions. (C) 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Brink, E; Wamsler, C

Citizen engagement in climate adaptation surveyed: The role of values, worldviews, gender and place

Journal Of Cleaner Production

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.164

The effective adaptation of smallholders in regions severely affected by climate change is critical to their survival and development. This study provides insights into the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders in the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley (YHV), located on the eastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). The YHV is an important food-producing region on the TP. Climate change is threatening the livelihoods of local households. This study uses data from 494 household questionnaires, meteorological station data, and disaster statistics reports collected in the YHV region to understand the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders and explore the factors that influence their strategies using the multivariate probit (MVP) model. The study found that frequent droughts, wind hail, and floods significantly impact agriculture in the YHV. Smallholders in the YHV adopted six main adaptation strategies to cope with the effects of climate change: crop rotation (88.25%), increasing agricultural inputs (75.30%), changing crop sowing times (61.94%), engaging in off-farm activities (50.20%), expanding cropland areas (32.59%), and raising more livestock (15.99%). The MVP model results indicated that smallholders' perceptions of disasters (drought, wind hail, and flood) have a significant impact on their adaptation strategies. An increase in perceived disasters positively and significantly affected off-farm strategies but negatively affected agricultural adaptation strategies. Although increasing the labor cost of agricultural production, the number of cropland plots to some extent encourages smallholders to adopt agricultural adaptation strategies and discourages the adoption of off-farm activities. Additionally, smallholder adaptation strategies were significantly influenced by various indicators including number of livestock, proportion of agricultural equipment, elevation, and off-farm income. The study proposes targeted policy recommendations to promote sustainable development of local households' livelihoods. These include strengthening household coping capacities for droughts, wind hail and floods, promoting skills training, encouraging agricultural scaling operations and off-farm livelihood transformation for certain small farmers, and considering the environmental impacts of household adaptational strategies.

He, XJ; Huang, AY; Yan, JZ; Zhou, H; Wu, Y; Yang, LE; Paudel, B

Smallholders' climate change adaptation strategies on the eastern Tibetan Plateau

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-06022-w

Purpose There are many pragmatic challenges and complex interactions in the reduction of systemic disaster risk. No single agency has the mandate, authority, legitimacy or resources to fully address the deeper socio-economic, cultural, regulatory or political forces that often drive the creation and transfer of risk. National leadership and co-ordination are key enablers. This paper shares Australia's progress in building an enabling environment for systemic disaster risk reduction, and specifically how a change in thinking and resolve to work differently is beginning to shape nation-wide reforms and national programs of work. Design/methodology/approach The project and program of work adopted an inclusive, collaborative, co-design and co-production approach, working with diverse groups to create new knowledge, build trust, ongoing learning and collective ownership and action. Values- and systems-based approaches, and ethical leadership were core aspects of the approach. Findings Co-creating a more comprehensive and shared understanding of systemic disaster risk, particularly the values at risk and tensions and trade-offs associated with the choices about how people prevent or respond, has contributed to a growing shift in the way disasters are conceptualised. New narratives about disasters as unnatural and the need for shared responsibilities are shaping dialogue spaces and policy frameworks. The authors' experience and ongoing learning acknowledge pragmatic challenges while also providing evidence-based ideas and guidance for more systems and transformative styles and competencies of leadership that are needed for convening in contested and complex environments. Practical implications This work built networks, competencies and generated ongoing momentum and learning. The lessons, evidence and reports from the work continue to be accessed and influential in research, emergency management and disaster mitigation practices (e.g. engagement, communications, training) and policy. Most significantly, the National Disaster Risk Reduction Framework provides the basis, justification and guidance for the nation's policy reform agenda around disaster risk reduction and is catalysing national efforts in developing a national action plan and systemic measurement, evaluation and learning to ensure the realisation of disaster risk reduction priorities. Originality/value A practical example is offered of a nation actively learning to navigate the governance challenges and implement strategies to address the reduction of complex, systemic risks.

Buchtmann, M; Wise, R; O'Connell, D; Crosweller, M; Edwards, J

Reforming Australia's approach to hazards and disaster risk: national leadership, systems thinking, and inclusive conversations about vulnerability

Disaster Prevention And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-08-2022-0168

Adaptation to sea level rise (SLR) is primarily taking place at the local level, with varied governments grappling with the diverse ways that SLR will affect cities. Interpreting SLR in the context of local planning requires integrating knowledge across many disciplines, and expert knowledge can help planners understand the potential ramifications of decisions. Little research has focused on the role that experts play in local adaptation planning. Understanding how and when local governments undertake adaptation planning, and how scientists and scientific information can be effectively incorporated into the planning process, is vital to guide scientists who wish to engage in the planning process. This study aimed to establish how experts are currently involved in SLR planning, identify any gaps between planners' needs and expert involvement, and determine the characteristics of experts that are perceived as highly valuable to the planning process. We surveyed individuals involved with planning in a broad range of US coastal communities about SLR planning and the role that experts have played in the process. We found that SLR planning is widespread in cities across geographic regions, population sizes, and population characteristics and has increased rapidly since 2012. Contrary to our expectation, whether a SLR plan existed for each city was not related to the percentage of the population living on vulnerable lands or the property value of those lands. Almost all cities that have engaged in SLR planning involved experts in that process. Planners identify atmospheric scientists, oceanographers, economists and political scientists, and geologists as currently underutilized according to planners' needs. Members of these expert disciplines, when involved in planning, were also unlikely to be affiliated with the local planning government, but rather came from other governmental and academic institutions. Highly effective experts were identified as making scientific research more accessible and bringing relevant research to the attention of planners. Results from our dataset suggest that planners perceive local SLR planning could benefit from increased involvement of experts, particularly atmospheric scientists, oceanographers, economists and political scientists, and geologists. Since experts in these disciplines were often not affiliated with local governments, increasing the exchange of information between local governments and academic and other (non-local) government organizations could help draw valued experts into the planning process.

Hayes, AL; Heery, EC; Maroon, E; McLaskey, AK; Stawitz, CC

The role of scientific expertise in local adaptation to projected sea level rise

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.05.012

Small farmers who supply the city of Bogota with food are facing many challenges that are jeopardizing their livelihoods and by extension, the food security of Colombia's capital. We expect future changes in climatic conditions to exacerbate the plight of the small farmers and this is expected to compromise Bogota's food security even further. This paper specifically seeks to assess the impact of climate change (CC) on the livelihoods of smallholders who supply Bogota with most of its food. In our multidisciplinary methodology, we translated the exposure to CC into direct impact on crops and assessed sensitivity and adaptive capacity using the sustainable rural livelihoods framework. The results show that rainfall (by average of 100 mm) and temperature (by average of 2.1 A degrees C) will increase over the study area, while the future climate suitability of the most important crops such as mango (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica papaya), corn (Zea mays) and plantain (Musa balbisiana) shows a decrease of 19 % to 47 % climate suitability by the year 2050. The assessment of sensitivity and adaptive capacity demonstrates that farmers participating in a farmers' market, initiated by several local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), are less vulnerable to CC than farmers who sell through intermediaries. Those farmers selling directly to consumers in the farmers' market have a higher adaptive capacity (3 on a scale of 3) in social and financial capital than those selling to intermediaries with less adaptive capacity (1 on a scale of 3). In light of the reduction in overall climatic suitability of some of the major crops and the change of geographic location of suitability for others, there are likely to be serious threats for Bogota's food security, the ecological landscape around the city, and farmers' livelihoods. We further conclude that unless proper adaptation measures are implemented, the geographical shift in climate suitability may also force farmers to shift their crops to higher elevations including remaining forests and paramos (the Colombian alpine tundra ecosystems), which may be threatened in the near future.

Eitzinger, A; Läderach, P; Bunn, C; Quiroga, A; Benedikter, A; Pantoja, A; Gordon, J; Bruni, M

Implications of a changing climate on food security and smallholders' livelihoods in Bogota, Colombia

Mitigation And Adaptation Strategies For Global Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-012-9432-0

Purpose Increasing trends of climatic risk pose challenges to the food security and livelihoods of smallholders in vulnerable regions, where farmers often face loss of the entire crop, pushing farmers (mostly men) out of agriculture in destitution, creating a situation of agricultural making agriculture highly feminization and compelling male farmers to out-migrate. Climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) are promoted to cope with climatic risks. This study aims to assess how knowledge related to CSAPs, male out-migration, education and income contribute to the determinants of male out-migration and CSAPs adoption and how they respond to household food security. Design/methodology/approach Sex-disaggregated primary data were collected from adopter and non-adopter farm families. STATA 13.1 was used to perform principle component analysis to construct knowledge, yield and income indices. Findings Yield and income index of adopters was higher for men than women. The probability of out-migration reduced by 21% with adoption of CSAPs. An increase in female literacy by 1 unit reduces log of odds to migrate by 0.37. With every unit increase in knowledge index, increase in log-odds of CSAPs adoption was 1.57. Male:female knowledge gap was less among adopters. Non-adopters tended to reduce food consumption when faced with climatic risks significantly, and the probability of migration increased by 50% with a one-unit fall in the nutrition level, thus compelling women to work more in agriculture. Gender-equitable enhancement of CSAP knowledge is, therefore, key to safeguarding sustainable farming systems and improving livelihoods. Social implications The enhancement of gender equitable knowledge on CSAPs is key to safeguard sustainable farming systems and improved livelihoods. Originality/value This study is based on the robust data sets of 100 each of male and female from 100 households (n = 200) using well-designed and validated survey instrument. From 10 randomly selected climate-smart villages in Samastipur and Vaishali districts of Bihar, India, together with focus group discussions, the primary data were collected by interviewing both men and women from the same household.

Agarwal, T; Goel, PA; Gartaula, H; Rai, M; Bijarniya, D; Rahut, DB; Jat, ML

Gendered impacts of climate-smart agriculture on household food security and labor migration: insights from Bihar, India

International Journal Of Climate Change Strategies And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2020-0004

Objectives In this paper, we explore the exposure to risk and experiences of people with disability and carers during a flooding event and the subsequent mental health impacts. Design A cross-sectional survey between September and November 2017. Binary logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between the mental health of people with disability and carers and their exposure to the flood. Inductive content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. Setting Flood-affected communities in the rural area of Northern Rivers, New South Wales, Australia, 6 months after river flooding in 2017. Participants People over 16 years and a resident in the Northern Rivers at the time of the flood were invited to participate. Using a purposive, snowballing sampling technique participants were drawn from a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds and had experienced different degrees of flood exposure. Results Of 2252 respondents, there were 164 people with disability and 91 carers. Both groups had increased odds of having their home flooded (people with a disability: OR 2.41 95% CI 1.71 to 3.39; carers: OR 1.76 95% CI 1.10 to 2.84). On evacuation, respondents reported inaccessible, conflicting and confusing information regarding flood warnings. Essential services such as healthcare and social services were disrupted (people with a disability: OR 3.98 95% CI 2.82 to 5.60; carers 2.17 95% CI 1.33 to 3.54) and access to safe and mould free housing post flood event was limited. After taking sociodemographic factors into account, respondents with a disability and carers had greater odds of probable post-traumatic stress disorder compared with other respondents (people with a disability: 3.32 95% CI 2.22 to 4.96; carers: 1.87 95% CI 1.10 to 3.19). Conclusion Our findings show the profound impact and systemic neglect experienced by people with disability and carers during and after the 2017 flood event in the Northern Rivers. As people with disability will take longer to recover, they will require longer-term tailored supports and purposeful inclusion in flood preparedness and recovery efforts.

Bailie, J; Matthews, V; Bailie, R; Villeneuve, M; Longman, J

Exposure to risk and experiences of river flooding for people with disability and carers in rural Australia: a cross-sectional survey

Bmj Open

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056210

The upward trend of metro flooding disasters inevitably brings new challenges to urban underground flood management. It is essential to evaluate the resilience of metro systems so that efficient flood disaster plans for preparation, emergency response, and timely mitigation may be developed. Traditional response solutions merged multiple sources of data and knowledge to support decision-making. An obvious drawback is that original data sources for evaluations are often stationary, inaccurate, and subjective, owing to the complexity and uncertainty of the metro station's actual physical environment. Meanwhile, the flood propagation path inside the whole metro station network was prone to be neglected. This paper presents a comprehensive approach to analyzing the resilience of metro networks to solve these problems. Firstly, we designed a simplified weighted and directed metro network module containing six characteristics by a topological approach while considering the slope direction between sites. Subsequently, to estimate the devastating effects and details of the flood hazard on the metro system, a 100-year rainfall-flood scenario simulation was conducted using high-precision DEM and a grid hydrodynamic model to identify the initially above-ground inundated stations (nodes). We developed a dynamic node breakdown algorithm to calculate the inundation sequence of the nodes in the weighted and directed network of the metro. Finally, we analyzed the resilience of the metro network in terms of toughness strength and organization recovery capacity, respectively. The fuzzy best-worst method (FBWM) was developed to obtain the weight of each assessment metric and determine the toughness strength of each node and the entire network. The results were as follows. (1) A simplified three-dimensional metro network based on a complex system perspective was established through a topological approach to explore the resilience of urban subways. (2) A grid hydrodynamic model was developed to accurately and efficiently identify the initially flooded nodes, and a dynamic breakdown algorithm realistically performed the flooding process of the subway network. (3) The node toughness strength was obtained automatically by a nonlinear FBWM method under the constraint of the minimum error to sustain the resilience assessment of the metro network. The research has considerable implications for managing underground flooding and enhancing the resilience of the metro network.

Sun, H; Li, MX; Jiang, H; Ruan, XJ; Shou, WC

Inundation Resilience Analysis of Metro-Network from a Complex System Perspective Using the Grid Hydrodynamic Model and FBWM Approach: A Case Study of Wuhan

Remote Sensing

https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143451

The paper shows, through a research prism, the characteristics of academic urbanism education in four countries in transition (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia) in the context of the perspective of urbanism development as a discipline and profession. Emphasis is on the academic urbanism educational engagement in Montenegro. Importance of integrality in all aspects and at the highest level is highlighted. The tendency is to determine the key preference for the improvement of the existing models of transition and to articulate the directions for the development of new, universal, strategic models with the highest degree of integrality. Transdisciplinarity is treated as a paradigm for sustainable learning and sustainable urbanism in the 21st century. Parallel processes, globalization of the 80's and transition of the 90's, in the 20th century, and transit to post-socialist period, have differently affected the countries' policies and the dynamics of their development. Stagnation, unemployment, demographic changes, privatization, European integration, wars, transformation of the state, economic crisis, identity query, climate change, resources, etc. have slowed down and changed strategic goals and directions of urban development. Dynamic social changes had resulted in vulnerability of the entire system. Disintegration that followed the dynamic processes resulted in fragmentation in all fields. Inadequate attitude towards the importance of urban planning has conditioned insufficient communication between different fields, disciplines and professions, theoretical models and practical experiences. Urbanism was in a degraded status for decades. Integral educational methodological basis in urbanism is of utilitarian importance for the development of sustainable urban systems. Complexity and stratification of urbanism point to the multidimensionality and interdependence of different research fields and sensibilities. Urban space is so complex that it requires integral involvement of all forms of academic and non-academic knowledge through all the levels. In this context, the perspective of Urbanism treatment require transdisciplinary understanding, studying and exploring of the urban area which includes a synergy of different directions, professional and disciplinary action and various social factors. Transdisciplinarity is treated as an imperative for the development of: Human, compact, healthy, sustainable urban systems.

Perovic, S

The perspectives of academic urbanism education in countries in transition

Technics Technologies Education Management-Ttem

In India, Tamil Nadu is one of the states most vulnerable to drought impacting agriculture and allied activities. This study attempts to develop a new composite drought vulnerability index (CDVI) comprising both crop and dairy indicators for 30 districts of Tamil Nadu, India. The computation of index was based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) approach using exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Initially, indicators were normalized to make sure that all the indicators are comparable and weights were assigned to each indicator based on principal component analysis. Then, the districts were classified as high, moderate and less vulnerable on the basis of magnitude of the index. Coimbatore has the highest exposure to drought vulnerability (0.58) and the lowest was in Krishnagiri (0.35). In case of sensitivity, the highest was in Kancheepuram (0.69), while the lowest was in Tiruppur (0.26). The highest adaptive capacity was observed in Nagapattinam (0.52) and the lowest was in Tiruppur (0.24). None of the districts had higher adaptive capacity than sensitivity and exposure, combinedly. Overall, CDVI was highest in Kanchipuram (0.88), lowest in Erode (0.45) and moderate in Thanjavur (0.73). District level vulnerability mapping showed that twelve districts were categorized as highly vulnerable to drought; eight districts as moderately vulnerable; and ten districts as less vulnerable. Most of the districts in north eastern and southern agro-climatic zones; a few districts in Cauvery delta and western zones of Tamil Nadu had come under high vulnerable category, while a majority of the districts in north western, western and high rainfall zones were less vulnerable. To mitigate drought vulnerability, government should focus and aid in developing regional level adaptation strategies such as water conserving techniques/farm pond and appropriate policy measures to safeguard the livelihood from agriculture and dairying. Also, special attention may be given to local people's understandings about drought including traditional practices to cope-up vulnerability.

