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+{"metadata":{"id":"003036069c1417ea14cb83ecbe18ee80","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14f7da55-9234-4125-83fc-d3b554eadf55/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"ADD Agriculture Development Division, Malawi AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Documentation of the legacy of its achievements, mainly as journal publications, has continued to be the ESA Project's main activity during this reporting period. Twelve papers were published or accepted for publication, 10 were submitted, and 32 are under development. Documentation is making use of data collected from studies implemented during past years, with some complemented by survey data generated during this reporting period. Our handbook, whose main audience are scaling institutions, was published by CABI and may be accessed here http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781800621602.0001."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Continued interest in the maintenance of long-term projects led to their continued support for field activities. There have been several publications based on data generated from these experiments and more are expected. Data collection is continuing. Long-term on-farm conservation agriculture (CA) trials were successfully re-established in 16 target communities of Malawi and eastern Zambia. They have regularly been monitored and both early and mid-season evaluations have been done by partners. Promotional activities were initiated by our development partners, the Ministry of Agriculture, and NGO staff. We have also maintained six long-term trials in Malawi. The objective is to create a platform for evaluating the long-term effects of rotating legumes with maize and other nutrient management options and establish the potential for soil organic carbon sequestration and other biodiversity indices."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"In the Babati district of Tanzania, 20 farmer groups are implementing Mbili-Mbili as an integrated practice with stripping and topping. This is more of a close-out activity on Mbili Mbili technology implementation uptake. The learning sites have only one ½ acre plot of the Mbili-Mbili technology with the integrated practices. There was joint laying out, planting, and managing the demonstrations by members of the groups, and likewise will be harvesting. Additionally, field days are planned to bring together members of the different farmer groups. One hundred and fifty farmers are targeted to participate in the field days. Focus group discussions will capture group challenges and learnings in implementing the Mbili-Mbili system and accompanying practices."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Capacity building operations have been scaled down. Most short-term training used to utilize field trials as learning centers; indeed, the training reported on relates to the field experiments that were supported. Similarly, partnerships for scaling have reduced and the backstopping intensity of existing ones has reduced. Researchers are preparing technology labels, farmer manuals, and extension guides to be available during country-level project close-out activities and beyond."}]},{"head":"Africa RISING ESA project action sites","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The East and Southern Africa (ESA)-wide geo-referenced sites are shown where Africa RISING was implementing either research activities or technology dissemination over the project time, updated to the current reporting period (Figure 1). "}]},{"head":"Implemented work and achievements per research outcome","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Each sub-activity in the report is preceded by a label code meant to help the reader gain context about its alignment with specific outcomes, outputs, and activities within the project logframehttps://hdl.handle.net/10568/82852. This label code is interpreted as shown below."}]},{"head":"Outcome 1. Productivity, diversity, and income of crop-livestock systems in selected agroecologies enhanced under climate variability","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Output 1.1 Demand-driven, climate-smart, integrated crop-livestock research products (contextualized technologies) for improved productivity, diversified diets, and higher income piloted for specific typologies in target agroecologies Activity 1.1.1: Assess and iteratively improve resilient crop-crop and crop-livestock integration systems Sub-activity 1.1.1.1: Validation of drought-tolerant maize (DT) hybrids under on-farm conditions in central Tanzania Two manuscripts have been developed based on 18 Drought Tolerant (DT) and 8 Quality Protein Maize (QPM) hybrid trials conducted in the 2019/2020 season. From these, four best DT hybrids were selected for yield and agronomic performance and the two best performing QPM hybrids were allocated to Meru Agro Seed Company for commercialization. The manuscripts have been reviewed for the second time, recommendations are being addressed, and a new submission date of June 2022 (for both) is proposed. The manuscript working titles are:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"1. GGE biplot and stability analysis of drought-tolerant Quality Protein Maize hybrids evaluated under semi-arid conditions in Tanzania. 2. GGE biplot and stability analysis for grain yield and agronomic traits of drought tolerantthree-way maize hybrids in Tanzania."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.2: Investigations of the medium to long term impacts of SI technologies on crop productivity in multi-locational fields Twelve (12) long-term on-farm cereal-legume rotation experiments, some dating back to the 2012/2013 cropping, were maintained for (a) investigating the medium to long-term impacts of SI technologies (i.e., improved soil fertility management, ISFM), improved germplasm, crop combinations, and nutrient and water management) on crop productivity on multi-ecology field sites; and (b) as a source of data for \"water-limited yield potential\" study, required for the Case Studies' SI analyses on the Africa RISING impact-investigated under sub-activity 5.1.1.4. We expect significant future investments around these trials from the Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) initiative, which has expressed interest. Two manuscripts were published during the last reporting period."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"We implemented the 2021/2022 season cropping activities as planned. During 2022, we have maintained only six trials, two each in Linthipe, Kandeu, and Golomoti Extension Planning Areas. The main objective is to create a platform for evaluating the long-term effects of rotating legumes with maize and other nutrient management options and establish the potential for SOC sequestration and other biodiversity indices. The trials are currently being harvested. Results, in manuscript form, will be available for reporting during the next reporting period."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.3: Determining the productivity of groundnut as a function of seed generation × variety × density interactions in two contrasting agroecologies, and rotational benefits to maize","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of groundnut seed quality and plant density on groundnut productivity and quantify the rotational benefits to a subsequent maize crop in high and low potential agricultural zones in central and southern Malawi, respectively. Jester Kalumba successfully defended his MSc thesis \"Effect of seed generation, rhizobia inoculation and plant density on productivity and seed quality of soybean [Glycine max (l.) Merril] and groundnut [Arachis hypogea (l.)] in Dedza and Machinga districts of Malawi\". The thesis abstract was given in the last report. A manuscript based on the research has been drafted, with June 2022 set as the target date for publication."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.4: Exploring productivity of goats under controlled breeding and feeding regimes among young breeding female goats in the crop-livestock system in Malawi This sub-activity was completed with the main products being an MSc thesis of Charles Mkchutche, and a published manuscript (http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd33/1/dmase3302.html), whose abstract was presented in the last report."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.5: Determining the productivity and resilience benefits of Gliricidia-based cropping systems","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"This study has focused on assessing drought resilience and long-term productivity of Gliricidia sepium-based cropping systems. Fieldwork was completed in 2021. The main activities conducted during 2021/2022 include processing and analysis of the experimental data, and writing manuscripts, technology labels, and a success story. The work is still progressing with the development of manuscripts, an agroforestry manual, and medicine labels. Two PhD students attached to agroforestry work have submitted their thesis for examination. A success story titled \"Farmers leading transfer of agroforestry technologies in Dodoma, Tanzania\" has been published online (yet to be branded and uploaded under Africa RISING). Two manuscripts were published during this reporting period. The abstract of one (https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-021-00310-8) was presented during the last report. The abstract of the other (https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010053) is presented below."}]},{"head":"Profitability of Gliricidia-Maize System in Selected Dryland","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":365,"text":"Areas of Dodoma Region, Tanzania (M. Swamila et al., 2022) Abstract \"Declining soil fertility and climatic extremes are among major problems for agricultural production in most dryland agro-ecologies of sub-Saharan Africa. In response, the agroforestry technology intercropping of Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.)) and Maize (Zea mays L.) was developed to complement conventional soil fertility management technologies. However, diversified information on the profitability of the Gliricidia-Maize intercropping system in dryland areas is scanty. Using data from the Gliricidia and maize models of the Next Generation version of the Agriculture Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM), this study estimates the profitability of the Gliricidia-Maize system relative to an unfertilized sole maize system. Results show significant heterogeneity in profitability indicators both in absolute and relative economic terms. Aggregated over a 20-year cycle, Gliricidia-Maize intercropping exhibited a higher Net Present Value (NPV = Tsh 19,238,798.43) and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR = 4.27) than the unfertilized sole maize system. The NPV and BCR of the latter were Tsh 10,934,669.90 and 3.59, respectively. Moreover, the returns to labour per person day in the Gliricidia-Maize system was 1.5 times those of the unfertilized sole maize system. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the profitability of the Gliricidia-Maize system is more negatively affected by the decrease in output prices than the increase in input prices. A 30% decrease in the former leads to a decrease in NPV and BCR by 38% and 30%, respectively. Despite the higher initial costs of the agroforestry establishment, the 30% increase in input prices affects more disproportionally unfertilized sole maize than the Gliricidia-Maize system in absolute economic terms, i.e., 11.1% versus 8.8% decrease in NPV. In relative economic terms, an equal magnitude of change in input prices exerts the same effect on the unfertilized sole maize and the Gliricidia-maize systems. This result implies that the monetary benefits accrued after the first year of agroforestry establishment offset the initial investment costs. The Gliricidia-Maize intercropping technology, therefore, is profitable with time, and it can contribute to increased household income and food security. Helping farmers to overcome initial investment costs and manage agroforestry technologies well to generate additional benefits is critical for the successful scaling of the Gliricidia-Maize intercropping technology in dryland areas of Dodoma, Tanzania\"."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Work on deliverables planned for the second half of 2021/2022 is progressing and the delivery dates are given below. "}]},{"head":"Extension manual on validated agroforestry technologies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"To be developed & produced by June 2022. Two flyers on \"Productivity and Economic benefits of maize-Gliricidia intercropping\" and \"Integration of agroforestry and the efficient cooking stove. Under drafting."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Final versions to be produced by May 2022."}]},{"head":"Two technology labels Final versions available May 2022","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.6: Assess the yield, economic, and BNF benefits of innovative approaches addressing the pigeon pea and common bean productivity within maize-based cropping system and variable weather This study aimed to determine the effects of different crop spatial configurations on the productivity of pigeonpea and beans within the three eco-zones of Babati district, Tanzania, and assess the uptake and adaptations of Mbili-Mbili technology by farmers in the same district. The fourth season field experiments were implemented successfully; data analysis and manuscript development are ongoing. Being a possible last year of Africa RISING in the study sites, it was considered important to deliver this technology to existing farmer groups as a minimum closeout activity during 2021-2022. The approach was to work with 20 farmer groups and demonstrate the Mbili-Mbili technology as an integrated system with other system practices (stripping and topping)."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"During this reporting period, 20 farmer groups were identified in 10 villages of Babati district (two each in Sabilo, Long, Gallapo, Hallu, Endadosh, Orgadinda, Qash, Riroda, Endanachan, and Duru) of Babati district, and a demonstration of the Mbili-Mbili technology installed with each farmer group. Training was done for all farmer group members (see Capacity Building Section), who were later engaged during the establishment of the demos. The establishment of the demos was affected by weather, with planting dates spread from December 2021 to early March 2022. In all villages, except Long, maize was intercropped with beans and pigeon pea. In Long, pigeon peas were substituted with potato, a key adaptation of Mbili-Mbili in the highlands. Field days will be conducted at the physiological maturity of maize between the month of April and June. During this period, focus group discussions will also be conducted where learning insights on group implementation of Mbili-Mbili will be recorded. Deliverables for the second half of 2021/2022 are described below."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Two manuscripts have been developed and are ready for submission; (i) Agronomic performance and economics of legume-legume and cereal-legume intercropping systems in Northern Tanzania to be submitted to Field Crops Research, and (ii) Socio-economic factors influencing farmer perceptions and their level of knowledge in sustainable intensification innovations in Babati, Tanzania to be submitted to Heliyon."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.7: Monitoring the impact of weather and climate variability on the productivity and resilience of maize-legume cropping systems of Kongwa and Kiteto, Tanzania","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The collection of monthly weather datasets from automated weather stations in Kongwa and Kiteto districts in Tanzania has continued. The datasets were shared with partners on Dataverse. This responsibility has now been assigned to TARI -Hombolo replacing SUA because of the weather stations' proximity to TARI. Preparation of a manuscript out of a survey to establish farmers' perception of weather variability and associated crop production was initiated. Progress has not been submitted by the PI for the second successive reporting period. Accordingly, we consider the sub-activity closed."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.8: Explore, document, and assess the sustainable intensification pathways of 3 farming system case studies in Tanzania to inform scaling potential. This study was to be driven by compiling existing data on three farms that hosted different researchers and filling data gaps where identified. At the end of 2020, a household survey was conducted in Tanzania (focusing on the adoption of postharvest technologies) in which the three original farms were included. Progress on the three farm case studies has not been provided as the researcher is on intermittent sick leave."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Sub-activity 1.1.1.9: Assessing the impacts of Africa RISING technologies on the performance and resilience of multi-location and differentially exposed farming systems case studies in Malawi."},{"index":4,"size":189,"text":"In an activity that started in 2020, it was hypothesized that crop productivity in mother trials typically represents water-limited yield potential for the different agroecologies. Crop yield for these trials would be used as benchmarks to assess the level of intensification at the farm-scale for other farmers' groups (mother trial host farmers' fields, baby trial farmers, and farmers not directly participating in Africa RISING activities). Mother trial farmers are more likely to adopt more technologies as they more closely interact with a range of SI technologies in the mother trials. The objectives of this sub-activity are to (i) determine the adoption and impact of SI technologies for the differentially exposed farming systems; (ii) predict different farming systems' performance when subjected to scenarios of shocks; and (iii) identify the contribution of Africa RISING technologies to shock resiliency. The FarmDESIGN modeling framework was proposed to be used for analysis. The MSc work addressing the first objective was completed and a thesis submitted (see the report of April-September 2021). A report of progress on the other two research questions has not been provided by the PI, who is on intermittent sick leave."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"Activity 1.1.2: Evaluate and implement pathways that are effective at improving access to seeds and clonal materials of modern varieties of legumes, cereals, vegetables, forages , and livestock Sub-activity 1.1.2.1: Assessment of the benefits of management technologies on the performance of improved vegetable varieties The closing action in this sub-activity was to conduct end-line household surveys to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of vegetable production for improving household nutrition and income in action and control villages. The survey was conducted in March 2022. Data cleaning and analysis are ongoing and a manuscript on the impact of improved vegetable management practices is targeted for publication by August 2022."},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"Output 1.2 Demand-driven, labor-saving, and gender- processing and use, and feed rations) using the MWANGA ICT-Platform MWANGA ICT -Messaging Platform has been described in previous reports. During 2021-2022, the plan is to broaden the use of Mwanga to more farmers beyond the key groups within a specific research activity, as has been the case, at least to double the numbers of farmers currently being reached. We plan to bring in agro-dealers and seed companies to have their buyin and communicate through this platform. From a scientific perspective, it's important to understand to what extent the ICT messaging with Mwanga is benefiting farmers and how the farmers perceive them."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"During this reporting period, updating and expanding the farmer contact database for Mwanga were undertaken. Farmers with non-functional cell phone contacts were removed from the database and new contacts (obtained from the previous agronomic survey conducted in Babati and others obtained from the MKilimo platform) were added. The new farmer database is available. To date, 22,232 SMS (agronomic and postharvest) have been sent to 1744 farmers. Some of the messages are targeted at specific farmers practicing relating technologies. Ongoing activities will result in deliverables to be completed by August 2022 and presented in the next report, including:"},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"1. A report on an evaluation study regarding the utilization of Mwanga, covering those farmers who have been receiving the messages. The report will cover farmers' sentiments, preferences, and whether there is a change in their knowledge, attitude, skills, and aspirations as a result of accessing ICT services. 2. A report on the training of agro-dealers, seed companies, and development partners on the potential for utilization of Mwanga for communication."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"3. A success story on village-level feedback and results from delivery meetings."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"Sub-activity 1.3.1.2: Produce regionally relevant extrapolation domain maps for validated conservation agriculture (CA) practices The major work implemented involved the revision of a manuscript submitted to Agriculture and Forest Meteorology titled 'Remote sensing and machine learning identify where and when conservation agriculture increases maize yield in Southern Africa,' whose details were presented in the last report. Main revisions include the following: i) Further cleaning of conservation agriculture trials database from CIMMYT, including matching tillage treatments with digitized field polygons. Three more years of conservation agriculture trials data were incorporated into the analysis to cover a 16year time series. ii)"},{"index":11,"size":61,"text":"Remote sensing variables have been incorporated in the random forest model, including fraction of photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR), anomalies for temperature, evapotranspiration, and enhanced vegetation index (EVI), seasonal cumulative EVI, and coordinates (latitude and longitude). Variables related to soil chemical properties (nitrogen, zinc, boron, and magnesium) were removed since they change within a short period. But physical properties were maintained. iii)"},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"A VSURF (ensemble of ensemble) procedure was applied to eliminate variables that did not improve the model accuracy."},{"index":13,"size":27,"text":"A manuscript titled 'Spatiotemporal modeling and prediction of maize yield at farm-scale in South-East Africa (2007-2020)' is in preparation, with a target submission date of August 2022."},{"index":14,"size":138,"text":"The plan is to develop the manuscript from a study on the application of an ensemble machine learners to predict the spatial variability of the maize grain at a field scale (30 m) for convectional (CP) and conservation agriculture (CA) tillage systems. The agronomic data was obtained from agronomic management practices for 16 growing seasons (2004/2005 to 2019/20). An ensemble of three ML algorithms, i.e., the random forest (RF), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGboost), and spectral vector machines (SVM), will be evaluated together with a spatial-temporal cross-validation procedure to train the ensemble ML models. A spatial feature selection will be employed to eliminate variables that do not lead to better spatial predictions of maize grain yields beyond the training sites. The robustness of the spatial predictions of maize yields is to be evaluated using the concordance correlation coefficient (CCC)."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 1.3.1.3: Produce regionally relevant extrapolation domain maps for validated soil and water conservation practices","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"During this reporting period, we aimed to finalize research papers focusing on the magnitude of land degradation and its drivers in the East and South Africa (ESA) region (the first published manuscript, https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/9/1754, was at local scale -Kongwa district of Tanzania)."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"The first research paper focused on validating the gridded monthly precipitation products; it is titled \"Assessing the skill of gridded satellite and re-analysis precipitation products over an altitudinal gradient in East and Southern Africa\" and was submitted to Atmosfera Journal. We evaluated the skill of three gridded precipitation products (GPPs) in estimating the gauge observations and compared the precipitation trends derived from these products across the east and southern Africa region. Taylor diagrams and Kling-Gupta Efficiency (KGE) were used to assess the accuracy. We evaluated the skill of three gridded precipitation products (GPPs) with varying spatial resolution in estimating the observations from the gauge network and compared the long-term precipitation trends derived from these products. Validation results revealed that the three GPPs had varied performance over temporal and altitudinal ranges. The skill of the three GPPs at a monthly scale, was generally high but showed lower performance at high elevations over 1500 m, especially during the OND season. At 501-1000 m and above 1500 m elevations, CHELSA-v2.1 had lower skill than the other two products that caused over-estimation of the annual and seasonal precipitation trends over mountainous terrain and large inland water bodies like Lake Victoria. Our results further reveal that new or higher resolution precipitation data is not always the most accurate since an update of the algorithms can introduce artifacts or biases."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The second research paper is in preparation, targeting August as its publication date. It's focus is on determining the trends and drivers of vegetation productivity as an indicator of land degradation."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Sub-activity 1.3.1.4: Ex ante impact assessment with Trade-off Analysis Model for Multidimensional Impact Assessment (TOA-MD) for regional relevance of Africa RISING technologies. As presented in the last report, progress toward producing a manuscript as the target deliverable is again not reported on. The PI is on intermittent sick leave."}]},{"head":"Outcome 2. Natural resource integrity and resilience to climate change enhanced for the target communities and agroecologies","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Output 2.1 Demand-driven research products for enhancing soil, land, and water resource management to reduce household/community vulnerability and land degradation piloted in priority agroecologies","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activity 2.1.1: Characterize current practices in ESA through identifying formal and informal arrangements for access to and use of water and land resources Sub-activity 2.1.1.1: Assessing buffer and adaptive capacity to harness resilience of different farm types","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Two new MSc students started their research in November 2021, contributing to systems synthesis activities in Tanzania and Malawi. This follows successful completion of studies by two other MSc students whose theses summary were presented in the last report. The new students are conducting analyses on how selected Africa RISING beneficiary farmers perform against multiple dimensions of the SIAF framework relative to other farmers in the community. In Tanzania, the focus will be on positive deviant farmers in terms of SIAF indicator performance, and farmers who implement various Africa RISING technologies and packages. The student is using a dataset of a survey among 579 farmers. The subject of the thesis is \"Holistic impact assessment of project promoted sustainable intensification technologies at farm level in Tanzania\". In Malawi, farmers involved in mother and baby trials will be compared to nonparticipating control farmers using recently collected panel data. The subject of the thesis is \"Holistic impact assessment of project promoted sustainable intensification technologies at farm level in Malawi\". Theses completion is expected in June 2022, and journal articles will be generated from the theses."}]},{"head":"Output 2.2 Innovative options for soil, land, and water management in selected farming systems demonstrated at strategically located learning sites Activity 2.2.1: Set up demonstration and learning sites in target ESA communities Sub-activity 2.2.1.1: Lessons from long-term on-station Conservation Agriculture (CA) trials in Zambia","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Long-term on-station trials were successfully completed by the end of June 2020 and four manuscripts have already been published (see report of April-September 2021). One manuscript titled \"Short-term gains versus long-term sustainability -evidence from long-term CA research in Southern Africa\" has been published in Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment https://bit.ly/38Ab6IV. The proposed \"Economic assessment of Zambia CA systems\" manuscript could not be further pursued as we did not generate sufficient data for its development."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 2.2.1.2: Assessing the benefits of nutrient and water management for climate resilience in Malawi","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Experiments on nutrient and water management were implemented in southern Malawi, where there is a high risk of droughts. Although these trials have now been terminated, they have generated useful data to inform how 'Climate Smart' it is to capture more rainfall water through tied ridging. We used the trials to consolidate action learning with farming communities, hugely exposed to high seasonal rainfall variability, often making fertilizer investments unattractive. Simple approaches, such as tied-ridges, that buffer farmers against soil moisture stresses were therefore promoted. These in-situ rainwater storage practices increase residence time for rainwater to infiltrate, as tropical storms often have rainfall intensity that exceed soil water infiltration several times. We have largely facilitated the institutionalization of approaches that enhance resilience within the Malawi extension services, as these trials were used by extension as climate-smart interventions field day platforms. "}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 2.2.1.3: Climate-smart farming practices (soil water micro-catchments, weatherinformed varieties, cover crops integration [cowpea]) for increasing productivity of the maizelegume system under variable weather conditions.","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The study ended in 2020/2021. It tested options of utilizing weather forecasts' information to decide on planting dates, integration of in situ water harvesting, cover crops, improved fertilizer management, and the combined application of these technologies. The generated data have been analyzed and used to inform/draft the ISFM system-level manuscript (see Sub-activity 4.1.1.3 re-submitted manuscript)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Sub-activity 2.2.1.4: Integration of fodder trees and grass forages in dryland farming This is a closed sub-activity. Data generated from this activity was used to support three publications presented in earlier reports."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 2.2.1.5: Evaluation of land rehabilitation benefits of shelterbelts and contours","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"This is a closed sub-activity, but with no documented deliverables."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 2.2.1.6: Validation of residual tied ridging as a labor-saving technology in the semi-arid areas of central Tanzania","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"During the current reporting period, activities implemented were to complete and submit one manuscript for publication and draft a second one for submission to a journal. The abstract for the draft manuscript \"Factoring labor in the comparison of in situ rainwater harvesting technologies for semi-arid areas of Central Tanzania\" was presented in the last report. It has been submitted to the journal Soil & Tillage Research. A second manuscript \"Effect of induced water stress on maize performance under in situ rainwater harvesting techniques in semi-arid areas of Central Tanzania\" is being prepared for submission in June 2022."}]},{"head":"Outcome 3. Food and feed safety, nutritional quality, and income security of target smallholder families improved equitably (within households) Output 3.1 Demand-driven research products to reduce postharvest losses and improve food quality and safety piloted in target areas","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activity 3.1.1: Conduct packaging and delivery of postharvest technologies through community and development partnerships with an iterative review, refining, and followup","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Sub-activity 3.1.1.1: Impact of nutritional messaging on household nutrition, knowledge, attitude, and practices With the easing of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on the movement and gathering of people, the end-line survey to generate the impact data was, at last, implemented in March 2022 in Karatu District of Tanzania, where Africa RISING is conducting a scaling partnership with the development partner, Islands of Peace. Two manuscripts will be prepared and submitted for publication by August 2022. One will be on \"The impact of nutritional education on farmers' nutritional knowledge, attitude and practices, income, and nutrition status\" and the other on \"the impact of improved production technologies on vegetable yield and profitability\"."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 3.1.1.2: Validating hermetic storage structures and the environment on physical and economic loss abatement in produce","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The field component of this study was concluded in 2019. Data collected in an impact survey in mid-2020 were processed and a manuscript titled \"Adoption and impacts of improved postharvest technologies on food security and welfare of maize-farming households in Tanzania: A comparative assessment\" was prepared and submitted to the journal Food Security in January 2022. The abstract of the draft paper was presented in the April-September 2021 report. Another manuscript on the role of social capital and networking in relation to the speed of postharvest technology adoption will be completed by June 2022."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 3.1.1.3: Nutritional value, safety, and processing quality of produce during storage and utilization by households","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"This is a closed activity as reported in the April-Sept 2021 Report. One manuscript was published (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2020.101723)."}]},{"head":"Output 3.2 Nutritional quality due to increased accessibility and use of nutrientdense crops by farmers improved Activity 3.2.1: Promote and deploy nutrient-rich crop varieties and livestock food resources in target communities","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Sub-activity 3.2.1.1: Pathways to sustainable adoption of nutrient-dense diets in rural communities of central Tanzania The sub-activity addressed drivers of food choice focusing on new pearl millet and pigeonpea varieties promoted by Africa RISING. In the last report, we presented a link to the manuscript addressing drivers of pearl millet consumption was published (https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.694160/full), and also the summary of results and conclusions of the draft manuscript addressing drivers of pigeon pea consumption. This too was published in January 2022 as \"Drivers of Pigeon Pea Consumption Among School-Aged Children in Central Tanzania\" and may be accessed on the link https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.726404/full."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 3.2.1.2: Promoting farmer production of nutrient-dense (Zn, Fe) NUA45 and drought-tolerant SER83 bean varieties in Malawi","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Activities under this sub-activity were concluded. A published manuscript and a technology label were presented in the April-Sept 2021 report."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 3.2.1.3: Determining quality and safety of locally produced legume grain-derived complementary foods and adoption in Dedza District","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Building on the introduction of nutrient-dense common bean varieties (sub-activity 3.2.1.2 above), this study was designed to introduce farmers to alternative methods of incorporating nutrient-dense common bean varieties in menus as part of their diets, especially to demonstrate how these foods would protect children from undernutrition. Because this is a community-engagement activity, its progress was limited by the COVID-19 pandemic. Approval for community-engagement activities was granted only in September 2021, and this work is planned to be implemented during 2021-2022."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 3.2.1.4: Assess the contribution of the farming systems interventions in narrowing the food and nutrient gaps in Kongwa and Kiteto, and the probability of smallholder farmer production to meet them","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"This study aimed to determine how an integrated delivery of productivity-enhancing technologies (targeting Africa RISING promoted crop and livestock technologies) can increase the probability of meeting dietary diversity and nutrient adequacy of family household nutrition dietary needs. The survey was only implemented in September 2021, the delay being due to logistical challenges linked to the escalation of the COVID-19 pandemic in the region. Data analysis and manuscript development are being implemented. The target submission date of the manuscript to a journal is June 2022. "}]},{"head":"Outcome 4. The functionality of input and output markets and other institutions to deliver demand-driven sustainable intensification research products improved","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sub-activity 4.1.1.2: Value chain analysis of groundnut seed and design of operation enhancement strategies for semi-arid ecologies of central Tanzania","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"A working abstract of the manuscript \"Analysis of the Maize and Groundnut Seed Value Chains in Central and Northern Tanzania\" was presented in the April-September 2021 report. The draft manuscript is in the final round of review after inputs by the subject matter specialist, and will be submitted in April 2022. The target journal is Outlook on Agriculture."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 4.1.1.3: Assess how livelihoods of farmers are affected by the implementation of ISFM practices as a result of Africa RISING activities in Babati","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"This is a survey and synthesis activity whose data have been used to draft manuscripts for publication (the deliverable). A summary of the findings was presented in the last report. The generated manuscript titled \"Analysis of organic resources transfers and interactions with landscape positions influence crop yields among smallholder farmers in Northern Tanzania\" was submitted to the journal Field Crops Research. It was rejected with good reviewer comments. These have been addressed and the article resubmitted. It is now under peer-review. Another manuscript titled \"Participatory action research, social networks, and gender influence soil fertility management in Tanzania\" has been approved by all the co-authors for submission to a journal."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"A farmer and extension guide on ISFM (rework of the 2019 version) is available with the Communications team for publishing. This study is like sub-activity 4.1.1.3, but is implemented in the semi-arid areas of Kongwa and Kiteto districts of Tanzania, where water harvesting drives ISFM. Data collected during the last reporting period were reviewed and were considered incomplete due to the lack of a proper control group. Focus has now changed toward a repeat of the whole survey through a new tool designed to capture all the necessary data required to show the impact of ISFM on food security and income. This will ensure that a control group is in place, and this will help us tease out the impact of the Africa Rising awareness campaign on the intensity of ISFM use. We have already requested TARBES data with identifiers to include the original baseline farmers where possible. A sample of 300 (for the treated) and 300 (placebo/control) is targeted. The new survey is targeted for April/early May (following crop harvest) and a manuscript for publication by August 2022."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 4.1.1.5: Value chain analysis of nutrient-dense common bean varieties in Malawi","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Studies that analyze value chains of crop varieties with unique attributes, such as bio-fortified varieties in the context of many other established varieties of that crop, are very rare. Based on the implemented field trials, NUA45 productivity was comparable to mainstream varieties grown in central Malawi. It was, therefore, hypothesized that its high nutrient density would be an incentive for widespread adoption. To better understand this, at least five years after introducing two nutrient-dense common bean varieties in Central, we carried out a value chain analysis of common beans in central Malawi. We aimed to map different players in the biofortified common bean value chain and analyze the opportunities and constraints that exist along the bio-fortified common bean value chain to facilitate the development of a value chain enhancement strategy for bio-fortified common bean. We interviewed 174 farmers from seven villages, carried out focus group discussions with participants purposively selected from bean growers, and 101 traders from local markets. Key informants, with vital information on common bean markets, were also interviewed. The Herfindahl Hirscham Index (HHI) was used as a measure of the level of specialization. Marketing margins, a measure of the difference between one point in the marketing chain and another as a reflection of marketing costs, were computed."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Survey results showed that there was no specialization-bio-fortified beans are sold to traders who act as wholesalers and retailers for several varieties. There was no premium price attached to the bio-fortified varieties, with the morphological differences between the bio-fortified and normal varieties so similar in some cases that differentiation was practically nil. The unrecognized/uncelebrated \"quality\" of bio-fortified beans is a significant impediment to their wider adoption. A manuscript titled \"An analysis of the performance of nutritionally superior common bean varieties five years after introduction in central Malawi\" is being prepared for publication by June 2022. "}]},{"head":"Activity 4.1.5: Analyze the existing baseline survey data and supplement them with qualitative surveys from target regions","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Sub-activity 4.1.5.1: Identify the most profitable market channels and welfare effects of participating in the maize, groundnut, and pigeon pea markets in Malawi, Tanzania This is a concluded sub-activity, with a published manuscript \"Welfare impacts of smallholder farmers' participation in multiple output markets: Empirical evidence from Tanzania\" that can be accessed at https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0250848. The manuscript abstract was presented in the April-September 2021 report."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 4.1.5.2: Impact of smallholder Agricultural commercialization on household income and nutrition in Ghana and Malawi","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"This is a new sub-activity driven by the observed mixed literature results when linking agricultural commercialization with household economics, nutrition, and dietary quality. The study is testing the hypothesis of a positive correlation between commercialization and dietary diversity, food security, and child nutrition, taking advantage of the panel and quasiexperimental data from some districts in Ghana and Malawi. Drafting the manuscript for publication is complete and in the process of submission to the Food Policy Journal in April 2022. It is titled \"Linkages between agricultural commercialization and nutrition in Ghana and Malawi.\""},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"In summary, the study results indicate that commercialization is associated with higher HDDS (household dietary diversity score) by about 8% on average in Malawi, while in Ghana, the results are statistically insignificant (Figure 2). We also analyzed associations between crop and livestock commercialization and HDDS separately in both countries. Crop commercialization is associated with improved household diets by 4.0% and 5.8% in Ghana and Malawi. Livestock commercialization is also related to improved diets in both countries, ranging from 4.5 to 5.8%. This implies that crop and livestock commercialization interventions would improve dietary diversity in both countries. We also found that crop commercialization is associated with improved household food security by 5.3% and 11.1-30.7% in Ghana and Malawi. Finally, the results on child nutrition as measured by the height-for-age Z-scores showed that livestock and farm commercialization was negatively correlated with nutrition in Ghana but not in Malawi."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Several factors might explain these results. First, possibly household income from commercialization is spent on non-food items, non-nutritious foods, or both. Second, in subsistence economies where most households sell food items meant for their consumption, the commercialization of such commodities might trigger limited access to nutritious foods. Finally, some nutritious foods such as legumes and livestock are often produced for the market and not for their consumption. Overall, the results point to the need to improve market infrastructure to enhance commercialization to improve farmers' welfare in more remote locations of sub-Saharan Africa.  "}]},{"head":".3: Eliciting willingness to pay for quality maize and beans: Evidence from experimental auctions in Tanzania","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This is another new sub-activity that is funded by the Policy, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) CRP and Africa RISING. A manuscript titled \"Eliciting willingness to pay for quality maize and beans: Evidence from experimental auctions in Tanzania\" is near ready for submission. A summary is below."},{"index":2,"size":232,"text":"Introduction. Food safety hazards are associated with illness and loss of human life, food and nutritional insecurity, impose costs on the food economy and public health system, interrupt international trade, and reduce disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (Hoffmann et al., 2019 1 ; Jaffee et al., 2019 2 ). These problems are often worsened in developing countries because food safety issues, such as aflatoxin and chemical contamination, coupled with weak enforcement of regulations against selling unsafe food are unobserved. But evidence showing the economic benefits or how consumers value these quality aspects is thin, yet they constitute an essential part of quantifying the demand for different food products. The difficulty lies in that it is not 1 Hoffmann, V., Moser, C., Saak, A., 2019. Food safety in low and middle-income countries: The evidence through an economic lens. World Dev. 123, 104611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104611 2 affee, S., Henson, S., Unnevehr, L., Grace, D., Cassou, E., 2019. The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Low-and Middle-Income Countries, The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Lowand Middle-Income Countries. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1345-0 easy to value the quality aspects mentioned above. Some benefits are not visible to consumers or traders and valuing them may also be subjective. This study was guided by the question-if high-quality maize and common beans were differentiated from the unsorted maize and common beans, are consumers willing to pay a premium through sorting and food safety labelling?"},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Methodology. Using the incentive-compatible Becker-DeGroot-Marschak (BDM) mechanism, we estimated the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for different quality maize and beans grades in four districts of Tanzania (Babati, Kilolo, Kongwa, and Mbozi) using data from a household survey and experimental auctions involving 555 participants. Specifically, we estimated consumers' observable and unobservable quality premiums on the different types of maize and beans. We consider three types of maize and beans quality grades;(1) unsorted and unlabeled; (2) sorted and unlabeled grade; and (3) sorted and labeled."}]},{"head":"Results","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Demand for maize and beans. Demand curves were estimated as the share of households whose bid was greater than or equal to the price of maize and beans. Figures 3a and 4a display the inverse demand curve for all participants in the WTP auctions regardless of the different grades. The demand curves disaggregated by the different quality grades are shown in Figures 3b and 4b. We did not account for any of the respondents, households, or farm characteristics in plotting the demand curves."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"The WTP, regardless of the quality grades, ranges from Tanzania Shillings (TZX) 50 to 1200, with the median price for a kg of maize that individuals are willing to pay being TZX 300. The median price is close to the average market price of maize of TZX 400 across the four districts 3 . At the average price of TZX 400, the proportion of farmers WTP for maize is about 30%; those willing to pay TZX 500 are only 18% translating into a 12% reduction in demand of the farmers who are willing to pay with a corresponding TZX 100 increase in the price. The vertical distance between any two curves in Figure 1b depicts the quality premium that farmers are willing to pay a discount or a premium for the different quality maize grades. The difference encompasses the unobservable and observable quality premiums. It is apparent that most of the auction participants place a premium on the sorted and labeled maize compared to the unsorted maize, with demand curves of the two quality grades lying to the right of the unsorted grade. The premium that farmers are willing to place on the unobservable quality at lower and higher prices is not very apparent because the vertical distance between the sorted and the labeled maize is minimal."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Considering that common beans is a cash crop, the WTP is unsurprisingly higher than that of maize. As with the maize, farmers' WTP for beans decreases with price, ranging from TZX 100 to 2500 and a median price of TZX 1400 (Figure 4a). The average market price of beans between January and July 2021 is TZX 1750, and only 11% of the farmers were WTP for the unsorted beans at this price, 24% for the sorted, and 25% for the labeled beans (Figure 4b). The vertical distance between the unsorted curve and those of the sorted and labeled grades is quite significant while that of the sorted and labeled is not, pointing to the importance the farmer's place on the visual attributes of the different grades of beans as opposed to the unobservable characteristics."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Figures 3a and b. Inverse demand curves for all maize and different quality maize grades Figures 4a and b. Inverse demand curves for all beans and different quality beans grades"}]},{"head":"WTP for observable and unobservable maize and beans quality attributes.","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"Results indicate that auction participants are WTP more for observable quality attributes by TZX 73 (25%) and TZX 191 (14%) over the unsorted maize and beans grades (Table 1). The constant indicates the amount auction participants were willing to pay for the unsorted grades implying that the participants were willing to pay TZX 364.36 and TZX 1569.37 per kg for the sorted grades of maize and beans, respectively. Table 1 also indicates that participants value observable more than unobservable quality attributes, with a TZX 12.865 difference between the sorted and labeled maize grades. At the same time, that of beans is TZX 23.243 (although not significant). Generally, the results underscore the importance of aflatoxin testing and postharvest processing (i.e., sorting) to enhance food safety and security. options available for the management of droughttolerant maize varieties and CA practices in 16 target communities of Malawi and Zambia. This year's implementation was strongly affected by a delayed onset of the cropping season. Most farmers in Malawi and Zambia could only seed their trials after Christmas and towards the beginning of January 2022 (Figure 5). Then rains started heavily, leading to floods in some parts, nutrient leaching, and waterlogging in others. Finally, this was followed by a long dry spell in February 2022, which affected the whole region. Farming, in general, has become very difficult and complex under such unpredictable weather conditions."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Partners managed to establish all on-farm long-term trials as planned. We are proud that 96 trial replicates in all 16 Target communities were established and all the required data collection is currently taking place. The implementation teams have also received all data sheets, so the routine data collection continues as in previous years. TLC has put a dedicated extension officer in the program who collects the data, which is likely to be very beneficial for the program. Soil sampling in Malawi on LT trials was initiated in March/April to capture additional long-term data. These samples will be put together and sent to MSU for further analysis. Technology labels on resilient sorghum and pearl millet varieties for the arid and semi-arid areas and a sorghum-pigeon pea intercropping technology have been developed. They reflect the importance of cropping systems characterized by water stress in semi-arid areas."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.1.1.3: Engage development partners to identify livestock management technologies of interest for partnership dissemination","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The sub-activity was terminated due to poor performance."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.1.1.4: Case studies: Application of SI technologies use among farmers interacting with Africa RISING at different intensities (MSU/CIMMYT partner study)","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"In this sub-activity, we quantify the farm-scale impact of engaging farmers at different Africa RISING technology access intensities. The hypothesis and methodology have been described in previous reports. The partial summary of the paper under development and titled \"Does the intensity of interaction between researchers and smallholder farmers over a five-year horizon matter? Evidence from Central Malawi\" is given below."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"In many cases, agricultural research-for-development projects work with farming communities, and eventually assess the impact of interventions based on the conventional \"treated and counterfactual\" design. In central Malawi, Africa RISING engaged farmers through the motherbaby technology transfer action research model for at least five years. This resulted in a multitiered farmer reach intensity 1) mother trial host farmers intensively reached, 2) baby farmers with intermediate association with researchers; 3) local control farmers with no direct Africa RISING project support but supposedly benefitting from the 'Africa RISING' effect in the community; and 4) distant control farmers who are at best remotely associated with Africa RISING. With their proximity to researchers, we hypothesize that mother trial host farmers are more likely to adopt and implement SI technologies at the farm scale. Therefore, the main objective was to determine differentials in farm-scale uptake of SI technologies as a function of the intensity of exposure to agricultural research and development. Four mother trial host farmers and four farmers each from baby farmers, local and distant controls were selected across six communities for 96 households."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"A survey was implemented in three Modules between February and August 2021 and will be repeated for Modules 1 and 2 between March and May 2022. The objectives were to 1) characterize the farms, 2) determine crop productivity, and 3) determine the socioeconomic impact of farmer association with Africa RISING. Preliminary results suggest variable farm sizes but within the 0.4-1 ha range. The soil fertility status of fields that farmers perceived as \"low and high\" fertility was not different among farm categories (Table 2), indicating that there was no bias in farm selection. The differences in crop productivity were not always maintained for the total farm production variable due to differences in farm sizes and cropping profiles."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"More data synthesis is in progress, and the new target submission date is August 2022. Sub-activity 5.1.1.5: Panel survey, soils processing, and meta-analysis studies for maize-grain legumes sequences and implications for sustainability This study aims to present evidence from a uniquely designed multi-year and multi-site study, representing a gradient from marginal to mesic environments (Mungai et al., 2016). Key determinants of yield response to fertilizer are assessed through detailed socioeconomic and biophysical data based on over 1,200 observations from more than 500 fields in Central Malawi. Africa RISING began collecting data in the Central Region in August 2014, with 278 farmers in the original sample providing detailed household and demographic information. By 2018, the latest period of data used here, 277 of the original 278 farmers and 538 of the original 553 plots were still annually monitored."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"One manuscript has already been published (https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20263), and the abstract was presented in the last report. A second manuscript titled \"In marginal environments, legume diversified systems nutritionally superior: A meta-analysis\" is under development, targeted for publication in August 2022. This meta-analysis uses data generated across multiple sites and years to inform models for crop mixtures and cropping specialization for yield stability and household nutrition."}]},{"head":"Activity 5.1.2: Use farm trial data to apply crop simulation models and assess performance over space and time, including assessment of climate-smart technologies to establish the potential for adaptation and mitigation","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Sub-activity 5.1.2.1: Apply the APSIM crop simulation model to assess changes in resource use efficiencies, productivity, and profitability of the different cropping systems in Kongwa, Kiteto, and Iringa in Tanzania. The study's objective is to use APSIM modeling to assess the long-term implications of SI options on climate, market risks, and resource use efficiency of smallholder farms in central Tanzania and Malawi. A manuscript titled \"Long-term implications of sorghum-pigeonpea intercropping systems on productivity, resilience, and profitability among smallholder farmers\" targeted for publication in March 2022 is delayed; a new publication target date is set for June 2022."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.1.2.2: Evaluating potential contributions of integrated soil fertility management around the five SIAF domains with emphasis on Africa RISING interventions in Tanzania","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"This synthesis activity aims to assess system-wide effects of ISFM on indicators within the five domains of SIAF in Tanzania. Two manuscripts have been submitted to journals for publication:"},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"Participatory action research, social networks, and gender influence soil fertility management in Northern Tanzania has been accepted for publication in the journal Systemic Practice and Action Research. Findings showed that participatory action research (PAR) was associated with early adoption of inorganic fertilizers among medium and high-resource farmers but with a reduction in incorporating crop residues among poor-resource farmers. Bridging social capital in terms of information access and diversity in the sources spurs fertilizer use and early adoption of new varieties, especially among high-resource farmers. In contrast, cooperatives, farmer groups, and farmer-farmer local networks support soil and water conservation, especially among low resource farmers. Among the high resource farmers, increased women's bargaining power for farm inputs supports fertilizer and manuring, while livestock resources support crop residue incorporation and vice versa. Both act as deterrents. The likelihood of practicing ISFM is constrained by the age of decision decision-makers and more dependants, but this is countered by education level and farm sizes. In the resource-constrained, with low extension and technical support, and men-dominated patrilineal farming systems, the study highlights the significance of PAR, information networks, and gender inclusivity in improving soil fertility management."}]},{"head":"Contributions of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) to various sustainable intensification impact domains:","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"A meta-analysis has been re-submitted to Agricultural Systems. The analysis was based on the context that implementation of integrated soil fertility management varies widely among farmers, from none to full ISFM, with multiple computations in between. Therefore, the intensity of ISFM is influenced by the number of ISFM components (improved germplasm, crop associations, organic resources, fertilizers, and local adaptations, e.g., soil and water conservation) used in a specific plot of a farmer's field. The findings show that the intensity of ISFM is higher in the sub-humid (1 to 4) than in the semi-arid ecozone (0 to 3). Except for SWC applied by 40% of farmers in both ecozones, the proportion of farmers using intercropping (91%), improved seeds (95%), and manure (55%) in the sub-humid ecozone is more than double those applying these ISFM components in the semi-arid ecozone. Productivity and economic benefits increase with the number of ISFM components at the expense of higher labor demand unless practices for drudgery reduction are employed. Differential access to resources and decision-making and control rights drive the choice of the specific ISFM components and the intensity of their application."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Africa RISING has achieved success with fertilizer microdosing, lablab and cowpea as cover crops, water harvesting, new varieties, Mbili-Mbili, toppings and strippings, extension services and demonstrations, and partnerships with the private sector. During 2021/2022, action under this sub-activity is to develop these successes into specific stories and district-wide policy messages (in English and Swahili) and communicate those through various media, specifically district-level key stakeholder/policy forums, etc. Progress is as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Compendium of success stories in English and Swahili. A compendium of nine success stories has been developed. The stories have been enriched with farmer voices and scientific agronomic data generated from field trials and household surveys conducted in Babati since 2013. Once refined, the success stories will be translated to Swahili and published on the Africa RISING website for ease of access."},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"YouTube videos communicating key stories and findings. Video shooting of farmers who have successfully adopted ISFM and Mbili-Mbili technologies was successfully conducted (Figure 6). Rich video material was captured. Video editing, script writing, and translation are in progress.  Sub-activity 5.1.3.2: Assessing the effect of residue quantity and quality, and water conservation on maize productivity and nitrogen dynamics on smallholder farms in Malawi Challenges in managing crop residues on the farms have been documented. The trade-offs are rarely used in informed decision-making. They indicate that high-quality residues must be preserved for soil fertility gains instead of the easy pathway of land preparation through burning the residues. While the knowledge of N dynamics, following the incorporation of different residue qualities, is fairly documented, what is not clear is the interaction between crop residue quality, quantity, and soil water management on maize productivity, which is the target of this study. In addition to the PhD thesis and one publication that were completed in 2020, a manuscript titled \"Crop residue quality and quantity and water management interactions on smallholder farms in Malawi\" is under development for submission in June 2022. -activity 5.1.3.3: Assessing the integrative effect of in-situ rainwater harvesting and fertilizer micro-dosing on crop yield, water, and nutrient use efficiency in Kongwa District"}]},{"head":"Sub","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The sub-activity has ended because no reports have been received for the last three consecutive periods."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Activity 5.1.4: Demonstrate the use and impact of crop residues, forages, and other organic resources as animal feed and nutrient resources Sub-activity 5.1.4.1: Test the effect of feeding Napier grass and Maize stover supplemented with bean haulms at different levels on milk yield under smallholder farmer conditions Sub-activity 5.1.4.2: Demonstrating the of effect home-made feed rations based on Gliricidia sepium and vegetable waste on the productivity of selected strains of chickens Both sub-activities ended in 2020 following the non-submission of two consecutive reports even after no-cost contractual extensions were awarded."}]},{"head":"Activity 5.1.5: Use crop-livestock models for trade-off analysis","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"No proposal was submitted to conduct research under this activity during this reporting period. Activity 5.1.6: Disseminate best-fit integrated crop-livestock technologies to reach and have an effect on small-scale farmers in a landscape context Sub-activity 5.1.6.1: Small-scale piloting of FarmMATCH -a framework for typology-based targeting and scaling agricultural innovations. (Matching Agricultural Technologies to Farms and their Context) Africa RISING has established that sustainable recommendation domains (SRDs) can be used to target scaling specific technologies (Muthoni et al. (2017 4 ). But the effectiveness of the suitability assessment can be further refined as long as the features of individual farms are considered and directly related to technology characteristics during the targeting phase. This study proposes using the FarmMATCH approach to fill this knowledge gap (i.e., facilitating the matching between agricultural technologies to farms and their context)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Existing Africa RISING GIS+ARBES data for Tanzania are used in this study. Relational databases have been constructed and a prototype app to test targeting has been developed. The testing dataset has been uploaded into Dataverse. A journal article is being drafted, with a target submission date the end of June 2022."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Activity 5.1.7: Conduct cost-benefit and gender analysis coupled with other socioeconomic analyses to identify and quantify adoption constraints and opportunities for different farmer contexts Sub-activity 5.1.7.1: Socio-economic studies on cost/benefits of CA systems, labor, nutrition, and gender in target communities of Malawi and Zambia 5.1.7.1 is merged with sub-activity 5.1.1.1."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Sub-activity 5.1.7.2: Farmer application of SI principles in CA long-term trials in Malawi and Zambia,: Socio-economic studies on nutritional benefits of SI practices These are now presented as Case Studies under sub-activity 5.1.1.4."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Sub-activity 5.1.7.4: Assess the effect of tied ridging, residual tied ridging and rip tillage on maize productivity, net crop returns, household income, and food security A summary of the study's progress was presented in the last report and an abstract of the conference paper \"The average and distributional impacts of soil and water conservation technologies on the welfare of smallholder farmers in Tanzania (https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/314992)\". A manuscript \"The income and food security impacts of soil and water conservation technologies in Tanzania\" adapted for journal publication was submitted to the World Development Journal and is currently under review."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.1.7.5: Determine the effect of the joint adoption of improved maize varieties and maize-legume rotation on maize productivity and crop incomes in Malawi","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"In Malawi, the Africa RISING project has been testing and promoting sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) to improve soil fertility, maize, and legume productivity, among others. However, estimating the returns from SIPs is dependent on the accurate measurement of production and cultivated plot size. In most cases, smallholder self-reported plot size and output are usually plagued with measurement errors, resulting in over or underestimating crop yields and incomes. The measurement error may be systematic and correlated with the adoption of SIPs (also correlated with the plot size), resulting in biased estimates of crop yields and incomes. Current studies have shown that measuring plots using Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and crop cuts for production can overcome some of these problems (Carletto et al., 2017 5 )."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Using unique plot-level longitudinal survey data, this study examines the impact of adopting a combination of improved maize varieties, maize-legume intercropping, residue retention, and organic fertilizer on the total value of maize productivity (TVMP) in Malawi. Unlike most studies that use farmers' self-reported farm sizes and production, we use GPS measured plots and crop cuts to measure productivity, reducing errors with either under-or over-estimating productivity. Of particular interest in this study was the empirical examination of the relationships between temperatures (minimum and maximum), rainfall, and the adoption of SI practices."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"In the April-Sept 2021 report, we presented a summary of findings based on the analysis of the data available then, and a manuscript was to have been submitted by February 2022. We, however, identified problems with the data and estimation procedures which have since been sorted. The results are currently being updated after obtaining additional data and modifying the analysis procedure. The new date for submitting the manuscript is June 2022."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"Sub-activity 5.1.7.6: Determine Africa RISING research on household welfare and return on investment Africa RISING ESA project has been testing, validating, and promoting improved SI technologies to sustainably increase agricultural productivity, food, and nutrition security and reduce poverty. Despite these achievements, rigorous impact evaluation has not been done to investigate the impact of these interventions on the return on investment (ROI) and household welfare. This study is vital in assessing whether changes in a particular outcome are due to AR project intervention and not to other factors. Secondly, research requires some substantial investments. Therefore, to justify funding for research, it is imperative to show the return on investment. A manuscript on the \"Impact of AR investments on ROI, productivity, food security, and poverty\" has been drafted in collaboration with ACDI-VOCA and is currently under review by co-authors, with a targeted submission date of May 2022. Some preliminary results were presented in the April-September 2021 report."}]},{"head":"Output 5.2 Strategic partnerships with public and private initiatives for the diffusion and adoption of research products Activity 5.2.1: Map and assess relevant stakeholders to establish dialogue for th e exploration of mutual synergies for scaling delivery of validated technologies Sub-activity 5.2.1.1: Engage able and willing partners to develop a strategy and implementation framework for scaling up intensification technologies in semi-arid ecologies of central Tanzania","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"To support scaling of technologies via improved seed, the project continued to work with DASPA and KFC-community based seed production and grain marketing associations whom we entered into MoU in2021. Breeder seed to support the production of foundation seed was procured and supplied to DASPA. The seed production initiative is guided by the seed roadmap developed in 2021 (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.2.1.2: Summary of other partner engagements","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"• CIAT is still working in partnership with private institutions SEED-CO, Dekalb Seed Company, and Minjingu Fertilizer Company. These companies contributed some inputs to be used in the demos and would later be involved during farmer field days. Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute -Selian and Babati District Council are our key national contacts expected to scale-out technologies and knowledge generated during and beyond the Africa RISING project period. • CIMMYT has maintained a partnership with most organizations previously involved with the work (ZARI, TLC, Governmental extension services in Malawi and Zambia) and continues the alliance with the Sustainable Intensification for Smallholder Farmers in Zambia (SIFAZ) project led by FAO. The implementers are CIMMYT, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Africa SOIL project, and the University of Edinburgh. Monitoring visits and field tours in Zambia this year have been conducted jointly (Figure 7). The SIFAZ project has maintained six additional target communities (40 mother trials and 1000 baby trials) in Eastern Zambia, which follows similar research ideas and the successes and experiences gained through Africa RISING."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"• The NORAD-funded ACASA project jointly implemented by IITA and CIMMYT has conducted further socio-economic research on CA systems in Malawi and Zambia and will add new insights on the research questions on why CA systems, although so beneficial, are not widely adopted.  In the last report, we presented two new developments that have delayed the implementation of national performance trials (NPTs). They are (i) a change of procedure for seed companies to access new breeding products and (ii) access new products by seed companies through the institutional (CIMMYT's Product Allocation Committee -PAC) stage-gate process rather than through the researcher. The PI left the CIMMYT office in Nairobi after handing over to the PAC."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The update we have received from CIMMYT Nairobi is that some of the Africa RISING hybrids can be presented to the Director as a special case for consideration, specifically for Tanzania. What is required is:"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"1. A list of the hybrids (should not be more than two to have a chance during the discussion with the Director) 2. The performance data for the Kongwa and Kiteto sites where they were tested 3. A list of the interested seed companies"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"The PI, even after transfer to ICRISAT Zimbabwe, has agreed to provide the information."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"Sub-activity 5.2.2.2: Support the Ministry of Agriculture and NGO Extension in scaling CAsystems in Eastern Zambia and Malawi Africa RISING research partner CIMMYT has maintained working relationships with most scaling organizations over time (ZARI, TLC, CRS, and Governmental extension services in Malawi and Zambia). Due to the late onset of rains, some promotional and scaling activities have shifted from March to April and will be reported on in the next report. However, some of the field days have already happened in Southern Malawi and Eastern Zambia. A complete list of events and participating farmers will be provided in the next Report."},{"index":7,"size":222,"text":"All trial sites were visited during the annual field and study tours in February 2022. Sister projects and their personnel joined us in Zambia (here we collaborate with the EU -funded SIFAZ project) and in southern Malawi (here we collaborate with the Africa SOIL project). These joined tours help us expose more extension personnel to the trial locations, their objectives, and technologies. As a very interesting development, there is a Technology Release Team now active in Zambia and they commented on technologies that we have been promoting and trialing in Eastern Zambia. Some of these technologies have truly advanced and have been mainstreamed  Sub-activity 5.3.1.2: Role of gender from farm-to-fork and grain markets of legumes and dryland cereals in Kiteto and Kongwa The main output of this sub-activity is a thesis with the working title \"Women empowerment and impact on maternal and child nutrition outcomes.\" The thesis write-up has not progressed because the student's continued illness caused her discontinuation. However, data were analyzed and the drafting of the manuscript is underway. Additional data was collected (August-September 2021) and will be combined with previous data sets to strengthen the gender empowerment and nutrition components of the manuscript, \"Gender empowerment and associations with maternal and child nutrition outcomes in rural Tanzanian households.. We target to submit the manuscript to a journal by June 2022."}]},{"head":"Sub-activity 5.3.1.3: Identify and communicate gender-sensitive decision support tools in the context of different farm typologies","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Technology testing in Malawi and Tanzania has been accompanied by gender evaluations based on the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF). However, an important question has not yet sufficiently been addressed, namely how household decision-making and technology adoption interact. Output 5.3 (Activity 5.3.1) in the logframe for Africa RISING East and Southern Africa stipulates an investigation of this question with an action research approach. The research combines elements from household methodologies (Gender Action Learning System, GALS) with farmer exchange visits. The technological focus is on soil and water conservation technologies and legume-maize integration. During this reporting period, the following have been implemented:"},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"1. Data collection for both Tanzania and Malawi took place between November 2021 and March 2022. This included two three-day workshops with men and women farmers in Ntcheu/Malawi and Kongwa/Tanzania and evaluation workshops with the research teams in both countries. 2. All data (qualitative and quantitative) have been processed (transcribed, entered, cleaned) and are ready for analysis and write-up. Submission of the manuscript is scheduled for June 2022. 3. Household methodology manuals titled Integrated socio-technological decision-support tools for Malawi and Tanzania have been tested and revised and are almost complete (last round of revisions is pending)."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Challenges and actions taken 1. For Mbili-Mbili technology trials in Babati district of Tanzania, shifts in dates for the normal rainfall onset were a major challenge encountered during this season. This had adverse effects on the bean crop, which was affected by high rainfall in March resulting in high yield losses. However, farmers were able to identify the potential of Mbili-Mbili and its capability to cushion total legume losses, considering the presence of pigeonpea as a second legume. 2. The late onset of rains also happened in Malawi and Zambia. This has caused delays in conducting field days, evaluation meetings, roadshows, and other promotional work; these will be implemented and reported in the next report. 3. Capacity building for farmer groups was affected by land ownership. Farmer groups did not have their own group fields so members had to select a farmer who would host the demos. Considering that the selected fields would only be used as learning sites by group members, their full involvement in running all activities was limited. To achieve our objective, we encouraged group members to ensure they devote some good time to learning within the demos and, if possible, replicate the lessons in their own fields."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Locations where the Africa RISING-ESA Project has conducted research (green diamond) and scaling (red triangle). "},{"text":"Output 4 . 1 Access to profitable markets for smallholder farming communities and priority value chains facilitatedActivity 4.1.1: Conduct a comprehensive value-chain analysis with a specific focus on SI technologies Sub-activity 4.1.1.1: Conduct value chain analysis (VCA) for (quality protein) maize seed in Kongwa and Kiteto Results of this study were merged with those of sub-activity 4.1.1.2 to produce one stronger manuscript (see progress report under 4.1.1.2). "},{"text":" Soil Fertility Management in Babati.pdf Sub-activity 4.1.1.4: Assess how livelihoods of farmers are affected by the implementation of ISFM practices as a result of Africa RISING activities in Kongwa and Kiteto "},{"text":" Conduct a value chain stakeholder analysis (stakeholder mapping) Activity 4.1.3: Develop a value chain enhancement strategy (including collective action approaches, contractual arrangements, and standardization) Sub-activities under Activities 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 are addressed by the relevant value chain subactivities presented under Activity 4.1.1. Activity 4.1.4: Identify and evaluate existing mechanisms that inform farmers about dynamic market needs Sub-activity 4.1.4.1: Exploring ICTs for linking farmers to markets The continuing activity with the MWANGA Platform is merged with and reported under subactivity 1.3.1.1. "},{"text":"Notes: The dependent variable in all the regression models' is household dietary diversity score (HDDS). All models are estimated by a Poisson panel data regression model. Coefficient estimates are drawn from correlated random effects (CRE). Marginal effects of commercialization on dietary diversity are shown with standard error bars. ** p < 0•05, *** p < 0•01. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Association between farm commercialization and dietary diversity "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. CA mother trials with doubled-up legume systems in their early stage (left) and largescale adoption of CA systems in Mwansambo (right), February 2022. Photo Credit: CIMMYT/Thierfelder "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Scenes of video capture of farmers' success stories in Babati District, Tanzania. Photo credit: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"Farmer and extension guide in English and Swahili. The field guide on soil fertility management in Babati has been improved from the earlier version developed in 2019. The English version has already been translated to Swahili. Designing of the English version is at its final stages, while the Swahili version has already been laid out and is undergoing design. Finalized guides will be launched during the district-level key stakeholder/policy forum, which will be held between May and July 2022.Activity 5.1.3: Establish adaptive field experiments with mineral and crop/animal-derived organic manure Sub-activity 5.1.3.1: Rainfall-responsive nitrogen fertilization strategies: in search of increased nitrogen use efficiency by smallholder farmers under rainfed conditions in Malawi This study aimed to identify financial risk reduction based on formulating innovations around N fertilizer use by smallholder farmers guided by rainfall conditions. One manuscript (https://doi.org/10.1080/2150704X.2021.1938733) was published (see April-September 2021 report) and the sub-activity closed. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Joint annual field and study tour between Africa RISING and SIFAZ projects in Hoya, Eastern Zambia. Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Facilitators from Africa RISING and LEAD Foundation pose for a group photo after installing Fanya chini terraces, being first defense terrace, on a lead farmer's (Amandus Fredrick Mbua) land in Ikungi District. Photo credit: Eliehema Swai/TARI. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. A lead farmer (Mohamed Shabani Selemani) at Ighuka village, Ikunga District, standing in his field installed with Fanya juu terrace. Photo credit: Eliehema Swai/TARI. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Targeted deliverables for 2020/2021 and status on achievements  Deliverables (2021/2022) Delivery dates Deliverables (2021/2022)Delivery dates Manuscript on the nutritional interactions and resource-use Target submission date: April 2022 Manuscript on the nutritional interactions and resource-useTarget submission date: April 2022 efficiency in G. sepium intercropping  efficiency in G. sepium intercropping Risk analysis of Gliricidia sepium-Maize intercropping under Target submission date: June 2022 Risk analysis of Gliricidia sepium-Maize intercropping underTarget submission date: June 2022 semiarid conditions  semiarid conditions Manuscript on the adoption and socio-economic impacts of Target submission date: April 2022 Manuscript on the adoption and socio-economic impacts ofTarget submission date: April 2022 agroforestry technologies  agroforestry technologies  "},{"text":"in target areas Activity 1.2.1: Support local partners through training on appropriate drudgery -reducing technology delivery. No sub-activity was planned for 2019-2020. Activity 1.2.2: Co sensitive research products to reduce drudgery while increasing labor efficiency in the production cycle piloted for relevant typologies -adapt existing mechanization options with target communities -adapt existing mechanization options with target communities Sub-activity 1.2.2.1: Use of tractor mounted ripper tillage implement for enhancing soil water Sub-activity 1.2.2.1: Use of tractor mounted ripper tillage implement for enhancing soil water infiltration and moisture conservation in semi-arid areas of Kiteto infiltration and moisture conservation in semi-arid areas of Kiteto This study was initiated during the 2018/2019 cropping season to determine the potential This study was initiated during the 2018/2019 cropping season to determine the potential benefits of rip tillage (RT) in semi-arid agroecologies of Central Tanzania. The collection of data benefits of rip tillage (RT) in semi-arid agroecologies of Central Tanzania. The collection of data was continued during the 2019/2020 season. Analysis of the two seasons' data contributed to was continued during the 2019/2020 season. Analysis of the two seasons' data contributed to the manuscript titled \"Factoring labor in the comparison of in situ rainwater harvesting the manuscript titled \"Factoring labor in the comparison of in situ rainwater harvesting technologies for semi-arid areas of Central Tanzania\" submitted to Soil & Tillage Research technologies for semi-arid areas of Central Tanzania\" submitted to Soil & Tillage Research Journal and is currently under review. The draft manuscript abstract was presented in the April- Journal and is currently under review. The draft manuscript abstract was presented in the April- September 2021 report. September 2021 report. Output 1.3. Tools (including ICT-based) and approaches for disseminating Output 1.3. Tools (including ICT-based) and approaches for disseminating recommendations in relation to the above research products, integrated into recommendations in relation to the above research products, integrated into capacity development capacity development Activity 1.3.1: Conduct extrapolation domain analysis based on GIS, agroecology, and Activity 1.3.1: Conduct extrapolation domain analysis based on GIS, agroecology, and crop model-generated information to establish the potential of technologies for crop model-generated information to establish the potential of technologies for geographical reach geographical reach Sub-activity 1.3.1.1: Farmer/Extension messaging (forage production and use, crop residue Sub-activity 1.3.1.1: Farmer/Extension messaging (forage production and use, crop residue  "},{"text":" Data from this work has now been published in different formats:Regis Chikowo, John Olwande, Maria Wanzala, Mary Lubungu, Hambulo Ngoma, Pedro Sanchez. 2021. Opportunities for Building Resilience of African Farming Systems. In: AGRA Africa Agriculture Status Report. A Decade of Action: Building Sustainable and Resilient Food Systems in Africa (Issue 9). Nairobi, Kenya: Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). Pp 68-92 (https://agra.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/AASR-2021-A-Decade-of-Action-_Building-Sustainable-and-Resilient-Food-Systems-in-Africa.pdf) Fred Kizito, Regis Chikowo, Anthony Kimaro, Elirehema Swai. 2022. Chapter 5: Soil and water conservation for climate resilience. In: Bekunda, M.,Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., & and Odhong J. (Eds). A handbook of approaches in sustainable agricultural intensification for farmers in East and Southern Africa. Pp 62-79. CABI (. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781800621602.0001).  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Observable and unobservable quality premiums for maize and beans Variable (1) (2) Variable(1)(2)  Maize WTP Beans WTP Maize WTPBeans WTP Sorted maize 72.97 ***  Sorted maize72.97 ***  (7.25)  (7.25) Sorted and labeled maize 85.84 ***  Sorted and labeled maize85.84 ***  (7.93)  (7.93) Sorted beans  191.17 *** Sorted beans191.17 ***   (17.52) (17.52) Sorted and labeled beans  214.41 *** Sorted and labeled beans214.41 ***   (18.32) (18.32) Constant 291.39 *** 1378.20 *** Constant291.39 ***1378.20 ***  (6.89) (20.95) (6.89)(20.95) Observations 1665 1665 Observations16651665 Number of unique bidders 555 555 Number of unique bidders555555 Observable quality premium (\uD835\uDEFD 1 ) 72.973 *** 191.171*** Observable quality premium (\uD835\uDEFD 1 )72.973 ***191.171*** Unobservable quality 12.865* 23.243 Unobservable quality12.865*23.243 premium (\uD835\uDEFD 1 − \uD835\uDEFD 2 )   premium (\uD835\uDEFD 1 − \uD835\uDEFD 2 ) F-test: Observed quality premium = F = 3.61* F = 2.12 F-test: Observed quality premium =F = 3.61*F = 2.12 unobserved quality premium   unobserved quality premium  "},{"text":"Partnerships for the scaling of sustainable intensification research products and innovations Output 5.1 Opportunities for the use and adoption of sustainable intensification technologies identified for relevant farm typologies Activity 5.1.1: Farmer participatory experimentation with crop and soil management and Activity 5.1.1: Farmer participatory experimentation with crop and soil management and integrated crop-livestock technologies in on-farm situations integrated crop-livestock technologies in on-farm situations Sub-activity 5.1.1.1: Continued experimentation in six target communities of Eastern Zambia Sub-activity 5.1.1.1: Continued experimentation in six target communities of Eastern Zambia and nine target communities in central and southern Malawi with already established and nine target communities in central and southern Malawi with already established clustered CA trials clustered CA trials This study aims to demonstrate the best This study aims to demonstrate the best  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Soil fertility differentiation among farmer groups and low and high fertility fields within farmer groups.  