Balaganesh, G; Malhotra, R; Sendhil, R; Sirohi, S; Maiti, S; Ponnusamy, K; Sharma, AK

Development of composite vulnerability index and district level mapping of climate change induced drought in Tamil Nadu, India

Ecological Indicators

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106197

Local government organisations in coastal Australia have historically commissioned studies aimed at understanding risks in their locality to future sea level rise as a starting point for developing adaptation strategies to climate change. Therefore, the success of the overall adaptation activities of local government are strongly influenced by the way those initial risk studies are scoped and conducted, and how the outputs of those studies underpin subsequent adaptation planning activities within the organization. Mainstreaming of adaptation planning activities within local government is critical in terms of getting stakeholder support and required resources for its implementation. This paper analyses a sample of these coastal risk assessment studies across seven states and territories in Australia, with an aim to critically investigate the current state of practice among coastal local governments. First, we develop a typology of studies that have been undertaken by or for practitioners to understand coastal climate change risks, and discuss the applicability of the studies within the policy making context of local government. Second, we identify a set of sample studies from the 'grey literature' through a systematic process and investigate to what extent they adhere to best practice risk management guidelines and principles, such as IS031000. Third, we interview stakeholders from top performing studies to identify how/if the risk studies helped their organization in progressing their adaptation planning. We find that there is a significant inconsistency among terminologies in the coastal climate change risk assessment unpublished literature as studies use risk, vulnerability and hazard concepts interchangeably despite their separate objectives and aims. Most studies perform poorly in evaluating risk against broader organizational criteria. Subsequently, it is difficult to integrate the findings of such studies into a broader organizational risk register, limiting opportunities for identified coastal climate change risks to be integrated into councils' long-term strategic decision making. Conversely, the follow up interviews of studies that performed well in scoping and consultation in our assessment demonstrate that these aspects were beneficial to stakeholders in terms of informing adaptation planning. Importantly, the findings presented in this paper confirm the need for a consistent risk assessment approach for local councils in the coastal zone to underpin successful adaptation planning. This is a critical issue, not only for Australia, but for local government organisations globally given that sea level rise is a projected threat for all populated coastal regions worldwide.

Tonmoy, FN; Wainwright, D; Verdon-Kidd, DC; Rissik, D

An investigation of coastal climate change risk assessment practice in Australia

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.11.003

Recent systematic reviews show that, overall, and across governance levels and sectors, climate change adap-tation monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems are rarely programmed and implemented. As a result, there is a generalized lack of knowledge and practice regarding the definition and use of adaptation indicators and metrics from which to effectively learn. This paper focuses on understanding the emergent state of practice regarding adaptation indicators and metrics at the local level: what indicators and metrics are used? What aspects of the adaptation process are they measuring? How will they be monitored, evaluated, and reported? Out of a sample of the largest 136 coastal cities worldwide, only 59 cities have adaptation-related plans and only 11 (Athens, Auckland, Barcelona, Glasgow, Lima, Montreal, Nagoya, New York City, Portland, Tokyo, and Vancouver) list indicators and metrics. Sourced from these documents, we compile and code a total of 1971 indicators, of which 1841 focus fully or partially on adaptation-related aspects. We study the level of detail (objective, indicator, metric), type (target, input, output, outcome, or impact), scale, dimension, units of measurement, target, and proposed monitoring timeframe, among other aspects. Data shows that current adaptation measurement frameworks are tied to the degree to which each city integrates and addresses adaptation in its policies. A majority of adaptation indicators and metrics measure outputs, i.e. implementation aspects. Outcome indicators are generally connected to users or beneficiaries of adaptation measures and impact indicators are mostly related to health (e.g. hospitalizations). Targets and monitoring timeframes, as well as data sources, are rarely defined. We connect this to a lack of definition of local adaptation goals and a poor understanding of how specific adaptation actions lead to vulnerability reductions and resilience increases. Based on the identified gaps, we propose a metric development guiding framework to stimulate discussion around effective and feasible ap-proaches to measure adaptation progress based on improved adaptation decision-making. We argue, that our results should fuel a critical revision of current adaptation planning practices that might ultimately facilitate processes of learning, experimentation and innovation in this embryonic field.

Goonesekera, SM; Olazabal, M

Climate adaptation indicators and metrics: State of local policy practice

Ecological Indicators

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109657

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is highly sensitive to the impacts of climate change and experiences recurrent flooding, which affects large agricultural areas and poses a high risk to the population. The present study is focused on the recent flood disaster in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, which mainly affected the regions of Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam in India and neighboring Bangladesh during July, August, and September 2020. Using the Sentinel-1A Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data, the flood extent was derived in the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The composite area under flood inundation for July-September was estimated to be 25,889.1 km(2) for Bangladesh, followed by Bihar (20,837 km(2)), West Bengal (17,307.1 km(2)), and Assam (13,460.1 km(2)). The Copernicus Global Land Cover dataset was used to extract the affected agricultural area and flood-affected settlement. Floods have caused adverse impacts on agricultural lands and settlements, affecting 23.68-28.47% and 5.66-9.15% of these areas, respectively. The Gridded Population of the World (GPW) population density and Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) population dataset were also employed to evaluate flood impacts, which revealed that 23.29 million of the population was affected by floods in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. The highest impacts of floods can be seen from the Bihar state, as people reside in the lower valley and near to the riverbank due to their dependency on river water. Similarly, the highest impact was from Bangladesh because of the high population density as well as the settlement density. The study provided a holistic spatial assessment of flood inundation in the region due to the combined impact of the Ganga-Brahmaputra River basin. The identification of highly flood-prone areas with an estimated impact on cropland and build-up will provide necessary information to decision-makers for flood risk reduction, mitigation activities, and management.

Pandey, AC; Kaushik, K; Parida, BR

Google Earth Engine for Large-Scale Flood Mapping Using SAR Data and Impact Assessment on Agriculture and Population of Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su14074210

Diverse and contested local interests and the complexity of climate change make adaptation to climate change risks at the coast challenging. Even in similar settings, adaptation experiences and prospects can differ markedly. Why? This paper provides empirical evidence of comparative adaptation experiences in two regions of Aotearoa-New Zealand the Coromandel Peninsula and the Hawke's Bay coast. We critically examine how local barriers and enablers influence the trajectory of adaptation in two regions that face similar risks, have essentially the same institutional architecture, and yet have had very different adaptation experiences. We investigate the situational differences and similarities, and their implications for adaptation in each region. We found that the evolution of adaptation is shaped by the perceptions of the actors, especially local authority leaders, and opportunities that arise at a context-specific point in time. Such perceptions and opportunities can amount to barriers in one location and enablers in another. Growing concern about coastal hazard risk, improving levels of trust and legitimacy, community engagement, and collaborative governance were key to innovative long-term adaptation planning in the Hawke's Bay but their absence has led to short-term business as usual practices in the Coromandel. Yet even in the latter case, change is underway and longer-term adaptation planning is commencing. We conclude that there is a 'rising tide' of adaptation action in the face of escalating climate risk - with long-term planning and local action triggered by cumulative hazard experience and / or extreme events that raise public concern and make climate change salient to local community members and leaders. Both local and regional interests and concerns shape local response appetites. Proactive, local authority-led engagement and long-term strategic planning are foundational for mobilizing effective adaptation responses. Enabling national policy, guidance and institutional provisions are key to prompting and sustaining such efforts, and to facilitating broad consistency in locally appropriate responses. Notwithstanding efforts to foster locally appropriate but nationally aligned adaptation responses, our research shows that coastal communities and their local authorities follow pathways consistent with local risk appetites, understanding about climate change, and the political will and capacity of local government to mobilize key governance actors around long-term strategic planning.

Schneider, P; Lawrence, J; Glavovic, B; Ryan, E; Blackett, P

A rising tide of adaptation action: Comparing two coastal regions of Aotearoa-New Zealand

Climate Risk Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2020.100244

Pastoralist communities all over Africa have been facing a variety of social and economic problems, as well as climate risks and hazards for many years. They have also been suffering from climate change and extreme events, along with a variety of weather and climate threats, which pose many challenges to herders. On the one hand, pastoralist communities have little influence on policy decisions; however, on the other hand, they suffer to a significant extent from such policies, which limit their options for sustainable development and poverty alleviation. Also, the socio-cultural legacy of herders, and their role in food security and provision of ecosystem services, as well as their efforts towards climate change adaptation, are little documented, particularly in Eastern and Southern African countries. There is a perceived need for international studies on the risks and impacts of climate change and extreme events on the sustainability of pastoralist communities in Africa, especially in eastern and southern Africa. Based on the need to address this research gap, this paper describes the climate change risks and challenges that climate threats pose to the sustainability and livelihoods of pastoralist communities in eastern and southern Africa. Also, it discusses the extent to which such problems affect their wellbeing and income. Additionally, the paper reports on the socioeconomic vulnerability indices at country-level; identifies specific problems pastoralists face, and a variety of climate adaptation strategies to extreme events through field survey among pastoralist communities in a sample of five countries, namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. The study has shown that the long-term sustainability of the livelihoods of pastoral communities is currently endangered by climate change and the risks and hazards it brings about, which may worsen poverty among this social group. The study suggests that a more systematic and structured approach is needed when assessing the climate vulnerability of individual pastoral communities, since this may help in designing suitable disaster risk reduction strategies. Moreover, the paper shows that it is also necessary to understand better the socio-ecological systems (SES) of the various communities, and how their livelihoods are influenced by the changing conditions imposed by a changing climate.

Filho, WL; Taddese, H; Balehegn, M; Nzengya, D; Debela, N; Abayineh, A; Mworozi, E; Osei, S; Ayal, DY; Nagy, GJ; Yannick, N; Kimu, S; Balogun, AL; Alemu, EA; Li, CL; Sidsaph, H; Wolf, F

Introducing experiences from African pastoralist communities to cope with climate change risks, hazards and extremes: Fostering poverty reduction

International Journal Of Disaster Risk Reduction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101738

A majority of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries depend to a large extent on agriculture for food security and income. Efforts aimed at improving farm-related profitability are therefore important to improving livelihoods among smallholder farmers. In Ghana, for example, smallholder farmers that depend on agriculture face serious risks especially those related to climate change and variability and soil degradation. Notwithstanding these dangers, evidence of the published literature on how best to tackle these challenges is limited. Over the recent decades, however, there has been advancement by programs channelling resources into Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices to improving smallholder livelihoods and food security. The interest in advancing investment in CSA practices is a key pathway that has the potential to significantly reduce the negative effect of climate change and variability risks on smallholder farmers livelihoods. Investing in CSA practices is also a key pathway to improving farm yield per unit area. Consequently, smallholder farmers are adopting and implementing CSA practices. Despite that, a gap still exists on the profitability of undertaking such an investment, as this is key in determining the sustainability of CSA practices. On this basis, the present study undertook a detailed cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of seven CSA practices identified with smallholder farmers in the coastal savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana. A total of 48 smallholder farmers that had adopted these practices were studied. Three CBA indicators namely the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period (PP) were assessed for each of the seven CSA practices. The results showed that out of the seven CSA practices examined, six of them were profitably suitable for adoption and scaling up from the perspective of smallholder farmers as well as the public perspective. The finding from this study, therefore, fill the current information gap in the literature on the costs and benefits of adopting CSA practices on household livelihoods in Ghana. Such a finding is critical to the promotion and scaling up the adoption of CSA practices by smallholder farmers and serve as a basis of formulating appropriate guidelines and policies for supporting CSA practices.

Ng'ang'a, SK; Miller, V; Girvetz, E

Is investment in Climate-Smart-agricultural practices the option for the future? Cost and benefit analysis evidence from Ghana

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06653

It is known that globalization has led first- and second-tier cities' urban restructuring trajectories, excreted pressures, and caused tremendous socioeconomic volatility. This resulted in marginalized communities in dire of social empowerment, employment structure variance, and industry sectoral adjustment. Moreover, recent successive climate and health crisis unfolded and affirmed the state of our urban incompetence to sustain socioeconomic resilience or otherwise; lacking swift responses in providing critical management and services, cites are facing multifaceted challenges. Urban well-being and resilience are at stake. Although the environmental and health dimensional effects are apparent, this study ascertains that the transept multi-scalar analysis within the urban socioeconomic structure is crucial in sustaining core resilience to foster health and well-being of the community. As an integral part of the investigation, the revised DPSIR assessment framework is applied to evaluate the sectoral shift; spatial structure disarray and urban codependence degree are examined within the Taipei metropolitan area (TMA), a medium size but densely populated metropolitan area in Taiwan. The place-based DPSIR analysis ascertained the states and impacts in TMA: (1) A population decline speeded the restructuring of the urban core, while the impact of demographic aging and shrinkage rate mandates proper management and planning responses to the decline process; (2) the socioeconomic state effect is determined but does not critically affect the periphery zone, while an uneven demographic shift within the urban core necessitates dynamic adjustment responses to appropriately provide intergenerational services; (3) the uneven sector redistribution stimulated the core's spatial and structural inter-dependency with peripheral zones, requiring governance with tighter cross-administration cooperation among respective public sectors; and (4) facing the sector/temporal and demographic pressure, urban cohesiveness in the TMA is greatly affected, which in turn disrupts the resilience pathway toward a cohesion. The study ascertained that the revised DPSIR framework could provide cities facing pressing socioeconomic drivers with effective analysis to allocate pressures, states, and impacts and formulate the necessary responses. To assure the socioeconomic resilience and urban cohesiveness, planning policy should carefully monitor and evaluate socio-demographic and sector redistribution factors to promote the urban resilience.

Ling, TY

Investigating the malleable socioeconomic resilience pathway to urban cohesion: a case of Taipei metropolitan area

Environment Development And Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01197-9

European countries face increasing flood risks because of urbanization, increase of exposure and damage potential, and the effects of climate change. In literature and in practice, it is argued that a diversification of strategies for flood risk management (FRM), including flood risk prevention (through proactive spatial planning), flood defense, flood risk mitigation, flood preparation, and flood recovery, makes countries more flood resilient. Although this thesis is plausible, it should still be empirically scrutinized. We aim to do this. Drawing on existing literature we operationalize the notion of flood resilience into three capacities: capacity to resist; capacity to absorb and recover; and capacity to transform and adapt. Based on findings from the EU FP7 project STAR-FLOOD, we explore the degree of diversification of FRM strategies and related flood risk governance arrangements at the national level in Belgium, England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden, as well as these countries' achievement in terms of the three capacities. We found that the Netherlands and to a lesser extent Belgium have a strong capacity to resist, France a strong capacity to absorb and recover, and especially England a high capacity to transform and adapt. Having a diverse portfolio of FRM strategies in place may be conducive to high achievements related to the capacities to absorb/recover and to transform and adapt. Hence, we conclude that diversification of FRM strategies contributes to resilience. However, the diversification thesis should be nuanced in the sense that there are different ways to be resilient. First, the three capacities imply different rationales and normative starting points for flood risk governance, the choice between which is inherently political. Second, we found trade-offs between the three capacities, e.g., being resistant seems to lower the possibility to be absorbent. Third, to explain countries' achievements in terms of resilience, the strategies' feasibility in specific physical circumstances and their fit in existing institutional contexts (appropriateness), as well as the establishment of links between strategies, through bridging mechanisms, have also been shown to be crucial factors. We provide much needed reflection on the implications of this diagnosis for governments, private parties, and citizens who want to increase flood resilience.

Hegger, DLT; Driessen, PPJ; Wiering, M; van Rijswick, HFMW; Kundzewicz, ZW; Matczak, P; Crabbé, A; Raadgever, GT; Bakker, MHN; Priest, SJ; Larrue, C; Ek, K

Toward more flood resilience: Is a diversification of flood risk management strategies the way forward?

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08854-210452

Of the four atoll countries in the world, the Maldives has the lowest average elevation. Therefore, it is likely to be the first country to lose its land when the sea level rises due to climate change. As a countermeasure to sea level rise, the government of the Maldives is constructing an artificial island called Hulhumale by raising an atoll adjacent to the capital city of Male. Other atoll countries may employ the same method to adapt to the anticipated sea level rise. There is a concern that people who are forced to relocate to the artificial island will be affected in various ways. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify measures to reduce the potential impacts of migration to artificial islands. This study aimed to identify factors that will work effectively to satisfy migrants from outside the Male region to Hulhumale. At this stage, sea level rise is not a motivating factor for migration to Hulhumale. For the time being, enhancing high-income employment and high-level education in Hulhumale, which are the main motivations for migration, will help sustain voluntary migration. Over the past two decades, rapid economic growth has changed the desire of Maldivians. Hulhumale is attracting people with its new urban environment and employment opportunities. A small-scale questionnaire survey on the satisfaction level of post-migration life was conducted among the residents of Hulhumale and the results showed that those who changed their jobs before and after migration were less satisfied with their migration than those who did not. In Hulhumale, smart cities are being developed and new types of employment are being created. In order to facilitate the smooth migration of residents from remote islands, policies that focus on occupational changes before and after migration are needed, such as public job placement programs that enable migrants to find the same jobs that they had before migration, and job training programs that prepare them for career changes and enable them to adapt smoothly to new jobs. At present, mental health issues among migrants are not a major problem. Strengthening people-to-people networks through the use of information technology (IT) will contribute to smooth migration and resettlement.

Sakamoto, A; Nishiya, K; Guo, XJ; Sugimoto, A; Nagasaki, W; Doi, K

Mitigating Impacts of Climate Change Induced Sea Level Rise by Infrastructure Development: Case of the Maldives

Journal Of Disaster Research

https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2022.p0327

Addis Ababa is one of the eleven cities in Africa that have been taking bold action in meeting the objectives of the Paris Agreement. At the present time, the city is working toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enabling the city to be resilient to the impacts of climate change. To make the city carbon neutral and resilient to climate change, the coordination of different sectors and actors is crucial. To this end, the planning and implementation of mitigation and adaptation measures needs effective climate change governance. Thus, this study was intended to explore the effectiveness of climate change governance in Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia. The study followed both quantitative and qualitative research approaches and relied on both primary and secondary data sources. A survey of 232 respondents, who were environment experts at different levels, was conducted using questionnaires. In addition, interviews and observations were conducted to gather relevant data. Secondary data were collected from different sources. The quantitative data were analysed using relative importance index (RII) analysis. The study found that existing environmental policies, strategies, regulations, proclamations, laws, and implementations in the city were facing major challenges in terms of weak accountability, the poor enforcement of regulation, and the failure to involve key actors, especially NGOs, communities, and private sectors; these failures were characterized by weak institutional setup and a lack of formal systems allowing actors (private sectors, communities, and NGOs) to interact to respond to climate change. Hence, climate change governance was ineffective in terms of accountability, participation, law enforcement, equity, institutions, the role of actors, and partnership. Thus, the Addis Ababa City Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission should give more emphasis to the coordination of other actors (NGOs, communities, private sectors, and research institutions) to respond to climate change in the city. In addition, the commission should provide training to the lower layers of experts and mobilise the community for climate change response, particularly in the undertaking of adaptation measures. Furthermore, Addis Ababa City administrators should give due attention to climate change response through an established strong accountability system to enforce regulation, rules, proclamations, laws, policies, and strategies in different sectors.

Addis, TL; Birhanu, BS; Italemahu, TZ

Effectiveness of Urban Climate Change Governance in Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia

Urban Science

https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci6030064

Statistical data shows that the increase in disasters due to natural hazards over the past 20 years has, for the most part, been caused by meteorological and hydrological events. This increase has been largely assigned to climate change [Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), 2010, http://www.emdat.be/Database/Trends/trends.html], that is, with climate-related hazards being major triggers for the majority of disasters. Consequently, there is obvious concern about how a changing climate will exacerbate the situation in the future (McBean and Ajibade in Curr Opin Environ Sustain 1:179-186, 2009). However, the attribution of a single hazard event or specific losses to climate change is still difficult, if not impossible, due to the complexity of factors that generate disaster losses. Disaster risk is a product of the interaction of the hazard (event) and the vulnerability conditions of the society or elements exposed. As a result, the need for a systematic linkage between disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA) to advance sustainable development, and finally human security is being discussed within the ongoing climate change negotiations as well as within the disaster risk community, for example, in the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change special report on 'Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation'. However, crucial differences between DRR and CCA exist that have widely limited or hampered their integration in practice. A review of existing literature on the topic and current national and local adaptation strategies, as well as 38 expert interviews conducted between April and May 2009, have led the authors to hypothesise that most of these differences and challenges can be categorised with respect to different spatial and temporal scales, the knowledge base, and norm systems. This paper examines the reasons for the practical barriers when linking CCA and DRR according to these three aspects. Finally, we outline recommendations and measures that need to be adopted in order to overcome existing barriers. In addition, quality criteria are formulated that should be applied in order to constantly monitor and evaluate adaptation strategies designed to simultaneously meet DRR requirements and vice versa.

Birkmann, J; von Teichman, K

Integrating disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation: key challenges-scales, knowledge, and norms

Sustainability Science

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-010-0108-y

Due to climate change, extreme weather events are increasing in frequency and intensity. Thus, critical infrastructures as power distribution must be secure and resilient to respond to and mitigate the impacts caused by extreme events. Accounting that the most valuable assets, human lives, are currently hosted in cities, these are considered as the most sensible and critical zones and are also constituted as the main focus of study. This statement is reflected in the increasing interest in making cities more resilient against extreme events, becoming a key research topic worldwide. Trying to tackle this goal, this paper focuses on the development of a GIS-based tool oriented to help decision-makers in planning while providing unitary and global views of the electric assets of a network considering their interrelations in a failure case. The study follows three main steps to achieve this purpose. First, the flood risk assessment while evaluating the flood depth hazard (taking into account the Average of Water Depth found in the flooded areas), the exposure of the assets (using Affected Area Rates), and their vulnerability (with the integration of Fragility curves), putting all the elements together into Failure Probabilities considering the interrelation between assets and the potential cascade effects. Second, calculating a cost assessment (from damage, business interruption, auxiliary cost, and non-supplied energy). Finally, calculating electrical network reliability indices, which provides highly valuable information about the status of the grid and the interruptions to customers when considering scenarios of extreme flooding events. Intending to prove the use and performance of the tool developed, this tool is applied to a real case study in Barcelona city. This case of study is constituted by two flooding scenarios (Current situation and Climate change with RCP 8.5) previously modeled and validated in other projects, and the Climate change scenario with measures applied to the water sector (increasing the drainage capacity of the city, and improving capacities of the sewer system). It is demonstrated how the improvements introduced by measures are interrelated and considerably improve the safety of the electrical network, mitigating consequences provoked by flooding extreme events by 60% in case of Average of Water Depth, 50% the failure probability, and 77% the costs provoked.

Muñoz, DS; García, JLD

GIS-based tool development for flooding impact assessment on electrical sector

Journal Of Cleaner Production

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128793

Purpose Tanjung Mas, an urban village located in the northern part of Semarang city, has been facing a major impact of coastal inundation occurring along North Java Coastline. This by-product of global climate change is also affecting a 37-hectares slum, one of the largest slums in Semarang city. As the coastal flood tends to escalate every year, the affected areas must have a coping ability to reduce its impact, while also having adequate resources to recover. Considering Tanjung Mas' dense demographic condition and its function as the city's seaport, social vulnerability and capability play a significant role in mitigating and recovering flood impacts, in supplement to local government's effort of strengthening the Northern Java Seawall. Therefore, this study aims to scored and correlated Tanjung Mas' social vulnerability index (SoVI) and community capability index to assess how well its population can recover from the tidal flood in the future. Design/methodology/approach This study used the SoVI framework analysis to synthesize relevant social vulnerability indicators and community capability indicators in Tanjung Mas. The two sets of indicators were correlated with Pearson R-squared correlation method to seek a possible non-causal relation. Bivariate indices mapping method exhibit the SoVI and community capability index spatially to show every area's vulnerability and capability level. Findings The vulnerability and capability level in Tanjung Mas vary within its smaller area, as six combinations of social vulnerability and community capability level were found. The worst combination was found on areas closer to the coastline, with high social vulnerability and low community capability level. These areas need to be strengthened in both its capability and coping ability toward coastal flood to realize a resilient community. Originality/value This study will be useful for local governments as a supplement to the strategic spatial plan, predominantly in prioritizing vulnerable area treatment prior to the completion of Northern Java Seawall in 2025. This study provides information and a simplified quantitative scoring result of vulnerability and capability level in slum area that has been customized according to Indonesia's demographic characteristic. These results and framework might be relevant to SoVI and capability scoring in developing countries.

Yuliastuti, N; Okta, EV; Haryanti, VG; Afif, F

Dimension of community capability and its effect on the social vulnerability at Semarang coastal area

Journal Of Financial Management Of Property And Construction

https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMPC-07-2021-0043

This study developed a geo-spatial framework for assessing multi-hazard threat on the Bangladesh coast, inte-grating environmental hazards (EH), geo-environmental attributes (GA), and anthropogenic modifications (AM) based on their potential contribution to overall threat. For this purpose, a fuzzy logic based analytical technique was integrated with geospatial mapping. Thematic layers were prepared for twenty-three theoretically important factors representing the three components of threat. The spatial variations of threat and its components were delineated through spatial overlaying of the respective layers in a GIS environment. The final threat map revealed 32% (5338 km2) and 4% (646 km2) of the area of the western deltaic coast, which encompassed >50-60% of the areas of Khulna, Bagerhat, and Satkhira districts, was under high and very high threat, respectively, owing primarily to frequent cyclones, salinity ingression, and subsidence, and secondarily to the low elevation of the coast, high astronomical tide, shallow bathymetry, excessive groundwater extraction, and polder construction. High and very high threat zones within the central estuarine coast corresponded to 27% (4518 km2) and 16% (2618 km2) of the area, including most of Bhola, Barguna, and Patuakhali districts, which was attributable to the effects of coastal erosion, sea-level rise, flooding and the ancillary effects of strong wave action, high river discharge, deforestation, and land transformation. Around 14% (948 km2) and 3% (164 km2) of the eastern cliff coast, comprising the southwestern part of the Coxsbazar district, was found to be under high and very high threat, respectively, due to the direct effects of sea-level rise, storm surge, erosion, and indirect effects of closeness to the shoreline, alluvial composition of the beach, tourism, and pollution from industries. The outcomes of this study could guide the coastal managers of Bangladesh in prioritizing actions aimed at disaster risk reduction and sustainable development of this region.

Murshed, S; Griffin, AL; Islam, MA; Wang, XH; Paull, D

Assessing multi-climate-hazard threat in the coastal region of Bangladesh by combining influential environmental and anthropogenic factors

Progress In Disaster Science

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2022.100261

Farmers coping strategies against harvest failures have implication for future adaptation to such shocks. Previous studies on farmers' vulnerability and response to shocks have emphasized on adaptation, at the expense of their coping to such shocks. Using a survey data from 299 farm households in northern Ghana, this study has analyzed farmers' coping strategies against harvest failure, and the drivers of the choice and intensity of the coping strategies. The empirical results show that most of the households used liquidation of productive assets, reduction in consumption, borrowing from family and friends, diversification of livelihoods, and migration to cities for off-farm jobs as coping measures in response to harvest failure. The empirical results from a multivariate probit model indicate that the choice of coping strategies is influenced by farmers' access to radio, net value of livestock produced per man-equivalent (ME), experience of yield loss in the previous year, farmers' perception about the fertility status of their crop fields, access to credit, distance to market, farm-to-farmer extension, location of the respondent, cropland per ME, and access to off-farm income. Empirical results from a zero-truncated negative binomial regression model also indicate that the number of coping strategies adopted increases with the value of farm implements, access to radio, farmer-to-farmer extension and being located in the regional capital. It however decreases with the age of the household head, number of family members abroad, a positive perception about the fertility status of crop fields, access to government extension services, distance to market, and access to off-farm income. Limited access to credit, radio, and markets renders farmers more vulnerable and pushes them to adopt more costly coping strategies. In addition, an increase in income earned from secondary livestock products decreases incentive for farmers to adopt liquidation of productive assets as coping strategy after a harvest failure. Policy makers and stakeholders could make smallholder farmers less vulnerable to harvest failure by enhancing their access to radio, credit, off-farm income and market, promotion of farmer-to-farmer extension, implementing measure to improve the fertility of crop fields in the study area, and enhancing farmers' engagement in the production and selling of secondary livestock products

Boansi, D; Owusu, V; Tham-Agyekum, EK; Wongnaa, CA; Frimpong, JA; Bukari, KN

Responding to harvest failure: Understanding farmers coping strategies in the semi-arid Northern Ghana

Plos One

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284328

Environmental problems caused by human activities are increasing; biodiversity is disappearing at an unprecedented rate, soils are being irreversibly damaged, freshwater is increasingly in short supply, and the climate is changing. To reverse or even to reduce these trends will require a radical transformation in the relationship between humans and the natural environment. Just how this can be achieved within, at most, a few decades is unknown, but it is clear that academia must play a crucial role. Many believe, however, that academic institutions need to become more effective in helping societies move toward sustainability. We first synthesize current thinking about this crisis of research effectiveness. We argue that those involved in producing knowledge to solve societal problems face three particular challenges: the complexity of real-world sustainability problems, maintaining impartiality when expert knowledge is used in decision making, and ensuring the salience of the scientific knowledge for decision makers. We discuss three strategies to meet these challenges: conducting research in interdisciplinary teams, forming research partnerships with actors and experts from outside academia, and framing research questions with the aim of solving specific problems (problem orientation). However, we argue that implementing these strategies within academia will require both cultural and institutional change. We then use concepts from transition management to suggest how academic institutions can make the necessary changes. At the level of system optimization, we call for: quality criteria, career incentives, and funding schemes that reward not only disciplinary excellence but also achievements in inter-/transdisciplinary work; professional services and training through specialized centers that facilitate problem-oriented research and reciprocal knowledge exchange with society; and the integration of sustainability and inter-/transdisciplinary research practices into all teaching curricula. At the level of system innovation, we propose radical changes in institutional structures, research and career incentives, teaching programs, and research partnerships. We see much value in a view of change that emphasizes the complementarity of system innovation and system optimization. The goal must be a process of change that preserves the traditional strengths of academic research, with its emphasis on disciplinary excellence and scientific rigor, while ensuring that institutional environments and the skills, worldviews, and experiences of the involved actors adapt to the rapidly changing needs of society.

Kueffer, C; Underwood, E; Hadorn, GH; Holderegger, R; Lehning, M; Pohl, C; Schirmer, M; Schwarzenbach, R; Stauffacher, M; Wuelser, G; Edwards, P

Enabling Effective Problem-oriented Research for Sustainable Development

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05045-170408

The Paris Agreement recognizes the important role that local level actors play in ensuring climate change adaptation that contributes to meeting the global temperature goal. As a financial mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the largest dedicated climate fund, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) is critical to achieving this goal. How GCF allocates its resources is therefore a critical area of research. This article assesses GCF's commitment to the local delivery of adaptation finance and identifies the key barriers to GCF's achievement of this commitment. The analysis finds that although GCF's policies and communications fully commit to funding local level adaptation, three key barriers still prevent it from delivering finance to the local level. First, GCF lacks a unified framework for identifying and defining the local level, local actors, and local adaptation processes. Second, GCF exhibits limited transparency and accountability in relation to how approved funding for adaptation is spent, particularly for projects that claim to generate local level adaptation outcomes. Third, some Accredited Entities have limited experience and capacity for designing and implementing projects that deliver finance to the local level. This is because the local delivery of finance is not prioritized by GCF during the accreditation of entities or provision of readiness support to Accredited Entities. Our findings indicate limited evidence of GCF's full operationalization of its commitment to supporting local adaptation. We recommend that GCF develop and apply a unified framework for defining what constitutes 'local'. Key policy insights GCF is committed to supporting local adaptation finance in developing countries but has failed to adequately operationalize this commitment. To increase local delivery of climate finance, GCF should develop a unified framework for local delivery of adapation finance that emphasises local actors' leadership in design, implementation, and management of adaptation projects. GCF should also increase transparency and accountability of funded projects to enable independent assessments of local delivery of adaptation finance by making project information, including financial reports publicly available. GCF should ensure that Accredited Entities have capacity to develop and deliver projects that deliver adaptation finance to the local level e.g. by requiring entities to provide evidence of support for local adaptation during accreditation.

Omukuti, J; Barrett, S; White, PCL; Marchant, R; Averchenkova, A

The green climate fund and its shortcomings in local delivery of adaptation finance

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2022.2093152

Climate change leading to migration and conflicts is observed in many parts of the world and it is becoming a potential future in Pakistan. Climate change refugees in Pakistan undergo victimization, in situ mitigation, or migration, all three of which have consequences. Direct and indirect security threats posed by climate change can cause great economic losses to Pakistan. Arguably, there is growing evidence of a relationship between climate change and conflicts in Pakistan. Resource depletion and overpopulation result in rural-to-urban migration along with occupational shifts. This unprecedented study explores whether there is a significant relationship between climate change and conflicts in Pakistan. It assesses the given association from national to individual level. The study uses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to determine the relationship of climate change and conflict. The science of climate change and conflicts is mostly qualitative. The assessment based on surveying, visits, interviews, literature review, multidisciplinary assessment, and examination of the sites. Furthermore, the relationship or association was quantified based on some of the results. Statistical analysis was performed on the results of the study. Relationship between climate change, socioeconomics, and conflicts has been explored. Surveys and interviews significantly supported that the frequency of the disasters such as droughts, heatwaves, floods, and diseases has increased in the study area and significantly affects the lives of local communities. It was also highlighted that the majority of conflicts in the region are due to overpopulation, economic competition, acquisition of land and resources, and migration. It was found that some associations are statistically significant, while others are not. However, site examination and ground realities suggested that there is a high risk and potential for climate change-induced conflicts in the study area. Data presented in the study indicate that Pakistan has the highest risk value for conflicts and human exposure to these risks. There is a significant causal relationship between climate change, migration, and conflicts. Over population together with resource depletion serves as catalyzing factors for climate change migration and dispute. Data on the subject for Pakistan are absent or lacking. However, it can be significantly established that climate change-induced migration and the conflicts are reality in Pakistan, with potential to induct further economic losses in the future.

Ali, F; Khan, TA; Alamgir, A; Khan, MA

Climate Change-Induced Conflicts in Pakistan: From National to Individual Level

Earth Systems And Environment

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-018-0080-8

Climate change and its impacts are already perceptible in many parts of the world and coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to these changes. To address issues arising in the Aquitaine region (south-west France, now administratively part of Nouvelle-Aquitaine), we listed possible measures for adaptation to climate change impacts at the regional level and focussing on coastal hazards. Then we assessed their effectiveness with respect to long-term climate change and to the coastal management practices they are designed for. The assessment is independent of the local context and is therefore valid in most coastal areas. For this purpose, we conducted a review of the literature to select 51 measures that are potentially applicable to the Aquitaine coast. We then classified these measures combining two approaches. The first was based on the regional management practices applied by the GIP Littoral Aquitain (a public interest group for coastal management in Nouvelle-Aquitaine) while the second drew on the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change) classification based on the physical-environmental, socio-economic or institutional characteristics of adaptation measures. In parallel, ten criteria were defined to assess the current and future efficiency of the measure independently of the local context. Finally, by providing an assessment of the adaptation measures using nine of these criteria, this method allowed objective and easy comparisons between measures. The results were analysed taking each criterion independently and also through a multi-criteria analysis. Overall, the measures performed well against all the binary criteria except self-sufficiency and synergy with mitigation. The more detailed analysis of the results highlight the main characteristics of the measures applied in each management approach. The multi-criteria analysis identified a set of essential measures for adaptation to coastal risks in the context of climate change. 19 measures were rated at once as no regrets, robust and reversible/flexible. In general, the study shows that there are many short and medium term possibilities for adaptation (2030-2050, 2080-2100) and emphasises the need to implement some of these as soon as possible. According to our study, measures that generate immediate benefits are overwhelmingly predominant (86%).