SOC (%) for low and Clay content (%) for pH for low and high SOC (%) for low andClay content (%) forpH for low and high  high fertility fields low and high fertility fertility fields high fertility fieldslow and high fertilityfertility fields    fields    fields Farmer Low High Low High Low High FarmerLowHighLowHighLowHigh Category       Category Mother farms 0.874 0.999 23.3 26.94 5.62 5.67 Mother farms0.8740.99923.326.945.625.67 Baby farms 1.012 1.017 26.08 28.42 5.45 5.59 Baby farms1.0121.01726.0828.425.455.59 Distant control 0.957 0.958 24.8 26.42 5.6 5.57 Distant control0.9570.95824.826.425.65.57 Local control 0.946 0.991 26.33 26.76 5.64 5.6 Local control0.9460.99126.3326.765.645.6 Average 0.956 0.988 25.35 27.15 5.573 5.596 Average0.9560.98825.3527.155.5735.596 p-value 0.734  0.839  0.29  p-value0.7340.8390.29  "},{"text":"• TARI Hombolo continued to collaborate with LEAD Foundation to roll out Fanya juu/chini terraces in two districts (Manyoni and Ikungi) of Singida Region, Tanzania. • Africa RISING has continued its partnership with the Kilimo Endelevu project of Iles de Paix (IDP) to scale best bet technologies in Karatu. Other partners include Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA) and Research Community and Organizational Development Associates (RECODA). • WorldVeg has linkages with the Mboga na Matunda (MnM) project and TAHA in Zanzibar and Arusha, respectively. These projects have benefited from nutrition materials and scaling technologies validated during Africa RISING Phase 1 in Zanzibar. Leverage/link and integrate (engagement and outreach) with existing initiatives, including Government extension systems, to support and encourage the delivery pathways Sub-activity 5.2.2.1: Engage with seed companies to accelerate QPM seed scaling in Tanzania Activity 5.2.2: Activity 5.2.2:  "}],"sieverID":"234b8840-bba3-452c-a43c-42011c5f2b90","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00402e34d6017e5330d4020b7a29f9a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b8729e62-5bfd-47a6-be6e-8f581c7aaf6a/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Informal fish retailing in rural Egypt: Opportunities to enhance income and work conditions for women and men 2 3 Authors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IntroduCtIon IntroduCtIon","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Egyptian aquaculture has seen steady growth over the last 20 years. It is now a strategically important industry that provides around 65 percent of the fish eaten by Egyptians. The aquaculture value chain employs at least 100,000 full-time equivalents, 50 percent of whom are youth. 1 Aquaculture-derived fish is by far the cheapest farmed animal protein source in the country, making the sector particularly important for the country's 21 million poor people. Continued, sustainable growth of aquaculture has the potential to lift people out of poverty and to improve poor people's food and nutrition security through increased supply of protein and essential micronutrients. Achieving these impacts, however, depends on how the growth is achieved and how inclusively its benefits are shared."},{"index":2,"size":254,"text":"Poor rural consumers benefit from Egypt's aquaculture sector through access to small and medium-sized farmed tilapia sold by informal fish retailers, many of whom are women. In fact, informal fish retail is the main, if not only, segment of the farmed fish value chain where women are found. 2 The \"Improving Employment and Incomes Through the Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector\" project -referred to by the acronym IEIDEAS -is funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and works with women fish vendors to improve their work conditions and earnings. The project is implemented by WorldFish and CARE in the El-Mineya, Fayoum, Kafr El Sheikh, Sharqia and Beheira governorates. 3 The IEIDEAS project faces a challenging task, given the range of risks and constraints the fish retailers face, but one that is important in order to improve the attractiveness of this economic activity and to secure poor consumers' access to farmed fish. This report aims to inform current and future strategies to improve conditions in informal fish retail by understanding in more depth the similarities and differences in employment quality and outcomes across different fish retailers. It is particularly focused on identifying whether and how gender inequality influences different dimensions of the work, and whether women and men have similar outcomes and employment conditions. This knowledge will help to design interventions to overcome gender-based constraints, as well as approaches that address shared obstacles and include both women and men in gender-responsive ways to ensure that all of those involved in the sector benefit."}]},{"head":"InformAl employment, deCent work And gender","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Informal employment, decent work and gender","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Rural fish vending is an employment activity sitting squarely within the informal economy, which is based on the workers' unregistered status and their related lack of claim to formal sources of social, economic or legal protection. Informal employment is a significant and often growing segment of the labor force in many developing countries, because it is an easy means of entry into work when formal jobs and access to them are limited, a way to diversify income streams, and a means for firms to reduce labor costs through the flexibility of subcontracted workers. 4 The current economic crisis in Egypt and the limited number of public sector jobs in relation to the large number of people seeking workparticularly young women and men -make informal employment a viable, if not preferred, option for many. Rising food insecurity and pressure to make ends meet also push families to intensify their existing livelihood strategies, including putting more family membersincluding women -into paid work. Informal self-employment such as vending can offer ready income-earning options in such conditions."},{"index":2,"size":597,"text":"While informal employment is a significant and stable component of the labor force in Egypt 5 and other developing countries, it is characterized by various forms of insecurity. As noted earlier, these insecurities relate to the unregistered nature of the work, which generally means that workers are not covered by public or private sector social protection schemes when these exist, may not have employment contracts or benefits, may lack secure and equitable access to business services or space from which to run their business, and may not have representation in policy debates or in interactions with employers, traders or others with important influence on their business. 6 More specific to the focal group of workers of interest in this report is the literature on the risks and insecurities that women and men vendors -a sub-category of the informal self-employed -face. These risks emerge from most vendors' lack of legal status, which means that they do not have any license or registration related to their work. 7 This unregistered status means that most lack secure claim to space from which to vend in marketplaces or on the street, may have difficulty accessing credit from banks or microfinance institutions and other support or services, and may be vulnerable to harassment and exploitation. The insecurity of tenure around space to vend can expose vendors to poor working conditions, including absence of toilets and clean water and exposure to adverse weather conditions. Added to this is the dimension of voice and how vendors are positioned relative to those supplying or buying the products they sell. The quality and breadth of these relationships, including the amount of negotiating power vendors have over the price, quality and quantity of goods they sell, have a significant influence on the regularity and level of income they earn. All of these factors contribute to deficits in the achievement of the International Labour Organization standard of decent work, which is defined in the context of the informal economy in relation to the range and quality of opportunities available, the ability to claim and secure rights as workers, access to social protection, and ability to organize locally and globally. 8 It is also well established that women and men in the informal economy can have very different opportunities and outcomes based on how gender norms and attitudes shape daily life, including how institutions like the market function in the specific society in question. 9 Women in the informal economy are often concentrated in more vulnerable, low-return segments, including home-based work. Women vendors may also sell lower-value merchandise due to difficulty in obtaining the working capital to enter higher-value markets. Women in all types of self-employment may be unable to own or control the same assets as men, may operate at a smaller scale, and have less ability to claim family labor or afford to hire paid workers. Due to norms around the household division of labor, women also generally spend a considerable portion of their day caring for the family, leaving less time for income-generating activities or requiring them to multitask while working for pay. This need to care for the home, coupled with cultural norms around women's visibility in the public A trader selling fish to women retailers at an upgraded fish market in Fayoum Photo credit: Heba el Begawi/WorldFish 6 sphere in some contexts -including in Egypt -mean women may have narrower options for purchasing inputs or selling goods and less opportunity to participate in training or in worker organizations. They also may lack networks through which to access information about prices, technologies or service providers."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"These gendered risks and insecurities mean that informal employment is not necessarily a pathway out of poverty for many individuals and families. Policy "}]},{"head":"study sites","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The study was implemented in the five IEIDEAS project governorates: Fayoum, El-Mineya, Sharqia, Beheira and Kafr El Sheikh. Characteristics of each of the sites are presented in Table 1 to provide context for later cross-governorate comparisons of fish retailer experiences."},{"index":2,"size":275,"text":"All of the governorates are centers of agricultural production, and there is considerable variation across the five in terms of intensity of aquaculture, with Kafr El Sheikh producing the largest amount of farmed fish in Egypt, and having a major fish market -El Borsa -which is responsible for setting the daily price of fish in Kafr El Sheikh villages and neighborhoods, as well as in surrounding governorates. Also, it has around 10 wholesale and retail markets distributed among the different aquaculture centers, such as El Riyad, Balteem, Qelin and El-Hamool. The main types of fish sold in Kafr El Sheikh are tilapia, mullet, African catfish and carp. Sharqia is the second-highest producer of farmed fish in Egypt. The primary types of fish sold in Sharqia are tilapia, grey mullet or bouri, carp, African catfish, thin-lipped mullet or tobar, mackerel, and sardines. Beheira also produces significant quantities of fish, as demonstrated in Table 1, including mullet, tilapia, silver carp and African catfish. Fish farms in Fayoum contribute about 1 percent of national fish production. The governorate produces mullet, tilapia, African catfish and carp. Fayoum has around 10 fish markets, mainly in Ibshway, Sanhour and Youssef El Sedeeq. Fish farming is a new activity in El-Mineya, and the main fish cultured and sold in local markets are tilapia, African catfish and bagrus catfish or bayad. This report provides just such an analysis for informal fish retail in rural Egypt in order to understand the interconnecting roles of gender inequality and informality in influencing employment quality and outcomes, and to tease out implications for future efforts to enhance employment conditions in the sector for both women and men."}]},{"head":"Governorates","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Unemployment rates vary across the governorates, hitting a rate at or above 10 percent in two of the three Delta governorates, and being considerably lower in the two Upper Egypt governorates -particularly in Fayoum. Similarly, women's unemployment rates, which are far higher than the overall unemployment rates, are lower in the Upper Egypt governorates than in the Delta. This is likely driven in part by relative poverty rates, which are higher in Upper Egypt. Poverty may drive people in general and women specifically to take up work that they might not otherwise choose to do; unemployment is not an option if a family is to meet its basic needs."}]},{"head":"research methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The aim of this study is to conduct a gender analysis of the conditions and outcomes of retail work in the farmed fish value chain in order to identify whether and how gender interacts with characteristics of the employment itself -particularly its informality, scale and quality of trader relations -to result in different outcomes and conditions of work for women and men. In order to carry out the analysis, a consulting firm was hired to collect both quantitative and qualitative information on the current situation of women and men fish retailers in the IEIDEAS project locations, with emphasis on quantitative survey data."}]},{"head":"Quantitative survey and sample","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The structured questionnaire focused primarily on individual fish retailers and included questions on household characteristics, including household members and housing and economic conditions. The issues addressed in the survey included fish-related and nonpaid activities of fish retailers, species and qualities of fish bought, prices, sales volumes, wastage, trader relations, transport, storage and point of sale conditions, and gender attitude and decision-making questions. The questionnaire was translated from English into Arabic and field tested in two governorates before being finalized for field implementation."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"The target sample size for the study was driven by estimates of the population of women fish retailers reached by the IEIDEAS project. and the number of study respondents per governorate was determined in proportion to the governorate's share of total beneficiaries. However, in some governorates, women fish retailers sold their fish in different final markets, and respondent selection in these cases was stratified by market reached. In order to enable analysis by stratum, a minimum sample of 35 respondents per stratum was requested. This led to a desired sample size of women fish retailer beneficiaries of 374. In the governorates of Fayoum and Beheira, the study also interviewed women fish retailers not in the project as a comparison group to enable assessment of the effects of the IEIDEAS project at the end of the project. The target sample size of women retailer nonbeneficiaries matched that of beneficiaries in those two governorates (n=164). Nonbeneficiary women were identified at fish retail markets where they work. For the purposes of this gender analysis, the women respondents are combined into one group. Finally, men fish retailers were also sampled from the markets in which they work, with the target male sample size equal to that of women beneficiary fish retailers in each governorate, except in El Mineya, where existing information noted that men fish retailers were not working in one project site. In the end, all the men retailers in Fayoum and Kafr El Sheikh who were identified in the markets were selected in order to achieve the maximum respondents possible, while in the other sites men were randomly selected by including every second male retailer until the desired sample size was reached."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Table 2 shows the target and actual sample size per governorate. A total of 748 questionnaires were completed instead of 877 due to shortfalls in respondents in some categories. In Sharqia, the community development authority's list of women fish retailers only had 33 who had been fish retailers before the project; these 33 were included in the study. In Kafr El Sheikh, there were few men fish retailers. Therefore, the total number of interviewed men was only 55 instead of 70. In Fayoum, almost all the men who work in fish-related activities are fishers and not fish retailers. For this reason, the total number of interviewed men was only 12."}]},{"head":"Qualitative interviews and focus groups","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Qualitative interview guides with open-ended and semi structured questions were developed for use in conducting in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with the women beneficiaries and in-depth interviews with traders. The questions in the focus group discussion guidelines explored participants' perceptions related to fish retailing activities, obstacles faced and benefits gained by participating in the project activities."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"The participants in the focus group discussions were selected in collaboration with the community development associations in the target governorates. The associations reseArCh sItes And methods reseArCh sItes And methods arranged the focus group discussions for the interview teams and also provided the teams with traders' contacts. Additionally, individual interviews with two women retailers per governorate were conducted. The focus group discussions and individual interviews, including those with traders, took place in the community development associations in all the governorates except for Sharqia, where the focus group discussion was conducted in the home of one of the beneficiaries and the interviewers spoke to traders in the market."}]},{"head":"Constraints and limitations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The field teams faced a range of challenges related to different issues: the political situation and security in Egypt in the data collection period; curfew and restrictions in public transportation that posed some logistical problems; research fatigue among respondents, as they had participated in several similar data collection exercises with promises of future benefits that have not been realized; and the fact that the interviews were conducted during fish retailers' working hours, influencing their concentration and willingness to participate. "}]},{"head":"demographic characteristics","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The average age of the women and men fish retailers in the sample is 37 and 36 years, respectively, and most are married. Women predominate in the widowed or divorced category and men in the single category. There are significant differences in household size and composition between the women and men fish retailers. On average, women fish retailers live in larger households, and within these households there are more children under age 15 (2.1 versus 1.5). They also live in families with a significantly lower share of nonworkers (see Table 8 in the annex). The latter may indicate that women retailers' families have a higher relative poverty status, as their larger families with more children are driven to put more members into the labor force to survive. Gender differences in household size in El-Mineya and relatively large average family sizes among the women respondents in Fayoum seem to drive the general finding regarding women fish retailers' larger households. Only in Beheira do the men fish retailers have a significantly larger number of children than the women do, on average."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"A much larger share of the women fish retailers are illiterate compared to the men, except in Fayoum, and more men have secondary education or higher (Figure 1). It could be argued that this difference in educational attainment reflects the selection criteria used to mobilize women's participation in the IEIDEAS project. However, similar levels of illiteracy are found among the women nonproject participants."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Figure Three questions focused on the gendered division of labor and particularly on attitudes about the relative intensity of women's work and the appropriateness and ability of men to be involved in domestic work (see Table 9 in the annex). In three governorates (El-Mineya, Fayoum and Kafr El Sheikh), large shares of both women and men disagree with the proposition that men can care for children as well as women can, signaling support for women's traditional role in child care. Sharqia and Beheira stand out as having more than half of the men and about two-thirds or more of the women agreeing that men can do this work as well as women. Only in Beheira is there a significant difference between women and men in their level of agreement with the statement, with significantly more women than men agreeing."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The majority of respondents in all governorates, except for the women respondents in Kafr El Sheikh, agree with the idea that it is embarrassing for men to help with household work. This strong agreement is a reflection of the traditional gender division of labor, with women responsible for general homemaking activities. The agreement also signals the challenge involved in achieving more equitable sharing of domestic work, as issues of honor and status are involved. There is also a belief that the work women do is less taxing than men's, again with Kafr El Sheikh being different."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"The majority of women respondents there disagree with this belief, at levels significantly different from those of the men."},{"index":6,"size":233,"text":"Another relevant social norm in the Egyptian context has to do with women's mobility. While women fish retailers work in public, this is often out of necessity, as female seclusion tends to be the ideal, particularly in rural areas. The responses to the gender attitude questions related to women's mobility provide some interesting insights. On the one hand, there is strong and clear agreement across women and men in all governorates that women need men's permission in order to leave the home; they are not independent agents able to come and go without this approval. An interesting contradiction arises in two other statements related to women's mobility and work. On the one hand, a majority of women and men in most governorates agree that women and men have the same right to work outside of the home. There is more disagreement with this statement among men in Sharqia, Fayoum and Kafr El Sheikh, and among women in Fayoum. However, when more conditions are placed on the statement, the responses shift markedly; the majority of woman and men across governorates agree that it is not acceptable for a married woman to work outside of the home if her husband earns sufficient income. So, female seclusion is held as an ideal standard when financial conditions allow, even though there is agreement with the abstract notion of women's equal right to work outside of the home."},{"index":7,"size":151,"text":"Low expectations around women's capacities can lead to limits being placed on their agency by women themselves and by others. There is evidence that this may be an issue in some of the study governorates, reflected in results regarding perceptions of women's capacities to make important decisions by themselves and somewhat less so in perceptions of women's capabilities to be community leaders (Figure 2). Considerable shares of respondents disagree with the statement that women can make important decisions by themselves, and this is particularly the case among women and men in El-Mineya and Fayoum, and among men in Kafr El Sheikh. There is more belief in women's capabilities to be community leaders; however, a considerable share of men in Kafr El Sheikh and women in Fayoum disagree with this. Such attitudes may make women less confident to take up decision-making roles or may lead to resistance from others when they do."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Finally, gender attitude questions were asked about financial decision-making and control over savings. There was widespread agreement about the importance of joint financial decision-making in the home. However, when questions focused on women's own control over resources, there was less agreement. In relation to married women's independent use of their own savings, there were interesting levels of disagreement with women's \"right\" in this regard among women; more women in Fayoum and El-Mineya reported conservative attitudes, and more women in Beheira and Sharqia reported progressive attitudes. Higher shares of men than women disagreed with married women's right to make such independent decisions in all governorates except El-Mineya."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"How does decision-making play out in practice?"},{"index":10,"size":121,"text":"Respondents were asked about actual decisionmaking in the home in relation to the use of the respondent's own earnings, use of total household income and large household purchases. The findings correspond with the general agreement on the importance of joint financial decision-making in the sense that significant majorities of both women and men report being consulted in all three of these decisions and having a say in the final decision (see Tables 10-12 in the annex). However, responses to questions about what happens if there is a disagreement are interesting. Tradition plays out in these cases, with the majority of women across governorates reporting that their spouse's views prevail in such circumstances and almost all men reporting that their view prevails."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"Compared to the other governorates, fewer women in Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira report their husband's view as prevailing. In the end, it appears that joint decision-making works when there is agreement between spouses."},{"index":12,"size":24,"text":"gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt "}]},{"head":"Share of respondents disagreeing with the statement","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Women are capable of making decisions by themselves Women are capable to be community leaders In summary, the results describe a social context in which women's traditional roles in the family are strong, where women can move out of the home for work when economic need requires but only with permission from husbands, where women's leadership capacity has limited acceptance among many men and some women, and where women's control over financial resources, even those they earn or contribute to, is limited; joint decision-making is an ideal, but when conflicts arise, men's views dominate. It is within this understanding of gender that the women and men fish retailer respondents in this study operate. The balance of the report assesses how this gender context affects employment options and outcomes for women and men in the sector."}]},{"head":"entry into and organization of fish retailing work","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Most women and men fish retailer respondents have been in the profession for more than three years, so it is an established activity. There is more variation in how long retailers have been in the profession in Sharqia, where about onethird of women and men respondents have been involved for only one to three years, and 15 percent of women for less than one year. Longevity in the fish retail profession is partly explained in Fayoum and El-Mineya by links to fisher spouses among the women, and family tradition for both women and men. Similarly, more than half of men in Beheira report family tradition as one reason for entering fish retail."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Some women's motivations for entering fish retail","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Tradition and family business Heba, a 50-year-old fish retailer from Fayoum, in fish retail for 30 years: \"All the family members are working in fish-related activities; my husband and boys are fishermen. \""},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Laila, an 18-year-old fish retailer from Beheira, in fish retail for three years: \"I have worked in fish retail since I was a child. All my family members work in fishing and selling fish. After my marriage I continued to work on a daily basis to help my husband. \""}]},{"head":"Economic need and support from network","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Fatima, a 30-year-old fish retailer from Sharqia, in fish retail for 10 years and head of her household: \"I have applied to many jobs without success. One of my friends was a fish retailer; she suggested I work like her and I started to sell fish. \" Mona, a 35-year-old fish retailer from Kafr El Sheikh, in fish retail for 10 years: \"I tried to find a job but I failed. Some family members and friends suggested this job so I started to work as a fish retailer. \""},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Very few women or men entered the profession out of personal interest, with significant shares across governorates reporting that a lack of other options drove them to this work (Figure 3; multiple responses possible). This response was more common in Kafr El Sheikh, with its high concentration of fish production, and among women in Fayoum. The large share of total fish production in Kafr El Sheikh seemed to ease entry into fish retail, even if it is not a preferred livelihood option. More women fish retailers than men, except in Fayoum, report entering fish retail due to having a network to help them. This response was most common among women in Sharqia and Beheira. All reported entering the profession in order to earn income."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"As is typical in many informal enterprises, both men and women rely on family help in their fish retailing businesses, though significantly more women do so than men across governorates: 69 percent of women compared to 58 percent of men. The highest shares of both women and men relying on family assistance are in El-Mineya, Beheira and Fayoum. Significantly more women than men rely on assistance in Kafr El Sheikh. There are gender differences in the type of help received. Women are more likely to have help in physically buying fish, particularly in El-Mineya and Kafr El Sheikh, and in receiving cash to pay for their fish. Both men and women report receiving assistance with transporting fish. More fish retailer respondents in El-Mineya compared to the other governorates report receiving this assistance. Help in selling fish was also reported, with the only significant gender difference in El-Mineya, where many more men report having this help; Kafr El Sheikh is the other governorate with higher levels of both women and men retailers reporting receiving help with fish selling."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Spouses are the most common source of help among those fish retailers receiving family support in their business. Across all governorates, men are significantly more likely to have spousal help. Other female family members are the second common source of help, with significantly more women than men relying on this source in El-Mineya, Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira. Children are an important source of family labor for women, particularly in Fayoum; they may contribute to the business, domestic work or both."},{"index":5,"size":233,"text":"Many fish retailers work long weeks and days to sell their fish. During peak season, just more than 60 percent of all respondents report selling fish daily. More or less equal shares of men and women in Sharqia, Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira report selling fish daily, with this share ranging from just under 60 percent to 75 percent. However, gender differences exist in Fayoum and El-Mineya, with fewer women than men in Fayoum and more women than men in El-Mineya reporting selling fish daily. The number of hours spent per day during the peak season differs significantly between men and women overall, with the majority of men selling for more than seven hours per day and women for between three and seven hours. These gender differences are driven by the experiences of women and men in Sharqia and Beheira where significantly more men report selling for more than seven hours per day than women. El-Mineya and Fayoum are different, in that few to no men or women retailers report selling for more than seven hours per day in peak season. This finding may be associated with the relatively lower volumes of fish they sell compared to retailers in the other governorates (see Table 3). In the low season, the number of hours women spend selling fish per day is significantly lower than for men in Sharqia and Beheira and higher in El-Mineya."},{"index":6,"size":322,"text":"Not surprisingly, there are significant gender differences in time spent in domestic work across all governorates. The majority of men in all governorates report spending one to three hours per day on such tasks, while more women than men report spending from three to seven hours daily. Women in Sharqia and Beheira spend the most time in domestic work per day, with the majority of respondents spending more than three hours per day on these tasks. These time-use findings correspond with the gender attitudes reported previously regarding support for women's roles in caring for the family. There are fewer gender differences in leisure time per day. It is only in El-Mineya and Beheira where significantly more women than men report having only one to three hours in leisure. The difference in El-Mineya is large: 74 percent of women are in this category, while 68 percent of men report having three to seven hours of leisure per day. Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men These time-use patterns are reflected in experiences of conflict in balancing fish retail work and domestic responsibilities. Across governorates, 67 to 100 percent of men report never having faced such conflicts. Almost all women in El-Mineya, where less time per day was spent in fish retail, also report never facing such problems. Other women, particularly those in Fayoum, Kafr El Sheikh and Sharqia, report experiencing such challenges. However, these conflicts only lead to about one-third of women in these governorates reporting that they work fewer hours selling fish than they would like to due to household work. A larger share of the women overall, and significantly more women than men across governorates, report having less time for other activities than they would like, due to the time it takes to sell their fish. Therefore, interventions that enable women to sell their fish more quickly would help them to allocate their time to more preferred uses."}]},{"head":"employment and income security","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Employment and income security are important features of decent work in the informal economy. 11 They are associated with levels and regularity of income, as well as the range and quality of relationships with sources of merchandise. For fish vendors, the types and volumes of fish they can purchase, and at what margins they can sell it, matter to income security. The range and quality of relationships with traders, including reliance on them for credit, can influence employment security."}]},{"head":"Species, prices and volumes","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"While in El-Mineya and Fayoum all respondents sold tilapia both during peak season and on their last selling day, this was the case for 85 percent, 95 percent and 89 percent of respondents in Sharqia, Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira, respectively (see Table 3). In addition, there were significant differences between men and women in Sharqia and Beheira, with a larger share of women than men involved in selling tilapia. Catfish was sold by 17 percent of respondents in peak season; however, no catfish was sold in Fayoum. In Sharqia and Beheira, a larger share of women than men were involved in selling catfish. For mullet sales, a significantly larger share of men were involved in Sharqia, where none of the women sold mullet, while 18 percent of men did, and in Fayoum, where 50 percent of men (n=12) sold mullet and only 2 percent of women did so. In the overall sample, the differences between men and women in selling carp are not significant; however, significantly more women in Sharqia sold this species than men in Sharqia. Men were more likely to sell mackerel and other fish species not separately mentioned in Sharqia and Beheira, as well as sardines in Beheira. Overall, men were involved in selling a higher number of different fish species at the same time: an average of 1.8 for men, versus 1.4 for women in the peak season. Further qualitative investigation is needed to explore the reasons for the existing gender differences in species sold, focusing on retailer preferences, ability to access and afford desired species, and trader relationships."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"The grades of fish bought differ significantly between governorates for tilapia, mullet, carp and mackerel (Figure 4; see also annex). For example, in El-Mineya and Fayoum relatively more grade 1 tilapia was bought compared to the other governorates; in Sharqia and Kafr El Sheikh, more grade 1 mullet was bought; and in Sharqia, relatively more grass carp was bought. In the governorates, there were few significant differences between men and women in the grades of fish sold. In fact, one clear finding is that overall, women and men rural fish retailers sell primarily grade 1 and 2 tilapia, which are the larger-sized grades. In El-Mineya, men sold relatively more grade 1 and women relatively more grade 4 tilapia. In Beheira, men sold relatively more grade 1 and 4 tilapia, and women sold grade 2. In Fayoum, the 12 men sold only grade 2 tilapia, while only about half of the women sold this grade, about 40 percent grade 1, and the remainder grades 3 and 4. In Kafr El Sheikh, women sold common carp, while men seemed to prefer silver carp, while in Beheira this situation was reversed. Relatively more men also sold grade 1 mullet in Beheira."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"The average morning selling price for a kilogram of tilapia was 11.6 Egyptian pounds, for catfish 11.2 Egyptian pounds and for mullet 21.7 Egyptian pounds on the day of last reported sale, and slightly higher during peak season -12.2, 11.4 and 22.0 Egyptian pounds per kilogram, respectively. The average reduced selling price at the end of the day was 10.0, 10.4 and 20.0 Egyptian pounds per kilogram on the day of last reported sale, and 10.7, 10.7 and 20.3  Egyptian pounds per kilogram in peak season. This reduced price reflects loss of fish quality throughout the day. 17"},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"The average purchase volume of tilapia was 57 kilograms per purchase per retailer in peak season; however, there are differences between the governorates. In El-Mineya and Fayoum, retailers bought smaller volumes than in the other governorates. There are also differences between men and women. In Sharqia, Fayoum and Beheira, men bought significantly more tilapia in each purchase than women. For the overall sample, this is 47 kilograms for women versus 80 kilograms for men. There were also significant differences between men and women in the proportion of fish that was sold at a reduced price: 20 percent and 16 percent for women, versus 12 percent and 11 percent for men on the last reported selling day and the peak season, respectively. Reasons for this latter gender difference need to be explored in more detail; it may be due to differential access to final consumers, so slower sales per day, or to a need to sell the fish more quickly in order to have sufficient time for other responsibilities."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"For catfish and mullet, the average purchase volume was about 40 kilograms for each. While for catfish there is variation between the governorates, there are no significant differences between men's and women's purchase volumes in the governorates. In Kafr El Sheikh, men retailers bought significantly more mullet than women retailers."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"The data on sales and costs were used to calculate retailer margins and net profits (presented in Table 4). These calculations were based on peak season purchases, sales and costs. The costs include both variable costs, such as bags, transport, ice and market fees, and fixed costs such as equipment. The latter were based on capital depreciation estimates and sales frequencies. In Sharqia and El-Mineya, the margin of tilapia per kilogramthat is, price sold minus price bought -was significantly higher for women than for men, while in the other governorates no significant differences were found. "}]},{"head":"Mullet","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Grade 2 Grade 1"},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Across the aggregate sample, women earn less gross income than men on average, have smaller-scale enterprises (lower cost of fish purchased linked to lower volumes for some and different species mix), have lower variable costs and earn lower net profit (Table 4). These aggregate findings hide considerable variations between governorates. For example, monthly net profits during peak season are highly variable, with the highest level reported in Beheira, followed by Kafr El Sheikh. In these two districts, volumes of fish bought and sold per retailer were highest. The most significant differences in net profits between men and women were reported in El-Mineya, Fayoum and Beheira, with women reporting higher profits in the first governorate and lower profits in the latter two. Note that negative values were reported for Fayoum. This is due to the fact that smaller quantities are being traded in Fayoum, while variable costs are high, 12 especially compared to El-Mineya, where gross fish income is similar."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"In Fayoum, a relatively high proportion of fish is also wasted, stored or consumed -in terms of value, about 4 percent for Fayoum versus 2.8 percent for the entire sample -and average reported purchase price for retailers is higher in Fayoum (11.1 versus 9.9 Egyptian pounds per kilogram for tilapia) and margins lower (0.66 Egyptian pounds per kilogram versus 1.55 Egyptian pounds per kilogram for the entire sample)."}]},{"head":"fish purchases and preferences","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Overall, 26 percent of respondents indicated having difficulties buying the type, quality or quantity of fish they wanted. There were, however, major differences between governorates, with 57 percent of respondents in El-Mineya having these difficulties versus less than 6 percent in Sharqia. In all governorates except for Kafr El Sheikh, there were also significant differences between responses of women and men retailers, with men experiencing more difficulties than women in Fayoum, El-Mineya and Beheira, and fewer in Sharqia. Fish being too expensive was the most important reason for these difficulties in Sharqia, Fayoum and Beheira, while the unavailability of good-quality fish was more important in El-Mineya and Kafr El Sheikh. Men and women in the same governorate also experienced different reasons for difficulties in obtaining the preferred fish."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"In some governorates, poor consumers prefer buying smaller-sized fish (6-8 fish per kilogram) because these are more easily distributed to family members and more convenient to prepare. In cities and in better-off families, large-sized fish are preferred. Quality of fish for retailers in El-Mineya is likely also influenced by the distance fish has to travel before reaching the retailers, as there is very little aquaculture production in this governorate. As shown in Table 3, prices per kilogram of fish are lower in El-Mineya. This is likely due to the lower quality of fish being sold there."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The majority of both women and men fish retailers are directly involved in buying fish, signaling that mobility constraints do not significantly affect women fish retailers' ability to interact in markets. However, more women in El-Mineya (43 percent) and Kafr El Sheikh (15 percent) report having their spouses or other family members buy fish. Another important source of fish for women retailers in El-Mineya is fish caught or produced by family members."},{"index":4,"size":263,"text":"In Beheira and Sharqia, men retailers are more likely to have a trader come to them for their fish purchase than women retailers (44 percent for men versus 13 percent for women and 23 percent for men versus 3 percent for women, respectively). Whether this has to do with bargaining power or preference remains unclear. About 60 percent of the respondents bought all of their supply from the same suppliers, 14 percent did so for part of their supply, and 25 percent did so sometimes, while only 2 percent never did. Only in Fayoum was there a significant difference between women and men, with women more often buying from the same suppliers than men. There was also large variation between the governorates. The majority of women and men fish retailers buy from the same suppliers in Sharqia, El-Mineya and Beheira, while in Kafr El Sheikh there is a more even split between those buying some or all from the same suppliers. This finding for Kafr El Sheikh may be related to the scale of the fish market there and the large number of traders. In any event, this finding signals that strong relationships are built with suppliers. These relationships are informal, with the majority of women and men across governorates reporting having no contract with their supplier; only a small share of the total sample (15 percent), and more women than men (17 percent versus 9 percent) report having a verbal contract. About 65 percent received credit from their supplier or suppliers, and in Fayoum, Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira this was more"}]},{"head":"Share","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"use of earnings","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The income earned from fish retailing is spent on a variety of items. The largest share of respondents spent the income on basic food, shelter and clothing for their family, health expenses, and personal consumption. However, there is variation between governorates and between men and women. In Sharqia, a significantly higher share of women retailers gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt used some of the money for education costs; in El-Mineya, this was done by a higher share of men. In Fayoum and Kafr El Sheikh, a larger share of men spent the income on personal consumption, while in Sharqia, this was done by the women (Table 5). In the Delta governorates, more women and men are able to put aside some of their earnings as savings compared to those in Upper Egypt, likely due to the large volume of fish sold."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"frequently the case for women. The majority of respondents were of the opinion that buying price was not higher as a result of buying on credit. Overall, 92 percent of women that received credit indicated a repayment period of one day, 7 percent of a few days and 1 percent of a week. For men this division was 79 percent, 20 percent and 1 percent, respectively. Of all respondents receiving fish on credit, 45 percent indicated that they were obliged to buy from the same supplier while owing them credit. Higher shares of women than men in Sharqia, El-Mineya, Fayoum and Kafr El Sheikh report being unable to buy from another supplier when they owe credit, signaling that they feel more locked into supplier relationships in these circumstances than men. In Beheira, a higher share of men report this lack of choice."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Only about 22 percent of retailers provided value-added services to their customers, ranging from only 1 percent in Beheira to 43 percent in Fayoum. The most common service is cleaning or gutting of fish (77 percent of all respondents that provide services), followed by providing credit or delayed payment to customers (29 percent)."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Wholesaler loading fish onto his truck at the WorldFish Research Center, Abbassa, Egypt Photo credit: Heba el Begawi/WorldFish"}]},{"head":"work locations and conditions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Few fish retailers sell from secure locations, as evidenced by the numbers of women and men reporting lack of secure trading venue as a work-related constraint (Figure 5). Fewer respondents report this problem in Kafr El Sheikh, where there are more recognized fish marketplaces due to the scale of the industry there, and in Fayoum."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"That said, it is Beheira where essentially all respondents report selling from a marketplace (Table 6). In other sites, there is more variation, with a few selling from shops in Kafr El Sheikh and Sharqia, and most selling from either a market or a spot either on the street outside of the market or outside of the retailer's own home. The latter two sales locations are most prevalent in El-Mineya, where mobile vending is common. Significant gender differences in sales locations are present in Sharqia, Fayoum and El-Mineya. In Sharqia, more women than men sell outside of their home instead of in marketplaces, while in El-Mineya and Fayoum the reverse is true.  "}]},{"head":"Share of retailers reporting insecure selling site as a constraint","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Among those not selling from their homes, almost all in Sharqia and Beheira sell within their home villages. The other three sites have more retailers -both women and men -selling in other villages, with this most prevalent in El-Mineya (60 percent of women and 77 percent of men selling outside the village). The prevalence of selling in one's home village has potential implications for earnings due to market saturation, and for the reach of fish to rural consumers living farther from sources of farmed or caught fish."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"The informality of fish retail in rural Egypt is also reflected in workplace conditions, which are generally inadequate, though they vary across governorates; in Sharqia and El-Mineya, they also vary between women and men. Even in Kafr El Sheikh, the marketplaces in which respondent retailers work offer few amenities. The main benefit those in Kafr El Sheikh have is a covered marketplace, protecting them from direct sun. This is one of the more common \"amenities\" across governorates, though less so in El-Mineya, particularly among the few men retailers there. Beheira has among the poorest work conditions for both women and men, with few reporting access to toilets or running water or the presence of a concrete or tile floor. So even though essentially all respondents in Beheira sold from a marketplace, as in Kafr el Sheikh, this does not mean that they have access to basic services. Men in El-Mineya and women in Sharqia fare better than most, and even with that it is only about one-fifth to one-third who have access to toilets or running water, and few to none have an easily cleanable market surface. Significantly more men than women in Sharqia work from poorly provisioned sites in terms of toilets and water."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"Fish storage containers include wash tubs, wooden boxes, and metal or plastic crates. Plastic crates are most common, used by the majority of women and men fish retailers in the Delta governorates and men in El-Mineya. Hygiene practices are not very good, likely in part due to the lack of facilities in sales locations. While a majority of women and men fish retailers across governorates report washing their fish containers regularly after use, in some governorates a considerable number still report never doing so -as many as 30 percent in Sharqia and 21 percent in Kafr El Sheikh. Among those who do wash their containers, most only use water, with no soap. Often, not even running water is used. Similarly, hand washing after handling fish is not very common. For example, in Sharqia the majority of men (62 percent) report never washing their hands after handling fish, while women are more likely to do so a few times per day (30 percent of women versus 16 percent of men). In El-Mineya, about 90 percent of both women and men report washing their hands after handling fish sometimes -meaning not every day -or never."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Overall, these results show that both men and women fish retailers work in poor conditions, with considerable scope for improvements that would enhance their well-being, hygiene practices and potentially their sales."}]},{"head":"Access to transport and cold storage services","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Two key services supporting fish retail work are transport and access to ice to store fish while selling and longer term if unsold fish are kept overnight. Both women and men fish retailers in most governorates identify both of these services as constraints, as Figures 6 and 7  Retailers need to travel to the market in which they buy fish and then transport that fish to the places where they sell. The latter can be particularly challenging, as local minibuses used as public transport often do not want to carry retailers and their fish due to unwieldy containers and the smell of the fish. These public buses are used most often in Fayoum, Beheira and Kafr El Sheikh, with women in the latter location significantly more likely to take this form of transport than men. Motorized tricycles and nonrefrigerated trucks are other common means of transport. Finally, some fish retailers report walking as one mode of transport; this is most common in El-Mineya, where fish retailing is mobile instead of from fixed market locations. Significantly more women report walking in El-Mineya, and similarly in Beheira, though at much lower levels."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Over half -and in some governorates close to or more than three-quarters -of fish retailers report transport costs as a problem (Figure 6). In the focus group discussions in Sharqia, Fayoum and Beheira, these costs were reported to be 5-7 Egyptian pounds per day to reach the place where they sell fish -not necessarily including travel from home to the trader. In the focus group discussion in Beheira, some women also said that hiring a truck from the fish farm where they buy fish to the market could cost about 60 Egyptian pounds, which four participants said they split between themselves. It is only in El-Mineya, and more so among men, that transport costs are not reported to be a problem. This is in large part because from 50 to 60 percent of retailers buy fish from a trader who comes to them, so they do not incur transport costs. "}]},{"head":"Share of respondents reporting transport costs as a constraint","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Travel to buy fish and then on to the point of sale also takes time. Most retailers spend less than one hour in travel to the point of fish purchase, 13 with significantly more men in Sharqia and women in El-Mineya traveling from one to three hours. From point of purchase to point of sale, significantly more men in Sharqia and women in Beheira travel from one to three hours, with most traveling less than one hour. In Fayoum, almost 60 percent of the women fish retailers travel between one and three hours to their point of purchase and then again to the point of sale. Fish farms are a cheaper and more assured source of fish in Fayoum, but are distant from the women fish retailers' communities. Therefore, the women retailers invest significant time in traveling to buy fish."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"The cold chain and access to ice are important for fish retailers, improving product quality and durability, and potentially reducing wastage and risk of income loss. About one-third of both women and men fish retailers report lack of ice as a constraint, except in El-Mineya, where lack of ice is not reported to be a problem (Figure 7). The high cost of ice is even more of a constraint for both women and men, with a significant gender difference only in Beheira, where more women report it as a problem. The reason ice availability is not a problem in El-Mineya is because few retailers use it. With no difference by gender, 87 percent of retailers report transporting and storing fish during the day without ice. This may be due to the weight of ice, since mobile vending is common in El-Mineya. The lack of ice means fish must be sold that day; 94 percent of the retailers in El-Mineya report never storing unsold fish overnight. If aquaculture expands in El-Mineya and retailers begin to sell in greater volumes, then demand for ice may increase."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"In the other governorates, fish are transported and kept during the day either live in water, on ice or without ice. The mix across these three differs more by governorate than by gender. Almost all women and men fish retailers in Kafr El Sheikh transport and keep fish on ice. In Fayoum, almost one-third of the women transport and sell fish live. In all governorates except El-Mineya, even if fish are not transported on ice, those not sold live are kept on ice during the selling day. In the overall sample, there is a gender difference in monthly expenditure on ice in the four governorates where it is used, with women spending 208 Egyptian pounds on average per month in peak season and men spending 299 Egyptian pounds per month. However, this difference is driven mainly by low levels of spending among women in Fayoum. Mean levels of spending per month in each of the other three governorates using ice do not differ by gender."},{"index":4,"size":165,"text":"These handling practices need to be understood in the context of the farmed fish supply chain, where the usual link between the fish farms and retailers is the wholesaler or transporter. 14 There are two types: wholesalers who specialize in transporting live fish and those who sell dead fish. \"Live fish\" wholesalers carry plastic drums and oxygen cylinders in their pickups or small trucks, while \"dead fish\" wholesalers simply use 25-kilogram-capacity plastic crates covered by a tarpaulin. Live fish transport is widespread in Fayoum, as wholesalers can sell at premium prices to urban markets in Cairo, whereas in other governorates the bulk of fish is sold dead. While most dead fish wholesalers add ice to the fish in their 25-kilogram plastic crates when they collect fish from fish farms, the amount is not enough to chill the fish below ambient temperatures. During warm weather, the fish spoil very quickly, so most wholesalers must sell their fish as soon as possible, preferably within the same day. "}]},{"head":"Share of respondents reporting access to and cost of ice as constraints","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The entire village's population is working in fish-related activities, so I have to go to another village to sell my fish, so I have to pay for transportation, and this cost is deducted from my profit."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"-Heba, a fish retailer in Fayoum"},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Men and women fish retailers are similar in their overnight fish storage behavior. The only gender difference is in Beheira, where significantly more women report never storing fish overnight and more men report always or sometimes doing so. In Sharqia, 40 percent of all respondent fish retailers report never storing fish, compared to 36 percent in Fayoum and 26 percent in Kafr El Sheikh. Those retailers who do store fish mainly do so for just one night, either on ice or in a refrigerator. Given the general challenges around maintaining fish quality, stored fish is likely to sell at lower prices."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"harassment. Sharqia is the only site where there is a gender difference in the level of fees paid, with men paying on average 108 Egyptian pounds and women paying 58 Egyptian pounds per month. The focus group discussions with women fish retailers underscore the strain these fees cause in relation to the low margins retailers make. Women retailers in Sharqia, Beheira and Fayoum report paying 5 Egyptian pounds per day to the market owner for a place to sell, while in Kafr El Sheikh the participants said they paid 40 Egyptian pounds per week. However, if fined for selling outside of the market, they could pay as much as 1,000 Egyptian pounds."},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"The study asked whether various market characteristics were constraints; those related to demand, competition and market access were more generally reported to be challenges. Low demand for fish is a problem across governorates, with only men in Beheira less likely to report this compared to all others, and significantly less than women in that location. Related to this, competition between retailers and limited market access were also reported to be constraints by consistently large shares of women and men retailers. Few gender differences exist; more women than men in El-Mineya report competition to be a problem, while more women than men in Beheira report limited market access to be a constraint. Competition between fish retailers and being barred from selling in certain markets by established retailers were noted in the focus group discussion in Fayoum as challenges faced by both women and men retailers."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Supply constraints were less consistently reported. Irregular fish supply was most common in El-Mineya and among men in Beheira. \"Too few traders\" is not part of the supply problem according to most respondents; it is only in Kafr El Sheikh and Beheira where one-third to almost one-half of respondents noted this as a constraint, and there was no significant gender difference."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng"}]},{"head":"Constraints and collaboration","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"This section analyzes work-related constraints beyond those already discussed, and the extent to which they differ by gender. It also examines the respondents' responses to questions about their interest in collaboration with other fish retailers in specific areas, to identify similarities and differences by gender. Both of these results together begin to point the way forward to gender-responsive initiatives to improve the quality and outcomes of fish retail work in rural Egypt."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"As discussed previously, many women and men fish retailers identified the lack of a secure selling site as a constraint. Linked to this, in all but El-Mineya -where many retailers are mobile -and Kafr El Sheikh, close to or just more than half of women and men retailers report harassment from the public or police as a problem. Interestingly, both women and men respondents in Kafr el Sheikh report paying among the highest average amounts in monthly commissions and informal payments (185 Egyptian pounds) compared to the other governorates, perhaps in part explaining their relative lack of problem with harassment. However, the women respondents in Fayoum pay the most, at 213 Egyptian pounds per month on average, and half also report"},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"In focus group discussions in Sharqia and Kafr El Sheikh, women did report being unable to negotiate with traders about prices, so the balance of power in these relationships may be an issue. The earlier reported findings about the significant share of women and men who buy consistently from the same supplier, and women's lower likelihood of buying from another supplier when credit is owed, also indicate that these relationships may be unequal."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Finally, access to credit was not considered a problem among many women respondents in Upper Egypt or men in El-Mineya, while onequarter to one-third of respondents in the Delta governorates and two-thirds of the 12 men in Fayoum reported credit constraints. The only gender differences were in Beheira and Fayoum, where more men found credit access problematic (Figure 8). In the focus group discussions, women did report that they found the need to have to pay for fish the next day, irrespective of whether they sold it all or not, a considerable strain."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Overall, then, the data on the constraints the retailers face show few gender differences, meaning that there is considerable similarity in perceived work-related challenges. The women focus group discussion participants, when asked specifically about problems women especially face, also largely concluded that apart from having to leave their children with family or neighbors, women and men fish retailers face similar challenges. El-Mineya differed slightly, in part due to the prevalence of mobile vending, where retailers sell directly to consumers at their homes. Women in the focus group discussion there reported that women were less able than men to go to homes to sell fish."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"I buy the fish at high prices and sometimes I have to sell it at low prices to avoid keeping it till the next day."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"-Alia, a fish retailer in Fayoum This study assesses how gender and informality intersect to affect the conditions and outcomes of work for women and men fish retailers in rural Egypt. Women and men work in the fish retail sector within a social context in which women's roles in child care and homemaking are primary, and where economic need underlies women's visible engagement in markets, loosening mobility constraints associated with purdah. Men are viewed as primary providers, and as their ability to fulfill this role improves, women's income-generation role is expected to decline."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"Norms about women's role in caring for the family have a considerable influence on women's work, and in fact, this role forms the largest gender-based constraint that women face. Women work on average fewer hours per day in fish retail than men, work more hours in domestic labor, and are more likely to report a conflict between fish retail work and domestic responsibilities. In focus group discussions with women fish retailers, the need to leave children with family or neighbors was identified as the main gender difference experienced."},{"index":9,"size":207,"text":"That said, women's fish retail enterprises tend to be of smaller scale than men's. Women sell a narrower range of fish species and often buy lower volumes, leading to lower profits. This is not universal, however, with women retailers in Kafr El Sheikh earning profits on a similar scale as their male counterparts. Potential reasons for the gender differences in enterprise scale may be a mix of time and capital constraints. Women have less time per day to sell the fish they buy, and more women than men rely on credit to buy their lower volumes of fish. Therefore, even if they wish to buy higher volumes, credit constraints may be a barrier. Men also face credit constraints, with more men than women reporting this in all governorates except El-Mineya, and more men than women reporting interest in collaborating around credit access. Time constraints may underlie the finding that women sell a larger amount of fish at reduced prices than men; they may do this to clear their stock quickly so they can return home to other duties. Lack of ice and the high cost of ice, reported by both women and men as problematic in most governorates, intensify the need to sell stock within a day."},{"index":10,"size":92,"text":"In many ways, informality seems to be as large an influencing factor on conditions and outcomes of work in fish retail as gender is. Lack of secure vending sites, the cost of sitting fees and commissions for the spaces vendors do access, and lack of basic services in markets are significant problems for both women and men. Neither group has the legal status and representation through which to claim such rights. Access to affordable transport services is another common challenge, as well as high competition between retailers for a somewhat limited market."},{"index":11,"size":50,"text":"Even with the recognition of competition as a problem, many women and men fish retailers appear willing to cooperate around some of these key constraints. These openings identify a number of recommendations for future engagement with women and men fish retailers to enhance the economic potential of their livelihood activity."},{"index":12,"size":151,"text":"Work with both women and men fish retailers in gender-responsive ways. Among women and men fish retailers, economic need has loosened sex segregation norms, meaning that women have gained permission to work outside of the home, even in markets with men. This reality means that targeting either women or men for interventions to enhance work conditions and outcomes may be short-sighted and could foster conflict and jealousy, as well as reducing the potential for collective solidarity by excluding a large segment of fish retailers with shared economic interests. Given the cultural context, engaging with women and men retailers cannot be done in an ad hoc way. Interventions must be carefully planned to take account of, and act to slowly foster change in, the ways that gender norms affect different actors' attitudes about and perceptions of appropriate opportunities for women and men, to ensure that both groups can fully participate and benefit."}]},{"head":"Enhance fish retailer voice and recognition.","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":453,"text":"Organizing women and men fish retailers is one important means to provide a platform for joint fish purchases and sales, as well as to enable them to gain a stronger voice to claim services from local government -in particular, secure space to vend that is accessible to women and men retailers and consumers and provisioned with what both women and men identify as the The similarities in challenges that women and men face can be the basis for collaboration among fish retailers to bring about mutually beneficial change. This action needs to come from motivation among the retailers to work together. Such motivation to cooperate with other fish retailers exists across the governorates, and is particularly high in Fayoum, Beheira and Kafr El Sheikh, with more than 90 percent of women in the latter location willing to collaborate (significantly more than the men; Table 7). Sharqia seems to be a place marked by individuality among the women fish retailers. 15 This is reflected in the lower shares of both women and men willing to collaborate compared to Fayoum, Beheira and Kafr El Sheikh. Also, fewer women and men in El-Mineya are willing to work together, with men significantly less interested than women. Pursue further research to better understand certain aspects of women and men fish retailers' relationships. Finally, there is a need for further studies on aspects of informal fish retail that were not covered in this study. One such study would focus on the relationships between fish retailers and traders to understand their characteristics, whether and how gender affects the quality and characteristics of these relationships, and how to go about enhancing the bargaining position of women and men retailers in trader relations. Another study would delve into how the household roles and relationships of women and men fish retailers influence their work life, and vice versa. Such a study would investigate how family roles and responsibilities influence decisions about work. It would also consider how the experience of work, including the networks formed and income earned, affect intra-household relationships, including perceptions of women's and men's value and their negotiating power. Such a study would expand the conceptualization of value chain actors beyond their role as economic agents to capture the multiple dimensions of their identities as workers, parents and spouses and how these interrelate to affect work-related incentives and overall value chain performance. A third area of inquiry would be around better understanding the real preferences of poor and better-off consumers across rural and urban markets and whether the present structure of the value chain is able to meet those preferences. Finally, there is a need to better disaggregate data for urban and rural markets and understand the differences between them."}]},{"head":"Sharqia","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"lIst of tAbles glossAry of terms glossAry of terms   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" and program interventions are needed to enhance the quality of the work and InformAl employment, deCent work And gender reseArCh sItes And methods research sItes and methods "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Share of respondents disagreeing with the statement "},{"text":"genderFigure 3 . Figure 3. Share of respondents entering fish retail due to having few other options "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Share of retailers reporting insecure selling site as a constraint "},{"text":" illustrate. "},{"text":"genderFigure 6 . Figure 6. Share of respondents reporting transport costs as a constraint "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Share of respondents reporting access to and cost of ice as constraints "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Share of respondents reporting lack of credit sources as a constraint "},{"text":" This shows the significance of the Pearson's chi-squared statistic for the hypothesis-test that the grades do not depend on the governorates. Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 respectively. A significant value means the hypothesis should be rejected. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Beheira Fayoum El-Mineya Kafr El Sheikh Sharqia  Population (thousands) 4,901 2,605 4,308 2,706 5,530 Population (thousands)4,9012,6054,3082,7065,530 % total population in labor force (15+) 38.2 34.6 35.4 35.8 34.6 % total population in labor force (15+) 38.234.635.435.834.6 % of women in total labor force (15+) 30.6 24.9 31.4 24.7 28.7 % of women in total labor force (15+) 30.624.931.424.728.7 % unemployed 10 6.8 2.9 5.5 10.0 11.7 % unemployed 106.82.95.510.011.7 % women unemployed 13.7 8.0 9.0 20.7 17.7 % women unemployed13.78.09.020.717.7 Adult literacy rate 63.4 59.1 58.7 65.7 67.8 Adult literacy rate63.459.158.765.767.8 Female literacy rate 54.2 49.9 47.1 57.3 60.4 Female literacy rate54.249.947.157.360.4 Real gross domestic product per 8,592 7,667 7,869 8,116 7,909 Real gross domestic product per8,5927,6677,8698,1167,909 capita ($, purchasing power parity)      capita ($, purchasing power parity) % poor 23.5 28.7 30.9 11.2 19.2 % poor23.528.730.911.219.2 % ultrapoor 3.8 5.9 7.0 2.1 1.9 % ultrapoor3.85.97.02.11.9 Fish production (metric tons) 29,731 6,271 negligible 324,479 76,845 Fish production (metric tons)29,7316,271negligible 324,47976,845 Fish production (% national total) 5% 1% 0% 55% 13% Fish production (% national total)5%1%0%55%13%  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Proposed and actual sample size Governorates Sex Target Sample Interviewed Sample GovernoratesSexTarget SampleInterviewed Sample Fayoum Women 188 190 FayoumWomen188190  Men 94 12 Men9412 El-Mineya Women 70 70 El-MineyaWomen7070  Men 35 35 Men3535 Sharqia Women 70 33 SharqiaWomen7033  Men 70 71 Men7071 Kafr El Sheikh Women 70 72 Kafr El SheikhWomen7072  Men 70 55 Men7055 Beheira Women 140 142 BeheiraWomen140142  Men 70 68 Men7068 Total Women 538 507 TotalWomen538507  Men 339 241 Men339241  All 877 748 All877748  "},{"text":"gender analysIs of fIsh retaIlIng outcomes and work condItIons In rural egypt   This section assesses the extent to which  This section assesses the extent to which  gender matters to the outcomes of and work  gender matters to the outcomes of and work gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt conditions in fish retailing. It describes some of the basic characteristics of the respondents and the gender context in which fish retailers work, based on data on gender attitudes among the respondents and patterns of intra-household decision-making. It then goes on to examine how this gender context affects the organization of fish retail work, the scale, returns and relationships involved in the work, work conditions and access to needed services, and the constraints fish retailers report as limiting their economic potential. gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egyptconditions in fish retailing. It describes some of the basic characteristics of the respondents and the gender context in which fish retailers work, based on data on gender attitudes among the respondents and patterns of intra-household decision-making. It then goes on to examine how this gender context affects the organization of fish retail work, the scale, returns and relationships involved in the work, work conditions and access to needed services, and the constraints fish retailers report as limiting their economic potential.gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt  "},{"text":"1. Share of retailers by educational attainment Share of retailers by educational attainment           gender context: the realm of gender context: the realm of          acceptable behavior acceptable behavior          Gender norms and attitudes frame the Gender norms and attitudes frame the          context within which women and men context within which women and men          enter the paid economy, and shape their enter the paid economy, and shape their          opportunities. As noted earlier, gender norms opportunities. As noted earlier, gender norms          can influence the types and locations of work can influence the types and locations of work          considered acceptable for women and men, considered acceptable for women and men,          the time they have available for paid work, the time they have available for paid work,          the appropriateness of men's involvement the appropriateness of men's involvement          in domestic and caring labor, and the scope in domestic and caring labor, and the scope          women and men have to be involved in women and men have to be involved in          decisions about the use of the income they decisions about the use of the income they          earn. To frame the analysis of women and earn. To frame the analysis of women and          men fish retailers' employment conditions and men fish retailers' employment conditions and          outcomes, this section describes respondents' outcomes, this section describes respondents'          views on what is appropriate behavior for views on what is appropriate behavior for          women and men in rural Egypt; it does not women and men in rural Egypt; it does not          represent national views but does provide represent national views but does provide          insights into accepted gender roles and insights into accepted gender roles and          relations, based on responses to a series of relations, based on responses to a series of          questions on gender attitudes. The responses questions on gender attitudes. The responses          paint a picture of the social context within paint a picture of the social context within          which fish retailers operate and how it sets which fish retailers operate and how it sets          different parameters of acceptability for different parameters of acceptability for          women and men. The results also illustrate women and men. The results also illustrate          cross-governorate differences in some of these cross-governorate differences in some of these          attitudes that indicate variation in the room to attitudes that indicate variation in the room to          maneuver which women fish retailers have in maneuver which women fish retailers have in          their family and work lives. their family and work lives. 100%         100% 90%         90% 80%         80% 70%         70% 60%         60% 50%         50% 40%         40% 30%         30% 20%         20% 10%         10% 0% Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men 0%WomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMen Women Men  Sharqia El-Mineya Kafr el Sheikh Beheira Fayoum SharqiaEl-MineyaKafr el SheikhBeheiraFayoum    Secondary or higher  Primary and prep Secondary or higherPrimary and prep    Literate, no school  Illiterate  Literate, no schoolIlliterate  "},{"text":" The margins on tilapia were lowest in Fayoum at 0.66 Egyptian pounds per kilogram and highest in Kafr El Sheikh at 2.28 Egyptian pounds per kilogram (Table 4). gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt   Tilapia       Tilapia 100%      100%    100%100% 90%      90%    90%90% 80%      80%    80%80% 70%      70%    70%70% 60%      60%    60%60% 50%      50%    50%50% 40%      40%    40%40% 30%      30%    30%30% 20%      20%    20%20% 10%      10%    10%10% 0%      0%    0%0% All Sharqia El-Mineya Fayoum Kafr el Beheira All Sharqia Fayoum Kafr el Beheira AllSharqiaEl-Mineya FayoumKafr elBeheiraAllSharqiaFayoumKafr elBeheira      Sheikh     Sheikh SheikhSheikh Grade 1 Grade 2  Grade 3 Grade 4    Grade 1Grade 2Grade 3Grade 4   Carp     Frozen mackerel CarpFrozen mackerel 100%      100%    100%100% 90%      90%    90%90% 80%      80%    80%80% 70%      70%    70%70% 60%      60%    60%60% 50%      50%    50%50% 40%      40%    40%40% 30%      30%    30%30% 20%      20%    20%20% 10%      10%    10%10% 0%      0%    0%0% All Sharqia El-Mineya Beheira  All Sharqia El-Mineya Beheira AllSharqiaEl-MineyaBeheiraAllSharqiaEl-MineyaBeheira  Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3   Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 1Grade 2Grade 3Grade 1Grade 2Grade 3  "},{"text":"of retailers (%) Volume (kg/day)* Buying price/kg (Egyptian pounds) High sales price/kg (Egyptian pounds) Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 respectively.  Women Men All Sig. Women Men All Sig. Women Men All Sig. Women Men All Sig. Women MenAllSig.Women MenAllSig.WomenMenAllSig.WomenMenAllSig. Tilapia                Tilapia All 97.2 88.0 94.3 *** 46.90 79.65 56.75 *** 10.03 9.73 9.94  12.36 11.97 12.24 ** All97.288.094.3***46.9079.6556.75***10.039.739.9412.3611.9712.24** Sharqia 93.9 81.7 85.6 * 41.94 80.43 67.02 *** 9.88 10.41 10.22 * 11.80 12.01 11.93 Sharqia93.981.785.6*41.9480.4367.02***9.8810.4110.22*11.8012.0111.93 El-Mineya 100.0 100.0 100.0  24.93 24.14 24.67  6.88 6.67 6.81  9.52 8.80 9.28 El-Mineya100.0100.0100.024.9324.1424.676.886.676.819.528.809.28 Fayoum 99.5 100.0 99.5  27.71 35.83 28.19 ** 11.05 11.75 11.09  13.12 14.08 13.18 * Fayoum99.5100.099.527.7135.8328.19**11.0511.7511.0913.1214.0813.18* Kafr El Sheikh 94.4 96.4 95.3  69.48 75.66 72.19  9.34 9.40 9.36  12.65 12.49 12.58 Kafr El Sheikh94.496.495.369.4875.6672.199.349.409.3612.6512.4912.58 Beheira 94.4 79.4 89.5 *** 75.26 128.43 90.53 *** 10.62 10.88 10.69  12.74 13.02 12.82 Beheira94.479.489.5***75.26128.4390.53***10.6210.8810.6912.7413.0212.82 Catfish                Catfish All 16.6 19.1 17.4  43.27 33.04 39.65 ** 9.13 9.73 9.35  11.23 11.78 11.43 All16.619.117.443.2733.0439.65**9.139.739.3511.2311.7811.43 Sharqia 18.2 19.7 19.2  36.67 28.21 30.75  7.83 10.36 9.60  9.67 11.61 11.03 *** Sharqia18.219.719.236.6728.2130.757.8310.369.609.6711.6111.03*** El-Mineya 11.4 14.3 12.4  15.00 19.00 16.54  8.31 9.40 8.73 *** 10.25 11.60 10.77 El-Mineya11.414.312.415.0019.0016.548.319.408.73***10.2511.6010.77 Kafr El Sheikh 25.0 34.5 29.1  29.44 28.68 29.05  10.25 9.58 9.91  12.89 12.26 12.57 Kafr El Sheikh25.034.529.129.4428.6829.0510.259.589.9112.8912.2612.57 Beheira 36.6 11.8 28.6 *** 53.17 60.63 54.17  9.02 9.25 9.05  10.99 11.06 11.00 Beheira36.611.828.6***53.1760.6354.179.029.259.0510.9911.0611.00 Mullet                Mullet All 14.6 30.3 19.7 *** 36.42 43.77 40.07 ** 18.66 18.51 18.59  22.09 21.86 21.98 All14.630.319.7***36.4243.7740.07**18.6618.5118.5922.0921.8621.98 Sharqia 0.0 18.3 12.5 ***  33.85 33.85   14.31 14.31   17.08 17.08 Sharqia0.018.312.5***33.8533.8514.3114.3117.0817.08 El-Mineya 1.6 50.0 4.5 *** 16.67 17.50 17.22  19.33 27.00 24.44 *** 21.33 29.83 27.00 *** El-Mineya1.650.04.5***16.6717.5017.2219.3327.0024.44***21.3329.8327.00*** Kafr El Sheikh 72.2 78.2 74.8  37.69 51.51 43.95 *** 19.17 18.74 18.98  23.25 22.44 22.88 * Kafr El Sheikh72.278.274.837.6951.5143.95***19.1718.7418.9823.2522.4422.88* Beheira 13.4 16.2 14.3  36.05 39.55 37.33  17.16 17.91 17.43  19.05 20.91 19.73 Beheira13.416.214.336.0539.5537.3317.1617.9117.4319.0520.9119.73 Note:                Note:  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Volumes, buying price and selling price in peak season, by species, retailer's sex and governorate gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt gender AnAlysIs of fIsh retAIlIng outComes And work CondItIons In rurAl egypt N Women Mean N Men Mean N All Mean Sig. NWomen MeanNMen MeanNAll MeanSig.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Use All   Sharqia  AllSharqia Women Men All Sig. Women Men All Sig. Women MenAllSig.Women MenAllSig.  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Main sales location by share of respondents, sex and governorate  "},{"text":"Sex N Market place Shop Street outside market Street outside home  Sharqia*** Women 33 72.7 0 0 27.3 Sharqia*** Women 33 72.70027.3  Men 71 93 2.8 4.2 0 Men71 932.84.20 El-Mineya** Women 70 35.7 0 52.9 11.4 El-Mineya** Women 70 35.7052.911.4  Men 35 14.3 0 48.6 37.1 Men35 14.3048.637.1 Kafr El Women 72 72.2 2.8 25 0 Kafr ElWomen 72 72.22.8250 Sheikh Men 55 70.   SheikhMen55 70.  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Opportunities for cooperation   El-Mineya Kafr El Sheikh Beheira Fayoum El-MineyaKafr El SheikhBeheiraFayoum  Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men N 33 71 70 35 72 55 142 68 190 12 N3371 703572551426819012 Interested in 42.4 57.7 51.4 20.6** 91.5 78.2* 73.2 83.8 72.7 100 Interested in42.457.7 51.420.6** 91.578.2* 73.283.8 72.7100 cooperating (%)          cooperating (%) Would like to cooperate in regard to:        Would like to cooperate in regard to:  Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men N 14 41 36 7 65 43 104 57 128 12 N1441 36765431045712812 Buying fish 85.7 68.3 91.7 85.7 68.7 72.1 69.2 70.2 83.5 66.7 Buying fish85.768.3 91.785.7 68.772.1 69.270.2 83.566.7 Selling fish 64.3 65.9 22.9 14.3 71.6 76.7 71.2 66.7 68.1 66.7 Selling fish64.365.9 22.914.3 71.676.7 71.266.7 68.166.7 Sharing cold 78.6 63.4 19.4 28.6 71.6 59.5 38.5 52.6 42.8 91.7*** Sharing cold78.663.4 19.428.6 71.659.5 38.552.6 42.891.7*** storage          storage Transporting fish 100.0 82.9 77.8 100.0 91.0 90.7 72.8 78.9 84.1 100.0 Transporting fish 100.082.9 77.8100.0 91.090.7 72.878.9 84.1100.0 Obtaining credit 50.0 51.2 11.1 42.9** 37.3 46.5 28.8 52.6* 41.3 66.7 Obtaining credit 50.051.2 11.142.9** 37.346.5 28.852.6* 41.366.7 Obtaining secure 92.9 95.1 83.3 100 54.0 60.5 90.4 82.5 74.3 100.0* Obtaining secure92.995.1 83.310054.060.5 90.482.5 74.3100.0* market space          market space Note: Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.001, 0.01 and 0.05 respectively.    Note: Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.001, 0.01 and 0.05 respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 6 . decent work productive work in which rights are protected, which generates an adequate income, with adequate social protection; it is a key part of the International Labor Organization's agenda. Main sales location by share of respondents, sex and governorate   lIst of tAbles lIst of tAbles   Table 1. Descriptive information about target governorates 7 Table 1.Descriptive information about target governorates7   Table 2. Proposed and actual sample size 9 Table 2.Proposed and actual sample size9 governorate an administrative unit in Egypt; each governorate is administered by a governor, Table 3. Volumes, buying price and selling price in peak season, by species, governorate an administrative unit in Egypt; each governorate is administered by a governor,Table 3.Volumes, buying price and selling price in peak season, by species,  who is appointed by the president.  retailer's sex and governorate 18 -19 who is appointed by the president.retailer's sex and governorate18 -19 tricycle a three-wheeled motorized vehicle, commonly used to transport people and goods, Table 4. Monthly costs and net profits in peak season by sex and governorate tricyclea three-wheeled motorized vehicle, commonly used to transport people and goods,Table 4.Monthly costs and net profits in peak season by sex and governorate  especially in rural areas  (in Egyptian pounds) 18 -19 especially in rural areas(in Egyptian pounds)18 -19 bouri grey mullet Table 5. Use of earnings: Share of respondents (%) bourigrey mulletTable 5.Use of earnings: Share of respondents (%) tobar thin-lipped mullet   tobarthin-lipped mullet bayad bagrus catfish   bayadbagrus catfish  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Opportunities for cooperation  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Demographic characteristics of fish retailers and their households  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Gender attitudes by share of respondents, by governorate 36 -  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Intra-household decision-making, by share of respondents and governorate: Decisions about the use of your earnings 38 -  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Intra-household decision-making, by share of respondents and governorate: Decisions about how to spend total household income 38 - Decisions about how to spend total household income38 - Table 12. Intra-household decision-making, by share of respondents and governorate:  Table 12. Intra-household decision-making, by share of respondents and governorate: Decisions about large household purchases 40 - Decisions about large household purchases40 - Table 13. Share of respondents reporting help in fish retail business and source of help,  Table 13. Share of respondents reporting help in fish retail business and source of help, by sex and governorate 40 - by sex and governorate40 -  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Grades of fish sold by number and share of respondents, by governorate 42 -  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Fish bought by number of respondents, man volume, buying and selling price in peak season by species, sex of retailer and governorate 44 - lIst of fIgures lIst of fIgures  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Demographic characteristics of fish retailers and their households Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.001, 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. Annex Annex  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Intra-household decision-making, by share of respondents and governorate: Decisions about large household purchases N N  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Grades of fish sold by number and share of respondents, by governorate Annex  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Fish bought by number of respondents, mean volume, buying and selling price in peak season by species, sex of retailer and governorate Is the mean volume of those that buy this species only. Significance levels are ***, **, * for 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 respectively. Women retailers Men retailers Women retailersMen retailers  "}],"sieverID":"a67f8126-9edb-439f-b538-5da1c0f87b9d","abstract":"In developing countries, poor people, especially women and children, consume very little meat, milk and fish. This contributes to nutrient deficiencies and poor physical and cognitive development for children, and poor health and livelihood outcomes for adults. Additionally, the productivity of small-and mediumscale livestock and fish producers and marketing systems in developing countries lags far behind those in other parts of the world.The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish seeks to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable to poor consumers across the developing world."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00a3d962c38c4d8d78406d37a9f031de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3b6fe07-02f7-45a9-89e2-e36a289f78c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":47,"title":"Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series","keywords":["crop-livestock systems","sustainable intensification","farm typologies","Zimbabwe JEL classification: Q01","Q16:"],"chapters":[{"head":"Disclaimer","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"This paper is part of ICRISAT Economics Discussion paper series. This series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about a wide array of issues in the area of agriculture for development. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. Any comments and suggestions are more than welcome and should be addressed to the author who's contact details can be found at the bottom of the cover page. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and its affiliated organizations."}]},{"head":"About ICRISAT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (lCRISAT) is a non-profit, non-political organization that conducts agricultural research for development in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa with a wide array of partners throughout the world. Covering 6.5 million square kilometers of land in 55 countries, the semi-arid tropics have over 2 billion people, of whom 644 million are the poorest of the poor. ICRISAT innovations help the dryland poor move from poverty to prosperity by harnessing markets while managing risksa strategy called Inclusive Market-Oriented development (lMOD). ICRISAT is headquartered in Patancheru near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, with two regional hubs and five country offices in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a member of the CGIAR Consortium. www.icrisat.org CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research Centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org This work has been undertaken as part of the"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"For the majority of smallholder farm households in rural Zimbabwe, crop-livestock farming is the main livelihood activity. Farmers here are often poor and vulnerable. They face many challenges, including erratic rainfall, overused and degraded rangelands and soils, poorly developed markets for both inputs and outputs, and expanding human populations increases the pressure on the natural resource base. As a consequence agricultural productivity is stagnant or declining. Here we highlight the importance of crops and livestock for ensuring food security and income generation as well as options for sustainable intensification of these systems."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Why crops and livestock for food security? Crop production is one way to provide staple food for a household, but under low and erratic rainfall it is a risky activity. In semi-arid areas most farmers are net buyers of staple food and they are able to produce enough staple crops that last a few months, especially in high rainfall years. Farmers use livestock as a way to generate nutritious food (milk, eggs and meat) and cash from sales in times of need. Livestock can be sold to buy food that cannot be produced on-farm. Livestock also contribute to crop production by providing draft power and manure, making an indirect yet important contribution to food availability. Diversifying into crops and livestock thus stabilizes food security in the face of climate variability, providing flow products and allowing households to acquire food throughout the year."