Baills, A; Garcin, M; Bulteau, T

Assessment of selected climate change adaptation measures for coastal areas

Ocean & Coastal Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.105059

The combined influences of a change in climate patterns and the increased concentration of property and economic activity in hazard-prone areas has the potential of restricting the availability and affordability of insurance. This paper evaluates the premiums that private insurers are likely to charge and their ability to cover residential losses against hurricane risk in Florida as a function of (a) recent projections on future hurricane activity in 2020 and 2040; (b) insurance market conditions (i.e., soft or hard market); (c) the availability of reinsurance; and (d) the adoption of adaptation measures (i.e., implementation of physical risk reduction measures to reduce wind damage to the structure and buildings). We find that uncertainties in climate projections translate into a divergent picture for insurance in Florida. Under dynamic climate models, the total price of insurance for Florida (assuming constant exposure) could increase significantly by 2040, from $12.9 billion (in 1990) to $14.2 billion, under hard market conditions. Under lower bound projections, premiums could decline to $9.4 billion by 2040. Taking a broader range of climate change scenarios, including several statistical ones, prices could be between $4.7 and $32.1 billion by 2040. The upper end of this range suggests that insurance could be unaffordable for many people in Florida. The adoption of most recent building codes for all residences in the state could reduce by nearly half the expected price of insurance so that even under high climate change scenarios, insurance premiums would be lower than under the 1990 baseline climate scenario. Under a full adaptation scenario, if insurers can obtain reinsurance, they will be able to cover 100 % of the loss if they allocated 10 % of their surplus to cover a 100-year return hurricane, and 63 % and 55 % of losses from a 250-year hurricane in 2020 and 2040. Property-level adaptation and the maintenance of strong and competitive reinsurance markets will thus be essential to maintain the affordability and availability of insurance in the new era of catastrophe risk.

Kunreuther, H; Michel-Kerjan, E; Ranger, N

Insuring future climate catastrophes

Climatic Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0625-z

In the US alone, there are over 200 tools that support climate adaptation planning, along with a large number of case studies documenting their use. Case studies frequently document positive results. Systematic assessment of processes can provide important benefits, including justification for action and expenditures, promotion of learning and adaptive management, accountability, and ensuring fit with other goals. There are very few such assessments in the context of climate adaptation planning, despite of the emphasis on the development and use of planning tools by federal and state agencies, university researchers, and non-profit organizations. We undertook an effort to assess the outcomes resulting from fourteen applications of the Vulnerability, Consequences, and Adaptation Planning Scenarios (VCAPS) process, which we helped develop and implement. VCAPS is designed to facilitate information exchange, co-production of knowledge, and stakeholder collaboration while helping communities appraise climate change-related risks and devise strategies to manage them. Using qualitative interviews we explored the perceived value and the measurable performance outcomes of VCAPS at both individual and community scales occurring 3-10 years after the processes were conducted, allowing participants to take a broader view of success and reflect on how different forms of success emerged over time. Although the assessment of each case is based on a small number of interviews, we learned that VCAPS informed plans and decisions of municipalities, informed actions and decisions of other public and private actors, generated broader support for subsequent actions, helped efforts to secure/seek funding for climate adaptation actions, developed material resources to support planning, and promoted learning among participants. This assessment also reinforces prior work showing that deliberative planning tools/processes are conducive to developing adaptive capacities; processes should be closely coordinated with regular governance activities to impact policy and action; adequate time for deliberation needs to be budgeted; participants need support to think outside the box and consider adaptation strategies that are both incremental and transformational as well as highlight potential undesirable consequences of adaptation; and processes, like VCAPS, produce actionable outcomes when participants agree on the immediacy of the issue. We conclude with observations about the need for evaluation of participatory processes and the challenges of defining success of tools to support municipal climate change adaptation planning.

Tuler, SP; Dow, K; Webler, T

Assessment of adaptation, policy, and capacity building outcomes from 14 processes

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.09.003

This article examines the perception of climate change, in relation to 21 other socioeconomic and environmental problems, on the part of 132 respondents to a survey conducted in the city of Nairobi, Kenya. Factor analysis, used to condense these interrelated problems into a few dimensions, identified two overriding threats: the first being to socioeconomic security, and the second to the physical environment. Threats to socioeconomic security explained 76.6% of the variance in the rating of environmental and socioeconomic problems facing Nairobi, with very high factor loadings from corruption, unemployment, crime, street children, garbage, transport, poverty, pollution of Nairobi River, HIV/AIDS and immorality/promiscuity. Threats to the physical and living environment explained 22.2% of the variance in the rating of environmental and socioeconomic problems facing Nairobi. We were led to conclude that the respondents did not perceive climate change as being a significant problem in Nairobi. The global concern about climate change appeared like a mere drop in the oceanic context pervaded by problems of poverty, unemployment, crime and corruption, etc. which Nairobi faces, as does Kenya as a whole. Our conclusion is partially reflected in the priorities of the Kenyan government, which focus on poverty alleviation, the fight against crime and graft, improved access to education, and on addressing health problems; it also poses a challenge to the climate change community to find ways to making interventions relevant to local socioeconomic reality facing a developing country city like Nairobi. There may be a need to reconsider 'whose reality counts' (borrowing from Robert Chambers, Whose reality counts? Putting the first last, Intermediate Technology Publications, London, p 122, 1997) in addressing climate change: should protracted Kyoto protocol negotiations be given priority or should a long lasting solution be sought to socioeconomic problems facing developing world cities such as Nairobi? We recommend that the ongoing efforts at integrating climate risk management, as components of climate-sensitive sustainable development, be studied in many settings, with a focus on the developing world which is the most vulnerable, in order to inform decision-making and development of intervention measures.

Shisanya, CA; Khayesi, M

How is climate change perceived in relation to other socioeconomic and environmental threats in Nairobi, Kenya?

Climatic Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9321-9

The adaptability of North American agriculture to climate change is assessed through a review of current literature. A baseline of North American agriculture without climate change suggests that farming faces serious challenges in the future (e.g. declining domestic demand, loss of comparative advantage, rising environmental costs). Climate change adjustments at the farm-level and in government policy, including international trade policy, are inventoried from the literature. The adaptive potential of agriculture is demonstrated historically with situations that are analogous to climate change, including the translocation of crops across natural climate gradients, the rapid introduction of new crops such as soybeans in the US and canola in Canada, and resource substitutions prompted by changes in prices of production inputs. A wide selection of modeling studies is reviewed which, in net, suggests several agronomic and economic adaptation strategies that are available to agriculture. Agronomic strategies include changes in crop varieties and species, timing of operations, and land management including irrigation. Economic strategies include investment in new technologies, infrastructure and labor, and shifts in international trade. Overall, such agronomic strategies were found to offset either partially or completely the loss of productivity caused by climate change. Economic adaptations were found to render the agricultural costs of climate change small by comparison with the overall expansion of agricultural production. New avenues of adaptive research are recommended including the formalization of the incorporation of adaptation strategies into modeling, linkage of adaptation to the terrestrial carbon cycle, anticipation of future technologies, attention to scaling from in situ modeling to the landscape scale, expansion of data sets and the measurement and modeling of unpriced costs. The final assessment is that climate change should not pose an insurmountable obstacle to North American agriculture. The portfolio of assets needed to adapt is large in terms of land, water, energy, genetic diversity, physical intrastructure and human resources, research capacity and information systems, and political institutions and world trade-the research reviewed here gives ample evidence of the ability of agriculture to utilize such assets. In conclusion, the apparent efficiency with which North American agriculture may adapt to climate changes provides little inducement for diverting agricultural adaptation resources to efforts to slow or halt the climate changes.

Easterling, WE

Adapting North American agriculture to climate change in review

Agricultural And Forest Meteorology

https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1923(95)02315-1

Purpose This paper aims to focus on reducing the vulnerability of Ahvaz city against urban disasters and lowering the number of casualties and amount of financial losses using modern approaches to develop resilience strategies that can increase urban safety to an acceptable level. The strategic situation of Ahvaz city, because of its abundant resources, the war experience and its location on the boundary regions of Iran, highlights its significance. Ahvaz has a high population and an extended texture, and the existence of extraordinary constructions increases the importance of physical resilience in this city. Design/methodology/approach The present study investigates built environment aspects such as the urban structure, the urban form, land-use proximity pattern, urban road network and crucial and vulnerable centres in Ahvaz, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Hence, the areas at risk in Ahvaz were identified and illustrated in a comprehensive risk assessment map, and then, by using the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats technique and finally by using the Delphi method, some strategies and plans were presented to reduce the level of vulnerability in Ahvaz. Then, these strategies are prioritized by applying quality function deployment (QFD) technique. Findings The risk assessment result shows that most parts of Ahvaz's urban areas are highly at risk. The central and northern parts of Ahvaz have the highest vulnerability at a time of crisis. These zones include district 1 (city centre) and districts 2, 3 and 7 at the city's margins. The result of QFD process showed that the essential urban resilience strategy is to positively consider the passive defence studies with a physical resilience approach. Also, the proper distribution of strategic points in the city, moving the industrial and oil companies from the peripheral area, and facilitating access to vital, crucial centres to support urban regions are considered the most effective strategic plans. Originality/value This paper, with an integrated approach, examines and prioritizes the main physical problems of Ahvaz city based on the spatial analysis and opinions of experts. The physical strategies presented in this paper can significantly reduce the risks and increase the urban resilience of Ahvaz city in the face of crisis.

Pouryarmohammadi, M; Ahmadi, H; Salaripour, A

Developing physical resilience strategies in passive defense according to identification of endangered areas of urban environments (case study: Ahvaz city)

International Journal Of Disaster Resilience In The Built Environment

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-08-2020-0086

Under the dual stress of climate change and human activities, ecological problems such as vegetation degra-dation, soil erosion, and desertification have disturbed the balance of the human-land relationship, damaged the ecosystem integrity, and seriously affected the sustainable development of human societies and ecological en-vironments. Scientifically assessing the stability or vulnerability of an ecosystem is a key prerequisite for measuring its degree of sustainability. Ecological vulnerability (EV) provides a reasonable quantitative pathway as the comprehensive result of ecosystem change. However, to meet the challenges of variable external inter-ference, the capabilities of existing assessment frameworks require further improvement. This study constructed a novel comprehensive remote sensing index directly based on land surface characteristics-regional ecological vulnerability index (REVI) and assessed the spatio-temporal characteristics and driving mechanism of EV in Gansu Province during 2000-2020. The applicability of three objective methods, namely principal component analysis, entropy weighing method, and spatial distance model, was verified against field data, and the effec-tiveness of implementing major ecological programs was discussed. The results showed that: (1) EV intensity of the study area remained at a relatively high level, and its spatial distribution exhibited apparent latitude -longitude zonality and spatially stratified heterogeneity; (2) EV decreased in 41.926% of the study area but continued to increase in 1.235%, and it exhibited an overall conversion pattern of significant decrease in large areas and increase in small areas in the past 21 years; (3) the effectiveness of ecological programs determined their impacts on EV, regulating the contribution and interaction of water resources, vegetation cover, soil degradation, and human activities, and promoting sustainable development of the ecosystem in a vulnerable cycle; and (4) urban expansion was achieved at the cost of occupying cropland and ecological land, and became the primary cause for the increased EV. The framework presented in this study is suitable for large-scale EV assessment, even at the global scale, with higher application potential. The results have important reference value for ecological protection, land resource utilization and sustainable development of similar vulnerable ecosystems, which are helpful for formulating sustainable and coordinated development policies.

Guo, ZC; Xie, YW; Guo, H; Zhang, XY; Wang, HR; Bie, Q; Xi, GL; Ma, CH

Do the ecosystems of Gansu Province in Western China?s crucial ecological security barrier remain vulnerable? Evidence from remote sensing based on geospatial analysis

Journal Of Cleaner Production

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136740

The failure to acknowledge and account for environmental externalities or spillovers in climate change adaptation policy, advocacy, and programming spaces exacerbate the risk of ecological degradation, and more so, the degradation of land. The use of unsuitable water sources for irrigation may increase salinisation risks. However, few if any policy assessments and research efforts have been directed at investigating how farmer perceptions mediate spillovers from the ubiquitous irrigation adaptation strategy. In this study, the cognitive failure and/or bias construct is examined and proposed as an analytical lens in research, policy, and learning and the convergence of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation discourses. A cross-sectional survey design and multistage stratified sampling were used to collect data from 69 households. To elicit the environmental impacts of irrigation practices, topsoil and subsoils from irrigated and non-irrigated sites were sampled and analysed using AAS (atomic absorption spectrophotometer). A generalised linear logistic weight estimation procedure was used to analyse the perception of risks while an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse changes in exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). The findings from small-scale farmers in Machakos and Kakamega counties, Kenya, suggest multifaceted biases and failures about the existence and importance of externalities in adaptation planning discourses. Among other dimensions, a cognitive failure which encompasses fragmented approaches among institutions for use and management of resources, inadequate policy. and information support, as well as the poor integration of actors in adaptation planning accounts for adaptation failure. The failures in such human-environment system interactions have the potential to exacerbate the existing vulnerability of farmer production systems in the long run. The findings further suggest that in absence of risk message information dissemination, education level, farming experience, and information accumulation, as integral elements to human capital, do not seem to have a significant effect on behaviour concerning the mitigation of environmental spillovers. Implicitly, reversing the inherent adaptation failures calls for system approaches that enhance coordinated adaptation planning, prioritise the proactive mitigation of slow-onset disaster risks, and broadens decision support systems such as risk information dissemination integration, into the existing adaptation policy discourses and practice.

Elijah, VT; Odiyo, JO

Perception of Environmental Spillovers Across Scale in Climate Change Adaptation Planning: The Case of Small-Scale Farmers' Irrigation Strategies, Kenya

Climate

https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8010003

Purpose This study aims to explain the existing adaptation practices in an urbanized sub-region in the lower Chao Phraya River basin (CPRB) across different scales and dimensions. It offers an overview of water hazards in urban areas along the river basin to discover ways to deal with and recover from hazards via understanding the implications of existing and potential practice for the mitigation of hydrological hazards. Design/methodology/approach First, this study collected current adaptation strategies and measures from interview, focus group discussion, workshop organization, etc. to get the current adaptation strategies/measures for the whole CPRB and each specific area. Second, this study identified a set of criteria for evaluation from review of current publications and official reports. Then, the current adaptation strategies/measures were examined through a set of criteria to obtain the current situation of existing practices. Finally, analysis of key challenges and opportunities was done to propose supporting guidelines to reduce hydrological risks and incorporate further adaptation measures needed to boost resilience in the area. Findings Adaptation methods should focus on mixed adaptation, which integrates structural, social, organizational and natural adaptation, and to develop multi-dimensional collaboration. The adaption strategy has restricted the usage of some technologies and technical know-how, particularly in the area of climate change. As a result, intentional adaptation to become more inventive is required, to reduce hazards and improve disaster-response capacity. The various adaptation measures should be more integrated or more adaptive and to achieve greater cohesion and mutual benefit of individual measures, such as community-based adaptation or community-driven slum upgrading. Originality/value Hydrological risks are wreaking havoc on social, economic and environmental elements, particularly river flood, flash flood and drought in the Asia-Pacific region. Twenty-two existing adaptation options were evaluated with evaluation criteria such as scales of risks/impacts reduction, benefits of environmental and socio-economic and institutional aspects. The findings highlight the current situation of existing practices, key challenges and opportunities, which emphasized on natural-based solutions, raising knowledge and awareness and lessons learned on adaptation of hydrological risks. The existing adaptation measures will be suggested as supporting guidelines and master plans to minimize the hydrological risks.

Chao-Amonphat, S; Nitivattananon, V; Srinonil, S

Adaptation measures on hydrological risks and climate change impacts in urbanized sub-region, Thailand: a case study in lower Chao Phraya River basin

International Journal Of Disaster Resilience In The Built Environment

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-08-2021-0113

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the 2015 Paris Agreement are two of the most important policy frameworks of the twenty-first century. However, the alignment of national commitments linked to them has not yet been analysed for West African states. Such analyses are vital to avoid perverse outcomes if states assess targets and develop SDG implementation plans, and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, without integrated planning and cross-sectoral alignment. This article provides a situation analysis guided by the following questions: (a) Which priority sectors are mentioned in relation to adaptation and mitigation in West African NDCs? (b) Are the NDCs of West African states well aligned with the SDGs? (c) What are the co-benefits of NDCs in contributing towards the SDGs? and (d) How are West African states planning to finance actions in their NDCs? The study uses iterative content analysis to explore key themes for adaptation and mitigation within NDCs of 11 West African states and their alignment to selected SDGs. A national multi-stakeholder workshop was held in Ghana to examine the co-benefits of the NDCs in contributing towards the SDGs and their implementation challenges. Results show that agriculture and energy are priority sectors where NDCs have pledged significant commitments. The analysis displays good alignment between mitigation and adaptation actions proposed in NDCs and the SDGs. These represent opportunities that can be harnessed through integration into national sectoral policies. However, cross-sectoral discussions in Ghana identify significant challenges relating to institutional capacity, a lack of coordination among institutions and agencies, and insufficient resources in moving towards integrated implementation of national planning priorities to address successfully both NDC priorities and the SDGs.Key policy insights Positive alignments between West African NDCs and SDGs present opportunities for mutual benefits that can advance national development via a more climate resilient pathway.NDCs of West African states can provide mutual benefits across the water-energy-food nexus, such as through climate-smart agriculture and low carbon energy technologies.Ghanaian multi-sectoral insights show the need to empower national coordinating bodies to overcome misalignments across different sectors.