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"What are the current performance levels? Despite their importance, the performance of crops and livestock has been low and declining. History has proven that there is a potential for higher performance; maize yields for instance averaged 1.5 t/ha in the 1980s, but are down to 0.5 t/ha in the 2000s (Mazvimavi et al., 2012). Investment levels are currently very low. Even where crop surpluses are available at the farm gate, value chains are not providing effective links between producers and the market. We believe that using the high and increasing demand for nutritious food as opportunity, market-based solutions can contribute substantially to improving food security at the household level and attract future investments into Zimbabwean agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"How can crop-livestock integration contribute to sustainable intensification of farming systems? Crops and livestock provide valuable outputs that can be used to enhance overall farm system productivity. Animal manure provides essential nutrients, improving crop productivity. Crop residues provide essential animal feed during times of shortage, improving livestock productivity. Having draft animals in good condition, farmers can prepare land on time, which improves water-and nutrient-use efficiency and increases crop yields. The cash from livestock, beyond food, can also be used to buy agricultural inputs, thus reinvestments into the agricultural system increase. Optimizing the use of these resources and strengthening their integration can increase production per unit land, especially under high-risk conditions and where access to external inputs is difficult."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"It is against this background that the research project, Integrating crop and livestock production for improved food security and livelihoods in rural Zimbabwe (ZimCLIFS), funded by the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR), is being implemented in the sub-humid region (SHR) and semi-arid regions (SAR) of Zimbabwe. This report focuses on the SAR, Gwanda (region V) and Nkayi (region IV) districts. The overall goal of the ZimCLIFS project is to identify, test and prove ways to increase agricultural production, improve household food security, alleviate poverty and thereby reduce food-aid dependency in rural Zimbabwe through better integrated crop and livestock production and market participation. Specific project objectives are:"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• to increase productivity of smallholder crop-livestock farming systems in four districts in two contrasting agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe by identifying and adapting technologies and associated management practices"},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• to improve farmers' access to resources, technologies, information and markets by characterizing and strengthening crop (maize, sorghum, legumes) and livestock (goats, cattle) value chains."},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":"• to increase knowledge and skills of research and extension services and agribusiness, enabling the former to design and implement integrated farming systems and value chain research and the latter to target and scale out knowledge generated by the project elsewhere in Zimbabwe."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"This report aims at providing baseline information for farming systems analysis and reference material for quantifying impact made by or due to the project. The baseline information provided here involves three components:"}]},{"head":"Community visioning:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"We use visioning as a powerful tool to illustrate communities' perceptions of and satisfaction with their current farming practices, as compared to what seems possible for the communities and where the communities want to go in the future. Communities were engaged to further define the key strategies that would allow them to achieve their desirable future."}]},{"head":"Diversity of farming systems in semi-arid areas:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"We compare the socio-economic situation of the two project districts with a focus on four productivity and welfare indicators:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Increased agricultural production and productivity,"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Increased turnover and income,"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Reduced agricultural risk, and • Increased integration of crop-livestock sub-systems."}]},{"head":"Site-specific farm typologies:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"We identify farm types to better understand asset levels, constraints and opportunities among smallholder households within the project districts. Better understanding farmers' endowments and aspirations will help us to target interventions within a particular context."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In what follows we first describe the community visions at the respective sites. We then characterize the socio-economic situation of farm households, the levels of crops and livestock production, crop-livestock integration and market participation, disaggregated by gender of head of households. Finally, we present the farm typologies found at each site and discuss the implications for farming systems development."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study sites","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Nkayi (28°E, 19°S) and Gwanda (29°E, 21°S) Districts are located in Matabeleland North and South provinces of Zimbabwe respectively. Nkayi is in natural region IV, which is characterized by low annual rainfall (450-650 mm, Figure 1, Vincent and Thomas, 1957). Most of the Gwanda area is in region V and receives on average <450 mm annual rainfall. Its northern tip falls under region IV. In both districts rain fed agriculture is highly risky, as mid-season dry spells and seasonal droughts are common. Despite the unreliable rainfall, most farmers in Nkayi and Gwanda engage in rain fed crop and livestock production. Nkayi District is suited to semiintensive farming systems in which drought-tolerant crops and livestock are produced. Gwanda District is more suitable for extensive rangeland livestock based systems."},{"index":2,"size":256,"text":"The survey data refers to the 2012/2013 season, when rainfalls were slightly below average in Nkayi (456 mm) and below average in Gwanda (253 mm). Low rainfall and poor access to adequate inputs, among other factors, influence the actual proportion of land cultivated and yield levels. In Nkayi, deep Kalahari sands are the most common type of soil, covering more than 60% of the district; the rest is grayish brown sand (Figure 2). Gwanda District has sands and loams in the south varying in depth and color, greyish-brown sands in the center and sands and sandy loams in the north. These predominantly sand soils have limited ability to store organic matter and nutrients, such that soil fertility declines rapidly under cultivation (Ncube, 2007). In Nkayi District the most common types of vegetation are broad leafed woodlands, teak and Brachystegia spp. Biomass is relatively abundant (3-4 t Net Primary Production (NPP) per ha and year, Table 1), but it is of relatively low nutritional value for livestock, with protein and phosphorus deficits. In Gwanda the vegetation is dominated by dry broad leafed woodland and by Terminalia sericea and Julbernardiaglobiflora trees. Smaller proportions are with the Mopane tree Savanna and annual grasses, such as Boscia, Aristida and Panicum spp. The nutritional value of the vegetation is higher than in Nkayi (sweet veld), but less biomass is available (<3 t NPP per ha and year), and biomass shortages are a major constraint. Rangeland degradation, soil erosion and nutrient mining after continuous cropping without replenishing soil fertility affect both districts."}]},{"head":"Socio-economic conditions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Vulnerability assessments define 76% of the rural population in Zimbabwe below the poverty line, 22% extremely poor (ZimVAC, 2013). Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South provinces have among the highest poverty rates in the country. During April 2012, the average monthly household incomes were below USD 100 in both provinces. Food insecurity is a chronic problem; prevalence of stunting affects more than 30% of the rural population. More than 60% of the population relies on purchasing food to secure their food needs. Matabeleland North and South provinces also have the highest food insecurity in the country. In Matabeleland North 40% households are food insecure, with 39% in Nkayi District; in Matabeleland South 30% of the households are food insecure, with 25% in Gwanda, but higher rates in Gwanda North."}]},{"head":"Gwanda Nkayi","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The human population of Nkayi and Gwanda district was in 2012 109,135 and 115,778 persons respectively (ZimStat, 2013).The human population density is higher in Nkayi than in Gwanda (Table 1). High rates of female-headed households in Nkayi and in Gwanda (40% and 34% respectively) reflect the migration of men who seek economic opportunities in cities and neighboring countries, while women take over important positions in farm management."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"In both districts maize is the predominant crop, followed by small grains and a smaller portion under legumes (Table 2). Areas with sorghum and legumes seem larger in Gwanda than in Nkayi. The cultivated land under maize increased sharply in Nkayi after 2009, probably due to better availability of inputs. Data for maize production in Gwanda were not available. Data for sorghum and groundnut production in Nkayi seemed incomplete."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Even though livestock densities are higher in Nkayi than in Gwanda District, total livestock populations and households herd sizes are higher in Gwanda than in Nkayi. Goat numbers show a strong increase in the recent years, while cattle numbers seem stagnant. "}]},{"head":"Data collection and analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This report combines two types of data: community visioning as soft approach to capture farmers 'perceptions and priorities combined with baseline surveys to quantify household characteristics."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Community visioning: At Innovation Platform inception workshops, with about 40 participants, including farmers, government departments and extension, NGOs and agro-dealers, visioning was used as a tool to engage everybody in a discussion about their current status and a desirable future. Farmers and support services in separate groups characterized the current state of their livelihoods and the desired future state. The visions were illustrated in rich pictures, which can be used to monitor changes. Participants then identified the barriers likely to be met and the steps required to achieve the desired state. This process clearly defines the development pathway the larger community expects to follow."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Baseline surveys: For the household surveys, a multi-stage sampling approach was used. A total of four wards were purposely selected in each district, following the sampling procedures of the previous System wide Livestock Program (SLP) study. The wards were selected at different distances to a major business center and roads, in order to cover areas close and far from market influence. In each ward three villages were randomly selected from the ward's village lists. The village population ranged between 200 and 300 households. Household lists were collected and 25-30 households randomly selected per each village, using random numbers generated in Excel. A total of 331 and 350 households were interviewed in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts respectively."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"A common household survey tool had been designed by the research teams for use across the two project regions. In the SAT, the data collection was carried out from March to May 2013 by a team of trained enumerators from ICRISAT and Matopos Research Institute. The questionnaire was administered to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. It had seven subsections on demographic information, access to infrastructure and asset ownership, landholding and crop production, livestock production and marketing, access to agricultural services, food security, and information on household income."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Descriptive statistics for characterizing the farming systems were analyzed mainly using SPSS."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"The descriptive statistics were disaggregated by male-and female-headed households. For the farm typologies a systematic classification approach was applied, developed by Rodriguez et al."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"(2013), using the R-Statistic software (R Development Core Team, 2011). After data cleaning, R procedures were first used for factor analysis, including a normalized Varimax rotated principal component analysis. Principal components with Eigen values>1 were examined and extracted. Around 10 variables explained most variability in the data set. In a next step the household typologies were developed using hierarchical clustering (Ward's minimum variance linkage method) with Euclidean distance as the similarity measure. The farm types were characterized using the full set of variables. They were validated at community workshops four months later."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"For interpretation of farm typologies we acknowledge Dorward et al.'s (2009) concept of stepping stones:"},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"1. Households have different dispositions to invest and sustainably move towards higher levels of production, food security and income. 2. Households need to move beyond a minimum threshold of assets and resilienceotherwise they cannot withstand shocks and fall back to lowest levels."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Three types of livelihood strategies are differentiated:"},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"• Hanging in: Farmers with limited resources earn low returns on their few holdings and have little surplus after meeting their immediate needs, which perpetuates their poverty."},{"index":12,"size":78,"text":"These households aim at maintaining their livelihood levels, and require safety net support to do so. • Stepping up: Farmers have minimum assets required to intensify and increase productivity within the existing agricultural activities. Investing in productive activities they expand their agricultural activities, generate more income and improve their livelihoods. • Stepping out: Farmers have assets beyond the minimum threshold and accumulate assets which will allow them to move into different activities with higher or more stable returns."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Community visioning","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Following a visioning process is a powerful tool to define the current state, with its challenges and opportunities, while the future state defines the goal state to which people aspire. Once these states are documented (on paper in the form of rich pictures), an analysis of the challenges that need to be overcome, the transitions that need to be made, and the external support (infrastructure, policies etc.) required to continue along this development path can be identified. It provides a clear and stepwise strategy, which is visible to everybody. The potential changes become real and tangible as the process unfolds."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"By illustrating the current situation and vision for a better future the communities in Nkayi and Gwanda portrayed perceived agricultural potentials. The differences between the states illustrate that, if supported well, change can happen and improve local livelihoods substantially."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Even though the aspirations seem similar across the sites, the pathways and options to achieve these visions were slightly different, in response to the context-specific conditions."}]},{"head":"Nkayi: Crop-livestock integration and market linkages to boost production","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Participants believed that there is strong potential to improve agricultural production by increasing crop and livestock production and improving their integration (Figure 3). Improved agricultural production and market linkages will bring forward higher incomes from agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Off-farm activities might become less important. Improvements in agriculture will translate in investments in electricity, water, sanitation and housing, health and schools, improving farmers 'livelihoods in the medium term."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"Participants suggested three entry points for moving up this development pathway: 1. Intensify crop production and diversify into larger areas with legumes and fodder crops. This was expected to increase biomass production, grain yields, and the availability of crop residues for feed and ground cover. Manure management was seen as an integral component. 2. Increase cattle and goat production and offtake, and improve livestock quality to generate more income from livestock. First, the feed quality needs to be improved through crop residue and fodder production and feeding. Second, if mechanization would release cattle from draft power for cropping, this would allow farmers to use cattle more for income generation. 3. Improve market infrastructure and this greater organization will attract more farmers to sell their crops and animals at the market. Greater engagement in markets will enhance farmers trust in markets and encourage them to better plan their market operations. "}]},{"head":"Gwanda: Livestock market improvement for upgrading the farms","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Farmers in Gwanda see the promotion of livestock markets as most critical (Figure 4). They have seen recent improvement in livestock markets. They believe that the low prices for livestock are a result of poorly organized markets and poor quality production. Higher incomes from livestock sales will allow re-investments into their own farming system, e.g., selling livestock to buy stock-feeds, fertilizer, or irrigation equipment. In comparison, they see the scope for crop improvement as rather limited, due low and erratic rainfall. Higher crop yields must be achieved through low cost crop management improvement and this also contributes feed for livestock. Through greater participation in livestock markets farmers will improve housing standards, including electricity, transport and water reservoirs."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Participants emphasized two entry points: 1. Improve market development, which involves sale pen management, auctioning or direct sales to abattoirs, grading and premium prices for higher quality, better access to inputs and market information. They aim at enhanced fodder production and pen feeding to sustain the flows of good quality animals to the market. Farmers were interested in fattening livestock for market purposes. 2. Increase crop production by improving soil fertility though better manure management, water harvesting, pests and disease control, and identifying market opportunities for drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum. "}]},{"head":"Diversity in farming systems","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"How different are agricultural systems in semi-arid Zimbabwe actually? Both districts, Nkayi and Gwanda have a lot in common: In both districts all farmers have access to cropland and rangelands. Crop production is rain fed, and croplands are used on an individual basis."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Rangelands are used on a communal basis and provide the main source of livestock-feed during both dry and wet season, with dry season feeds shortages buffered through the use crop residues."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"The distribution of cropland and livestock however differs, illustrating different orientations of the farming systems. Nkayi District, with higher agro-ecological potential, has a greater focus on crop production and the correlation between cropland and cattle herd sizes is stronger, depicting a stronger integration of the two sub-systems (Figure 5). Many households do not have livestock, and a few have livestock with very small cropland. In comparison, Gwanda has larger cattle herd sizes and the correlation between cropland and cattle herd sizes seems less."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"A number of households have large cattle and goat herd sizes but seem to invest little in crop production. There are also households who have cattle and goats but seem to practice only limited cropping. "}]},{"head":"Natural capital","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Farm households seem to have similar access to croplands in Nkayi and Gwanda; most households cultivate less than 2 ha (Table 3). Male-headed households tend to own larger pieces of land than female-headed households."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"In Nkayi farmers cultivate almost three quarters of their land, whereas in Gwanda they cultivate only about half of their land. The proportion of land cultivated seems not to differ between maleand female-headed households. Low rainfall during the observation period and poor access to inputs are major reasons that lead farmers to cultivate less land than available. In both districts most farmers (>70%) viewed the quality of their croplands as ranging from between average to poor fertility. Farmers found that the plots were easily accessible, less than 0.1 and 0.2 hours walking distance from their homesteads."}]},{"head":"Physical capital","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Livestock is the main source of physical capital in both districts. Almost two thirds of the households own cattle (Table 4). In Gwanda almost all households (90%) own goats. Herd sizes are larger in Gwanda than in Nkayi. While in Gwanda male-headed households own more cattle and goats, in Nkayi herd sizes seem similar across male-and female-headed households."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Nkayi Gwanda Across the two sites, cell phones are the most common assets for male-and female-headed households (>70%, Table 5). This reflects the recent development and strong improvement towards communication technologies. The majority of households also own an animal drawn plow, strong indicator for the integrated nature of the farming systems. About half of the households have access to scotch carts, solar panel and radios -with slightly higher ownership by male-headed households. Important to note that using donkeys to plow is more common in Gwanda, where farmers replace cattle with donkeys for plowing their fields, and use cattle for cash income rather than for draft power. "}]},{"head":"Human capital","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The households 'decision makers are relatively old at both sites, with the average age above 50 years (Table 6). Female household heads tend to be older than male household heads. Associated with age female-headed households tend to have more years of experience in crop and livestock production. Male-headed households seem to have more years of formal education than female-headed households. Family sizes are around six persons per household."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Female-headed families tend to be smaller, indicating labor shortages. "}]},{"head":"Financial and social capital","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Annual household incomes are very low in both districts. According to the survey households have on average less than USD 400 (Table 7). While income levels might have been underestimated, other studies confirm high rates of households below the poverty line (Homann-Kee Tui et al., 2014). Male-headed households seemed to realize higher annual incomes than female-headed households. More than 80% of farmers in Nkayi and about 70% in Gwanda indicated that they face critical shortage of funds for agricultural activities. Access to credit to fund agricultural operations is poor. Less than 10% of the farmers managed to receive credit in the 2012/2013 season."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Agricultural extension services seem to reach less than half the households in Nkayi and less than a quarter in Gwanda. More households receive technical advice on maize production, as compared to the other crops. Technical advice on livestock production seems even more limited than for crops, despite the importance that livestock plays in the area. Farmers in Gwanda seem to receive more livestock support as compared to those in Nkayi. Main providers of extension services as well as market information are government departments. In Gwanda NGOs are also major sources of information. There is no significant difference in the proportion of male-and female-headed households that access extension, with the exception of cattle related extension for Nkayi farmers. "}]},{"head":"Food security indicators","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"We look at food security in terms of the ability of households to be self sufficient in staple foods and also to purchase food through sale of other agricultural commodities. Food self-sufficiency was a constraint for farm households in both districts (direct food insecurity). Farm households in Gwanda more often fail to sustain food self sufficiency: over a period of five years households in Gwanda experience four years when they do not produce enough grain to cover the households needs and in Nkayi this figure is 3 years (Table 8). Farmers in Gwanda also experience these food shortages longer. Most households have received food aid to ease the food shortage."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"However, in Gwanda many households (46%) sold livestock as a way to supplement food and thereby managed to sustain their own food security. In Nkayi fewer households (19.4%) sold livestock to buy food, which at the end leaves farmers in Nkayi with fewer options to ensure their own food security. At both sites, farmers mainly sold goats to buy food. "}]},{"head":"Crop production and marketing","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Crop production","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Cropping patterns in Nkayi and Gwanda reflect farmers'preferences and agro-ecological conditions. Cereal production dominates the croplands in both Nkayi and Gwanda Districts (Figure 6). Maize is the most important crop at both sites. Slightly more farmers cultivate maize in Nkayi and the share of maize land is also larger (Table 9). In Gwanda almost 40% of farmers grow sorghum, which accounts for about half of their cultivated land. In Nkayi less than a fifth of the farms grow sorghum. Legume production is low in both districts, taken up by about a third of the farmers on less than 10% of the cultivated land."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The yield levels were extremely low for all crops during the observation year 2012/2013. In response to higher rainfall, yields were slightly higher in Nkayi than in Gwanda. Male-and female-headed households had similar low levels of crop yields.  "}]},{"head":"Intensification of crop production","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Table 10 illustrates the levels of crop intensification, looking at use of external inputs (improved seed varieties and inorganic fertilizer) and crop-livestock integration (draft power and manure). Farmers invest mainly in maize; therefore we focus on intensification of maize. The majority of farmers uses improved maize seed varieties, fewer farmers use improved sorghum and groundnut varieties. Inorganic fertilizer use and application rates are very low at both sites. In Gwanda male-headed households seem to have greater access to inorganic fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Almost all households in both districts use animal draft power to prepare their fields. Usage of manure as organic fertilizer is however low across the two sites. Only about half of the farmers with cattle seem to use manure to improve the fertility of their soils. Male-headed households seem to apply far higher volumes of manure per unit land as compared to female-headed households. Low levels of investments in crop production suggest a high potential for improvement; technical options have to be useful under high risk conditions. "}]},{"head":"Marketing of crop outputs","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"With low yields and crop produce primarily for food security, there is rarely a surplus crop available for sale. In Nkayi more farmers sold crops, yet often to cover emergency needs but not because they have excess for sale. About 30% of the male-headed maize producers sold parts of their maize output during the 2013 marketing season (Table 11). Fewer female-headed households sold maize. In Gwanda few (<5%) farmers participated in crop sales. The low rainfall during the previous season explains lack of surplus for crop sale, especially in Gwanda. Farmers in Nkayi used their income from crop sales mainly to cover household's immediate needs such as school fees and to buy alternative sources of food (Figure 7). Fewer than 6% of the famers reinvested income from crop sales in crop production. "}]},{"head":"Gender in decision making over crop management","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Women had a strong influence in crop production (Figure 8). In male-headed households most decision are made jointly (51% and 48%), and in about a quarter of the households women seem to have most influence on crop management (25% and 33% in Nkayi and Gwanda respectively). Women decide in female-headed households. "}]},{"head":"Perceptions of risks and uncertainties","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"Here we look at farmers' perceptions of risk in terms of climatic risk and risk embedded in price fluctuations. Farmers expect sufficient rains throughout the season for about 7 and 4 years out of 20, in Nkayi and Gwanda respectively (Table 12). More farmers expect that rainfall will be sufficient during the first half of the season and insufficient during the second part of the season. When farmers expect a good rainy season (SI), they prefer to grow maize on most of their croplands (Figure 9). In Nkayi they prefer growing large proportions with maize even when insufficient rain is expected. In Gwanda farmers prefer growing more sorghum rather than maize when rain is expected to be insufficient and insufficient late in the season. At both sites, regardless of the expected rain, farmers would allocate a smaller proportion of land to groundnuts. Farmers 'preferences for different types of crops match with the level of rainfall fluctuations experienced in their environments. Small land allocated to groundnuts is largely due to labor constraints for processing the nuts. The comparison of crop output prices shows that prices are by far higher for groundnuts than for maize and sorghum (Figure 10). Groundnuts prices seem to be higher in Gwanda than in Nkayi."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Crop prices tend to be at their lowest after harvests, since there is increased supply in the local markets. Prices increase later during the year. Price ranges between low and high prices are largest for maize, 65% in Nkayi and 58% in Gwanda. Groundnut prices change by 53% in Gwanda and 50% in Nkayi. Sorghum prices change less, by 43% in Gwanda and 31% inNkayi (31%)."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Figure 10. Crop output prices, cheap, average and peak, in Nkayi and Gwanda districts"}]},{"head":"Livestock production and marketing","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock production","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Cattle and goats are the most important types of livestock types kept by farmers in Nkayi and Gwanda. Farmers in Nkayi keep cattle most importantly for draught power, manure and milk, reflecting the more crop-oriented mixed farming system (Figure 11). In Gwanda cash income and milk are the most important functions of cattle, which is in line with the more livestock market oriented production system. At both sites, the most important functions of goats are meat and cash income. "}]},{"head":"Intensification of livestock production","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In both districts farmers invest in feed and animal health for sustaining the conditions of cattle and goats (Table 13). Farmers in Gwanda invest more in feed than those in Nkayi. They commonly store and feed crop residues. More importantly, about a third of the farmers in Gwanda feed commercial stock feed to cattle, and some farmers also feed the stock feeds to goats. In Nkayi using stock feeds is not common. Fodder production is not common in both districts. In both districts a higher proportion of male-headed households store and feed crop residues to goats compared to female-headed households and the difference is significant."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Farmers seem to invest more in cattle health as compared to goat health. Dip tanks are more common for cattle and government support more directed at controlling cattle related diseases as compared to goats."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Households Households "}]},{"head":"Livestock performance","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Despite the drier conditions, cattle performance seems to be better in Gwanda than in Nkayi, in terms of calving interval and age at first calving (Table 14). The performance of goats was similar in both districts. Livestock performance does not differ between male and female headed households in both districts. "}]},{"head":"Livestock dynamics","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"The predominant sources of cattle and goat herd growth are births (Table 15). Birth accounts for 93% and 85% of total cattle inflows in Gwanda and Nkayi respectively. Cattle in Nkayi tend to have higher calving rates compared to those in Gwanda. The offtake rates of cattle and goats are low in both areas, with slightly higher cattle off-take rates in Gwanda. Cattle off-take rates less than 5% are expected in a communal set up. Yet, goat off-take ratescan reach higher than 20%. An explanation for low off-take rates can be the fact that the survey was conducted in the second year of a drought period, and farmers preferred holding on to their breeding animals for recovery after the drought. Mortality rates were relatively low, despite the low rainfall. The provision of supplementary feed, especially stock-feed, might have contributed to this. There was no significant difference between inflow and outflow rates between male-and femaleheaded households in the two districts. "}]},{"head":"Marketing of livestock outputs","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Here we see a strong difference in the presence and use of market channels between the two districts. Farmers in Gwanda sell cattle and goats more at developed market centers, a reflection of a better developed market system (Table 16). Farmers in Nkayi seem to largely depend on farm gate sales. As for crops farmers spend most of the income from livestock sales for the household's food and education requirements (Figure 12). Some farmers in Gwanda (<15%) and very few in Nkayi (<2%) reinvested income from livestock back into livestock production. Farmers in Nkayi and Gwanda identified body condition as the most important criteria for determining prices of cattle and goats (Table 17). Live weight and age were also important. Few farmers indicated that sex and breed were important attributes for determining prices. Sex seems to play a greater role for determining prices of goats, and breed more than for cattle. "}]},{"head":"Gender in decision making over livestock management and marketing","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"While men play a dominant role in decisions over livestock production (feeding, medication), women seem to have a strong influence on decisions over the purchase and sale of cattle (Figure 13). Decisions over the use of income from livestock sales are also often done jointly (>50% in Nkayi and >40% in Gwanda)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Figure 13 Decision making over cattle production and marketing"}]},{"head":"Households","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Crop and Livestock Production for Improved Food Security and Livelihoods in Rural Zimbabwe"}]},{"head":"Perceptions of risks and uncertainties","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"If the season is expected to have sufficient rains, more households in Nkayi would increase their cattle herd, while in Gwanda more households would add goats (Figure 14). If insufficient rains would be expected more farmers in Gwanda would reduce cattle as compared to those in Nkayi."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The responses reflect experience of more severe droughts in Gwanda as compared to Nkayi. When either the first half or second half of a season is expected to be poor, few farmers would reduce their herd sizes. "}]},{"head":"SS-sufficient","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farm household typologies","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"How can different types of farm households participate in the envisaged pathways of marketoriented agricultural production under the different conditions in Nkayi and Gwanda? The results of this section confirm that there are different types of farms, with different levels of resource endowments and different predispositions for engaging in the respective pathways."}]},{"head":"Principal components and cluster analysis","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The first eight principal component variables (PC, bold in Table 18) had Eigenvalues larger than 1, for both Nkayi and Gwanda Districts. These factors explained about 60% of the variance in "}]},{"head":"Households","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Nkayi Gwanda the data sets (Figure 15). In both Nkayi and Gwanda the first factor represents cultivated land, followed by family size and age of head of households as other important factors. The sites also shared on-farm income and herd size as common factors. In Nkayi diversity of information was also important, manure application on maize and improved maize seed. In Gwanda the factors asset index, access to extension and supplementary feed were more important. The factors match well with the characteristics of the farming systems."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"These variables together with other variables were selected for clustering the surveyed households in farm types. For Nkayi three types were defined, which contain 55%,31% and 14% of the sample population (Figure 16). For Gwanda four were defined, which contain 12%, 30%, 43% and 15% of the sample population.   "}]},{"head":"Livelihood characteristics of the different farm types","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Following Dorward et al. (2009) we characterized the farm types for both districts as very poor in resources, those who are still poor but stepping up, and those who are more advanced in intensifying crop-livestock production. The distances in the ward dendograms illustrate that in both districts the intensifying farms (the first cluster in Nkayi, the third and fourth clusters in Gwanda, Figure 15) differ distinctly from the resource-poor farmers. The socio-economic characteristics of the clusters are as follows (Table 19 and Table 20): Table 19. Summary characteristics of common farm types in Nkayi and Gwanda."}]},{"head":"Farm types Summary of farm type characteristics","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Nkayi C1 Very resource poor farms: The largest proportion of farm households falls under the very resource poor type, least endowed in terms of assets, croplands and livestock. This group also has the least access to information. The proportion of female-headed households is larger than in the other clusters. Income levels are the lowest and these households face greater food shortages."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"C2 Poor but stepping up farms: A large number of farms are at an intermediary stage, in terms of assets, income, croplands and herd sizes. Household heads tend to be older. Farmers in this group make the highest proportion of off-farm income, supplementing the limited income from agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"C3 Intensifying crop-livestock farms: Better off-farms make up a small proportion. They cultivate more than double the lands and own more livestock than the other types. They also have access to more diverse sources of information and make more contacts with extension in a year. They have larger family sizes and fewer female-headed households. With less off-farm income but substantially higher income than the other farms they illustrate the potential that improved agricultural production can gear up to in Nkayi."}]},{"head":"Gwanda","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"C1 Very resource poor farms: These farms cultivate the smallest area and have the smallest herd sizes. Household heads are relatively old, least educated and family sizes are small. They have least contact with extension and the least diverse sources of information. The proportion of female-headed households is high. They have lowest incomes and face greater food shortages."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"C2 Poor but stepping up farms: Households have limited cropland and livestock, but highest proportion of off-farm activities. Household heads are slightly younger. annual household income is three fold that of the resource poor households."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"C3 Intensifying cattle maize farms: These farmers are mainly located in Gwanda North, with higher rainfall and cultivate more than double the land than the other types. Herd sizes are intermediate. Household heads are older. Female-headed households are few. Their income levels are low."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"C4 Intensifying crop-livestock farms: These farms are the wealthiest, owning more than four times the number of livestock as compared to the resource poor farms. They also have the highest number of contacts with extension. Female-headed households are few. In contrast to C3 with large croplands, these farms with large herds earn the highest annual incomes."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"tip of the district and receives more rainfall than other wards. They cultivate the largest areas of maize, sorghum and groundnuts, invest more in improved seed, draft power and manure, and realize the highest maize and groundnut yields (Table 21). The stepping up farmers are mainly located (>53%) in the southern part of the district, with less favorable agricultural conditions and higher human population densities. The very resource-poor households invest the least in improving crop production."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"Similar trends are found in Gwanda. The cluster of intensifying cattle maize farmers mostly live in ward 4 with higher rainfall (C3, 86%), they cultivate the largest maize and groundnut area, often use improved seed, draft power, fertilizer and manure. The other cluster of intensifying crop-livestock farmers with more focus on livestock and sorghum (C4) produce in the south of Gwanda, under less rainfall. They cultivate the largest area and produce highest sorghum yields. The resource poor and the younger farmers (C1 and C2) also produce under very low rainfall conditions, and invest little to improve crop production. "}]},{"head":"Livestock production characteristics","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In Nkayi the intensifying crop-livestock farmers (C3) own the largest cattle and goat herd sizes, more of these farmers invest in supplementary livestock-feed (stock-feed and crop residues), and they also have significantly higher off-take rates than the poor (Table 22). The poor farms keep fewer cattle and goats, and their off-take rates are lower. All types of households seem to engage in animal health."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The intensifying farmers in Gwanda (C3 and C4) keep more cattle, while goats seem common for all household types. The C4 farmers keep more than double the number of goats as compared to the other farmers. The C3 and C4 farmers invest more in animal health and feeding crop residues. Some C4 farmers also engage in fodder production. About a quarter of all clusters seem to feed stock-feeds. Offtake rates are higher for C4 farmers, the more market-oriented livestock producers, while C3 farmers are more oriented towards crop production and use cattle more for their input functions to crops, rather than sale. "}]},{"head":"Discussion and recommendations","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"An integrated systems approach requires research 'in 'rather than 'for 'development (Coe et al., 2014). It involves addressing three key issues: 1. capturing local diversity and the requirements for context specific engagements, 2. the importance of appropriate markets and delivery services, 3. co-learning by stakeholders involved. This baseline report informs about the local context (1), and is reference for measuring outcomes of developing 2 and 3 within the specific contexts and engagements."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Here we discuss baseline information with regards to the project's main indicators on increasing agricultural production and income. We then discuss the different types of farms, and specific options that are likely to match well with what communities defined as overall development pathways and farm households particular circumstances. Appendix 2 provides an overview on key aspects for both sites."}]},{"head":"Production and welfare indicators","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Increased integration of crop-livestock sub-systems: In their visions farmers at both sites expressed increased crop-livestock integration as critical for improving the productivity of their farms. The sites differ in terms of magnitude of crop-livestock integration. In Nkayi farmers tend to use more of the livestock inputs to enhance crop production. At this site extension support is more geared towards crop production, and livestock markets are largely informal. In Gwanda farmers use more crop residues, commercial stock-feed and fodder to enhance livestock production. Farmers in Gwanda also reinvest cash from livestock sales back into livestock production. We believe that better developed markets and support structures in Gwanda are strong drivers for farmers to reinvest within their farming systems as a way for enhancing overall production."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"At both sits farmers do make greater use of crop-livestock integration than purchasing external inputs (e.g., 40% of the households practice manure management, while less than 20% apply inorganic fertilizer). Animal draft power is most commonly used across the sites (<90% of the households), labor saving technology for soil preparation. Farmers with more draft power animals are able to prepare larger land in time. Limited application of manure management can be explained by the fact that volumes of available manure are not sufficient to fertilize all crop fields (required are 8-10 t manure/ha; production/cow/year is 3 t)."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"In Nkayi, practices of improving manure collection and management were reported. There is high pressure on using crop residues as feed, due to low crop yields and high livestock-feed demand. Collecting and storage of crop residues is the most common practice for supplementary feeding, by 70% and 60% of households in Gwanda and Nkayi respectively. In Gwanda some farmers use new technologies for processing crop residues and farmers also engaged in fodder production. It seems that farmers in Gwanda have greater incentives and are more aware of feeding livestock. Cash flows within agricultural systems are another form of integration: Currently about 15% of the farmers in Gwanda and less than 5% in Nkayi reinvest income from sale of agricultural produce back into agriculture. Market development (input and output markets) that enhances financial flows within a system, contributes to overall systems productivity."},{"index":4,"size":258,"text":"Increased agricultural production and productivity: Low levels of investment (<20% of farm households applying fertilizer and <40% manure on crop fields, <10% engage in fodder production) and low agricultural production (<400kg crop yields; < 5% offtake) suggest high potential for improving farmers' livelihoods, if done properly, in both districts. A critical constraint for increasing crop and fodder production is the limited farm size (< 2ha) and the fact that farmers only manage to cultivate a proportion of that land. Farmers themselves were confident that agricultural production can be enhanced to higher levels and provide surplus for sale, as reflected in the community visions. Different types of improved food feed crop and forage technologies were prioritized at IP meetings at each site. In Nkayi, with higher agro-ecological potential, crop diversification and intensification could provide substantially more biomass for food and feed, which could contribute towards intensified and market oriented livestock production. Despite its potential, most of these crops were new for farmers and extension services and are now in process of being demonstrated and promoted through the ZimCLIFs project's on-farm activities. In Nkayi access to inputs and poor soil quality were listed as the most limiting factors for farmers to raise production on the available land. The inputs are often locally not available and under the existing cash constraints many farmers do not have the means to purchase inputs. Farmers rely on government input program and some extent NGOs. Farmers in Nkayi expressed an interest to expand cultivated land and increase production if adequate inputs were available in time."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"In Gwanda, through recent development interventions, farmers and extension services are more advanced in piloting food feed crops and forages. Low and erratic rainfall, and thus high risk in production seems the most limiting factor. The year of observation (2012/2013) was a year with very low crop yields and half of the land was left uncultivated. To increase production areas like Gwanda need strong support for exploring and scaling out droughttolerant dual purpose crops, e.g. sorghum, millet, perennial forages."},{"index":6,"size":267,"text":"Increased turnover and income: At the time of the baseline data collection most farmers focused on producing food crops, with strong dominance of maize (80% of croplands in Nkayi, 50% in Gwanda). Farmers however generated very little maize surplus for sale. In Nkayi, despite low yields, barter trading maize was reported a commonly used form of trading, due to shortage of cash in the local economy. At this point it is important to highlight that despite higher agricultural potential, farmers in Nkayi who depend largely on maize production are less food secure than those in Gwanda. At IP meetings farmers confirmed maize as crop of low profitability and high risk, whereas cattle and goats ranked high, confirming that farmers are clearly interested in diversifying into livestock production. New attention was brought to groundnuts. Especially women farmers preferred groundnuts for high profitability, if market linkages could be developed. Sorghum was associated with food security, but less market potential and high labor costs. In Gwanda more income was generated from livestock sales; households frequently sold livestock to buy food, reflected in higher food security levels than in Nkayi. Gwanda illustrates a case where livestock markets have recently been developed. Farmers now participate more in formal market structures, with attendance of large buyers and gain higher prices for their animals. It confirms that where markets reward production and fodder technologies are made available, farmers respond and re-invest, and improve food security and income even under high risk conditions. It confirms also that investments need to go beyond the farm gate, so that farmers can benefit and make changes happen on-farm."},{"index":7,"size":169,"text":"Reduced agricultural risk: Farmers in Nkayi expressed interest to diversify their farming systems from dominant maize production into drought-tolerant groundnuts and sorghum. They clearly see a potential for high quality feed biomass and livestock production as ways to reduce agricultural risk. In Gwanda high preference for sorghum and goats is an adaptation to the drier farming conditions. As an adaptation to high risk, farmers have taken up fodder production, motivated by markets and various project, private sector and government initiatives. Diversifying into livestock and fodder production has become an important option to deal with the high risk of crop failure. Improved markets provide higher income from livestock sales, more food can be purchased per unit livestock sold. At both sites IP meetings and feedback from on-farm demonstrations confirm interest in forage legumes, perennial fodder, dual purpose legume and sorghum varieties. Local seed multiplication is another way to sustain availability of these technologies. For farmers to trust market mechanisms as a way to reduce risk, it requires demonstrations and exposure."}]},{"head":"Tailoring intensification options","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The participatory approach at IP meetings brought out market oriented crop livestock systems as overarching development pathways for both districts. While the overall pathways are similar for both districts, interplay among agro-ecological potential, development support and markets clearly resulted in different orientations. It follows that context-specific realignments are required for improving these agricultural systems: For instance, in Nkayi and Gwanda North conditions favor mixed crop-livestock production, with high potential for food feed crops and forages. Agricultural support has been focusing on maize production and conservation agriculture. Re-alignment would mean a stronger emphasis on crop diversification and crop production for market purposes, particularly legumes. In Gwanda South the potential is towards market oriented livestock production. Here we found that a reorientation has successfully taken place, towards strengthening the livestock system, notably through market development, feed and fodder management."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The farm typologies confirm different levels of assets and incomes among households in the two districts, and thus different predispositions to engage in and benefit from the local development pathways. The better off households diversify and intensify more their production of crops and livestock. These households are less vulnerable, engage more in markets, and high on-farm income levels confirm mixed crop-livestock farming as pathway to earn more income. For resource poor households diversification and crop-livestock integration is more difficult. They often don't have many animals and lack of investment capital, productive assets, labor and also biomass, including manure and high quality feed."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Gender analysis illustrates that female-headed households tend to be more among the resource poor and stepping up farm types. It is a reflection of resource constraints, as female-headed households also tend to have less access to cropland, livestock, farm implements, labor, education and overall household income. No difference was however found in terms of crop and livestock productivity."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"We used community feedback and information from IP workshops to sketch out technical interventions that could be suitable for the different farm types. Table 23 lists the suggested options for the different farm types. The potential impacts of alternative options on reducing the households' vulnerability and profitability will be further explored using simulation modeling."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Worth noting that farmers across the types preferred ways of improving communication and learning: Farmer field school approaches, field days, demonstration days and demo plots, as well as broadcasting information on technologies and markets through cell phone, radio and newspapers. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe (Source: ICRISAT GIS unit) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Soil maps for Nkayi and Gwanda Districts (Source: ICRISAT GIS unit) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Visions for agricultural production in Nkayi District. 3.a. current, 3.b. future. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Visions for agricultural production in Gwanda district. 4.a. current, 4.b. future. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Distribution of croplands and cattle herd sizes in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Crop composition in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts (% cropland cultivated) "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Expenses covered from crop sales by farmers in Nkayi district "},{"text":" Figure 8. Women and men influence on decision making in crop management. "},{"text":"Households Figure 9. Proportion of crop area under varying rainfall expectations "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Reasons for keeping cattle and goats in Nkayi and Gwanda. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12.Expenses covered from livestock sales by farmers in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts "},{"text":" Figure 14. Proportion of cattle and goats in a herd under varying rainfall expectations "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Percentage of variance explained through factors with Eigenvalue >1 for Nkayi and Gwanda Districts. "},{"text":"Figure 16 . Figure 16. Ward dendogramms for Nkayi and Gwanda Districts. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Characteristics of Nkayi and Gwanda Districts  "},{"text":"District Biomass (NPP t ha -1 yr -1 ) Human pop. density (n km -2 ) Livestock pop. density (TLU km -2 ) Average herd size per HH (n)        Cattle Goats Cattle Goats CattleGoatsCattleGoats Nkayi  3-4  20  12 8 4.6  1.9 Nkayi3-4201284.61.9 Gwanda <3  10  8 1 6.9  7.3 Gwanda<310816.97.3 Source: ZimStat, 2012, DVS, http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw (NPP)   Source: ZimStat, 2012, DVS, http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw (NPP) Table 2. Trends in crop and livestock production in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts, 2009-2013 Table 2. Trends in crop and livestock production in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts, 2009-2013    Nkayi     Gwanda   NkayiGwanda  2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009201020112012201320092010201120122013     Cultivated area (ha)     Cultivated area (ha) Maize 9,115 20,461 23,077 22,080 20,342 - - - - 22,836 Maize9,11520,46123,07722,08020,342----22,836 Sorgh 625 3,238 858 5,538 2,104 13,780 10,840 8,895 9,985 10,623 Sorgh6253,2388585,5382,10413,78010,8408,8959,98510,623 G'nut 250 2,000 1,686 310 550 5,698 4,776 2,781 4,000 3,326 G'nut2502,0001,6863105505,6984,7762,7814,0003,326     Livestock numbers (n)     Livestock numbers (n) Cattle 110,620 100,467 100,418 98,814 101,270 103,474 112,967 129,158 112,967 - Cattle110,620 100,467 100,418 98,814 101,270 103,474 112,967 129,158 112,967- Goats - 37,053 31,233 35,907 87,540 40,536 118,123 136,962 192,329 - Goats-37,05331,23335,90787,54040,536 118,123 136,962 192,329- Source: AGRITEX and DVS        Source: AGRITEX and DVS  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Mean (sd)  cropland and utilization, by districts and gender of head of households   Nkayi   Gwanda NkayiGwanda  Male Female sign Male Female sign MaleFemalesignMaleFemalesign Total cropland (ha) 1.7(1.2) 1.3(1.1) <0.05 1.8(1.1) 1.5(1) <0.05 Total cropland (ha)1.7(1.2)1.3(1.1) <0.05 1.8(1.1)1.5(1)<0.05 Proportion cultivated (%) 73.5(29.5) 71.5(32) ns 52.9(35) 53.7(36.1) ns Proportion cultivated (%)73.5(29.5) 71.5(32)ns52.9(35) 53.7(36.1)ns ns-not significant      ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Livestock ownership, means (sd), by districts and gender of head of households   Nkayi   Gwanda  NkayiGwanda  Male Female sign Male Female sign MaleFemalesignMaleFemalesign HH with cattle (%) 70.9 61.7 ns 72.6 53.7 p<0.01 HH with cattle (%)70.961.7ns72.653.7p<0.01 HH with goats (%) 73 68.1 ns 90.4 90.9 ns HH with goats (%)7368.1ns90.490.9ns Cattle herd size (n) 7.2(5.3) 7.0(5.5) ns 11.5(13.6) 6.8(6) p<0.01 Cattle herd size (n)7.2(5.3)7.0(5.5)ns11.5(13.6)6.8(6)p<0.01 Goat flock size (n) 7.8(5.9) 6.6(4.1) ns 14.0(12.0) 10.7(8.4) p<0.01 Goat flock size (n)7.8(5.9)6.6(4.1)ns14.0(12.0) 10.7(8.4)p<0.01 ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Asset ownership, by districts and gender of head of household  Nkayi   Gwanda   NkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Cell phone 79.8 83.5 ns 79.3 85.2 ns Cell phone79.883.5ns79.385.2ns Ox-plough 72.3 70.5 ns 80.2 84.7 ns Ox-plough72.370.5ns80.284.7ns Scotch-cart 36.4 55.3 p<0.01 56.2 72.5 p<0.01 Scotch-cart36.455.3p<0.0156.272.5p<0.01 Solar Panel 43.6 53.2 ns 47.9 63.8 p<0.01 Solar Panel43.653.2ns47.963.8p<0.01 Radio 41.5 54.9 p<0.01 44.6 56.8 p<0.01 Radio41.554.9p<0.0144.656.8p<0.01 Bicycle 21.3 46 p<0.01 43.8 67.2 p<0.01 Bicycle21.346p<0.0143.867.2p<0.01 Ploughing oxen 44.7 51.1 ns 23.1 26.6 ns Ploughing oxen44.751.1ns23.126.6ns Ploughing donkey 7.4 20.3 p<0.01 50.4 59.4 ns Ploughing donkey7.420.3p<0.0150.459.4ns ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Human capital indicators, means (sd), by districts and gender of head of household     Nkayi   Gwanda NkayiGwanda    Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Age of HH head (yrs) 59.1(14.4) 52.5(16) p<0.01 58.4(12.9) 57.1(15.8) ns Age of HH head (yrs)59.1(14.4)52.5(16)p<0.01 58.4(12.9) 57.1(15.8)ns Education of HH head 4.8(3.4) 6.6(2.8) p<0.01 6.8(3.6) 8(2.9) p<0.01 Education of HH head4.8(3.4)6.6(2.8)p<0.016.8(3.6)8(2.9)p<0.01 (yrs)       (yrs) Years in crop 31.2(16.5) 23.1(18.6) p<0.01 29.9(16.3) 26.1(15.5) p<0.05 Yearsincrop31.2(16.5) 23.1(18.6)p<0.01 29.9(16.3) 26.1(15.5) p<0.05 production HH head     production HH head Years in livestock 28.0(17.7) 21.51(16.7) p<0.01 28.5(15.9) 25.7(15.6) p<0.05 Years in livestock28.0(17.7) 21.51(16.7) p<0.01 28.5(15.9) 25.7(15.6) p<0.05 production HH head     production HH head Family size (n)  5.6(2.5) 6.8(2.6) ns 5.5(2.4) 6.3(2.5) p<0.01 Family size (n)5.6(2.5)6.8(2.6)ns5.5(2.4)6.3(2.5)p<0.01 Dependency ratio  69.1(69.3) 59.0(48) ns 58.4(57.2) 59.2(54.4) ns Dependency ratio69.1(69.3)59.0(48)ns58.4(57.2) 59.2(54.4)ns ns-not significant      ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Financial and social indicators, means (sd), by districts and gender of head of household   Nkayi   Gwanda  NkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Annual income (US$) 239.6(296.4) 398.4(479.2) p<0.01 267(296.5) 337(326) ns Annual income (US$)239.6(296.4) 398.4(479.2) p<0.01 267(296.5) 337(326)ns Access credit (% HH) 7.4 8.9 ns 5.8 10.5 ns Access credit (% HH)7.48.9ns5.810.5ns Access extension (% HH)       Access extension (% HH) -Maize 43.6 43.9 ns 27.3 25.3 ns -Maize43.643.9ns27.325.3ns -Sorghum 3.2 3.8 ns 9.1 10 ns -Sorghum3.23.8ns9.110ns -Groundnuts 1.1 1.7 ns 2.5 3.9 ns -Groundnuts1.11.7ns2.53.9ns -Cattle 5.3 15.2 p<0.05 14 21 ns -Cattle5.315.2p<0.051421ns -Goats 5.3 6.8 ns 16.5 19.2 ns -Goats5.36.8ns16.519.2ns -Marketing 2.1 3.1 ns 5.8 6.1 ns -Marketing2.13.1ns5.86.1ns  Main source of Information (%)    Main source of Information (%) -Government extension 62.8 70 ns 45.5 52.8 ns -Government extension62.870ns45.552.8ns -Other farmers 21.3 17.7 ns 16.5 17.9 ns -Other farmers21.317.7ns16.517.9ns -NGOs 8.5 9.3 ns 39.7 27.9 p<0.05 -NGOs8.59.3ns39.727.9p<0.05 ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Food self-sufficiency, means (sd), by district and gender of head of household  Nkayi   Gwanda  NkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Number of times food shortage 3.4(1.4) 2.9(1.4) ns 3.8(1.1) 3.6(1.2) ns Number of times food shortage3.4(1.4) 2.9(1.4)ns3.8(1.1)3.6(1.2)ns occurred in the past 5 years       occurred in the past 5 years Average number of months of 5(3.1) 4.6(3) ns 6.5(3.1) 5.5(3) p<0.01 Average number of months of5(3.1)4.6(3)ns6.5(3.1)5.5(3)p<0.01 food shortage       food shortage Received food aid in the past 5 76.6 67.1 ns 84.3 75.5 ns Received food aid in the past 576.667.1ns84.375.5ns years (% HH)       years (% HH) ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Crop production, means (sd), by district and gender of head of household Crop and Livestock Production for Improved Food Security and Livelihoods in Rural Zimbabwe 8% legumes Sorghu m 5% Cotton 3% Others 4% Nkayi 9% Legumes Millet 7% 5% Other Gwanda 8% legumes Sorghu m 5%Cotton 3%Others 4%Nkayi9% Legumes Millet 7%5% OtherGwanda        Maize Maize     Sorghum  58% Sorghum58%    Maize    Maize    80%    80% Variable    Nkayi   Gwanda VariableNkayiGwanda    Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Maize       Maize -Growers (% HH) 96.8 97.9 ns 73.6 79.5 ns -Growers (% HH)96.897.9ns73.679.5ns -Importance (%area) 84.2(18.4) 80.3(20.5) ns 69.1(29.2) 67.5(28.8) ns -Importance (%area)84.2(18.4)80.3(20.5)ns69.1(29.2)67.5(28.8)ns -Yield (kg/ha)  310.1(361.9) 387.4(375.1) ns 108.6(147.2) 134.5(160.5) ns -Yield (kg/ha)310.1(361.9) 387.4(375.1)ns 108.6(147.2) 134.5(160.5)ns Sorghum       Sorghum -Growers (% HH) 18.1 16  ns 38 35.4 ns -Growers (% HH)18.116ns3835.4ns -Importance (%area) 27.1(13.7) 35(24.1) ns 58.9(27.6) 48.7(24.4) p<0.05 -Importance (%area)27.1(13.7)35(24.1)ns58.9(27.6)48.7(24.4) p<0.05 -Yield (kg/ha)  156.4(188.5) 196.8(189.7) ns 116.2(159.8) 173(178.6) ns -Yield (kg/ha)156.4(188.5) 196.8(189.7)ns 116.2(159.8) 173(178.6)ns Groundnut       Groundnut -Growers (% HH) 27.7 36.7 ns 29.8 30.6 ns -Growers (% HH)27.736.7ns29.830.6ns -Importance (%area) 18.9(14.0) 17(11.6) ns 20.2(10.6) 19.4(14.2) ns -Importance (%area)18.9(14.0)17(11.6)ns20.2(10.6)19.4(14.2)ns -Yield (kg/ha)  258.7(225.8) 228.2(233) ns 118.0(182.9) 183.8(267.9) ns -Yield (kg/ha)258.7(225.8)228.2(233)ns 118.0(182.9) 183.8(267.9)ns ns-not significant     ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Intensification levels, means (sd) in crop production Variable  Nkayi   Gwanda  VariableNkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign  Use of external resources    Use of external resources Improved seed (% HH)       Improved seed (% HH) -Maize 67 73.9 ns 72.4 70.9 ns -Maize6773.9ns72.470.9ns -Sorghum 11.8 26.3 ns 17.4 22.2 ns -Sorghum11.826.3ns17.422.2ns -Groundnuts 16.7 15.7 ns 7.7 3.4 ns -Groundnuts16.715.7ns7.73.4ns Fertilizer on maize (% HH) 11 19.9 ns 8.3 14.3 ns Fertilizer on maize (% HH)1119.9ns8.314.3ns (kg/ha) 52.8(40.9) 50.2(33.7) ns 40.4(35.4) 98(85) p<0.01 (kg/ha)52.8(40.9) 50.2(33.7)ns40.4(35.4)98(85)p<0.01  Crop-livestock integration    Crop-livestock integration Draft power (%HH) 85.7 90.7 ns 75 91 p<0.01 Draft power (%HH)85.790.7ns7591p<0.01 Manure on maize (%HH) 38.5 36.4 ns 29.6 32.4 ns Manure on maize (%HH)38.536.4ns29.632.4ns (kg/ha) 467.7(292) 1144(815) p<0.01 616(382.6) 1178(983) p<0.01 (kg/ha)467.7(292) 1144(815) p<0.01 616(382.6) 1178(983) p<0.01 ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Proportion of households (%) who sold crop outputs   Nkayi   Gwanda  NkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Maize 22 31.9 ns 3.4 1.1 ns Maize2231.9ns3.41.1ns Sorghum 5.9 0 ns 4.3 4.9 ns Sorghum5.90ns4.34.9ns Groundnuts 3.8 9.2 ns 5.6 1.4 ns Groundnuts3.89.2ns5.61.4ns ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Farmers rainfall expectations during seasons (mean years) Nkayi Gwanda NkayiGwanda  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Intensification levels in livestock production (% HH) by districts and gender of household head   Nkayi   Gwanda  NkayiGwanda  Female Male sign Female Male sign FemaleMalesignFemaleMalesign Cattle       Cattle Feeding       Feeding Storage and feeding CR 58.6 64.3 ns 50.8 49.4 ns Storage and feeding CR58.664.3ns50.849.4ns Commercial stock-feed 5.2 2.4 ns 29.2 42.1 ns Commercial stock-feed5.22.4ns29.242.1ns Fodder production 0 0.6 ns 10.8 7.3 ns Fodder production00.6ns10.87.3ns Prevention and treatment of diseases      Prevention and treatment of diseases -Tick-borne 93.1 98. ns 84.6 87.8 ns -Tick-borne93.198.ns84.687.8ns -Blackleg 55.2 65.1 ns 58.5 65.9 ns -Blackleg55.265.1ns58.565.9ns -Lumpy skin 27.6 38.1 ns 32.3 34.8 ns -Lumpy skin27.638.1ns32.334.8ns Goats       Goats Feeding       Feeding Storage and feeding CR 4.7 13.9 p<0.05 15.5 24.2 p<0.1 Storage and feeding CR4.713.9p<0.0515.524.2p<0.1 Commercial stock-feed 0 0.6 ns 12.7 23.7 p<0.05 Commercial stock-feed00.6ns12.723.7p<0.05 Fodder production 0 1.2 ns 3.6 1.9 ns Fodder production01.2ns3.61.9ns Prevention and treatment of diseases      Prevention and treatment of diseases -Tick-borne 25 27.2 ns 40.9 43.5 ns -Tick-borne2527.2ns40.943.5ns -Pulpy kidney 14.1 19.7 ns 10.9 14.5 ns -Pulpy kidney14.119.7ns10.914.5ns ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Cattle and goat performance indicators in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts   Cattle   Goats CattleGoats  Nkayi Gwanda sign Nkayi Gwanda sign NkayiGwandasignNkayiGwandasign Milk yield (l/d) 1.6(1.6) 1.4(0.6) ns < 1 <1 ns Milk yield (l/d)1.6(1.6) 1.4(0.6)ns< 1<1ns Lactation length(months) 12.5(2.4) 12.8(2.8) ns 4.8(1.7) 4.5(1.8) ns Lactation length(months)12.5(2.4) 12.8(2.8)ns4.8(1.7)4.5(1.8)ns Calving interval (months) 18.2(6.4) 16.3(5.7) p<0.01 7.3(2.5) 7.6(2.5) ns Calving interval (months)18.2(6.4) 16.3(5.7) p<0.01 7.3(2.5)7.6(2.5)ns Age at first calving (months) 43.3(9.1) 40(5.9) p<0.01 18.6(2.6) 18.5(2.1) ns Age at first calving (months)43.3(9.1) 40(5.9) p<0.01 18.6(2.6) 18.5(2.1)ns ns-not significant      ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Cattle and goat inflows and outflows   Cattle   Goats  CattleGoats  Nkayi Gwanda sign Nkayi Gwanda sign NkayiGwandasignNkayiGwandasign Calving 42.6(37.7) 33.7(34.7) p<0.05 54.9(42.7) 32.3(35.1) p<0.01 Calving42.6(37.7) 33.7(34.7)p<0.0554.9(42.7) 32.3(35.1)p<0.01 Mortality 3.9(7.7) 4.8(9.9) ns 10.8(19.7) 7.9(18.4) ns Mortality3.9(7.7)4.8(9.9)ns10.8(19.7)7.9(18.4)ns Off-take 2 (5) 5.3(10.5) p<0.01 4.1(9.8) 4.7(9.2) ns Off-take2 (5)5.3(10.5)p<0.014.1(9.8)4.7(9.2)ns Slaughter 0.9(3.5) 0.5(2.8) ns 9.5(17.6) 4.9(10.9) p<0.01 Slaughter0.9(3.5)0.5(2.8)ns9.5(17.6)4.9(10.9)p<0.01 ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 16 . Marketing channels used for sale of cattle and goats in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts (% of households)   Cattle   Goats  CattleGoats  Nkayi Gwanda sign Nkayi Gwanda sign NkayiGwandasignNkayiGwandasign Farm gate 91.3 39.3 p<0.01 95 45.4 p<0.01 Farm gate91.339.3p<0.019545.4p<0.01 Local market centre 1.1 21.4 p<0.01 2 17.8 p<0.01 Local market centre1.121.4p<0.01217.8p<0.01 Regional market centre 3.3 27.4 p<0.01 0 4.4 ns Regional market centre3.327.4p<0.0104.4ns Other (includes private 9.1 17.7 ns 12 13.3 ns Other (includes private9.117.7ns1213.3ns sales)       sales) ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 17 . Farmers understanding of factors influencing cattle and goat prices in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts, (% of households)   Cattle   Goats  CattleGoats  Nkayi Gwanda sign Nkayi Gwanda sign NkayiGwandasignNkayiGwandasign Body condition 50.6 43.8 ns 46 59 p<0.01 Body condition50.643.8ns4659p<0.01 Live weight 39.7 47.3 ns 32.3 50.7 p<0.01 Live weight39.747.3ns32.350.7p<0.01 Age 33.3 31.2 ns 37.2 43.2 ns Age33.331.2ns37.243.2ns Sex 16 23.3 p<0.05 30.1 41.5 p<0.05 Sex1623.3p<0.0530.141.5p<0.05 Breed 1.5 4.1 p<0.01 2.2 9.2 p<0.01 Breed1.54.1p<0.012.29.2p<0.01 ns-not significant       ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 18 . Eigenvectors from the factor analysis for Nkayi and Gwanda Districts Nkayi Nkayi  "},{"text":"Table 21 . Crop production characteristics in research sites, means, standard deviation and p-values for all farm households and households by cluster    Nkayi     Gwanda NkayiGwanda   All sd C1 C2 C3 p All sd C1 C2 C3 C4 p All sd C1 C2 C3pAll sdC1 C2 C3 C4p Crop production (% households)      Crop production (% households) Maize  98 96 99 98 ns 77 72 74 98 78 <0.01 Maize9896 99 98ns7772749878 <0.01 Small grains  17 20 9 22 <0.05 36 40 40 17 56 <0.01 Small grains1720922 <0.05 3640401756 <0.01 Groundnuts  34 24 44 53 <0.01 30 19 28 69 24 <0.01 Groundnuts3424 44 53 <0.01 3019286924 <0.01 Crop areas (ha)        Crop areas (ha) Maize  0.9 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.6 <0.01 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 1.5 0.4 <0.01 Maize0.9 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.6 <0.01 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 1.5 0.4 <0.01 Small grains  0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 <0.01 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.6 <0.05 Small grains0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 <0.01 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.6 <0.05 Groundnuts  0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 <0.01 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 <0.01 Groundnuts0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 <0.01 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 <0.01 Crop yields (kg/ha)        Crop yields (kg/ha) Maize  366 373 261 420 674 <0.01 125 156 100 123 132 181 ns Maize366 373 261 420 674 <0.01 125 156 100 123 132 181ns Small grains  245 313 218 323 278 <0.01 202 247 200 145 264 313 <0.05 Small grains245 313 218 323 278 <0.01 202 247 200 145 264 313 <0.05 Groundnuts  236 230 222 206 375 ns 136 192 127 115 170 138 ns Groundnuts236 230 222 206 375 ns136 192 127 115 170 138ns External technologies on maize      External technologies on maize Fertilizer households) (% 17 11 26 25 <0.01 14 8 12 34 10 <0.01 Fertilizer households)(%1711 26 25 <0.01 148123410 <0.01 Improved seed (% households) 75 69 80 87 <0.05 55 41 50 93 70 <0.01 Improved seed (% households)7569 80 87 <0.05 5541509370 <0.01 Crop-livestock integration       Crop-livestock integration Draft power (% households) 89 86 91 100 <0.05 86 75 85 98 96 <0.01 Draft power (% households)8986 91 100 <0.05 8675859896 <0.01 Manure (% households) user 43 30 54 70 <0.01 34 22 36 54 28 <0.01 Manure (% households) user4330 54 70 <0.01 3422365428 <0.01 Use of manure on maize (kg/ha) 357 600 282 418 519 <0.05 452 924 264 384 1099 394 <0.01 Use of manure on maize (kg/ha)357 600 282 418 519 <0.05 452 924 264 384 1099 394 <0.01  "},{"text":"Table 22 . Livestock production characteristics in research sites, means, standard deviation and p-values for all farm households and households by cluster    Nkayi     Gwanda   NkayiGwanda  All sd C1 C2 C3 p All sd C1 C2 C3 C4 p Allsd C1 C2 C3pAll sd C1 C2 C3 C4p Livestock ownership (% households)           Livestock ownership (% households) -Cattle 68 53 85 96 <0.01 65 53 61 88 86 <0.01 -Cattle6853 85 96 <0.01 6553 61 88 86 <0.01 Goats 72 60 89 80 <0.01 91 91 89 86 100 <0.1 Goats7260 89 80 <0.01 9191 89 86 100 <0.1 Herd size (n per HH)             Herd size (n per HH) Cattle 7 5 5 7 13 <0.01 10 12 7 6 14 20 <0.01 Cattle7557 13 <0.01 10 12 76 14 20 <0.01 Goats 8 6 6 9 9 <0.01 13 11 11 10 11 25 <0.01 Goats86699 <0.01 13 11 11 10 11 25 <0.01 External technologies on cattle (%HH)           External technologies on cattle (%HH) Animal health 93 91 95 93 ns 92 88 92 95 93 ns Animal health9391 95 93 ns9288 92 95 93 ns Stock-feed 3 1  2 11 <0.01 26 28 24 25 24 ns Stock-feed312 11 <0.01 2628 24 25 24 ns Crop-livestock integration (%HH)           Crop-livestock integration (%HH) Storage, feeding CR 44 29 52 64 <0.01 50 29 40 78 72 <0.01 Storage, feeding CR4429 52 64 <0.01 5029 40 78 72 <0.01 .. Fodder production 0.7  1 1 0 ns 8 7.1 8.7 3 9.3 ns .. Fodder production0.7110ns87.1 8.7 3 9.3ns Livestock sales / off take rates (%)           Livestock sales / off take rates (%) Cattle 2 5 0.5 2 5 <0.01 5 11 5 5 2 9 <0.05 Cattle25 0.5 25 <0.01 5 11 5529 <0.05 Goats 4 9 3 5 5 ns 5 9 5 5 2 5 ns Goats49355ns5 95525ns ns-not significant             ns-not significant  "},{"text":"Table 23 . Farm types and technical options for support  "},{"text":"Characteristics of farm types Site-specific technical options generated at IP meetings     Nkayi Gwanda NkayiGwanda Very resource poor farms Very resource poor farms are most vulnerable. Limited are most vulnerable. Limited productive resources, access productive resources, access to information and markets, to information and markets, often female headed. Solving immediate food needs prevents investments. Safety net interventions are important to maintain assets. High benefits from agronomic practices that increase Dual purpose groundnuts and sorghum, maize under CA Crop and soil fertility management (spacing, weeding, compost) Market support for groundnuts Drought tolerant dual purpose sorghum, legumes, perennial fodder Improved management of dual purpose crops Market support for goats often female headed. Solving immediate food needs prevents investments. Safety net interventions are important to maintain assets. High benefits from agronomic practices that increaseDual purpose groundnuts and sorghum, maize under CA Crop and soil fertility management (spacing, weeding, compost) Market support for groundnutsDrought tolerant dual purpose sorghum, legumes, perennial fodder Improved management of dual purpose crops Market support for goats production per unit land cost production per unit land cost effectively, reduce yield effectively,reduceyield variability and allow income variability and allow income generation.   generation.  "},{"text":"Poor but stepping up farms engage incrop and livestock production, with medium agricultural performance. Offfarm income helps to sustain the farms. They can cover immediate food needs, and have some land to invest in non-food and/or cash crops, good evaluating benefits and trade-candidates for offs from alternative options. technologies and land use Production of maize under CA, dual purpose groundnuts and sorghum Collective marketing of cash crops, e.g. groundnuts, building Crop-livestock integration, herd sorghum, forage seed Post harvesting technologies to avoid losses. Dual forages, perennial fodder purpose legumes, Test alternative land use options Business services in agriculture Enhance market oriented goat production good evaluating benefits and trade-candidates for offs from alternative options. technologies and land useProduction of maize under CA, dual purpose groundnuts and sorghum Collective marketing of cash crops, e.g. groundnuts, building Crop-livestock integration, herd sorghum, forage seed Post harvesting technologies to avoid losses.Dual forages, perennial fodder purpose legumes, Test alternative land use options Business services in agriculture Enhance market oriented goat production  Advice for lucrative Adviceforlucrative  investments of off-farm income investments of off-farm income  "}],"sieverID":"69147c99-2a6d-42ad-8ac1-49fed89b3600","abstract":"Farmers in Zimbabwe face many challenges, including low soil fertility, low and erratic rainfall, and poor market access. They are therefore often poor and vulnerable to risks and shocks. With increasing human populations and a dwindling natural resource base, farming systems are under greater pressure to provide sufficient food and sustain farmers' livelihoods. There is a dire need to intensify farming systems on a sustainable basis. Previous efforts have been focusing on improving either crop or livestock production, often ignoring the potential synergies mixed systems offer. We believe that substantial gains can be made by better integrating crop and livestock systems, using the resources more effectively and following a more market-oriented approach. This report describes the baseline situation of crop-livestock systems in semi-arid Zimbabwe. It informs the ZimCLIFS project, which has the goal to improve rural food security and livelihoods through promoting sustainable intensification of integrated crop-livestock systems and market participation. The report focuses on communities in Nkayi and Gwanda Districts, situated in agro-ecological zones IV and V in southwestern Zimbabwe. In each district participatory community visioning was held to identify development pathways that the communities seek to pursue. About 300 households were interviewed to compile data informing a comprehensive farming systems analysis. Descriptive statistics characterize the households, including a disaggregated gender analysis. Through factor and cluster analysis, farm households were grouped into most common-farm types based on resource endowments, agricultural production levels and market markets. Communities in both districts saw their future in market-oriented agriculture. The levels of both crop and livestock production were however very low at both districts. Maize, the predominant crop, yielded less than 400 kg per ha, during a year of relatively low rainfall. Yields of sorghum and groundnuts were even less. Farmers relied mainly on using resources within their systems. Almost all households used animal draft power to plow crop fields, more than half the households fed crop residues to their animals and a third used animal manure as organic fertilizer. The use of external inputs was more limited. Fewer than 20% of households applied fertilizers. In Gwanda about a third of the livestock keepers fed commercial stock-feeds to their animals. As a result of low production, crop sales and livestock off-take rates were also low (<5%), and financial reinvestments limited. Farm typology analysis suggests that households experienced different levels of resource endowments and their investments in agriculture varied. The majority were very poor, especially female-headed households. They need safety support to protect their assets. For them drought-tolerant crops and small stock, improved management and strong support to start marketable production could make a difference. Distinctively different were the groups of intensifying farmers. They were better endowed in resources and access to information, practiced more diversified and integrated farming systems, and earned higher income from agriculture. Even though a small proportion, these farmers are important for promoting improved agricultural production. The farm typologies will be used to simulate potential yields and welfare gains for different types of household in their specific contexts."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01462b29386dfbd384c9f340d216e1af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1611/ChinaBrochure.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"CHINA AND THE WORLDFISH CENTER","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"China and The WorldFish Center: Pooling Resources","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Flying Fish soaring fish production to meet expanding domestic and international demand makes China more dependent on its fisheries sector than ever before. seafood provides more than 20% of animal protein intake in China, and domestic demand is forecast to grow by more than 30% from 1997 to 2020, as rapid economic growth, urbanization and market development drive up fish consumption per capita from 26.5 kilograms per year to 36 kilograms."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Production has expanded by 14.3% annually over the past decade. All new capacity since 1998 has derived from aquaculture, whose profits attract ever increasing numbers of farmers, making it China's fastest-growing foodproduction subsector, accounting in 2004 for 75% of global aquaculture production. Today, China accounts for 34% of global production from aquaculture and capture fisheries combined. Exports of aquatic products earn enough foreign exchange to pay for 64% of the country's bill for food imports. More than 13 million people work in China's fisheries and aquaculture sector, earning wages in 2005 that were 82% higher than the average for agricultural labor.  An estimated 630 million Asians live on less than a dollar a day. Many of the poorest Asians depend on relatively cheap fish for much or most of their limited intake of animal protein."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"As the largest producer and consumer of aquatic products in the world, China has an assured role in safeguarding the food security of these poor Asians -a growing challenge in the face of the continued depletion of wild fish stocks coupled with growing demand for seafood.  "}]},{"head":"gEnETiC iMPRovEMEnT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The past several decades have witnessed unprecedented strides in the selective breeding of crops and livestock for substantial gains in productivity (see Figure 3). however, food fish have been genetically improved only relatively recently. That 70% of carps cultured in China originate in the wild illustrates the huge potential yet to be realized for boosting the productivity of aquaculture through genetically improved fish strains. With partners in Africa and Asia, and not least in China, WorldFish has taken the lead in developing improved strains of tilapia and carp."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"International Network on Genetics in Aquaculture. China is one of 13 developing country members of the international network on genetics in Aquaculture, through the participation of shanghai Fisheries University and the Freshwater Fisheries Research Center (FFRC) of CAFs in Wuxi. Funded by norway and WorldFish, the network also includes ten advanced research institutions and four international or regional organizations to advance its aim to strengthen capacity and foster regional and international cooperation in this vital field."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The network aims to preserve fish biodiversity and help national and regional fish-breeding programs develop appropriate strategies. in accordance with strict quarantine protocols, it facilitates the transfer of fish germplasm (genetic material) and related information, in particular for genetically improving carp and tilapia. Through the network, 11 countries have received WorldFish's genetically superior tilapia strains and related fish-breeding technology, and many of these countries have subsequently developed their own capacity in fish breeding. nine training programs organized under the network have benefited 210 participants from 14 Asian, African, Pacific and latin American countries. "}]},{"head":"soCioEConoMiC iMPACT","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Central to evaluating and improving any economic activity is the question of how well it serves the social and economic interests of its practitioners and society at large. Upcoming activities, through which WorldFish and its Chinese partners aim to improve the socioeconomic impact of fisheries and aquaculture, include the formulation of strategies for their sustainable development focusing on environmental sustainability and benefits to rural livelihoods, and supporting the Chinese government policy objective of improving rural living conditions."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"China's accession to the World Trade organization has had significant implications for its export fisheries, including the need to meet international standards of food quality and safety. The costs, benefits and impacts of implementation are of keen interest to the fisheries sector and priority topics for research. Collaborative work with China addresses these questions and assesses the potential benefits for small-scale farmers of enhanced linkages to domestic and international markets."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"As fishery and aquaculture research has traditionally been concentrated in eastern and southern China, a WorldFish priority is to explore opportunities to assist impoverished communities in central and southwestern China, where many natural resources that support rural livelihoods are severely degraded or under threat. Tackling this problem requires a thorough understanding of how poverty and environmental concerns are linked. WorldFish and its Chinese partners are currently developing projects that tackle poverty through improved natural resource management, emphasizing biodiversity, water productivity and wetland management."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Achieving Greater Food Security and Eliminating Poverty by Dissemination of Improved Carp Strains to Fish Farmers. Fish farming is fast becoming a major industry in Asian developing countries, essential for supplying food fish and contributing to economic growth. Carp is the most important species in aquaculture production and a favorite in Asia because of its good taste and low price. in many poor communities, both rural and urban, carp is the only affordable source of animal protein. With these considerations  in mind, measures must be taken to ensure that fish farming, especially of carp, remains effective and sustainable in Asia."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"WorldFish responded to this need by formulating a collaborative project on the genetic improvement of carp in Asia that was implemented in two phases. Phase i, beginning in 1997, focused on training local staff, identifying foundation carp populations, initiating genetic improvement programs and defining strategies for the effective dissemination of the improved stock. Phase ii builds on this work by (i) establishing and consolidating national selective breeding programs in Bangladesh, China, india, indonesia, Thailand and vietnam; (ii) developing improved strains of indigenous carps in these countries; (iii) testing the improved carp strains and demonstrating their advantages through on-farm studies; (iv) training fish farmers in optimum farm management, including the use of improved fish; (v) implementing national strategies to disseminate improved carps to poor fish farmers; (vi) training at least one scientist from each participating country to the M.sc. and Ph.D. level; and (vii) enhancing the capacity of four or five local staffers in each country to train farmers and extension officers. The ultimate project aims are higher aquaculture productivity and income, as well as more protein consumption by fish farmers and their communities."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Activities in China in the project funded by the Asian Development Bank have been undertaken in partnership with shanghai Fisheries University (Phase i), the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy (Phase ii) and FFRC (Phases i and ii)."},{"index":7,"size":152,"text":"Assessing the Farm-Level Impact of GIFT in China and the Philippines. The aim of this project, funded by Deutsche gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit gmbh, the german enterprise for sustainable development through international cooperation, is to assess the impact of giFT on the productivity, income, food security and livelihood of small-scale farmers, including an analysis of its potential for poverty reduction. China was chosen for study because it is the world's largest producer of tilapia, and the Philippines because it was the first country to adopt giFT strains and is the third largest producer of tilapia. While giFT dissemination in the Philippines was carried out largely by the nonprofit giFT Foundation, in China giFT fingerlings were distributed through government agencies. Researchers will assess the different dissemination strategies in terms of impact and adoption, the internal rate of return on investments, and farm-level impact. Activities in China are carried out in partnership with FFRC."},{"index":8,"size":110,"text":"Determinationof High-Potential Aquaculture Development Areas and Impact in Africa and Asia. WorldFish Center has worked with partners to develop geographic information systems and case studies to identify areas in Africa and Asia with high potential for aquaculture development. The resulting recommendations and scenario maps are important decision-support tools for planners, development extension workers and researchers for promoting aquaculture to small and marginal farmers. As aquaculture remains a new technology in much of Asia -and a very new technology in Africa -these tools help national research partners and farmers adapt technologies and innovations to their local conditions. This BMZ-funded project is carried out in China in partnership with FFRC and CAFs."},{"index":9,"size":84,"text":"EnviRonMEnTAl PRoTECTion no economic activity can truly benefit its practitioners and the larger society unless it is environmentally sustainable. Aquaculture will support the Chinese government's commitment to poverty reduction and rural development only if it is practiced in ways that are in tune with local environmental processes, potentialities and constraints. Ensuring that aquaculture develops in environmentally sustainable directions depends on accurately characterizing environments and their potential for aquaculture and then conveying this information clearly to policymakers at all levels of government and to farmers."},{"index":10,"size":113,"text":"Community-Based Fish Culture in Irrigation Systems and Seasonal Floodplains. seasonal floods along the indus-ganges and Mekong rivers in Asia, and the niger River in Africa, remove farmland from productivity for months at a time. in this project, researchers explore options for integrating fish and other living aquatic resources into irrigation systems and seasonal flood plains to enhance their productivity for poor farmers. Researchers from WorldFish and other international research centers work with national partners to explore institutional options for sharing benefits from integrated living aquatic resources. The project aims to sustain and restore declining inland capture fisheries, lower fish prices, and develop community-based means to ensure sustainable rural livelihoods in Asia and Africa."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"Funded by the Challenge Program on Water for Food of the Consultative group on international Agricultural Research (CgiAR), activities in China are conducted in partnership with FFRC, CAFs and yunnan Fisheries Department."},{"index":12,"size":117,"text":"Strategies and Options for Increasing and Sustaining Fisheries and Aquaculture Production to Benefit Poor Households in Asia. Recommendations from this AsiaFish study are used by Bangladesh, China, india, indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, sri lanka, Thailand and vietnam to develop strategies, national action plans, and options for sustaining and increasing fish supplies. AsiaFish is a partnership of 35 institutions set up to create a first-of-a-kind, multi-market model that allows these nine countries to make projections of supply and demand for fish, both cultured and wild. This information is vital for projecting exports and imports in countries where fish is a source of both foreign exchange and basic sustenance -in some cases providing up to 70% of annual protein consumed."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"The AsiaFish model helps Asian countries determine the most effective, socially acceptable, and environmentally friendly forms of aquaculture. Associated projects to develop and disseminate technologies for culturing affordable herbivorous fish such as carp and tilapia can boost productivity for a wide range of farmers. in this recently completed study, funded by the Asian Development Bank, activities in China were undertaken in partnership with the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural science, FFRC and shanghai Fisheries University."},{"index":14,"size":74,"text":"FishBase. This global online information source (www.fishbase.org) continues to grow and garner recognition as the world's premier source of information on fish. A consortium of research organizations administers FishBase, with WorldFish playing the central role in database development and management, with funding provided primarily by the European Commission. in China, FishBase activities are undertaken with the Chinese Academy of Fisheries science, Chinese Academy of science, institute of hydrobiology, and south China institute of oceanology."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Since growth in Chinese capture fisheries hit a ceiling in 1998, aquaculture alone has expanded to meet the growing demand for fish. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: The technical efficiency (TE) of Chinese aquaculture compares favorably with that of its neighbors. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Selective breeding has brought substantial gains over the past several decades in the productivity of key livestock species, but only relatively recently in food fish. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Aquaculture has developed in China primarily in the southeast, with yield in other provinces, especially in poorer western regions, languishing below 5 tonnes per hectare. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: A map of Henan Province combines weighted data (shown on inset maps) on water availability, land conditions, input requirements and marketing possibilities to rate areas of the province according to their overall suitability for aquaculture. "},{"text":"percentage Hainan Xinjiang Xizang Inner Mongolia Qinghai Sichuan Gansu Jilin Yunnan Heilongjiang Hebei Hubei Hunan Henan Shaanxi Guangxi Shanxi Anhui Jiangxi Guizhou Liaoning Fujian Shandong Guangdong Jiangsu Zhejiang Ningxia Beijing Shanghai 1994 and 1999, (ii)  transferring germplasm from Malaysia to Wuxi, and (iii) training FFRC staff in quantitative genetics at FFRC and partner institutes in Malaysia. The current phase of research focuses on introducing and disseminating the latest generation of giFT tilapia from Malaysia, which fits closely with the first two projects cited in the following section.  "}],"sieverID":"4c25b3ef-991e-41e7-993c-e081b4c4e2a1","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"014cf463411ed569c80748072a453cb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a3cc6b6-c923-4775-93a7-9e4c761df313/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"ICBB07 featured studies and technological advances aimed at controlling the spread of the disease. First convened in Japan in 2004, the ICBB responds to the need for developing and disseminating better tools for detection, identi cation, and race-typing of the reference Xoo culture collection, and identify sets of near-isogenic rice carrying speci c R genes interacting with corresponding avr genes in the bacteria."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Hans Bhardwaj, director for Rice Breeding Innovations at the International Rice Research Institute reiterated the role that the conference plays in the overall advancement of rice research. \"Breeding hybrids with high genetic potential is one thing,\" said Dr. Bhardwaj, \"However, we need c expertise to the full potential of these varieties. This is a collective effort, and through this conference, your knowledge and experiences come into play.\""}]},{"head":"News & Events Experience IRRI Resources and Tools","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"PathoTracer, a tool that reduces the time it takes to identify the contemporary and evolving strains of bacteria causing bacterial blight, was introduced at the conference. The decision support system integrates early-season pathogen diagnostics and disease resistance pro les intended for use by public and enterprises in accurately de ning breeding priorities and in implementing coordinated actions to manage crop diseases in real time."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The conference also tackled new ndings on BB global distribution and their genetic diversity in Asia and Africa, Xoo genomics and their evolution that can contribute to the effective mitigation of the disease, the regulatory mechanisms of rice resistance and Xoo virulence induced by TAL effectors, advances on executor and susceptibility genes, genome editing for engineering BB resistance and of a rice gene for conferring multipathogen resistance, and on strategies for improving disease management and breeding, among others."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"ICBB07, held during the recent 6th International Rice Congress in the Philippines, was attended by 74 members of the bacterial blight community, representing 16 countries."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"News "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" to improve bacterial blight management and increase farmers' yields | International Rice Research Institute https://www.irri.org/news-and-events/news/world-experts-convene-improve-bacterial-blight-management-and-increase-farmers 2/3 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" & Events Experience IRRI Resources and Tools  \"The community continues engagement because this is an opportunity for us to connect upstream research to possible global interventions that we can adopt to mitigate the devastating effects of this disease,\" said Dr. Casiana Vera Cruz, chair of the ICBB07 Organizing and Science Committee. \"Furthermore, this is an opportunity to connect with other experts in the eld, and enhance existing partnerships\" You may visit this link for more information on the bacterial blight of rice.News & Events Experience IRRI Resources and Tools   Solutions for You About Us Our Impact What We Do IRC 2023 Where We Work  About Us What We Do Where We Work Solutions for You Our Impact IRC 2023   Solutions for You About Us Our Impact What We Do IRC 2023 Where We Work  About Us What We Do Where We Work Solutions for You Our Impact IRC 2023 HEADQUARTERS MAILING ADDRESS Careers at IRRI HEADQUARTERSMAILING ADDRESSCareers at IRRI    +63 2 8580 5600 +63 2 8845 0563 Laguna 4031, Philippines Pili Drive, Los Baños,  Philippines Metro Manila 1226, Ayala Avenue, Makati Security Bank Center 6776 10th Floor Suite 1009, Media inquiries Intranet Country O ces Newsroom Visitor information   +63 2 8580 5600 +63 2 8845 0563 Laguna 4031, Philippines Pili Drive, Los Baños,Philippines Metro Manila 1226, Ayala Avenue, Makati Security Bank Center 6776 10th Floor Suite 1009,Media inquiries Intranet Country O ces Newsroom Visitor information   +63 2 8580 5699 +63 2 8845 0606   +63 2 8580 5600 +63 2 8845 0563 FOLLOW US       +63 2 8580 5699 +63 2 8845 0606 +63 2 8580 5600 +63 2 8845 0563FOLLOW US       [email protected]  +63 2 8580 5699  [email protected]+63 2 8580 5699  DAPO Box 7777  +63 2 8845 0606  DAPO Box 7777+63 2 8845 0606  Metro Manila 1301, Philippines    Metro Manila 1301, Philippines     Legal notice | © 2018 IRRI | Legal notice | © 2018 IRRI |  "}],"sieverID":"2c30dc1c-2533-479f-8671-c280163db85b","abstract":"World convene to improve bacterial blight management and increase farmers' yields MANILA, Philippines (17 October 2023) -Plant pathologists over the world shared the latest discoveries and innovations to increase bacterial resistance in rice and mitigate its impact on rice production at the 7th International Conference on Bacterial Blight (ICBB07).Bacterial blight can cause up to 70% yield loss, making it one of the most destructive diseases in rice. It kills seedlings within two to three weeks, and those that survive are stunted, have reduced tillering, and produce poor-quality grains."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"015bc71aa28802b1c95bcc36daf97954","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9bf29571-bd7d-49bb-836e-3612cbf10966/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"Accelerating the Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Abstract","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Mali, situated in the Sahelian region of West Africa, faces vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, and these effects are already evident across various sectors. Noteworthy consequences of climate change in Mali encompass heightened temperatures, increased frequency of droughts, water scarcity, and the progression of desertification. Indirect impacts include health impacts, such as the spread of vectorborne diseases, and resource conflicts, exacerbating existing tensions arising from diminishing resources."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The recognition of women's heightened vulnerability stems from their use of fields characterized by lower fertility and water-holding capacity. Moreover, cultural and social norms limit women's access to information and finance. While acknowledging the importance of developing and implementing strategies to address changing climatic conditions, neglecting specific actions aimed at overcoming constraints faced by women farmers may widen existing disparities between men and women."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"AICCRA-Mali has undertaken a series of intensive training sessions aimed at enhancing the capacity of women farmers in the Smart-Valleys approach for water control in inland valleys, alternate wetting and drying irrigation for rice production with reduced water use and greenhouse gas emissions, and establishing multi-stakeholder platforms to improve access to information, technology, finance, and markets. Workshops were conducted on March 14 th in Siramana, March 19 th in Selingue, and November 01 st in Sikasso, with the participation of 246 women farmers leading their organizations in respective communities. This report offers a synopsis of the workshop sessions."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Mali has a Sahelian climate marked by high inter and intra-annual variability in temperature and rainfall, posing challenges for trend analysis. The agricultural sector faces sensitivity to climatic stresses, especially droughts and floods, with recurrent incidents causing major food shortages. Droughts, increasing in frequency and severity since the 1970s, have driven significant population migration. Historical climate analyses revealed reduced precipitation since 1950 and a shorter rainy season. Temperatures have risen by over 0.8°C since 1960, accompanied by an increase in hot days and nights, except during winter."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Hydropower provides 80% of Mali's electricity, with energy production decreasing by up to 20% in dry years. Floods, caused by intense rainfall, particularly along the Niger River, compound the impact of droughts. The combination of both disasters can lead to devastating effects, affecting agriculture, electricity generation, and causing soil erosion."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Women in Mali face heightened vulnerability due to climate-related hazards and resource scarcity. Limited access to fertile soils, water, and agricultural resources, coupled with household responsibilities, makes them particularly climate sensitive."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"However, recognizing the pivotal role of rural women in smallholder agricultural activities presents an opportunity to positively impact food production and security. Enhancing their access to information, resources, technologies, and practices is crucial for fostering adoption and improving food and nutrition security."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) innovations were proposed as a solution to transform agricultural systems for increased productivity, enhanced resilience, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Despite the potential benefits, women farmers face constraints in accessing information and implementing CSA innovations. To address this limitation, the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project organized workshops to strengthen the capacity of women farmers on three innovations: Smart-Valleys for water control, alternate wetting and drying for water-efficient rice production, and multi-stakeholder platforms for improving access to inputs, information, and markets."}]},{"head":"About the AICCRA project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"AICCRA, funded by the World Bank, aims to scale Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Information Services (CIS) to benefit millions of smallholder farmers in Africa. The project operates in six countries and has regional clusters that collaborate with regional partners to enhance access and use of climate services and CSA innopvations. Through improved access to technology and advisory services, coupled with information on effective response measures, farmers can make climate-informed decisions and adopt the appropriate CSA innovations. AICCRA teams concentrate on four research priorities: knowledge sharing, building partnerships, scaling innovation, and promoting gender and social inclusion. In Mali, AICCRA specifically focuses on rice and related crops, including vegetables, legumes, roots, tubers, trees, and fish produced in the same agricultural environment as rice."}]},{"head":"Summary of capacity building events","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Training in Smart-Valleys development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"A training session was organized on March 19 th in Selingue and November 01 st in Sikasso to strengthen the capacity of women in Smart-Valleys appraoch for water control in inland valleys. The training was conducted by Mr. Justin Djagba, research assistant in Geographic Information System and Mr. Pierre Kone, research technician in Climate Smart Agricutlture (CSA), both working for Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and was attended by 213 women. The training was conducted in four sequences: i) importance of inland valleys development, ii) phase 1 of Smart-Valleys implementation, ii) phase 2 of Smart-Valleys implementation and iv) phase 3 of Smart-Valleys implementation. The following section provides a summary of each sequence of the Smart-Valleys training section."}]},{"head":"Importance of inland valley development","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Inland Valleys were defined as the upper reaches of rivers systems, comprising valleys bottoms and their hydromorphic fringes. In sourhern Mali, the inland valley area was estimated at 2.7 million ha. Inland valleys were not obvious ecosystems for agricultural production, and traditionally have not often been used for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. This is partly because inland valley bottoms are difficult to manage and are also often associated with water-borne diseases such as bilharzia, river blindness, sleeping sickness, and malaria. Despite such challenges, inland valleys have increasingly been put under production by more recent generations. Global changes, such as population growth and climate change, provide new incentives for inland valley agricultural use. Despite renewed interest in inland valleys use for agricultural production, poor water control is a major constraint faced by farmers. Drought and flooding often affect rice cultivation during the same growing season leading to very low and sometimes completed loss of harvest. Average rice yield in inland valleys of Mali is 2.32 t/ha, while the potential rice yield is estimated to be 7 t/ha. One of the reasons of the lower yield in inland valley is poor water control."},{"index":2,"size":226,"text":"Water control in inland valleys is crucial for various reasons, primarily related to agricultural, environmental, and socio-economic aspects. Inland valleys often serve as important agricultural areas. Efficient water control ensures that crops receive a consistent and adequate water supply. On the other hand, effective water control helps in managing excessive water during periods of heavy rainfall or flooding, preventing damage to crops and infrastructure. Water control also enables crop diversification. Indeed, controlled water supply enables farmers to diversify their crops and engage in multiple growing seasons per year, contributing to food security by reducing dependence on a single crop and enhancing overall agricultural productivity. Adequate water management facilitates optimal growing conditions, leading to higher crop yields and better overall agricultural production. In terms of environmental benefits, water control in inland valleys helps in preserving ecosystems services by preventing excessive draining or flooding, maintaining biodiversity, and protecting the habitats of various plant and animal species. This also contributes to soil conservation, particularly in preventing sedimentation and the loss of topsoil. Proper water control in inland valleys further helps in maintaining water quality by preventing contamination from agricultural runoff or other pollutants. This is critical for the health of both ecosystems and human populations. In terms of economic benefits, effective water control contributes to stable agricultural livelihoods, creating economic opportunities and improving the overall well-being of these communities."}]},{"head":"Phase 1 of Smart-Valleys: inland valley selection","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":337,"text":"The phase 1 of Smart-Valleys development consists in the selection of the inland valley. The inland valley selection process occupies a quite significant position in the Smart-valleys approach. Indeed, even though the Smart-valleys approach is relatively simple, compared with the traditional approaches characterized by long costly studies, it is not an intervention that is carried out blindly. On the contrary, considering the fact that the approach requires full participation of the people, it is important to scrupulously determine if the conditions are actually favourable to Smart-valleys type of development and if the people are actually ready to fully commit themselves. This is how the chances of success are increased. To succeed in the selection process, there is the need for a team of technicians who are trained in the Smart-valleys approach and who understand the environment of the sites in terms of their biophysical, socioeconomic and land-related characteristics. The selection phase comprises the exploration, identification/prospection and validation of the inland valley. The first part, called exploration, has as its main objective the short-listing of a (limited) number of lowland sites which have the (mainly biophysical) potential to be considered for a closer study, and which will then qualify for the second part, called identification/prospection. The identification/ prospection, which involves the collection of information on the biophysical, socioeconomic and landownership conditions, will enable the technicians to confirm (or refute) the suitability of the lowland for the Smart-valleys type of development. However, the selection process does not stop there. Indeed, the lowland, which has gone through parts 1 and 2 of the selection process, will qualify for the third part, called validation. Before actually confirming the appropriateness of the choice of a site, it is necessary to verify whether the people are fully committed to the Smartvalleys development adventure. With all this information, the technical team is in a position to prepare a report, which will be submitted for approval (or not) by the project/program coordinator. The phase 3 of Smart-Valleys is the management of the developed inland valleys."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"Experience has shown that adequate water management is a critical condition for farmers to successfully invest in the improvement of the rice farming management practices, such as weeding and timely application of fertilizers. This phase strengthens farmers capacity in sustainable lowland management practices, more specifically on water management principles and practices, integrated soil fertility management and integrated weed management. The Smart-valleys approach is a participatory, pragmatic, adaptive and iterative method, based on the \"learn by doing\" principle. This implies that in practice, the villagers often start by developing a (more or less extensive) portion of the lowland. This therefore is, in a way, an \"adaptability test\" of the approach to specific conditions of the village lowland. Thus, at the end of the first experimental season, there will be the need to organize an evaluation of this test, and that will enable an assessment of the operations and the results obtained in the part of the Smartvalleys type of developed lowland and subsequently decide on the possible maintenance, adaptations and extensions to carry out. This deals with the field aspect of the observations and the (technical) analysis of the functioning of the Smart-Valleys development. This phase ends with a rather more formal part involving a review and leveraging of the Smart-valleys experience."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Photo 3. Women farmers lead capacity strengthening in management of Smart-Valleys"}]},{"head":"Training in safe alternate wetting and drying","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":297,"text":"The training in safe alternate wetting and drying was made by Mr. Pierre Kone on March 19 th and was attended by 15 women farmers. In a nutshell, safe alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a water-saving technology that enables irrigated rice cultivation with less water than the conventional practice of maintaining the field continuously flooded. Under Safe AWD, fields are subjected to intermittent flooding, where irrigation is interrupted and water is allowed to naturally drain until the water level drops to a certain depth (e.g. 15 cm) below the surface of the soil, after which the field is re-flooded. Safe AWD is suitable for irrigated rice systems where water scarcity is a major challenge. Safe AWD is not recommended for schemes with sandy soils and deep groundwater. It can be adopted by individuals or farmers' organizations and by national governments that aim to increase rice production in irrigated systems with reduced water use. Safe AWD has been validated in several West African countries, including Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal, and reduced water use by 15-43% and increased water productivity by 8-87% without significantly affecting rice yield compared to continuous flooding. Safe AWD also reduced methane emissions by 41% and the global warming potential of rice cultivation by 39%, compared to continuous flooding. In irrigated systems, where lowland weeds are the most dominant, Safe AWD reduced weed biomass by 36%, and thus reduced the labor requirement for weeding. Important pre-conditions to achieve high yield and grain quality under Safe AWD include proper land leveling, and appropriate weed and fertilizer management practices. Under Safe AWD, water is allowed to percolate naturally until the water level drops to a certain depth below the soil surface, while under forced drainage, surface water is removed from the field to the canals."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Photo 4. Demonstration of safe alternate wetting and drying on farmers' fields"}]},{"head":"Training in multiple stakeholders platform establishment and strengthening","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"A training session was organized on March 14 th in Siramana to strengthen the capacity of women in multi-stakeholders platforms establishment and streghtening with the aim to enhance access to input, information and market. Eigthen women farmers attended the training session, which was led by Mr. Pierre Kone and Dr. Salif Doumbia. In the nutshell, Multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) are collaborative mechanisms that bring together various stakeholders from different sectors, including government, civil society, private sector, academia, and local communities, to address complex issues and promote sustainable development. These platforms facilitate dialogue, cooperation, and collective decision-making to achieve common goals. Here are key aspects and benefits of multi-stakeholder platforms:"},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"• Diverse representation: MSPs aim to include a broad range of stakeholders who have a vested interest or expertise in a particular issue. This diversity ensures that decisions take into account various perspectives, needs, and interests. • Information sharing: MSPs facilitate the exchange of information and knowledge among stakeholders. This helps in building a common understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with a particular issue. In inland valleys and irrigated schemes, where water resources management decisions are made by a multitude of actors working across various sectors and scales, MSPs are essential to ensure that these actors take coordinated decisions and work towards the same direction. Convinced about the benefits of the MSPs, the women farmers lead who participated in the workshop took the decision to establish MSPs in their respective communities."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Photo 2. Women farmers (with a few men from their organizations) participants of the workshop on establishment and strengthening multi-stakeholders platforms"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Photo 1 . Photo 1. Women farmers leads training in inland valleys exploration "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Safe alternate wetting and drying irrigation method implementation "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Collaborative decision-making: MSPs provide a space for collaborative decision-making where stakeholders collectively contribute to the development of policies, strategies, or projects. This can lead to more inclusive and sustainable solutions.• Conflict resolution: MSPs serve as a platform for addressing conflicts of interest and finding mutually beneficial solutions. The inclusive nature of MSPs allows for open dialogue and negotiation, fostering better understanding and resolution of conflicts. • Resource mobilization: MSPs mobilize resources by leveraging the strengths and contributions of different stakeholders. Public and private entities can pool their resources to implement projects or initiatives that benefit the broader community. • Implementation of policies and programs: MSPs assist in the implementation of policies and programs by ensuring that various stakeholders are actively engaged and committed to their success. This can lead to more effective and sustainable outcomes. • Capacity building: MSPs provide opportunities for capacity building and knowledge transfer among stakeholders. This is particularly important in addressing complex issues that require diverse expertise. • Adaptability and innovation: MSPs foster adaptability and innovation by bringing together different perspectives and experiences. The collaboration among stakeholders often results in creative solutions and approaches to challenges. • Monitoring and evaluation: MSPs facilitate ongoing monitoring and evaluation of projects or initiatives. Stakeholders can collectively assess progress, identify areas for improvement, and adjust strategies as needed. • Sustainable Development: MSPs contribute to sustainable development by promoting integrated and holistic approaches to complex challenges. MSPs can address social, economic, and environmental aspects in a comprehensive manner.  "}],"sieverID":"d623246d-f76e-4b98-9eca-56668871e101","abstract":""}

data/part_3/018e4c901ec0b76bdd0cbff4776aa664.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"018e4c901ec0b76bdd0cbff4776aa664","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_ciat/epmr/poster_14_empr07.pdf"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Mapping QTL's and candidate genes associated with durable resistance to rice blast","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Pi15(t) Pi5","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Lab meeting April-13-04 "}]},{"head":"Traits","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS Genetic material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Two linkage maps were constructed using 280 molecular markers: SSR, RFLP and RGAs for the first population (120 RIL's) and 200 SSR for the second population (231 RIL's). To detect QTL, nine Colombian blast isolates from 5 different lineages were used for inoculation studies. One isolate, FL440, was recovered from OL5 and was observed to be highly aggressive and have a very broad virulence spectrum in other experiments. Two evaluations methods i.e., lesion type (LT) Fig. 2 and disease leaf area (DLA) were used to score the blast resistance."}]},{"head":"QTL detection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Both composite interval mapping (CIM) and multiple interval mapping (MIM) techniques were used for QTL detection using QTL Cartographer package v2.0 (Wang et al. 2004). For CIM, each data set was analyzed with 1000 permutations, to 1 cM walking speed. When needed, MIM was performed in order to resolve ambiguous QTL positions or to try to identify linked QTL."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Rice blast, caused by Magnaporthe grisea is the most destructive fungal disease of rice worldwide (Fig. 1). Genetic resistance is the most effective way to control the disease but major gene resistance is typically quickly broken by new races of the pathogen. Quantitatively inherited resistance can provide effective control under field conditions and is considered to be potentially more durable than qualitative resistance. Oryzica Llanos 5 (OL5) has been one of the most cultivated rice varieties in Colombia and has remained highly resistant to blast disease for over 15 years. However, the genetic basis of this resistance is not well known. In this work we used two different populations from the same cross (Fanny and OL5 ) to do a QTL (quantitative trait loci) detection approach with multiple M. grisea isolates to localize major and minor genes controlling the resistance of OL5. The main reason for a second map was to determine the reliability of the QTL estimates and identify QTL with consistent effects."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Twenty five loci distributed on 11 rice chromosomes in the first population (Fig 3) and nineteen loci distributed on 8 rice chromosomes in the second population (Fig 4 ) were associated with the quantitative expression of one of two resistance traits (lesion type and disease leaf area) to nine isolates M. grisea. QTL with the largest effects for the first population were on chromosomes 6 (LOD 3.2 explaining 67.7% of the phenotypic variance) and 8 (LOD 10.0 explaining 63.8.0% of the phenotypic variance). The largest effects for the second population were on chromosome 8 (LOD 30.8 explaining 62.9% of the phenotypic variance) and 2 (LOD 8.2 explaining 65.4.0% of the phenotypic variance). Other QTL (LOD 2.0 -22.3) explained 2.4-45.4% of the phenotypic variance. In some of the QTL locations (i.e. chromosome 4, 6, 5, 8, 9 and 11) there are blast resistance major genes that have been reported to confer high levels of resistance to several M. grisea isolates. However, some of the QTL have small effects, indicating the presence of minor genes. A number of these genes are located in areas previously determined to be associated with QTL with large effects."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Most of the QTL detected in this study for the nine isolates were for both quantitative traits. LT is typically associated with QTL with large effects (major, or \"R\" genes). We identified an isolate, FL440, which appeared able to overcome all the major genes in OL5, but OL5 is still highly resistant. This resistance appears to be controlled by genes with small main effects. FL440 apparently allows these genes to be identified."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The main effect QTL on chromosome 9 and 11 for the DLA FL440 isolate were mapped in both populations to the RM3249-RM205 and G181-RM224 intervals confirming the presence of those QTL to the FL440 isolate; which possibly overcomes all major genes that were identified using the other isolates. One QTL with major effect (20.1%) for the same isolate in chromosome 1 was not identified in the second population even after the region was saturated with the same SSR markers. "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The durable broad spectrum resistance of OL5 is associated with both major genes inducing hypersensitive reactions and minor genes causing less distinctive phenotypic differences as in FL440."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The chromosome 1, 9 and 11 carries genes with small effects for resistance to blast isolate FL440, which we appears to overcome all major genes."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Comparison of the QTL in both populations identified 11 loci which were statistically significant in both experiments."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"We are in the process of fine mapping some QTL identified with isolate FL440 to characterize potentially non-specific genes. Advanced backcrosses lines are now being tested for ability to confer detectable levels of resistance to FL440."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Comments and Questions contact: Jershon López-Gerena [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig Fig 1. Typical blast leaf lesions Fig 2. Lesion Type Scale 0 1 2 3 4 5 "},{"text":" Linkage maps of rice chromosomes based on 231 RIL derived from a cross between Fanny and OL5. Positions of QTLs for blast LT and DLA with different isolates are shown as colored bars.              2 2  4             4  4.9 13.5 13.9 6.8 16.8 11.2 14.5 6.5 4.0 4.9 15.5 20.0 33.6 15.8 3.3 RM559 RM273 RM252 RM241 RM451 RM317 RM255 RM348 RM127 RM131 RM52 RM349 RM119 RM177 RM142 Pi5 29.1 14.5 24.7 14.5 9.3 39.9 38.2 8.5 20.5 8.5 12 RM277 RM465C RM519 RM101 RM247 RM512 RM313 RM179 RM309 RM260 RM511 5.8 2.4 2.0 6.9 4.2 5.5 3.9 5.1 3.5 9.6 5.3 6.2 1 RM14 RM5310 RM414 RM529 RM104 RM165 RM3482 RM6292 RM431 RM8235 RM315 RM265 RM319 11.3 7.4 14.2 5.9 2.1 12.6 20.1 14.4 33.8 8.2 13.6 8 RM110 RM109 RM233 A RM211 RM279 RM8 RM236 RM221 RM564E RM407 RM38 RM203 RM154 4.9 13.5 13.9 6.8 16.8 11.2 14.5 6.5 4.0 4.9 15.5 20.0 33.6 15.8 3.3RM559 RM273 RM252 RM241 RM451 RM317 RM255 RM348 RM127 RM131 RM52 RM349 RM119 RM177 RM142Pi529.1 14.5 24.7 14.5 9.3 39.9 38.2 8.5 20.5 8.512RM277 RM465C RM519 RM101 RM247 RM512 RM313 RM179 RM309 RM260 RM5115.8 2.4 2.0 6.9 4.2 5.5 3.9 5.1 3.5 9.6 5.3 6.21RM14 RM5310 RM414 RM529 RM104 RM165 RM3482 RM6292 RM431 RM8235 RM315 RM265 RM31911.3 7.4 14.2 5.9 2.1 12.6 20.1 14.4 33.8 8.2 13.68RM110 RM109 RM233 A RM211 RM279 RM8 RM236 RM221 RM564E RM407 RM38 RM203 RM154  8.9 RM280 RM124          35.6  8.9RM280 RM12435.6 11 6.7 6.0 14.7 10.8 5.3 6.9 9.8 14.4 10.0 10.7 12.7 12.7 25.7 11.3 28.6 7.0 Fig. 4 FL440 DLA 6 FL440 LT Selecta DLA Selecta LT Ceysvoni DLA Ceysvoni LT Fanny 54 DLA Fanny 54 LT Fanny 47 DLA Fanny 47 LT Cica 9 DLA Cica 9 LT Caribe DLA Caribe LT Metica DLA Metica LT FL533 DLA RM253 RM276 RM50 RM557 RM539 RM136 RM527 RM3 RM465B RM541 RM34 RM238B RM564C RM162 RM528 RM439 RM103 Pi2, Pi9 Pi3, Pi8 Pi27 Pi22 7.3 3.6 12.3 21.6 11.8 11.3 9.4 12.2 3.7 7.0 7.6 11.0 2.4 9.4 12.5 7.3 21.9 9 RM219 RM5777 RM3912 RM321 RM257 RM288 RM553 RM242 RM278 RM3249 RM107 RM201 RM5765 RM3636 RM215 RM6707 RM205 RM245 13.9 11.2 8.1 15.4 6.8 6.9 22.9 11.8 7.8 5.8 13.7 20.6 24.0 6.2 14.9 9.2 9.3 6.8 11 RM120 RM441 RM552 RM167 RM479 RM536 RM202 RM6897 RM1341 RM5349 RM21 RM473E RM254 RM1233 RM224 RM6293 RM144 RM5766 RM6094 Pi1, Pi-k Pi18(t) 29.4 12.9 6.1 13.1 14.6 10.8 12.9 6.8 6.6 8.7 15.7 7.8 11.2 7.4 9.4 8.3 4.5 19.2 9.0 24.9  RM404 RM547 RM310 RM126 RM544 RM25 RM72 RM331 RM44 RM344 RM339 RM42 RM350 RM515 RM342 RM284 RM556 RM531 RM80 RM308 RM230 Pi33 Pi11 Pi29(t) 116.7 6.0 14.7 10.8 5.3 6.9 9.8 14.4 10.0 10.7 12.7 12.7 25.7 11.3 28.6 7.0 Fig. 4 FL440 DLA 6 FL440 LT Selecta DLA Selecta LT Ceysvoni DLA Ceysvoni LT Fanny 54 DLA Fanny 54 LT Fanny 47 DLA Fanny 47 LT Cica 9 DLA Cica 9 LT Caribe DLA Caribe LT Metica DLA Metica LT FL533 DLARM253 RM276 RM50 RM557 RM539 RM136 RM527 RM3 RM465B RM541 RM34 RM238B RM564C RM162 RM528 RM439 RM103Pi2, Pi9 Pi3, Pi8 Pi27 Pi227.3 3.6 12.3 21.6 11.8 11.3 9.4 12.2 3.7 7.0 7.6 11.0 2.4 9.4 12.5 7.3 21.99RM219 RM5777 RM3912 RM321 RM257 RM288 RM553 RM242 RM278 RM3249 RM107 RM201 RM5765 RM3636 RM215 RM6707 RM205 RM24513.9 11.2 8.1 15.4 6.8 6.9 22.9 11.8 7.8 5.8 13.7 20.6 24.0 6.2 14.9 9.2 9.3 6.811RM120 RM441 RM552 RM167 RM479 RM536 RM202 RM6897 RM1341 RM5349 RM21 RM473E RM254 RM1233 RM224 RM6293 RM144 RM5766 RM6094Pi1, Pi-k Pi18(t)29.4 12.9 6.1 13.1 14.6 10.8 12.9 6.8 6.6 8.7 15.7 7.8 11.2 7.4 9.4 8.3 4.5 19.2 9.0 24.9RM404 RM547 RM310 RM126 RM544 RM25 RM72 RM331 RM44 RM344 RM339 RM42 RM350 RM515 RM342 RM284 RM556 RM531 RM80 RM308 RM230Pi33 Pi11 Pi29(t)  RM332             RM332 23.2              23.2 14.1 8.6 9.1 8.7 8.6 7.4 6.0 5.6 5.5 9.3 5.1 3.6 3.5 3.7 2.6 2.7 4.6 3.3 7.8 3.4 2.4 3.1 3.2 13.0 7.8 11.1 9.8 4.4 3.5 Pi1, Pi-k Pi18(t) RM6897 RM441 RM167 DG8 RM479 RM120 RM202 RM536 RG247 RZ900 RM287 RM229 Pi30 RM21 RM6094 RZ536 RG303 RM5766 DG3 RM144 RM6293 RM224 RM1233 G181 RM4069 RM187 RM206 DG11 DG10 RM1341 RM5961 Pi-a             14.1 8.6 9.1 8.7 8.6 7.4 6.0 5.6 5.5 9.3 5.1 3.6 3.5 3.7 2.6 2.7 4.6 3.3 7.8 3.4 2.4 3.1 3.2 13.0 7.8 11.1 9.8 4.4 3.5Pi1, Pi-k Pi18(t) RM6897 RM441 RM167 DG8 RM479 RM120 RM202 RM536 RG247 RZ900 RM287 RM229 Pi30 RM21 RM6094 RZ536 RG303 RM5766 DG3 RM144 RM6293 RM224 RM1233 G181 RM4069 RM187 RM206 DG11 DG10 RM1341 RM5961 Pi-a  "}],"sieverID":"69d06a31-29a3-41bc-8a63-0899cc788550","abstract":""}

data/part_3/01fa96897317fd1e5810520c7f124614.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01fa96897317fd1e5810520c7f124614","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b79c0e8a-cb4f-49fc-a9f6-b6e8f4859481/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Enhanced P-cycling with stylosanthes (Stylosanthes guianensis) in upland rice-based cropping systems in Madagascar","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Project Title: P1679 -JIRCAS contribution to flagship project 3 Description of the innovation: Soils in the lowland and upland rice fields were found to be mostly P deficient with high P-fixation by Al-and Fe-oxides in the central highland of Madagascar. Introducing stylosanthes (Stylosanthes guianensis) having its high Fe-P solubilizing capacity as a cover/relay crop can enhance phosphorus cycling in upland rice-based cropping systems. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Production systems and Management practices Stage of innovation: Stage 1: discovery/proof of concept (PC -end of research phase) Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Country(ies): • Madagascar Description of Stage reached: Accumulated the evidence from pot and field trials that Stylosanthes guianensis has high solubilization capacity of Fe-bound P in soils, superior P uptakes than maize, rice, and soybean, and increases the subsequent rice yield relative to those grown after other crops under typical P-deficient uplands in the region. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: JIRCAS -Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • CIRAD -Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement Milestones: • Male and female farmers participating in demonstration increase input use efficiency by 5% at six action sites Sub-IDOs: • 8 -More efficient use of inputs • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • JIRCAS -Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences "}],"sieverID":"1ebc4423-4b69-4d12-9055-84b859331328","abstract":""}

data/part_3/024c784c75c7bee19e036620dd9b0d2c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"024c784c75c7bee19e036620dd9b0d2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50ed6ae8-d6db-497f-a43e-b0f0538a458d/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Crop residues are generally poor in their nutritive value, with low crude protein content (4%) and digestible organic matter (<50%). To address some of the problems of feed shortage and poor quality of available feeds in the mixed farming system, feed related research protocols have been implemented in the Africa RISING action sites of the Ethiopian highlands (Photo 1). The action research aims to integrate production of multipurpose fodder legumes and grasses in the farming system, thereby increasing the quantity and quality of available feeds for livestock. Currently, farmer groups are able to produce oatsvetch fodder (intercropped), tree Lucerne, and desho grass in the intervention sites. Adaptation of sweet lupine varieties as feed and food crop is also underway in the last rainy season. These cultivated fodders have to be managed and utilized in a proper manner to maximize the benefit that can be obtained from them. This guiding note intends to outline how farmers should utilize the fodders, based on the preliminary results of the action research conducted in the last few seasons. Photo 1. A farmer in Basona Africa RISING site, Amhara region using feed trough to feed his cattle (Photo credit-Kindu Mekonnen, ILRI) (2)"},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Oats-vetch fodder Oats and vetch are suitable for intercropping (Photo 2). In order to get a balanced mixed biomass of oats and vetch, it is important to maintain appropriate seeding rate taking into account germination percentages of each seed type. In the Africa RISING research sites, the intercropped fodder has been observed to yield high biomass (11 -19 tons/ha DM under rain fed condition) of good quality fodder which is rich in both protein (15%) and energy (9.5 MJ ME/kg DM)."}]},{"head":"Cultivation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The optimal proportion of seeds is 3:1 of the recommended rate for oats (90 kg/ha) and vetch (30kg/ha), respectively. Sowing can be done using row planting or broadcasting. When row planting is used, it is recommended to sow oats and vetch seeds on alternate rows, with 15 cm space between rows."}]},{"head":"Form of use:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":" Oats-vetch fodder can be used in the form of green feed, or conserved in the form of hay and used as needed."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":" In both cases, the right time of harvest is when about 50% of the oats starts to flower. o The biomass should be gently turned upside down once daily to ensure even drying of the biomass."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"o A sunny and windy weather is necessary to make hay and it is thus important to check weather forecast and choose the right days for this activity."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"o Under good weather condition, the hay can be sufficiently dry within 48 hours, to be stored safely. However, longer periods may be needed depending on the weather condition."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"o Under field condition, to check whether the hay is sufficiently dry, the farmer can do the following test:"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":" Take a handful of hay stock, break it half way or twist it in a circular motion."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":" If the stems break and crack cleanly, that is an indication that the hay is well dried (with a moisture content of about 20%), and can be stored safely  If the stems bend and don't not crack well, it is an indication that the hay needs more drying."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"o A good quality hay maintains its greenish color and is leafy. Leaf shattering and bleaching reduce the quality of the hay produced. It is therefore important to avoid over-drying to minimize leaf shattering and bleaching."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":" For green feeding, the fodder may be harvested in the morning, wilted for some time and fed in the afternoon."}]},{"head":"How much to feed and in what proportion with other feed resources?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Oats-vetch mixture is a balanced and good quality fodder. However, for maximum benefit, it is advisable to use this fodder as a supplement to the locally available feed resources. "}]},{"head":"Tree lucerne fodder","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The leaf and edible branches of tree Lucerne are very good sources of nutrients for ruminant livestock, containing high amounts of crude protein and (app 20-25%) and digestible organic matter (>= 70%). The foliage of this fodder can be fed green or preserved in the form of hay and used as needed (Photo 3)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Photo 3. Fodder tree-Tree lucerne on a farmer field in Lemo Africa RISING site, SNNPR (Photo credit-Kindu Mekonnen, ILRI)"}]},{"head":"Cultivation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Seedlings of tree lucrene can be planted on soil bunds, backyard or along fence lines as a hedge. A planting space of 1-1.5m between plants can yield satisfactory growth, reaching as high as 2m height within 9 months of planting provided that the soil is well drained and the seedlings are fenced and watered at the young stage. Results derived from the Africa RISING sites indicated that a cutting height of 1.5m gives better fodder biomass yield for tree Lucerne. Depending on rainfall patterns and growing niche, the fodder may be harvested in 3-4 months interval. Hay can be made out of the foliage and preserved for future use. The procedures highlighted for oats-vetch hay making (above) also applies for tree Lucerne. Once the foliage is dry it can be stored in sacks and placed in a dry place for later use."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Previous trials indicate that cattle prefer the hay, whereas sheep and goats readily consume the green fodder."}]},{"head":"How much to feed and in what proportion with other feeds","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Tree Lucerne foliage is mainly used as a protein supplement to the locally available feeds. The following mixing ratio would optimize rumen function, increase the digestibility of available feeds and hence improves animal performance. -740 grams of green tree Lucerne fodder mixed with fresh grass on offer per head per day or -280 grams of tree Lucerne hay mixed with fresh grass on offer per head per day e. Cattle which are fed on cut-and-carry grasses and crop residues with supplemental grazing -1.4 kg of green tree Lucerne fodder mixed with locally available feeds per head per day or -530 grams of tree Lucerne hay mixed with locally available feeds per head per day"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Sheep and goats: fed on cut-and-carry grasses, residues and with some grazing -800 grams of green tree Lucerne fodder mixed with locally available feed per head per day or -300 g of tree Lucerne hay mixed with locally available feeds per head per day * Depending on the physiological state, the animals may show higher feed intake than indicated. In such cases farmers should increase the amount of basal feed offer. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo 2. Oat-vetch mixture planted by a farmer on a bigger plot in Sinana Africa RISING site, Oromia (Photo credit-Kindu Mekonnen, ILRI) "},{"text":"Cattlea. Cattle which are fed only on cereal crop residues -4 kg of green oats-vetch fodder mixed with 3.5 kg of cereal crop residue per head per day or -1.5 kg of oats-vetch hay mixed with 3.5 kg of cereal crop residues per head per day b. Cattle fed on a mixture of cereal and legume residues -3 kg of green oats-vetch fodder mixed with 4 kg of crop residue per head per day or -1 kg of oats-vetch hay mixed with 4 kg of crop residues per head per day c. Cattle which are fed on cut-and-carry grasses with supplemental grazing -2 kg of green oats-vetch fodder mixed with about 6-7 kg of fresh grasses per head per day or -0.6 kg of oats-vetch hay mixed with about 6-7 kg of fresh grasses per head per day d. Cattle which are fed on cut-and-carry grasses and crop residues with supplemental grazing -2.5 kg of green oats-vetch fodder mixed with locally available feeds per head per day or -0.7 kg of oats-vetch hay mixed with locally available feeds per head per day Sheep and goats -1 kg of green oats-vetch fodder mixed with locally available feed per head per day or -300 g of oats-vetch hay mixed with locally available feeds per head per day Note: In some of the Africa RISING research sites, it has been observed that the oats-vetch fodder is either dominated by the oats or the vetch plant. In such cases it may be necessary to adjust the supplement depending on the specific situation. Where the oats fodder is dominant, it is advisable to increase the quantity of the supplement (oats-vetch) by about 15% than what is indicated above. On the other hand, if the vetch is the dominant fodder, it is possible to reduce the quantity of the supplement by about 15%. "},{"text":"Cattlea. Cattle which are fed only on cereal crop residues -2.5 kg of green tree Lucerne fodder mixed with 4.1 kg of cereal crop residue per head per day or -950 grams of tree Lucerne hay mixed with 4.1 kg of cereal crop residues per head per day b. Cattle fed on a mixture of cereal and legume residues -2 kg of green tree Lucerne fodder mixed with 4.25 kg of crop residue per head per day or -750 kg of tree Lucerne hay mixed with 4.25 kg of crop residues per head per day c. Cattle which are fed on cut-and-carry grasses with supplemental grazing "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Oats-vetch supplementation in the form of either green fodder or hay for cattle and small ruminants fed with different locally available resources  No Type of Animal Type basal feed Mixture/head of animal/day*  No Type of Animal Type basal feedMixture/head of animal/day*    Oats-vetch green Oats-vetch hay Basal feed (kg) Oats-vetch greenOats-vetch hayBasal feed (kg)    (kg) (kg)  (kg)(kg) Cattle Cereal residues 2.5 0.95 4.05 CattleCereal residues2.50.954.05  Cereal & legume 2.0 0.75 4.25 Cereal & legume2.00.754.25  residues     residues  Cut-and-carry 0.74 0.28 4.72 Cut-and-carry0.740.284.72  grasses, grazing    grasses, grazing  Grasses, grazing 1.4 0.53 4.07 Grasses,grazing1.40.534.07  and residues    and residues Sheep Grasses, grazing 0.80 0.30 as consumed SheepGrasses,grazing0.800.30as consumed  and residues    and residues  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Tree Lucerne supplementation in the form of either green fodder or hay for cattle and small ruminants fed with different locally available resources  N Type of Animal Type basal feed Mixture/head of animal/day* NType of AnimalType basal feed Mixture/head of animal/day* o   Tree Lucerne Tree Lucerne hay Basal feed (kg) oTree LucerneTree Lucerne hayBasal feed (kg)    green (kg) (kg) green (kg)(kg)  Cattle Cereal residues 4 1.5 3.5 CattleCereal residues 41.53.5   Cereal & legume 3 1 4 Cereal & legume314   residues   residues   Cut-and-carry 2 0.6 4.4 Cut-and-carry20.64.4   grasses, grazing   grasses, grazing   Grasses, grazing 2.5 0.7 6-7 Grasses, grazing2.50.76-7   and residues   and residues  Sheep Grasses, grazing 1 0.3 as consumed SheepGrasses, grazing10.3as consumed   and residues   and residues  "}],"sieverID":"6da82499-51c0-4f76-8838-56ae2a54dd57","abstract":""}

data/part_3/02afc3887d4da7ab3145be7343532cb2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02afc3887d4da7ab3145be7343532cb2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub086/RR86.pdf"},"pageCount":33,"title":"Strategies for the Management of Conjunctive use of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources in Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study from Pakistan","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"v"}]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Agriculture is the single largest sector of Pakistan's economy. It contributes about 24 percent of the GDP, directly accounts for about 70 percent of the export earnings and employs more than 50 percent of its civilian force. Because of arid and semi-arid conditions prevailing in most parts of the country, the contribution of direct rainfall to the total crop water requirements is even less than 15 percent. Therefore, irrigated farming is considered as the most economical and remunerative form of agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"This huge gap between water availability and water demand has consistently been met by the exploitation of groundwater. Over the last decade, number of private tubewells in Pakistan has taken a quantum jump mainly because of decreased surface water supplies and incidences of drought. The surface water availability in Pakistani Punjab has reduced by 46 percent from 1996-2001, whereas the number of private tubewells has increased by 59 percent over the same period. This clearly demonstrates the increasing role of groundwater in agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The on-demand availability of fresh groundwater helped farmers to cope with the vagaries of the surface supplies and achieve more secure and predictable yields. However, the use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation added huge amounts of salts in the root zone, which aggravated the salinity problems. As a result, large tracts of irrigated lands are already salinized and many others are under threat. The major reason of this land degradation is the lack of proper knowledge of farmers to manage different quality waters for irrigation. Therefore, there is every motivation to designate more efforts to formulate strategies for the optimal management of available surface and groundwater resources to ensure long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"In Pakistan, groundwater for irrigation is used both in isolation and in conjunction with canal water. Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is more common due to two main reasons: (1) to increase the supply of irrigation water and (2) to improve the groundwater quality through dilution. However, farmers are not fully aware of mixing ratios, resultant salinities and their long-term consequences on crops and soils. This stresses the need to develop innovative strategies for the management of available surface and groundwater resources with respect to quality and quantity in view of increasing demand, limited supplies, rising groundwater tables and increasing soil salinization."},{"index":5,"size":225,"text":"This report presents the results of a modeling study carried out to evaluate the long-term effects of a different quality of irrigation water on root zone salinity. The simulations were performed for the Rechna Doab (subbasin of the Indus Basin), Punjab, Pakistan by using 15 years of actual rainfall and climatic data. Rechna Doab covers approximately 2.8 million hectares of cultivated land. Groundwater quality in Rechna Doab varies from north to south. In the upper part of the doab, groundwater is relatively fresh (EC = 1.0 dSm -1 ), in the middle, there are several pockets where groundwater quality is marginal (EC = 1.5 -2.7 dSm -1 ) and in the lower part of the doab groundwater is highly saline (EC > 2.7 dSm -1 ). In all these areas, groundwater is mixed with canal water in different ratios without knowing the consequences of any quality hazard. For model simulations, groundwater of these three qualities (i.e., 1.0 dSm -1 , 1.5 dSm -1 , and 3.0 dSm -1 ) was mixed with canal water in four different ratios i.e., 0 percent, 25 percent, 50 percent and 75 percent. In total 12 different scenarios were generated. The resultant water quality of each scenario was used as input to the model to vi study the long-term effects of this water quality on crop production and soil salinization."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"The simulation results indicate that in fresh groundwater areas, farmers present irrigation practices i.e., mixing groundwater and canal water with a 1:1, which ratio provides sufficient leaching to push salts below the root zone, thereby minimizing the risk of reduction in crop production. The direct use of fresh groundwater for irrigation will accumulate salts at shallow depths in the root zone, therefore, the risk of an upward movement of salts due to capillary action during a dry year will be high. Under these conditions, occasional leaching with canal water will be necessary to maintain favorable salt balance in the root zone."},{"index":7,"size":129,"text":"In marginal groundwater areas, direct use of groundwater for irrigation can reduce crop transpiration by 3 percent as compared to the scenario when 25 percent of marginal groundwater is mixed with 75 percent of canal water. The role of precipitation in marginal groundwater areas is much more critical than in fresh groundwater areas. The long-term simulations reveal that years with below average rainfall (relatively dry years) will enhance the soil salinization in the root zone, which will affect the water uptake by roots, and crop transpiration during these years could be further reduced by about 10 percent. Therefore, the farmers of these areas need to know the exact amount of crop water demands and leaching requirements in order to halt soil salinization and ensure longterm sustainability of irrigated agriculture."},{"index":8,"size":157,"text":"The irrigations with saline groundwater directly or in conjunction with canal water by any ratio will be a complete disaster. The root zone salinity will start building and whole soil profile will be salinized with salinity levels reaching to 20 dSm -1 , making crop production almost impossible. The impact of these high salinity values on transpiration of wheat and cotton crops is relatively low as these crops are moderately to highly tolerant. For more salt sensitive crops, affects of higher root zone salinity can be of much greater magnitude. For the reclamation of these highly saline soils, availability of fresh water resources and installation of extensive drainage systems is a compulsory requirement. Leaching of salts by means of poor quality irrigation water will not be suitable and lands will go out of production even at a faster rate. Therefore, for these areas, other options like growing more salt tolerant crops, eucalyptus or phreophytes should be adapted."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"The modeling results indicate that adoption of similar approach for conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources in fresh, marginal and saline groundwater areas will not be a successful strategy for halting environmental degradation and fostering crop production. This necessitates the need to educate farmers about the long-term implications of conjunctive water use and to provide appropriate guidelines for the optimal management of surface and groundwater resources."}]},{"head":"Strategies for the Management of Conjunctive use of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources in Semi-arid Areas: A Case Study from Pakistan","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Asad Sarwar Qureshi, Hugh Turral, and Ilyas Masih capacities, it is essentially a supply-based system. Hence, it cannot adequately accommodate changing water demands during the crop season. The system was originally designed for an annual cropping intensity (i.e., yearly cropped area) of about 75 percent with the intention to spread the irrigation water over as large an area as possible to expand the settlement opportunities. The major objective of irrigation development at that time was to prevent crop failure and avoid famine (Jurriens and Mollinga 1996). Increasing demand for food to cope with the ever-increasing population has caused the annual cropping intensities to rise to about 150 percent. Due to age and poor maintenance, the delivery efficiency of the irrigation system is low, ranging from 35 to 40 percent from canal head to the crop root zone (Tarar 1995). Moreover, many canals can even no longer convey their official design capacity, due to siltation and erosion of banks. From the scarcity by design and the intensified farmer practices, over time canal water availability per unit of irrigated land has become even more limited."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The surface water resources of Pakistan are finite and potential for increasing water supplies is limited, and there is a likelihood of further reduction in surface supplies through capacity losses in the reservoirs, which is due to siltation and drought. Due to the inadequacy, variability and unreliability of the surface irrigation supplies, the farmers have turned more and more to the use of groundwater to meet their crop water requirements. Therefore,"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Increasing demand and decreasing water quality has put enormous pressure on the agriculture sector to use its available water resources more efficiently. These pressures are a result of the increasing demand for food and inter-sectoral competition for water, particularly from the municipal and industrial sector. Therefore, in future, irrigation's contribution to food security will largely depend on the use of low-quality water in agriculture in addition to renewing efforts to achieve water conservation."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Irrigated agriculture in Pakistan is mainly confined to the Indus Plains where it has been developed by harnessing principal water resources available to the country. Without assured irrigation supplies, these arid and semiarid areas of Pakistan cannot support any agriculture, as the evapotranspiration demand is high and rainfall is either meager or unreliable. The contiguous Indus basin irrigation system irrigates an area of about 16 million ha. The total annual Indus water available to Pakistan is about 181 billion cubic meters (BCM). Of this available water, about 131 BCM are diverted to the 43 main irrigation canal systems, while of the reminder an estimated 11 BCM are lost in the river system and 39 BCM flow to the sea (Badruddin 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The operation of the Indus basin irrigation system is based on a continuous water supply and is not related to actual crop water requirements. Irrigation canals are usually not allocated more than their design capacity, of which a typical value is about 2 mm d -1 ."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Despite significant increase in storage groundwater has gradually acquired a vital role in the development of agricultural and rural economy of Pakistan (Qureshi et al. 2002)."},{"index":5,"size":289,"text":"The Indus Basin is underlain by an extensive groundwater aquifer covering about 16 million ha, of which 6 million ha are fresh and the remaining 10 million ha are saline (Haider et al. 1999). The use of groundwater for irrigated agriculture in Pakistan has a long history. However, the large-scale \"pumpage\" of groundwater for irrigation started during 1960s with the launching of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs). Under this program more than 20,000 large capacity public tubewells were installed to lower the groundwater table and to supplement irrigation supplies. This demonstration led to a proliferation of private tubewells with a capacity of 0.028 m 3 /sec and smaller capacity by farmers in 1970s and 1980s. Subsidized power supply and introduction of country made diesel engines also provided an impetus for dramatic increase in the number of private tubewells. At present, about 600,000 private tubewells are in operation in the Pakistani Punjab (figure 1). These private tubewells are responsible for the abstraction of more than 80 percent of the total groundwater pumped in Punjab and contributes 40-50 percent of the total water available at the farm gate (Haider et al. 1999). About 70 percent of the private tubewells are located in the canal command areas where groundwater is used in conjunction with canal water, whereas the rest provides irrigation using only groundwater. The extent of groundwater use can be gauged by the fact that private tubewell density (number of private tubewells/1,000 ha) in Punjab has increased to 32 in 2002 as compared to only 1 in 1960 (figure 2) (Qureshi and Akhtar 2003). The dramatic increase of almost 100 percent in the private tubewell density during the last 10 years clearly illustrates the increasing dependence of agriculture on groundwater."},{"index":6,"size":186,"text":"The exploitation of usable groundwater provided an opportunity to the farmers of these areas for supplementing their irrigation requirements and cope with the vagaries of the surface supplies. The availability of Source: Qureshi and Mujeeb (2003) groundwater for irrigation has transformed the concept of low and uncertain crop yields to more secure and predictable form of crop production. However, the present uncontrolled and unregulated use of groundwater is replete with serious consequences as it is depleting the fresh groundwater. The farmers are using groundwater for irrigation without full awareness of the possible hazards due to its quality, which is aggravating the problem of secondary salinization. As a result, salt affected soils have become an important ecological entity in the Indus Basin of Pakistan. It is estimated that an area of nearly six million hectares is already affected with this menace, of which about half is in irrigated areas (WAPDA 1989). Out of this estimated affected area, about two million hectares are abandoned due to severe salinity (Wolters and Bhutta 1997). The extent of salt-affected area keeps on changing due to dynamic nature of the salinity problem."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"In Pakistan, generally two approaches are used for applying irrigation water from two different sources i.e., canal and groundwater. In the first approach, canal and groundwater are used separately in a cyclic mode and, in the second approach, these waters are used simultaneously in a blending mode. Cyclic use is adopted to accommodate significant fluctuations in the canal supplies due to the rotational system. This approach is also used as a strategy to maintain a favorable salt balance in the root zone."},{"index":8,"size":276,"text":"Simultaneous use or blending strategy is mainly used because canal supplies are usually inadequate, and mixing of groundwater with the canal water is necessary to get required flow rate for proper irrigation. By mixing tubewell water with good quality canal water, farmers tend to decrease the salinity of the irrigation water in order to reduce the risk of soil salinization. Although evidences exist that blending of saline and non-saline irrigation water is less effective in keeping soil salinity levels lower than applying cyclic irrigations (Hussain et al. 1990;Shalhevet 1994;Kumar 1995), this strategy is widely practiced in Pakistan. Figure 3 shows the increasing trends in the groundwater use over time. In Punjab, over the last 10 years, the area subject to the conjunctive mode of irrigation has increased by about one million hectares. The way in which water from different sources is combined is also of critical importance to sustain long-term crop production. In Pakistan, farmers mix tubewell water with canal water in different proportions without consideration of the resultant quality and its consequences on crops and lands. As a result, large tracts of irrigated lands are already salinized and many are under threat. Therefore, there is a strong need to make a thorough investigation of the minimum amounts of canal water supplies that are needed to mix with the groundwater to mitigate the adverse effects of poor quality groundwater on soil salinization. This information needs to be generated separately for fresh, marginal and saline groundwater zones. This may provide an opportunity to divert surplus canal water supplies to the areas where groundwater is of poorer quality and the need for fresh water resources is more pressing."},{"index":9,"size":126,"text":"Over the past three decades, numerous efforts have been made to solve the problems of secondary salinization and improve water use efficiency at the farm level. In spite of huge investments, the success has been limited. The reasons are that the research conducted to advice farmers on appropriate practices of using different quality irrigation water is generally based on field scale experiments and is not tested for their longterm consequences on crop production and environmental degradation. The results were, therefore, regarded as local and short-term solutions and could not get the attention of the farming community. An integrated water management approach could be useful to manage available surface and subsurface water resources with respect to quantity and quality in view of crop production and soil salinization."},{"index":10,"size":143,"text":"The application of a particular irrigation strategy depends on the local conditions, such as climate, soil, plants, water availability and traditional irrigation management. Dynamic simulation models that can calculate soil water and solute transport originating from all water resources in combination with crop growth, are best tools to provide a rapid, flexible and relatively inexpensive means of estimating the effects of various irrigation management practices on crop production under a variety of climatic and physical conditions (Bradford and Letey 1992;Teixeira et al. 1995). The main objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term effects of different quality irrigation water (obtained through mixing of low-quality groundwater in different Source: Qureshi et al. (2002) ratios with the good quality canal water) on soil salinity for the conditions prevailing in the wheatcotton agro-climatic zone of Central Punjab, Pakistan. For this purpose, soil water flow model "}]},{"head":"Model Description","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"SWAP (Soil, Water, Atmosphere and Plant) simulates vertical transport of water, solutes and heat in the unsaturated/saturated soils. The program is designed to simulate the transport processes at field-scale level as well as during the entire growing seasons (Van Dam et al. 1997;Kroes et al. 1999). SWAP employs the Richards' equation for the soil-water movement in the soil matrix, subject to specified initial and boundary conditions and with known relations between soil-water content, soil-water SWAP (Feddes et al. 1978;Belmans et al. 1983) calibrated and validated by Sarwar et al. (2000) was used."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"pressure head and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. Root-water extraction at various depths in the root zone is calculated from potential transpiration, root length density and possible reductions due to wet, dry, or saline conditions. Solute transport is simulated using governing equations of convection, diffusion and dispersion, non-linear adsorption, first order decomposition and root uptakes of solutes. Different processes simulated by SWAP model are shown in figure 4."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Source : Sarwar, 2000 Crop growth is simulated by using a detailed model called WOFOST, which explains crop growth on the basis of processes, such as the rate of phenological development, interception of global radiation, CO 2 assimilation, biomass accumulation of leaves, stems, storage organs and roots, leaf decay and root extension. The assimilation rate is affected by water and/or salinity stress in the root zone. The SWAP can use a simple crop model, when sufficient data is not available or crop growth simulation is not needed. In this case, the user prescribes the leaf area index, crop height and rooting depth as a function of development stage. Basic daily meteorological data are used to calculate potential evapotranspiration according to Penman-Monteith."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Irrigation applications (irrigation timing, depth and water quality) can be prescribed at fixed times or user may choose various timing and depth criteria in order to optimize irrigation application. The scheduling options allow the evaluation of the impact of different irrigation scenarios on crop growth and salinity development. The SWAP model can also be used to evaluate drainage design and surface water systems. Comparison of annual potential evapotranspiration (ET pot ) and rainfall for a period of 15 years (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Source: Sarwar et al. (2000) Model Calibration"}]},{"head":"Description of the study area","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The data for model calibration was taken from wheat-cotton agro-climatic zone of the Rechna Doab of Pakistan. This area is located in the center of doab and has a longitude of 73  (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994) is shown in figure 5."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The study area consists of a vast stretch of alluvial deposits, mainly unconsolidated sand and silt with major amounts of clay and gravels. The soils are mainly loam to silt-loam underlain by highly conductive aquifer of loamy sand to sandy loam. These soil types are well representative of the whole Rechna Doab soils. Soil salinity is highly variable. This is mainly due to inequity and uneven distribution of canal water supplies, and use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The average farm size in the area is about 3.75 ha compared to the national average of 5 ha and a decrease in farm sizes is still continuing (Bhatti and Kijne 1992). More than 80 percent of the farms are either owneroperated or owner-cum-tenant operated. The crops are selected, to a small degree, to serve the farmers own household consumptions and for livestock. The crop yields in the area are generally below the national average yields in Pakistan. Wheat, cotton, sugarcane and fodder are principal crops in the area. Next in importance are maize and vegetables."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"The irrigation water in the area is transported to the farmer fields through an extensive system of unlined canals and small watercourses. The delivery of water in the tertiary unit is based on a 7-day fixed rotational system called warabandi. Each farmer is allowed to take the entire flow of the watercourse once in 7 days. The time of water allocation for each farmer is proportional to his landholding. Mostly farmers use the basinflooding method to spread water over the fields. The timing and quantity of water applied to each field depends on the wish of the farmer. This system is based on a continuous (but not necessarily constant) supply, which is not related to crop water requirements. Due to limited canal water supplies, farmers are prompted to use more and more groundwater to supplement their crop water requirements."}]},{"head":"Input data for model calibration","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"For the calibration of the SWAP model, a farmer field of 0.2 ha was selected and extensively monitored for 17 months (December 95 to April 97). Soil-water Pressure heads, soil moisture contents, electrical conductivity of soil saturation paste (EC e ), irrigation depths, meteorological data and other related soil and crop parameters were measured."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Daily climatic data (rainfall, sunshine hours, wind speed, maximum and minimum temperatures) for this period were taken from the meteorological station situated in the study area. These data were used to calculate reference evapotranspiration (RET) by Priestley and Taylor (PT) method (Priestley and Taylor 1972). Potential evapotranspiration (PET) was obtained by multiplying reference evapotranspiration (RET) with the crop factor (Kc). The PT method was preferred because it has been recommended for conditions that are similar to Pakistan, where the differences in surface and air temperatures are minimal i.e., where sensible heat flux is low and latent heat flux is high (Paw U and Gao 1988;Kumar and Bastiaanssen, 1993). The depths of all irrigations applied to the monitoring field were recorded and used as input for model calibration."},{"index":3,"size":347,"text":"The upper boundary condition of the soil profile was described on a daily basis by potential evapotranspiration rate (PET), actual rainfall and irrigation. The daily groundwater table depth was measured with the help of piezometers and was used as a bottom On the basis of change in physical properties, soil profile of 480 cm was divided into three layers. The first layer is from 0-30 cm, second from 30-280 cm and third beyond 280 cm. The soil hydraulic properties of all three layers were described by the six Van Genuchten-Mualem (VGM) parameters (Van Genuchten 1980;Mualem 1976). These parameters are saturated soil moisture content (θ s ), residual soil moisture content (θ r ), empirical shape parameters (α, n, λ) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (K s ). The four boundary condition. The maximum rooting depth for wheat and cotton was taken as 110 cm and 160 cm, respectively (PARC 1982). Root length density distribution was considered to decline linearly with depth. The Boesten model (Boesten and Stroosnijder 1986) was used for the reduction of the potential soil evaporation rate into actual soil evaporation rate. The values of limiting pressure heads for regulating root water uptake were taken from Taylor and Ashcroft (1972). The different input parameters used in the SWAP model are given in table 1. VGM parameters (θ s , θ r , α and n) for the first two layers were derived from the field measurements of pressure heads and soil moisture content whereas the two parameters (λ and K s ) were optimized during the calibration process. The parameters for the third layers were taken from Beekma (1993) as they could not be measured in the field due to the presence of high water table conditions. The calibrated VGM parameters for the three layers are given in table 2. Limiting pressure heads (cm) h 1 = -0.1; h 2 = -1.0; h 3 = -500; h 1 = -0.1; h 2 = -1.0; h 3 = -500; h 3 ' = -900; h 4 = -16,000 h 3 ' = -900; h 4 = -16,000"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Measured pressure head values at different depths were used as initial conditions for water balance calculations, whereas, measured EC e values at different depths were used for salt balance calculations."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"The salinity parameters in the classical convection-dispersion equation that describe salt transport are the dispersivity, L dis (cm), and the diffusion, D dif (cm 2 d -1 ). Under field conditions with irrigation, solute spreading due to dispersion is much more pronounced than solute spreading due to diffusion. The value of L dis typically ranges from 0.5 cm, or less, for laboratory scale experiments involving disturbed soils, to about 10 cm or more for field scale experiments (Nielsen et al. 1986). The values for L dis and D dif that gave best results of simulated profiles EC e (z) were 15 cm and 0.48 cm 2 d -1 , respectively."}]},{"head":"Results of Model Calibration","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The measured pressure heads, soil moisture content and EC e values were compared with the simulated results for model calibration (Sarwar et al. 2000). Pressure heads were measured in the field by means of tensiometers, installed at eight different depths (15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 200 cm) and were read weekly. For the determination of soil moisture content, Time Domain Reflectometery (TDR) tubes (Topp et al. 1980) were installed at the same depths as that of tensiometers and were also read weekly. Salinity measurements for monitoring the field were taken at the beginning and end of each growing season by electromagnetic induction with EM38 equipment (McNeill 1986). Measurements were taken at 40 different locations for each sample field. EM38 measures apparent electrical conductivity (EC a ) in the first one meter of the soil profile."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"These EC a values were then converted into EC e values using equations developed by Beekma (1994) for this area. The measured EC e values from the monitoring field were available for a limited number of days. Therefore, a comparison could only be accomplished for these days. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) was calculated to quantify the agreements between simulated and measured values. The RMSE represents how much the simulation overestimated or underestimated the actual field measurements."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Where M i and S i are the measured and simulated values at the end of day i and n is the number of days of observation."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Figure 6 shows the comparison of measured and simulated pressure heads at 30 cm and 90 cm depths. The results indicate that the measured trends of pressure heads at both depths are in good agreement with the modelsimulated values. The RMSE for all depths was 29 cm (n = 88)."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Figure 7 shows a typical example of measured and simulated soil water contents at 30 cm and 90 cm depths. The results indicate that the simulated soil water contents match quite well with the measured soil water contents at both depths. The RMSE for the volumetric soil water contents for all depths was 0.020 cm 3 cm -3 (n = 170)."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"This close match between measured and simulated values gives confidence on FIGURE 6. Comparison of measured and simulated pressure heads at 30 cm and 90 cm depths."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Source: Sarwar et al. (2000) calibrated model parameters for the water balance component."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Figure 8 shows a comparison of measured and simulated EC e values averaged over first one meter of the soil profile. The results indicate a close proximity between measured and simulated EC e values. The root mean square error for EC e was 0.15 dSm -1 , which satisfy the parameter values used for the calibration of solute transport. "}]},{"head":"Model Application for Scenario Calculations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Simulations were performed for a period of 15 years using actual rainfall and climatic data from 1980 to 1994. Model simulations were performed for wheat-cotton crop rotation, which is the largest crop rotation system in the Indus Basin comprising over 4.5 million hectares (Mulk 1993)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"The irrigation schedules in the Rechna Doab vary a lot. Farmers having access to groundwater in addition to canal water tend to apply more water compared to those who are fully dependent on canal water. The studies carried out by Vlotman et al. (1994) and Raza and Choudhary (1998) have shown that the number of irrigations to wheat crop varies from two to six and to cotton from four to six. In such a heterogeneous cropped and irrigation environment of the Rechna Doab, it was difficult to translate the behavior of individual farmers into an average condition. Therefore, in this study, altogether twelve irrigations for two crop seasons in a year are assumed. A total of five irrigations to wheat and five to cotton crop apart from two pre-sowing irrigations, one each for wheat and cotton are considered. This is similar to the recommended irrigation schedule by the Punjab Agricultural Department for the wheat-cotton cropping zone and is usually followed by the farmers."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"The depth of each irrigation application has been a subject of many research studies (Willardson 1992;Vehmeyer 1992;Vlotman and Latif 1993;Raza and Choudhary 1998). These studies have found that average depth of water applied per irrigation ranged from 60 to 70 mm. Therefore, for this study, the depth of each irrigation was taken as equal to an average irrigation of an upland crop in Pakistan i.e., 65 mm (OFWM 1980). The amount and number of irrigations were kept constant for the years of simulations."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"The groundwater table depths are generally shallow (3 to 5 m), however, it varies considerably before and after the monsoon season. The groundwater quality in the area is also variable. Therefore, groundwater table depth for this study was taken at 5 m below the soil surface."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"In Rechna Doab area, groundwater quality varies from north to south (figure 9). In the upper part of the doab, groundwater is relatively fresh (EC < 1.0 dS/m) and it keeps on deteriorating towards the downstream end of the Rechna Doab. In the middle of the doab, there are several pockets where groundwater quality is marginal (EC = 1.5 -2.7 dS/m) and in lower part of the doab groundwater is highly saline (EC > 2.7 dS/m). This classification of groundwater quality is based on the criteria developed by WAPDA (Latif and Lone 1992table 3). Because of its poor quality, groundwater is usually applied in conjunction with the canal water."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":"Salinity surveys conducted in the Rechna Doab between 1990-1996, show that average salinity of soil profile up to a depth of 2.0 m varies between 1.5 and 2.6 dS/m with an average value of about 2.0 dS/m (Raza and Choudhary 1998). As depth-wise salinity data were not available, this average value was used as an initial condition for the salt balance simulations. For salinity stress the response functions of Mass and Hoffman (1977) were used.  Source: Latif and Lone (1992) In order to develop conjunctive water use strategies for the Rechna Doab, 12 different scenarios were developed. Three groundwater qualities mentioned in table 3 were mixed in four different ratios (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) with the canal water (EC = 0.3 dSm -1 )."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The resultant water quality (EC) after each mixing was used in the model to evaluate the long-term effects of these waters on salinity build up in the root zone. Table 4 gives an overview of the 12 scenarios used in this study."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussions","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conjunctive water management in fresh groundwater areas","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Figure 10 shows the salinity development in the root zone when fresh groundwater is used for irrigation in different ratios with canal water."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"The simulations for a continuous period of 15 years show that there is a clear effect of different irrigation water qualities on salinity build up in the soil profile. The EC e values represent the average root zone salinity for 100 cm depth at the end of each simulation year. Irrigation with fresh groundwater alone (EC = 1.0 dSm -1 ) does not guarantee the long-term sustainability as in the years of below average precipitation (years 6 to 10) it enhances soil salinization in the root zone immediately, which might affect the water uptake by the roots and reduce crop transpiration. However, in all other combinations of mixing fresh groundwater with canal water will keep the root zone salinity below the threshold value of 4.0 dSm -1 , although a slightly increasing trend may be witnessed in the years of deficit rainfall. The value of 4.0 dSm -1 is usually considered for non-saline soils for most of the crops in Pakistan (Mulk 1993)."},{"index":3,"size":270,"text":"Figure 11 presents the salt build up at different depths of the root zone as influenced by different irrigation water qualities at the end of the simulation period of 15 years. Irrigation with fresh groundwater alone accumulates salts in deeper depths (90-120 cm) of the root zone. The salinity development is shown only up to 120 cm depth because the presence of excess salts at this depth is mainly responsible for reducing crop transpiration by limiting root water uptake. During dry years when soil temperatures are high and leaching of salts is low due to less rainfall, these salts may move to upper layers of the root zone due to capillary action. This phenomenon could be much stronger in the areas where groundwater tables are shallow. Mixing groundwater with canal water in 1:1 ratio provides sufficient leaching to push the salts below 1.0 m of the soil profile and thereby reducing the chances of movement of salts to the upper layers of the soil profile during the dry and hot years. The impact of different quality irrigation water on crop transpiration and salinity build up in the root zone is summarized in table 5. SSC referred to as Salt Storage Change, which is defined as ∆C/C initial . Where ∆C is the change in salt storage over a certain period and C initial is the salt storage at the beginning of the time period considered. Ideally, SSC should be zero, whereas negative or positive SSC values indicate reduction or build up in salt accumulation, respectively. However, in view of saline groundwater conditions, a small build up of salts is tolerable."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"TR referred to as relative transpiration (T a /T p = actual transpiration/potential transpiration), which is considered equivalent to crop yields. It is certain that the crop yield is affected not only by this factor, but inclusion of other factors (crop variety, fertilizers, disease and pest management) is beyond the scope of this study. Therefore, these non-water factors are considered to be optimal for all scenarios.  The data presented in table 5 shows that with the farmers present irrigation practices, maximum relative transpiration for both wheat and cotton crops can be obtained irrespective of the ratio with which fresh groundwater is mixed with the canal water. This shows that 780 mm depth of water applied by farmers not only fully meets the crop water requirements but also provides sufficient leaching of salts to maintain root zone salinity below threshold values of wheat and cotton crops. The negative SSC values given in table 5 further strengthen this argument."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Figure 10 shows slightly increasing trends of salinity build up for scenarios FGW 100 and FGW 75, but the overall salinity hazard for crops remains in control. Farmers applying irrigation water less than this amount might have a higher risk of soil salinization, particularly under the FGW 100 scenario. This can be true for the farmers located at the tail end of the canals where surface water supplies are almost negligible and the availability of groundwater is out of reach for them, either due to the price or the quality of it."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"The detailed analysis of the 15 years of transpiration data reveals that in dry years, relative transpiration can be reduced substantially i.e., relative transpiration for year 6 reduced to 0.86, which is 11 percent lower than a normal year. This reduction can be attributed to increased salinity in the root zone (figure 10) owing to insufficient leaching and higher crop water demands due to relatively higher temperatures. This means that farmers need to adjust their irrigation applications according to the changing climatic conditions."}]},{"head":"Conjunctive water management in marginal groundwater areas","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Figure 12 shows that the direct application of marginal groundwater for irrigation (without mixing with the canal water) or mixing it with 25 percent of canal water, the root zone salinity for the first 5 years remains within safe limits and reduction in crop transpiration is not very likely due to salt stress. However, after this period, salinity increases sharply and crosses the threshold value of 4 dSm -1 . Then this salinization process reaches a certain equilibrium with more or less of a constant salt storage. The small variations in the salt storage over the subsequent years can be ascribed to differences in average annual precipitations (figure 5). Figure 12 also reveals that in the years of below average precipitation (years 6 to 10) soil salinization enhances in the root zone, which might affect the water uptake by roots."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Mixing of marginal groundwater with canal water in 1:1 ratio seems more practical from sustainability point of view, as this may keep the root zone salinity below threshold levels."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"Figure 13 shows the distribution of salts in the root zone when marginal quality groundwater is used for irrigation directly or in different proportions with canal water. The highest salinity build up can be observed at the depths of 90 and 120 cm regardless of mixing ratios. It is evident from the graph that in marginal groundwater areas, present irrigation practices of farmers can only help in pushing the salts to a depth of 90 cm. Therefore, occasional additional leaching with fresh water will be necessary to keep these salts well below the root zone in order to reduce the risk of salts movement in the upper layers due to capillary rise. While applying saline water for additional leaching, one has to be careful, particularly in shallow groundwater table areas. The studies conducted by Sarwar and Bastiaanssen (2001) under similar conditions have shown that for saline water irrigations, the effect of shallow groundwater table is very pronounced. As plants are constrained in their capacity to extract water under highly saline conditions, the groundwater moves up due to percolation of applied water. This phenomenon not only increases the root zone salinity but also create waterlogging conditions. This is one of the major reasons for the rising groundwater table in the Indus Basin of Pakistan."