Antwi-Agyei, P; Dougill, AJ; Agyekum, TP; Stringer, LC

Alignment between nationally determined contributions and the sustainable development goals for West Africa

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2018.1431199

Poor access to external resources, and a lack of affordable technologies compatible with socio-economic and ecological settings of rural livelihoods lead to high vulnerability of subsistence farmers to climate change and associated environmental stressors. Traditional knowledge (TK) plays a pivotal role in improving the adaptive capacity of such farmers to cope with these stressors. In India, most of the policies aiming to improve farmers' adaptive capacity are based on a top-down approach and barely consider farmers' TK. Policies can be made more inclusive by mainstreaming stakeholders' perspectives, an approach termed as knowledge co-production. Our study uses a knowledge co-production framework to (i) assess the current state of emphasis on TK and knowledge co-production processes in Indian policies on agricultural adaptation to climate change and associated environmental stressors, (ii) understand the status of TK-led knowledge co-production at the practice level, and (iii) assess the successes and gaps in incorporating TK in agricultural adaptation at the policy and practice levels to manage these stressors. Based on a systematic literature review, we found that despite emphasis on integration of TK, no Indian policy was successful in terms of stakeholder participation and in covering various dimensions of knowledge co-production. Most of the policies covered either two (knowledge gathering and application) or three (gathering, integration and application) dimensions. The term TK was also not clearly defined and it was unclear how to mainstream it into the process for successful outcomes. Co-production process was adjudged to be fairly successful at the practice level in some of the sectors (e.g., management of soil and water resources) where most of the dimensions were covered and stakeholders participated in various steps of co-production. There were significant differences in the success of co-production within (e.g., crop varieties) and between (e.g., crop and natural resource management) the sectors. We found a considerable gap at policy and practice levels on success of knowledge co-production. Insights from the study could help policy-makers to improve policies for the agricultural sector to better adapt to climate change and associated environmental stressors through the recognition and integration of farmers' TK.

Singh, RK; Singh, A; Zander, KK; Mathew, S; Kumar, A

Measuring successful processes of knowledge co-production for managing climate change and associated environmental stressors: Adaptation policies and practices to support Indian farmers

Journal Of Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111679

Western-trained, non-Indigenous researchers in Canada have an ethical responsibility to collaborate with Indigenous Peoples and to re-envision the scientific research process through the lens of reconciliation. The health of the natural environment has long been a concern to both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples, and weaving different ways of knowing could provide a path forward to address critical wildlife health concerns. Here, we conducted a review of the peer-reviewed and grey literature that claims to weave Indigenous and Western ways of knowing in ecotoxicology and wildlife health in Canada, coding for background information, wildlife health stressors, research methods, Indigenous participation, and research outcomes. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria, the majority of which were published since 2015 and took place in Canada???s North. Research collaborations were often between First Nations or Inuit knowledge holders (most frequently, active harvesters and Elders) and Western-trained, non-Indigenous academics. Most studies were initiated by mutual agreement between community partners and researchers, but no study was ???Indigenous-led??? at any stage of research. Studies investigated environmental contaminants and health-related topics in a range of wildlife, usually traditional subsistence species. The most commonly studied disease was avian cholera, and the most studied class of toxicants was metals and trace elements. Indigenous knowledge was primarily collected via interviews. Studies often used multiple methodologies to braid or weave knowledge, but the most frequently used methodology was community-based participatory research. To provide a more holistic understanding of the process of weaving knowledge, we conducted an in-depth examination, applying a decolonizing lens, of two exemplar cases of collaborative research with Indigenous communities. This exploration led to the conclusion that research that weaves ways of knowing must not be approached with a ???one-size-fits-all??? mindset, but instead should emphasize relationship building, continuous engagement, and ethical practices. By adopting such practices, Western-trained, non-Indigenous academics can better address critical wildlife health concerns while contributing meaningfully to advancing healing and reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples.

Johnson, LR; Wilcox, AAE; Alexander, SM; Bowles, E; Castleden, H; Henri, DA; Herc, C; King, L; Provencher, JF; Orihel, DM

Weaving Indigenous and Western ways of knowing in ecotoxicology and wildlife health: a review of Canadian studies

Environmental Reviews

https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2022-0087

Water scarceness is the most critical problem for numerous arid and semi-arid areas. It leads to the use of wastewater in many countries. This study was aimed to determine the farmer's awareness about reusing wastewater in their risk perception and adaptation to climate change in district Faisalabad, Pakistan. Faisalabad has become an industrial hub and industrial discharge is becoming problematic for local community and environment. Usually, farmers depend on wastewater for agriculture purposes in many aspects. The present study was divided into two phases, in the first phase a questionnaire based study was conducted in urban and peri-urban areas while in the second phase, wastewater quality parameters were determined (pH, SS, TDS, BOD, COD, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc) and compared with Pakistan Environmental Quality Standards. Results indicated that farmers had a strong awareness (96.8%) about fertility value of wastewater for many aspects, but they were unaware (71.6%) about health hazard of untreated wastewater used for crop irrigation. In the current study correlation of Determining of Climate Change (DCC) with age and farming experience was highly significant with correlation values 0.48 and 0.40 respectively. Adaption Measures (AM) correlation values with age and farming experience were 0.49 and 0.75 respectively. Other variables livelihood Assets (LA) was also correlated with Determining of Climate Change (DCC) and Adaption Measures (AM) and all variables were found significant week to moderate correlation among all selected variables. Farmers (>70%) used different techniques to adapt to climate change like irrigation, seeds, fertilizer and crops. Industrial and sewage wastewater quality of Faisalabad showed higher values than PEQs, creating an alarming situation for local people's health and environment. High metal pollution index (<1000) showed the heavy effluent discharge from industries and putting pressure on groundwater resources as well. It is strongly recommended that water should be treated prior to reuse for irrigation. This study will help to ensure proper monitoring, develop and implementation of public policies for integrated and sustainable water management to minimize the health hazards in district Faisalabad.

Sohail, MT; Xuan, L; Liang, LZ; Rizwanullah, M; Nasrullah, M; Yu, XY; Manzoor, Z; Elis, RJ

Farmers' Awareness about Impacts of Reusing Wastewater, Risk Perception and Adaptation to Climate Change in Faisalabad District, Pakistan

Polish Journal Of Environmental Studies

https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/134292

Planning the adaptation of agriculture and forestry landscapes to climate change remains challenging due to the need for integrating substantial amounts of information. This information ranges from climate scenarios, geographical site information, socio-economic data and several possible adaptation measures. Thus, there is an urgent need to have a framework that is capable of organizing adaptation strategies and measures in the agriculture and forestry sectors in Mediterranean climatic regions. Additionally, this framework should provide a cause effect relation with climate vulnerability to adequately support the development of adaptation planning at municipal and local (farm) level. In this context, we propose to test and evaluate a framework for climate adaptation of the agriculture and forestry sectors, based on the local causal-effect relation between adaptation strategies and measures and the level of vulnerability reduction achieved for Mediterranean areas. The framework was developed based on the combination of the DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures, State, Impacts, Responses) and Vulnerability frameworks and reviewed 162 practical adaptation measures, further organized into strategies, complemented by a set of efficacy indicators. The framework was tested with 70 stakeholders in six stakeholder workshops for the planning of two farms and one municipal climate adaptation study, that are now in actual implementation and monitoring. The framework is composed by a set of eight adaptation strategies in which adaptation measures are clustered and assessed using efficacy indicators. In the evaluation of the adaptation framework, 96% of stakeholders considered its content as good or very good and 89% considered the final outcomes as good or very good. Finally, the framework was also used to assess and compare the adaptation strategies and measures presented in the climate adaptation plans of the three case studies. On average, 52.2% of the adaptation measures selected by the three case studies are dedicated to Ecosystem Resilience, 30.9% to Adaptive Capacity, 9.1% to Microclimates, 7.4% to Protection, and 0.3% to Mitigation strategies. This framework was considered effective in supporting adaptation planning at farm and municipal levels and useful to assess and compare adaptation plans in the frame of vulnerability reduction. Future studies can further contribute to support adaptation planning in these sectors by using, developing and streamlining this framework to additional and different socio-ecological contexts.

Vizinho, A; Avelar, D; Branquinho, C; Lourenço, TC; Carvalho, S; Nunes, A; Sucena-Paiva, L; Oliveira, H; Fonseca, AL; Santos, FD; Roxo, MJ; Penha-Lopes, G

Framework for Climate Change Adaptation of Agriculture and Forestry in Mediterranean Climate Regions

Land

https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020161

Meteorological disasters caused a lot of losses. We involved six categories (all disasters, floods, hail, typhoon, snow and heatwave) to observe their death and economic losses' spatial-time distribution. The time trend of mortality was analyzed using a chi-square test for linear trends. Economic loss was described by direct economic loss and loss rate of GDP, whose trends were described by a trend line. Using annual percent change (APC) estimated by fitting weighted linear regression model, the change degree of mortality was assessed. On a national level, there was a statistically significant decreasing trend in mortality of all disasters (Z = -39.82, p < 0.05), floods (Z = -18.79, p < 0.05), hail (Z = -20.43, p < 0.05), typhoon (Z = -37.47, p < 0.05), snow (Z = -9.02, p < 0.05) and heatwave (Z = -8.76, p < 0.05) from 2004 to 2015 in China. The time trend of the loss rate of GDP was decreasing while the trend of direct economic losses was increasing. Western China was the most seriously hit area. APCs remained in downward trends (APCs < 0) in most of the provinces, while central provinces were with upward trends (APCs > 0). Areas with increasing mortality (APCs > 0) for different disasters included the southwest areas and Zhejiang (for floods), the northwest and south areas (for hail), Sichuan, Guangxi and Hainan (for typhoon), the west and northeast areas (for snow) and Hebei, Henan and Shanghai (for heatwave). As for economic losses, eastern areas were hit with a high amount of economic losses, but central areas were hit with a high GDP loss rate. Generally, nationwide death and economic losses caused by meteorological disasters have decreased. However, there were some relatively serious effects in the central and western areas for which urgent attention from policymakers is required.

Qi, Q; Jiang, BF; Ma, W; Marley, G

Trend Analysis and Spatial Distribution of Meteorological Disaster Losses in China, 2004-2015

Atmosphere

https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020208

Background: Rain-fed agriculture remains the source of employment for a majority of Ghana's population, particularly in northern Ghana where annual rainfall is low. The purpose of this study is to examine farmers' perceptions and adaptation practices to climate change and variability in accordance with actual recorded weather data of the Vea catchment in Upper East Region of northern Ghana during the time interval from 1972 to 2012. Methods: Climatic data over 41-years (1972-2012) from four stations in vicinity of the catchment was evaluated to identify actual weather outcomes. A survey questionnaire targeting farmers with at least 30-years of farming experience in the area was administered in six of the eleven agricultural enumeration areas in the catchment covering 305 km(2). Of the 466 farmers interviewed, 79 % utilized rain-fed practices while 21 % utilized some form of irrigation. Results: Results indicate that nearly 90 % of the farmers interviewed believe that temperature increased over the past 30-years, while over 94 % of the farmers believe that amount of rainfall, duration, intensity and rainy days has decreased. Nearly 96 % of the farmers believe that their farms are extremely vulnerable to decreased rainfall, droughts and changed timing of rainfall events. Climatic data of the catchment indicates a rising trend in temperature but no long-term changes in annual and monthly rainfall, thereby possibly increasing levels of evapotranspiration. While no statistical differences were found between rain-fed and irrigation agricultural types regarding receipt of external support, their approaches to climatic change adaptation do differ. Patently, 94 and 90 % of farmers relying on rain-fed and irrigation strategies respectively receive some form of support, primarily via extension services. Farmers using rain-fed practices adjust to climate variability by varying crop types via rotation without fertilizer while farmers employing irrigation practices are more likely to offset climate variability with a greater use of fertilizer application. Conclusion: The Vea catchment faces rising temperature and evapotranspiration trends. Farmers are aware of these climatic changes and are adapting strategies to cope with the effects but require support. Adequate extension services and irrigation facilities are needed to assist farmers in order to sustain their livelihoods on the long run.

Limantol, AM; Keith, BE; Azabre, BA; Lennartz, B

Farmers' perception and adaptation practice to climate variability and change: a case study of the Vea catchment in Ghana

Springerplus

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2433-9

As developing countries around the world formulate policies to address climate change, concerns remain as to whether the voices of those most exposed to climate risk are represented in those policies. Developing countries face significant challenges for contextualizing global-scale scientific research into national political dynamics and downscaling global frameworks to sub-national levels, where the most affected are presumed to live. This article critiques the ways in which the politics of representation and climate science are framed and pursued in the process of climate policy development, and contributes to an understanding of the relative effectiveness of globally framed, generic policy mechanisms in vulnerable and politically volatile contexts. Based on this analysis, it also outlines opportunities for the possibility of improving climate policy processes to contest technocratic framing and generic international adaptation solutions. Policy relevance Nepal's position as one of the countries most at risk from climate change in the Himalayas has spurred significant international support to craft climate policy responses over the past few years. Focusing on the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) and the Climate Change Policy, this article examines the extent to which internationally and scientifically framed climate policy in Nepal recognizes the unfolding political mobilizations around the demand for a representative state and equitable adaptation to climate risks. This is particularly important in Nepal, where political unrest in the post-conflict transition after the end of the civil war in 2006 has focused around struggles over representation for those historically on the political margins. Arguing that vulnerability to climate risk is produced in conjunction with social and political conditions, and that not everyone in the same locality is equally vulnerable, we demonstrate the multi-faceted nature of the politics of representation for climate policy making in Nepal. However, so far, this policy making has primarily been shaped through a technocratic framing that avoids political contestations and downplays the demand for inclusive and deliberative processes. Based on this analysis, we identify the need for a flexible, contextually grounded, and multi-scalar approach to political representation while also emphasizing the need for downscaling climate science that can inform policy development and implementation to achieve fair and effective adaptation to climate change.

Ojha, HR; Ghimire, S; Pain, A; Nightingale, A; Khatri, DB; Dhungana, H

Policy without politics: technocratic control of climate change adaptation policy making in Nepal

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2014.1003775

Cocoa-based small-scale agriculture is the most important source of income for most farming families in the region of Alto Beni in the sub-humid foothills of the Andes. Cocoa is grown in cultivation systems of varying ecological complexity. The plantations are highly susceptible to climate change impacts. Local cocoa producers mention heat waves, droughts, floods and plant diseases as the main impacts affecting plants and working conditions, and they associate these impacts with global climate change. From a sustainable regional development point of view, cocoa farms need to become more resilient in order to cope with the climate change related effects that are putting cocoa-based livelihoods at risk. This study assesses agroecosystem resilience under three different cocoa cultivation systems (successional agroforestry, simple agroforestry and common practice monocultures). In a first step, farmers' perceptions of climate change impacts were assessed and eight indicators of agroecological resilience were derived in a transdisciplinary process (focus groups and workshop) based on farmers' and scientists' knowledge. These indicators (soil organic matter, depth of Ah horizon, soil bulk density, tree species diversity, crop varieties diversity, ant species diversity, cocoa yields and infestation of cocoa trees with Moniliophthora perniciosa) were then surveyed on 15 cocoa farms and compared for the three different cultivation systems. Parts of the socio-economic aspects of resilience were covered by evaluating the role of cocoa cooperatives and organic certification in transitioning to more resilient cocoa farms (interviews with 15 cocoa farmers combined with five expert interviews). Agroecosystem resilience was higher under the two agroforestry systems than under common practice monoculture, especially under successional agroforestry. Both agroforestry systems achieved higher cocoa yields than common practice monoculture due to agroforestry farmers' enhanced knowledge regarding cocoa cultivation. Knowledge sharing was promoted by local organizations facilitating organic certification. These organizations were thus found to enhance the social process of farmers' integration into cooperatives and their reorientation toward organic principles and diversified agroforestry.