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"Although salinity developments under scenarios MGW 100 and MGW 75 showed an increasing trend and surpassed the threshold value of 4.0 dSm -1 , they remained below the salinity tolerance level of wheat and cotton crops. This is evident from the positive SSC values for the MGW 100 scenario (table 6). This slight increase in salt storage reduced the relative transpiration by almost 3 percent as compared tothe MGW 25 scenario. The long-term simulations reveal that decrease in relative transpiration for dry years under MGW 100 is about 10 percent. This clearly demonstrates that in marginal groundwater areas, a slight decrease in irrigation amounts can have serious consequences on the root zone salinity and ultimately on the crop yields. Considering these fragile equilibriums between leaching, root water uptake and groundwater interactions in semi-arid climates and saline soils, the farmers of marginal groundwater areas need to precisely know irrigation and leaching requirements in order to halt environmental degradation and foster crop production. "}]},{"head":"Conjunctive water management in saline groundwater areas","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The combined analysis of figures 14 and 15 shows that irrigations with saline groundwater directly or in conjunction with the canal water by any ratio will be a complete disaster. The root zone salinity will start shooting up above the threshold value just after 2-3 years and by the end of 15 years, it will reach up to 10 dSm -1 ."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Figure 15 illustrates that the whole soil profile will be highly salinized and the EC e values at depths of 60 to 120 cm will reach to the 20dSm -1 level making any crop production almost impossible. the fact that both wheat and cotton are moderate to high salt tolerant crops. For salt sensitive crops, the reduction in transpiration would have been much higher. Sarwar and Bastiaanssen (2001) have shown that for the reclamation of these highly saline soils, an extensive drainage system and availability of fresh water are compulsory requirements."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Based on their modeling study, they have also illustrated that leaching of salts by means of poor quality irrigation water will not be suitable and lands will go out of production even at a faster rate. Therefore, for these areas, other options like growing more salt-tolerant crops, eucalyptus or phreophytes should be adapted."},{"index":4,"size":248,"text":"The positive SSC values for SGW 100 , SGW 75 and SGW 50 demonstrate the accumulation of salts during the simulation period when saline groundwater is used for irrigation. Table 7 shows that direct application of saline groundwater for irrigation depressed the crop transpiration by about 6 percent when compared to the SGW 25 scenario. The analysis of 15 years of simulation data on crop transpiration reveals that in dry years the relative transpiration for the SGW 100 scenario will be further reduced by about 12 percent. Considering the substantial increase in soil salinity, the reduction in average annual crop transpiration is relatively small. This is due to A closer look on the data presented in tables 5-7 shows that adopting the same strategy for conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater of different qualities could have serious consequences on soil degradation and crop production. The direct use of saline groundwater for irrigation can result in a 10 percent lower crop transpiration as compared to the direct use of fresh groundwater for irrigation. The common conjunctive use practice applied in Pakistan is, mixing canal water and groundwater with a 1:1 ratio regardless of the groundwater quality. The simulated results indicate that model SWAP was used. The simulations were performed for 15 years for wheat-cotton cropping rotation using actual rainfall and climatic data. Before scenario calculations, the model was calibrated and validated using field data from an experimental station located at the wheat-cotton agro-climatic zone of the Central Punjab."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"From the simulation results, the following conclusions can be drawn:"},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"In fresh groundwater areas (EC = 1.0 dSm 1 ), the farmers' present irrigation practices (i.e., using 780 mm of irrigation water in a year) provide sufficient leaching to push the salts below root zone, regardless of the ratio with which it is mixed with canal water. However, the FGW 100 and FGW 75 scenarios showed an increasing trend in root zone salinity, which may affect crop transpiration in below average rainfall years. Therefore, farmers need to adjust their irrigation requirements according to the changes in climatic conditions."},{"index":7,"size":124,"text":"In marginal groundwater areas (EC = 1.5 dSm -1 ), the risk of secondary salinization will be much higher than fresh groundwater areas. The results of long-term simulations reveal that irrigation applications applying this strategy in fresh groundwater areas will result in a 8 percent higher crop transpiration as compared to saline groundwater areas. In addition, the pace of soil salinization in saline groundwater areas will be much faster (SSC = +0.46) as compared to fresh groundwater areas (SSC = -0.47). This stresses the need to educate farmers about the complexities of conjunctive water use and to provide guidelines for the optimal management of surface and groundwater resources with respect to quantity and quality in view of the rapidly diminishing land and water resources."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The premise of this study was that farmers' present irrigation strategies for conjunctive management of surface water and groundwater resources are unsustainable and exacerbate secondary salinization. The reasons are:"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Farmers do not have sufficient knowledge on the appropriate use of irrigation water of different qualities. As a result, they usually end up with sub-optimal use of their land and water resources."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• The research conducted to advise farmers on appropriate use of irrigation waters of different qualities was generally based on short-term field scale experiments and was not tested for their long-term consequences on crop production and land degradation."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"The results were, therefore, regarded as short-term solutions and could not get the attention of the farming community for largescale adoption."},{"index":5,"size":151,"text":"In this study, 12 combinations of surface water and groundwater mixed in different ratios were evaluated for their long-term effects on crop transpiration and soil salinization. For this purpose, soil water flow and solute transport according to MGW 100 and MGW 75 scenarios will take 4-5 years to build up root zone salinity to the level where it will start affecting crop transpiration. The reductions in crop transpirations during relatively dry years will be much more severe in marginal groundwater areas. These reductions can go up to 10 percent when the FGW 100 scenario is taken as reference. In marginal groundwater areas, present irrigation practices of farmers will accumulate most of the salts to a depth of 90 cm. Therefore, additional leaching with fresh water will be necessary to push these salts below the root zone and reduce the risk of salts movement in the upper layers due to capillary rise."},{"index":6,"size":218,"text":"The modeling results demonstrate that using saline groundwater (EC > 2.7 dSm -1 ) for irrigation either in isolation or in conjunction with the canal water (by any ratio) will be a complete disaster and that lands will become salinized in just 2-3 years. Sustainable crop production in these areas is linked with the installation of efficient drainage systems and periodical flushing of salts from the root zone. In the absence of drainage systems, leaching of salts with saline water will only accelerate the process of soil salinization and lands will go out of production even at a faster rate. Under such conditions, adaptation of more salt-tolerant crops such as eucalyptus or phreophytes could be a better option. The temporal variations in crop transpiration and root zone salinity revealed that in (semi-) arid areas, the deviations in annual precipitations from an average year are very critical to maintain a fragile equilibrium between different water and salt components, particularly when poor quality groundwater is used for irrigation. Ideally, water allocations and applications should be based on the exact calculations of crop evapotranspiration, precipitation and salinity build up and reviewed yearly. However, for the present fixed rotational irrigation system of Pakistan, this will remain a constraint. Therefore, much will depend on the farmer's proper understanding of on-farm water management practices."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Trends in tubewell development in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. Increase in the density of private tubewells in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Increasing trend in the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater resources for irrigation in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. Processes incorporated in the SWAP model. "},{"text":" FIGURE 5.Comparison of annual potential evapotranspiration (ET pot ) and rainfall for a period of 15 years(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994). "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 . FIGURE 7. Comparison of measured and simulated soil water content at 30 cm and 90 cm depths. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9 . FIGURE 9. Variation in groundwater quality in the Rechna Doab of Punjab, Pakistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 10 . FIGURE 10. Temporal development of average root zone salinity as influenced by the conjunctive use of fresh groundwater (EC = 1.0 dSm-1) and canal water in four different ratios. "},{"text":"FIGURE 11 . FIGURE 11. Development of salinity at different depths in the root zone as influenced by the conjunctive use of fresh groundwater and canal water in four different ratios. "},{"text":"FIGURE 12 . FIGURE 12.Temporal development of average root zone salinity as influenced by the conjunctive use of marginal groundwater and canal water in four different ratios. "},{"text":"FIGURE 13 . FIGURE 13. Development of salinity at different depths in the root zone as influenced by the conjunctive use of marginal groundwater and canal water in four different ratios. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Calibrated Van Genuchten-Mualem (VGM) parameters used to describe soil hydraulic properties in the SWAP model. Layers Depth (cm) Soil texture   VGM parameters   LayersDepth (cm)Soil textureVGM parameters    θ s θ r α(cm -1 ) n(-) λ(-) K s (cm d -1 ) θ sθ rα(cm -1 )n(-)λ(-)K s (cm d -1 ) 1 0-30 Loam 0.384 0.0 0.0085 1.35 1.0 60 10-30Loam0.3840.00.00851.351.060 2 30-280 Silt Loam 0.509 0.0 0.0090 1.45 1.0 40 230-280Silt Loam0.5090.00.00901.451.040 3 > 280 Loamy sand 0.40 0.028 0.014 2.663 0.5 72 3> 280Loamy sand0.400.0280.0142.6630.572  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Input parameters used in the SWAP model. The h 1 to h 4 values refer to the sink term theory ofFeddes et al. (1978). Input parameters Wheat Cotton Input parametersWheatCotton Boesten parameter, β (cm 1/2 ) 0.63 0.63 Boesten parameter, β (cm 1/2 )0.630.63 k c -value for full crop cover 1.15 1.15 k c -value for full crop cover1.151.15 Maximum rooting depth (cm) 110 160 Maximum rooting depth (cm)110160  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Description of different scenarios evaluated in this study. Scenarios Description Resultant EC (dSm -1 ) ScenariosDescriptionResultant EC (dSm -1 )  "},{"text":"Fresh Groundwater (FGW) (EC = 1.0 dSm -1 )  FGW100 100% FGW and 0% CW 1.00 FGW100100% FGW and 0% CW1.00 FGW75 75% FGW and 25% CW 0.83 FGW7575% FGW and 25% CW0.83 FGW50 50% FGW and 50% CW 0.65 FGW5050% FGW and 50% CW0.65 FGW25 25% FGW and 75% CW 0.50 FGW2525% FGW and 75% CW0.50 Marginal Groundwater (MGW) (EC = 1.5 dSm -1 ) Marginal Groundwater (MGW) (EC = 1.5 dSm -1 ) MGW100 100% MGW and 0% CW 1.50 MGW100100% MGW and 0% CW1.50 MGW75 75% MGW and 25% CW 1.20 MGW7575% MGW and 25% CW1.20 MGW50 50% MGW and 50% CW 0.90 MGW5050% MGW and 50% CW0.90 MGW25 25% MGW and 75% CW 0.60 MGW2525% MGW and 75% CW0.60 Saline Groundwater (SGW) (EC = 3.0 dSm -1 ) Saline Groundwater (SGW) (EC = 3.0 dSm -1 ) SGW100 100% SGW and 0% CW 3.00 SGW100100% SGW and 0% CW3.00 SGW75 75% SGW and 25% CW 2.30 SGW7575% SGW and 25% CW2.30 SGW50 50% SGW and 50% CW 1.65 SGW5050% SGW and 50% CW1.65 SGW25 25% SGW and 75% CW 0.98 SGW2525% SGW and 75% CW0.98  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Simulated 15-year average annual water and salt balances for four different scenarios using fresh groundwater. Scenario Rainfall (mm) Irrigation (mm) T a (mm) T p (mm) TR (-) SSC (-) ScenarioRainfall (mm)Irrigation (mm)T a (mm)T p (mm)TR (-)SSC (-) FGW 100 375 780 867 903 0.96 -0.18 FGW 1003757808679030.96-0.18 FGW 75 375 780 875 903 0.97 -0.32 FGW 753757808759030.97-0.32 FGW 50 375 780 882 903 0.98 -0.47 FGW 503757808829030.98-0.47 FGW 25 375 780 893 903 0.99 -0.75 FGW 253757808939030.99-0.75  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Simulated 15-year average annual water and salt balances for four different scenarios using marginal groundwater. Scenario Rainfall (mm) Irrigation (mm) T a (mm) T p (mm) TR(-) SSC(-) ScenarioRainfall (mm)Irrigation (mm)T a (mm)T p (mm)TR(-)SSC(-) MGW 100 375 780 840 903 0.93 +0.25 MGW 1003757808409030.93+0.25 MGW 75 375 780 848 903 0.94 -0.01 MGW 753757808489030.94-0.01 MGW 50 375 780 854 903 0.95 -0.26 MGW 503757808549030.95-0.26 MGW 25 375 780 868 903 0.96 -0.52 MGW 253757808689030.96-0.52  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Simulated 15-year average annual water and salt balances for four different scenarios using saline groundwater. Development of salinity at different depths in the root zone as influenced by the conjunctive use of marginal groundwater and canal water in four different ratios. Scenario Rainfall (mm) Irrigation (mm) T a (mm) T p (mm) TR (-) SSC (-) ScenarioRainfall (mm)Irrigation (mm)T a (mm)T p (mm)TR (-)SSC (-) SGW 100 375 780 802 903 0.88 +6.08 SGW 1003757808029030.88+6.08 SGW 75 375 780 812 903 0.90 +1.89 SGW 753757808129030.90+1.89 SGW 50 375 780 828 903 0.92 +0.46 SGW 503757808289030.92+0.46 SGW 25 375 780 839 903 0.93 -0.19 SGW 253757808399030.93-0.19  "}],"sieverID":"e71a0a90-4c63-4bc5-a666-6ac94a83d174","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment.i i"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"042a694eebef9476b18006e1356fdc17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6dae1b02-4035-4175-a61e-e3f67de3b03e/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Transforming Agrifood Systems in West and Central Africa Initiative (TAFS-WCA)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"TABLE OF FIGURES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Rwanda is a predominantly agricultural country, and the agriculture sector employs over 70% of the population. The country's economy heavily relies on agriculture, which accounts for about 30% of the GDP (https://rdb.rw/investmentopportunities/agriculture/). However, pests such as Fall Armyworm and Striga have posed a significant challenge to agricultural productivity in the country. These pests cause massive crop losses, and farmers have been struggling to manage them."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Monitoring and early warning systems are key pieces for the strategic management of fall armyworm (FAW)."}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND ON USING SMS THROUGH THE TWIGIRE MUHINZI EXTENSION PROGRAM","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"One Acre Fund in partnerships with The Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development in partnerships has been sending SMS to more than 20,000 Extension agents (Farmer promoters, Farmer field school facilitators, government extension officials at cell, sector and district levels) as an alternative approach of mobilizing, reminding and / or sensitizing on key agricultural activities before, during or after planting throughout the agricultural seasons (Season A: covers the period from August up to January; and season B: covers the period between February and June). Below are examples of SMS that have been sent to extension agents:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Hello, This is RAB. You are advised to take care of your maize crops because FAW is expected to occur in this season. Inform your fellow farmers too."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Hello, This is RAB. You are advised to take care of your soya and maize crops by planning to weed your field; including the removal of Striga. Inform your fellow farmers too."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"• Hello! This is RAB. We are requesting you to help farmers on post harvest handling for maize by preventing aflatoxin. They should avoid to dry their maize on bare soils and instead, use required sheetings. Thank you • Limited resources -Both the FFS system and the FP system face resource constraints that limit growth and effectiveness. The FFS system is resource and time intensive, which means it can only reach a limited number of farmers each season. The FP system is nationwide by design, but the impact and effectiveness of the system is hindered by limited resources for material distribution, training, and monitoring & evaluation."}]},{"head":"SMS CAPABILITY GOALS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The development of an SMS platform tool that will be fed by FAW and Striga advisory services based on weather and climate information has been working towards the following communication capability goals:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"1. The ability for RAB to immediately communicate with individual farmers or groups of farmers as well as extension agents via SMS."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"2. The ability for farmers grouped into Twigire Muhinzi to communicate with RAB via SMS."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"The SMS platform as it is now, has proven to be an effective and efficient entry point to send SMS on FAW and Striga identification and management. It has been in place since 2014 and specific SMS on FAW and Striga using climate and weather data to identify high risk areas have been sent since 2022 with support from icipe."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Below is how the approach works:"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"The SMS were translated into Kinyarwanda and then sent to 4,662 farmer promoters after updating their database. SMS are sent once RAB had approved them."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"The goal of sending these SMS was to inform farmer promoters the likelihood of FAW and Striga occurrences in their respective villages so that they can then inform and train their fellow farmers how to identify and manage FAW and Striga. FP agreed to participate on the exercise whereas 1 declined to participate. 127 of the farmer promoters were female and 301 were male (Figure 2). Following districts were under high FAW  "}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"• Given the fact that the dissemination of bundled-SMS is done using an existing platform, there is a need to continue working with relevant stakeholders and leverage on the capacity of the bundles to disseminate other additional advisories related to the right approach and timeline of applying pesticides, and mobilize farmers through farmer promoters to always wear protective equipment when spraying chemicals."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• It is now planned that another map will be made during the upcoming agricultural season of 2024A to identify sectors in which farmer promoters will be sent another bundle SMS to advise on FAW and Striga identification and management."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• On data collected on 8 th of May, a descriptive report will be provided by Dr Tobias from icipe."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Introduction ............................................................................................. Background on using SMS through the Twigire Muhinzi Extension program ......... Current Constraints of Twigire Muhinzi and the Need for ICT Capability Development ............................................................................................ SMS Capability Goals ................................................................................. SMS bundles for the advisories in April 2023 .................................................. Data collection to assess from farmer promoters to assess the effectiveness, usage of the SMS as a tool to disseminate information .................................... Recommendations and way forward ........................................................... Annex: .................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map showing FAW and Striga weed areas (Source: icipe, 2023). ..........Figure 2. Distribution of farmer Promoters based on a survey/interview on receiving FAW sms .................................................................................... Figure 3. Distribution of farmer promoters interviewed/surveyed on receiving sms on Striga ............................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. MAP SHOWING FAW AND STRIGA WEED AREAS (SOURCE: ICIPE, 2023). "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF FARMER PROMOTERS BASED ON A SURVEY/INTERVIEW ON RECEIVING FAW SMS For the areas under Striga infestation, a total of 576 Farmers Promoters (FP) were interviewed/surveyed in-person on May 8, 2023. Out of this, 568 agreed to participate on the exercise whereas 8 declined to participate. 99 of the farmer promoters were female and 477 were male (Figure 8). The farmers came from the following districts were high Striga infestation areas "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF FARMER PROMOTERS INTERVIEWED/SURVEYED ON RECEIVING SMS ON STRIGA "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE OF CONTENTS   "}],"sieverID":"cce92aa3-a444-4952-a94a-69c53ebe68ad","abstract":"Designing of FAW and Striga agro-advisories and their delivery through a bulk SMS messaging to the farming communities in Rwanda. 11p."}

data/part_3/04c80b39e59ed4bc951d5899c1857dfb.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04c80b39e59ed4bc951d5899c1857dfb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eecc813c-301e-44fd-a210-5d992990b08b/retrieve"},"pageCount":60,"title":"Chapter 1: Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) for agri-food systems transformation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"1.1 Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) for agri-food systems transformation 1.2 What is political economy and policy analysis and why is it needed? 1.3 Why is a PEPA Sourcebook for food, land, and water systems needed?       "}]},{"head":"List of figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of tables Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Table 2: Macro-, meso-, and micro-level frameworks and tools for food and nutrition policy domain Table 3: Macro-level tools for food and nutrition policy domain Table 4: Multi-level frameworks and tools for the food and nutrition policy domain Table 5: Macro-level frameworks and tools for analyzing land and water policy domain Table 6: Micro-, meso-, macro-, and multi-level frameworks for political economy and policy analysis in the climate and ecology domain "}]},{"head":"List of case studies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Case study 1: Sustainable diets framework for policy analysis in Nepal"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Case study 2: The Kaleidoscope Model of policy change -food security applications in Zambia"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Case study 3: Participatory power mapping in California Village, Chiapas, Mexico"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Case study 4: Assessing biodiversity policy integration in Peru"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Case study 5: Policy windows for the environment -tips for improving the scientific knowledge acceptance"}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Agri-food systems face multiple challenges. They must deal with prevailing structural weaknesses, partly deepened by the disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, civil conflicts, and climate change. Addressing structural weaknesses -such as inequitable access to healthy and nutritious food for all, loss of livelihoods and incomes, and increasing environmental shocks -requires not only technological, but also institutional innovations, as well as economic and policy responses. While development interventions often focus on technological innovations, they lack attention to the enabling policy environment and the political economy drivers necessary to achieve policy, economic, and social impact at the national level. In addition, solutions often fail to analyze the broader enabling environment in which policies are designed and implemented at the national level. A comprehensive understanding of the policy environment coupled with appropriate technological and institutional solutions can influence the success or failure of development interventions."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"However, political economy and policy analysis considerations are inadequately explored in the quest to transform food systems. Identifying the right policies and overcoming barriers to the implementation of development interventions fundamentally requires an understanding of the political economy and policy processes that shape policymaking. Despite numerous emerging approaches and frameworks for conducting political economy and policy analysis, practitioners and researchers working across food, land, and water systems lack a consolidated knowledge base. This Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) sourcebook aims to fill that knowledge gap."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"This PEPA Sourcebook brings together a collection of frameworks, analytical tools, and methods for analyzing contested questions about transforming agri-food systems across multiple domains, including food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology. Food system policy research and development asks what works where, why, and how? This question fuels other important questions and debates related to prevailing structural weaknesses in agri-food systems. What role should governments play in agricultural transformation?"},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"Are input subsidy programs an effective strategy to increase agricultural productivity? What are the merits of agroecology versus sustainable agricultural intensification or blended sustainability? Do small-scale farms have development potential or is supporting them 'romantic populism?\" What social protection programs work best to solve food and nutrition security challenges? Are biotech crops part of the solution to solving food and nutrition security challenges in developing economies? What institutional innovations are \"best-fit\" for managing shared natural resources to avoid conflict and foster inclusion? Key agri-food system stakeholders disagree on how to answer these questions due to differences in ideas, beliefs, interests, resources, policy processes, developmental phase, influence networks, and political structures. These differences shape a policy environment characterized by the formation of stakeholder coalitions, fragmented policy instruments, and development programs that fail to provide adequate solutions to prevailing structural weaknesses in agrifood systems."},{"index":5,"size":204,"text":"The PEPA Sourcebook aims to bridge the knowledge gap by providing a consolidated collection of frameworks, analytical tools, and related case studies for examining the political economy, policies, and policy processes of agri-food system transformation. The PEPA Sourcebook provides guidance for answering contested questions related to agri-food system transformation, understanding policy environments and processes, and setting policy agendas. The Sourcebook guides development practitioners in building coalitions and discourses, and in influencing policy environments. The frameworks and policy analysis tools are relevant for evaluating and characterizing national policies and strategies. They address specific issues related to agri-food systems, focusing on the sub-topics of food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology. The PEPA Sourcebook is designed to enable researchers, policymakers, and development practitioners to explore and answer political economy research questions, better understand policy environments, and link evidencebased policies to impact. The PEPA Sourcebook organizes political economy and policy analysis resources at diverse levels: macro (country or region), meso (sector), micro (problem-focused), and multiple (crosscutting) levels. The Sourcebook supports development practitioners' efforts to understand and explain political interests, ideas, beliefs, networks, coalitions, influence, and power dynamics. The Sourcebook can help practitioners identify policy winners and losers and visualize the impacts of development strategies."},{"index":6,"size":141,"text":"Collectively, the Sourcebook provides useful approaches to answering key questions relevant to inclusive agri-food system transformation, such as: (1) Who are the influential actors driving policy processes and programs? (2) What ideas, beliefs, and narratives shape crises and policy responses? (3) What are the \"windows of opportunity\" for reform and policy change? (4) What factors drive the effectiveness of policy implementation following reforms? and (5) How do gender and equity considerations shape policy development and implementation? This PEPA Sourcebook provides researchers, development practitioners, the donor community, and policymakers with knowledge resources for examining and managing policy processes. The Sourcebook helps practitioners negotiate the science-policy interface to explore solutions that work towards achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) by addressing structural weaknesses in the policy environment, weaknesses that often derail efforts to transform food, land, and water systems and achieve the SDGs."}]},{"head":"Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) for agri-food systems transformation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Agri-food system the political economy and policy processes that shape policymaking and stakeholder actions. Although there is a plethora of emerging approaches and frameworks, practitioners and researchers lack a consolidated sourcebook that organizes knowledge on political economy and policy analysis. This sourcebook aims to fill that knowledge gap."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"This Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA) Sourcebook brings together a collection of frameworks, analytical tools, and methods for examining contested issues critical for transforming agri-food systems in the areas of food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology. In doing so, the Sourcebook can help researchers and practitioners address questions such as: What ideas, beliefs and narratives shape crisis situations and policy responses? What \"windows of opportunity\" exist to influence reform and policy change?"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"What factors drive the effectiveness of policy implementation following reform decisions? How do gender and equity considerations shape policy processes, agenda setting, and implementation? Notwithstanding the importance of both global dynamics and subnational factors that influence agri-food systems, this PEPA Sourcebook explicitly focuses on the national level where most policies and strategies are developed and the level of analysis to which most political economy and policy analysis frameworks are directed."}]},{"head":"Introduction 1 1.2 What is political economy and policy analysis and why is it needed?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The dominant approach in international development generates insights about development interventions"},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"and their impacts through the use of rigorous quantitative economics (Mockshell & Birner, 2015). The ethos of such an analysis is to provide decision-makers with relevant evidence on how well a development program is working or is not working (Bourguignon & Pereira da Silva, 2003). In some cases, ex-ante quantitative assessment approaches are also used to generate information before development programs are implemented (Bourguignon & Pereira da Silva, 2003). However, determining what works where, why, and how in the policy environment requires going beyond strictly quantitative evidence (Birner & Resnick, 2010, Mockshell & Birner, 2020, Harrigan, 2003, Jayne et al., 2002, Resnick et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":228,"text":"Political economy and policy analysis (PEPA) has gained popularity in recent years. Development actors have recognized that interventions often fail due to lack of political will or institutional weaknesses, even when quantitative and technical analysis predicted their success (Whaites et al., 2023, DFID, 2009). PEPA examines the interaction between policies and economic processes and related outcomes due to policy choices and institutions. PEPA is necessary to examine often-neglected topics, such as power dynamics, conflicting interests, coalitions and networks, \"rules of the game,\" and stakeholder policy aspirations (Resnick et al., 2018). PEPA aims to understand policy champions, power relations, policy risks, and informal and formal policy processes. Whether formal or informal, politics is an important factor in determining how power or scarce resources are distributed among groups or individuals in a society (DFID, 2009;Haider & Rao, 2010). Political processes are dynamic and occur at the institutional, community, country, and regional levels. They can enable or derail a transformation or change process for food, land, and water systems. Thus, political economy analysis helps to identify policy contexts and achievable political strategies, revealing expectations and risks associated with specific national policies and strategies (Haider & Rao, 2010). PEPA is also useful in analyzing how decisions are made in policy environments. Development practitioners can develop successful outcomes by understanding the dynamic interactions between natural resources, socioeconomic factors, institutions and stakeholders (DFAT, 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"PEPA, therefore, enables practitioners and researchers to identify difficulties that arise from institutional barriers, problems, and a lack of political will, which must be overcome at some point in the project lifecycle (Whaites, 2017;de Schutter, 2019)  ,3 (World Bank 2007, 2016). However, agri-food systems analysis requires a tailored knowledge base to assess policy trade-offs across food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology policy domains. PEPA for agri-food systems also needs to address criticisms that it remains highly fragmented, lacks external validity, cannot be replicated, and produces inadequate measurements (Resnick et al., 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Robust cross-cutting PEPA frameworks and tools are needed to analyze policy change at the macro, meso, and micro levels. Recognizing this knowledge gap, this PEPA Sourcebook aims to provide a compendium of frameworks, analytical tools, and example case studies for conducting a political economy and policy analysis of food, land, and water systems in low-and middle-income countries."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"In search of new pathways for successful development interventions, assessments have explored the topic of PEPA within agri-food systems across a broad range of topics: policy, governance, agriculture (Lyu et al., 2021), food, water, land, and natural resources (Buur et al., 2017), and nutrition (Harris, 2019;Trevena et al., 2021). However, not all challenges faced by multi-sectoral programs are typically covered by narrowly focused, single-issue frameworks and tools targeting specific sectors and development programs."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"More robust, systematic, and holistic PEPA frameworks are needed to understand the complexity of the policymaking process (Resnick et al., 2018). Sustainable food systems are complex and involve many crosscutting issues, motivating a call for more integrated PEPA methods and analytical tools (Duncan et al., 2019)."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"The application of PEPA also helps provide evidence to inform national policies, strategies, and ' everyday political' 4 decisions. PEPA can harness synergies while transforming food and nutrition, land and water, climate change and ecology systems (Whaites, 2017)."},{"index":9,"size":140,"text":"This PEPA Sourcebook is an essential guide that provides frameworks and analytical tools for analyzing how policy change occurs at broad geographic scales (macro-scale), by livelihood sectors (meso-scale), organized around specific problems (micro-scale), and arranged across levels (multipurpose) (de Schutter, 2019). Further, the PEPA Sourcebook aims to provide a compendium that makes sense of the crowded field of approaches, frameworks, and tools by identifying where there are commonalities and differences. Chapter 2 of this guide summarizes how PEPA intersects with food, land, and water systems. Chapter 3 highlights the systematic literature review methodology for PEPA tools and frameworks. The specific frameworks, tools, and related case studies for agri-food policy domains are presented in Chapter 4. The step-by-step approach for conducting PEPA is presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 provides an outlook for PEPA in food, land, and water systems research."},{"index":10,"size":14,"text":"2 The role of Political Economy Analysis in Development Policy Operations (World Bank, 2016)."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"3 Tools for Institutional, Political, and Social Analysis (TIPS) of policy Reform: A sourcebook for Development Practitioners (World Bank, 2007)."},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"4 This is smart political thinking and working: continually engaging with the political environment to help a program navigate through obstacles while keeping the realities of the context in mind (Whaites, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Food","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"PEPA has been key in evaluating various governmental and sectoral policies, their actors, power dynamics, and institutional frameworks. Food systems comprise the actors and interactions along the entire food value chain. Stakeholders and actors include input suppliers, commodity producers, transporters, processors, retailers, wholesalers, and consumers, as well as those working in food disposal (IFPRI, 2022). Food systems involve the creation of enabling policy environments and cultural norms around food. They affect human and environmental health at the level of individuals, communities, nations, and the whole planet (Downs et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"An ideal food system should emphasize nutrition, health, and food safety. It should maximize production and efficiency to ensure affordable food production while integrating sustainability, climate awareness, and social inclusion (IFPRI, 2022). Considering the SDGs, food systems are supposed to be more sustainable and resilient in striving to meet the food and nutrition demands of the growing human population (Downs et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"PEPA has been instrumental in examining the effectiveness of various governmental and sectoral policies and the relationship between actors, power dynamics, and institutional frameworks (de Schutter, 2019). As such, the political economy of sustainable food systems is depicted to encompass various themes: diversity and innovation (Duncan et al., 2019), the food and health nexus (Rocha & Harris, 2019), and the politics of consumption, food sovereignty, and agroecology (Gliessman et al., 2019). Other related topics in food systems debates include food accessibility, ultra-processed foods, disparities between smallholder and commercial farmers, genetically modified organisms, livestock-versus plant-based diets, organic farming, and agricultural intensification (Steinfeld et al., 2019). A model food system is envisioned as nutritional, healthy, safety-driven, productive, effective, affordable, environmentally sustainable, climate-smart, and integrative (IFPRI, 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Achieving this vision demands concerted investments in agricultural research, along with policy reforms that leverage technological and institutional innovations, paving the way for evidence-based development."}]},{"head":"Land","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The land system comprises the terrestrial component of the Earth system, including all processes and activities related to the human use of land. The system includes socioeconomic and technological aspects of land management and the social and environmental effects of land use (Verburg et al., 2015). Changes to land systems have profound effects on the local environment and human well-being and play a significant role in global environmental change. Land is useful in providing food, fuel, fiber, and many other ecosystem services to society. It is also responsible for supporting production functions, regulating natural hazards, and providing cultural services (Akram-Lodhi, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"This PEPA Sourcebook is useful in examining land, its access and development, land-use change, and landgrabbing discourses that are critical in agri-food policymaking. Like the rest of the world, land in the Global"}]},{"head":"The intersection of PEPA and food, land, and water systems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"South is either privately, communally, or state-owned. Different land use practices modify the quantity and quality of ecosystem services with implications on food and nutrition security. Shifts in the land system directly result from human decisions and actions, made by a range of actors or due to national land use planning and global trade agreements (Anderson & Leach, 2019). Yet, the post-colonial era has witnessed different shifts and transformations in land ownership in the Global South, creating avenues for multinational companies to own land, exacerbating land-grabbing (Kumeh & Omulo, 2019). Most importantly, the aggregate impact of local changes in land systems attracts far-reaching consequences on ecosystem services and human well-being (Verburg et al., 2015). Key issues related to land' s role in agri-food policymaking include how land is accessed and developed, land-use change, land for biofuel and energy instead of food, and land-grabbing."}]},{"head":"Water","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"This PEPA Sourcebook can help stakeholders sustainably manage natural fresh water resources, protect the hydrosphere, and meet the agri-food system's current and future demands. Water conservation refers to the preservation, control, and development of water resources -both surface and groundwater -and the reduction of contamination (OECD, 1997). Water conservation also entails assessing an action, behavioral change, improved design, or process implemented to minimize water loss, waste, or use (Kumari et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Considering the increasing global demand driven by human population growth and climate change, actions aimed at producing food with less water, particularly in irrigated agriculture, are vital. Similarly, actions that build farmer resilience against floods and droughts and that use environmentally-friendly water technologies are indispensable (FAO, 2022). In this sourcebook, water conservation encompasses all the policies, strategies, and activities employed by governments and development actors. The resources cited in this sourcebook can help stakeholders sustainably manage natural fresh water resources, protect the hydrosphere, and meet the agri-food system' s current and future demands."}]},{"head":"Climate","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Life on Earth is profoundly affected by weather and climate. Weather and climate are essential to human health, food production, and well-being (Baede et al., 2001). External forces can cause climate variability and changes at the global, continental, regional, and country scales. A climate system is an interactive system consisting of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere, which are often influenced by various external factors, especially solar radiation (Baede et al., 2001). Human activities, such as the emission of greenhouse gases or land-use change, are driving climate change and its impacts on the agri-food system."}]},{"head":"Ecology","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Systems ecology is a holistic, interdisciplinary field of ecology focused on studying ecosystems by applying general systems theory to ecology. A central concept of systems ecology is that ecosystems are complex systems with emergent properties. Systems ecology aims to understand how human activities interact with biological and ecological systems (Patten, 2013). Recent studies show the benefits of environmental protection, conservation, and preservation. These efforts are widely acknowledged for promoting long-term sustainability. Consequently, the ecological challenge for agri-food systems calls for a shift to descriptive empirical ecology. Problems are becoming too complex to resolve without expanding the basic knowledge of environmentalism to a wider ecological science that considers complex systems (Patten, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"This PEPA Sourcebook provides a guide to analysis resources by following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) statement (Page et al., 2021). Though developed to evaluate health intervention studies, PRISMA provides a rigorous approach to a systematic review in other domains, including agriculture (Supriya & Mamilla, 2022). The PRISMA 2020 statement is a 27-item checklist relevant for mixed-methods systematic reviews, including quantitative and qualitative studies (Page et al., 2021). PRISMA 2020 helped focus this survey of knowledge resources on studies featuring analytical tools and frameworks in agri-food systems -the food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology domainshighlighting applicable policies and strategies."}]},{"head":"Eligibility criteria","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Table 1 outlines the eligibility criteria for determining whether sources should be included in or excluded from this Sourcebook. We included original articles written in English, focusing on analytical tools and frameworks used in agri-food systems across food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology domains. We included articles written in the last two decades across all geographical locations. "}]},{"head":"Information sources","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"We searched the following electronic databases to find relevant agri-food systems literature: Scopus, CABI, AgEcon, BASE, Google Scholar, SSRN, and Google. The searches were conducted between August 10-30th, 2022. The search strategy used for all databases is detailed below. During the reference-checking step, we evaluated the abstract and full text of the identified studies to assess their eligibility for inclusion in the review."}]},{"head":"Search strategy","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The search strategy for each database used keywords, starting with a broad search using \"agri-food\" and \"food systems\", and \"agriculture\". The search was then narrowed to \"nutrition\", \"water\", \"land\", \"climate\", and \"ecology\" terms in cases where more information was needed. The initial searches for each database based on keywords and query strings are outlined in Annex B."}]},{"head":"Study selection process","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"To select studies, the authors used an excel sheet to tabulate all the selected manuscripts from the databases."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"After removing ineligible and duplicate articles, we further reviewed the title and abstracts of the remaining articles to eliminate those that did not meet the review criteria. The full texts of the remaining manuscripts were then cross-examined by two reviewers separately to determine which articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the event of a conflicting judgment, the two reviewers discussed further before deciding to either include or exclude the paper from the review."}]},{"head":"Data extraction and items","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Metadata on all the assembled PEPA resources were extracted to complete the selection process. This information included relevant data on study characteristics, such as the methodology used, qualitative versus quantitative approaches employed, study location, and the scope of the study (macro, meso, micro or multi-levels). This metadata also recorded the type of resource that was documented, such as analytical tools, concepts, or frameworks, as well as keywords and journal or publication names. The authors' names and publication titles were also recorded to avoid any overlap or redundancy."}]},{"head":"PEPA literature for food, land, and water system transformation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"After reading the title, abstracts, or keywords for all the assembled articles from six database sources, we identified 1,232 articles eligible for review. Of these, 112 were duplicates and 942 were ineligible. These latter studies were judged to be outside the scope of the review. A further 164 articles were screened, of which 125 were excluded based on differences in the topic or subject area, document type, and language. Of the remaining 39 articles, 4 could not be retrieved and 16 additional articles were eliminated based on duplication or lack of relevance. Fifteen additional articles were added from grey literature and citation searching. A total of 37 articles from 22 journals, 6 institutions, and 32 countries worldwide (Figure 1) were selected for the systematic review (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"Number of empirical studies","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Not included "}]},{"head":"PEPA frameworks and analytical tools for agri-food policy domains","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The PEPA frameworks and tools for national policies and strategies focus on three policy domains relevant to agri-food systems: food and nutrition systems, land and water systems, and climate and ecology systems (Figure 3). These three domains are synthesized for macro-, meso-, micro-, and multi-level analysis applications. Each policy domain includes relevant, practical frameworks and tools, and key research methodologies that can be used at different analysis levels based on a systematic review of the literature (Annex A and C). However, the outlined frameworks and analytical tools can be applied across the three domains and at different levels depending on the research question, scope, or problem addressed."}]},{"head":"Food and Nutrition","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Policy Domain"}]},{"head":"Level of Application","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Frameworks Tools"}]},{"head":"Land and Water","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate and Ecology","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Macro","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Micro","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Multi","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Multi","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Multi","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Macro","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Frameworks Tools  "}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition policy domain","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The frameworks and tools in the food and nutrition policy domain operate at several levels as described below (Figure 4). At the most basic level, the tools and frameworks can be thought of as those focusing narrowly on a particular problem. That problem is nested within a broader sector, with corresponding tools and frameworks for analysis. The sectoral analysis falls within broader country level political economy and policy frameworks."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Finally, macroscale frameworks in tools integrate issues that operate at multiple levels. "}]},{"head":"Frameworks","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food and nutrition: Macro-level frameworks and tools","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Macro-level PEPA frameworks and tools (Table 2) are focused on the national level. These frameworks and tools can help show the significance of the historical context, political climate, political or institutional culture, and prevailing national economic and social conditions (Holland, 2007). In addition to the overarching macro-level frameworks listed in Table 2, researchers often need specific tools for use in the macro-level political economy analysis. Table 3 details the tools that can be incorporated into many macro-level analysis frameworks, individually or in combination."}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition: Meso-level frameworks and tools","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Meso-level frameworks and tools (Table 2) focus on levels between the macro (national) and micro (individual/ local) or the interactions between macro and micro levels. Meso-level analysis may also be focused on process, including the rules and incentives that govern the implementation of policy reform, which may be influenced by economics, organizational culture, or social norms (Holland, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition: Micro-level frameworks and tools","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Micro-level frameworks and tools are focused on the individual or local level (Table 2). They can help identify winners and losers of policy reforms and can help illuminate local dynamics."}]},{"head":"Table 2: Macro-, meso-, and micro-level frameworks and tools for food and nutrition policy domain","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Framework Description Uses","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Multiple Stream Approach (MSA), also known as Kingdon' s Theory of Agenda Setting (Thow et al., 2021) Diagnostic framework: Looks at factors that influence or promote policy change; conceptualizes policy change as resulting from the interplay between 1) the policy problem, 2) existing policy, and 3) political and institutional context."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Analyzing economic decisions related to nutrition and health."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Political, Economic, Social, and Technological (PEST) External Drivers of the Food System (Trevena et al., 2021) Analytical framework: Looks at the food system considering 1) Political-legal drivers, i.e., government stability, the role of stakeholder groups, and ideologies; 2) Economic drivers;"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"3) Social drivers, e.g., culture and demographic factors; 4) Technological drivers, e.g., availability and adoption of technologies."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Analyzing the impact of nutrition policies on the agri-food system."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Porter' s Five Forces (PFF) for the Competitive Drivers Framework (Porter, 1979;Porter 2008;Trevena et al., 2021) Based on the concept of ' competitive rivalry': Rivalry is assessed in terms of the bargaining power of buyers and suppliers and the threat of entrants and substitutes."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Raising awareness of the existing competitive rivalry forces to minimize vulnerability within a given system in various agri-food system domains."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Public Understanding the political economy of food systems and contested public health policies."},{"index":9,"size":38,"text":"Power Cube Framework (PCF) (Gaventa, 2005;Gaventa, 2006;Harris, 2019) Analytical framework: Used to identify different forms of power, i.e., visible, hidden, and invisible powers, and then outline where and how power is exercised, as well as scales of power."},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"Building awareness of what drives various processes in agri-food system domains and identifying entry points for action."}]},{"head":"Framework Description Uses","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Sustainable Diets Framework for Policy Analysis (SDF) (Downs et al., 2017) Analytical framework: Looks for similarities in various policy instruments. The analysis is based on five domains: 1) Nutrition and health; 2) Agriculture and food security; 3) Environment and ecosystems; 4) Markets, trade, and value chains for economic growth; 5) Sociocultural and political factors."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Studying key agriculture, nutrition, and environmental policies."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Diagnostic Framework for Food Systems Governance (DFFSG) (Termeer et al., 2018) Diagnostic framework: Looks at the strengths and weaknesses of local or regional food system governance based on five principles: Policy Framing Analysis (PFA) (Daviter, 2011;Sakamoto et al., 2007) Analytical framework: Analyzes agricultural policy initiatives of various governments or organizations by identifying the similarities and comparing the differences of the policy frames found in the agricultural policy documents."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Comparing agricultural policies of different governments or groups."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Aiding identification of key rationales for policy change, and policy instruments that hamper the desired outcomes."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Framework for Analyzing Policy Approaches (FAPA) (Jahrl et al., 2021) Analytical framework that seeks to find the best combination of the below three elements given the food system and sustainability goals: 1) Multi-or mono-functional frames;"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"2) Levels of institutionalization; 3) Policy-society relationship."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"Helping users understand governance mechanisms in agrifood system sub-domains."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Framework for Recognizing Diversity Beyond Capitalism (FRDBC) (Koretskaya and Feola, 2020) Analytical framework: Contains the following dimensions: 1) Ontology: Space, time, human nature, the logic of relation; 2) Economic relations: Enterprise, labor, economic transactions, property, and finance; 3) Relation with the State: Participation in regulation and legitimation; 4) Knowledge."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"Identifying capitalist, alternative capitalist, and non-capitalist configurations in businesses, co-ops, associations, and other socioeconomic entities within food systems. Analyzing interactions of different economic models within food systems."}]},{"head":"Tool Description Uses","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Policy Tool Typology (PTT) (Saviolidis et al., 2020) Based on the idea that policy tools are avenues for policy implementation, categorizing tools can help illuminate proposed policy solutions. Categorizes policy tools into different types: 1) Strategic; 2) Governance; 3) Knowledgebased; 4) Market-based; 5) Direct activity regulation."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Categorizing policy tools by type."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Helps users match types of policy tools to policy solutions under consideration."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Agent Belief Desire Intention Model (BDI) (Liu et al., 2021) Analyzes farmers and their technology adoption process to understand farmer decision-making. This information is used to model the impact of different policies and policy tools on farmer technology adoption."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Seeing how farmer decisionmaking and technology adoption is influenced by the policy tools used."}]},{"head":"Case study 1: Sustainable Diets Framework for policy analysis in Nepal","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In Nepal, the Sustainable Diets Framework was used to identify gaps in current food policy and find areas of synergy between different policy instruments and documents (Downs et al., 2017). The analysis focused on three national policies: The Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS), National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), and Multi-Sectoral Nutrition Plan (MSNP). These three policies were analyzed within the five major domains of the Sustainable Diets Framework: food security and agriculture; environment and ecosystems; markets, trade, and value chains; sociocultural factors; and political factors."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Results of the Sustainable Diets Framework analysis showed that although Nepal has successfully reduced the national poverty rate, many still suffer from malnutrition and food insecurity. In addition, the framework found that although the three national policies analyzed have many areas of overlap, there is little coordination between them. By applying the framework to nutrition and agricultural policies, a lack of alignment between production and consumption processes can be identified and addressed. Addressing where food system component work against each other is useful for policymakers in achieving policy coherence (Downs et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Table 3: Macro-level tools for food and nutrition policy domain","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Tool Description Uses","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Narrative Policy Analysis (NPA) (Roe, 1994;Mockshell & Birner, 2020) Analytical tool: Looks at stories told by different actors to analyze policy issues. Four main steps: 1) Identify narratives dominating the issue in question; 2) Identify ' counter stories' and 'non-stories' about the issue; 3) Create a meta-narrative including dominant and counter stories; and 4) Examine if and how the meta-narrative realigns the policy issues in a manner responsive to decision-makers."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Showing how narratives have power in agricultural policy, aiding the reframing of polarizing issues, and helping people understand them in new ways."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Discourse Analysis (DA) (Hajer, 2006;van Dijk, 1996;Mockshell & Birner, 2015) Looks at how different actors in policy debates positively assess their own beliefs and negatively assess the beliefs of those who disagree with them."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Uses storylines with a clear beginning, middle, and end, as well as metaphors."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Examining various discourses and identifying the underlying policy beliefs of different actors."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Process Net-Map (PNM) (Schiffer, 2007, Ilukor et al., 2015;Duncan et al., 2019) Participatory mapping tool: Analyzes steps of a process to identify stakeholders and their influence and visualize social networks. Four steps: 1) Asking the interviewee to describe the given process step-by-step; 2) Building influence towers;"},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"3) Identifying obstacles to implementation; and 4) Creating a digital process map A tool for understanding how processes are implemented, diagramming how processes are carried out compared to established procedures; identifying how power dynamics and overlapping responsibilities can impact participatory processes; identifying where interventions can be made to reduce corruption and maintain control in process pathways."}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition domain: Frameworks and tools addressing multiple levels","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Policy and development processes are complex, involving macro-, meso-, and micro-level dynamics and interactions between these levels. As a result, it can be helpful to have tools and frameworks designed to analyze food and nutrition systems at multiple levels of scale. Table 4 summarizes these frameworks and tools. Analyzing policies and multiple levels (macro to micro)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Political Settlement Analysis (PSA) (Kjaer, 2015;Amaza et al., 2021;Chinsinga and Matita, 2021) Focuses on underlying power arrangements in institutions; assesses political will to determine feasible policies. Involves the following steps: 1) Systematically mapping all key actors involved; 2) Identifying their interests and recognizing their forms of power -political, economic, social, and ideological; 3) Understanding stakeholder relationships; and 4) Appreciating the issues, narratives, and ideas shaping how and why stakeholders interact with each other."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Assessing political will and helping understand the reasons policies succeed or fail."}]},{"head":"Tool Description Uses","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Power Mapping (PM) (Guevara- "}]},{"head":"Multi-level Stakeholder","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Influence Mapping (MSIM) (Sova et al., 2017) Power mapping tool: Scores influence levels of actors involved in or affected by policy processes at the macro, meso, and micro levels. The actor group' s closeness determines influence scores to the policy object."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Visualizing the influence levels of different groups in a policy process."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Case study 2: The Kaleidoscope Model of policy change -food security applications in Zambia Resnick et al. (2018) developed the Kaleidoscope Model (KM) framework by analyzing policy processes related to food security in Zambia. This work aimed to further understand the importance of the policy environment in shaping development outcomes and in creating lasting impacts on food security in Zambia."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"The Kaleidoscope Model comprises five policy cycle stages: agenda setting, design, adoption, implementation, and evaluation/reform. The approach uses a set of 16 operational hypotheses to determine the circumstances in which policies are developed and implemented. In Zambia, this framework was used to evaluate eight policy reforms related to food security policies, related to agricultural input subsidies and vitamin A fortification."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Most of the Kaleidoscope Model's core variables remained relevant for the two policies examined, while a small number appeared to lose applicability at times. This information can help practitioners and researchers assess when and where investment in policy reforms is most likely to have an impact (Resnick et al., 2018)."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"\"In an era of growing pressure on donor resources and government budgets, the Kaleidoscope Model offers a practical framework through which practitioners and researchers can assess when and where investments in policy reforms are most feasible given a country's underlying political, economic, and institutional characteristics\" (Resnick et al., 2018, p. 101)."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"Adapted "}]},{"head":"Land and water policy domain","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"This domain focuses on sustainable water and land management governance and how politics and power determine policymaking in the land and water sectors. It includes analyses that apply PEPA to address various land and water system issues and help unravel how stakeholders use their influence in the land and water sphere. This section offers macro-and meso-level tools and a meso-level framework (Figure 5, Table 5). "}]},{"head":"LAND AND WATER POLICY DOMAIN","index":49,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Table 5: Macro-level frameworks and tools for analyzing land and water policy domain","index":50,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Framework Description Uses","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Institutional Analysis and Development (Ostrom et al., 1994;Ostrom and Polski, 1999;Fan et al., 2019) Investigates how institutions are formed and how they influence behavior. Triangular Model of Relations (Buur et al., 2017) Examines the relationship between local populations, investors, and ruling elites related to large-scale land and natural resource investments. Helps analyze the exchange of benefits, resources, and rights within these relationships."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Attempts to analyze the following: 1) Reciprocal exchange deals between local populations and investors; 2) Compatible interests between ruling elites and investors; and 3) Productive social relations between ruling elites and local populations."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Helping policymakers and researchers investigate and target large-scale investment in land management. Helping them find an optimum scenario where local populations, elites, and investors gain without affecting each other' s interests."}]},{"head":"Tool Description Uses","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Legal Assessment Tool (LAT) (Kenney and Campos, 2016) Analyzes the legal context of countries through 30 legal indicators to explore gender-equality in land tenure; allows for quick, focused consultancy on legal matters for policymakers."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"LAT takes the following steps: 1) Analyze gender indicators and chosen categories across gender-related land issues;"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"2) Identify the current and historical institutional reforms related to land issues with a gender impact; 3) Identify the current stage of the public policy process; and 4) Support planning after considering reform gaps."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Planning and designing public policies in the land domain."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Identifying the areas where women are at a significant disadvantage and where legal reform is needed."}]},{"head":"Case study 3: Participatory Power Mapping in California Village, Chiapas, Mexico","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Guevara-Hernandez et al. ( 2010) conducted a participatory power mapping exercise with indigenous cattle keepers in California Village, Chiapas, Mexico. This study aimed to examine local power, its implication for village dynamics, and how people involved in local development understood and exercised power."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The study employed an action research approach as the principal framework for creating social order in the village. The approach builds on local customary law, referred to locally as 'usos y costumbres' (U&C), which are principles and practices evolved from the bottom-up within a community. Customary law was used to understand how village development-focused groups and committees engaged in collective action and made decisions. Participatory power mapping was useful within this context because it provided a tool that residents could use to show their understanding of their community and community relationships."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Participatory Power Mapping and the U&C framework showed that both village residents and outsiders must adhere to local values and norms to participate in development interventions and decision-making. This finding is interesting because power in Mexico is exercised based on a top-down model at a national level, especially for deploying state and federal resources to rural villages. However, at the local level, power is only seen as legitimate if actors follow local norms. When top-down local power structures fail to provide space for U&C modes of decision-making, tension often builds up within local systems and may result in protests or officially censured activities, such as the land occupation that gave birth to California Village."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"\"New research approaches towards community self-assessment can clarify how actors shape and re-shape local power structures through daily routines, contributing to a better understanding of community development from a productive perspective\", (Guevara-Hernández et al., 2010, p. 6)."}]},{"head":"Top-down Bottom-up","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Informal sytem of power \"Customs and practices\" 18 external actors -government institutions 6 Internal actors and recognized decision makers 4 internal actors but no recognized"}]},{"head":"Top-down","index":55,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"H o w i s p o wer ex e r c i s e d ?","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Adapted from Guevara-Hernández et. al. (2010) "}]},{"head":"Climate and ecology policy domain","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Climate and ecology domain: The climate and ecology policy domain includes political economy analysis focused on climate and environmental ecology issues and how these issues influence policymaking processes in various countries and sectors (Figure 6). The challenges related to the climate and ecology domain are discussed across the multi, macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis to pinpoint crucial frameworks and tools applicable to developmental initiatives and scientific research (Table 6). "}]},{"head":"CLIMATE AND ECOLOGY","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Table 6: Micro-, meso-, macro-, and multi-level frameworks for political economy and policy analysis in the climate and ecology domain","index":59,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Framework Description Uses","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Policy Translation (PT) (Milhorance et al., 2022) Focuses on policy actors, policymaking processes, policy instruments, contextual shifts, and cost-benefit analysis."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Four steps: 1) Define the context of the policy; 2) Analyze policy proposals; 3) Analyze relevant actors, resources, and opportunities, including integrated policy approaches; 4) Analyze institutional policy instruments available for translating policy."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Analyzing climate change policy."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Examines knowledge transfers between actors; delineates and visualizes power struggles in the policy translation process."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Policy Network Analysis (PNA) (Ndeinoma et al., 2018) Analytical framework: Identifies links and patterns between actors in a governance structure by mapping policy actors, identifying the structure of government bodies or institutions, and then measuring the power balance in decisionmaking. Focuses on power relations, resource mobilization, organization behavior, the policymaking process, and interest."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Developing new strategies through different stakeholder groups to effectively deal with policy issues."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"Multiple Streams Framework (MSF) (Hernandez and Bolwig, 2021) Diagnostic framework: Considers policymaking as a series of steps: 1) agenda-setting, 2) alternative specification, 3) authoritative selection among specified alternatives and 4) implementation. Focuses on the first two processes to explain why certain issues become relevant on the agenda, and why some proposals for addressing such issues are preferred over others."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"Analyzing climate policy integration (climate streaming) to enhance the public policy-making process and operationalization Biodiversity Policy Integration (BPI) (Zinngrebe, 2018)"},{"index":9,"size":70,"text":"Analytical framework: Examines how knowledge is transferred between different actors to put biodiversity targets in agendas. Considers the following: 1) Inclusion -the extent to which political sectors express the objective of biodiversity conservation; 2) Operationalization -identifying appropriate policy instruments; 3) Coherence -measuring the extent to which different objectives and policy instruments complement each other; 4) Capacity -identifying institutional capacity and available resources; 5) Weighing -defining priorities related to biodiversity objectives."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"Connecting biodiversity development strategies with national policy efforts in high-biodiversity areas."},{"index":11,"size":137,"text":"Driver-Strategy-Outcome Framework (DSOF) (Islam et al., 2021) Analytical framework: Derived from social-ecological systems thinking and sustainable livelihood, resilience, and vulnerability assume that in an agrarian society, different chains embrace wealth-based economic structures. The framework is based on the following concepts which form the hypothesis for analysis: 1) Strategies -adjusting or improving a given technology or activity; 2) Drivers -institutional, climatic, or geographic; 3) Outcome -adaptation; 4) Wealth structure -land ownership Useful in studying farmers' adaptation strategies, drivers, and outcomes of various technologies especially, those linked to climate change adaptation Kingdon' s Window of Opportunity (KWO) (Rose et al., 2020) Identifies communication bridges between policymakers and researchers; supports having adequate resources to respond to opportunities when they arise; understands the scientific debate around the issue and connects with policymakers to bring the scientific debate to the national agenda."},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"Identifying upcoming windows of opportunity in specific areas."}]},{"head":"Social-Ecological System","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Framework (SESF) (Vallejo-Rojas, 2016;Amblar, 2021) Focused on biophysical systems and how they impact natural resource management. Applied through the following: 1) Identifying social, economic, environmental, and political context; 2) Measuring the size of the resource system and associated costs; 3) Identifying key players within the systems."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Identifying optimal conditions for cooperation applied to water pollution, water quality, and hydro systems."}]},{"head":"Case study 4: Assessing biodiversity policy integration in Peru","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"In a recent policy assessment of Peru, Zinngrebe (2018) aimed to understand both the political dimensions of biodiversity loss and how concerned actors can use policy to protect biodiversity and mitigate the negative impacts of biodiversity loss."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Mainstreaming biodiversity protection across various political sectors and levels is considered a \"best practice\" for conserving global biodiversity. To fully understand the situation in Peru, the study used the Biodiversity Policy Integration (BPI) framework in several national-level political sectors, including agriculture, the economy, energy, and others. The analysis was based on political strategy plans, legal documents, and qualitative interviews with stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"BPI analysis found that various sectors were generally committed to biodiversity conservation."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"The study identified three key components essential for improving BPI: framing sector-specific targets, favorable actor constellations, and adaptive institutional learning arrangements. Furthermore, sectoral support was deemed critical to generating ownership of biodiversity objectives in sector policy development and to facilitating institutional learning (Zinngrebe, 2018). Case study 5: Policy windows for the environment -tips for improving scientific knowledge acceptance Rose et al. (2020) sought to determine whether the responses of scientists, NGO staff, conservation policymakers, and others could be used to influence environmental policy. The study found four strategies environmentalists can use to respond to opportunities for creating successful policies."}]},{"head":"ASSESSING BIODIVERSITY POLICY INTEGRATION TRANSFORMING GOVERNANCE SYSTEM INCLUSION","index":63,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainability vision based on inclusive governance","index":64,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Social capital for integrative governance","index":65,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Private initiatives for integrative governance","index":66,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Knowledge integration and learning for informed and adoptive governance","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"This framework found that it is possible to achieve conservation objectives if stakeholders: 1) know the emergent opportunities, 2) respond quickly to them, 3) frame their research in line with appropriate windows, and 4) persevere to guide policy processes through development to successful implementation. The Policy Windows framework has been instrumental in exploring soft power from new academic perspectives and in considering how a crisis may prove useful to scientists. This framework provides evidence that is relevant to achieve real policy change, actors must establish political alliances, build coalitions, and gain credibility with decision-makers (Rose et al., 2020). "}]},{"head":"POLICY WINDOW OF OPPORTUNITY","index":68,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Steps for conducting Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA)","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The PEPA Sourcebook provides an easily accessible compendium of political economy and policy analysis frameworks, analytical tools, and related case studies relevant to examining agri-food systems. As illustrated by Figure 7, PEPA follows an incremental and iterative approach to: (1) identify the main problem and the specific policy domain, (2) examine the scope of the problem and what specific questions it raises, (3) determine the frameworks and analytical tools needed to develop a structured method to analyze the problem, (4) gather data to examine why the problem persists, (5) synthesize the evidence to inform policymaking and policy processes, with the goal of attaining policy change, and ( 6) package evidence to engage stakeholder and policymakers. This, in turn, may lead to renewed problem identification and repetition of the process for improved policymaking."}]},{"head":"Steps for conducting Political Economy and Policy Analysis (PEPA)","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The PEPA Sourcebook provides an easily accessible compendium of political economy and policy analysis frameworks, analytical tools, and related case studies relevant to examining agri-food systems. As illustrated by Figure 7, PEPA follows an incremental and iterative approach to (1) identify the main problem and the specific policy domain, (2) examine the scope of the problem and what specific questions it raises, (3) determine the frameworks and analytical tools needed to develop a structured method to analyze the problem, (4) gather data to examine why the problem persists, (5) synthesize the evidence to inform policymaking and policy processes, with the goal of attaining policy change, (6) package evidence to engage stakeholder and policymakers. This, in turn, may lead to renewed problem identification and repetition of the process for improved "}]},{"head":"Problem identification","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Identifying a policy problem"}]},{"head":"Question of interest","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Examing specific questions related to the policy problem"}]},{"head":"Data gathering","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Gathering data to examine the problem"}]},{"head":"Framework and tools","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Determining frameworks and analytical tools for the questions"}]},{"head":"Synthesis of evidence","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Synthesizing evidence to inform policy design and policy change"}]},{"head":"Package evidencebased policy","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Packaging evidence for policymakers and policy engagements"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Step 1: Identify the main problem and the specific policy domain"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"In the context of food systems, the main policy domains include food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology. Considering the complexity of policy-making and development interventions, any analysis Source: Authors requires identifying relevant policy domains and determining the specific problem(s) of interest in that domain."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"For example, a policy problem can examine the concerns of increasing consumer access to affordable ultraprocessed foods and the health-related implications in a country. This macro-level, national analysis topic is within the food and nutrition policy domain (Figure 3 and 4)."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"Step 2: Examine the underlying specific questions for the problem Relevant problem-specific questions and related stakeholders are identified after establishing the policy domain and scope. In the case of the ultra-processed food environments policy domain, examples of the specific question include: (1) Why is finding solutions to combat the increasing access to affordable ultraprocessed foods so controversial and what strategies are necessary for policy change? (2) Are taxes or regulations a better policy approach for reducing the overconsumption of ultra-processed foods? (3) Is the policy environment enabling or hindering access to affordable ultra-processed foods? To answer these questions, a critical assessment using PEPA can reveal conflicts, power dynamics, coalitions, beliefs, and policy processes necessary for development interventions to catalyze desired changes in the food and nutrition policy domain (see Mockshell & Ritter, 2023)."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"Step 3: Determining frameworks and analytical tools"},{"index":7,"size":243,"text":"The conceptual framework provides the basic elements for examining specific questions, while the analytical tool is a mechanism or instrument for examining the questions and elements of the conceptual framework. Based on the key questions of interest, this step identifies the frameworks and analytical tools relevant to answering the questions of interest identified in Step 2. For example, researchers, development practitioners, and policymakers are interested in identifying coalitions and policy views in the ultra-processed food environment. As already highlighted in Figure 3, this area of interest takes shape within the food and nutrition policy domain at the national level of analysis. Thus, policy frameworks require macro-level analysis and a related analytical tool. The Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) with the discourse analysis approach matches the topic of examining coalitions and policy views in the ultra-processed food environment at the macro-level (Figure 4 and Table 2). Next, if the interests are in examining the power dynamics, informal power, and power interactions in the ultra-processed food environment, then the Power Cube Framework (PCF) can be combined with a Process Net-Map for analysis. In the case of examining question-related taxes or regulations as the preferred policy approach for reducing the overconsumption of ultra-processed foods, the Kaleidoscope Framework for Policy Change approach provides a basis for analysis. This approach develops a set of indicators for identifying the drivers of policy change, the conditions under which policies emerge, and the effectiveness of policy implementation (Figure 4 and Table 2)."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"Step 4: Gathering data to examine why the problem persists"},{"index":9,"size":176,"text":"Relevant data is the foundation for answering and examining the policy problem and specific questions of interest. This step focuses on gathering data to answer the questions of interest. The ultra-processed food environment case study considered several frameworks, such as the ACF. These frameworks should consider stakeholder landscapes, networks, discourse, beliefs, ideas, narratives, and influence levels. These considerations provide the basis for determining the analytical methods, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. They also help determine data types and sources, such as primary, secondary, or mixed data from different providers. The data-gathering step also informs the selection of survey tools, such as process and network mapping, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and others. Determining narratives of ultra-processed food environments will require conducting in-depth interviews with stakeholders involved in this policy domain. In the case of examining the policy-enabling environment for ultra-processed foods, the indicators from the Kaleidoscope Framework for Policy Change can provide information for developing survey tools (e.g., using multiple choice or Likert scale responses) to elicit information from participants on the key indicators."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"Step 5: Synthesizing evidence to inform policy design and policy change"},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"This step structures the raw data to generate relevant insights for stakeholders. The ultra-processed foods"},{"index":12,"size":188,"text":"case study has two central and underlying questions. Why are finding solutions to combat the increasing access to affordable ultra-processed foods so controversial? What strategies are necessary for policy change? The insights will cover areas such as: (1) the stakeholder landscape in the ultra-processed food environment, (2) potential coalitions in favor of ultra-processed foods, those in a neutral position on the topic, and stakeholders opposed to ultra-processed food, and (3) contested discourses and divergent ideas on potential policy solutions. Policy analysts should seek additional insights on the influential actors, type of influence, opposition to change, and entry points for influencing policy. The insights should provide a way to understand the drivers and conditions for policy change and to move toward policy implementation. The potential risks, winners, and losers of the policy change can also be uncovered. Without identifying and addressing the interests and ideas of the actors during the policy development cycle, policy reforms may be limited in scope or fail to reach their intended impact. Such risks need to be incorporated into a recommendation for policy change coupled with evidence on how to overcome potential policy risks."},{"index":13,"size":74,"text":"Step 6: Packaging evidence for policymakers and policy engagements This last step involves synthesizing the relevant insights into formats for communication, dialogue, and engagement with key stakeholders and decision-makers to contribute to policy change. The evidence package may include reports, policy briefs, opinion articles, presentations, peer-reviewed articles, info-graphics, and other mediums. This final step is critical. The informal and formal communication mediums should be adapted to policymakers according to their policy domains and context."}]},{"head":"Outlook of PEPA for food, land, and water systems transformation","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":312,"text":"The PEPA Sourcebook provides a step-by-step approach for conducting political economy and policy analysis across food, land, and water systems. This sourcebook contributes to PEPA by (1) identifying and organizing a collection of frameworks, analytical tools, and case studies using a systematic literature review approach (Annex A and B, Tables 1-6, and case study boxes), ( 2) mapping frameworks and tools to food and nutrition, land and water, climate and ecology domains, (Figures 3-6), and (3) disaggregating frameworks and tools by the level of analysis (macro -, meso -, micro -, and multi-levels) (Figures 3-6). These contributions fill an existing knowledge gap and make this PEPA Sourcebook unique for agri-food systems analysis. The PEPA Sourcebook by no means covers all frameworks, tools, and case studies, but it does provide a timely starting point, relevant to development practitioners, the donor community, researchers, and policymakers working in agri-food systems.  Resnick, 2010;de Schutter, 2019;McMichael, 2021). As Béné (2022) emphasizes in his call for food system transformation, changes in the agri-food industry require a thorough understanding of the contexts of local and international politics, economics, power dynamics, and stakeholder views. Coherent policies must be tailored to meet national and cultural needs. To gain this understanding, policymakers and development practitioners need innovative and workable tools and frameworks that can identify optimal ways to address agri-food system challenges. Evidence in the literature, however, reveals that there are limited explanatory frameworks that can adequately diagnose the challenges associated with agri-food systems (de Schutter, 2019). Frameworks and analytical tools from the political science, management, public policy, and political economy fields remain highly fragmented. Consequently, critiques proliferate regarding the lack of external validity, inability to replicate studies, lack of consistent indicators and vague measurements (Resnick et al., 2018;Fanzo et al., 2021). The PEPA Sourcebook provides frameworks and tools to enable practitioners and researchers to analyze multiple sectors of the agri-food system."}]},{"head":"Politics","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The PEPA approach centers on power relations, thus requiring consideration of politics and economics."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The political economy approach to agri-food systems takes a step beyond classical economic approaches by placing power, ideas, coalitions, and politics at the center of policy analysis (de Schutter, 2019). In general, most power resides with politicians and private sector actors, who often provide accountability and balance in the political influence discourse. Positive change across food, land, climate, and water systems requires a clear understanding of politics and economics and the dynamics between them."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"PEPA is useful for analyzing progress toward and barriers to achieving the SDGs. PEPA tools and frameworks can be used to study progress and narratives towards the SDGs related to agri-food systems, specifically the goals related to zero hunger (SDG 2), climate action (SDG 13), water (SDG 14),and land (SDG 15). This sourcebook also aligns with the new roadmap for impact outlined by the CGIAR' s five impact areas: (1) nutrition, health, and food security; (2) poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; (3) environmental health and biodiversity; (4) gender equity, youth, and social inclusion; and (5) climate adaptation and mitigation (CGIAR n.d.)."},{"index":4,"size":208,"text":"PEPA can be valuable in analyzing gendered power dynamics, yet more work remains in incorporating gender analysis into PEPA tools. The gender dimension of agri-food systems can be key to understanding the drivers and outcomes of policy changes in PEPA contexts. The dynamics of power relations in food, water, and land systems affect women, youth, and men differently. Park & Julia (2014) argue that men's and women's equal access to land and participation in agricultural groups, organizations, and cooperatives is crucial for ensuring food security. Evidence from the literature indicates that PEPA lacks consideration of gender issues, particularly in the policy domains related to food, nutrition, and the environment. However, PEPA's focus on power relations means that it can be useful as a tool for analyzing gender and power, both at the policy level and in formal and informal institutions (Haines & O'Neil, 2018). For example, the PEPA of Malawi's mining sector revealed the lack of policies enhancing and supporting the role of women in mining. The government' s broader mining policies ignored gender (Browne, 2014). Further work is needed to more fully include gender and youth considerations in PEPA. Such work should consider the interaction between gender and policy processes from the national to household decision-making levels."}]},{"head":"Several tools in the PEPA Sourcebook can be used for gender analysis, including Influence and Power","index":79,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Mapping and Kingdon's Window of Opportunity and Legal Assessment Tool. Gender mapping tools, stakeholder analysis frameworks, and the frameworks and tools outlined in this Sourcebook can be used in gender analysis. For example, multi-level stakeholder influence mapping and power mapping can help map the influence of women or women' s associations on the agri-food system. At the same time, Kingdon' s window of opportunity could be useful in achieving a gender-supportive policy change related to gender equity and interests. Gender mapping can also help illuminate various value chain structures, providing analyses of gender relations and roles across the value chain. Me-Nsope & Larkins (2016) mentioned that these tools allow for a clear classification of gender issues along the value chain, especially those issues related to gender inequalities in agriculture. A classification of inequalities can facilitate the development of innovative solutions to gender-based issues. PEPA tools can assist practitioners in understanding human behavior and decision-making, which is useful in exploring the gender dimension of various topics. For example, these tools can reveal how land is managed in terms of relationships or dynamics around women' s decision-making power."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In the context of gender-equitable land tenure policies, the legal assessment tool can help visualize the legal intricacies surrounding land access, identify gender inequalities, and target areas that require legal reforms."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"PEPA can also assist in evaluating the risks associated with policy reforms in various domains. Power struggles between the central government and various interest groups can limit the impact of policy reforms on food, land, and water systems. PEPA can highlight power dynamics, influential actors, and the winners and losers of policy reforms. The insights gained can be used to improve policy design and planning. Discursive power is useful for framing problems, providing solutions, lobbying policymakers, securing research evidence, and developing alternatives (McNeill, 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"The PEPA Sourcebook contributes to the study of sustainable agri-food systems by providing a framework for integrating relevant national policies and strategies. The Sourcebook provides new insights for researchers, practitioners, and government agencies engaged in collaborative efforts to transform dominant foodscapes. Through a holistic agri-food systems approach, PEPA considers subsector elements, activities, and outcomes. There is a need for national policies and strategies to be oriented toward practical and clearly defined regulations and guidelines for governing the agri-food sector."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"PEPA approaches to trade-offs between the system domains discussed in this sourcebook -food and nutrition, land and water, and climate and ecology -are limited and need to be explored further. Further PEPA research can provide development practitioners, the donor community, and policy analysts with an accurate understanding of political will at the start of a project. These insights enable them to focus on areas where change is possible and to schedule interventions at appropriate times in the program development cycle. This often-ignored context-specific knowledge is necessary for understanding the drivers of change, or lack of change, as well as risks to development programs. The goal is for development practitioners and researchers to apply the frameworks to answer political economy and policy-related questions."}]},{"head":"Annex B: Summary of the search strategy i) CABI","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"(ab:(\"political economy\" or \"political economy analysis\" or \"Political Economy Framework\" or \"Politics\" or \"Policies\""},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"or \"Political Economy Analysis Tools\") AND ab:( \"food\" or \"food system\" or \"agriculture\" or \"food security\" or \"food availability\" or \"food accessibility\" or \"food affordability\" or \"food utilization\") AND (\"land\" or \"land systems\" or \"land use\" or \"land development\" or \"land access\" or \"land grabbing\" or \"land governance\" or \"land acquisition\") AND (\"water\" or \"water systems\" or \"water governance\" or \"water development\" or \"irrigation\") AND yr: [2002[ TO 2022]]) AND ( ((item-type:((\"Annual report\" OR \"Annual report section\" OR \"Book\" OR \"Book Chapter\" OR \"Bulletin\""},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"OR \"Bulletin article\" OR \"Conference paper\" OR \"Conference proceedings\" OR \"Correspondence\" OR \"Editorial\""},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"OR \"Journal article\" OR \"Journal issue\" OR \"Standard\" OR \"Thesis\") )) (sc:((\"X0\" OR \"ZD\" OR \"FT\" OR \"FR\" OR \"FA\" OR \"GF\" OR \"GC\" OR \"GD\" OR \"GE\" OR \"GG\" OR \"GH\") )) (language:((\"English\") )) ))"},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"ii) SCOPUS (TITLE-ABS-KEY (\"political economy\" OR \"political economy analysis\" OR \"Political Economy Framework\" OR \"Political Economy Analysis Tools\" OR \"policy landscape\" OR \"Policy making\" OR \"policy process*\" OR \"policy design\" OR \"agricultural policy making\" OR \"policy change\" OR \"agrarian political economy\") AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (\"agricult*\" OR \"agrifood system*\" OR \"food system\" OR \"agricultural system*\") AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (\"food*\" OR \"water\" OR \"land\" OR \"food system\" OR \"agricult*\" OR \"food security\" OR \"food availability\" OR \"availability of food\" OR \"food accessibility\" OR \"accessibility of food\" OR \"food affordability\" OR \"affordability of food\" OR \"food utilization\" OR \"utilization of food\") AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (\"analysis tool*\" OR \"policy tool*\" OR \"policy analysis tool*\" OR \"analytical framework*\" OR \"policy analysis framework*\") ) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" literature for food, land, and water system transformation 4. PEPA frameworks and analytical tools for agri-food policy domains A: Overview of reviewed articles 8.2 Annex B: Summary of the search strategy 8.3 Annex C: Data collection methods for PEPA frameworks and analytical tools 9. Glossary "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Distribution of empirical studies by country Figure 2: PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for the systematic review "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Summary of frameworks and analytical tools for agri-food system policies and strategies "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Tools and frameworks for the food and nutrition policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Tools and frameworks in the land and water policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Tools and frameworks for climate and ecology policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Steps for conducting PEPA "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Distribution of empirical studies by country. The case study countries are identified in the legend by color codes "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Summary of frameworks and analytical tools for agri-food system policies and strategies "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Tools and frameworks for the food and nutrition policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Tools and Frameworks in the land and water policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Tools and frameworks for climate and ecology policy domain "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Steps for conducting PEPA "},{"text":" are a crucial component of agri-food system policymaking and strategy formulation. Research and development interventions must be aligned with societal and political objectives to succeed, minimize conflicts, and maximize potential trade-offs across multiple sectors. Political economy approaches to agricultural development can be traced back to the first green revolution in the 1960s and 1970s (Birner & "},{"text":"Table 7 : Overview of reviewed articles  "},{"text":"Table 8 : PEPA data collection methods  "},{"text":"Why is a PEPA Sourcebook for food, land, and water systems needed?  on poverty and livelihoods 2 on poverty and livelihoods 2 understand what motivates political behavior. PEPA analyzes how politicians influence policies and programs understand what motivates political behavior. PEPA analyzes how politicians influence policies and programs by identifying the main winners and losers of a given policy and assessing the overall impact of development by identifying the main winners and losers of a given policy and assessing the overall impact of development interventions at the national level (DFID, 2009; Harris, 2019). interventions at the national level (DFID, 2009; Harris, 2019). 1.3 The PEPA Sourcebook offers frameworks, concepts, and tools to address key policy issues related to food, 1.3 The PEPA Sourcebook offers frameworks, concepts, and tools to address key policy issues related to food, land, and water systems (Whaites et al., 2023). Although there is growing awareness of the importance of land, and water systems (Whaites et al., 2023). Although there is growing awareness of the importance of integrating PEPA into development programs, the scope of applications across food, land, and water systems integrating PEPA into development programs, the scope of applications across food, land, and water systems is limited. Development agencies and existing sourcebooks assess the impact of development interventions is limited. Development agencies and existing sourcebooks assess the impact of development interventions  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Inclusion and exclusion criteria Item Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria Study methods or type Qualitative   "},{"text":"• Framework for Recognizing Diversity Beyond Capitalism • Kaleidoscope Model of Policy Change • Political Settlement Macro • Advocacy Coalition Framework • Diagnostic Framework for Food Systems Governance • Multiple Streams Approach • Policy Framing Analysis • Political-Legal, Economic, Social Technological External Drivers of the Food System • Porter' s Five Forces for the Competitive Drivers of the Food System • Power Cube Framework • Public and Political Awareness Framework • Sustainable Diets Framework for Policy Analysis Meso • Framework for Analyzing Policy Approaches • Agent-Belief-Desire-Intention Model • Policy Tool Typology • Multi-level Stakeholder Influence Mapping • Power Mapping • Discourse Analysis • Narrative Policy Analysis • Process Net-Map • Institutional Analysis and Development • Kaleidoscope Model of Policy Change • Triangular Model of Relations • Legal Assessment Tool • Power Mapping • Kingdon' s Window of Opportunity • Social Ecological System Framework   • Multiple Streams Framework • Discourse Analysis • Multiple Streams Framework• Discourse Analysis  • Policy Network Analysis • Narrative Policy Analysis • Policy Network Analysis• Narrative Policy Analysis  • Policy Translation • Process Net-Map • Policy Translation• Process Net-Map Meso • Biodiversity Policy Integration Meso• Biodiversity Policy Integration Micro • Driver Strategy Outcome Framework Micro• Driver Strategy Outcome Framework   • Multi-level Stakeholder Influence Mapping • Multi-level Stakeholder Influence Mapping   • Power Mapping • Power Mapping  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Multi-level frameworks and tools for the food and nutrition policy domain  Framework Description Uses FrameworkDescriptionUses Kaleidoscope Model (KM) of Includes 16 policy analysis variables, categorized into five  Kaleidoscope Model (KM) ofIncludes 16 policy analysis variables, categorized into five Policy Change (Resnick et al., stages of the policy cycle: 1) Agenda setting; 2) Policy design;  Policy Change (Resnick et al.,stages of the policy cycle: 1) Agenda setting; 2) Policy design; 2018) 3) Policy adoption; 4) Policy implementation; and  2018)3) Policy adoption; 4) Policy implementation; and  5) Evaluation and reform.  5) Evaluation and reform.  "},{"text":"e m e n t a t i o n A d o p t i o n D e s i g n (14) Changing information and beliefs (16) Institutional shifts Beginning of the global financial crisis New change regime in Zambia The southern African drought President launches e-voucher Cabinet approves e-voucher (1) Recognized, relevant problem (10) Requisite budget (11) Institutional capacity (12) Implementation veto players (13) Commitment of policy champions (2) Focusing events (3) Powerful advocates   E v a lu ati on & Re fo rm  E v a lu ati on & Re fo rm  (15) Changing  (15) Changing  material  material  conditions  conditions    A A    g e n d a g e n d a POLICY CHANGE IN ZAMBIA Im p l (4) Knowledge & State of emergency Researchers & Govts Fertilizer subsidies research provided evidence program (FSP) (7) Powerful proponents ineffectiveness opponents vs. about FSP launched s e t t i n g POLICY CHANGE IN ZAMBIA Im p l (4) Knowledge & State of emergency Researchers & Govts Fertilizer subsidies research provided evidence program (FSP) (7) Powerful proponents ineffectiveness opponents vs. about FSP launcheds e t t i n g  Cabinet committee Cost calculations of  Cabinet committeeCost calculations of  of ministers declares corruption and  of ministers declarescorruption and  that FSP becomes leakage in fertilizer  that FSP becomesleakage in fertilizer (8) Government FISP programs (5) Norms, biases, (8) GovernmentFISPprograms(5) Norms, biases, veto players   ideology, & beliefs veto playersideology, & beliefs  (9) Propitious (6) Cost-benefit  (9) Propitious(6) Cost-benefit  timing calculations  timingcalculations  "},{"text":" Political economy OR political economy analysis OR Political Economy Framework OR Political EconomyAnalysis Tools OR policy landscape OR Policymaking OR policy process OR policy design OR agricultural policymaking) AND (agri-food system OR agri-food system OR food system OR agricultural system) AND Entire document:( 'agri-food system' or 'food systems' or 'food' or 'agriculture' or 'water' or 'land') \"filter\": Publication Date: (01/01/2002 TO 12/31/2022), Language: English AND PUBYEAR > 2001 AND PUBYEAR < 2023 AND PUBYEAR > 2001 AND PUBYEAR < 2023 AND PUBYEAR > 2001 AND PUBYEAR < 2023 AND PUBYEAR > 2001 AND PUBYEAR < 2023 iii) Google Scholar iii) Google Scholar (v) AgEcon (v) AgEcon subject: [political economy] or [political economy analysis] or [Political Economy Framework] or [Political subject: [political economy] or [political economy analysis] or [Political Economy Framework] or [Political Economy Analysis Tools] AND Economy Analysis Tools] AND subject: [agri-food system] or [food system] or [agriculture] AND subject: [agri-food system] or [food system] or [agriculture] AND subject: [policy analysis tool] or [analytical framework] or [policy analysis framework] subject: [policy analysis tool] or [analytical framework] or [policy analysis framework]  "}],"sieverID":"e3c872ed-b527-495d-ac63-8d4045b82608","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"058256e501fd7dbd6d38539e59b9ed8a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/416b75e5-4409-4a0f-afcd-d3423cfa1034/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Resúmenes de los Trabajos presentados LA COLECCIÓN NACIONAL DE CAPSICUM RESPALDA EL APROVECHAMIENTODE AJÍES EN EL PERÚ","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Los ajíes cultivados pertenecen a cinco especies domesticadas del género Capsicum (C. annuum, C. frutescens, C. chinense, C. baccatum y C. pubescens) cuya diversidad se concentra en los países andinos. El Perú es uno de los países más importantes, tanto en número de especies y variedades, como en el consumo y potencial de exportación de ají. Perú es uno de los mayores exportadores de paprika (C. annuum) a nivel mundial. Sin embargo, un gran porcentaje de las variedades nativas siguen siendo poco estudiadas y sub-aprovechadas."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"El Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA) mantiene una colección de ajíes cultivados que es quizás la colección nacional más diversa en existencia. La Colección Nacional de Capsicum contiene más de 700 muestras de ajíes cultivados, obtenidas de 14 Departamentos diferentes del país, e incluye docenas de diferentes variedades tradicionales."}]},{"head":"Objetivo:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"El objetivo de la Colección Nacional de Capsicum es, no solamente de fomentar el estudio y asegurar la conservación del patrimonio agrícola nacional, sino también para promover y facilitar el aprovechamiento de estos valiosos recursos genéticos peruanos para aumentar y diversificar la producción nacional y los mercados para los ajíes nativos, fortalecer las cadenas de valor alrededor de estos mercados, e impulsar el desarrollo rural en sus zonas de producción."}]},{"head":"Materiales y Métodos:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Los materiales provienen mayormente de colectas realizadas por INIA en el marco de proyectos auspiciados por Bioversity International, uno con el apoyo de IDRC (Canadá) y el otro con apoyo de la GIZ (Alemania). Para describir y cuantificar la impresionante diversidad de ajíes peruanos presente en la colección, se esta avanzando con la identificación taxonómica y la caracterización agro-morfológica, molecular, y bioquímica de los materiales. El propósito de estos estudios, más allá de la conservación ex situ de los materiales y la documentación de la información asociada, es de facilitar el uso de la diversidad genética existente y promover su aprovechamiento en las cadenas de valor en beneficio de los productores, comercializadores y consumidores de ají en el Perú, así como para los exportadores de estos productos al mercado internacional."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"La identificación taxonómica se esta llevando a cabo con observaciones de los materiales en el campo, y contando con apoyo de técnicos de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM). La colección cuenta con abundantes materiales de las cinco especies cultivadas de Capsicum. Aunque el enfoque de la identificación preliminar es al nivel de especie, también se esta tomando nota de la diversidad infraespecifica con el propósito de hacer mas adelante una clasificación y descripción rigorosa de las numerosas razas peruanas de ají-algo que no existe todavía."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"La caracterización morfológica se llevará a cabo aplicando los descriptores para Capsicum publicados por IPGRI et al. (1995). Se está realizando una caracterización molecular con 20 microsatélites, en colaboración con el Centro Fitoecogenético de Pairumani, en Cochabamba, Bolivia, que también esta participando en el actual proyecto financiado por la GIZ. La caracterización bioquímica y evaluación sensorial de 100 accesiones seleccionadas se esta haciendo en la Universidad de Wuppertal, Alemania, que también es socio en el proyecto. Con base en estos resultados se identificarán accesiones con contenidos sobresalientes de capsinoides, vitamina C, y otros atributos que definen el sabor."}]},{"head":"Resultados:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"La colección nacional de Capsicum del INIA fue integrado como tal a finales del 2010 y las investigaciones reportadas aquí se iniciaron en 2011 y están en marcha todavía. Los resultados preliminares incluyen:"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"1. Todos los datos de pasaporte ya están verificados e integrados en el sistema nacional de documentación. 2. Se están regenerando y multiplicando semillas de las accesiones para asegurar un stock suficiente para conservación, evaluación, y distribución. 3. La identificación taxonómica de las accesiones esta siendo determinado con observaciones morfológicas y estará respalda por una caracterización molecular."}]},{"head":"Discusión:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"La asombrosa diversidad genética presente en la Colección Nacional de Capsicum muy probablemente incluye accesiones con características bioquímicas y organolépticas especiales e interesantes, así como nuevas fuentes de resistencia o tolerancia a plagas, enfermedades, sequía, frio, calor, y otras causas de estrés biótico y abiótico de importancia agronómica. Una vez que todas las accesiones han sido regeneradas y caracterizadas, el siguiente paso será una evaluación agronómica y un segundo análisis bioquímico más profundo de germoplasma promisorio, exponiéndolo a las antes mencionadas condiciones bióticas y abióticas para detectar la presencia y niveles de resistencia y tolerancia, identificando así aquellos materiales que tengan características deseables y que puedan ser usados directamente por los agricultores o bien incorporados en programas de mejoramiento genético. Estas evaluaciones están programadas y se llevaran a cabo próximamente en cuatro zonas de producción de ají, en los Departamentos de Lima, Piura, Ucayali y Arequipa."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e1cf6a36-ef88-46b2-a3f5-8c44a189a7a9","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05b376f61165c2517f8b64d579bf30ba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b376f61165c2517f8b64d579bf30ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42d47878-10be-48d3-9252-65c2be460f87/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Measurement of soybean grain yield and aboveground biomass at maturity by crop cut at plot level SOP ID: 012 Version: 1 Crop: Soybean (Glycine max) Relevant KPIs: Productivity -yield; Resource use efficiency -nutrient use efficiency R&D stage (example of activities): • Discovery stage (yield decomposition) • Proof-of-concept stage (testing of improved agronomic practices in on-station and/or on-farm trials) • Pilot stage (on-farm participatory trials, randomized control trial) • Scaling stage (panel studies, yield predictions at scale using crop models and GIS, ex-post impact assessment) This work was financially supported by the Excellence in Agronomy for Sustainable Intensification and Climate Change Adaptation Initiative","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"Soybean is an important grain legume, providing high-protein food to humans and animals (Fig. 1). Some varieties have a high oil content. Due to its ability to form nodules with rhizobia and to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2), it does not require large amounts of N-fertilizer and can have positive effects on the soil fertility. However, in soils in which soybean has not been grown before, inoculation with compatible rhizobia may be required to effectively fix N2. Soybean is a medium-duration grain legume, of which there is a large number of varieties. Soybeans mature in 115-125 days after sowing (DAS). Thus, the harvest should be planned according to the maturity type sown. Field observations should be done before the anticipated maturity because weather conditions, pests and diseases may require modifying the harvest date. Soybean ripens within a relatively short phase during which the leaves dry and are shed and the pods become visible. Pods are ready for harvest when the green pods turn yellow (Fig. 2, left). At that time, the pods will open easily with a crackling noise, and grains detach easily from the pod. In most soybean varieties, there is a risk of pod shattering (Fig. 2, right), which is increased by conditions of repeated wetting and drying of the crop before harvest. Harvesting immediately when the pods turn yellow is essential. Besides varieties' genetic disposition, shattering occurs when mature pods are left in the field beyond the appropriate harvest date."}]},{"head":"Determination of the grain yield of soybean","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"Step 1: Locate and demarcate the net harvest area and the required border rows or space following instructions in SOP001 Determination of the minimum number of plants and the minimum area to be harvested for correct crop yield determinations. The net harvest area should be representative of the entire plot. In trials sown in rows, at least one row on each side of the plot and all plants at the start and end of each row within the same length as the distance between rows need to be discarded as border (Fig. 3). The dimensions of the net harvest area across the rows need to be a multiple of the distance between rows and the length of one row distance needs to be removed at the start and end of the remaining rows. If the crop was sown by broadcasting, plants are randomly distributed. In such cases, the border around the net harvest plot should be about as wide as one-row distance by local recommendations. For details on the determination of border spaces, refer to SOP001 equations 6 and 7. Step 2: In row-sown crops, place a peg in the middle between rows at one row distance from the beginning and the end of the row. Fix a string between the pegs and perform the same between the last row of the harvest area and the border row on the other side of the plot. Connect the pegs with a rope to form the square or rectangular net harvest area. When pulling the rope across the rows, ensure that only plants rooting inside the net harvest area are within the demarcated area."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Step 2a: If the crop was broadcast, determine the size of the border following instructions in SOP001, and use equations 6 and 7 of that SOP to calculate the border width. Place pegs in the corner points and pull ropes to form the net harvest area. Check along each rope so that only plants rooting in the net area are included."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Step 2b: It is recommended to remove all border plants before harvesting the net harvest area. This prevents the inclusion of plants that are rooting outside the net harvest area."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"Note: If the plants are lodging, first establish a baseline by pushing a long stick under the crop, lift it and bend the plants back so the soil surface becomes visible. The pegs can be set and connected with a rope without plants crossing the rope. From each end of the baseline set two pegs at a 90° angle along the direction in which the crop is lodging. Once the two pegs are set, push the long stick again under the crop from one peg toward the other, then lift the crop to have a clear line between the pegs. Bend back into the harvest area all plants and fix a rope between the pegs. Ensure that the line is straight and that all plants within the demarcated area are rooting in the harvest area. Remove all plants that are not rooting in the harvest area. Lodging crops are usually still moist when harvested and thus need to be handled with care to prevent rotting and moldy grains."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Step 3: Harvest the plants in the net harvest area. The harvest can be conducted with different tools depending on the plot size, the data requirements and availability of the equipment."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Step 3a: Cut the plants at the soil surface, bundle them and carry them from the plot onto a tarpaulin or place them in netting or a cloth bag."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"Step 3b: If the crop is wet and needs drying, the plants can be bundled and hung upside down in netting (about 2 mm mesh size) to dry. Grains from shattering pods will be recovered from the netting."},{"index":8,"size":98,"text":"Step 4: Threshing. If the crop was harvested dry (step 3a), the plants can be threshed manually (if the sample is small) or with a mechanical thresher. To manually thresh the beans, place the plants in a large bag and hit the bag with a baton. Avoid hitting too hard as this may break the grains. Alternatively, twist or fold the bag and rub or roll it against the floor or the top of a table. This squashing motion will burst the pods without breaking the seeds. After threshing, check the sample for pods that did not open."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"If the sample is too large for manual threshing, use a mechanical thresher or a plot thresher."},{"index":10,"size":71,"text":"Step 5: Separate the grain from stover and chaff. If the sample is small, the stover can be hand picked and the broken vegetative material be separated with a sieve that has a mesh size slightly smaller than the diameter of the grains. Remaining residues can also be hand picked from the sample. If the sample is too large to hand pick the grains, use a thresher or a seed cleaner."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"Step 6: Determine the grain mass (grams or kg) recovered from the net harvest area, using a digital balance placed on a horizontal surface."},{"index":12,"size":37,"text":"Step 7: Immediately measure the grain moisture content using a grain moisture meter. It is recommended to repeat the procedure with different grains at least three times and to use the average moisture content of several measurements."},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"Note: Make sure the grain moisture meter is calibrated for soybean."},{"index":14,"size":41,"text":"If a moisture meter is not available, use the gravimetric method: take a grain subsample of around 250 grams weigh fresh and dry to constant mass. When dry, weigh again and calculate the grain moisture content with equation 1 or 2."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"If neither a drying oven nor a moisture meter is available, sun-dry the grains in netting. Make a note that the grains were sun-dried."},{"index":16,"size":40,"text":"When using a plot combine-harvester, ensure that the crop is ripe and dry enough to easily separate the grains from the pods. Remove the border plants before threshing the net plot. Recover all grains and follow steps 6 and 7."},{"index":17,"size":39,"text":"Note: If the grains need to be assessed for quality, such as protein content or other parameters, take another subsample of around 500 g and put it in a paper bag, ziplock bag or container ready for lab analysis."}]},{"head":"Calculations","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Step 1: Calculate the proportion of dry matter in grains If the use of percentage dry grain in the fresh grain subsample is preferred:"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Oven-or sun-dried grain yield (kg/ha) = Fresh grain yield (kg/ha) × % dry grain in subsample (4) 100 Note: the grain moisture content should be determined immediately after harvest in all cases to ensure the grain is dry enough to be stored or (if the moisture content is too high) needs to be appropriately dried to avoid grain quality losses."}]},{"head":"Module 2: Determination of the aboveground biomass (without grains)","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Although the grain yield of soybean is of major importance, an additional important role of the legume in the overall cropping system is its ability to form nodules with rhizobia and to fix N2 from the atmosphere. To assess the amount of fixed N2 and thus the potential residual amount of N returned to the soil, the total crop biomass is required. Although the root and nodule biomass contain some of the fixed N2, their mass at harvest is usually very low compared with the aboveground biomass and thus it is not considered here, because of the relatively large labor requirements to recover roots and nodules. Further, legumes shed leaves from relatively early stages and can lose a large portion of leaf biomass well before the pods mature. If the determination of the aboveground biomass is important, then precautions need to be taken early to recover the shed leaves before they can start decomposing and losing nutrients. "}]},{"head":"Required equipment/material","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Procedure","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":446,"text":"Step 1: If the total biomass is required, the shed leaves need to be sampled over a long period and this requires them being collected regularly and at short intervals, especially if rainfall events are frequent. It is recommended to use netted leaf-litter sampling frames, which can be constructed from simple squared timber and 2 mm aluminum or nylon netting. The frame dimensions need to be compatible with the row spacing. It is recommended to use frames that are of the row spacing (Fig. 4) or half the row spacing. The number and length of these frames needs to be determined by the proportion of surface area that is deemed appropriate to reflect the plot. The distribution of the sampling frames needs to consider that sampling should not be conducted in border areas. The advantage of netted frames is that they can be picked up and the leaves can be poured into paper bags without picking up individual leaves. If pods start shattering, the grains would be recovered from the netted frames. The netting prevents or reduces access by soil macrofauna such as earthworms and contamination of the leaves with soil. Leaf litter sampling with netted frames is not possible in broadcast soybean plots. If leaf litter is to be collected in broadcast plots, the sampling area can be demarcated with string or frames and all leaves need to be collected from that area. Step 1a: Sampling shed leaves. In trials that require the sampling of leaves only at the final harvest, it is important to remember that some portion of the biomass and the nutrients may have been lost. The best estimate would be by collecting all leaves in the net harvest area. However, this is time consuming, so it is proposed to collect them from a portion of the net harvest plot. This can be done by demarcating sampling areas between the rows as in Fig. 4 or Fig. 5. The exact number and size of sampling areas needs to be selected by the scientist in charge of the trial. In broadcast soybean plots, the net harvest area can be divided into four or eight subplots by placing strings across the middle of each side length (to get four subplots) and divide the subplots again into half to get eight subplots (Fig. 5, right). Collect the leaves from every other subplot, best in a zigzag pattern, and place the leaves in a cloth or woven poly bag. Record the area from which the leaves were sampled. Step 2: Determine the biomass sampling area. The area used for the aboveground biomass harvest should be the same as the area used for the grain yield determination."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Step 2a: However, if collecting all plants in a plot is not feasible, it is recommended to sample every other row in rowsown crops, while still respecting the border areas (from which no plants should be collected). In broadcast soybean plots, the same approach as for leaf sampling should be used (Fig. 6, right) by dividing the net harvest area into four to eight subplots and collecting the plants from every other subplot, best in a zigzag pattern. If the crop is lodging, ensure only those plants originating from inside the demarcated net plot or subplot are harvested. Shed leaves of lodging border plants could have fallen into the sampling area but this should be balanced out by leaves of harvest area plants falling into the border area. Here it is important to place the sampling frames such that all positions in the harvest area are represented. Step 3: Harvest the plants. If the whole plot is harvested, select the net harvest area, and cut all plants at ground level, place in a paper or cloth bag, weigh and record the fresh mass."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Step 4: Separate the grains from the stover. As soybeans produce a large number of pods with few seeds it will be very labor intensive to pick the pods from the plants. It is better to carefully thresh them, and separate the grains without losing macerated empty pods, stem or leaf parts (i.e., do not use forced air as this may displace material; rather sieve or hand-sort the material)."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"The leaf dry matter yield (kg/ha) is calculated as: Where the division by the leaf sampling area converts to g/m 2 , the division by 1000 is the conversion of grams to kg and the multiplication by 10,000 is the conversion from m 2 to ha."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"*Note that the sampling area from which the leaves are sampled may be different from the net plot area and this needs to be indicated here."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"The total non-grain aboveground biomass yield is the sum of biomass dry matter yield and leaf dry matter yield: The total aboveground biomass yield is the sum of total non-grain dry matter yield plus the grain dry matter yield: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Top: Well-developed soybean field at the early flowering stage. Bottom: Soybean crop with a large portion of senescent leaves just before harvest "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Left: Mature soybean pods. Right: Mature soybean pods open before being harvested, risking grain losses. Small gusts of wind and the harvest operation can detach the grains from the pods "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Examples of how to locate and demarcate the net harvest area (red box) in row-sown (left) and broadcast (right) soybean plots "},{"text":" Proportion of dry matter in grain sample = Dry grain mass of subsample (1) Fresh grain mass of subsample If the percentage dry matter is preferred:Percentage dry matter in the grain sample "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Example of four leaf-litter sampling frames covering the space between soybean rows. The length, number and distribution of frames needs to reflect the plot size and the required proportion of surface area to be sampled "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Left: Leaf-litter sampling areas (within the red lines) in row-sown soybean plots. Right: Net harvest area of a broadcast soybean plot, cut into eight same-size subplots to sample leaves. Leaf sampling can be done in every second subplot arranged in a zigzag pattern "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Left: Plant sampling areas (within the red lines) in row-sown soybean plots. Right: Net harvest area of a broadcast soybean plot, divided into eight same-size subplots to sample plants. Plant sampling can be done in every second subplot arranged in a zigzag pattern "}],"sieverID":"1ef5ef8c-12f3-464d-a74e-18dfdf13d5cf","abstract":""}

data/part_3/06084c8535cba6e911475d55f7f2a55d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06084c8535cba6e911475d55f7f2a55d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f9f4229-f2c0-4056-9104-0e4d0d67f0f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"More milk in Tanzania","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Adapting dairy market hubs for pro-poor smallholder value chains in Tanzania Suitable organizational models have been lacking to • facilitate collective action for bulking of milk, entry to milk markets and access to inputs and services while increasing the capacity of poor cattle keepers to innovate, manage risk, reduce vulnerability, increase their incomes and ensure food security."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Dairying offers opportunities for rural livelihoods and nutritional security, particularly in societies already having a tradition of cattle-keeping. Perhaps uniquely amongst agricultural pathways out of poverty, it offers many pro-poor benefits from small-scale production and marketing. These include opportunities for intensification and enhanced productivity and incomes, employment in services and marketing, and nutrition both for the smallholder household and the poor in towns and cities served by informal markets. Unlike most crop and livestock enterprises, its benefits throughout the value chain are generated daily rather than seasonally. In many cases especially in short value chains, benefits flow disproportionately to women, the landless, and other marginalized groups, an issue that has to be addressed with increasing commercialization."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Many of the past and ongoing dairy development efforts in Tanzania, however, have targeted high potential areas with better-off smallholder farms able to supply sufficient, steady quantities of milk to justify establishing a processing plant."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Our proposed project will target areas where resourcepoor pre-commercial men and women cattle keepers live, to provide proof-of-concept that such marginalized groups can also be targeted successfully. These households generally sell small volumes to a variety of markets and on an irregular basis (Table 1), and hence their descriptor as 'pre-commercial'. Few dairy development models have been documented that successfully target such households for sustainable increases in productivity and improvements in livelihoods. Nor are the modest levels of production conducive to creating economies"}]},{"head":"Goal","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Inclusive growth and reduced poverty and vulnerability among dairy dependent livelihoods in relevant rural areas in Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Rural poor are more income secure through enhanced access to demand-led dairy market business services and viable organizational options, and low-income consumers have better access to affordable milk."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"These aims are to be achieved through a major 5-year project with research-for-development objectives to: Inform policy on appropriate roles for pro-poor "}]},{"head":"Target groups","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"This project is primarily targeted at pre-commercial marginalized smallholder cattle-keeping men and women who do not currently participate fully in dairy value chains. The goal is to use the DMH approach to allow them to 'grow' towards greater participation. Most emphasis is expected to be on sedentary smallholders rather than pastoralists given that the migratory nature of pastoral production systems is not conducive to developing stationary milk hubs."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"However, there will be potential spill-overs in terms of pastoralists' access to services provided through businesses-including from animal healthcare BDS providers-that the project will aim to strengthen."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"of scale and other factors needed for cost-effective provision of inputs and services. As these households generally operate in informal milk markets, they are also subject to considerable risks, particularly with respect to prices, feed sources and animal health. As a result, these households are not able to invest in improving their productivity or to participate fully in the market. These organizational challenges for emerging dairy farmers have been addressed elsewhere in East Africa by 'dairy market hubs' (DMH) which are localized groups of smaller producers with common interests in accessing inputs (feed, breeding, animal health) and services (training, credit), as a means to achieve a critical mass of supply. Unlike formal systems supplying (often distant) processing plants, hubs tend to serve nearby communities, towns, and urban markets, drawing on local service providers. The pooled production of the hub offers an attractive volume of milk for traditional traders and formal sector collectors. Hubs can also become the focus for specific technologies (feed processing and storage, milk chilling plants. Such organizational forms targeting pre-commercial dairy farmers have not been tested in Tanzania, and the factors affecting the success of their establishment and sustainable operation there remain unknown."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"DMH are collective arrangements for dairy producers that aim to stimulate bulking of milk, facilitating both entry to milk markets and access to inputs and services. This is a marketdriven model whereby marketed volumes of milk attract entrepreneurs, whose services might be guided to achieve public health and organizational goals (so-called Business Development Services [BDS] models). DMH provide physical and organizational platforms that help increase the capacity of poor cattle keepers to innovate, manage risk, reduce vulnerability, increase their incomes and ensure food security."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"The proposed research will inform the introduction of DMH in Tanzania, including DMH-related innovations and commercialization that may or may not involve chilling plants depending on available milk volumes. We are particularly conscious that different situations often call for different solutionsrather than the one-size-fits-all approach that often informs establishment of dairy processing plants with the expectation that emerging resource-poor dairy farmers will respond to the opportunity and begin supplying milk to it. The existing low utilization rates of processing capacity and participation"},{"index":6,"size":268,"text":"Outcome Mapping to achieve a joint vision for both the inception and research for development phases of the project, and hence establish communication, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation plans including provision for workshops to review progress. This will ensure a common vision and understanding among the partners of approaches, concepts and objectives, as well as outcome, implementation, communication, and monitoring strategies and tools. The framework can form the basis for project evaluations and impact assessment; Improve quality assurance services: • TDB, under its mandate to coordinate and regulate the development of the industry by involving all stakeholders, will be supported to undertake this activity, to expand its quality assurance and related services through BDS, liaising with local govern ment authorities as their agents. Given its central convening role of dairy industry stakeholders and promotion of dairy development in Tanzania, TDB will play a central role in communicating project outputs. Lessons from Kenya and Uganda on similar activities will help inform this activity; Initiate process to strengthen actors and their organizations: • Successful policy-oriented research is usually under pinned by effective communication and involves relevant policy actors in the research process. The main policy issues that have been highlighted are: a) weak institutions that, given their nascent nature, are unable to accomplish their mandates in governing the dominant informal sector; and b) an overregulated formal sector that processors claim stifles their growth and denies the industry the benefits of vertical integration. We expect to proactively use policy-oriented research findings from Output 1 to refine such policy issues and initiate steps to address them with the involvement of relevant actors."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"To enable learning, contrasting sites reflecting a range of contexts and implications for alternative models of DMH and value chains will be identified based on an evidence-based site selection process. A site selection tool and criteria will be agreed based on factors such as milk flows, access to markets, potential for collective action, predominantly sedentary producers vs. agro-pastoralists, and availability of related development activities. The project will seek to maximize positive interactions and synergies with existing dairy value chain research and/or development initiatives."}]},{"head":"Project implementation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The project will be managed by ILRI and implemented with Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) and Tanzania Dairy Board (TDB). A steering committee (SC) will be formed with membership composed of representatives from organizations implementing the project, key public and private sector organizations in Tanzania and farmers' organizations."}]},{"head":"Year one objectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"To ensure these longer-term objectives can be achieved, an initial 1-year inception phase is proposed with the specific objectives to:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Assess the current status of the Tanzanian dairy sector "}]},{"head":"Year one activities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Current status of the Tanzanian dairy sector assessed and appropriate entry points and partners identified to promote more pro-poor development orientation Understand policy environment • : Conduct situational and sector-wide analysis based on available methodological tools to understand the policy environment and institutional frameworks for smallholder dairy producers; Consult and sensitize stakeholders."}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"A major stakeholder event will be conducted at the onset of the project to listen to a wide range of views on how the project should proceed, given the pro-poor focus; Develop and implement value chain assessment tool • : Characterize and analyse value chains and stakeholders to identify their constraints and requirements including consumer preferences, opportunities for upgrading and expansion, associated risks, environmental threats and barriers to participation by poor men and women."}]},{"head":"Strategy developed to strengthen the policy environ ment to better support pro-poor dairy development, capitalizing on ongoing engagement with key policy actors and previous successes in Kenya and Uganda","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Develop a pro-poor strategy to strengthen policy envi ronment."}]},{"head":"•","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"We will engage key stakeholders in activities such as We will survey panels of smallholder dairy households at selected sites to establish a baseline for key household, livelihood, produc tion and sales indicators, and for constraints. This would be supplemented by appraisal of market actors serving the smallholder dairy households (including input suppliers and milk marketing agents) to assess baseline market landscape, performance and constraints. The data generated will be used to monitor pilot project impact. It will also play a central role in determining which technical and institutional interventions the project implements at each site. Partnerships with Irish researchers and institutions will be explored to support components of the analysis; Develop best-bet options for pilot interventions:"},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Based on a review of best practices and successes and failures related to pro-poor development including the results from the sectoral analysis, baseline and value chain assessments, a participatory process will be implemented and recommendations developed for pilot interventions to be undertaken after Year 1. Once a go-ahead is obtained from Irish Aid, a search for a development partner will be undertaken and a proposal developed together to agree on choices and formats/service/client types for DMH, and their establishment. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • and identify appropriate entry points and partners for promoting a more pro-poor development orientation; Develop a strategy for strengthening the policy environ-• ment to better support pro-poor dairy development, capitalizing on ongoing engagement with key policy actors and previous successes in Kenya and Uganda; Identify sites appropriate for piloting pro-poor dairy • development interventions that have been successful elsewhere in East Africa, and assess how those interventions need to be adapted to the Tanzanian context. "},{"text":" This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License.September 2012 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Milk marketing outlets use by smallholders in Tanzania  Wet season Dry season Wet seasonDry season Milk buyer Number % Number % Milk buyerNumber%Number% Neighbours 393,513 86.1 324,045 86.1 Neighbours393,51386.1 324,04586.1 Local market 25,227 5.5 19,086 5.1 Local market25,2275.519,0865.1 Secondary market 2,451 0.5 2,173 0.6 Secondary market2,4510.52,1730.6 Processors 6,172 1.4 5,204 1.4 Processors6,1721.45,2041.4 Large-scale farms 864 0.2 592 0.2 Large-scale farms8640.25920.2 Trader at farm 20,784 4.5 17,713 4.7 Trader at farm20,7844.517,7134.7 Other 7,813 1.7 7,442 2 Other7,8131.77,4422 Total 456,824 100 376,255 100 Total456,824100 376,255100  "},{"text":" We will use participatory scoping procedures to identify imple mentation sites based on agreed tools with criteria such as target groups, milk flows, preferred products, access to markets, potential for collective action, and availability of related development activities; Structured baseline surveys:•  "}],"sieverID":"76097cb1-596d-4c04-b7e3-3f1b71882a1d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0618ecf2e3cc96a7a056ef27cd4a8e58","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2191533a-54e1-4954-8c2b-92f75315feaf/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Relative Changes in the Nutrient Composition of Six Cultivars of White Yam Grown in Three Ecozones of Southeastern Nigeria","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Yams (Dioscorea sp) constitute a major staple food in southeastern Nigeria (OkoIji 1986) and have been ranked second only to cereals as the most important food crop in West Africa (Soursey 1967;Onwueme 1978). White yam (D. rotundata Poir) is the most widely grown and eaten cultivar in West Africa (Okonkwo 1985)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Yam consumers tend to associate their preference for different cultivars of yam to their sources. The reason may stem from the influence of environment on the chemical composition of the tubers."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"The major nutrient obtained from yam tuber is carbohydrate but Baquar and Oke (1976) have shown that some clones of D. rotundata and D. dumetorum have protein contents of up to between 3.2 and 13.9 percent/dry weight. Oke (1967) earlier noted that a yam meal could supply 100 percent of the energy and protein needs of an adult. Yams are known to be superior to cassava as a source protein, hence Purseglove (1972) pOinted out that the displacement of yam by cassava in certain areas may increase the incidence of kwashiorkor in such areas. Most yams, according to Eka (1985), are also rich in phosphorus and some vitamins. However, UTA (1982) noted that there are variabilities in the chemical composition of yam tuber, and this composition may vary even within the same cultivar, depending on the environmental conditions under which the tuber was produced."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Thus, the objective of the study was to assess the relative variations in the composition of six cultivars of D. rotundata Poir grown across three major yam ecozones in southeastern Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Three sites representing subhumid savanna, the forest-savanna transition and the riverine alluvial areas were chosen for the production of the six cultivars."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Zaki-Biam (7°27'N, 9°29'E) was chosen in the sub humid savanna of Benue State: Abakaliki (6°25'N, 8°05'E) was chosen in the forest-savanna transition of Anambra State while Atani (6°01'N, 6°44'E) was chosen in the riverine alluvial area along the river Niger, also in Anambra State. 1\\vo popular cultivars of D. rotundata in each of the locations were selected for the study which lasted for two cropping seasons in 1986 and 1987. The six cultivars were Agatu and Gbango, both from Zaki-Biam: Igun and Nyeji from Abakaliki, and Aga and Ekpe from Atan!. All six cultivars were grown in each location using a split-plot design with fertilizer as the main plot and cultivar as the subplot. There were four replications in each location."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Harvests made at maturity (8 months after planting) from unfertilized plots were used for the laboratory analysis. The protein, total soluble sugar and starch contents of tubers were determined using standard methods outlined by AOAC (196~). \\"},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"The relative percentage increase, or decrease in the composition of the tubers was determined from 100 y lx, where x is the value of the parameter (protein, total soluble sugar or starch) obtained from the source site and y is the value from the test sites. Any value above 100 denotes increase in the yield of the parameter, 100 denotes no change and values below 100 imply a decrease in the respective parameters in the test sites. Note that the test sites refer to those locations where the respective cultivars were newly introduced. Prior to the establishment of the research plots, the soils were fully characteriszed and classified. Regression analyses were conducted between protein contents, total soluble sugar contents and soil pH, organic carbon, total N, available P, exchangeable K and base saturation."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The soils of each location were classified according to the soil properties determined."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Zaki-Biam soils: "}]},{"head":"Results oj Biochemical Analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The analysis of variance (ANOV A) of the combined data from the three locations showed that culUvar effect was significant (P = 0.05) and highly significant (P < 0.001) on crude protein and total soluble sugar contents, respectively, only in 1986 harvests. The effects of location, cultivar, and location x cultivar interaction were not significant on the other parameters measured."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"The mean values of crude protein. starch and total soluble sugar contents of the tubers are shown in table 1. The values indicated only very slight variations in protein contents averaged over the three locations. In 1986 and 1987 trials crude protein contents averaged 1.73 percent and 1.60 percent at Zaki-Biam; 1.65 percent and 1.71 percent at Abakaliki, while the corresponding values obtained at Atani were 1.69 percent and 1.68 percent. The starch contents (table 1) also showed little variation among the three locations. For both years the difference between highest starch content (dry weight basis) which was obtained from the Zaki-Biam location (73.59°A,) and the least (70.3%) from Abakaliki location was only 3.29 percent. On fresh weight basis the highest value (30.13%) was obtained from the Atani location while the least (26.65%) was also got from the Abakaliki location. The least variations were observed in total soluble sugar contents. The changes in values based on both the dry weight and fresh weight of tubers were only very slight (table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"The mean values of crude protein. starch and total soluble sugar contents averaged over cultivar are given in table 2. The cultivars in both years are listed in table 2. In both years cultivars Nyeji and Gbango gave the highest values of protein. while the least values were obtained from Aga (1.4°16. 1986 trial) and Ekpe (1.2%. 1987 trial). The values obtained from Nyeji and Gbango in the 1986 trial were apprOximately 2 percent while their corresponding values in the 1987 trial were 2 percent and 2.3 percent."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"The starch contents (dry weight basis) for both years ranged from 66.3 percent to 79.1 percent. The highest value in the 1986 trial (76.4%) was obtained from Aga and the least for the same year (66.3%) from Ekpe. In the 1987 trial Ekpe also gave the least value (67.8%) while Agatu (79.1°16) gave the highest. On fresh weight basis Ekpe gave the least values in both years with 24 percent in 1986 trial and 26.5 percent in the 1987 trial. The highest values in both years (29.3% and 33.1°16) were obtained from Gbango."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The total soluble sugar (dry weight) content was highest in Nyeji (4.6°16) in 1986 trial and lowest in Aga (3.8%) for the ~ame year. On a fresh weight basis the highest value (5.4%) was obtained from Igun and the least from Agatu (1.4%). Results from the 1987 trials (table 2) also indicated that Igun gave the highest values for both dry weight (5.56%) and fresh weight (2.28°16) basis while Aga gave the least values. On a dry weight basis Aga gave 3.81 percent. while on fresh weight basis 1.49 percent was obtained."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"The mean yields of protein obtained from all the cultivars relative to the three locations on which they were grown are listed in table 3. The result showed that Igun (source: Abakaliki) with the highest relative protein content (120-122%) was harvested from Atani. Thus. there was an increase of more than 20 percent protein in the cultivars grown at Atani. This increase was 18 percent (fresh weight basis) and 9 percent (dry weight basis) for Igun grown at Zaki-Biam. The protein cpntent of Nyeji (source: Abakaliki) was highest when grown at Abakaliki. The values obtained from Zaki-Biam and Atani showed a decrease in proteIn content of more than 30 percent in the cultivar (Nyeji) haIVested in both locations."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":","},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"The proteIn content of Agatu (source: Zaki-Biam) haIVested from Atani increased by more than 45 percent and at Abakaliki the increase was more than 15 percent. The increase in protein content (fresh weight basis) was similar (25%) at Atani and Abakaliki."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"The increase in the protein content of Aga (source: Atani) grown at Zaki-BlaIn was only slJght (less than 10 percent). At Abakaliki the values showed a decrease in the protein content of Ekpe (source: Atanl grown at Abakaliki). There waS an increase of more than 20 percent for harvests at Zaki-Blam."},{"index":10,"size":169,"text":"The mean yields of starch from the cultivars grown in each of the three locations are shown in table 4. The increase in the starch content of Igun (source: Abakaliki) grown at Zaki-Biam was only 8 percent while the starch content of Igun grown at Atani showed a very slight decrease of 1 percent there was a decrease in the starch content of Nyeji (source: Abakaliki) haIVested at Zaki-Biam and AtanL Hence. in terms of starch content. Igun and Nyeji performed better in their original source site (Abakaliki). The starch content of Agatu (source: Zaki-Biam) haIVested from Atani increased by more than 25 percent. Gbango (source: Zaki-Biam) generally decreased in starch content when grown at Abakal1ki and Atani. Similarly the starch content of Aga (source: At ani) decreased when it was grown at Abakaliki and Zaki-Biam. There was only a slight increase (13 percent) in starch content (fresh basis) of Ekpe grown at Zaki-Biam. In terms of starch content. Aga might be considered suitable for Atani. the original source."},{"index":11,"size":118,"text":"The mean soluble sugar content of the culUvars haIVested from each location is shown in table 5. On a dry weight basis. there was only a slight increase (2 0 16) in soluble sugar content in Igun haIVested from Zaki-Biam. The values obtained showed that in terms of soluble sugar all the cultivars except Aga and Agatu performed best in their original source sites. There was a 10 percent increase in soluble sugar of Agatu (source: Zaki-Biam) grown at Atani. Similarly. there was also a 12 percent increase in soluble sugar of Aga (source: Atani) grown at Zaki-Biam. On a fresh weight basis (table 5) the increases in soluble sugar were less than 10 percent in each case."},{"index":12,"size":138,"text":"The protein contents of the culUvars are generally low. as indicated by the results obtained and reported earlier by Eka (1978). The values are. however, higher than those obtained from earlier work reported by Eka (1978). The values are, however, higher than those obtained from cassava and according to Oke (1967) the protein content of yam can satisfy adult needs. Hence Purseglove (1972) categorically stated that the displacement of yam by cassava in food consumption patterns of some farming communities may increase the incidence of kwashiorkor in such areas. Thus, to increase the protein content of yam grown in those locations, the best cultivars for the Zaki-Biam location are Ekpe and Igun sourced respectively from Atani and Abakaliki. Those recommended for Abakaliki were Gbango and Agatu, both sourced.from Zaki-Biam, while Agatu and Igun were recommended for Atani locations."},{"index":13,"size":68,"text":"Because of their starch content, Ekpe and Igun were also recommended for the Zaki-Biam location, while Agatu and Nyeji were recommended for Abakaliki. For Atani, Agatu and Ekpe were recommended. Apart from Igun and Nyeji which yielded the highest total soluble sugar in their source sites at Abakaliki, all other cultivars yielded better in their test sites. Cultivars recommended for Zaki-Biam and Atani were Aga and Agatu, respectively."},{"index":14,"size":143,"text":"The results of multiple regression analysis between protein contents, total soluble sugar contents and selected soil properties showed inconsistent trends. The parameters with significant correlation coefficients on protein contents and total soluble sugar contents were not applicable to all the cultlvars. The results presented in table 6 indicate that soU pH has significant correlation and total soluble sugar contents were not applicable to all the cultlvars. The results presented in table 6 indicate that soU pH has significant correlation with the protein content of Agatu. All other coefficients were not stgniflcant. The results presented in table 7 show that base saturation has a significant correlation coefficient on the total soluble sugar content of Agatu and total N has significant correlation with the total soluble sugar contents of Igun and Aga. All other parameters have no significant correlation coemclents on total soluble sugar contents."}]},{"head":"Summary and Conclusions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Six popular cultivars of white yam (D. Totundata Poir) were selected and grown in three major yam ecozones in southeastern Nigeria to assess the relative changes in their composition when grown across the three zones. The experimental design in each location was a split plot, replicated four tlmes with fertilizer as main plot and cultivar as subplot treatments. The study was done for two cropping seasons (1986 and 1987), and tubers harvested at matuIity from unfertilized plots were analyzed for crude protein, starch and total soluble sugar. These parameters were compared for each location and also regressed against selected soil properties."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The study showed that increases in protein contents of up to 53 percent may be achieved by growing some exogenous culUvars in areas other than where they are presently grown. Protein contents of some cultivars may, on the other hand, diminish by up to 43 percent if grown in any location other than the ortglnal source sites. Based on the relative performance of each of the cultlvars with respect to the parameters relative to the source sites, cultivars best suited to each location were as follows: Ekpe (source: Atani) and Igun (source: Abaka11k1) for the Zaki-Biam location, and Agatu for Atani location."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Apart from Igun and Nyeji, which yielded highest total soluble sugar In their source site (Abakaliki), all other cultivars generally petfonned better In their test sites, hence the introduction of exogenous cultivars in the sites would be of advantage in improving the quality of the yams. However, the son properties that may affect this quality are soil acidity and base saturation, organic matter and total nitrogen contents of the soils. If these properties are adequately amended, yams of high quality could be produced on any of the locatlons.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Coarse loamy. mixed. isohyperth and UIUc Haplustaff coarse \"loamy, mixed isohyperthermic in USDA (1975) Soil Classification system (Soil Taxonomy) and correlated as Haplic Luvisols in the FAO /UNESCO World Map Legend. Udic Rhodustalf, loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic in the USDA (1975) system and respectively correlated as Chromic and Haplic Luvisols in the FAO/UNESCO World Map Legend. Aquic Dystropept, fine loamy, mixed isohyperthermic in the USDA (1975) system and correlated as Dystric Fluvisols in the FAO/UNESCO World Map Legend. "},{"text":"Table 1 Location Mean values of protein, starch and soluble sugar contents of yam tubers averaged over location . Standard error. dry weight. fresh weight. respectively.   Parameters (Ok)  Parameters (Ok)   1986'Tr1al   1986'Tr1al  Protein Starch Starch Total sol. Total sol. ProteinStarchStarch Total sol. Total sol.  (dw) (fw) (dw) sugar sugar (dw)(fw)(dw)sugarsugar     (fw)  (fw) Zaki-Biam 1.73 72.6 28.32 4.54 2.72 Zaki-Biam1.7372.628.324.542.72 Abakaliki 1.65 70.3 26.65 4.19 2.84 Abakaliki1.6570.326.654.192.84 Atani 1.69 72.3 28.71 4.73 2.87 Atani1.6972.328.714.732.87 SE (±) 0.04 1.25 1.09 0.27 0.08 SE (±)0.041.251.090.270.08    1987 Trial  1987 Trial Zaki-Biam 1.00 73.59 28.89 4.73 1.94 Zaki-Biam1.0073.5928.894.731.94 Abakaliki 1.71 73.50 28.50 4.41 1.71 Abakaliki1.7173.5028.504.411.71 Atani 1.68 70.08 30.13 4.72 1.94 Atani1.6870.0830.134.721.94 SE (±) 0.06 2.00 0.95 0.18 0.10 SE (±)0.062.000.950.180.10 +SE. dw. fw:      +SE. dw. fw:  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mean values of protein, starch and soluble sugar contents .of yam tubers averaged over cultivar 1986 Tria! 1986 Tria!  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Mean values of Protein content of each cultlvar relative to locations(1986 and \"1987 trials combined)     Test sites Test sites  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Mean values of starch CODtent of each caItIvar zelatlft to locatio_ they wae     Test sites    Test sites  CuJtJvar  % starch (fw)   % starch (dw)  CuJtJvar% starch (fw)% starch (dw)   AbakaJikJ Zald-Blam AtanI Abakaliki. Zaki-Blam Atanl AbakaJikJZald-BlamAtanIAbakaliki. Zaki-Blam Atanl Abakallkl Igun . 28.94 31.17 28.70 76.22 75.90 74.41 AbakallklIgun .28.9431.1728.7076.2275.9074.41  NyeJI 29.69 26.65 25.37 70.24 73.25 66.20 NyeJI29.6926.6525.3770.2473.2566.20 Zakl-Blam Agatu 27.94 27.61 36.72 73.69 72.39 91.08 Zakl-BlamAgatu27.9427.6136.7273.6972.3991.08  Gbango 31.35 37.12 30.77 74.61 77.04 74.f11 Gbango31.3537.1230.7774.6177.0474.f11 Atanl Ap 28.32 27.77 35.56 73.80 75.13 83.56 AtanlAp28.3227.7735.5673.8075.1383.56  Ekpe 24.81 28.95 75.63 72.39 67.81 78.23 Ekpe24.8128.9575.6372.3967.8178.23  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Mean values of soluble sugar content of each cultivar relative to locations(1988  and 1987  trials comblned). Test sites Test sites  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Regression Coefficient between soU properties and protein contents of yam tubers for all the locations combined . _ ..... sigDificant at 0.05. 0.01 and 0.001 probability levelS. respectiVely SOil propertks    CulUvar   SOil propertksCulUvar   1b1\\.ln AgakJ Aga Nyeji GOOngo Ekpe 1b1\\.lnAgakJAgaNyejiGOOngoEkpe Base saturation (XG) 0.005 0.042 -0.005 -0.012 0.026 0.089 Base saturation(XG)0.0050.042-0.005-0.0120.0260.089 pH (Xl) -0.256 0.562 0.715 0.077* -0.934 -0.584 pH(Xl)-0.2560.5620.7150.077*-0.934-0.584 OrganiC C. (X21 -0.466 8.570 -5.764 3.012 0.004*** 9.630 OrganiC C.(X21-0.4668.570-5.7643.0120.004***9.630 Total N. ~ -4.132 -0.359-- 3.547 6.657 -3.216 4.799 Total N.~-4.132-0.359--3.5476.657-3.2164.799 Av. P CX4l -0.074 -0.517 -0.383 0.210 0.050 0.626 Av. PCX4l-0.074-0.517-0.3830.2100.0500.626 K+ CX5l 1.827 21.239 18.765 -6.394 -6.943 -27.889 K+CX5l1.82721.23918.765-6.394-6.943-27.889  "}],"sieverID":"35a3f0b2-d081-4a25-a1e6-7a9c9310f27c","abstract":"The relative changes in the composition of six cultivars of white yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir) were investigated in three major yam ecozones in southeastern Nigeria. The component parameters measured were crude protein, starch and total soluble sugar of the six cultivars at maturity. Each of the six cultivars was grown in the three locations which represent su bh umid savanna (Zaki-Biam), forest-savanna transition (Abakaliki) and riverine alluvial areas (At ani) for two seasons (1986 and 1987). Samples analyzed were obtained from unfertilized plots which formed part of the split plot design used in each location with fertilizer as main plot and cultivar as subplot treatments.The study showed that some cultivars (e.g., Agatu) performed better in their test sites because increase in protein contents of up to 53 percent, starch contents of up to 33 percent and soluble sugar content of up to 16 percent were obtained in the test site. On the other hand, some cultivars (e.g., Nyeji) performed better in their source site. and decrease of up to 43 percent protein, 56 percent soluble sugar and 10 percent starch were obtained. The soil properties that may contribute to these variations are soil acidity and base saturation, organic matter and total nitrogen. When these properties are adequately amended in each of the locations, the quality of the yam cultivars grown in each location is likely to be higher."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"063419cf9dd10bffdc9d2fedff38b3dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e0741ff2-277e-4cec-bd45-905b781ef2e3/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Community participation in decentralized management of natural resources in the southern region of Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives and approach","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"• The purpose of this study was to document and analyze the existing local conventions in mixed crop-livestock systems of southern Mali and to examine the factors that influence the level of participation of farmers in elaborations of local conventions. "}]},{"head":"Key results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Local conventions governing natural resources management exist in all study sites mainly in an informal (oral) form. They govern natural resources use (land access and acquisition, harvesting wild fruits, fishing, grazing, forest, water management). "}]},{"head":"Significance and scaling potential","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The results illustrate that local conventions governing natural resources are weak, mainly due to low participation of community members in their elaboration and lack of their formalization. Community should promote the participation of community members in decision making over natural resources, this will increase the accountability of each natural resource user for the better use of these resources. About 10 000 farmers and herders can be reached by the intervention on local conventions governing natural resources in Mali. "}]},{"head":"Photo1. Community participation in elaboration of local conventions","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Men had a higher knowledge of local conventions compared to women (figure 1) • Participation of community members in elaboration of local conventions was very low, and age, gender, and ethnicity appeared to influence the level of participation of the community (Table1) • Weakness of existing local natural resource institutions : Lack of formalization of most of the existing rules and norms governing NRM; lack of effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for the local rules governing NRM; poor participation of community members in the elaboration of local conventions.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Results of the regression analysis of the level of participation of community members in the elaboration of rules and norms governing natural resources use Independent variable Bougouni Koutiala Independent variableBougouniKoutiala Age 0.029*** 0.004 Age0.029***0.004 Residence -0.023*** 0.010 Residence-0.023***0.010 Female -0.575*** -0.389** Female-0.575***-0.389** Herder -1.098 0.189 Herder-1.0980.189 Farmer-herder -0.093 0.026 Farmer-herder-0.0930.026 Formal education -0.411** 0.340* Formal education-0.411**0.340* Koranic education 0.206 0.035 Koranic education0.2060.035 Non land owning lineage -0.280 0.282 Non land owning lineage-0.2800.282 Constant 0.188 -0.258 Constant0.188-0.258 R 2 0.317 0.117 R 20.3170.117  "}],"sieverID":"ac6e2ae2-c898-489d-8554-0233229a1609","abstract":" Local institutions governing natural resource management can serve as viable policy instruments to promote equitable and sustainable use of natural resources, and reduce conflict if strengthened through appropriate and inclusive processes involving the local communities and the State agencies.  Strengthening local conventions management of natural resources is essential to maintain a healthy natural resource base for sustainable intensification of crop and livestock production systems."}