Jacobi, J; Schneider, M; Bottazzi, P; Pillco, M; Calizaya, P; Rist, S

Agroecosystem resilience and farmers' perceptions of climate change impacts on cocoa farms in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Renewable Agriculture And Food Systems

https://doi.org/10.1017/S174217051300029X

The study analyzes factors affecting climate change coping strategies and constraints experienced by smallholder farmers under root crop (cassava and yam) farming systems in derived savannah ecological zone of Nigeria. The study used data collected from 400 farmers selected through a multistage random sampling technique from two States, Ebonyi and Enugu States, in the zone. The factors affecting the use of some climate change coping strategies were estimated using multivariate probit regression. We isolated factors that constrain farmers from coping with changes in climate using exploratory factor analysis. The findings revealed that the majority (98%) of the smallholder farmers indicated that delay in the onset of rains, too much rainfall (70%), higher temperatures (65%), and erratic rainfall patterns (43%) were the main types of climate change they experienced. The key strategies the farmers applied in coping with climate change are buying food (45%), starting the use of sustainable land management practices (43%), planting of early maturing crops (36%), planting trees (32%), starting non-farm activity (30%), and eating less food (30%). The multivariate probit regression result indicated that some variables influenced the likelihood of simultaneous adoption of the coping strategies. For example, providing climate change information to cassava and yam farmers through extension agents significantly increases the likelihood of engaging in climate-smart practices, namely, planting early-maturing crop varieties and tree planting. We also found that farmers' experiences with climate change variables and outcomes significantly influence the coping strategies they choose. For example, a decline in crop yield was positively and significantly associated with buying food, planting early-maturing varieties, starting a non-farm activity, and eating less as coping strategies. Constraints the farmers faced in coping with climate change were grouped as cultural impediments, weak knowledge/information, ineffective agricultural extension services, and weak policy and institutions. The study recommends, among others, strengthening of public agricultural extension services, provision of climate services to farmers, implementing policies to guaranty food security and enhancing the human capital of the farm households to reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

Chukwuone, NA; Amaechina, EC

Factors affecting climate change coping strategies used by smallholder farmers under root crop farming systems in derived savannah ecology zone of Nigeria

Environmental Development

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2021.100627

BackgroundClimate-induced disruptions like drought can destabilize household and community livelihoods, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This qualitative study explores the impact of severe and prolonged droughts on gendered livelihood transitions, women's social and financial wellbeing, and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes in two Zambian provinces.MethodsIn September 2020, in-depth interviews (n=20) and focus group discussions (n=16) with 165 adult women and men in five drought-affected districts, as well as key informant interviews (n=16) with civic leaders and healthcare providers, were conducted. A team-based thematic analysis approach, guided by the Framework Method, was used to code transcript text segments, facilitating identification and interpretation of salient thematic patterns.ResultsAcross districts, participants emphasized the toll drought had taken on their livelihoods and communities, leaving farming households with reduced income and food, with many turning to alternative income sources. Female-headed households were perceived as particularly vulnerable to drought, as women's breadwinning and caregiving responsibilities increased, especially in households where women's partners out-migrated in search of employment prospects. As household incomes declined, women and girls' vulnerabilities increased: young children increasingly entered the workforce, and young girls were married when families could not afford school fees and struggled to support them financially. With less income due to drought, many participants could not afford travel to health facilities or would resort to purchasing health commodities, including family planning, from private retail pharmacies when unavailable from government facilities. Most participants described changes in fertility intentions motivated by drought: women, in particular, expressed desires for smaller families, fearing drought would constrain their capacity to support larger families. While participants cited some ongoing activities in their communities to support climate change adaptation, most acknowledged current interventions were insufficient.ConclusionsDrought highlighted persistent and unaddressed vulnerabilities in women, increasing demand for health services while shrinking household resources to access those services. Policy solutions are proposed to mitigate drought-induced challenges meaningfully and sustainably, and foster climate resilience.

Rosen, JG; Mulenga, D; Phiri, L; Okpara, N; Brander, C; Chelwa, N; Mbizvo, MT

Burnt by the scorching sun: climate-induced livelihood transformations, reproductive health, and fertility trajectories in drought-affected communities of Zambia

Bmc Public Health

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11560-8

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) has been fundamental to the diet and culture of Arctic Indigenous Peoples for thousands of years. Although caribou populations observe natural cycles of abundance and scarcity, several caribou herds across the Circumpolar North have experienced dramatic declines in recent decades due to a range of interrelated factors. Broadly, the objectives of this study are to examine food and nutrition security in relation to wildlife population and management status across Inuit Nunangat (the Inuit homeland, consisting of four regions across the Canadian Arctic). Specifically, we: (1) characterize the contribution of caribou to Inuit nutrition across northern Canada and (2) evaluate the population and management status of caribou herds/populations harvested by Inuit. Dietary data were derived from the 2007-2008 Inuit Health Survey, which included dietary information for Inuit adults (n=2097) residing in thirty-six communities, spanning three regions (the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Nunavut, and Nunatsiavut) of the Canadian North. Published information regarding the range, abundance, status, and management status of caribou herds/populations was collected through document analysis and was validated through consultation with northern wildlife experts (territorial governments, co-management, and/or Inuit organizations). While caribou contributed modestly to total diet energy (3-11% of intake) across the regions, it was the primary source of iron (14-37%), zinc (18-41%), copper (12-39%), riboflavin (15-39%), and vitamin B12 (27-52%), as well as a top source of protein (13-35%). Restrictions on Inuit subsistence harvest (harvest quotas or bans) are currently enacted on at least six northern caribou herds/populations with potential consequences for country food access for over twenty-five Inuit communities across Canada. A holistic multi-sectorial approach is needed to ensure the sustainability of wildlife populations, while supporting Inuit food and nutrition security in the interim.

Kenny, TA; Fillion, M; Simpkin, S; Wesche, SD; Chan, HM

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and Inuit Nutrition Security in Canada

Ecohealth

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-018-1348-z

Vulnerability is a complex concept involving a variety of disciplines from both the physical and socioeconomic sciences. Currently, two opposite trends exist: the physical approach in which vulnerability is analysed as a sum of potential impacts on elements at risk and the social approach in which vulnerability is mostly viewed as a combination of socio-economic variables determining people's ability to anticipate, cope with and recover from a catastrophic event. Finding a way to combine these two approaches is a key issue for a global vulnerability assessment. In this paper we propose to combine elements from these two approaches through the analysis of the potential consequences of a high-magnitude flood event (recurrence interval (RI) > 100 years) on human and material stakeholders. To perform our analysis, we choose to upgrade an existing index, the Potential Damage Index (PDI; Puissant et al., 2013), by including social criteria. The PDI was originally developed to assess the physical consequences of hazards on the elements at risk (people, building and lands). It is based on the calculation of three sub-indices representing different types of direct and indirect consequences: physical injury consequences (PIC), structural and functional consequences (SFC), indirect functional consequences (IC). Here, we propose to add a fourth sub-index representing the social consequences. This new sub-index, called social consequences (SC) is obtained by combining criteria derived from INSEE French census data and a risk-perception survey conducted in the field. By combining the four indices (PIC, SFC, IC and SC), we managed to create a new index called the Potential Consequences Index (PCI). The new PCI was tested on the Upper Guil catchment to assess the consequences of a high-magnitude flood event (RI > 100 years). Results of the PDI were compared with the PCI and show significant differences. The upgrade to the PDI method provided us with many inputs. The introduction of elements from social vulnerability added an extra dimension to the total consequence map. It allowed us to qualify the potential physical consequences (physical injury, structural and functional consequences) on elements at risk by considering the global resilience of local communities.

Carlier, B; Puissant, A; Dujarric, C; Arnaud-Fassetta, G

Upgrading of an index-oriented methodology for consequence analysis of natural hazards: application to the Upper Guil catchment (southern French Alps)

Natural Hazards And Earth System Sciences

https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2221-2018

Purpose - In Norway the most critical effects of climate change are predicted to be increased rain and snow, higher temperatures, increased wind loads, and sea-level rise. This will increase the number of floods and landslides, along with more cycles around the freezing point and increased exposure to high moisture. The main issue for protecting Norway's historical monuments from climate change is how to be aware of and how to handle the coming problems. One challenge is to define and give this information to heritage owners and local authorities. The purpose of this paper is to describe some of the practical threats related to climate change, and provide suggestions for mitigation and adaption strategies. Design/methodology/approach - Theoretical information of the problem is useful at a general level, but the practical impact has to be used at a local level. Improved knowledge about the risks for deterioration at different exposure levels, thorough surveys, and practical solutions, can significantly reduce the negative effects. This knowledge must reach the people that have local and daily contact with the cultural heritage. Information to the owners and responsible authorities about the normal risk of deterioration and how to identify risks related to climate change is crucial. Findings - The main results of the authors' work is a methodology dealing with the problem step-by-step production of a web-site based on fact sheets for heritage owners and managers. The fact sheets are divided amongst different subjects and are designed to be informative and easy to use for owners and responsible authorities. Originality/value - The results presented in this paper will increase the knowledge of how owners of cultural heritage can be prepared for climate change on a practical, hands-on level. This can, for example, be done by a brief overall analysis of the threats of the cultural heritage in a specific municipality. The analysis can be summarised in a list of increased possible risks, with direct practical information given to those needing it, and placed online. This would enable detection of and reaction to warning signs of an unusual situation. Information, training and production of both general and specific plans for action in case of extreme situations are also important in order to prevent the negative effects of climate change.

Haugen, A; Mattsson, J

Preparations for climate change's influences on cultural heritage

International Journal Of Climate Change Strategies And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/17568691111175678

Ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly considered to reduce disaster risks (Eco-DRR) and adapt to climate change (EbA). Their consideration in some of the main global frameworks such as the IPCC report or the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction has raised additional attention. However, these approaches are still more associated with rural than urban areas, although many urban areas face a high risk of natural hazards and the benefits of ecosystem-based measures to reduce it have already been proven in different cities. A successful implementation of ecosystem-based approaches in urban areas is highly complex. Using the city of Rio de Janeiro as case study, we first examine on the municipality level the responsibilities of the different institutions involved in landslide risk reduction and their technical and organizational interfaces. In a second step we zoom into two marginal settlements to determine whether ecosystem-based measures for landslide risk reduction already exist and assess the potential to either implement or further increase their application. These so-called favelas are often constructed on or beneath steep and degraded slopes prone to landslides. Landslides are mainly triggered by heavy rainfall events which are likely to increase in the future due to the impacts of global climate change. Activities to reduce landslide risk are distributed between many different actors, such as civil defense, geological survey, urban planning, and environmental management, and the measures taken are predominantly engineered approaches with a focus on preparedness and response. The urban reforestation program which could provide additional ecosystem benefits is not yet aligned enough with risk reduction and faces several challenges. In addition, the consideration of informal settings in formal urban planning and management strategies can still be improved. Based on quantitative and qualitative data from interviews and secondary sources, site visits, and expert interviews with representatives from public authorities and other stakeholders, the research assesses the individual institutional approaches as well as the overall urban governance system with regard to disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. The potential governance challenges for fostering ecosystem-based approaches are analyzed and clustered to provide an insight on paths that could facilitate the future consideration of Eco-DRR/EbA in Rio de Janeiro and beyond.

Sandholz, S; Lange, W; Nehren, U

Governing green change: Ecosystem-based measures for reducing landslide risk in Rio de Janeiro

International Journal Of Disaster Risk Reduction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.01.020

Changing unsustainable natural resource use in agricultural landscapes is a complex social-ecological challenge that cannot be addressed through traditional reductionist science. More holistic and inclusive (or transdisciplinary) processes are needed. This paper describes a transdisciplinary project for natural resource management planning in two regions (Eyre Peninsula and South Australian Murray-Darling Basin) of southern Australia. With regional staff, we reviewed previous planning to gain an understanding of the processes used and to identify possible improvement in plan development and its operation. We then used an envisioning process to develop a value-rich narrative of regional aspirations to assist stakeholder engagement and inform the development of a land use management option assessment tool called the landscape futures analysis tool (LFAT). Finally, we undertook an assessment of the effectiveness of the process through semi-structured stakeholder interviews. The planning process review highlighted the opinion that the regional plans were not well informed by available science, that they lacked flexibility, and were only intermittently used after publication. The envisioning process identified shared values-generally described as a trust, language that is easily understood, wise use of resources, collaboration and inclusiveness. LFAT was designed to bring the best available science together in a form that would have use in planning, during community consultation and in assessing regional management operations. The LFAT provided spatially detailed but simple models of agricultural yields and incomes, plant biodiversity, weed distribution, and carbon sequestration associated with future combinations of climate, commodity and carbon prices, and costs of production. Stakeholders were impressed by the presentation and demonstration results of the software. While there was anecdotal evidence that the project provided learning opportunities and increased understanding of potential land use change associated with management options under global change, the direct evidence of influence in the updated regional plan was limited. This project had elements required for success in transdisciplinary research, but penetration seems limited. Contributing factors appear to be a complexity of climate effects with economic uncertainty, lack of having the project embedded in the plan revision process, limited continuity and capacity of end users and limited after project support and promotion. Strategies are required to minimise the controlling influence that these limitations can have.

Meyer, WS; Bryan, BA; Summers, DM; Lyle, G; Wells, S; McLean, J; Siebentritt, M

Regional engagement and spatial modelling for natural resource management planning

Sustainability Science

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0341-5

Sustainability is achieved only when there is full reconciliation between: (1) economic development; (2) meeting, on an equitable basis, growing and changing human needs and aspirations; and (3) conserving the limited natural resources and the capacity of the environment to absorb the mulitple stresses that are a consequence of human activities. The linkages between climate and sustainability are examined in the context of both the wider Asia-Pacific region and local level climate risks and adaptation responses. These findings are used to underpin and illustrate several implications for sustainability science. Climate change is seen as both an impediment to increasing sustainability and as an opportunity, though in most cases the former far outweighs the latter. Assessments of climate change vulnerability and risk are shown to be of critical importance because they inform decisions as to where resources for adaptation are best invested. They also show whether global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions need to be strengthened because of limits to adaptation. In practice, adaptation takes place at many levels, essentially ranging between tangible interventions at community and enterprise level and national and international efforts to strengthen the enabling environment for adaptation. It is informative to undertake regional assessments of adaptation, even though most adaptation interventions need to reflect local conditions, including local adaptive capacities. The foregoing findings, based in part on a series of regional and local case studies, lead to several recommendations for further research that will help reduce barriers to implementing responses that reduce climate related risks, including adverse consequences for sustainability. The recommendations relate to such themes as making optimum use of predictive capabilities, characterising the linkages between climate change and sustainability, implications of the required rates and magnitudes of adaptation, institutional responses that enhance adaptive capacity, use of new and traditional technologies, the multiple dimensions of social responsibility, and enhancing the enabling environment for adaptation at the community and enterprise level. If these recommendations are acted upon they will, in turn, help address much needed improvements in quantifying the costs and benefits of adaptation, prioritising adaptation options, assessing sustainable development tradeoffs, and monitoring the success of adaptation initiatives. Such improvements will have even greater utility if they are incorporated into user-friendly decision support tools for adaptation.

Hay, J; Mimura, N

Supporting climate change vulnerability and adaptation assessments in the Asia-Pacific region: an example of sustainability science

Sustainability Science

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-006-0011-8

In December 2015, political leaders celebrated the Paris Agreement as a milestone in the global fight against climate change. Three years later, Greta Thunberg's school strike outside the Swedish parliament inspired thousands of students around the world to protest against their political leaders' inability to adequately respond to climate change. Envisioning livable climate futures for generations to come, the emerging Fridays for Future (FFF) movement urges governments to take more radical action on climate change. While FFF has sparked discussions about climate change around the world, the movement's effects on broader societal change remain unclear. We, therefore, explore how FFF has triggered debates beyond the necessity to tackle climate change and offer a framework to reflect upon the broader socio-political implications of the school strikes. We illustrate the contestation between different ideas of social life and political order encapsulated within and attached to FFF by analyzing the movement's self-understanding and the media discourse around these protests in Germany. Although the German government portrays the country as a pioneer in moving an industry-based economy toward decarbonization, the school strikes have quickly emerged and stabilized. We explore if and how the FFF protestors express not only the need for climate action but also call for deeper societal transformation. To do so, our study draws upon a discourse analysis based on news articles, official documents, and speeches, complemented by qualitative interviews with youth representatives and experts involved in the movement to identify competing imaginaries and themes of contestation. We study the tensions between competing student-led visions of the future through the lens of sociotechnical imaginaries, which allows us to illuminate and juxtapose moderate and radical approaches. In conclusion, current school protests are not only about climate action but reflect more fundamental political struggles about competing visions of a future society in times of climate change. Yet, the protestors' strong focus on science-driven politics risks to overshadow these broader societal debates, potentially stabilizing the techno-centric, apolitical and market-driven rationale behind climate action.

Marquardt, J

Fridays for Future's Disruptive Potential: An Inconvenient Youth Between Moderate and Radical Ideas

Frontiers In Communication

https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.00048

In this article, we explore the use of the digital labour market set up by mobility platforms in Bengaluru, Karnataka, as a mechanism to cope with climate change-induced livelihood transition. Climatic hot spots within regions like the southern Indian state of Karnataka have caused a large volume of livelihood transition along the rural-urban continuum (Revi in Environ Urban 20(1):207-229, 2008. 10.1177/0956247808089157). Bengaluru is Karnataka's primate city, thus absorbing agrarians pushed out of unprofitable agriculture into its ever-growing informal service sector (Singh et al. in Clim Risk Manag 21(June):52-68, 2018. 10.1016/j.crm.2018.06.001). Climate-induced migration into urban centres creates intersecting forms of differential vulnerability. This vulnerability is structured by social discrimination embedded in informal economies, performed through respect, dignity, and humiliation in work encounters in relational economies (Simone in Public Cult 16(3):407-429, 2004). Mobility platforms like Uber and Ola cabs have added to work opportunities within Bengaluru's service sector by creating an alternative work opportunitythe digital labour market for taxi driving. The digital labour market set up by the mobility platforms offers migrants an alternative labour market to plug into without reliance on relational economies or incurring social debt. We find that the digital labour ecosystem attracts climate change-impacted migrants by offsetting access to work opportunities' in three key ways: (a) overcoming relational voids, (b) substituting network costs and circumventing social debts, (c) supplementing precarious agricultural work. This article uses evidence from qualitative data collected from in-depth semi-structured interviews with 113 Uber and Ola cab drivers in Bengaluru between 2015 and 2018 to explore the presence of the digital labour market as short-term adaptive strategy to create resilience against climate change-induced livelihood transitions into complex urban informal labour markets.