data/part_3/063862e265616ff0cafb68b8df922c45.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"063862e265616ff0cafb68b8df922c45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1237/WF_2777.pdf"},"pageCount":24,"title":"ESTIMATION OF ANNUAL YIELD OF FISH BY GUILD IN THE LOWER MEKONG BASIN","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"This consultation is a contribution to an assessment of the impacts of basin development on fish production in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Fish of different species respond to development activities, in particular hydropower development, in different ways depending upon their migratory behaviour and their ability to adapt to and tolerate new environmental conditions. Halls & Kshatriya (2010) grouped the species of the LMB into 9 groups or \"guilds\" according to these characteristics."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"In order to better assess the impact of hydropower development on fish production in each country and along main Mekong tributaries, it is necessary to assess i) how migratory a given species is (longitudinal/lateral migrations; scale of migration, resilience to environmental change), i.e. what guild it belongs; ii) what contribution this species makes to fish catches basinwide."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"The present study builds the MRC AMCF catch monitoring survey undertaken between November 2003 and December 2004 -the 12 month period corresponding to maximum spatial and temporal coverage of the survey following the methodology reported by Halls & Kshatriya (2009)."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"This study deepens the work initiated by Halls & Kshatriya (2009) by adjustments aimed at better reflecting the proportion of black fish in the catch. This proportion is likely to have been underestimated by Halls & Kshatriya because of the predominance of mainstream habitat sampled by the AMCF survey which is typically not inhabited by blackfish species."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"For the purposes of the assessment, the contribution made by each guild to the baseline total yield of each country is estimated. Whilst some ad hoc surveys have been undertaken in specific locations in the LMB to provide areal estimates of yield sometimes for specific habitat types, fisheries and seasons (e.g. Hortle et al (2008); Hortle & Suntornratana (2008); Sjorslev (2001); Coates (2000), no attempts have been made to conduct a nationwide CAS in the LMB."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"In the absence of such a CAS, estimates of yield from the fish consumption survey described by Hortle (2007) were used as the baseline for the assessment (Table 1), assuming that the proportion of cultured fish consumed (approx. 10%) equals the proportion of the wild fishery used for animal feed or wasted. "}]},{"head":"Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand Vietnam Total","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"These consumption-based estimates contain no information about the respective yields by species and therefore by guild. Instead, the contribution made by each species to total consumption-based yield estimates of each country was estimated from the AMCF catch monitoring survey undertaken between December 2003 and November 2004 -the 12 month period corresponding to maximum spatial and temporal coverage of the survey. This survey monitored the landings of fishers at 44 villages in the LMB mainly exploiting main channel, riverine and canal habitat but also lakes, reservoirs and floodplains to a lesser extent. Most observations corresponded to the village locations along the main channel of the Mekong (Figure 1). It is assumed that all guilds except Guild 6 (Blackfish) inhabit the main channel or riverine habitat at some period of the year. Therefore some indication of the relative contribution of species to the total catch in each country (except blackfish) can be estimated from the reported landings by species from the main channel and other riverine habitat. The contribution of blackfish to total yield can be estimated as the product of their mean areal yield and the total habitat area of blackfish."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Table 2 summarises the catch estimates by guild from riverine habitat. Averaged across fishing locations, blackfish species comprised less than 3 % of the reported landings from river habitat. The median blackfish proportion estimate for this habitat was less than 1 %.  The yield of each guild was expressed as a proportion of the total yield summed across guilds and villages (excluding the yield of blackfish). Each guild proportion was then adjusted to account for the estimated proportion of blackfish yield in each country (Table 3) as follows: The blackfish proportion of the yield of each country was estimated as the product of the estimate of total area of each blackfish habitat type, the mean areal yield for the habitat (all species) and the estimated mean proportion of the yield of blackfish reported in the literature (Table 4), expressed as a proportion of the total consumption-based yield estimate for each country given in Table 1. Blackfish were assumed to inhabit (i) (seasonally) river-inundated wetlands (floodplains, swamps, flooded forests etc) [Flood zone], (ii) rain-fed and irrigated ricefields [rainfed zone] and (iii) reservoirs and large waterbodies outside the flood zone. Estimates of each habitat area were taken from Hortle & Penroong (2009)."}]},{"head":"Flood zone and rainfed zone","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The distribution of areal yield estimates from the literature was positively skewed. The median areal yield estimate (all fish species) was approximately 100 kg ha -1 year -1 and 50 kg ha -1 year -1 for the flood zone and rainfed zones, respectively (Table 5). Yield estimates for rain-fed ricefields were more variable (CoV = 81 %) than those for the floodzone (CoV = 65 %) probably reflecting a wider range of eco-hydrological conditions in this habitat category (see below). Bambardeniya and Amerasinghe (2004) describe five different categories of ricefields based upon water regime, drainage, temperature, soil type and topography. "}]},{"head":"Proportion of yield Wildfish","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The mean blackfish yield proportion from floodplains across the entire LMB is estimated to be approximately 30 % (Table 4). This is consistent with the opinions of 13 fisheries scientists from Lao PDR, Cambodia and international organisations operating in the LMB (see Barlow et al 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Few studies have reported the relative contribution of different species to fish yields from rainfed or rainfed irrigated ricefields. Bambardeniya and Amerasinghe (2004) cite studies reporting the presence of up to 40 species of fish in ricefields in Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Nguyen Khoa et al (2005) recorded 124 species of fish in rainfed irrigated ricefield landscapes in southern Lao PDR. Only eight of the 21 most frequently reported species were blackfish. Hortle et al (2008) estimated that blackfish accounted for 93 % of rainfed ricefield yields in Battambong. The same authors cite estimates of blackfish yield proportions from other studies in the range of 80 % to 95 % but mainly from ricefields and their trap ponds."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"The blackfish proportion of the yield from rain-fed ricefields is also expected to vary according to eco-hydrological conditions particularly the depth and duration of flooding and availability of dry season refuges (e.g. trap ponds, reservoirs, rivers). A greater proportion of blackfish would be expected in shallow ricefields with rapidly fluctuating water levels and with limited (access to) the river system of other dry season refuge habitat. Irrigated ricefields, on the other hand, are likely to have a higher diversity of fish species with greater contributions to yield from greyfish and whitefish because of more abundant and diverse dry season habitat and potentially greater connectivity to the river system provided by river and irrigation channels. Therefore, the inclusion of catches from nearby rivers, streams and permanent waterbodies forming the irrigated 'ricefield landscape' would be expected to lower estimates of the proportion of blackfish yield from ricefields alone."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Most rice-fields in the LMB that are classified as 'rain-fed' appear to be associated with irrigation schemes (see Figures 4 and 5 in Hortle and Penroong (2009)). Therefore perhaps a more balanced estimate of the blackfish yield proportion for the irrigated 'ricefield landscape' outside the floodzone might be in the region of 30 % to 90 %. For the purposes of this assessment we might therefore assume the mid-range value i.e. 60 %."}]},{"head":"Reservoirs and large waterbodies outside the flood zone.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The mean areal yield estimate for reservoirs and large waterbodies outside the flood zone is estimated to be in the region of 200 kg ha -1 year -1 after Hortle & Penroong (2009). Many reservoirs in the LMB are stocked with exotic species particularly carps and Nile tilapia forming almost the entire catch in some cases (Table 9, Hortle & Penroong 2009). Whilst blackfish inhabit reservoirs, their contribution to the overall yield appears low in most cases. Here, it is assumed that the blackfish yield proportion for these habitats is in the region of 10 % after Nakkaew et al (2002) who found that the indigenous blackfish yield proportion in Haui Luang reservoir, Udon Thani, Thailand was less than 10 %."}]},{"head":"Total yield by guild estimates","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The total yield by guild (Table 6) was estimated by combining the consumption-based yield estimates in Table 1 with the guild yield proportions in Table 3. The small differences (<0.1 %) in the total inland fish yield estimates for each country when compared to Table 1 reflect rounding errors."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"It is estimated that blackfish (Guild 6) form almost 30 % of the total yield of the LMB, arising from the large area of the irrigated 'ricefield landscape' in Thailand. Generalist species (Guild 5) are also estimated to form approximately 30 % of the yield, whereas migratory whitefish (Guilds 2, 3 and 4) combine to form nearly 40 % of the total. The remaining proportion 2 % comprises mostly estuarine resident, and marine and catadromous species (Table 6). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Locations of the AMCF catch monitoring sites. Source: Halls & Kshatriya (2009). "},{"text":"Table 1 Estimates of yield of inland fish and OAA in the LMB (tonnes/year). Source: Hortle (2007)   "},{"text":"Table 3 Estimated yield proportion by guild for the LMB. Blackfish Proportion 0.29 0.27 0.43 0.12 Guild Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand Vietnam   "},{"text":"Table 4 Estimation of the blackfish yield proportion by country from estimates of habitat area, areal yield and blackfish yield proportion by habitat type. *and large waterbodies outside floodzone. (a) Area estimates (km 2 )    (a) Area estimates (km2 )   Cambodia Lao Thailand Vietnam Total CambodiaLaoThailandVietnamTotal  Flood Zone 28262 4617 7795 17343 Flood Zone282624617779517343  Rainfed Zone 17605 8962 93119 10149 Rainfed Zone1760589629311910149  Reservoirs* 853 2143 3521 995 Reservoirs*85321433521995  Total 46720 15722 104435 28487 Total467201572210443528487 (b)     (b)  "},{"text":"Area yield estimates (tonnes y -1 ) kg/ha/year Cambodia Lao      Thailand Vietnam Total ThailandVietnamTotal Flood Zone 100 282620 46170 77950 173430 Flood Zone1002826204617077950173430 Rainfed Zone 50 88025 44810 465595 50745 Rainfed Zone50880254481046559550745 Reservoirs* 200 17060 42860 70420 19900 Reservoirs*20017060428607042019900 Total  387705 133840 613965 244075 Total387705133840613965244075 (c)      (c)  "},{"text":"Blackfish Yield Estimates (tonnes y -1 ) Blackfish yield proportion Cambodia Lao Thailand Vietnam Total Flood Zone   0.3 84786 13851 23385 52029 0.384786138512338552029 Rainfed Zone 0.6 52815 26886 279357 30447 Rainfed Zone0.6528152688627935730447 Reservoirs* 0.1 1706 4286 7042 1990 Reservoirs*0.11706428670421990 Total Total  139307 45023 309784 84466 Total Total1393074502330978484466  "},{"text":"Consumption-based estimates of total yield (t/y) 481537 167922 720501 692118 Blackfish yield proportion (all habitats) 0.29 0.27 0.43 0.12 0.28 Table 5 Estimates of areal yield and blackfish yield proportion from ricefields and floodplains. Table excludes data from Troeung et al (2003) that is reported to underestimate yields by exclusion of artisanal catches, and Lim et al (2005) due to artificial nature of floodplains (see Hortle & Penroong 2009).          Mid-range fish      Mid-range fish    Flooded, Irrigated or   Yield all Yield fish yield    Blackfish yield  Flooded, Irrigated orYield allYield fishyieldBlackfish yield Country Location Habitats Rainfed? AEZ Stocked? (kg/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) Fish OAA Blackfish (kg/ha/year) Source CountryLocationHabitatsRainfed?AEZStocked?(kg/ha/year)(kg/ha/year)(kg/ha/year)FishOAABlackfish(kg/ha/year)Source Cambodia Battambang Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed (& flooded?)  N 119 92 92 0.77 0.23 0.93 85 Hortle et al (2008) CambodiaBattambangRicefields, single cropRain-fed (& flooded?)N11992920.770.230.9385 Hortle et al (2008) Cambodia Svay Rieng (L) Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed Low Y 40 30 30 0.75 0.25   Amilhat et al (2009) CambodiaSvay Rieng (L)Ricefields, single cropRain-fedLowY4030300.750.25Amilhat et al (2009) Cambodia Takeo (U) Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed Dry Y 5 3 3 0.54 0.46   Amilhat et al (2009) CambodiaTakeo (U)Ricefields, single cropRain-fedDryY5330.540.46Amilhat et al (2009) Cambodia  Ricefields ?  ?  25 -61 43     Ahmed et al (1998) CambodiaRicefields??25 -6143Ahmed et al (1998) Cambodia Svay Rieng, Theap District Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed  ? 100 82 82 0.82 0.18   Gregory et al (1996) as cited by Guttman (1999). CambodiaSvay Rieng, Theap DistrictRicefields, single cropRain-fed?10082820.820.18Gregory et al (1996) as cited by Guttman (1999). Cambodia       51 51     Gregory & Guttman (1999) as cites by Gregory and Guttman (2002) Cambodia5151Gregory & Guttman (1999) as cites by Gregory and Guttman (2002) Lao PDR 3 provinces in southern Laos Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed and irrigated  Y  60 60     Nguyen Khoa et al., 2005 Lao PDR3 provinces in southern LaosRicefields, single cropRain-fed and irrigatedY6060Nguyen Khoa et al., 2005 Thailand Khu Khat Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed  N  25 -125 75     Fujisaka & Vejpas (1990) as cited by Little et al (1996) ThailandKhu KhatRicefields, single cropRain-fedN25 -12575Fujisaka & Vejpas (1990) as cited by Little et al (1996) Thailand Koh Wang District, NE Thailand Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed  Y  33 33     Mang-Uphan et al (1990) cited by Middendorp (1992) ThailandKoh Wang District, NE Thailand Ricefields, single cropRain-fedY3333Mang-Uphan et al (1990) cited by Middendorp (1992) Thailand Koh Wang District, NE Thailand Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed  Y  209 209     Middendorp (1992) ThailandKoh Wang District, NE Thailand Ricefields, single cropRain-fedY209209Middendorp (1992) Thailand NE Thailand Ricefields, single crop ?  ?  25 25     Spiller (1985) cited by Gregory & Guttman (1997) ThailandNE ThailandRicefields, single crop??2525Spiller (1985) cited by Gregory & Guttman (1997) Thailand Yasothon (L) Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed Low Y 26 22 22 0.84    Amilhat et al (2009) ThailandYasothon (L)Ricefields, single cropRain-fedLowY2622220.84Amilhat et al (2009) Thailand Sisaket (U) Ricefields, single crop Rain-fed Dry Y 65 55 55 0.84    Amilhat et al (2009) ThailandSisaket (U)Ricefields, single cropRain-fedDryY6555550.84Amilhat et al (2009) Vietnam Hanoi (L) Ricefields Irrigated Dry Y 52 44 44 0.84    Amilhat et al (2009) VietnamHanoi (L)RicefieldsIrrigatedDryY5244440.84Amilhat et al (2009) Vietnam Phu Xuyen (U) Ricefields Irrigated Low Y 151 127 127 0.84    Amilhat et al (2009) VietnamPhu Xuyen (U)RicefieldsIrrigatedLowY1511271270.84Amilhat et al (2009) Cambodia Tonle Sap Floodplain, ricefield and perm. w/bs Flooded Low N 243 -532 310 310 0.8    Dubeau et al (2000) cites by Hortle & Penroong (2009) CambodiaTonle SapFloodplain, ricefield and perm. w/bs FloodedLowN243 -5323103100.8Dubeau et al (2000) cites by Hortle & Penroong (2009) Cambodia Tonle Sap Entire floodplain Flooded Low N  230 230     Baran et al (2001) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) CambodiaTonle SapEntire floodplainFloodedLowN230230Baran et al (2001) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) Cambodia Tonle Sap Entire floodplain (1995-99) Flooded Low N  139 -190 164.5     Lieng & van Zalinge (2001) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) CambodiaTonle SapEntire floodplain (1995-99)FloodedLowN139 -190164.5Lieng & van Zalinge (2001) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) Cambodia Kratie Rice fields in floodplain system Flooded Low N      0.15  AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 CambodiaKratieRice fields in floodplain systemFloodedLowN0.15AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 Thailand Songkhram River-floodplain system Flooded, irrigated & raiLow N  79 79 0.63  0.37 29 Hortle & Santornratana (2008) ThailandSongkhramRiver-floodplain systemFlooded, irrigated & raiLowN79790.630.3729 Hortle & Santornratana (2008) Thailand Nongbeung River-floodplain system Flooded Low N      0.43  AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 ThailandNongbeungRiver-floodplain systemFloodedLowN0.43AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 Thailand Nakornphanom River-floodplain system Flooded Low N      0.23  AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 ThailandNakornphanomRiver-floodplain systemFloodedLowN0.23AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 Vietnam An Giang Mainly floodplain canals and rivers Flooded Low N      0.16  AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 VietnamAn GiangMainly floodplain canals and rivers FloodedLowN0.16AMCF CAS Nov 03 -Dec 04 Vietnam Mekong Delta Floodplain ricefields Flooded Low ? 42 -63 25 30 0.47 0.53   de Graaf and Chinh (2000) cited by Hortle & Suntornratana (2008) VietnamMekong DeltaFloodplain ricefieldsFloodedLow?42 -6325300.470.53de Graaf and Chinh (2000) cited by Hortle & Suntornratana (2008) Vietnam Mekong Delta Floodplain ricefields Flooded Low ? 119 106 106 0.89 0.11   de Graaf and Chinh (2000) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) VietnamMekong DeltaFloodplain ricefieldsFloodedLow?1191061060.890.11de Graaf and Chinh (2000) cited by Hortle & Penroong (2009) Africa Various Floodplain-river systems Flooded    47 47     Halls et al (2006) AfricaVariousFloodplain-river systemsFlooded4747Halls et al (2006) Asia Various Floodplain-river systems Flooded    90 90     Halls et al (2006) AsiaVariousFloodplain-river systemsFlooded9090Halls et al (2006) Bangladesh Pabna (NW) Floodplains Flooded Low N  104 -130 117     Halls et al (1999) Bangladesh Pabna (NW)FloodplainsFloodedLowN104 -130117Halls et al (1999) Bangladesh Tangail Floodplains & Perm. w/bs Flooded Low N  165 165     de Graaf et al (2001) Bangladesh TangailFloodplains & Perm. w/bsFloodedLowN165165de Graaf et al (2001) Bangladesh Tangail Floodplains Flooded Low N  83      de Graaf et al (2001) Bangladesh TangailFloodplainsFloodedLowN83de Graaf et al (2001) Bangladesh Various Floodplains & beels Flooded Low N   107     Ali (1997) Table 31 Bangladesh VariousFloodplains & beelsFloodedLowN107Ali (1997) Table 31 Asia  Ricefields ?  ?  1.5 -84 43     Gregory & Guttman (1997) AsiaRicefields??1.5 -8443Gregory & Guttman (1997) Malaysia  Ricefields, double crop Irrigated  ?  68 -140 104     Tan et al (1973) cited by Hortle & Suntornratana (2008) MalaysiaRicefields, double cropIrrigated?68 -140104Tan et al (1973) cited by Hortle & Suntornratana (2008) Malaysia  Ricefields ?  ?  up to 150      Ali (1990) MalaysiaRicefields??up to 150Ali (1990)       Aithmetic mean (rainfed) 63 0.78 0.28 0.93 85  Aithmetic mean (rainfed)630.780.280.9385       Arithmetic mean (flooded) 123 0.70 0.32 0.27 29  Arithmetic mean (flooded)1230.700.320.2729       Median (rainfed)  51 0.83 0.24 0.93 85  Median (rainfed)510.830.240.9385       Median (flooded) 106 0.72 0.32 0.23 29  Median (flooded)1060.720.320.2329  "},{"text":"Table 6 Estimated yield by guild for the LMB.  Guild Cambodia Lao PDR Thailand Vietnam Total % Total inland fish GuildCambodiaLao PDRThailandVietnamTotal% Total inland fish 1 1,230 172 991 2 2,395 0.1% 11,23017299122,3950.1% 2 27,066 25,017 114,498 30,122 196,704 9.5% 227,06625,017114,49830,122196,7049.5% 3 151,135 45,818 95,267 110,585 402,805 19.5% 3151,13545,81895,267110,585402,80519.5% 4 49,795 8,812 59,979 81,581 200,167 9.7% 449,7958,81259,97981,581200,1679.7% 5 111,054 42,207 139,136 356,032 648,428 31.5% 5111,05442,207139,136356,032648,42831.5% 6 139,307 45,023 309,784 84,466 578,580 28.1% 6139,30745,023309,78484,466578,58028.1% 7 1,017 682 0 20,304 22,003 1.1% 71,017682020,30422,0031.1% 8 270 114 618 32 1,033 0.1% 8270114618321,0330.1% 9 310 12 0 4,384 4,706 0.2% 93101204,3844,7060.2% 10 10 13 0 3,569 3,592 0.2% 10101303,5693,5920.2% Inland Fish 481,194 167,869 720,273 691,076 2,060,412 100.0% Inland Fish481,194167,869720,273691,0762,060,412100.0% OAA 105,467 40,581 190,984 160,705 497,737  OAA105,46740,581190,984160,705497,737 Total 586,661 208,450 911,257 851,781 2,558,149  Total586,661208,450911,257851,7812,558,149  "}],"sieverID":"07eb5e89-68a1-42f5-ab61-532e7d153350","abstract":"Table 2 Estimates of catch by guild from riverine habitat. Data source: AMCF catch monitoring programme (01 Dec 2003 -30 Nov 2004). (a) Cambodia Village name Guild Catch weight (g)"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06759aeb7494773d78f4904c53ac2e01","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8116d3b8-13c1-4a9b-bc01-e020cdd5ac23/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Estimating spatially distributed SOC sequestration potentials of sustainable land management practices in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"Ethiopia is investing a huge amount of resources to tackle land degradation through land restoration under its various initiatives such as Food for work, Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions (MERET), and the sustainable land management program (SLMP). In the last decade, Ethiopia has invested more than US$1.2 billion annually in restoring landscapes in its major regions (Adimassu et al., 2018). Some of the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) practices implemented include physical measures (soil/stone terraces, trenches, micro basins, percolation bonds, and gully treatments); biological measures (area closure, tree/forage planting on terraces, bamboos); or a combination of the two. The full list of SLM practices implemented in Ethiopia are detailed in Nedessa et al. (2015). SLM interventions have been implemented across the country to achieve multiple aims such as (i) reducing soil erosion and surface water sediment loads (Tamene and Vlek, 2007), (ii) reducing surface water runoff and enhancing groundwater recharge (Woldearegay et al., 2018), and (iii) promoting revegetation and soil fertility, thereby increase agricultural productivity (Abera et al., 2020). In addition to improving livelihoods, the land restoration efforts also support the government of Ethiopia to achieve its regional and international commitments such as the \"4 per 1000\" initiative and the Land Degradation Neutrality programme (Chabbi et al., 2017). It is also expected to contribute to the achievement of both the national REDD + programme and the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"Land management practices implemented in many parts of Ethiopia showed positive impacts on restoring degraded landscapes and enhanced soil fertilities (Abdalla et al., 2018). Abera et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis to summarize how different land restoration practices and interventions affect ecosystem services. Other studies also investigated the effect of land restoration on various ecosystem and livelihood benefits in Ethiopia (Balehegn et al., 2019;Adimassu et al., 2018;Araya et al., 2011). Despite these efforts, there is however a knowledge gap about the impacts of land management practices on sequestration of soil organic carbon (SOC; see e.g. Namirembe et al., 2020). SOC plays a key role in various agricultural and ecological processes related to soil fertility (Abdalla et al., 2018), carbon cycle and soil-atmosphere interactions including CO2 sequestration (Ramesh et al., 2019;Xu et al., 2019;Murty et al., 2002). As SOC is the largest pool of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystems (Schlesinger and Bernhardt, 2013), any effort to sequester SOC is a key mechanism to reduce CO2 in the atmosphere due to humans and contribute to mitigate climate change (Paustian et al., 2016;Smith et al., 2016;Zomer et al., 2017). Thus, our knowledge about the relationship between land management practices and SOC will be crucial to facilitate informed decision making and also contributes to the global and regional knowledge pool."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"The scientific community has spent considerable efforts in mapping SOC, modelling its spatiotemporal variation and confirming its primary role in shaping ecosystems functioning (Grinand et al., 2017;Ajami et al., 2016;Ratnayake et al., 2014). Accurate estimation of SOC and its dynamics are necessary to support improved carbon management and climate change mitigation, and to identify land management practices with higher SOC sequestration benefits. Good understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of SOC in relation to land management practices can also enable us to understand what options placed where can sequester the most carbon, making our interventions more effective and efficient. This can ultimately enable governments to achieve their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) within their planning horizons. In CRGE, the contribution of soil as potential for carbon sequestration through land restoration and climate smart agriculture practices is stated."},{"index":4,"size":244,"text":"At a local scale, SOC concentrations are largely governed by soil physical and chemical properties, which determine the SOC stabilization (Cotrufo et al., 2019), environmental conditions and land use changes (Martin et al., 2010;Fantappiè et al., 2010;Abegaz et al., 2016), intensive agricultural practices (Yan et al., 2012), and shifts in soil management practices (Powlson et al., 2011;West and Post, 2002). Conservation tillage practices such as reduced tillage and no-tillage have been proposed, as an alternative to conventional tillage, for their advantages in preserving SOC (Beare et al., 1994;Liu et al., 2014) and improve soil physicochemical properties (Blanco-Canqui and Ruis, 2018;Johnson and Hoyt, 1999). The relationship between environmental variables, land management factors and SOC is complex and non-linear. Recently, the use of machine learning (ML) techniques to unravel patterns and identify complex relationships is suggested to improve the SOC prediction (Khaledian and Miller, 2020;Lamichhane et al., 2019). In most cases, random forest (RF) as an ensemble ML method has often outperformed other ML models (Keskin et al., 2019;Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2020;Tajik et al., 2020;Forkuor et al., 2017). In this study, we used RF to estimate the impacts of SLMP interventions on SOC in four selected watersheds in Ethiopia. The specific objectives were to: (i) comparatively evaluate RF model calibration strategies; (ii) estimate and map the impacts of SLMP on SOC sequestration and; (iii) estimate and map the achievable SOC sequestration hotspots due to existing land management practices such as conservation tillage and physical soil managements."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The study was conducted in four watersheds (Adi tsegora, Yesir, Gafera and Azuga shuba) where the SLMP has been implemented. The watersheds are systematically selected from different agro-ecological zones (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The watershed areas are 88.7 ha (Azuga shuba), 99.8 ha (Gafera), 116 ha (Yesir) and 129 ha (Adi Tsegora). In all watersheds, implementation of the SLM program started in 2010. Each watershed has distinct characteristics in terms of land use and topography (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Soil sampling and laboratory analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"Soil samples were collected in 2010, before SLMP interventions, and in 2018, after 8 years of interventions. The former were collected by the SLMP project as baseline data while in 2018 the research team collected samples from corresponding locations of 2010. The soil samples were collected from a 1 km grid in both years. This sampling design was chosen to give an unbiased estimate of SOC contents and SOC stocks in the areas. The sampling approach was the same in all the four watersheds. A total number of 397 soil sample locations were surveyed both in 2010 (before scenario) and in 2018 (after scenario), constituting 794 soil samples in the four watersheds. The distributions of number of soil samples across the four watersheds is presented in Table 1. The sampling depth is the topsoil (0-20 cm). The same laboratory analyses procedures and methods were used for both years (2010 and 2018). During the field survey, the land uses/covers types corresponding to each sampling point of each site were recorded. Within each individual sampling plot, four sub-plots were established, one in the center and three on a radial arm with 120 • angles between them (Vågen et al., 2013;Abegaz et al., 2016) and four equal subsamples were used for a composite sample. Composite samples were produced by hand-mixing after removing unwanted materials like dead plants, roots, and organic piles. The soil samples were air-dried, crushed, and passed through a 2-mm sieve for laboratory analysis. SOC content was determined using the Walkley-Black oxidation method (Schnitzer, 1982), and SOC stock ha-1 was quantified for the 0-20 cm soil depth according to Eq. (1) (Aynekulu et al., 2011):"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"where SOCst is the soil organic carbon stock (Mg C ha− 1), SOC is the soil organic carbon concentration (g C g− 1 soil), BD is the bulk density (g cm− 3), D is soil sampling depth (cm), in this case 20."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"One of the key objectives of this study was to evaluate if the SOCst varied between before and after the SLM interventions in the four watersheds covering different agro-ecological zones (Table 1). Tests of inferential statistics (paired samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)) were done and results were tested at the 0.05 significance level. The paired-samples t-test was used to test whether the mean SOCst between the before and after of each of the studied watersheds was significantly different or not. The one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine whether the mean SOCst among the studied watersheds were significantly different or not."}]},{"head":"Selection of environmental variables for modelling","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"It has been well-established that factors such as topography, vegetation, climatic conditions, farming practices, and soil properties affect the SOCst variability to different extents (Jobbágy and Jackson, 2000;Miller et al., 2004;Kemmitt et al., 2006;Fantappiè et al., 2010). Included topographic variables are: elevation, slope, topographic position index (TPI), and topographic wetness index (TWI). These are derived from the digital elevation model (DEM). DEM of 90-m resolution was obtained from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission terrain (STRM). Climate variables of various seasons, in addition to the long-term mean, were considered as important covariates to enable us to consider if the seasonal climate variables have influence on SOCst  (Jarvis et al., 2008)). The four soil composites at each sampling site are not plotted here as they are really close each other (20 m-50 m)."}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Studied watersheds, their regional locations and selected physical characteristics.  (Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2020;Were et al., 2015;Minasny et al., 2013). All covariates were resampled using nearest neighbor approach to a common grid of 90 × 90 m resolution."}]},{"head":"SOC stock and sequestration hotspot mapping","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":320,"text":"The RF is a classical, powerful and efficient machine learning method which is commonly used in the research of environmental modelling (Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2020;Tajik et al., 2020). RF models are relatively robust with respect to collinearity among predictor variables and noisy covariate data (Svetnik et al., 2003;Wang et al., 2018). As a result, we chose an RF model to estimate soil carbon stock and its spatial dynamics in our study sites. In the RF model, the data is divided into training and testing components for building the model and model validation/testing, respectively (Svetnik et al., 2003). In order to assess the effect of model building strategies on the model performances and identify the best model that can be used for prediction, we evaluated three modelling strategies. These are (1) the use of a single watershed data for calibration, validation and prediction of SOCst spatially, 2) the use of all the four watersheds' combined dataset for calibration, validation and prediction of SOCst, and 3) the use of three watersheds' dataset to train the model and use this model to test and predict at the fourth watershed. This is important to know where the machine learning model can be extrapolated spatially. Specifically, we used three modelling and validation strategies conducted based on: i) each watershed individually, ii) four watershed datasets combined, and iii) leave-one-watershed-out. To assess goodness-of-fitness of the modelling/training strategy, we used R 2 between predicted and observed SOCst in both the training and testing datasets. Among the three modelling/training strategies, we selected the one with higher R2 for testing dataset because a good model performance for testing dataset is an indication of a good predictive capacity of a model as it indicates the model performance in places with no in-situ measurements. In addition to R 2 , we used root mean square error (RMSE), to diagnostic the model performance. Then, the selected model is used for predicting SOCst spatially."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"To build an optimal predictive model we tuned the Random forest, in ranger package (Wright and Ziegler, 2015), hyper parameters: we varied mtry (i.e. number of variables randomly sampled as candidates at each split) from 2 to 20; and min. node.size (i.e. minimum node size) varied from 2 to 15, in R caret package (Kuhn, 2008). Finally, an optimized ensemble of regression trees (in this case 100) and their parameters were constructed at the training stage and then for the model prediction. We used repeated 30-fold cross validation (CV) to search the hyperparameter space. Approximately 25% of data in the overall dataset were randomly selected for validation, and the other 75% were used for model training. Based on the final model, important covariates that are responsible for predicting SOCst were selected based on variable of importance analysis. The difference between the predicted SOCst in 2018 and SOCst in 2010 is used to map the actual SOCst sequestration due to the SLM implementation in this period:"},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"Map areas with positive SOCst seq indicate good performance of SLM practices in sequestering SOC in 8 years while areas with low and negative SOCst seq depict poor sequestration or even further depletion of soil carbon loss. To obtain target SOCst, which is the practically obtainable SOC level by implementing existing available SLM practices in the area (Piikki et al., 2019), we estimated the 95% quantile of the scenario based model considering a combination of SLM practices. We have developed spatial layer of managements, for instance, one layer for SLM practice 1 (all same value for the whole area e.g. bunds), another layer for SLM practice 2 (terrace), SLM practice 3 (reduced tillage), etc. For each management scenario, we calculated SOCst based on all covariates used in SOCst2018 and SOCst 2010 model and these management layers. The target SOCst is then estimated as the maximum SOCst values of all the scenarios and the SOCst 2018 , as in the following: "},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"The target SOCst status (what could be reached in eight years) is what we can potentially achieve by implementing SLM technologies that are appropriate to a specific location. We conducted a survey on which land management (physical, biological) and what kind of conservation agriculture practices have been implemented on each sampling plot and to fit relevant management options for each site. The list of SLM practices used to generate spatial model scenarios are described in section 2.5. Based on the partial dependence plot, we showed the effect of the different SLM practices on the SOCst level. In cases where the targeted SOCst was not achieved at the current condition, we calculated the achievable SOCst sequestration potential as the difference between the SOCst 2018 and target SOCst, as follows (Piikki et al., 2019):"},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"Model uncertainty due to many factors affect SOC estimations at watershed scale. The source of uncertainty in the current approach is the quality of input covariates. The availability of Ethiopia national soil information system (ETHIOSIS), produced some years back, for researchers would have improved the model quality and model results. In our approach, we have limited ourselves to those covariates with spatially coverage at national scale and freely accessible by anyone so that we can use the model to predict SOC at any location in the country. In addition, there is a lack of detailed, geolocated, land management practice data, which also affect the model performances."}]},{"head":"The impact of selected SLM practice on SOCst","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"We have collected the list of SLM technologies implemented at each sampling location. Bunds, terraces, biological (such as grasses and trees) are the most common interventions at the landscape level. A combination of physical (Bund, or terraces) and biological is also found in some sites. At farmland, there are some conservation tillage practices such as reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT) which have been implemented as an alternative to conventional tillage (CT)."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"In this study, we evaluated the impacts of two categories of SLM practices: i) the impacts of biophysical intervention existed at the landscape level particularly bunds, terraces, biological and a combination of physical (bunds and terraces) and biological; and ii) the impacts of conservational tillage practices particularly conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT) on the SOCst sequestration, and recommend optimal practice that optimize SOC stock in the four SLMP watersheds. We used the partial dependence plot ( Álvarez-Cabria et al., 2017), which illustrates the effect of a predictor variable on the SOCst level after considering the mean effects of all the other predictor variables (Elith et al., 2008), of 2018 RF prediction model to evaluate the relationships between these SLM practices and the SOCst level."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SOC stocks in the studied watersheds","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":387,"text":"The mean statistics for SOCst for each watershed in the two years (before and after SLM interventions) have been presented in Fig. 2. The general level of SOCst varied between the highest 57.9 (±18.5) Mg C ha-1 in Gafera, followed by 52.2 (±20.7) Mg C ha-1 in Yesir, 40.5 (±15.9) in Azuga shuba, and 25.3 (±11.2) Mg C ha-1 in Adi Tsegora watersheds. The standard error values are estimated from spatial distribution of SOCst at the watershed level. The highest mean of SOCst in the Gafera watershed is because the area is dominated by forest land use while the lowest in Adi Tsegora watershed is because the site is dominated by relatively degraded landscape. The relatively high SOCst level at Yesir watershed could be due to better agricultural land management options such as cover crops being implemented compared to the other watersheds. In addition, the initial soil fertility of the site was better than the others. The range of SOCst reported here (25.3 ± 11.2 to 57.9 ± 18.5 Mg C ha− 1) is similar to the ranges previously reported in the highlands of Ethiopia. of 17-30 Mg C ha− 1 for Nigeria using a similar approach. The ANOVA result revealed that the mean SOC stocks (for both before and after) spatial variation among the four watersheds was significant (P < 0.05; Fig. 2), and generally increasing from the north (Adi Tsegora) to southwest (Gefera) (Figs. 1 and 2). The paired samples t-test revealed a significant statistical difference in SOCst between the two years in Gafera watershed in southwest Ethiopia and Adi Tsegora watershed in Northern Ethiopia (Fig. 2), but the differences in Azuga shuba and Yesir watersheds were not significant. This indicates that significant SOCst can be achieved in a short period (in this case in 8 years) in high potential areas whereas an increase in SOCst could take a longer period in some other areas. The observed differences could be attributed to different factorson the proper application of SLM, the specific SLM technologies implemented and their potential differences in SOC sequestration, agroecological and other environmental variables that influence the performances of SLM options. These results are in agreement with a recent meta-analysis study conducted by Abera et al. (2020) which shows that agroecological zone and the specific technology implemented affect the performances of SLM technologies."}]},{"head":"SOC stock estimation using the RF model","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":501,"text":"Table 3 shows the results of RF modelling approach in three calibration phases: single watershed, leave-one-watershed-out and all watersheds combined dataset. The results show that combining dataset from all the four watersheds outperform a single watershed calibration for modelling within a sampled watershed. The leave-one-watershed-out strategy tell us how well the RF model can be expected to work if applied in unsampled watersheds. The use of a single watershed data to build a predictive model results in high performance in the training period (R 2 = 0.78-0.93 and RMSE = 8.1-14.4 Mg C ha-1) but the performance dramatically decreased in the testing dataset (R 2 = 0.21-0.34 and RMSE = 11.8-14.4 Mg C ha-1) (Table 3). The poor model performance during the testing dataset indicates that the models built for a single watershed, with relatively few data points, is susceptible for overfitting problem i.e. a case where the model is perfectly fitting the data during the training period but unable to explain the data during the testing period. This could be due to the smaller data size to capture the variabilities in the dataset and produce a robust model. Similarly, in the case of leave-onewatershed-out, the model performance for testing dataset is poor most likely due to the fact that the variabilities in the testing dataset are not captured by the other three watersheds used to train the model. In other words, it is most probably because RF model does not scale very well for a new data that lies outside the range of training dataset. This tells us that the model shall not be applied in areas where no local samples are included in the model calibration dataset. When combining all the dataset, the predictive capacity of the model has improved, and in fact the model performance was almost equal for training and testing. Comparison between the two years, during the training, the model performance was higher when predicting the 2018 data. In 2010, for the training dataset, the model performance was R 2 = 0.55 and RMSE = 13.8 Mg C ha-1, and for the testing dataset, the model performance was R 2 = 0.50 and RMSE = 13.2 Mg C ha-1. Similarly, in 2018, the model performance for the training dataset is about R 2 = 0.56 and RMSE = 14.5 Mg C ha-1, whereas for testing case, the model performance is R 2 = 0.55 and RMSE = 14.1 Mg C ha-1. The results obtained during the testing can be taken as equivalent to the predictive capacity of the model in any areas within the four watersheds where there is no soil measurement available. Those results obtained in both years are relatively high in comparison to SOCst models presented in literature in the region and beyond (Owusu et al., 2020;Forkuor et al., 2017;Keskin et al., 2019;Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2020;Tajik et al., 2020). A recent study by Owusu et al. (2020) developed a similar spatially explicit predictive model of SOCst in Ghana and achieved R 2 = 0.34."},{"index":2,"size":261,"text":"One of the key challenges of SOCst modelling is to identify which factors are responsible for SOC dynamics. Here, we presented the importance of covariates considered in the model inputs to clarify which data are useful for SOCst prediction in both years. The order of the importance of variables varies from year to year (Fig. 3). In 2010, clay, soil pH, NDVI, TPI and topographic slope were the five top important variables for predicting SOCst. In the case of 2018, NDVI, soil pH, bulk density, TPI and Sand are the top five covariates used to predict the SOC in the four watersheds. There is high overlap between the two years in terms of rank of importance (Fig. 3). It is noted that the climate element during the rainy season (Kiremt) is not as important as the dry season in both cases. Generally, non-rainy season precipitation and temperature are more important variables than the annual and Kiremt (June, July, Auguest) season. Contrary to Gomez et al. (2008), our result shows that the SOC is highly related to vegetation cover, i.e. NDVI index, and it influences SOC prediction (Fig. 3). Many studies confirmed that soil parameters predominantly influence SOC stocks at different spatial scale (Hobley et al., 2015;Schulp and Verburg, 2009;Wiesmeier et al., 2014a;Xiong et al., 2014). Specifically, strong correlation between SOC stocks and clay content is found in many studies (Arrouays et al., 2006;Zinn et al., 2007). At the watershed scale, Wiesmeiera et al. ( 2019) also reviewed that topographic and vegetation information are considered to be important driver of SOC stock."}]},{"head":"Mapping SOCst and sequestration potential","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The spatial patterns of SOCst predicted by the RF model for four watersheds in the years 2010 and 2018 are shown in Fig. 4. In addition   "}]},{"head":"Achievable SOC sequestration at landscape scale","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":364,"text":"Achievable SOC sequestration potential shows 'a positive gap' in most SLMP watersheds indicating that there is still potential for improvements in terms of retaining more SOC (Fig. 5). The specific location of improvement (where within each landscape there is potential to sequester more carbon) is mapped spatially in the achievable SOC sequestration maps. On average at watershed level, the highest amount of SOCst achievable sequestration potential is predicted in the Yesir watershed (34.7 Mg C ha− 1), followed by Azuga shuba watershed (33.2 Mg C ha− 1). The lowest achievable SOCst potential is observed at Adi Tsegora watershed (13.7 Mg C ha− 1), followed by Gafera watershed (15.8 Mg C ha− 1) (Fig. 6). Predicted rate of SOCst sequestration potential at Adi Tsegora watershed is the lowest because the area is characterized by low precipitation, poor vegetation cover and steep slope landscape. This means implementing additional SLM practices would not bring significant improvement in SOCst sequestration. Similarly, in Gafera watershed, the prospect to sequester more SOCst due to conservation measures and conservation agricultural practices are limited most likely because the watershed is dominated by forest cover resulting in high current SOCst that is close to the target SOCst level. The other two watersheds (Yesir and Azuga shuba), which are characterized by agricultural land and medium level of current SOCst have higher achievable SOC sequestration. Spatially distributed assessment of achievable SOC sequestration potentials is important to develop targeted land management and climate change mitigation measures and guide investments on the land and soil fertility management practices. For instance, locations with low SOCst, but with high achievable sequestration potential may be targeted for SLMP and conservation agriculture practices compared to those sites which show saturated SOCst sequestration potential. The maps in Figs. 4-5 and the density functions in Fig. 6 show that there is variation in achievable SOC within the watersheds. The positive impact of sustainable management practice program in Ethiopia on SOC storage already substantiated by many studies (Abera et al., 2020;Abegaz et al., 2016Abegaz et al., , 2020;;Woolf et al., 2018;Hishe et al., 2017;Aynekulu et al., 2017). Our study extended these works and showed how SOC stocks have changes due to these interventions spatially."},{"index":2,"size":247,"text":"The effects of SLM practices on SOCst are presented in Fig. 7. Notillage (NT) slightly improved SOC by 0.8 Mg C ha− 1 compared to  2. conventional tillage (CT) (Fig. 7). It is obvious that NT showed a high increase in comparison to CT and reduced tillage (RT), as it is the highest form of conservation agriculture. A study by Namirembe et al. (2020) also confirms that the SOC increases by various conservation tillage practices. On the contrary, RT shows lower SOCst in comparison to the CT practices. There are other factors determining if conservation tillage practices affect the SOC such as the duration of practices, the nature of the soil, the availability of vegetation cover (Luo et al., 2010). In terms of biophysical measures, the lowest effect on SOC stock is observed for bund interventions (Fig. 7). Trench structure, however, has a higher effect on SOCst, and equal effect to biological intervention. The combined effect of biological and physical measures as it is implemented in some locations in Ethiopia has shown highest SOCst. Hailu et al. (2012) has also showed significant effect of physical structures particularly fanyajuu on SOC change in western part of Ethiopia. Similar findings are observed in Abera et al. (2020) that the combined effect of physical and biological (mostly grasses along the physical structure) has a good effect on soil fertility status in Ethiopia. Overall, the effect of the two SLM practices are minimal, with maximum effect of 3 Mg C ha-1."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"SLM practices have various benefits in arresting land degradation and enhancing soil fertility, generating enabling conditions for food security of small farmers. This study is conducted to study 1) the impact of SLM practice, implemented in the last 8 years, on SOC stock, 2) identify SOC sequestration hotspots, and achievable SOC sequestration potential spatially. The following results are obtained:"},{"index":2,"size":327,"text":"-Generally, soils in the Gafera watershed contain the highest amount of SOC stock and soil in Adi Tsegora have the lowest SOC stock. -Comparing SOCst in 2010 and 2018, significant differences between the two years are observed in two watersheds (i.e. Gafera watershed in southwest Ethiopia and Adi Tsegora watershed in Northern Ethiopia). -We used the RF model to predict the spatial distribution characteristics of SOC at two periods (2010 and 2018), based on which we determined the key environmental factors affecting their spatialtemporal changes. -The use of a single watershed to build a predictive model using RF resulted in overfitting, where the model performance is very good during the training dataset and very low during testing. -Combining all the four watersheds data improves the RF model predictive capacity, and this strategy is used to predict the SOC maps spatially. The model performance is better than those reported in literature in the region. -The relatively poor performance of the leave-one-watershed-out model evaluation showed that it is essential to include data from the area in question when parameterizing RF models for SOC prediction. -The results of variable importance show that clay, NDVI, soil pH and TPI are some of important covariates that explain the spatial variability of SOC. -SOCst sequestration levels between the 2010 and 2018 are estimated spatially in four watersheds in the highland of Ethiopia, with a good accuracy. -Achievable SOCst sequestration potentials are spatially mapped to facilitate land management targeting to achieve the target SOCst at landscape level. -The highest amount of achievable SOCst sequestration potential is obtained in Yesir watershed (34.7 Mg C ha− 1), followed by Azuga shuba watershed (33.2 Mg C ha− 1), followed by Gafera watershed (15.8 Mg C ha− 1), and Adi Tsegora watershed (13.7 Mg C ha− 1) for this eight year period. -The highest SOC stock is obtained for a combination of physical and biological interventions (\"bunds + vegetations\" or \"terraces + vegetations\") followed by the biological intervention.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. The four watersheds and soil sampling point locations where SOC sequestration assessment is conducted in Ethiopia a) Adi Tsegora, b) Yesir, c) Gafera, d) Azuga shuba (elevation data from SRTM(Jarvis et al., 2008)). The four soil composites at each sampling site are not plotted here as they are really close each other (20 m-50 m). "},{"text":" Fig. 2. Distribution of soil organic carbon stock (SOCst) in the four SLMP watersheds. The mid horizontal lines of the boxes show the mean, the boxes show the 25-75-interpercentile range, the whiskers represent the non-outlier range and the points represent outlier observations. "},{"text":" to the two period SOCst maps, the difference between the two is also mapped as SOC sequestration in the 8 years. The spatial pattern of SOCst in all watersheds show low values for the year 2010 and higher values for 2018. This corresponds with the implementation and SLM options that started after 2010. The prediction maps show mostly gradual SOCst changes across the study areas and spatial variabilities within sites are pertinent. For example, for Adi Tsegora watershed, large values are predicted in the eastern and northeastern parts (Fig.4A). The highest SOCst sequestration has occurred in the central eastern part of the Yesir watershed (Fig.4B) whereas the lowest is observed in the northern tip part of the watershed most likely due to steep slope that can facilitate SOC removal in the form of erosion(Martinez-Mena et al., 2018). In the Gafera watershed relatively high SOCst sequestration is observed between 2010 and 2018 across all parts of the watershed compared to the other sites. SOCst sequestration increased from south to north, with the highest stocks in the northern part of the watershed, most probable because of increasing rainfall and altitude gradients with high biomass production. In the Azuga shuba watershed, SOCst sequestration is observed in all parts of the watershed, the amount varying in the northern and southern parts. The low SOCst sequestration areas in the upper part of the watershed are dominated by high elevation and crop lands whereas the high SOCst sequestration areas are in the lowlands characterized by concave curvature. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Important variables for predicting SOCst in before (2010) and after (2018) SLM interventions in Ethiopia as identified based on RF model. Predictors are explained in Table2. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of SOC stocks (Mg ha-1) using RF model in 2010, 2018; and difference (SOC sequestration in 8 years) in the four SLMP watersheds of Ethiopia: A) Adi Tsegora, B) Yesir, C) Gafera, D) Azuga shuba watershed. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of SOC stocks (Mg ha-1) in 2018 (after SLMP practice interventions), target SOC sequestration level, and achievable SOC sequestration potential in A) Adi Tsegora, B) Yesir, C) Gafera, D) Azuga shuba watershed. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. The density distribution of achievable SOC sequestration potential of four SLMP watersheds in Ethiopia. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. The marginal effect of selected SLM practices on SOC stock in four SLMP watersheds of Ethiopia. CT -Conventional tillage, RT-Reduced tillage, NT-No tillage. "},{"text":" . Climate data particularly precipitation and temperature, at 4-km and monthly temporal resolution, were acquired from the Ethiopia Institute of Agricultural research (EIAR)(Dinku et al., 2018). Long term average (2010-2018) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data product (MOD13Q1) were used to infer the spatial variability of greenness. The complete list of covariates used to develop predictive models are detailed in Table2. The selection of those variables is guided by previous literature Watersheds Region Area (ha) # of sample locations Dominant topography Mean altitude (m.a.s. l) Mean temp ( o C) Mean precip (mm) Agroecological zone WatershedsRegionArea (ha)# of sample locationsDominant topographyMean altitude (m.a.s. l)Mean temp ( o C)Mean precip (mm)Agroecological zone Adi tsegora Tigray 129 95 Mountainous 1818 20 921 Sub-moist Adi tsegoraTigray12995Mountainous181820921Sub-moist Yesir Amhara 116 98 Flat 2044 18 1269 Moist YesirAmhara11698Flat2044181269Moist Gafera Azuga shuba Oromia SNNP a 99.8 88.7 106 98 Mountainous Undulating slope 1816 2242 20 17 1791 1203 Sub-humid Sub-humid Gafera Azuga shubaOromia SNNP a99.8 88.7106 98Mountainous Undulating slope1816 224220 171791 1203Sub-humid Sub-humid  "},{"text":"Table 2 List of covariates considered in building the RF model for prediction of SOC sequestration in the four SLMP watersheds of Ethiopia. TPI = topographic position index; TWI = topographic wetness index. st =argmax(SOCst 2018 , SOCst Practice1 , SOCst Practice2 , …SOCst Practice n ) Variable Derived element Acronyms Source Native resolution References to data or method VariableDerived elementAcronymsSourceNative resolutionReferences to data or method Climate Annual precipitation Annual Precip EIAR 4 km Dinku et al. (2018) ClimateAnnual precipitationAnnual PrecipEIAR4 kmDinku et al. (2018)  Kiremt (Summer) Precipitation Kiremt Precip    Kiremt (Summer) PrecipitationKiremt Precip  Bega (Winter) Precipitation Bega Precip    Bega (Winter) PrecipitationBega Precip  Belg (Autumn) Precipitation Belg Precip    Belg (Autumn) PrecipitationBelg Precip  Annual Temperature Annual Temp    Annual TemperatureAnnual Temp  Kiremt (Summer) Temperature Kiremt Temp    Kiremt (Summer) TemperatureKiremt Temp  Bega (Winter) Temperature Bega Temp    Bega (Winter) TemperatureBega Temp  Belg (Autumn) Temperature Belg Temp    Belg (Autumn) TemperatureBelg Temp Topography Elevation Elevation SRTM 90 m Jarvis et al. (2008); Zhu et al. TopographyElevationElevationSRTM90 mJarvis et al. (2008); Zhu et al.  Slope Slope SRTM-derived 90 m (2019); She et al. (2014); SlopeSlopeSRTM-derived90 m(2019); She et al. (2014);  TWI TWI SRTM-derived 90 m Patton et al. (2019) TWITWISRTM-derived90 mPatton et al. (2019)  TPI TPI SRTM-derived 90 m  TPITPISRTM-derived90 m Soil pH Soil pH ISRIC 250 m Liang et al. (2019); SoilpHSoil pHISRIC250 mLiang et al. (2019);  clay Clay   Novara et al. (2020) clayClayNovara et al. (2020)  Silt Silt    SiltSilt  CEC CEC    CECCEC Land use Land use Land use Ethiopia Sentinel 2 Land Use 20 m Fusaro et al., (2019); Nyawira Land useLand useLand useEthiopia Sentinel 2 Land Use20 mFusaro et al., (2019); Nyawira    Land Cover 2016  et al. (2016) Land Cover 2016et al. (2016) Vegetation NDVI NDVI MODIS (MOD13Q1) 250 m Hunt et al. (2002); VegetationNDVINDVIMODIS (MOD13Q1)250 mHunt et al. (2002); Socio-economic Population density Pop density www.worldpop.org 100 m Linard et al. (2012); Socio-economicPopulation densityPop densitywww.worldpop.org100 mLinard et al. (2012); SLM practices Tillage practice (conventional tillage, CT, RT, and NT Survey At each soil  SLM practicesTillage practice (conventional tillage,CT, RT, and NTSurveyAt each soil  reduced tillage, and No tillage) respectively  sample point  reduced tillage, and No tillage)respectivelysample point  Physical and biological measures  Survey At each soil  Physical and biological measuresSurveyAt each soil     sample point  sample point  "},{"text":"Table 3 Model performance indicators (R 2 and RMSE) for random forest based estimation of SOCst in four SLMP watersheds of Ethiopia using three modelling strategies. Model building Dataset 2010 2018 2018 with SLMP scenarios Model buildingDataset201020182018 with SLMP scenarios strategy  Training   strategyTraining  "},{"text":" Case 1 (training watersheds Yesir, Gafera, and Adi Tsegore; and testing watershed Azuga suba); Case 2 (training watersheds Yesir, Gafera, and Azuga suba, and testing watershed Adi Tsegore); Case 3 (training watersheds Yesir, Adi Tsegore, and Azuga suba, and testing watershed Gafera); Case 4 (training watersheds Gafera, Adi Tsegore, and Azuga suba, and testing watershed Yesir). Watershed Yesir 0.83 (14.4) 0.34 (14.7) 0.87 (15.2) 0.21 (16.01)   WatershedYesir0.83 (14.4)0.34 (14.7)0.87 (15.2)0.21 (16.01) specific Gafera 0.78 (11.2) 0.16 (10.5) 0.78 (10.3) 0.07 (16.1)   specificGafera0.78 (11.2)0.16 (10.5)0.78 (10.3)0.07 (16.1)  Azuga shuba 0.88 (13.6) 0.22 (12.2) 0.88 (13.1) 0.50 (12.3)   Azuga shuba0.88 (13.6)0.22 (12.2)0.88 (13.1)0.50 (12.3)  Adi Tsegore 0.93 (8.1) 0.21 (11.8) 0.92 (8.6) 0.03 (14.1)   Adi Tsegore0.93 (8.1)0.21 (11.8)0.92 (8.6)0.03 (14.1) All watersheds All watersheds 0.55 (13.8) 0.50 (13.22) 0.56 (14.5) 0.55 (14.1) 0.68 (10.2) 0.52 (11) All watershedsAll watersheds0.55 (13.8)0.50 (13.22)0.56 (14.5)0.55 (14.1)0.68 (10.2)0.52 (11) combined combined       combinedcombined Leave-one- Case 1 0.57 (13.1) 0.04 (16.2) 0.55 (14.8) 0.03 (16.2)   Leave-one-Case 10.57 (13.1)0.04 (16.2)0.55 (14.8)0.03 (16.2) watershed-out Case 2 0.32 (14.0) 0.03 (18.5) 0.43 (14.8) 0.01 (14.6)   watershed-outCase 20.32 (14.0)0.03 (18.5)0.43 (14.8)0.01 (14.6)  Case 3 0.53 (13.5) 0.003 (17.2) 0.54 (13.7) 0.02 (24.9)   Case 30.53 (13.5)0.003 (17.2)0.54 (13.7)0.02 (24.9)  Case 4 0.55 (12.1) 0.04 (22.5) 0.63 (12.4) 0.01 (25.6)   Case 40.55 (12.1)0.04 (22.5)0.63 (12.4)0.01 (25.6)  "}],"sieverID":"2d52cc36-1c5f-4138-8c50-fffd32a14cbe","abstract":"The sustainable land management program (SLMP) of Ethiopia aims to improve livelihoods and create resilient communities and landscape to climate change. Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration is one of the key cobenefits of the SLMP. The objective of this study was to estimate the spatial dynamics of SOC in 2010 and 2018 (before and after SLMP) and identify the SOC sequestration hotspots at landscape scale in four selected SLMP watersheds in the Ethiopian highlands. The specific objectives were to: 1) comparatively evaluate SOC sequestration estimation model building strategies using either a single watershed, a combined dataset from all watersheds, and leave-one-watershed-out using Random Forest (RF) model; 2) map SOC stock of 2010 and 2018 to estimate amount of SOC sequestration and potential; 3) evaluate the impacts of SLM practices on SOC in four SLMP watersheds. A total of 397 auger composite samples from the topsoil (0-20 cm depth) were collected in 2010, and the same number of samples were collected from the same locations in 2018. We used simple statistics to assess the SOC change between the two periods, and machine learning models to predict SOC stock spatially. The study showed that statistically significant variation (P < 0.05) of SOC was observed between the two years in two watersheds (Gafera and Adi Tsegora) whereas the differences were not significant in the other two watersheds (Yesir and Azugashuba). Comparative analysis of model-setups shows that a combined dataset from all the four watersheds to train and test RF outperform the other two strategies (a single watershed alone and a leaveone-watershed-out to train and test RF) during the testing dataset. Thus, this approach was used to predict SOC stock before (2010) and after (2018) land management interventions and to derive the SOC sequestration maps. We estimated the sequestrated, achievable and target level of SOC stock spatially in the four watersheds. We assessed the impact of SLM practices, specifically bunds, terraces, biological and various forms of tillage practices on SOC using partial dependency algorithms of prediction models. No tillage (NT) increased SOC in all watersheds. The combination of physical and biological interventions (\"bunds + vegetations\" or \"terraces + vegetations\") resulted in the highest SOC stock, followed by the biological intervention. The achievable SOC stock analysis showed that further SOC stock sequestration of up to 13.7 Mg C ha-1 may be possible in the Adi Tsegora,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06eedcfa4f04542caaba798a743ad5d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4922/a418596a0c633c4a9c384e69afbc3759.pdf"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Genome-wide association analysis of adaptation to oxygen stress in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)","keywords":["Nile tilapia","Growth","Hypoxia","Oxygen stress","GWAS","Meta-analysis"],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"Tilapia is one of the most important species in aquaculture noted for their relative ease of culture and rapid growth. Tilapia is currently cultured in over 120 countries, mainly in the tropics and sub-tropics, with a production from 0.3 million tonnes in 1987 to closely 7 million tonnes in 2018, which makes it the second largest aquaculture species in the world [1]. Tilapia is a valuable protein source in developing and emerging economies. Due to its wide range of culturing conditions, tilapia is also an excellent model to study adaptive responses to environmental stresses [2]. One of the most important non-commercial breeding programs is the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT), executed by WorldFish in Malaysia. It has sustained genetic gains for growth and body trait more than 10% per generation for more than six generations [3]. However, rapid growth potentially exacerbates existing limitations in the production environment. In non-aerated ponds, high stocking density can lead to an extreme hypoxic environment, especially at the end of the night (nocturnal hypoxia), when algae have higher rate of oxygen consumption than oxygen production. The extreme hypoxic environment can lead to lower feed intake, stagnated growth, and susceptibility to disease [4,5]. The result is a higher mortality and lower yield than what could potentially be achieved [6]. The effects can be mitigated through mechanical aeration of ponds, but a daily fluctuation in oxygen availability is nevertheless inevitable."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"Response to hypoxia is a highly complicated biological process that has received considerable scientific attention, both in fishes and in land vertebrates (e.g. highaltitude adaptation studies). Most of these response processes happen very early at the onset of hypoxia through the activation of pathways depending on proteins that are already present [7]. But in the longer term, adaptive responses to hypoxia are leading to different expression of genes. In mammals, studies in the past decades pointed to an essential role of the Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF) for gene expression regulation during hypoxia [8]. Other genes such as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are also important key actors [9]. Recent studies have described that fish have homologs of HIF-α and -β, which may show similar function to those in mammals in the hypoxic environment [9,10]. Several other hypoxia-related proteins and signal pathways have been reported, such as AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitogenactivated protein kinase (MAPK) and IGF-1/PI3K/AKT signalling, which have been reported to to be involved in hypoxia adaptation of some fish species [11,12]."},{"index":3,"size":228,"text":"Genetic adaptation to hypoxia is important for survival in many aquatic species, since variation in oxygen availability in water can vary far more, and far more rapidly, than in terrestrial ecosystems. Hypoxia is an important cause of economic losses in aquaculture. Understanding the genomic architecture of hypoxia adaptation could help to improve resilience through breeding programs for economically important species. So far, hypoxia tolerance has been studied in a limited number of fish species, including catfish [13,14], Atlantic salmon [15], and tilapia [16], with the aim to identify QTLs for hypoxia-tolerant traits. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) has been regarded as a powerful tool to identify genetic markers associated with target traits, and a more complete gene network will provide the knowledge bases required for the aquaculture industry to make improvements [17]. In hybrid catfish, Zhong et al. [13] revealed in total nine SNPs associated with dissolved oxygen (DO) level using a 250 K SNP array. Analysis of the genes overlapping or close to those SNPs suggested that many of those genes were involved in the PI3K/AKT and VEGF pathways. In another study, Brennan et al. [18] aimed to identify population differences in hypoxia tolerance by calculating the amount of time for Killifish to lose equilibrium using GWAS. They found that variation in Hyaluronan synthase 1 (has1) influenced the production of hyaluronan, which can directly effect on hypoxia tolerance."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"There are only a few studies that focused on genetic bases of either hypoxia tolerance or growth in Nile tilapia [16,19], however, none of these investigated how hypoxia influences growth in Nile tilapia. The main objective of this study was to unravel the genomic architecture associated with phenotypic variation during adaptation to hypoxia or normoxia, and to elucidate the effect of hypoxia on the genetic regulation of growth."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotype statistics","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Fish fry was produced from generation 15 of the GIFT breeding program. The experiment was carried out in an aerated (normoxic) and non-aerated (nocturnal hypoxic) ponds, each producing 1026 and 1037 fish that were involved in the analysis. Body weight of growing fish was measured at five time points (Table 1). The data show that the number of tilapia in both environments gradually decreased. This effect was more pronounced in the hypoxic environment, with a total loss from stocking to harvest of 23% of the initial number of individuals, compared to 14% in the normoxic environment. The average body weight at five time points in the normoxic environment was significantly higher than those in the hypoxic environment, with the exception of the first time point (BW1). Interestingly, the coefficient of variation in body weight (CV) at each time point in the two separate environments decreased."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The estimated phenotypic correlations for body weight between different time points in the two environments are shown in Table 2. Results show that phenotypic correlation between time points in the hypoxic and nomorxic environments was initially high (0.80 and 0.81 separately), but decreased with increasing time between measurements."}]},{"head":"SNP statistic and population structure","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In total 27,090 SNPs that passed SNP minor allele frequency, genotype and individuate call rate criteria, were used for subsequent analysis. Those SNPs were found to be randomly distributed across the genome with a density of approximately 28 SNP per Mb. The highest number of SNPs (4344) on LG3 while LG11 had the lowest number of SNPs (630) (Fig. 1a). A few windows on LG3 show a higher density of SNPs (Fig. 1b). Besides this exception, the distribution of SNPs is uniform with the linkage group physical length of the Oreochromis niloticus genome (GenBank accession GCF_001858045)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The PCA represents the genetic structure for individuals from the hypoxic and normoxic environments, respectively (Fig. 1c, d and Supplementary Figures 3 and  4). In the hypoxic environment, the first three principal components (PCs) explain 47.0% of the total genotype-based variation and separate samples according to their family differences. PC1 accounts for 15.2% of the total genotype variation and separates families in hapa3 with other families. In the normoxic environment, the first three components explain 39.8% of the total genotype variation, while the first component accounts for 15.3%. Moreover, the largest PC (PC1) of all samples separates disperse cluster from families in hapa3 again."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"These results indicated that there was clear genetic variation caused by family differences in both environments. This was partially caused by the different distribution of the number of fish from four rearing hapas under the normoxic and hypoxic environments. Additionally, the average body weight of fish in hapa3 was larger than that of other hapas, especially the mean body weight of male fish at the first time point was much higher in the normoxic environment than the hypoxic environment (Supplementary Figure 2), indicating that a few families with high body weight dominated in one environment but not the other."}]},{"head":"Single environmental GWAS at five different time points","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Significant SNPs were detected with a univariate GWAS by implementing a linear mixed model. We observed that sex and hapa effects can explain part of the difference in body weight. Thus, these were treated as fixed factors in our analysis. Overall, five association analyses, one for each time point where body weight was measured, were performed for each environment. The Manhattan plots for each of the five time points in the hypoxic and normoxic environments are shown in Fig. 2a and b respectively. In addition, Quantile-Quantile plots with genomic inflation factors were created to aid in estimating the influence of population structure on single environmental GWAS (shown in Supplementary Figures 5 and 6). The P values of corrected thresholds for suggestive and genome-  In the hypoxic environment, the analyses showed 10 significant and 26 suggestive SNPs associated with BW1 to BW5 (Supplementary Table 2). Among those, six SNPs between 19.48 Mb and 21.04 Mb on LG8 attained genome-wide significance for BW1 to BW3. However, those SNPs were not significant for BW4 and BW5. Two SNPs (LG1: 30766342 and LG1:30766336) were significantly associated with BW3 to BW5. Additionally, 16 SNPs above the suggestive level as defined above for BW1 to BW2 were found on LG8, LG18 and LG19, while 18 SNPs mostly located on LG1 and LG8, were found for BW4 to BW5. Interestingly, at BW3, SNPs on LG8 overlapped with BW1 and BW2, while SNPs on"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"LG1 overlapped with BW4 and BW5, further confirming that there is a transition in genomic architecture associated with growth over time."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"We also detected 2 significant and 27 suggestive SNPs across different growth stages in the normoxic environment (Supplementary Table 3). The suggestive peak at BW1 covered the same genomic region as that found for the hypoxic environment between 19.48 to 21.03 Mb on LG8. However, similar to the hypoxic environment, the significance of those SNPs declined from BW1 to BW3, a pattern also seen for the SNPs located on LG18 and LG22. A few SNPs on LG7 and LG15 also showed a signal near the suggestive level from BW3 to BW5, which could be potentially interesting, although they did not attain statistical significance. "}]},{"head":"Meta-analysis GWAS across two environments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"A meta-analysis GWAS that considered the effects of 27, 090 SNPs in common in the hypoxic and normoxic environments was performed, and the results are shown in Fig. 3. In total 33 SNPs were detected to be significant with five measurements of body weight during the whole growth stage. Clusters of significant SNPs were mostly found on LG8, LG18 and LG22 (Supplementary Table  "}]},{"head":"Functional annotation analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Based on the SNP association pattern for five measurements across the whole growth stage, we defined the early stage as BW1 and BW2, while the later stage is BW3 to BW5. Through gene identification within the associated genomic regions, the functional processes and pathways were subsequently enriched for single environmental and across environmental GWAS, respectively. Considering that BW3 is the transition point, SNPs that overlapped with the early stage were excluded in the functional annotation for the later stage. The candidate genes derived from single environment and across environment GWAS are shown in Fig. 4a and b, where 15 and 25 genes from the BW1 to BW2 and BW3 to BW5 respectively, were uniquely associated with body weight in the hypoxic environment while another 12 genes were unique to growth in the normoxic environment. It is also noteworthy that three genes (raraa, rarab, bahcc1) were significant for BW1 and BW2 for both single and across environmental GWAS. During the early growth stage in the hypoxic environment, 14 GO (Gene ontology) terms were found to be significantly overrepresented (Supplementary Table 5), including central nervous system development and steroid hormone mediated signalling pathways. Six KEGG pathways were found at later growth stage (Fig. 4c), including MAPK and VEGF signalling pathways. Protein interaction network analysis showed dock5, dock10, dock11, baiap2a, baiap2b, aurka and aurkb strongly interacting with rac1b and ppp3ca, which all are proteins participating in MAPK and VEGF signalling (Fig. 4d)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"For the early growth stage of the normoxic environment, retinoic acid receptor signalling pathway, apoptotic signalling pathway, liver development, signal transduction, steroid hormone mediated signalling pathway and brain development biological processes (Supplementary Table 6), were significantly enriched, while two (retinoic acid receptor and steroid hormone mediated signalling pathways) overlapped with the same growth period in the hypoxia environment. However, in contrast to the hypoxic environment, we did not find significant terms during the later growth stage in the normoxic environment."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In the meta-analysis GWAS across the normoxic and hypoxic environments, nine GO terms, including retinoic acid receptor signalling pathway and steroid hormone mediated signalling pathway, were mostly enriched in the early growth stage. During the later growth stage, two pathways involved in oocyte meiosis and progesterone-mediated oocyte maturation process. Interestingly, none of hypoxia-related pathway was enriched (Supplementary Table 7)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Hypoxia is one of the major environmental factors in fish. Hypoxia tolerance represents the ability of fish species to tolerate low oxygen level and to maintain a sustainable metabolic rate at lower dissolved oxygen levels [20]. Growth is a key trait for aquaculture and can be assessed by weight gain in order to examine the impact of hypoxic condition on fish production. For more than a half century, various and divergent claims have been made regarding the interaction between body size and hypoxia in teleost fish. Recent studies showed that small individuals have the least hypoxia tolerance within some fish species, such as Oscar cichlid [21,22] and Red seabream [23]. In contrast, small fish chose lower oxygen levels more than large fish in Largemouth bass [24] and Yellow perch [25], however, this behaviour was suggested that the smaller fish utilize the hypoxic zone as refuge protected from the bigger predators [26]. From these studies it is clear that selection for low oxygen is difficult to ascertain, indicating a clear added value of investigations into genetic consequences of selection, such as the present study."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"In general, metabolic rate is highly affected by dissolved oxygen in the rearing environment. Faster growing animals have a higher metabolic rate and therefore require more oxygen. As a consequence, hypoxia is expected to adversely affect fish growth and feed utilization [6]. On the other hand, large individuals have an obvious advantage over small ones in severe hypoxic environments because small fish will use up their glycogen reserves and reach mortality levels much faster with a higher metabolic rate [27]. Overall fish production declines, and disease resistance decreases as a consequence of hypoxia [28]. It has been observed that larger Nile tilapia tolerated low DO levels better than small ones, thought partially due to the fact that Nile tilapia immunity was stronger in larger than smaller [29]. Regardless of the complexity of the relationship between hypoxia and growth, studies focused on the genomic basis of hypoxia-growth interactions in Nile tilapia are sparse."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Our results suggest a number of genes and metabolic pathways involved in the adaptation to differences in dissolved oxygen in Nile tilapia. In the hypoxic environment, 14 significantly enriched processes were associated with the early growth stage, including nervous system development and animal organ development. Rara gene codes for the retinoic acid receptor alpha, a transcription factor which regulates genes involved in cellular growth and differentiation [30]. In addition, raraa and rarab play a key role during development in zebrafish [31]. Mediator of RNA polymerase II transcription subunit 24 (med24), an orthologue also found in human, mouse and zebrafish, participates in nervous system development [32]. However, these genes and associated molecular pathways do not indicate a clear link with hypoxia when comparing to other fish studies, and rather might reflect a relation to general growth and developmental pathways."},{"index":4,"size":376,"text":"During the later growth stage, the results of pathway enrichment suggest that candidate regions are significantly enriched for adherens junctions, oocyte meiosis, MAPK signalling pathway, VEGF signalling pathway, regulation of actin cytoskeleton and progesteronemediated oocyte maturation. Among these six pathways, various studies in zebrafish, channel catfish, and sea bass have shown MAPK to be involved in low oxygen tolerance in fish [14,33,34]. VEGF signalling was shown to be essential for maintaining the vascular density and oxygen supply in tissues [35]. Additionally, the VEGF pathway is also one of the targets of HIF-1α, which rapidly accumulates to activate genes involved in a series of responses to hypoxia [8,36]. The candidate gene igf1ra, identified in this study, codes for IGF-1 receptor-a, a receptor of insulin-like growth factor that was reported to be a primary mediator of growth hormones [37]. The ephrin-A3 gene (efna3) is shown as a key functional mediator of hypoxic microenvironment and is regarded as a therapeutic target for hypoxia-specific disease [38]. Retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor alpha (rora) was demonstrated to be a key regulator of HIF-1α activities in human [39]. Finally, the aurora kinase A (aurka) gene, a serine kinase in neuroblastoma related to cell growth and migration, can up-regulate expression in human BE (2)-C cells under hypoxia [40]. Recently, Li et al. [16] also found that several regions were significantly related with hypoxia tolerance, including LG3, 4, 11, 14 and 22, especially two regions (LG4:15080000, LG11: 24255000) are found to be adjacent with the peak in the hypoxic environment (BW5) of our study. Nevertheless, our results suggest that hypoxia has a non-significant effect on growth during the early growth stage, while, conversely, faster growing tilapia have higher tolerance to hypoxia in the later growing stage, reflected by survival probability. Interestingly, it has been shown that tilapia exposure to a nocturnal hypoxia for 9 weeks led to a better growth performance than normoxia, which is related with a compensatory appetite later in the day [41]. Additionally, Roze et al. [42] has reported that fast growing fish display a better ability to maintain balance to acute hypoxia exposure than slow growing fish, by comparing two genetically different growth strains of Rainbow trout, suggesting a better hypoxia tolerance similar to the findings presented in our study."},{"index":5,"size":129,"text":"In the normoxic environment, six biological processes were significantly enriched for BW1 and BW2, including retinoic acid receptor signalling pathway, apoptotic signalling pathway, liver development, signal transduction, steroid hormone mediated signalling pathway and brain development. Steroid hormone mediated and retinoic acid receptor signalling pathway overlapped with the same stage in the hypoxia environment, which seems mostly involved in general growth and development processes. The overlap in the early growth stage between normoxic and hypoxic environments may result from shared conditions until the first time point. Another possibility is that hypoxia affected small fish less, and there still was sufficient dissolved oxygen as a result of lower overall demand. As fish grew bigger, the metabolic impact of high growth on oxygen consumption and availability may have become more pronounced [43]."},{"index":6,"size":207,"text":"For the later growth stage, 12 suggestive SNPs tagging regions containing 22 candidate genes were identified. These included the gene coding for mitochondrial calcium uniporter (mcu) that was reported to be a regulator in skeletal muscle growth and homeostasis [44]. The genes coding for oncoprotein-induced transcript 3 (oit3) and MAP 6 domain containing 1 (map 3d1) were both reported to be related with calcium ion binding activity [45]. Yoshida et al. [19] performed the first genome-wide association study to unravel the genetic architecture of harvest weight in a Nile tilapia population derived from a mixture of the 8th generation GIFT and the wild strains from Egypt and Kenya. In that study, four regions were identified that were significantly associated with harvest weight in LG12, 15, 18 and 22, respectively. However, the genes lying in these regions were not significant in our study. One of the reasons could be that the GIFT population has been selected on growth for many generations and those regions have become fixed. This could also explain the limited number of significant SNPs and candidate genes for growth observed in our study. However, it is also likely the specific variants found by Yoshida et al. were never present in our population to begin with."},{"index":7,"size":171,"text":"The results from the meta-analysis show that five genes play a major role in growth and development during the early growth stage, namely raraa, rarab, med24, brms11a and prpf38b. Two of them (raraa, rarab) also showed significance for single GWAS in the normoxic and hypoxic environments, respectively. Prpf38b only showed a major effect in the hypoxic environment. The orthologues of this gene in human, zebrafish and mouse have been shown to have a function in the central nerve system [46]. Development related genes found in single GWAS, such as raraa, rarab, and med24 were significantly associated in the meta-analysis during the later stages. Nucleotide-binding protein 2 (nump2) was reported to be associated with both IGF1 and IGFP3 in a human GWA study [47]. Those results suggest that a few major QTLs determine much of the growth rate. Even though growth rate is known to be determined by many genes [48], similarly in human [49] and cattle [50], it was found that a few genes were exceptionally important in explaining genetic variance."},{"index":8,"size":200,"text":"Moreover, no pathway related to hypoxia tolerance was found in meta-analysis GWAS, which indicates some genes affect body weight in the hypoxic environment while different subset of genes are important for body weight under the normoxic environment (see in Fig. 4a and b). This indicates genotype-by-environment interaction (GxE). However, a GxE analysis for growth rate in the normoxic versus hypoxic environment, based on a quantitative genetic analysis using a genomic relationship matrix derived from the genotyping dataset, showed that the genetic correlation was close to 0.8 [51]. This value suggests some degree of GxE and some reranking of genotypes. Furthermore, there was a large difference in body weight and its variance between environments, which suggests scaling GxE. The genetic correlation of 0.8 suggests that most fish that grow well in a normoxic environment, are also able to grow well in an environment where they experience nocturnal hypoxia. After all, Nile tilapia is a fresh water fish species that has evolved in environments where hypoxia (e.g. as a result of high temperatures, algal blooms or drought) are nocturnal events. Natural selection would favour animals that would be able to cope with these environments if larger fish would have higher reproductive success."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Clear associations between genotype and growth were found for both hypoxic and normoxic environments. The associated SNPs, and hence the underlying genomic architecture, however, changed over the growing period. Furthermore, the meta-analysis GWAS across two environments suggested that growth was not under the control by the same genes compared to single environmental GWAS, which we interpret as a genotype-by-environment interaction. The functional annotation confirms that hypoxic stress pathways such as MAPK signalling pathway and VEGF signalling pathway play an important role during the later growth stage in the hypoxic environment. Our findings reveal the genetic complexity of body weight gain under a variety of dissolved oxygen conditions in Nile tilapia, and provide an essential insight into how hypoxia affects body weight gain during the growth stage, which will benefit future tilapia breeding programmes in the context of genomic architecture."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Animal resource","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"The fish were derived from the Aquaculture Extension Centre of the Malaysian Department of Fisheries at Jitra, Kedah State, Malaysia (6°15′32°N; 100°25′47°E). Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain was used in this experiment, and it had been selected for growth based on estimating breeding value (EBV) of harvest weight, with the genetic gain ranged from 5 to 15% per generation. The mate allocation strategy has controlled inbreeding and maintained effective population size [52]. The experimental fish were produced using 72 males from 56 families and 200 females from 73 families (total 81 unique families) of selection line of GIFT generation 15. From each family, fish with EBV for growth that were close to the family mean EBV were selected as a breeder. The experimental fish were mass produced in four hapas (net-enclosures, each 30m 2 ) installed in a 500m 2 earthen pond, aerated by a paddlewheel. For each hapa, 18 male and 50 female breeders were distributed for stocking, and they were removed from mating hapa after 15 days. Fry were reared in the same hapas for 60 days until they reached a taggable size. The fingerlings from each rearing hapa were tagged and then transferred into two earthen ponds with an equal number. Overall 1570 fish were reared in each pond with stocking density of 3 fish/m2. We managed two ponds with the same feeding management (i.e. feeding frequency twice per day, feeding rate was adjusted with fish number), while aeration was the only different treatment between two ponds."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"We measured DO every 2 h for 24 h with a total of 7 days during the different grow-out periods using Eco-Sense® DO200A. The average DO measurements for aerated pond (normoxia) and non-aerated pond (nocturnal hypoxia) are shown in Supplementary Figure 1 and Supplementary Table 1. Both ponds were normoxic (5 mg/ L) from 13:00 to 19:00. Non-aerated pond became hypoxic (under 3 mg/L) between 21:00 to next day 9:00. Body weight was measured at five time points (stocking, 55/56 days, 104/105 days, 167/168 days and 217/218 days) growing out in the hypoxic and normoxic environments, respectively. Fish were euthanized using clove oil at a dose of 400 ppm after the experiment. Fin clips were preserved in 95% ethanol and stored at − 20 °C until DNA extraction. More details about this experiment can be found in Mengistu et al. [51]."}]},{"head":"Genotyping, variant calling and quality control","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"DNA extraction and genotyping procedures were described in previous study by Mengistu et al. [51]. In short, we isolated genomic DNA from tilapia fin clips using the DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit. DNA quality was assessed by 260/280 and 260/230 ratios on Nano-Drop 2000 spectrophotometer. DNA concentration was measured with Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer. DNA samples were digested with ApeKI, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify fragments varied from 170 to 350 bp. The prepared libraries were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Raw sequence reads were trimmed for adaptors and low quality bases with Sickle (https://github.com/ najoshi/sickle). The quality of each individual was evaluated by FastQC (version 1.6) [53]. Sequence mapping for 2171 individuals was performed using bwa -mem algorithm [54] aligning to the tilapia reference genome (Gen-Bank accession GCF_001858045.1). Variant calling was analysed with FreeBayes (version 1.0.2) [55] in a default setting excepted these parameters: --min-base-quality 10, −-haplotype-length 0 and --ploidy 2. The SNP data was further filtered by Plink (version1.9) [56] with the following exclusion criteria: Minor Allele Frequency < 2%, genotyping call-rate for SNPs < 80% and individual rate < 70%. Finally, a total of 2063 individuals and 27,090 SNPs were used for subsequent analyses."}]},{"head":"Statistic description, population structure and association analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Basic statistics of phenotype data was analysed in R (version 3.5.3). Body weight in our study is not completely following a normal distribution as estimated by Shapiro-Wilk test [57]. Therefore, we compare two paired groups at five time point using the Wilcoxon test. The phenotypic correlation was calculated by spearman's rank correlation coefficient method. Then, body weight was transformed to better fit the normal distribution by square root method [58]. To estimate the influence of factors such as hapa (early rearing environment) and sex in our experiment, they were tested in a linear model using Stepwise Algorithm [59] with the formula: y ij = u + α i + β j + α i * β j + ε ij , while y is the body weight; u is the population mean; α i is the effect of the i th level of hapa; β j is the effect of the j th level of sex; ε is the random error effect. It suggested that hapa, sex and their interaction were significant with body weight. Therefore, residuals from the fixed effects model were used for the subsequent association analysis [60]."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to estimate population structure before GWAS in Plink (version 1.9) [56]. The top five principal components were added as covariates and included in the subsequent GWAS model as fixed effect to account for the sample structure in this association analysis. Considering the Bonferroni method being overly conservative, we defined the genome-wide significant using the SimpleM method [61]. In total 16,504 independent tests were calculated based on LD (linkage disequilibrium) characteristics. The significant and suggestive lines are 1 and 5% genome-wide significant divided by the SNPs number of independent SNPs in the association. Given the number of effective independent tests, the thresholds for genome-wide and suggestive significance P-value were evaluated as 3.03E-06 (0.05/16504) and 6.06E-05 (1/16504), respectively."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"A univariate GWAS was performed by implementing a linear mixed model in GEMMA [62]:"},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"In this equation, y is the a vector of observation on body weight; W is a covariate matrix of fixed effects (including top five PCs) used to adjust population structure; α is a vector of the corresponding coefficient including the intercept; x is a vector of the marker genotypes and β is the corresponding vector of marker effects for the phenotypes; μ is a vector of random effects and ε is the random residuals. We performed the Wald statistic for each SNP which means we tested the alternative hypothesis H 1 : β ≠ 0 compared to null hypothesis H 0 : β= 0 for each SNP, which is one of common methods in GWAS studies of quantitative traits [63]."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Meta-analysis is powerful to detect shared genetic architecture across traits and populations [64]. Thus, we applied an inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method to estimate the SNP effect and significance combined normoxic and hypoxic environments through Meta (Version 1.7) [65,66]. The weight (w i ) for ith environment was calculated by the following equation:"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Here s i is the standard error of the SNP effect in i th environment GWAS. Then, the effect size and standard error for i th environment GWAS were estimated by the following:"},{"index":7,"size":161,"text":"The statistical significance was estimated by a z-score of IVW as bellow: z ¼ β s ¼ P 2 i¼1 w i β i ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi P 2 i¼1 w i q Post-GWAS analysis Manhattan and quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots were generated through the \"qqman\" package (https://cran.r-project. org/web/packages/qqman/). The inflation factor λ was calculated to indicate the influence of population structure in the association analyses. Candidate regions were defined as the genomic regions that located 20 kb upstream and downstream of the genome-wide significant SNPs. In order to identify candidate genes nearby the significant SNPs, we used the Custom Annotations function to create an annotation set with parameters (−-distance 20,000 --gene_phenotype --symbol) in Ensembl Variant Effect Predictor (VEP) [67]. All protein sequences of candidate genes were extracted through reference protein sequence with an inhouse python script, and were further used for functional enrichment analysis in STRING V11.0 [68]. The false discovery rate (FDR) adjusted p-value of 0.05 was used to define significant enrichment."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 SNP statistics with all individuals. a Histogram of SNPs distribution across all linkage groups. b SNP density plots across all linkage groups. c and d 3D PC plot for origin of tilapia at BW1 in the hypoxic (c) and normoxic (d) environments using all SNPs that passed filtering, where each dot represents one individual "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 2 Manhattan plots across the whole growth period in the hypoxic environment. a and normoxic environment (b). Each dot on this figure corresponds to a SNP within the dataset, while the orange and blue horizontal line represent the genome-wide significance (5.52) and suggestive significance threshold value (4.22), respectively. The Manhattan plots contain -log10 observed P-values for genome-wide SNPs (y-axis) plotted against their corresponding position on each chromosome (x-axis) "},{"text":". 2 Fig. 2 Manhattan plots across the whole growth period in the hypoxic environment. a and normoxic environment (b). Each dot on this figure corresponds to a SNP within the dataset, while the orange and blue horizontal line represent the genome-wide significance (5.52) and suggestive significance threshold value (4.22), respectively. The Manhattan plots contain -log10 observed P-values for genome-wide SNPs (y-axis) plotted against their corresponding position on each chromosome (x-axis) "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Manhattan plots of Meta-analysis GWAS across two environments. The orange and blue horizontal line represent the genome-wide significance (3.03E-06) and suggestive significance threshold value (6.06E-05) respectively "},{"text":"Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Functional annotation based on candidate genomic region associated with growth. a Venn diagram summarising the gene count of the early stage (BW1 to BW2) from hypoxia, normoxia and meta-analysis (cross normoxia and hypoxia). b Venn diagram summarising gene count of later stage (BW3 to BW5) from hypoxia, normoxia and meta-analysis. c KEGG enrichment of candidate genes in later stage of hypoxia environment (d) protein association network among candidate genes in later stage of the hypoxia environment "},{"text":"Table 1 Summary statistics of body weight across the whole growth period in Nile tilapia BW Body weight, days means the growing out days in either hypoxia or normoxia, No. The number of animals, Max Maximum, Min Minimum, SD Standard deviation, CV% Coefficient of variation Trait Days Environments No. Mean Max Min SD CV(%) P value TraitDaysEnvironmentsNo.MeanMaxMinSDCV(%)P value BW1 0 Hypoxia 1037 24.8 77.0 3.6 13.4 54.0 0.14 BW10Hypoxia103724.877.03.613.454.00.14  0 Normoxia 1026 25.4 77.1 2.9 13.1 51.7  0Normoxia102625.477.12.913.151.7 BW2 55 Hypoxia 1037 144.3 328.0 26.0 54.7 37.9 3.81E-07 BW255Hypoxia1037144.3328.026.054.737.93.81E-07  56 Normoxia 1026 159.1 394.3 30.2 63.1 39.7  56Normoxia1026159.1394.330.263.139.7 BW3 104 Hypoxia 907 265.9 498.3 70.5 73.3 27.6 4.17E-08 BW3104Hypoxia907265.9498.370.573.327.64.17E-08  105 Normoxia 941 289.4 650.5 63.3 92.5 32.0  105Normoxia941289.4650.563.392.532.0 BW4 167 Hypoxia 885 426.4 805.3 117.0 118.9 27.9 2.20E-16 BW4167Hypoxia885426.4805.3117.0118.927.92.20E-16  168 Normoxia 903 533.6 1079.1 68.2 177.2 33.2  168Normoxia903533.61079.168.2177.233.2 BW5 217 Hypoxia 799 579.6 1003.4 135.5 154.4 26.6 2.20E-16 BW5217Hypoxia799579.61003.4135.5154.426.62.20E-16  218 Normoxia 885 780.9 1588.6 185.7 265.6 34.0  218Normoxia885780.91588.6185.7265.634.0  "},{"text":"Table 2 Phenotypic correlations of body weight across the whole growth period in different environments Trait BW1 BW2 BW3 BW4 BW5 TraitBW1BW2BW3BW4BW5 BW1 - 0.81 0.61 0.32 0.22 BW1-0.810.610.320.22 BW2 0.80 - 0.77 0.44 0.32 BW20.80-0.770.440.32 BW3 0.59 0.80 - 0.66 0.52 BW30.590.80-0.660.52 BW4 0.29 0.46 0.68 - 0.83 BW40.290.460.68-0.83 BW5 0.15 0.31 0.56 0.85 - BW50.150.310.560.85-  "}],"sieverID":"1344093d-e464-48d7-b317-e36e5f75fcd9","abstract":"Background: Tilapia is one of the most abundant species in aquaculture. Hypoxia is known to depress growth rate, but the genetic mechanism by which this occurs is unknown. In this study, two groups consisting of 3140 fish that were raised in either aerated (normoxia) or non-aerated pond (nocturnal hypoxia). During grow out, fish were sampled five times to determine individual body weight (BW) gains. We applied a genome-wide association study to identify SNPs and genes associated with the hypoxic and normoxic environments in the 16th generation of a Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia population. Results: In the hypoxic environment, 36 SNPs associated with at least one of the five body weight measurements (BW1 till BW5), of which six, located between 19.48 Mb and 21.04 Mb on Linkage group (LG) 8, were significant for body weight in the early growth stage (BW1 to BW2). Further significant associations were found for BW in the later growth stage (BW3 to BW5), located on LG1 and LG8. Analysis of genes within the candidate genomic region suggested that MAPK and VEGF signalling were significantly involved in the later growth stage under the hypoxic environment. Well-known hypoxia-regulated genes such as igf1rb, rora, efna3 and aurk were also associated with growth in the later stage in the hypoxic environment. Conversely, 13 linkage groups containing 29 unique significant and suggestive SNPs were found across the whole growth period under the normoxic environment. A meta-analysis showed that 33 SNPs were significantly associated with BW across the two environments, indicating a shared effect independent of hypoxic or normoxic environment. Functional pathways were involved in nervous system development and organ growth in the early stage, and oocyte maturation in the later stage. Conclusions: There are clear genotype-growth associations in both normoxic and hypoxic environments, although genome architecture involved changed over the growing period, indicating a transition in metabolism along the way. The involvement of pathways important in hypoxia especially at the later growth stage indicates a genotypeby-environment interaction, in which MAPK and VEGF signalling are important components."}