Surie, A; Sharma, LV

Climate change, Agrarian distress, and the role of digital labour markets: evidence from Bengaluru, Karnataka

Decision

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40622-019-00213-w

Agriculture is an important sector of the Moroccan economy, employing a huge portion of the Moroccan population and contributing about 14 - 20% to the country's GDP. Unfortunately, agricultural production in Morocco is impacted by climatic, non-climatic, biophysical, and non-biophysical stressors. Researchers have employed various crop models to understand how different crops respond to different environmental conditions such as temperature, precipitation, soil properties, fertilization, and irrigation. Unfortunately, there are no studies that provide a summary and a holistic perspective of the most frequently used models and their calibration inputs in Morocco. This work, therefore, seeks to fill these knowledge gaps by providing a summary of the most calibrated crop models, their calibration input data, the most frequently studied crops, how the studies are published (peerreview or grey literature), and the affiliations of the lead authors. This is achieved through a systematic review of the primary peer review and grey literature. A total of 68 relevant peer review and grey literature papers were considered. The results show that most of the authors are affiliated with Moroccan universities/organizations while wheat is the most studied crop. In addition, the AQUACROP and the regression-based models are the most used crop models. Additionally, most of the models are calibrated in order of importance with variables such as temperature, precipitation, soil properties, irrigation, and fertilizers. On the other hand, there is an observed increase in the use of non-climatic indicators such as poverty, farm income, and literacy levels to fit empirical models. It is still unclear how process-based models will integrate socio-economic indicators. This work has implications for future research as it provides a holistic picture of the key models that are currently used and their calibration. This information can be used by other projects to select methods to use, and crops to study based on the available data when working on crop models in Morocco, and North Africa. These results underscore the leading role in research funding offered by the government of Morocco and other organizations such as UM6P and OCP Africa in research valorization in Morocco and Africa.

Epule, TE; Chehbouni, A; Chfadi, T; Ongoma, V; Er-Raki, S; Khabba, S; Etongo, D; Martinez-Cruz, AL; Molua, EL; Achli, S; Salih, W; Chuwah, C; Jemo, M; Chairi, I

A Systematic National Stocktake of Crop Models in Morocco

Ecological Modelling

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110036

Background: Bangladesh has the highest natural disaster mortality rate in the world, with over half a million people lost to disaster events since 1970. Most of these people have died during floods or cyclones, both of which are likely to become more frequent due to global climate change. To date, the government's post-disaster response strategy has focused, increasingly effectively, on the physical needs of survivors, through the provision of shelter, food and medical care. However, the serious and widespread mental health consequences of natural disasters in Bangladesh have not yet received the attention that they deserve. This Debate article proposes a practical model that will facilitate the provision of comprehensive and effective post-disaster mental health services for vulnerable Bangladeshis on a sustainable basis. Discussion: A series of socially determined factors render the women and the poor of Bangladesh particularly vulnerable to dying in natural disasters; and, for those who survive, to suffering from some sort of disaster-related mental health illness. For women, this is largely due to the enforced gender separation, or purdah, that they endure; while for the poor, it is the fact that they are, by definition, only able to afford to live in the most climatically dangerous, and under-served parts of the country. Although the disasters themselves are brought by nature, therefore, social determinants increase the vulnerability of particular groups to mental illness as a result of them. While deeply entrenched, these determinants are at least partially amenable to change through policy and action. Summary: In response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the World Health Organisation developed a framework for providing mental health and psychosocial support after major disasters, which, we argue, could be adapted to Bangladeshi post-cyclone and post-flood contexts. The framework is community-based, it includes both medical and non-clinical components, and it could be adapted so that women and the poor are actively sought out and provided for. After training, these services could be run by Bangladesh's pre-existing 50,000-strong Cyclone Preparedness Programme workforce, alongside the country's extensive network of community-based health workers.

Nahar, N; Blomstedt, Y; Wu, B; Kandarina, I; Trisnantoro, L; Kinsman, J

Increasing the provision of mental health care for vulnerable, disaster-affected people in Bangladesh

Bmc Public Health

https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-708

Weather variability poses numerous risks to agricultural communities, yet farmers may be able to reduce some of these risks by adapting their cropping practices to better suit changes in weather. However, not all farmers respond to weather variability in the same way. To better identify the causes and consequences of this heterogeneous decision-making, we develop a framework that identifies (1) which socio-economic and biophysical factors are associated with heterogeneous cropping decisions in response to weather variability and (2) which cropping strategies are the most adaptive, considering economic outcomes (e.g., yields and profits). This framework aims to understand how, why, and how effectively farmers adapt to current weather variability; these findings, in turn, may contribute to a more mechanistic and predictive understanding of individual-level adaptation to future climate variability and change. To illustrate this framework, we assessed how 779 farmers responded to delayed monsoon onset in fifteen villages in Gujarat, India during the 2011 growing season, when the monsoon onset was delayed by three weeks. We found that farmers adopted a variety of strategies to cope with delayed monsoon onset, including increasing irrigation use, switching to more drought-tolerant crops, and/or delaying sowing. We found that farmers' access to and choice of strategies varied with their assets, irrigation access, perceptions of weather, and risk aversion. Richer farmers with more irrigation access used high levels of irrigation, and this strategy was associated with the highest yields in our survey sample. Poorer farmers with less secure access to irrigation were more likely to push back planting dates or switch crop type, and economic data suggest that these strategies were beneficial for those who did not have secure access to irrigation. Interestingly, after controlling for assets and irrigation access, we found that cognitive factors, such as beliefs that the monsoon onset date had changed over the last 20 years or risk aversion, were associated with increased adaptation. Our framework illustrates the importance of considering the complexity and heterogeneity of individual decision-making when conducting climate impact assessments or when developing policies to enhance the adaptive capacity of local communities to future climate variability and change. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Jain, M; Naeem, S; Orlove, B; Modi, V; DeFries, RS

Understanding the causes and consequences of differential decision-making in adaptation research: Adapting to a delayed monsoon onset in Gujarat, India

Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.12.008

This paper analyzes the challenges and opportunities entailed in the design, implementation and dissemination of an interdisciplinary project that evolved into a knowledge co-production effort. The project explored the livelihood strategies of coffee growers in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica facing multiple stressors of economic (market shocks and price volatility) and physical nature (climate variability and pest incidence). Our objective was to determine the factors that influence farmers' decisions and the implications of those decisions for the people and the landscapes of the region. To achieve this objective, we intended to engage farm communities and sector representatives in the research process, and to a large extent this intent was realized. Nevertheless, the project illustrates the difficulties in achieving knowledge co-production with stakeholders whose day-to-day existence focuses on issues largely outside the domain of the research program. We adopted decision-analysis tools to integrate our knowledge and hypotheses to find a common language and structure for our research design. In relation to regional and national policy makers and sector experts, we aimed to communicate the decision-environment of the smallholder producer to enhance awareness of the institutional opportunities and constraints in the adaptation process. For the farmers themselves, we aimed to serve as conduits and mirrors of their own knowledge, rather than serving as external authorities on issues that appeared to be of little interest to them. Through the course of the project, we experimented with diverse modes of stakeholder interaction and, through collaboration with local experts in communication strategies, identified a set of tools for successful dissemination of results. The credibility and direct ties of the participating research organizations and collaborating institutes with the local communities were often an asset, sometimes a complication, but always a critical factor in the process of stakeholder interaction. The messages constructed from the collective knowledge of local farmer's in distinct regions in four countries with different social and institutional histories represent crucial information for policy makers who are looking to support the adaptation processes of rural people facing changes of a global nature. However, communicating these messages in a usable and useful way to decision makers at various levels proved to be challenging. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Castellanos, EJ; Tucker, C; Eakin, H; Morales, H; Barrera, JF; Díaz, R

Assessing the adaptation strategies of farmers facing multiple stressors: Lessons from the Coffee and Global Changes project in Mesoamerica

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.07.003

Interest in the concept of resilience has grown significantly in recent years. The perceived strengths of resilience as a concept stem from its foundations in the sciences and humanities, and have recently gained currency amongst political actors and in policy spheres. This papers objective is to investigate the value of resilience as a concept when applied to the process of coastal climate change adaptation with a focus on place specificity. As applied to coastal hazards and climate change adaptation, we expect that resilience encompasses more system complexities than a traditional vulnerability or hazards approach. Our aim in this paper is achieved through carrying out a critical analysis of Irish and US academic and policy literature and determining if, and to what degree, one or more of the three selected lenses of psychological, engineering and ecological resilience are applied. Through contrasting the evolution of coastal adaptation policy developments in both Ireland and the U.S. the paper highlights the importance of policy, environment and geography in the area of coastal management. It furthermore examines the question of whether the concept of resilience represents a paradigm shift, or whether it maintains the dominant anthropological perspective of earlier hazard mitigation approaches under new guise. The increasing focus on climate adaptation as more than enhanced hazard mitigation exemplifies that shift. In the U.S. proposals for large-scale retreat programs post-Sandy are further evidence that combined ecological-anthropological approaches are gaining traction, though planning actions taken and factors considered continue to be dominated by parochialism and anthropocentric or psychological definitions of resilience. In Ireland there is a noticeable increase in the ecological resilience grounded practices of adaptive management and co-management in relation to coastal planning. The fostering of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) frameworks as well as a clear linking between climate adaption and the management of coastal regions underlines this development. Results indicate that resilience, under the three forms explored, is a concept that has recently increased in popularity. Simultaneously, there has been a discernible shift in the direction of broader inclusion of concerns about human environment interactions, but the two are not necessarily coextensive, and concepts of resilience do not always encompass these concerns. (c) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Flood, S; Schechtman, J

The rise of resilience: Evolution of a new concept in coastal planning in Ireland and the US

Ocean & Coastal Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.08.015

North America has few cultural agricultural landscapes, and often commensurately poor governance arrangements for managing change in such settings. This research uses the Acadian dykelands of Nova Scotia, Canada, as an opportunity to explore the social and governance limits to coastal climate adaptation in 'new world' cultural agricultural landscapes, as well as inform local decision-making. Approximately half of Nova Scotia's coastal wetlands were converted to dykeland in the 1600s, lowering local resilience to the increased frequency and storm severity anticipated with climate change. Today, dykelands protect a diversity of public and private interests, meanings and values, yet are controlled by the agricultural sector, which can no longer afford to maintain them all to 2050 climate projections. We report here on a representative online Q-methodology survey of 183 adult Nova Scotians in the spring of 2015. Respondents sorted 34 statements along a normal distribution about whether they prefer dykeland maintenance or wetland restoration, and under what governance arrangements. Four factors were derived: the dominant discourse was local, female and strongly pro-dykeland, indicating the likelihood for local resistance to dykeland removal on for cultural, recreational and farming reasons. The second factor was supportive of wetland restoration for reasons of efficiency, not wetland affinity, but characterized by those in positions of management power. The two minority viewpoints were less informed about dykelands, characteristic of outsiders, and concerned more with governance. More education is needed about the challenges facing dykelands, the benefits of coastal wetlands, and the management options, but this research shows proposals to change landscape should emphasize flood mitigation over cost-saving. Cultural values and status quo bias are clearly barriers to adaptation planning, even when discussing the removal of man-made structures. The factors were surprisingly polarized, suggesting the forced-normal distribution affects the space available to convey nuanced perspectives. Large p-set Q-method of this kind is likely most useful for characterizing the emergent discourses demographically, and understanding their prevalence; the same discourses had emerged within a much smaller pilot study. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sherren, K; Loik, L; Debner, JA

Climate adaptation in 'new world' cultural landscapes: The case of Bay of Fundy agricultural dykelands (Nova Scotia, Canada)

Land Use Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.11.018

Cities are major contributors to global emissions, producers of waste and consumers of resources such as energy, water and food: implementing green development strategies is hence a core challenge of modern city-planning. The attention of research has been focusing on the development of energy efficient, low carbon strategies, yet city decision-makers need truly integrated approaches, as the one proposed by the water-energy-food Nexus. The purpose of our paper is to investigate whether it is possible to take one step in this direction by extending existing approaches to energy efficiency strategies to progressively include other priority resources, in particular water. To test this hypothesis we have taken a robust and well accepted methodology, the ELCC (Economics of Low Carbon development strategies for Cities) developed by SEI and CCCEP, and we have extended it to the case of demand side water efficiency strategies for cities. We have then applied the adapted ELCC framework to the case study of the domestic sector of the city of Bologna (Italy), identifying and prioritizing several efficiency measures. Measures were evaluated through their capital investment, annual values of savings, payback period and reduction in consumption, and then aggregated in different scenarios in order to highlight potential urban investments and to showcase a possible approach to the prioritization of demand side water efficiency measures. The results show that, with an upfront investment of (sic) 17 million, a feasible subset of Bologna's households could be equipped with five selected cost-effective measures, generating annual savings of (sic) 10.2 million and reducing the total domestic water consumption of 34% by 2020 compared to the 2012 initial value. With additional (sic) 28.5 million, households could be equipped with more costly appliances reaching an overall water reduction of 37% by 2020. Our findings confirm that it is possible to successfully extend current approaches to urban energy efficiency strategies to include demand side water efficiency, adding an important building block to the construction of an integrated Nexus-based approach to green development strategies at the city-level. We encourage further tests to confirm the robustness of the methodology. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Topi, C; Esposto, E; Govigli, VM

The economics of green transition strategies for cities: Can low carbon, energy efficient development approaches be adapted to demand side urban water efficiency?

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.001

Climate variability is a key source of livelihood risks faced by smallholder farmers in drier environments in many developing countries. Climate information provided on seasonal time-scales can sometimes improve agricultural decision-making. However, there are many barriers to the effective dissemination, communication and use of such information on farm and across the value chain. We used a case study in southern India to explore ways of overcoming some of these barriers such as those limiting access to information and effective communication of probabilistic forecast information. Firstly, we used social network analysis at the village level to identify particular individuals, groups or/and institutions who are central in information networks so as to be able to support them to increase the efficiency, effectiveness, equity and robustness of information transfers. This allowed us to identify potential opportunities and challenges around access, communication and forecast use. Close linking of formal and informal networks appeared to be a common, positive influencing factor. Secondly, we used value chain analysis to assess how pre-and post-farm decision-makers could use seasonal climate forecasts (SCF) in their own businesses and how this may propagate up and down the value chain. We found that the motivation for using SCF varied across the value chain and was likely of limited use to smaller, off-farm value chain players who take a short-term adaptive management approach to planning. However, it was seen as having significant potential for larger businesses who take a more strategic approach. This identified a possible risk of increased competitive inequality between businesses of different sizes. Thirdly, we addressed the challenge of translating probabilistic climate forecast information into support for decision making by using decision analysis with intermediaries enabling them to structure clearly problems with embedded climate probabilities. The construction of decision-trees enabled farm advisers and local researchers to explore the potential value of SCF by using the decision trees as a boundary object around which farmers and other decision makers, agricultural scientists, climate scientists, economists, social scientists and policy-makers could have thoughtful discussion leading to useful strategies to better manage climate risk. This paper outlines approaches and outcomes associated with these three activities as a way of exploring effective application of seasonal climate information and identifies additional research to enhance applicability.

Nidumolu, U; Lim-Camacho, L; Gaillard, E; Hayman, P; Howden, M

Linking climate forecasts to rural livelihoods: Mapping decisions, information networks and value chains

Weather And Climate Extremes

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2018.06.001

To date, there are few regulations and policies relating to climate change in Australia. Uncertainty about the timing, structure, and potential impact of proposed legislation such as a national carbon abatement scheme, is leading to planning delays across the country. To assist with these policy uncertainties, organizations can embed themselves in multilevel governance frameworks that inform, structure, and facilitate strategic development, planning, and action. As part of these networks, organizational representatives also engage in formal and informal forums, a type of interorganizational relationship, which can include industry task forces, policy development committees, interagency groups, and specific climate change committees. Forums constitute an additional level of governance that influences decision making. The patterns of relationships within these multilevel governance frameworks are examined in this paper, with a focus on the forum level of organizational cooperation. Specifically, we investigate the type of forums operating and their role in supporting organizational responses to climate change. A series of interviews and focus groups were conducted in two study areas, the Swan Canning region of Western Australia and the Hunter / Central Coast region of New South Wales. The results indicate that organizations participate in a diverse range of forums. Further, forums appear to play a key role in the everyday business of organizations by enhancing their ability to plan and address a range of issues, including those associated with climate change. In addition the research highlights some of the barriers and drivers for the development and implementation of climate adaptation practices that emerge from forum discussions. For example, a lack of government guidance in interpreting climate change policy was described as a barrier yet access to the knowledge and expertise of participants was highlighted as a potential driver. The paper discusses how an ability to create new forums and utilize existing nonclimate related forums assists organizations in addressing climate change impacts. We contend that forums constitute a level of governance deeply embedded in organizational practice that influences both their capacity and motivation to undertake climate adaptation. Our findings suggest that research investigating the rules that govern forums and the structural properties of the networks in which they are embedded is required to further understand the role of multilevel governance in shaping organizational responses to climate change.

Bates, LE; Green, M; Leonard, R; Walker, I

The Influence of Forums and Multilevel Governance on the Climate Adaptation Practices of Australian Organizations

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06120-180462

China is vulnerable to climate change. Developing the ability to assess social vulnerability and inequality amid climate change will be imperative to ensure that adjustment policies can be developed for various groups and build resilient livelihoods in China. This paper examines social vulnerability and inequality through a joint analysis of urban agglomerations. Based on a conceptual framework of social vulnerability from a network perspective, the social vulnerability index of individual cities is quantified with a projection pursuit cluster model, the social vulnerability index of cities in urban networks is calculated with the Baidu Index, and an inequality analysis is measured by the Theil index. We pilot this study in three urban agglomerations: the Jing-Jin-Ji region, the Yangtze River Delta region, and the Pearl River Delta. Our results show the following: (1) The indicator of GDP with the weight value reaching 0.42 has the most influence on social vulnerability. Three indicators, which are fully described herein-Children, Illiterate, and Higher education graduated-contribute much to social vulnerability index with values between 0.3 and 0.4. These three indicators should receive more attention in integrated risk management. (2) In the Jing-Jin-Ji region, the Theil indexes of two indicators, Ethnic minorities and Green, exceed 0.65 and have the most influence on inequality. In the Yangtze River Delta, three indicators of Poor, GDP, and Green contribute much to inequality. In the Pearl River Delta, the inequalities of Green, Houses with no tap water and Higher education graduated are high. These indicators give advance warning of potential problems, so adjustment is recommended for reducing inequality. (3) Though the connectivity structure of the Yangtze River Delta is more complicated and stronger than that of the other two agglomerations, its inequality of connectivity is higher than the others. (4) Connectivity is key for reducing social vulnerability, on the one hand, but can result in more inequality of social vulnerability, on the other hand. Therefore, it's crucial for government to attach more significance and provide more support to cities with a higher social vulnerability index.

Ge, Y; Yang, GF; Chen, Y; Dou, W

Examining Social Vulnerability and Inequality: A Joint Analysis through a Connectivity Lens in the Urban Agglomerations of China

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041042

BackgroundSocial vulnerability occurs when the disadvantage conveyed by poor social conditions determines the degree to which one's life and livelihood are at risk from a particular and identifiable event in health, nature, or society. A common way to estimate social vulnerability is through an index aggregating social factors. This scoping review broadly aimed to map the literature on social vulnerability indices. Our main objectives were to characterize social vulnerability indices, understand the composition of social vulnerability indices, and describe how these indices are utilized in the literature.MethodsA scoping review was conducted in six electronic databases to identify original research, published in English, French, Dutch, Spanish or Portuguese, and which addressed the development or use of a social vulnerability index (SVI). Titles, abstracts, and full texts were screened and assessed for eligibility. Data were extracted on the indices and simple descriptive statistics and counts were used to produce a narrative summary.ResultsIn total, 292 studies were included, of which 126 studies came from environmental, climate change or disaster planning fields of study and 156 studies were from the fields of health or medicine. The mean number of items per index was 19 (SD 10.5) and the most common source of data was from censuses. There were 122 distinct items in the composition of these indices, categorized into 29 domains. The top three domains included in the SVIs were: at risk populations (e.g., % older adults, children or dependents), education, and socioeconomic status. SVIs were used to predict outcomes in 47.9% of studies, and rate of Covid-19 infection or mortality was the most common outcome measured.ConclusionsWe provide an overview of SVIs in the literature up to December 2021, providing a novel summary of commonly used variables for social vulnerability indices. We also demonstrate that SVIs are commonly used in several fields of research, especially since 2010. Whether in the field of disaster planning, environmental science or health sciences, the SVIs are composed of similar items and domains. SVIs can be used to predict diverse outcomes, with implications for future use as tools in interdisciplinary collaborations.

Mah, JC; Penwarden, JL; Pott, H; Theou, O; Andrew, MK

Social vulnerability indices: a scoping review

Bmc Public Health

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16097-6

Global warming and climate change represent current threats for island states in the Pacific Ocean region. Next to global warming and the effects of Sea Level Rise, the resulting vulnerability of coastal offshore, shoreline, and oceanic ecosystems are additional factors that need to be considered urgently. As a coastal atoll area and part of the Pacific Small Island States, Tuvalu is now under threat with its cultural landscapes due to climate change impacts. The country and its landscapes surround an area of only 26 km(2), where 11,810 people live in hostile climatic conditions. The Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change projected that Tuvalu would probably be the first country to sink underwater. The question arises about sustainable solutions for ongoing security and a habitable situation for people, culture, landscapes, and ecosystems. Unstable agricultural crop production, fishing, and coconuts cultivation are some of the challenges on the island. The exemplary derived polynomial curve of nine different islands and their islands' population displacement behavior shows up results of hostile conditions with six islands having lost their inhabitants, and only three islands' populations have increased. This study aims to analyze the overall situation of Tuvalu and find an alternative solution to safeguard Tuvaluan people, the island ecosystems and heritage, and cultural landscapes. Specific objectives of this study are the following: (1.) Understanding the theoretical concept of climate change impacts, sea-level rise impacts, the protection of Tuvaluan people, and the islands' unique biodiversity; (2.) Analyzing the socio-economic condition, livelihoods, culture, heritage, and environmental scenarios of Tuvalu; (3.) Giving potential recommendations for creating an international network, applied research, and training for the future development of ecosystems and cultural landscapes of Tuvalu in the Pacific Ocean. This paper analyzed the present affected situation of Tuvalu; it also highlighted socio-economic and livelihoods sustainability, future scenarios, and alternative suggestion to mitigate this hostile environment of Tuvalu. GIS applications for visualizing and analyzing environmental data were one of the appropriate tools for decision-makers to support long-term planning for Tuvalu.

Islam, SN; Reinstädtler, S; Reza, MS; Afroze, S; Azad, A

Climate change versus livelihoods, heritage and ecosystems in small Island states of the Pacific: a case study on Tuvalu

Environment Development And Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02367-7

Low innovation adoption rates in agriculture have spurred intense research on farmers' attitudes and motivations. Little attention has been paid to attitudes of other important actors in the knowledge transfer chain. Evidence indeed suggests that adoption rarely happens at the farm level, but requires the right inputs from science and extension services. Divergent attitudes among actors in the knowledge transfer chain may hence contribute to low adoption rates by transferring insufficient, outdated, irrelevant and/or incorrect information. This study is an investigation on attitudes towards climate change mitigation and adaptation of three classes of actors: sheep farmers, researchers involved in fields related to sheep farming and extension officers from private companies and public agencies. The investigation is based on data collected through self-administered questionnaires submitted to 165 participants to agricultural field days in Sardinia (Italy). The sample consists of sheep farmers (37,5%), researchers (16,4%), extension officers (32,1%) and other agricultural workers or students (14 %). In order to assess differences in attitude and identify the sources of attitudinal divergence, the study adopts Kolmogorov - Smirnov (KS) equality-of-distribution tests and Partial-least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). Comparing and contrasting attitudes towards several topics related to GHG emission mitigation and adaptation to climate change reveal that researchers and extension officers have different attitudes towards innovation for mitigating GHG, that in turn depend on different information and beliefs on the causes and effects of climate change. This context is less than optimal to promote adoption of climate change mitigation or adaptation strategies. Climate change science and policy design need to recognise the complexity of knowledge transmission and the multiplicity of attitudes and beliefs that inform and affect the process. To mitigate the impact of diverging attitudes and beliefs among researchers and extension officers tailored communication strategies should avoid controversial issues and focus on benefits of innovation on farm efficiency. In turn, this would build trust and cooperation among all the actors in the knowledge transfer chain. Only when cooperation is assured, one could be confident that the information delivered to farmers is scientifically sound, relevant, value-neutral and useful in changing farmers' behaviour.

Concu, GB; Atzeni, G; Meleddu, M; Vannini, M

Policy design for climate change mitigation and adaptation in sheep farming: Insights from a study of the knowledge transfer chain

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.02.014

Harms to communities of color and poor communities are set to increase in light of climate change. These communities are vulnerable to climate-induced disasters largely because of historical, social and economic inequities. While this is generally true for vulnerable communities throughout the world, the scope of this Comment is limited to vulnerable communities within the United States. Any measure designed to help vulnerable communities in the United States must account for these inequities in order to be effective. Under Executive Order 13563, cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is mandated for use in all agency decisions. Yet, under CBA historical inequities that have contributed to present vulnerabilities are not taken into consideration, rendering CBA methods particularly ineffective in addressing harms wrought from climate change. Therefore, as a general rule, administrative agencies should not use CBA when making decisions to help vulnerable communities. As a general rule, agencies should focus on preserving life and liberty above preserving property. At the same time, a system that rigidly values life and liberty above property in every instance would fail to account for certain cultural and community held beliefs, as well as other historical factors that have contributed to inequity. Thus, agencies should value life above liberty in decisionmaking, except where there has been historic discrimination and non-economic value attached to land-such as community bonds inherent in the property/location or cultural or religious ties to the land. Where any or a combination of the aforementioned factors are present, agencies need to be more cognizant of liberty and should not automatically and forcefully remove people from their land to preserve life. Overall, agency decisions should: (1) be proactive; (2) account for historical harms and the interrelation those harms have with a given community's ability to respond to a disaster; (3) take into account cultural values to help build community resilience; (4) be open to community feedback in order to be flexible; and (5) be future-oriented. Applying such a multifactored analysis will allow for the preservation of the most vulnerable communities without further entrenching past and present systemic harms.

Afgani, C

Choosing Life Over Liberty and Property: Environmental Justice in a World Ravaged by Climate Change

Ucla Law Review

Men and women farmers experience different impacts of climate variability and change (CVC). Research on the differentiated impacts of variability and change in rainfall on gender is limited in the study area. This study examined perceptions and experience of men and women farmers on the impacts of CVC, using climate data and farmers' perception from a gender perspective. It examined the effect of CVC on annual and seasonal rainfall, number of rain days, onset and cessation of rainfall; perceived impacts of CVC on annual and seasonal rainfall and compared the measured (meteorological) impacts with the perceived impacts across gender. Mixed methods of qualitative and quantitative data collection and participatory rural approaches were used. Household survey of 50% men and 50% women each were conducted in six farming communities. Data analysis involved the use of annual rainfall trends, Annual Rainfall Anomaly (ARA), Standardized Annual Rainfall Anomaly (SARA), regression analysis percentages and chi-square. Results reveal the occurrences of more dry years than wet years (ARA and SARA < 0.00) in the three locations. There were wide variability and changes in inter-annual rainfall in Ogbaru (R-2 = 0.0003), Anambra East (R-2 = 0.0071) and Ayamelum (R-2 = 0.0014). Seasonal rainfall was unevenly distributed from 2007-2016. There were wide variations in dates of onset and cessation of rainy season (R-2 = 0.006) and number of rain days (R-2 = 0.009). Men and women responses revealed that there were statistically significant (p < 0.005) changes in the onset of rainy season, early cessation of annual rainfall; alteration of growing seasons; frequent flooding and frequent drought. Women felt more impact of food insecurity, water shortage and had more burden of migration due to changes in rainfall. This study concludes that respondents perceived and experienced impacts of CVC which varied across gender. Hence, it recommends the provision of sustainable water and irrigation system which should encourage women's participation in the construction, maintenance and management among others.

Nnadi, OI; Liwenga, ET; Lyimo, JG; Madukwe, MG

Impacts of variability and change in rainfall on gender of farmers in Anambra, Southeast Nigeria

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02085

Simple Summary Identifying the damage caused by extreme weather events due to the climate change phenomena to formulate targeted coping strategies and policies is an issue that concerns all economics sectors. To date, the impact of flooding events on agriculture, particularly livestock, has been minimally investigated. For this reason, this study seeks to identify flood damage to livestock production, focusing in particular on dairy cattle farms. In fact, the herd is the main source of income for dairy farmers and the impact of flood on dairy farm can lead to several problems that can seriously undermine dairy cattle welfare and consequently the production outcome after a flood event. Therefore, this study identified and quantified the flood damage that may affect dairy herds, as reported in the literature. This study might help the development of a strategy able to assess direct damages to livestock welfare caused by flood events, provide advantages for farm management and contribute to farm resilience after a natural disaster. For the economic sectors, the need to address the challenges posed by natural disasters due to climate change is an outstanding issue. To date, according to the European Commission (2019), there is still a gap in the estimation of the costs of flood in all European countries and the direct impact that these floods have on agricultural activities. More specifically, the damage to livestock has been minimally studied. The aim of this study is is therefore to identify the flood damage that affects dairy cattle farms, focusing on the damage to herds caused by a flood event; in fact, poor welfare conditions of dairy cattle directly affect production and thus farm revenue. To accomplish the aim of this study, a framework was first developed to identify possible damage types. Then, scientific literature focusing on the identification of flood damage to dairy herds was reviewed, and to quantify this damage to herds, literature sources providing information on the magnitude of variation in the identified damage types were used. Thus, our results provide relevant information on the variables that should be taken into account when assessing of the direct damage affecting the overall welfare of a dairy herd after a flood event. This evidence could then contribute to the development of tools aimed at assessing damage to dairy cattle on flood-affected farms.

Gaviglio, A; Corradini, A; Marescotti, ME; Demartini, E; Filippini, R

A Theoretical Framework to Assess the Impact of Flooding on Dairy Cattle Farms: Identification of Direct Damage from an Animal Welfare Perspective

Animals

https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061586

The effects of climate change have negatively affected Malawi's agricultural production. In this context, fisheries have been providing alternative livelihoods. However, there is a knowledge gap around the responses of small-scale fishers to climate-related changes. Therefore, a study was conducted on the Western shores of Lake Malawi between August 2015 and April 2016. The study evaluated the perceived effects of climate change on small-scale fishers and their coping strategies by employing a wide range of methods for data collection and analysis. The study used explorative surveys, household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews to collect data. The study randomly sampled 112 household heads who owned either fishing gear or a fishing vessel or both. Content analysis for themes was used to analyse the qualitative data. The Mann-Kendal Test was used to analyse trends in meteorological data, and binary logistic regression was used to determine factors that influence coping with low fish catches. Despite the respondents noticing an increased incidence of extreme weather events and low fish catches, their perceptions could not be validated using time series meteorological data. However, such perceptions were influenced by experience from long-time exposure to extreme weather events and to low fish catches. The majority of the fishers had adjusted to these changes by increasing their fishing time, using highly efficient illegal fishing nets, expanding farming land, operating small businesses and undertaking casual labour in agriculture and fishing activities. The fishers' propensity to adjust to these changes increased due to the presence of the following factors: older age of household head, higher education level, being married and having an annual income. In contrast, being a member of fish conservation club decreased the probability of adjusting. This study emphasizes the need to be cautious when defining and framing perceptions of local communities on extreme weather events as data obtained could be misleading. Furthermore, a multi-sectoral approach to balance sustainable livelihoods and management of fisheries is needed. These findings provide theoretical and practical lessons that can inform design, planning and implementation of policies that enhance adaptive capacity in fisheries and promote sustainable livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa.

Limuwa, MM; Sitaula, BK; Njaya, F; Storebakken, T

Evaluation of Small-Scale Fishers' Perceptions on Climate Change and Their Coping Strategies: Insights from Lake Malawi

Climate

https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6020034

Floods are recognized as the costliest type of natural hazard both worldwide and in the United States, with projected increases in frequency and magnitude in the absence of effective adaptation strategies. In the fall of 2018, Hurricane Florence made landfall in southeastern North Carolina, USA, bringing record rainfall and resulting in widespread inundation that impacted many areas outside of the federally designated Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). Much of this flooding was from inland pluvial inundation, which is an understudied component of coastal risk and vulnerability assessments primarily due to the scarcity of infrastructure data and historically lower flooding recurrence rates. This has resulted in severe damages in areas that residents and local officials considered at low risk from flooding. Using nearly-coincident high-spatial, high-temporal resolution CubeSat satellite imagery, we quantified the areal extent of post-Hurricane Florence floodwater within and beyond the 100-year floodplain (SFHA) and the proportion of residential structures exposed to flooding within an eight-county study area. We propose a novel approach to estimate flood risk resulting from this singular event (termed an actualized risk index) when compared to a published empirical model of vulnerability. We show that 24.3% of detected floodwater was outside the 100-year floodplain, 43.4% of exposed residential structures are outside the 100-year floodplain, and communities of highest vulnerability are not only along the coast but also inland along the Cape Fear, Northeast Cape Fear, Trenton, and Neuse Rivers. This suggests that the SFHA may not adequately show the spatial distribution of pluvial flood risk in riverine areas, and that misunderstanding of this risk has led to a pattern of development in which houses have a higher than expected risk of flooding. Moreover, this additional flood risk may disproportionately affect lower-income residents of these largely rural areas. These results have important implications in light of recent policy guidance in southeastern USA states that mandate that predictive coastal vulnerability assessments to sea level rise be conducted relative to 100-year SFHA zones.

Pricope, NG; Hidalgo, C; Pippin, JS; Evans, JM

Shifting landscapes of risk: Quantifying pluvial flood vulnerability beyond the regulated floodplain

Journal Of Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114221

India's geography, monsoon dependency and weather anomalies place wheat production prospects and sustainability at crossroads across agro-ecologies owing to its vulnerability. An attempt has been made to track the vulnerability in wheat producing regions for climate smart farming in India sourcing relevant historical data on multi-dimensional indicators for sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity. The composite vulnerability index has been estimated for 16 wheat growing states using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) approach. First, the variables were normalised to make them unit free for comparison and second, weights were assigned to each variable across three dimensions (sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity) using the principal component analysis. Later, the regions were categorised into three groups based on the magnitude of the index viz., high, moderate, and less. Jharkhand registered the highest sensitivity (0.61) while Punjab registered the lowest (0.18). Considering the exposure of regions to various climatic and weather variables in the wheat growing season (Rabi: November-April), it was found that Jharkhand had the highest exposure (0.48) and Punjab witnessed the lowest (0.30). In terms of adaptation to climate change, it was found that Maharashtra (0.63) had the highest adaptive capacity, followed by Haryana and Punjab. On the contrary, Jharkhand had the lowest adaptive capacity (0.21). Overall, the analysis of cross-sectional and multi-dimensional data indicated that Jharkhand is the most vulnerable region and Punjab is the least vulnerable region across wheat producing ecologies. Vulnerability mapping indicated that the magnitude of vulnerability is high in five regions (contributing 19% of total production), moderate in six regions (12% production) and low in five wheat growing regions (69% production). Regional prioritization has to be made in lieu of deviation in area and yield to minimize production losses. Further, adaptive measures and climate smart farming need to be practiced at farm and regional levels by formulating suitable policies and investment plans..

Sendhil, R; Jha, A; Kumar, A; Singh, S

Extent of vulnerability in wheat producing agro-ecologies of India: Tracking from indicators of cross-section and multi-dimension data

Ecological Indicators

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.02.053