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"},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Incentives, technologies, strategies and product and organizational innovations that mitigate the environmental and public health risks and facilitate participation of the poor in livestock markets and other business opportunities. Demand: • Not going away • Will be met Value: • Valuable market • Private sector interest and investment Demand and value: important drivers Demand for livestock commodities in developing Demand for milk imports -growing fastest Employment -for all -matters Distilling complexity -Distinguishing opportunities Trajectory Sector Opportunities for research to address development challenges Complementarity or competition? economies will be met Scenario #1 Meeting livestock demand by importing livestock products Scenario #2 Meeting livestock demand by importing livestock industrial production know-how Meeting livestock demand by 5000 344 208 48 94 433 452 52 'High growth Mostly monogastric 72 transforming smallholder livestock systems 735 707 systems  1 044 transforming smallholder Market access and food safety; (Zoonotic outbreaks) 10000 Youth oriented often and market-linked systems Scenario #3   'Fragile Some smallholder and Enhance the essential roles of livestock in the resilience of in SSA 15000 20000 25000 USD million 2010 Regional projections to 2050, of total and youth (15 to 24) populations in millions pastoral systems; little people and communities to variability in weather, markets growth' Where remoteness, marginal land resources or agro climatic vulnerability restrict part in the production response. or resource demands Better Protection of assets (eg insurance) and conservation of nutrition: natural resources. animal source Opportunities such as payment for ecosystem services could foods for become increasingly important producers and intensification consumers 2050 'Strong Ruminant meat and milk, Sustainable food systems that deliver key animal-source 2 478 Total Population growth' Intensifying and increasingly market esp. in SSA, India − Pork in some regions. nutrients Damage the Facilitating a structural transition to fewer households raising more productive animals in more efficient, intensive environment Demand: • Not going away • Will be met Value: • Valuable market • Private sector interest and investment Demand and value: important drivers Demand for livestock commodities in developing Demand for milk imports -growing fastest Employment -for all -matters Distilling complexity -Distinguishing opportunities Trajectory Sector Opportunities for research to address development challenges Complementarity or competition? economies will be met Scenario #1 Meeting livestock demand by importing livestock products Scenario #2 Meeting livestock demand by importing livestock industrial production know-how Meeting livestock demand by 5000 344 208 48 94 433 452 52 'High growth Mostly monogastric 72 transforming smallholder livestock systems 735 707 systems  1 044 transforming smallholder Market access and food safety; (Zoonotic outbreaks) 10000 Youth oriented often and market-linked systems Scenario #3   'Fragile Some smallholder and Enhance the essential roles of livestock in the resilience of in SSA 15000 20000 25000 USD million 2010 Regional projections to 2050, of total and youth (15 to 24) populations in millions pastoral systems; little people and communities to variability in weather, markets growth' Where remoteness, marginal land resources or agro climatic vulnerability restrict part in the production response. or resource demands Better Protection of assets (eg insurance) and conservation of nutrition: natural resources. animal source Opportunities such as payment for ecosystem services could foods for become increasingly important producers and intensification consumers 2050 'Strong Ruminant meat and milk, Sustainable food systems that deliver key animal-source 2 478 Total Population growth' Intensifying and increasingly market esp. in SSA, India − Pork in some regions. nutrients Damage the Facilitating a structural transition to fewer households raising more productive animals in more efficient, intensive environment with AFRICA N AMERICA − China for all EUROPE  AFRICA N AMERICA EUROPE withAFRICAN AMERICA − China for allEUROPEAFRICAN AMERICAEUROPE • Environmental footprint • Food safety 2010 2020 S.Asia SE. Asia Intensified livestock challenges systems with 0 externalities' commodities. SSA 2030 S.America 2040 High income 2050 • Environmental footprint • Food safety 2010 2020 S.Asia SE. Asia Intensified livestock challenges systems with 0 externalities' commodities.SSA2030S.America2040 High income2050 including the       including the environment and      environment and public health       public health  "}],"sieverID":"cb290c16-405e-4198-80dd-296065f8193c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"074339062a808029c4e28fdd574eb416","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5aca33e-7439-4042-946c-03ca7971d4a6/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"En muchas partes del mundo en desarrollo. la seguridad alimentaria es ---en el mejor de los casos-Inestable. Para ayudar a abolir el hambre. los Investigadores agricolas deben atacar resueltamente los principales limltanles de producción y almacenamiento de alimentos."}]},{"head":"Hacer que la agricultura sea más competitiva.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Apertura es la palabra favorita de las políticas económicas de muchos países en desarrollo. Los que más se benefician son aquellos paises que logran habilitar mejor su agricultura para ser competitiva. vinculando la producción de los alimentos básicos con los nuevos mercados y explotando una amplia gama de diversidad genética para desarrollar nuevos productos. Una de las maneras en que los investigadores pueden ayudar es generando productos agrícolas cuya calidad satisfaga las demandas del mercado."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"~ NA BIOTECNOLOGÍA DE DELANTALES EMBARRADOS Para algunas personas. la blotecnología conlleva una Imagen de cIencIas puras. alejadas de la cotidianidad de la agrtcultura. Y -en algunos casos-esta Imagen parece correcta."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Pero lo que estamos haciendo en el ClAT es una bIotecnología de delantales embarrados. Eso quiere decir que Integramos los métodos moleculares y celulares modernos con la Inves tigación en el campo para lograr dos ventajas Importantes: l. Las nuevas técnIcas pueden promover la eficiencia de los métodos convencionales y mejorar nuestras posIbIlidades de resolver aquellos problemas que de otra manera habrian sido dtficlles o Imposibles de superar."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"2. Una relación estrecha con la JnvesUgaclón parUclpativa. dirigida a los cultivos y sus partentes silvestres. asegura que lo que hacemos en el laboratorio sea relevante para los agricultores y los consumidores."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"En los volantes adjuntos. titulados Actualización de Proyectos (ver el bolsUlol. desCI1blmos la Investigación que se está llevando a cabo en el ClAT sobre algunos temas seleccionados."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"John Mtles. OtomeJorador del elAT. analiza las Infestaciones del -sallvazo-en la gramínea Brach!ar1a."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"3. Reducir los riesgos ambientales y económicos de la agricultura."},{"index":8,"size":92,"text":"En una agricultura orientada hacia el mercado. exlste una tendencia muy fuerte hacia el uso excesivo de pesUcldas. lo cual aumenta los costos de producción. ocasiona daños ecológicos, y puede establecer barreras que Impidan la comercialización. Una de las maneras en que la btotecnología puede combatir este problema es acelerando el desarrollo de vartedades resistentes a las plagas y a las enfermedades. que ellmlnen o reduzcan la necesidad del control químico. Otra es promover las asociaciones naturales entre las plantas y los microorganismos benellcos para reducir las poblaciones de plagas y patógenos."},{"index":9,"size":59,"text":"Para ayudar a los'agrtcurtores a mantener el equlllbrio, no podemos limitarnos simplemente a dominar ciertas técnicas nuevaS. Debemos aplicarlas con crcaUv1dad hacia fines prácUcos. tales como la conservación de la diversidad genéUca (en los bancos de genes, en los campos de los agricultores y en la naturaleza) y la uUllzaclón de genes valiosos para el mejoramiento de las plantas."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"\"El mapa es como un rompecabezas con mil partes. En cada Intento. tomamos un segmento o sonda del ADN y determinamos en qué lugar se ubica en el genoma de la planta~."},{"index":11,"size":38,"text":"Con el fin de analizar la diversidad geneuca a nivel molecular. los participantes en un curso de blotecnologia para la conservación de la agroblodtversldad aprenden a transferir ADN de un gel de electroforesis a una membrana de nilón."},{"index":12,"size":90,"text":"-.:..JN LABORATORIO SIN PAREDES Cuando el CIAT estableció la Unidad de Investigación en Blotecnología (UIB) en 1985. buscamos una manera de Integrar las nuevas técnicas a la Investigación estratégica del Centro. el cual actualmente incluye un amplio rango de actividades en el desarrollo de germoplasma y en el manejo de los. recursos naturales. Para lograr este propósitO. nos cuenta Wllllam Roca. jefe de la UIB. que se organizó \"un laboratorto sin paredes -un laboratorto abierto a las personas que pudieran ayudar a Identificar los problemas y a desarrollar soluciones innovadoras\"."},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"Las principales funciones de la UIB son:"},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"• lnvesttgar el potencial de las nuevas tecnlcas. utilizando la información básica de los laboratorios avanzados (ver La Caja de Herramientas de la BiDtecnolDgía. en el bolsillo)."},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"• Diseñar aplicaciones de la blotecnología para ser usadas por los fitomejoradores y otros Investigadores agrícolas."},{"index":16,"size":51,"text":"Desde 1989. los científicos del CIAT y sus colegas de otras Instituciones han puesto en práctica las técnicas del cultivo de anteras en arroz, la conservación in vitro de la yuca. la \"dactiloscopia\" genética mediante isoenzimas, y el uso de mapas y marcadores genéUcos moleculares. Ya están en camIno más aplicaciones."},{"index":17,"size":15,"text":"Un melodo sencillo de fitomeJoramlento, efecuvo en términos de costos. mediante el cultivo de anteras."},{"index":18,"size":51,"text":"\"L.J NA PuERTA ABIERTA Una de las consignas de la investigación y la cooperación en bloteenología del CIAT es mantener la puerta abierta. Mantenemos esa apertura para dar cabida a acuerdos flexibles sobre Investlgaclón y capacitación en un ampllo rango de campos. Además. abrtmos puertas de oportunidad para nuestros colegas. mediante:"},{"index":19,"size":19,"text":"• Las redes de Investigación. las cuales proporcionan un marco de referencia para gran parte de nuestras actividades colaboratlvas."},{"index":20,"size":18,"text":"• La capacitación y la programación de otras actividades dlrtgldas al fortalecimiento de la capacidad naCional de Investlgaclón."},{"index":21,"size":19,"text":"• El apoyo a estudiantes y clentificos que están realizando sus investigaciones de tesis de pregrado, maestria o doctorado."},{"index":22,"size":21,"text":"• La participación activa en el debate sobre la blosegurtdad, los derechos de propiedad Intelectual y el intercambio de recursos geni:tlcos."},{"index":23,"size":14,"text":"(Para mayor Información sobre estas actividades, consulte DesllIToIlando Capacidades en BiDlecn%gia. en el bolsillo.)"},{"index":24,"size":39,"text":"Muchas instituciones de los países en desarrollo ya cuentan con un personal y una InfraestnJctura excelentes para la Investlgaclón en blotecnología. Aún asi, sigue siendo muy grande la brecha en tecnología geni:tlca entre estos países y el mundo Industrializado."},{"index":25,"size":55,"text":"Una buena manera de cerrar esta brecha es mediante la reaHzaclón de proyectos colaboratlvos de Investigación que ponen en contacto a los especlallstas en blotecnologia con los clentificos de otras dlsclpllnas. En años recientes, el CIAT ha realizado 10 proyectos de <;sta naturaleza con apoyo de diversos donantes. Hay abundancia de oportunidades para mayor cooperación.  "}]},{"head":"MEJOR CONSERVACIÓN DE LOS RECURSOS GENÉTICOS DE","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"YUCA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"La colección de yuca qu e se mantiene en el ClAT conUene cerca de 6000 accesiones provenientes de los principales centros de diversidad de la especie en las Américas y de los centros secundarios de Afrlca. Asia y Oceanía . El Centro desarrolla una estrategia integrada para mejorar la conservación de estos recursos genetlcos."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"La Identificación de los duplicados que existen en la colección es un componente de esa estrategia. La colección contiene clones locales (cada uno con nombre diferente) y muchos de éstos posiblemente cons tituyen el m1 smo genotipo. Para aumentar la eficienCia de conservación y de manejo del gerrnoplasma es necesario IdentlOcar dichos duplicados."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"El anills1s de perfiles de Isoenzimas (ver foto). Junto con los descriptores morfológicos y agronómIcos. Indican que cerca del 200/0 de la colección son duplicados. A grupos de variedades ya examinadas respecto a su morfología y sus Isoe nzlmás. les hacemos la dacUloscopla del ADN para detectar diferencias genéU cas de manera más precisa. Por ejemplo. en una muestra de 100 accesiones aparentemen te sImilares, determinamos que 20 son genéticamente únicas -y las demás son material duplicado-utilizando como sonda el gen que codifica la proleina 111 del baclenófago M 13. Los marcadores RAPO confirman eslos resultados."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Para la conservación efecuva de los recursos geneUcos es necesario combinar la conservación In silu y ex situ. La conservación In sltu se prefiere para las poblaciones de parientes silvestres de las espedes cu lUvadas y para cultivares primitivos. 1..3 conservación ex sltu complementa ese enfoque porque protege el germoplasma que se encuentra bajo amenaza de erosión geneUca o de otros peligros. Esta protección puede lograrse por diversos medios, que van desde la conservación de c ulllvares en el campo, hasta la conservación in vitro. el a lmacenamiento de AON y la cnopreservaclón."}]},{"head":"En cooperación con el InsUtuto","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Internacional para los Recursos Fltogenétlcos (lPGRI), el ClAT ha desarrollado un banco acUvo de germoplasma In vitro que contiene mas de 5900 clones, los cuales representan mas del 95% de la colección mundial de germoplasma de yuca (ver foto). La Unidad de Recursos Cenélicos del Centro mantiene esos clones en condiciones de. crecimiento lenlo (es deci r. a temperatura reducida y en un medio especial). Aun así. las accesiones deben renovarse por periodos que van de 12 a 18 meses. El banco In vitro completo ocupa 35 m l de espacio de labaratano. cerca de una milésima parte del area '\" <D '\""},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":".,."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"'\""},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"'\" \" \" \" \" Las colecciones núcleo. no obslanle. son üUles sólo en la medida en que rep resenten con preciSión la divers idad genética de las especies muestreadas. Para satisfacer este requi sito. la composición de las colecciones núcleo se basó en una combinación de faclores qu e se relacion aron con la evolución del frijol comün y con los sistemas agroecológlcos en los cuales este se ha encontrado. Por ejemplo. al rormar la colección de P. uulgaris culUvado. se Incluyeron mas accesiones de los centros primarios de diverSidad que de los secundarios. y se dio mas Importancia a los li pes de se milla ya los hábitos de crecimiento prlmlllvos que a los tipos comerCiales moder nos."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Para garanllzar que la colección núcleo cubra el rango total de adaptación del cultivo, se desarrolló una c1aslncaclón agroecológlca sencilla. que se basa en cuatro factores (como suelo y precipitación) e Incluye un total de 54 sistemas agroecológlcos diferentes. El sistema agroecológico al cual pertenece cada accesión se Identificó uUllí'.ando las coordenadas cartográflcas de los slttos de recolección de las lineas n a tivas de frijol."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"En colaboración con los clentmcos de la Universidad de Wlsconsin. E.U .. se utilizaron marcadores RAPO para comprobar s i la variabilidad genéLlca de la colección núcleo de P. uulgariS c ulUvado en verdad represenla la variabilidad de la coleCCión de reserva."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"Ahora se necesita evaluar las colecciones núcleo -por ejemplo. respecto al uso eOclente del f6sfor~ y utilizarlas seleccionando los ge notipos deseables."},{"index":8,"size":99,"text":"Además. la colección de accesiones sUvestres se esta caracterizando. utilizando faseollna y otras proteínas polimórficas de la semilla como Indicadores bioquímicos de la diversidad genética: se usan tamblen marcado res moleculares. como AFLPs y RAPOs (ver foto) . Estas lecnlcas ayuda n a estudiar la eslructura genética del germoplasma silvestre. a determinar el grado de domesllcactón del frijol cultivado desde: una fracción limitada de poblaCiones sllveslres (denominado el eJecf.oJundado,\", y a detecl ar el flujo de genes entre el germoplasma sUvestre y el culUvado, y entre acervos de genes de fr1Jol común de la Reglón Andina y de Mesoamelica."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"Areas de colaboración: Las coleCCIones nú cleo y los procedlm1entos medIante los cuales éstas se forman se consideran oportunidades nuevas para acUvar la colaboración con bancos de germoplasma y programas de mejoramiento. Las colecciones proporcionara n un punto de partida común para hacer estudios y evaluaciones adicionales sobre la diversidad de Phaseolus."},{"index":10,"size":72,"text":"La colaboración Incluye la aplicación de procedimientos nuevos para formar colecciones núcleo de otras especies: esto ayudarla a los InvesUgadores a estudiar un amplio espectro de agroblodlversldad. Herramientas como los marcadores moleculares pueden magnificar la precisión de estos estudios y los conocimientos que de ellos obtenemos. Los sIstemas de Información geográfica (OIS. en Inglés) pueden ayudarnos a describir y analizar la diversidad genética en su relación con las vartables agroecol6glcas clave ."},{"index":11,"size":47,"text":"Este tipo de estudio mejorara nuesLra comprensión de la relación que hay entre la diverSidad genética a nivel molecular y la diversidad biológica de los agroecoslstemas. Acción de Z. su!¡fascLalus en accesIones de fr1Jol que tienen el gen de la arcellna (resIstentes) y accesiones sIn CI (susceptibles)."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"----"},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"., ~ ~ ~ ::"},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"::! ::! ., ::! .,"},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"Un marcador bioqu ímico sirve para Identificar el gen de la arccltna en accesiones de frij ol. Cada uno de los seis materiales resistentes, designados por \"C\" , lleva una variante diferente del gen de la arccllna."},{"index":16,"size":69,"text":".¡¡ El añublo del arroz o plr1cularta es la enfermedad más extendida en Jos paises arroceros y la que más amenaza este alimento básico de 2500 millones de personas. En la búsqueda de una solución genéUca. a este problema, los clenUncos del ClAT y sus colaboradores en la Invesugacl6n han aprendido mucho acerca de la base genética de las Interacciones entre la planta hospedante y su enemigo número uno."},{"index":17,"size":50,"text":"El patógeno del aflublo (Pyricularta grtsea) es un hongo que genera un gran numero de razas o patotlpos: esta diversidad extrema complica el desarmllo de cultivares resistentes de arroz. La mayoría de las vartedades liberadas hasta el momento tienen genes slmples de resistencia. que sólo son efecuvos contra ciertos patoUpos."},{"index":18,"size":66,"text":"Invariablemente. es ta reslslenCla pierde su efectividad Lan sólo 2 ó 3 años después. como resultado de los cambios en la frecuencia de los palollpos, de la Inmigración de razas compatibles que ya exJstian o de la emergencia raplda de nuevas razas mediante mutación u otros mecanismos. Como no disponen de variedades con resistencia duradera a l a ñublo. muchos agricultores dependen excesivamente de los funglcldas."},{"index":19,"size":91,"text":"En 1989. el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (JCA) liberó Oryzlc. , Uanos 5 . EsLa variedad fue una linea experimental desarrollada por investigadores del ClAT en Santa Rosa. un sitio de alla concentración de numerosas razas del hongo ca usanle de l añublo en Colombia . Pasados 6 rulOS de prodUCCión comercial de esta variedad. su resistencia (inmunidad) al añublo todavia se mantiene. Los clentíncos dellnsututo Internacional de Invesugaclón del Arroz (IRRlJ, en las FilIpinas, Informan que esta línea tambU~n ha mostrado resistencia en varios sitios InvadIdos por el ai\"lublo en Asia."},{"index":20,"size":75,"text":"Para explicar la durabilidad de esta resistencia y facilitar el desarrollo de variedades similares. un grupo Interdlsclpllnano del elATo en colaboración con colegas de la Universid ad de Purdue, E.U .. ha realizado estudios sobre la diversidad de la virulencia y ha caracterizado la estructura genética del patógeno, mediante la Wdactuoscopla~ genética. utilizando una sonda de ADN ll amada MGR-586 (repeticiones del AON de Magnaporl.h.e grisea. que conforman una sonda molecula r desarrollada por Dupont)."},{"index":21,"size":50,"text":"Los estudios sobre la esLructura genética y la frecuencia de la virulencia del hongo Indican que ciertas combinaciones de genes de vtrulencla están ausentes, o se presentan con baja frecuencia. cuando los genes de resIstencia de la planta son especiOcos contra un linaje o una familia formada por varios patoUpos."},{"index":22,"size":76,"text":"Partiendo de estos resultados, los clenüOcos del ClAT estan aumentando la precisión de los trabajos de mejoramiento respecto a la resisten cia duradera al añublo. La estrategJa es hacer corresponder las combinaciones de genes de resistencia de la planta hospedante con la combinación de genes de virulencia que están ausentes o se presentan con baja frecuencia en la población de patógenos. Esto hace que Jos diversos linajes geneUcos del patógeno sean Incompatibles con la planta hospedante."},{"index":23,"size":41,"text":", -------------, \"DacUloscoplas\" gcneUcas usando la sonda MCR-ADN de aislamientos del ailublo de $anta Rosa. Colombia. Observe la semcJanza de los patrones en los aJslamlcnlos dentro de los linajes gcneUcos y las evidentes dlrcl\"enclas entre los li najes 1 a 6."},{"index":24,"size":45,"text":"Mediante el ami1lsls masa] de grupos de segregantes y el uso de marcadores RAPO se dlrercndan\\n los gcnoupos de arroz susccpUbles de los I\"eslslentes. Observe que e l patl\"ón de RAPDs para. el progenltol\" susceptible es el mismo que el del s R O a."},{"index":25,"size":2,"text":"::¡ a:"},{"index":26,"size":3,"text":"'\" O a."},{"index":27,"size":2,"text":"::¡ a:"},{"index":28,"size":1,"text":"(')"},{"index":29,"size":74,"text":"Con nnanclaclón recibid a de la Fundadón Rockereller. avarl7.amos rápidamente en la apltcaclón de los datos sobre linajes. derivados de la dactiloscopia MOR-ADN (vel\" foto). Estos. Junto con los marcadol\"es moleculal\"es (RFLPs y RAPOs). permiten IdenUficar los segmentos cromosómlcos que portan la resistencia a los linajes del hongo encontrados en Colombia (vel\" rolo) . Espemmos lener. dentro de pocos Mos. marcadol\"es que perrnllan IdenUncar y acumular más eOclenLemenLe las combinaciones de genes de I\"\"eslstencla."},{"index":30,"size":53,"text":"Areas de colaboración: EIIRRJ y el ClAT están promOviendo Intensamente la colaboración Internacional en el desarrollo del germoplasma de arroz con resistencia duradera al añublo. para que los paises en desarrollo puedan dlsrrutar más rácilmente de los beneficios del germoplasma resistente, Que se estiman en US$21 O millones anuales en sólo América Latina."},{"index":31,"size":68,"text":"El IRRl coordina la investigación en arroz a nivel mundial, mientras que el CIAT se concentra en América laUna. Junto con científicos de las universidades de Cornell y de Purdue, el personal de los dos centros internacionales ha adoptado una estrategia de mejoramiento conjunta. Nuestro trabajo en Colombia es esencial porque se realiza en un sitio (Santa Rosa) donde el hongo causante de la enfennedad es extremadamente variable."},{"index":32,"size":98,"text":"Para que los InsUtutos nacionales tuvieran mayor acceso a los nuevos avances y a la tecnologia en el área. el CIAT realizó un taller sobl\"e el añublo del arroz en octubre de 1994 . con la colabol\"aclón del Programa Cooperativo para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario (PROCISUR) . El taller estuvo orientado al análiSIs de la diversidad palogenlca. usando marcadores moleculares. y a los estudios sobre la diversidad de la virulencia . ParUclparon equipos mullldlsclpllnar10s de clenUOcos (cada equipo conformado por un meJ0l\"ador, un patólogo y un especialista en blotecnologial de cinca países del Cono Sur de Amenca latina."},{"index":33,"size":13,"text":"CO~ACTO EN ClAT: F. Co rrea y J . Tohme Diciembre de 1994"},{"index":34,"size":3,"text":"AcTUALIZACiÓN PROYECTO 5"},{"index":35,"size":11,"text":"APoMIXIS EN EL GÉNERO BRACHIARIA: ¿UNA NUEVA ESPERANZA PARA LOS HíBRIDOS?"},{"index":36,"size":66,"text":"BrachIa.ria y olras gramineas fo rrajeras lroplcales son algunas de las pocas espeCies económicamente Importantes que pueden reproducirse mediante apomixts. es decir. a partir de semillas cuyo embrtón se origina gracias a un proceso asexual (ver falO). Las plantas que crecen de esta semllla son geneUcamente ¡denUcas a su progenitor femenino y lo son también entre sí. 51 se pudiera tntroducir la apomlx:1s en cultivos \"\"'''"},{"index":37,"size":1,"text":".,,,.,,,,."},{"index":38,"size":30,"text":"Eatructura reproducUva de una planta sexual y de otra apomicllca (vislH,S (:on un microscopio de contraste de Interreren Cla) obtenidas en un cruce entre u n tctraplolde sexu al de "}]},{"head":"Aunque este trabajO no se conunue. la importancia de","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Brachtarla en Am~r1ca lroplcal JusuOca.ria el uso que se da a los marcadores moleculares para marcar los genes de la apomtx:ts en estas especies. Só lo en Brasil se siembran mas de 50 mJllones de hectáreas con pasturas de Brachiarla. SI se torna la reg,tón latinoamericana como un todo. eslas especies rorraJeras comerclaJes son las que más se culUvan."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Ahora bien, en vez de finalizar esta InvesUgación con Brachta.ria. ¿por qué no comenzarla desde ese punto? Si suponemos que se puede transferir un gen de la apomlx1s desde esta especie hasta otras, podnamos mulUplicar los hibndos de manera uniforme. a bajo costo."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Los híbr1dos son la progenie vigorosa de los cruzarnJentos entre progen itores geneUcamente diferentes. Pues bien, sólo la primera generación sexual de esta semilla posee el vigor del hibndo. y no tiene sentido que los agricultores adopten hibrtdos a menos que compren semllla nueva para cada siembra. En muchos paises en desarrollo. los deOclentes slSLemas de distribución de sernHla y la pobreza de las áreas ruraJes hacen prácUcamente impoSible la adquisición de semUla híbrtda . Otro problema es la biología reproducUva de clerlas especies culUvadas que se autopollnlzan : en ellas la producción de polen o su traslado al ovario es deOciente. Esto complica notablemente la producción masiva de semilla hibrlda convencional."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Superar Jos obstáculos que se oponen al desarrollo de híbridos es una de las metas de las diversas insUtuciones que tratan de Incorporar el gen de la apom1x1s en cereales Importantes mediante la hibridación Inlrogreslva. Con el Uempo, se podnan desarrollar cultivos apomictlcos mediante la aplicación de nuevas técnicas de blotecnologia que transfieran el gen de la apomlxJs entre espeCies genéUcamente más dlstancLadas."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Una vez que los agricultores tengan su primera provisión de híbridos apomicUcos podrán prodUCir una generación tras otra de semilla hibrtda."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"Areas de colaboración: El desarrollo de culUvos apomicUcos mediante la Ingeniería geneUca Inclulria tres etapas plincipales: 1) hacer un mapa detallado de la reglón cromosómlca de Brachiaria donde eslá ubicado el gen de la apom.lx.ls. utilizando marcadores moleculares: 2) aislar y clonar el gen de la apomlx.1s: y 3) transformar genetlcamente las especies de Interes. Cada etapa representa un gran reto y requerirá. de estrecha colaboración con laboratorios de InvesUga clón avanzada. El ClAT Inició ya la primera eLapa alldentlficar un marcador molecular ligado al gen de la apomlxis; tamblen ha avanzado en el desarrollo de un protocolo de transfo rmación a partir de la regeneración de plantas de Brachiaria desde culUvos de teJido. Esta t~cnlca nos perrnJUnl evaluar la expresión del gen de la apom1xJs en los diferentes ambientes en que se cultiva Brachlaria."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"CONTACl'O EN CIAT: J. M t1esyJ. En curso"},{"index":8,"size":37,"text":"Para qu e estas tecnologías sean mas ampliamenle dlspor;llbles en los paises en desarrollo. c:1 ClAT fome nta la cooperación en la InvesUgaclón en blolecnologia a lravés de redc:s de InvesUgaclón y desarrollo. capacitación y otras aCUvidades."}]},{"head":"Redes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Para ayud ar a establecer puen tes Que comuniquen las Ins tlluClones y para ha llar aplicaciones blotecnológlcas útiles. el ClAT promueve redes Internacionales de"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"InvesUgaclón agrícola orientadas a los culUvos básicos. Estas redes proporcionan los medios para dar pr10rldad a temas de InvesUgaclón en b lotecnologia y para atraer la atención de los donantes de fondos y de la comunidad científica mundial hacia tales temas."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"El CIAT h a apoyado decididamente la Red Inlernadonal de Blotecnologia de Yuca "}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Equipos multldlsclpllnartos de clenliOcos de los cinco países del Cono Sur de Amerlca laUna hacen una separación de AON mediante e1eclroforesb en geles. en un curso sobre la aplicación de marcadores moleculares a1 estudio del aitublo del arroz."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"La Red organiza conferencias y lalleres. proyectos de Investigación colaboratlva, y acUvidades de capacitación él corto plaw para clenUficos de paises en desarrollo. La última conferencia que organizó la Red tuvo Jugar en Bogar. Indonesia, en agosto de 1994. y a ella asistieron 150 clenti flcos de 16 países en desarrollo y de 8 paises desarrollados. Las In stlluclones que Inlegran la Red están comprometidas en 40 proyectos colabora Uvos de blolecnologia. que representan un aumento considerable desde los 4 que había en 1988: con ellos se procura solucionar a lgunos problemas que plantean la producción y la utili7..ación de la yuca."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Ademas, el CIAT participa activamente en la Red de BiotecnoJogia de Arroz, que es apoyada por la fundación Rockefeller. El Centro ha establecido tamblen la Red de Inves Ugaclón Avanzada en BiolecnoJogia de Frijol Phaseolus (BARN) . En un taJler de esta Red, celebrado en el CIAT en 1993, 50 clenUOcos de 16 países IdenUfi caron una gran variedad de temas que padriao servir como punto de partida para proyec tos de investigación colaboraLlva. Este evento fue financiado por la Agencia Alem ana para la Cooperación Tecnlca (GTZ)."}]},{"head":"Capacitación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Durante los úlUmos 5 anos. mas de 100 clentíOcos se han capacitado en el Cen tro en diferentes aspectos de la blotecnologia . Algunos recibieron capacitaCión directa en el trabajO y durante periodos vartables de tiempo; otros hicieron en el ClAT invesUgaclones para su tesis. ya sea de posgrado o de pregrado; y otros parUclparon en cursos de capacitación diseñados para grupos."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"En 1994. Y con el apoyo de la fundación Rockefeller, se Inició una serie de c ursos sobre mejoramiento del arroz mediante el cultivo de anteras. Los particIpantes fueron equipos Integrados por un especialista en cultivo de tejidos y un meJorado r de arroz de la misma InsUluctón. Los equipos estudiaron la forma de Incorporar el cultivo de anteras al meJorarnJento de ese cultivo. En octubre de 1994. el ClATy el Programa Coopera Uva para el Desarrollo Tecnológ.tco Agrapecuarto (PROCISURl organlzaron un curso slmJlar para meJoradores. patólogos y biólogos moleculares de los paises del Cono Sur de AmeJ1 ca laUna. En ese curSO se tra taron dos temas: el análisis de la diversidad patogenlca con ayuda de marcadores moleculares. y la IdenU ncaclón y marcación de los genes de resistencia en la planta hospedante aJ añublo del arroz."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"El ClAT está desarrollando también su capacidad de entrenar a clenlincos de Amerlca laUna y el Caribe en la aplicación de la blotecnologia a los estudios de agroblodiversldad. En novlembre de 1994. se ofreció el pnmer curso Internacional sobre blotecnología para la co nservación y el uso de la agroblodlversldad. en colaboración con la Orga nización de Estados Americanos (OEA). ellnsUlulo Colombiano de Cred llo Educa tivo y Estudios Tecnlcos en el Exterior (ICETEX) y el Fondo Colombiano de Investigaciones Cien tíficas y Proyectos Especiales MFranclsco José de Caldas M (COLCIENClAS). A este evento aslsUeron 17 científicos de universidades. In stitutos nadonaJes de Investigación y entidades de protección ambiental de 10 países latinoamericanos."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Además de ofrecer capacitación. el ClAT proporciona excelentes esludiantes a otras InsUluctones. Nos sentimos especialmente orgullosos de que, durante los últimos años. más de 15 de nuestros asistentes de Investigación colombianos han obtenido becas para seguir sus estudiOS en universidades como Cornell. Ohlo Slate. Purdue y Vale en los Estados Unidos. y en la Universidad de Strasbourg, en francia."}]},{"head":"Otros temas sobre biotecnologia","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"En 1991. el CLAT estableció el Comlte de Blosegundad InsUluclonal para supervisar todas las investigaciones del Centro en que Intervengan técni cas de ADN recombl nante y para hacer un seguimiento a la liberación de organis mos lransgenlcos y a las pruebas que se hagan con ellos. Además. se organizó un taller regional sobre la bloseguridad en América LaUna. con la colaboraCión del In stituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (UCA), que fue financi ado por DGIS y el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USOA). Los que parUclparon en este evento hicieron un llamado a los paises andinos para que formen grupos de colaboraCión que desarrollen normas de bloseguridad y contr1buyan a que la liberación experimental de organismos tran sge nlcos sea controlada adecuadamente ."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"El Cenlro contribuye también al debate sobre los derechos de propied ad Intelectual IO?I) y sobre políUcas sobre el movimiento Internacional de los recursos I1togenéUcos. Bajo nuestra actual polillca de OPI. los productos y los métodos blotecnológlcos desarrollados en el Centro son de dominIo público. Esta política permite tamblen hacer alianzas estrat~gl ca s con Instituciones de paises desarrollados y en desarrollo para facUltar el acceso de estos úlUmos a la Información y a la tecnología . Estamos estudiando los Convenios de Transferencia de Materiales (MTAs) relacIonados con todos los IntercambiOS de productos y metodologías de carácter blotecnol6gl co para garanUzar su dlsponlblltdad a las InsUtuciones naciona les de los países en desarrollo."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"CONTACTO EN CIAT: W. Roca. J. Tohme y J. Mayer Diciembre de 1994"},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"Inlen!s, los promotores de genes, los tntenslficadores de expresión y los genes marcadores, entre otros (F1gura 5), Todos estos elementos se necesitan para una expresión adecuada cuando el gen modificado que se construye regrese a la planta o se transfiera a olra especie mediante transformación genetlca . Los análisis de RFLP, RAPD Y AFLP pueden aplicarse tambien al ADN de plagas y patógenos de cul tivos en un procedimiento llamado •daclüosCOpla ~ del ADN. Dado que revela las diferencias. a nivel molecular. entre las razas de un patógeno altamente variable. este enfoque nos perm ite, por ejemplo, agrupar las raza s en familias o linajes genéticamente diferentes. Esto. a su vez. debe ayudarnos a determinar relaciones genéllcas ya desarrollar, con elllempo. resistencia genéUca contra una enfermedad en forma más efecllva, Los marcadores moleculares se emplean también efec Uvamente para facilitar el uso de germoplasma exótico en el mejoramiento de culUvos. para Idenllflca r la duplicidad en los bancos de germoplasma, para determinar las relaciones evoluUvas entre las especies cultivada s y entre estas y sus parientes silvestres. y para medir la diversidad gené Uca ."}]},{"head":"Puntos de intervención genética","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"En la búsqueda de soluciones genéticas a problemas de producción y de utilización de plantas. no s iempre es claro cómo o dónde podemos Intervenir. Para utiliza r el germoplasrna eficientemente. debernos tdenllflcar los pu ntos de intervención genética mediante el esclareCimiento de los factores bioquímiCOS y de los m eca nismos genéUcos Implicados en los caracteres fisiológicos y de calidad que Uenen imporlancla (F'1gura 4) yen las Interacciones que relacionan las plantas y los factores de estrés bl6Uco. Luego podemos desarrollar ensayos bioquímicos y moleculares para detectar esos fa ctores y. con el Uempo. aislar y clonar los genes responsables de estos."}]},{"head":"Ingeniería genética","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"UUlizando técnicas moleculares. podremos luego Intentar modificar esos genes, ya sea p3.Ta a ument3.T su expresión normal (sobreexpreslón) o para Inhibirla (regulaCión reductora) . Esta tecnologia emplea -casetes~ de transrormaclón. que constan de los siguientes elementos: la secuencia completa de codificación del gen estructural de Folosinlesls I I"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Glucosa t t ---"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"r~- Los genes que Interesan allnvesUgador se encuentran a menudo en parientes silvestres. en especies vegetales genéUcamente mas distantes o en microorganismos."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Se abre asi una perspecUva apasionante para la bJotecnologia: podremos enriquecer los acervos de genes Introduciendo, en el genoma elegido. genes bien caracterizados tomados de fuentes antes inacceslbies. de manera que se evite el arrastre de llgwnlentos. es decir, la inlroduccI6h de genes Indeseables Junto con los deseables: este efeclo ocurre con frecuencJa en los cruzamientos sexuales convencionales."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"COf'ITACrO EN CJAT: W. Roca. J. El numero de esos marcadores es IHmllado: por tanto. es posible satu rar lIteralmente el genoma vegetal y obtener asi Informacl6n acerca de todas las reglones de cada cromosoma de una especie vegetal Los marcadores I1gados a genes especiOcos nos permiten segui r la transfere ncia de estos genes marcados de una generaCión a otra. ya que ambos co•segregan a la progenie después de la melosls (F1gura 2) ."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Las pnnctpales ventajas de los marcadores moleculares son : pueden detectarse en cualquier estado del deS<.'lrrollo de la planta y en cualquier teJido: el ambiente no Jos afecta: y son genéUcamente codornlnantes (el caso de los RFLPs) . En consecuencia. consUtuyen el mediO conOable y directo para loca1lzar segmen tos cromosómlcos y los genes contenidos en ellos. y para hacerles seguimiento en el proceso de mejoramiento genéUco."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"El CIAT eslá desarrollando e n la actualidad dos mapas moleculares. uno para yuca y otro para fnJoltepan. También estamos utilizando mapas moleculares de frijol común y de arroz. que fueron desarrollados. respecUvamente. en la s universidades de Flortda y de Cornell. E.U. Los mapas moleculares comprenden conjuntos de marcadores moleculares. denominados grupos de ligamiento (Figura 3) . Normalmente. el número de estos grupos equivale al numero c romos6mlco base de la especie (n :: x) ."}]},{"head":"Otros usos de los marcadores moleculares","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Además de ayudar a hacer mapas de los ge nomas vegetales. los RfLPs y RAPOs son bastan te promlsoMos para facil itar la selecdó n de plantas respecto a caracleres Importantes. Medlanle un procedimiento denominado análisis masal de segrcganles."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"evaluamos muchos RAPOs para Identificar los mas cercanos a los genes que nos interesan . Aunque su práctica esta aún restringida. la selección ayudada por marcadores moleculares debe simplificar tareas especificas de Otomejoramlento porque reduciría la necesidad de hacer en el campo evaluaciones extensivas de una progenie segregan te."}]},{"head":"LA CAJA DE HERRAMIENTAS DE LA BraTECNOWGÍA","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Desde que se estableció la Unidad de Investigación en Blotecnología. en 1985. el ClAT ha ampliado rápidamente su capacidad de aplicar nuevas tecnologías. Este Informe presenta una revisión de las técnicas que están actuaJmente en uso en el Centro."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Tecnologías de marcadores genéticos moleculares que se apUcan en el CIAT Una de estas técnicas comprende el polimorfISmo de longftud deJragmentos de restricción del ADN (RFLP. en Ingles) que resultan de la dlge s Uón del ADN por en.zimas de restriccfón.. Una en.z:Jma de restricción que puede identificar una secuencia especifica de nucleóUdos o par de bases . corta el ADN dondequiera ocurra esa secuencia. Los fragmentos de ADN que resultan de esos cortes se separan en un gel de electroforesls. se transfieren a una membrana de nilón y se colocan en una soluCión de hlbJidaclónJunto con una sonda. Esta es un fragmento de ADN clonado que fue generado mediante la duplicación del ADN en un organismo vector. La sonda puede ser radloacuva o estar marcada con un compuesto no radioactiva. En la solución de hlbJidaclón. la sonda se une a 105 fragmentos de ADN que tengan una secuencia complementarta. La posición de la sonda se determina mediante autorradtografia o UncIón. en la que aparece como una banda oscura."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Los métodos mas recientes para detectar diferencias geneUcas a nivel molecular se basan en la amplifICación de ADN mediante la reacción en cadena de la pollmcrasa (pe R. en Ingles) (Figura 1) . Mediante esta tecnología se sintetizan millones de copias de un fragmento dado de ADN. usando secuencias de ADN relativamente carlas llamada s olígolluclcótidos iniciadores : estos pueden corresponder a partes de genes conocidos o a posIciones especiOcas (locQ en un cromosoma. o pueden ser de Origen desconocido. Un fragmento de ADN sintetizado con este último tipo de Iniciador se denomina ADN polimórf= wnpliJ'lCado al azar (RAPO. en Ingles)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Las dos cadena s del ADN del organismo objeto de estudio se abren por caJ enlamlenLo."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"A medida que se enfría es te AON. los iniciadores de ollgonucleótldos se liga n a ambos extremos de cada cadena . La enzima Taq pollmerasa agrega nuc!eótldos hasta que se haya producido una nueva copla del modelo onglnaJ . Se necesitan cerca de 30 ciclos para producir un mlllón de coplas del fragmento oJigina! de AON. lo cual se obtiene en pocas horas de amplificaCión usando aparatos llamados ~termocicladores~."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"F1gura l. Un lermoclclador permlle haeer millones de coplas de AON partiendo de una muestra pequei'la del material mediante la metodologia de PCR."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"Se produce una cantidad tan gra nde de ADN que fácilmente se puede obs erva r mediante eleclroforesls. Dos ventajas clave tiene esta tecnología : es a ltamente sensible a diferencias genéticas a nivel molecular y evita el uso de matenales radioacUvos potencialmente peligros os y de enzimas de restricción costosas. Los RAPOs se utilizan comúnmente en el CIAT para el mapeo de genomas. en la marcacIón de genes. y en la dacliloscopla genéUca."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"TII, J. W('ssC'/s , Jefe, Couperación pnrn lu IJiolccnologia y el [)('snrrollo. [)irecciól¡ Geucrnl de Coo{Jero.ción IlIlernaciollo.l (DGIS). llolwulo. \"El intercambio de estudiantes de maestría y de posdoctorado entre el CIAT y la Universidad de Purdue ha sido una de las recompensas continuas de nuestra feliz y fructifera colaboración \", Monis IÁ.'vy. Profesor. Universidad de Purdue. EE.UU.   "},{"text":" Se han Identificado muchos genes útiles en las formas silvestres y en los parientes distantes de cultivos alimenticios básicos Importantes. pero frecuentemente éstos estAn más allá del alcance del OtomeJoramlento convencIonal . En el CLAT estamos explorando, mediante vanos proyectos. nuevas maneras de facilitar la transferencia de esos genes al frijol común cultivado (Phaseolus uulgaris). las formas silvestres o primitivas de P. uulgarts exlsten algunas caraclerisllc3s Importantes. Pero Incorporarlas al frijol común domesticado puede resultar bastante complejo. aunque ambos sean sexualmente compatibles. En La unlca desilusión que nos ha causado la arcellna es que no tiene nlngUn efecto En La unlca desilusión que nos ha causado la arcellna es que no tiene nlngUn efecto contra A. obtcctus. Con el apoyo de la contra A. obtcctus. Con el apoyo de la Administración Ceneral de Bélgica para la Administración Ceneral de Bélgica para la Cooperación en el Desarrollo (AOCO). Cooperación en el Desarrollo (AOCO). estamos caracterizando Jos factores que estamos caracterizando Jos factores que determinan la resistencia a esa plaga en el determinan la resistencia a esa plaga en el germoplasma de P. vulgaris silvestre. Hasta germoplasma de P. vulgaris silvestre. Hasta ahora hemos IdenUflcado una fraccIón ahora hemos IdenUflcado una fraccIón proteintca que Inhibe el desarrollo larval del proteintca que Inhibe el desarrollo larval del Insecto en las accesiones resistentes del Insecto en las accesiones resistentes del frijol silvestre (ver ngura). Sabemos frijol silvestre (ver ngura). Sabemos tambIén que otra fracción contiene factores tambIén que otra fracción contiene factores generales de resistencia que limitan el generales de resistencia que limitan el crecimiento del Insecto. crecimiento del Insecto.  "},{"text":" Esa colaboración ya se lleva a cabo en la InvesUgaclón sobre una variante especinca del gen correspondiente a la arcellna. Con la fin a nciación de ACCD, cienUflcos de la Universidad de Ghent, en Bélgica, están clonando el gen de arcelina-5 con miras a su posterior transferencia al rriJol comú n y otros cu) Uvos que necesitan resistencia al gorgojo mexicano del rrijol. El Centro Nac ional de Recursos Genéllcos (CENARGEN) del Brasil también Investiga esta posibilidad.El CIAT esta investigand o los recursos genéticos de oLTas especies de Phaseolus, como P. lunalus y P a cutifolius. para hallar ruentes adicionales de resistencia . Explora. lOO       lOO      • 010019  • 010019 80     aPljao *012954 (res.) 80aPljao *012954 (res.)      '\" O 12880 (res.) '\" O 12880 (res.) 60       60 • TI ~ 40       • TI ~ 40 u a ' \" 20       u a ' \" 20 o o 2 * • 4 6 8 10 12 oo2* • 46810 12 Concentración de la fracción proteínica en la semt1Ja (%1 Concentración de la fracción proteínica en la semt1Ja (%1  Efecto de la fracción proteínica de acetona de 0-20% Efecto de la fracción proteínica de acetona de 0-20%  en      en  "},{"text":" blotecnologia ofrece resultados tangibles en el elATo Desde 1988 hemos desarrollado varias aplicaciones prácUcas que los clentincos del Cen tro y de instituciones colaboradoras uUllzan actualmente para conservar y mejorar la agroblodlverSldad y su uSO en el mejoramIento de los culUvas. DESARROLLANDO CAPACIDADES EN BIOTECNOLOGÍA  DESARROLLANDO CAPACIDADES EN BIOTECNOLOGÍA ApUcaci6n Usuario del ClAT Ano ApUcaci6nUsuario del ClATAno  (programa' unldad)  (programa' unldad) •Dac UloscopJa• de isoenzlmas Yuca, Recursos GeneUcos 1988 •Dac UloscopJa• de isoenzlmasYuca, Recursos GeneUcos1988 Proteínas (faseollnal como marcadores Frijol. Recursos GeneUcos 1989 Proteínas (faseollnal como marcadoresFrijol. Recursos GeneUcos1989 Banco de genes In vitro Yuca. Recursos GeneUcos 1989 Banco de genes In vitroYuca. Recursos GeneUcos1989 Intercambio de germoplasma In v1lro Yuca, Hecursos Gené ticos 1989 Intercambio de germoplasma In v1lroYuca, Hecursos Gené ticos1989 Mej oram iento mediante el culUvo de anteras Arroz 1990 Mej oram iento mediante el culUvo de anterasArroz1990 Técnicas de marcadores moleculares F'r1Jol. Yuca . Arroz.  Técnicas de marcadores molecularesF'r1Jol. Yuca . Arroz.  Forrajes Tropicales  Forrajes Tropicales Tohme   Tohme Diciembre de 1994   Diciembre de 1994  "},{"text":" transgénlcas de la JegumJnosa rorrajera tropical StlJlosanthes gufanensis y hemos logrado avances Importantes en yuca. Con la segunda tecnología hemos generado plantas lransgenlcas de arroz (F'lgur.7) . En primer lugar, los genes que serán En primer lugar, los genes que serán IntroducJdos deben aislarse, clonarse y IntroducJdos deben aislarse, clonarse y modificarse. Al mismo tiempo. debemos modificarse. Al mismo tiempo. debemos desarrollar un protocolo reproducible y desarrollar un protocolo reproducible y eficiente para la regeneración de plantas eficiente para la regeneración de plantas utilizando técnicas de cultivo In vitro. utilizando técnicas de cultivo In vitro. En el ClAT hemos empleado con exJto dos En el ClAT hemos empleado con exJto dos tecnologías: la transformación genellca por Intermedio de Agrobacwrium y la Figura 6. Los Investigadores del ClAT están uUltzando la blolisLlca para t.nmsformar tecnologías: la transformación genellca por Intermedio de Agrobacwrium y laFigura 6. Los Investigadores del ClAT están uUltzando la blolisLlca para t.nmsformar transformación genética por medio del Drachíarla. frijol común y arroz. Esta transformación genética por medio delDrachíarla. frijol común y arroz. Esta bombardeo de particulas (F1gura 6). Con tl..'Cnologia contempla el u so de un acelerador bombardeo de particulas (F1gura 6). Contl..'Cnologia contempla el u so de un acelerador la primera tecnologia hemos producido de partículas POS He/ l 00 movido por helio. la primera tecnologia hemos producidode partículas POS He/ l 00 movido por helio.   que bombardea los tejidos regencratlvos con que bombardea los tejidos regencratlvos con   mlcroproyccLlles recubiertos de ADN. mlcroproyccLlles recubiertos de ADN.  !!gil !!gil  BO BO PsI I pGV 1040 PsI IpGV 1040 3'ocs r()t. 14,6 kb 3'ocs r()t.14,6 kb PsI  PsI  ECORI ECORI Flgura 5. El ptasmldo pGVI040, un casete de transformación tiplca proporcionado por PeS de Bélgica. Es una de las construcciones gencUcas uullzadas en e1 CIAT en la \" 'f ~ ¡.~~\" ~f'!/-zr; . / Flgura 5. El ptasmldo pGVI040, un casete de transformación tiplca proporcionado por PeS de Bélgica. Es una de las construcciones gencUcas uullzadas en e1 CIAT en la\" 'f ~ ¡.~~\" ~f'!/-zr; . / InvesUgacJÓIl sobre la trnnsrormaclón por .-'\" InvesUgacJÓIl sobre la trnnsrormaclón por.-'\" Intermedio de Agrobacterlum. Entre sus Intermedio de Agrobacterlum. Entre sus bordes derecho e izquierdo (nO y 8 1), el bordes derecho e izquierdo (nO y 8 1), el plásmldo contiene dos genes marcadores de plásmldo contiene dos genes marcadores de  "},{"text":"I 4Irb(4Icb RI\" 8Ict:ti4ül RA' 8kbf4kD R.4t     Flgum 2. Dlagmma Flgum 2. Dlagmma    que muestra la que muestra la    herencia de un herencia de un    marcador RFU' lIgado marcador RFU' lIgado    con un gen de con un gen de    resistencia a una resistencia a una    cnfcrnlt:dud. En este cnfcrnlt:dud. En este    caso. la rcslstclU\"la es caso. la rcslstclU\"la es    dominante sobre la dominante sobre la    susceptibilidad. llucslo susceptibilidad. llucslo    que el mart'ador tiene que el mart'ador tiene ••:)~~•~nzmo de I91f11ccIón .: coda el DNot. en t. t'I\"IUChcIt.lKJgi I a....,. ~Q D -ffi RMtItenIe \" \" , -\",1 \"\",\"''''' .... _ 511 'IO'IP'bIe .., , .. , --p¡og¡w ....... V liey'61tOi de.,,,,,,, -\"\"\"'\" _' \" \"\"\"\"\"'\" V toecnoo _con ~c......-o Codal •• 10 do en 10 generocl6n F 1 0T00 \"\"\"'\" moocoda ffi ~: AA ~~ e ~<h.D diferente l¡lmal'lo en un progenitor resistente y en otro suSC'cptlblc. se dice que es poltmórnco. Tres de cuda cuatro Individuos F, de un cruzamiento entre estos progenitores muestran el renotlpo resistente. No obstante. tal como se aprecia en el patrón de bandas de RFLP. sólo uno lleva el genotipo (gen) de resistencia en condIción homoclgota. ••:)~~•~nzmo de I91f11ccIón .: coda el DNot. en t. t'I\"IUChcIt.lKJgi I a....,. ~Q D -ffi RMtItenIe \" \" , -\",1 \"\",\"''''' .... _ 511 'IO'IP'bIe .., , .. , --p¡og¡w ....... V liey'61tOi de.,,,,,,, -\"\"\"'\" _' \" \"\"\"\"\"'\" V toecnoo _con ~c......-o Codal •• 10 do en 10 generocl6n F 1 0T00 \"\"\"'\" moocoda ffi ~: AA ~~ e ~<h.Ddiferente l¡lmal'lo en un progenitor resistente y en otro suSC'cptlblc. se dice que es poltmórnco. Tres de cuda cuatro Individuos F, de un cruzamiento entre estos progenitores muestran el renotlpo resistente. No obstante. tal como se aprecia en el patrón de bandas de RFLP. sólo uno lleva el genotipo (gen) de resistencia en condIción homoclgota. ~~Q ffi~ ffi~ ffiD ~~Q ffi~ ffi~ ffiD  Marcador  Marcador Frac. cM Id Nombre  Frac. cMId Nombre  t-(104) Wll  t-(104) Wll (15.4%) 15.9-   (15.4%) 15.9- (5.5%) 5.5 -(6.6%) 6.9 -(9.4%) 9.6- (46) G40 (63) Kllb (21) AC5 (37) AMlO Figura 3. Un grupo de ligamiento del mapa mok'Cular de la yuCA. Se mucstran el orden lineal y las distancias relallvas entre los marcadores RFl...P y los RAPO. determinados con el programa de computadoru Mapmaker (con una confianza cstadisllca de LOO > 5 .0). (5.5%) 5.5 -(6.6%) 6.9 -(9.4%) 9.6-(46) G40 (63) Kllb (21) AC5 (37) AMlOFigura 3. Un grupo de ligamiento del mapa mok'Cular de la yuCA. Se mucstran el orden lineal y las distancias relallvas entre los marcadores RFl...P y los RAPO. determinados con el programa de computadoru Mapmaker (con una confianza cstadisllca de LOO > 5 .0).  "},{"text":" Tohme y J. Mayer Una nueva !.ecnica molecular. desarrollada por Investigadores de Holanda y denominada polimorfISmo d e longitud defragmcntos de ADN amplificados (AFLP. en Inglés). combina caracteristicas de las tecnol ogías de RFt.Ps y de RAPOs. La principal ventaja de los AFLPs es que se puede a nalizar un numero mucho mayor de fragme ntos de AON en una sola corrida de eJectroforesls: por lanto. permite distinguir mas preCisamente los genotipos a nivel molecular.Construcdón de mapas genómicos moleculares la nueva tecnología de ADN recomblnanle ha facilitado notablemente el desarrollo de los mapas geneUcos. Anteriormente. los investigadores podían detectar sólo algunos eventos de recomblnacl6n genética mediante la observad6n de los marcadores fenotípicos de la s plantas. Con los marcadores moleculares. las dlferendas genéticas se pueden delectar de manera más completa y sencilla.Por ejemplo. un mapa genómlco de RFLPs puede desarrollarse mediante la utilización de numerosos marcadores que determinan la pOSICIón de fragmentos especificas en los cromosomas que se encuentran relacionados los unos con los otros. Esto se realiza mediante el análisis de ligamientos. en que se acepta que los marcado,.es que segregan Juntos después de la melosls están MlIgados~. Diciembre de 1994 Diciembre de 1994 ~ ~  "}],"sieverID":"939b23e6-fc39-481c-b388-8f119c6b2fe4","abstract":"Durante los últimos 30 anos más o menos, la únlca tarea urgente de los Investigadores agrícolas en el trópico ha sido prestar ayuda a los agricultores para contrlbutr a la producción de alimentos en el mundo en desarrollo. Ahora, tenemos que trabajar con ellos para alcanzar un equilibrio entre tres objetivos competitivos: l . Lograr y mantener la seguridad alimentarla."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07eb80b46e226f247243deec3408dba9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fe6748aa-29d4-4d61-91d0-85f318b1ac90/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Same format as standard economywide datasets (e.g., national accounts)"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Allows us to measure AFS structure and performance using actual data"}]},{"head":"Agrifood System GDP (AgGDP+)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Total value added generated by all agricultural value chains (in constant dollars)"}]},{"head":"Agrifood System Employment (AgEMP+)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Total number of workers who are primarily employed in an agricultural value chain"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Structure 2019 | Sudan's Agrifood System Today GDP and employment in Sudan's agrifood system (2019)"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Part 1 focuses on the current size and structure of the national agrifood system • Uses official data sources"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• GDP from national accounts (CBoS)"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Employment from various sources (i.e., labor force surveys, ILO, etc.)"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Sudan estimates indicate that   • AgGDP+ defines the AFS on the supply side"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• Household demand and trade (imports) capture AFS structure on the demand side"},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• Agrifood processing is more important on the demand side than the supply side in the AFS AgGDP+ Household demand"}]},{"head":"Agrifood exports vs. imports","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Primary and processed product shares (%)"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Exports ($0.26 bil.) Imports ($0.94 bil.)  • Average across outcomes"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• The value of outcome indicators (elasticity or multiplier) is expected to differ across value chain growth; not all value chains are equally effective at achieving all outcomes • Normalizing the individual outcome scores"},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"• The values of each outcome indicator are scaled so that the most effective value chain is given a score of one and the least effective is given a score of zero. A value chain with adverse impact is also given a score of zero."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• An average score with equal weights is used to measure the total impacts across all value chains"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"Future Drivers 2019+ | Prioritizing Agricultural Growth"}]},{"head":"Poverty","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(change in %-point)"}]},{"head":"Hunger","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(change in %-point)"}]},{"head":"Jobs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(change in 1,000)"}]},{"head":"Diet quality","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(change in %)"}]},{"head":"Average across outcomes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"(averaged normalized scores, reordered)"}]},{"head":"GDP","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"(change in bil. $)"}]},{"head":"Individual outcomes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"(per unit change in agricultural GDP, ordered by poverty outcome) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Framework• Five major components (A to E) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"and structure of the AFS varies at different stages of development  Sudan was a lower-middle-income country (LMIC) in most years of 2010s, but its income fell to a low-income country (LIC) level in 2019 Sudan was a lower-middle-income country (LMIC) in most years of 2010s, but its income fell to a low-income country (LIC) level in 2019 • A: Sudan's AgGDP+ share of total GDP lies between LICs and LMICs averages • A: Sudan's AgGDP+ share of total GDP lies between LICs and LMICs averages • B: Sudan's primary agriculture component in AFS is similar to the LMIC average • B: Sudan's primary agriculture component in AFS is similar to the LMIC average • C: Sudan's agro-processing is smaller than expected, while food services are larger • C: Sudan's agro-processing is smaller than expected, while food services are larger  "},{"text":"Share of total GDP (%) Share of AFS GDP (%) Share of off-farm AFS GDP (%) Structure 2019 | Supply vs. Demand Sides of the Agrifood System A       B     C      ABC  Primary agriculture Off-farm AFS  Primary agriculture Off-farm AFS   Processing  Trade and transport Primary agricultureOff-farm AFSPrimary agriculture Off-farm AFSProcessingTrade and transport               Food services Input supply Food servicesInput supply  13.4      66.0 33.8 41.4 59.8  41.3 23.1 11.4 13.7 5.8 11.2 11.8 18.2 13.5 27.8 10.3 22.5 6.3 13.466.033.841.459.841.323.1 11.413.7 5.811.2 11.818.2 13.527.8 10.322.5 6.3   11.9    14.2     84.4  31.7 42.8 38.6 21.4 35.9 41.4 11.914.284.431.742.838.621.435.941.4 4.2 8.2 26.4 16.9 7.1 10.6  1.2 6.6 20.2 34.0 66.2 58.6 40.2 15.6 58.7 33.7 37.8 38.4 46.9 26.1 29.8 4.2 8.226.416.97.1 10.61.2 6.620.234.066.258.640.215.658.733.737.838.446.926.129.8 All LIC LMIC UMIC HIC Sudan All LIC LMIC UMIC HIC Sudan All LIC LMIC UMIC HIC Sudan AllLICLMIC UMICHICSudanAllLICLMICUMICHICSudanAllLICLMICUMICHICSudan  "},{"text":"Agricultural GDP, agrifood system GDP, and employment shares (2011-2019) • Part 3 analyzes Growth 2011-2019 | Agrifood System Performance • Sudan's AFS lacked transformation during 2011-2019 • Agricultural share of total GDP barely changed over time • Off-farm share of AFS GDP rose modestly • Share of agricultural employment fell (56% to 50%), indicating a modest improvement in agricultural productivity structural change in the AFS and the contribution of different value chains to AFS growth RIAPA model is used to analyze different sources of agricultural growth • Expand production in different value chains • Increase on-farm productivity growth rates in targeted value chains • Achieve same overall growth in agriculture GDP (e.g., 1.0%) • Track linkage effect within value chain and spillover effects to other value chains Value Chains 2019 | Contributions & Trade Orientation Growth 2011-2019 | Value Chain Performance Future Drivers 2019+ | Modeling Faster Growth    Value Chains 2019 | Contributions & Trade Orientation Growth 2011-2019 | Value Chain Performance Future Drivers 2019+ | Modeling Faster Growth 29.0% • Part 2 decomposes the AFS across broad value 57.1% 27.3% 15.6% chain groupings • Classify value chains based on trade orientation • Modest AgGDP+ growth (4% p.a.) during 2011-2019 • Less-traded value chains dominated AFS • Exportable value chains have above-average export-output ratios (> 1.8%) growth with their large size and above-• Importable value chains have above-average import-demand average growth (4.2%), contributing 85% ratios (> 6.3%) • Less-traded value chains make up the rest • Domestic market dominates AgGDP+ (78%) -seven less-traded value chains; relatively smaller off-farm share (72.2%) and larger on-farm (primary) share (82.2% of total), with fruits of AFS growth 2011 2019 • Four value chains with above-average growth (*) value chain an exception • Only two exportable value chain groups; relatively small share of AgGDP+ (8.9%) 19.9 32.4 20.2 34.4 Share (%) • Off-farm growth was faster for fast-growing value chains except for cotton 58.7% 12.3% Primary agriculture Agroprocessing Other off-farm • Some large less-traded value chains had stagnant or negative growth (sorghum, root crops, vegetables, and fruits) $0.03 bil. 9.6% Value chain growth in Sudan (2011-2019) $0.15 bil. 15.5% Share of total GDP (%) Exports / output (%) Average annual GDP growth rate (%) Imports / demand (%) Total AFS Primary agric. Total Primary Off-farm Process-Off-farm AFS AFS agric. AFS ing 100 100 100 1.8 6.3 Total AFS 4.0 3.4 4.9 7.9 Exportable Total 8.9 10.2 7.1 13.8 6.8 Exportable 3.1 2.3 4.9 8.4 Oilseeds 8.7 9.9 7.1 12.2 6.8 Cotton 0.2 0.3 0.1 Oilseeds 3.0 2.2 5.0 8.5 Cotton* 6.8 7.6 2.6 -7.0 64.3 Importable 10.4 7.7 14.2 1.6 31.3 Other cereals 2.4 0.9 4.5 2.3 21.7 56.3 Importable 2.0 -1.7 5.8 10.0 Other cereals* 6.7 6.5 6.7 9.2 49.9 Other crops 5.7 4.4 7.5 Other crops 1.0 -4.5 9.2 11.7 42.5 Forestry 2.3 2.3 2.2 3.7 11.3 41.3 Forestry 0.6 3.1 -2.3 9.8 38.5 Less traded 78.0 82.2 72.2 0.5 1.3 Sorghum 13.8 13.7 14.0 Root crops 0.9 1.3 Less traded 4.2 4.1 4.3 7.4 Sorghum 0.6 -2.3 6.2 8.0 Roots -0.8 -0.1 -4.1 Pulses 2.4 3.0 0.6 9.7 $0.24 bil. 90.4% Primary agriculture Agrifood processing $0.79 bil. 84.5% Pulses 4.1 5.4 2.4 1.0 5.7 Vegetables 6.5 9.2 2.6 0.4 0.8 Fruits 7.4 6.5 8.6 0.1 2.4 Livestock 44.1 44.9 42.9 0.7 1.1 Vegetables -0.3 0.4 -3.4 10.1 Fruits 0.6 -2.4 4.9 8.5 Livestock* 7.8 10.6 4.6 6.8 Fish* 6.5 7.4 5.6 8.4 29.0% • Part 2 decomposes the AFS across broad value 57.1% 27.3% 15.6% chain groupings • Classify value chains based on trade orientation • Modest AgGDP+ growth (4% p.a.) during 2011-2019 • Less-traded value chains dominated AFS • Exportable value chains have above-average export-output ratios (> 1.8%) growth with their large size and above-• Importable value chains have above-average import-demand average growth (4.2%), contributing 85% ratios (> 6.3%) • Less-traded value chains make up the rest • Domestic market dominates AgGDP+ (78%) -seven less-traded value chains; relatively smaller off-farm share (72.2%) and larger on-farm (primary) share (82.2% of total), with fruits of AFS growth 2011 2019 • Four value chains with above-average growth (*) value chain an exception • Only two exportable value chain groups; relatively small share of AgGDP+ (8.9%) 19.9 32.4 20.2 34.4 Share (%) • Off-farm growth was faster for fast-growing value chains except for cotton 58.7% 12.3% Primary agriculture Agroprocessing Other off-farm • Some large less-traded value chains had stagnant or negative growth (sorghum, root crops, vegetables, and fruits)$0.03 bil. 9.6% Value chain growth in Sudan (2011-2019) $0.15 bil. 15.5% Share of total GDP (%) Exports / output (%) Average annual GDP growth rate (%) Imports / demand (%) Total AFS Primary agric. Total Primary Off-farm Process-Off-farm AFS AFS agric. AFS ing 100 100 100 1.8 6.3 Total AFS 4.0 3.4 4.9 7.9 Exportable Total 8.9 10.2 7.1 13.8 6.8 Exportable 3.1 2.3 4.9 8.4 Oilseeds 8.7 9.9 7.1 12.2 6.8 Cotton 0.2 0.3 0.1 Oilseeds 3.0 2.2 5.0 8.5 Cotton* 6.8 7.6 2.6 -7.0 64.3 Importable 10.4 7.7 14.2 1.6 31.3 Other cereals 2.4 0.9 4.5 2.3 21.7 56.3 Importable 2.0 -1.7 5.8 10.0 Other cereals* 6.7 6.5 6.7 9.2 49.9 Other crops 5.7 4.4 7.5 Other crops 1.0 -4.5 9.2 11.7 42.5 Forestry 2.3 2.3 2.2 3.7 11.3 41.3 Forestry 0.6 3.1 -2.3 9.8 38.5 Less traded 78.0 82.2 72.2 0.5 1.3 Sorghum 13.8 13.7 14.0 Root crops 0.9 1.3 Less traded 4.2 4.1 4.3 7.4 Sorghum 0.6 -2.3 6.2 8.0 Roots -0.8 -0.1 -4.1 Pulses 2.4 3.0 0.6 9.7 $0.24 bil. 90.4% Primary agriculture Agrifood processing $0.79 bil. 84.5% Pulses 4.1 5.4 2.4 1.0 5.7 Vegetables 6.5 9.2 2.6 0.4 0.8 Fruits 7.4 6.5 8.6 0.1 2.4 Livestock 44.1 44.9 42.9 0.7 1.1 Vegetables -0.3 0.4 -3.4 10.1 Fruits 0.6 -2.4 4.9 8.5 Livestock* 7.8 10.6 4.6 6.8 Fish* 6.5 7.4 5.6 8.4 Agricultural GDP share AgGDP+ share Fish Off-farm share of AgGDP+ Agricultural employment 1.3 1.2 1.4 0.5 1.3 Agricultural GDP shareAgGDP+ shareFish Off-farm share of AgGDP+ Agricultural employment 1.3 1.21.40.51.3   share    share  "},{"text":"multiple value chains can achieve broad-based impact • Growth led by all value chains reduces poverty, but two cereal value chains -sorghum and rice & wheat are most effective AFS growth is effective in improving food security (hunger) and diet quality• Most value chains reduce hunger; the two cereal value chains are most effective • Most value chains improve diet quality; fruits value chain is most effective Agricultural growth creates jobs but not necessarily on-farm No single value chain group is the most effective in achieving all the development outcomes we consider • Fruits, root crops, and rice & wheat rank highly in the combined outcome scores for poverty, diet, jobs, and growth • Promoting these value chains would offer an effective way to achieve broad-based outcomes Future Drivers 2019+ | Key Messages from the Model Future Drivers 2019+ | Key Messages from the Model AFS growth is pro-poor      AFS growth is pro-poor        Poverty Total Growth Jobs Diets PovertyTotal GrowthJobsDiets Sorghum -0.44 -1.03 0.04 -0.02  1.09 Fruits Fruits 0.50 Sorghum-0.44-1.030.04-0.021.09Fruits Fruits0.50 Rice & wheat -0.36 -0.68 0.09 -0.19  1.65 Root crops Root crops 0.41 Rice & wheat-0.36-0.680.09-0.191.65Root crops Root crops0.41 Root crops -0.29 -0.03 0.05 -0.30  2.10 Rice & wheat Rice & wheat 0.40 Root crops-0.29-0.030.05-0.302.10Rice & wheat Rice & wheat0.40 Fruits -0.26 -0.17  1.32 0.00 0.90 Sorghum Sorghum 0.36 Fruits-0.26-0.171.320.000.90Sorghum Sorghum0.36 Cotton -0.15 -0.13 0.08  0.40 0.23 Cotton Cotton 0.33 Cotton-0.15-0.130.080.400.23Cotton Cotton0.33 Oilseeds -0.10 -0.12 0.15 -0.07  1.27 Livestock Livestock 0.30 Oilseeds-0.10-0.120.15-0.071.27Livestock Livestock0.30 Vegetables -0.07 0.05 0.19 -0.08  1.34 Other crops Other crops 0.22 Vegetables-0.070.050.19-0.081.34Other crops Other crops0.22 Pulses -0.07 -0.01 0.07 -0.06  1.14 Oilseeds Oilseeds 0.20 Pulses-0.07-0.010.07-0.061.14Oilseeds Oilseeds0.20 Livestock -0.07 0.01 0.16  0.12 1.03 Vegetables Vegetables 0.20 Livestock-0.070.010.160.121.03Vegetables Vegetables0.20 Other crops -0.04 0.03 0.08  0.01 1.01 Pulses Pulses 0.15 Other crops-0.040.030.080.011.01Pulses Pulses0.15  "},{"text":"Note: Value Chain Groups and Agricultural Sectors in Individual VC Groups Value chain group and their share of AgGDP+ Individual products and their share of group's agriculture GDP  Sorghum (13.8%) Sorghum 100% Sorghum (13.8%)Sorghum 100% Other cereals (2.7%) Maize 2.4% | Rice 11.9% | Wheat & barley 6.5% | Other cereals 79.2% Other cereals (2.7%)Maize 2.4% | Rice 11.9% | Wheat & barley 6.5% | Other cereals 79.2% Oilseeds (8.7%) Groundnuts 60.6% | Other oilseeds 39.4% Oilseeds (8.7%)Groundnuts 60.6% | Other oilseeds 39.4% Pulses (4.1%) Pulses 100% Pulses (4.1%)Pulses 100% Roots (0.9%) Sweet potatoes 40.1% | Other roots 59.9% Roots (0.9%)Sweet potatoes 40.1% | Other roots 59.9% Vegetables (6.5%) Vegetables 100% Vegetables (6.5%)Vegetables 100% Fruits and nuts (7.4%) Nuts 1.8%| Bananas 23.2% | Other fruits 75.0% Fruits and nuts (7.4%)Nuts 1.8%| Bananas 23.2% | Other fruits 75.0% Cotton (0.2%) Cotton 100% Cotton (0.2%)Cotton 100% Other crops (5.7%) Sugarcane 37.2% | Tea 1.6% | Other crops 61.2% Other crops (5.7%)Sugarcane 37.2% | Tea 1.6% | Other crops 61.2% Livestock (44.1%) Cattle meat 28.8% | Raw milk 35.2% | Poultry meat 2.5% | Eggs 1.5% | Small ruminants 20.8% | Other livestock 11.2% Livestock (44.1%)Cattle meat 28.8% | Raw milk 35.2% | Poultry meat 2.5% | Eggs 1.5% | Small ruminants 20.8% | Other livestock 11.2% Fish (1.3%) Aquaculture 10.7% | Capture fisheries 89.3% Fish (1.3%)Aquaculture 10.7% | Capture fisheries 89.3% Forestry (2.3%) Forestry 100% Forestry (2.3%)Forestry 100%  "}],"sieverID":"98c18998-66bd-461a-b2ba-25c6b165e5db","abstract":""}

data/part_3/09074697a19a42050436482e6fcd5b0d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09074697a19a42050436482e6fcd5b0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3fcac5ac-462c-48a4-9e6a-f9b13b3e72ad/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The area experiences two rainfall seasons favorable for crop production (Table 1). The long rain season occurs from March to June while the short rains begin from August to October. Maize, beans and tea are planted during the onset of the long rainy season. Land is only utilized for one crop per season. Planting of maize starts in April while planting of wheat begins in May and June. Beans are intercropped with maize. "}]},{"head":"Short rains","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dry months","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"As indicated in figure 2, maize dominates the cropping system followed by beans with an average of 1.5 hectares per household. Other crops include tomatoes, vegetables and common beans. The area depends on rain fed agriculture and irrigation is not practiced. Labor is easily available and is required mostly during the planting, weeding and harvesting seasons. The cost of labor is Khs2000 per acre for weeding maize, beans and vegetables. However majority of the farmers provide their own labour for planting, weeding and harvesting.  "}]},{"head":"Sources of Income","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Livestock is the main contributor to household income, contributing 63%. This is closely followed by crops at 17% while off farm business and provision of labour contributes 2% and 5% respectively (Figure 3). "}]},{"head":"Livestock production systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Improved dairy cattle are the dominant livestock in the area, followed by fattening cattle, sheep and local poultry (figure 4). All these livestock are used as a source of food and income. They are also used for as sources of; manure and payment of bride price."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Farmers reported that a majority of households leave their livestock in paddocks at night. In  "}]},{"head":"Feed Resources Availability and Feeding","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Grazing, crop residues, cultivated fodder crop residues, and naturally occurring weeds are the main feed resources in the area. The main contributor is grazing contributing 52% (DM) Dry matter, 51% (ME) Metabolizable Energy 46% (CP) Crude Protein (Figure 7, 8 and 9). This is followed by crop residues making a contribution of 30%, 30% and 26% DM, ME and CP respectively (Figure 7, 8 and 9). Majority of the farmers have paddocks with natural pastures that they do graze all year round. The cattle are also left to graze on farmland after maize and wheat has been harvested. Feed shortage in the area is experienced from March to May (Figure 5).  Problems, Issues and opportunities "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Average land sizes owned by farmers in various categories "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Average area per major crops grown by farmers "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Contribution (%) of livelihood activities to household income "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Average livestock species holdings per household in Tropical Livestock Units "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: The composition of the livestock diet throughout the year in relation to the rainfall pattern "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Dominant Fodder crops grown in the area "},{"text":"Table 1 : Cropping Seasons in the area Name of Season Jan Feb Mar Apri may Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Name of SeasonJanFebMar AprimayJunJulAugSep OctNov Dec Long rains          Long rains  "},{"text":" addition to this, 99% practice open grazing, 1% practice semi zero grazing and gave supplements. The supplements include; Napier grass, dry maize stover, wheat straw and Rhodes grass. The feed is processed by chopping using machetes, chuff cutter and a few use  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Problems, issues, proposed solutions by farmers and key areas of intervention the feedback session. Training on udder health and proper milking procedure 2. plan to carry out ECF vaccinations in collaboration with KDFF Problem Identified Proposed solution by farmers Proposed Key interventions from the feedback session ProblemIdentifiedProposed solution by farmersProposed Key interventions from the feedback session Rank constraint   Rankconstraint 1 Poor quality and high Tarakwo to establish linkage with Establish functional relationship with reputable manufacturer 1Poor quality and highTarakwo to establish linkage withEstablish functional relationship with reputable manufacturer  cost of concentrates a reputable manufacturer and  cost of concentratesa reputable manufacturer and   source in bulk  source in bulk 2 Unavailability of Tarakwo to stock pasture seed in 1.Establish working partnership with seed manufactures ( Kenya 2Unavailability ofTarakwo to stock pasture seed in1.Establish working partnership with seed manufactures ( Kenya  pasture seeds the agrovet shops seed, Lelbren, Western seed) and seed distributors to enable pasture seedsthe agrovet shopsseed, Lelbren, Western seed) and seed distributors to enable    stocking of seed in the agrovet shops stocking of seed in the agrovet shops    2. Identify Volunteer farmer trainers who will bulk seed and pass on 2. Identify Volunteer farmer trainers who will bulk seed and pass on    to the next group to the next group 3 Lack of feed Train on silage and hay making 1. Train on feed conservation 3Lack of feedTrain on silage and hay making1. Train on feed conservation  conservation  2.Stock the agrovet shops with silage tubes , silage sheet and conservation2.Stock the agrovet shops with silage tubes , silage sheet and    mollases mollases 4 High cost of feed Tarakwo to identify Financial 1. Create working relationship with financial institutions and 4High cost of feedTarakwo to identify Financial1. Create working relationship with financial institutions and  processing equipment institutions that will give credit to equipment suppliers for farmers to acquire on check off processing equipmentinstitutions that will give credit toequipment suppliers for farmers to acquire on check off   farmers 2. Tarakwo to consider acquiring an equipment that will offer farmers2. Tarakwo to consider acquiring an equipment that will offer    services to the farmers at an affordable price. services to the farmers at an affordable price. 5 Inadequate Training on feed formulation Training the extension team and volunteer farmer trainers on feed 5InadequateTraining on feed formulationTraining the extension team and volunteer farmer trainers on feed  knowledge on feed Use of demonstrations to train on formulation knowledge on feedUse of demonstrations to train onformulation  ration formulation feed formulation  ration formulationfeed formulation 6 Accessibility of A.I Increase the number of A.I service Link more A.I service providers to enable farmers access the services 6Accessibility of A.IIncrease the number of A.I serviceLink more A.I service providers to enable farmers access the services  services providers that are linked to on check off servicesproviders that are linked toon check off   Tarakwo  Tarakwo 7 Diseases( mastitis and Training on disease control 1. 7Diseases( mastitis andTraining on disease control1.  E.C.F-East Cost Fever)   E.C.F-East Cost Fever)  "}],"sieverID":"60de0050-b56a-4b0e-9745-e2c535d4603a","abstract":"Farmer representatives both male and female were selected from each of the six locations in both Kesses and Ainabkoi divisions to participate in the PRA focused group discussion. The selection was done based on the size of land holding. Two focused group discussions were undertaken one in Kesses with 19 (10 male, 9 female) farmers and another one in Ainabkoi (21 13 male, 8 female) farmers. From each category of land holding size in the discussion groups, key informant farmers were purposively selected and individually interviewed in the seven Locations. These were 6 farmers, 2 from each category of land holding small scale, medium scale and large scale."}

data/part_3/092d1cb2617f39c8c94ebc5896138bae.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092d1cb2617f39c8c94ebc5896138bae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/196b2064-c804-4739-8836-987c654d0cc0/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"FARMERS' PERCEPTION ABOUT VARIETY DEVELOPMENT AND ABIOTIC STRESSES ON POTATO CULTIVATION IN BANGLADESH","keywords":["Farmers' perception","variety development","abiotic stress","potato cultivation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most important food as well as vegetable crops in Bangladesh and is being cultivated throughout the country. Bangladesh ranked 11 th in the world in terms of potato production in 2008-09 (Hossain and Miah, 2010). In 2010-2011, about 8326.39 thousand metric tons of potatoes have been produced devoting 460.40 thousands hectares of land in 1 Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur, Bangladesh. 2 International Potato Center (CIP), Liaison Office, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, India, 3 Tuber Crops Research Centre, BARI, Gazipur1701, Bangladesh. Bangladesh (BBS, 2011). The area and production of potatoes are increasing day by day due to its higher demand and profitability (Fig. 1). The annual growth rates of area, production, and yield of potato were estimated at 7.64%, 10.57%, and 2.94% in the last decade (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011), respectively (BBS, 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":367,"text":"Potato has multi-purpose uses and provides nutrients and plenty of carbohydrates. Since potato is consumed as a popular vegetable, it helps stabilize the vegetables market round the year through its adequate supply (Moazzem and Fujita, 2004). It is one of the productive crops that can play significant role in ensuring food security in Bangladesh since it can help to widen the food supply base and thereby help to minimize the risk of serious food shortages in the tropics and sub-tropics. Bangladesh Government has been trying to diversify food habits and encouraged potato consumption to reduce pressure on cereals especially on rice. So, potato is becoming an important food for ensuring food security in Bangladesh. Climate change is now widely recognized as a phenomenon which is threatening for current way of life on the earth. During 2005, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan faced temperatures 5-6°C above the regional average (UNDP, 2008). The average warming in annual temperature in the Himalaya and its vicinity between 1977 and 1994 was 0.06 ºC per year (Shrestha et al., 1999). Climate related changes are observed in precipitation patterns, temperature, high intensity floods, cyclones, landslides, erosion, and increased sedimentation in Bangladesh. Therefore, it raises serious concerns for developing countries like Most farmers in Bangladesh produce potato at a subsistence level. They are also vulnerable to climate change since the production of potato is highly sensitive to various abiotic stresses including temperature and soil salinity. It is adversely affected by high temperature during tuber initiation (Basu and Minhas, 1991) and tuber bulking (Minhas and Devendra, 2005) stages. In India, potato production is estimated to fall during 2020 and2050, respectively, by 19.65% and44.90% in Karnataka;18.23% and 31.77% in Gujarat;13.02% and 24.59% in Maharashtra;and 9.65% and 16.62% in Madhya Pradesh (Singh et al., 2008). Many parts of Bangladesh, especially in Barind areas (drought prone) are also facing the problem of temperature fluctuation. Further, the saline areas of the country are also vulnerable to crop production including potato. So there is an urgent need to develop varieties suitable for growing under varied temperature and salinity. Developing heat, drought, and saline tolerant potato varieties will not only enhance production but may also extend its cultivation to non-traditional potato areas."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"However, the socio-economic farm level information and farmers' perception on variety choice and abiotic stresses on potato cultivation are quite limited in Bangladesh which is very much important to the researchers and policy makers for the development of heat, drought, and saline tolerant potato varieties for attaining food security in the near future.It is also important to assess the nature and magnitude of farmers' awareness about the harmful impacts of future abiotic stresses in potato cultivation. Taking into consideration of all these facts, the present study was undertaken with the following objectives."}]},{"head":"Specific Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"i. to find out the types of potato varieties using by the farmers and their farm level yields;"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"ii. to assess farmers' perceptions on variety development and abiotic stresses about potato cultivation;"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"iii. to recommend some policy guidelines for developing stress tolerant potato varieties."}]},{"head":"Materials and Method","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Sampling technique: Multi-stages sampling technique was adopted to select sample respondents for the study. At the first stage, two potato growing districts, namely Bogra and Chittagong were selected purposively. Bogra district represents the drought prone areas, whereas Chittagong district represents the heat and saline areas of Bangladesh. In the second stage, four Upazilas from Bogra district and two Upazilas from Chittagong district were also purposively selected consulting with both local extension personnel and potato scientists."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Considering the resource limitations, only two Upazilas from Chittagong district were selected. In the third stage, one agricultural block from each selected Upazila was selected for household survey. In the final stage of sampling, a total of 240 potato farmers (6 blocks x 40 samples), taking 40 farmers from each block were chosen from the list of potato growers following simple random sampling method irrespective of farm category for interview."}]},{"head":"Method of data collection:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"A pre-tested interview schedule was used to collect primary data and information from potato farmers during October 2010. Relevant information of the studied Upazilas were obtained from local DAE offices. A team of experienced scientists and trained enumerators collected primary data and information through interviewing the sampled potato farmers."}]},{"head":"Analytical technique:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The collected data were edited, summarized, and analyzed based on various categories of potato farmers i.e. marginal (cultivated area 0.202-0.603 ha), small (cultivated area 0.607-1.008 ha), medium (cultivated area 1.012-3.032 ha), and large (cultivated area >3.036 ha). In most cases, simple descriptive statistics and accounting methods were adopted to analyze the collected data."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Farm level use of potato varieties: Both modern and indigenous potato varieties are being cultivated in the study areas. However, substantial dissimilarity of using potato varieties was observed in Bogra and Chittagong. In Bogra, the highly adopted varieties were Granula, Cardinal, Diamant, Ruma, and Lalpakri, whereas Diamant and Dohazari varieties were found to me in Chittagong areas."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"In the case of HYV, the highest percentage of farmers in all categories (59.6%) cultivated Granula variety followed by Cardinal and Diamant. On the other side, nearly 40% farmers used Lalpakri and 33.3% farmers used Dohazari as indigenous potato varieties (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Variety-wise potato yield:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The productivity of potato depends on many factors, such as varietal character, use of appropriate amount of inputs, intercultural operations, disease and insect-pest management, and local weather variables."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Change in any factors results in the change of potato yield. Area and variety-wise potato yields are presented in Table 2. The average yield of HYV potato was higher than that of local variety. In 2009-2010, the average per hectare yield was estimated at 22.67 for Granula, 21.50 for Diamant, and 22.57 for Cardinal. On the other hand, the average per hectare yield of local variety was 16.74 for Ruma, 15.312 for Pakri, and 16.27 for Dohazari. It was observed that the average yields of HYV and local variety potatoes in 2008-2009 were much lower compared to the yields observed in 2009-2010 (Table 2). The main reason behind this lower yield was opined to be bad weather, especially the occurrence of drought. However, the average national yield was 13.06 tons per hectare during 2008-2009(BBS, 2009))."}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions on variety development","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":312,"text":"Yield enhancing attributes: An attempt was made to analyze farmers' opinions on whether potato yield on their farms could be increased and results have been presented in Table 3. A total of nineteen factors relating to crop management and enabling environment, which can contribute towards increasing the yield of potato were analyzed. All the respondent farmers believe that it is possible to increase the yield of potato. The highest proportions of farmers (70.87%) believe that the current potato yield can be further increased through introducing new high yielding potato varieties. Other closely perceived factors were drought resistant potato varieties (61.13%) followed by proper late blight control (58.75%), availability of adequate fund (57.77%), heat tolerant variety (53.60%), training on potato cultivation (52.23%), and adequate quantity and timely availability of fertilizers (50.45%). Importance index of these factors, ranging from 1 (low) to 5 (high) was the highest for high yielding new potato varieties (3.11) followed by drought resistant potato varieties (2.23), availability of adequate fund (2.28), adequate quantity and timely availability of fertilizers (2.13), etc. The analysis also reveals that marginal farmers put higher stress on having adequate availability of fund and new high yielding varieties. Both medium and large category farmers put the highest emphasis on having drought tolerant potato varieties and proper late blight control (Table 3). Good and bad varietal characters: Potato farmers were found to grow different types of HYVs and indigenous potato varieties in the study areas. They were asked to name three most important good and bad characters of their cultivated potato varieties. In the case of HYV potato, the highest desirable varietal character was high yield (92.1%) followed by early maturity (61.5%), good demand/price (44.5%), and desirable tuber size (34.8%). On the other hand, good test (81.7%), higher price (69.6%), good storability (65.2%), and good colour (30.5%) were important desirable characters of the local variety (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Respondent farmers also mentioned undesirable qualities of their cultivated varieties. The highest proportion of farmers (78.8%) opined that poor storability was the worst character of HYV potato, which was followed by bad taste (71.9%), low price (36.7%), and susceptible to late blight (27.2%). For local variety, the undesirable characters were reported to be low yield (75.2%), bad tuber size (58.3%), late maturity (56.5%), and susceptible to late blight (36.1%)."}]},{"head":"Reasons for abandoning varieties:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Due to some negative perceptions, some respondent farmers in Bogra district abandoned five potato varieties comprising three HYVs and two local varieties. On the other hand, farmers in Chittagong so far abandoned only one variety. Low yield and susceptible to diseases were reported to be common reasons for abandoning these varieties as shown in Table 5. Late maturity was another important reason for which some farmers in all study areas abandoned Diamant, Cardinal, and Pakri varieties. Low demand/price was reported to be a vital reason for abandoning Diamant variety in Chittagong district. It is important to state that the potato varieties those were abandoned by some responding farmers are still popular and widely cultivated varieties in the study areas."}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions on abiotic stresses","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Preference of potato varieties: Respondent farmers were asked to give preference on the four available future potato varieties against abiotic stresses. The likely future varieties will be heat tolerant, drought tolerant, saline tolerant and early bulking in nature. Respondent's preferences were analyzed and presented in Table 6. It was observed that the farmers of all categories showed very high level of preference (score 4.46) toward the variety having early maturing character. Among the three characters of abiotic stresses, respondent farmers expressed the highest level of preference (score 3.58) for drought tolerant variety followed by heat tolerant (score 2.85) and saline tolerant variety (score 1.49) in the near future. Note: Level of preference (range 1 to 5): Very low =1; Low = 2; Medium = 3; High = 4; Very high =5"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Response on abiotic stresses: Heat, drought, and salinity are very important abiotic stresses for crop production. With exposure to higher temperature, potato plants show increase vegetative growth without converting carbohydrates into tubers (Minhas and Devendra, 2005). Drought is responsible in general disturbance in plant health. Plant becomes weak and more susceptible to other biotic and abiotic stresses. The higher level of salinity in the soil is also detrimental to potato cultivation."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Bogra District represents the drought area and Chittagong district represents the heat and saline areas of Bangladesh. Respondent farmers faced to some extent these abiotic stresses during potato production. Therefore, potato farmers were asked to express their opinions on these three abiotic stresses. The respondent farmers in all categories believed that drought and heat were important two limiting factors towards achieving the higher levels of yield (Table 7). A lower proportion (score 2) of respondents pointed out salinity as abiotic stress to the potato crop. However, the higher proportion of marginal and small farmers regarded drought as a potential threat to their potato crop. Since ground water level was reported to be decreasing year after year in the study areas, the cost of digging tube wells will be very high in the near future."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Respondent farmers were also interviewed to give their perceptions on the abiotic tolerance capacity of their cultivated potato varieties. In this respect, they pointed out two local varieties namely Dohazari for Chittagong district and Lalpakri for Bogra district which have higher levels of tolerance against abiotic stresses compared to other local and HYV potatoes. Cardinal and Diamant varieties were reported to be more or less similar level of tolerance against (score 2) abiotic stresses (Table 8). ii. The most desirable varietal characters of HYV potatoes were high yield, early maturity, and good market demand. Similarly, good test, higher price, and good storability were important characters for local variety."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"iii. Low yield, susceptible to diseases, late maturity and low demand were the reasons for extinction of some potato varieties in the past."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"iv. Among others, drought and heat were the two important factors causing lower yield of potato. Drought was, especially a potential threat for marginal and small farmers."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"v. Dohazari variety for Chittagong and Lalpakri for Bogra has higher levels of tolerance against abiotic stresses. Besides, early maturity followed by drought tolerance, heat tolerance and salinity tolerance were the important attributes farmers wanted in new potato varieties."}]},{"head":"Policy Implications","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Development of abiotic stress tolerant varieties: Potato production is highly sensitive to various abiotic stresses including temperature and soil salinity. Development of heat, drought and saline tolerant varieties enhance potato production and extend its cultivation to non-traditional potato areas. Therefore, breeders should assign higher importance to develop abiotic stress tolerant potato varieties for combating future climate threats."}]},{"head":"Development of early maturing varieties:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"T.aman-Potato-Boro is the dominant cropping pattern in Bogra district. Most farmers cultivate Boro rice after harvesting of potato. Therefore, they show very high level of preference toward the variety having early maturing character. So breeders should give much emphasis to develop a number of early maturing potato varieties having late blight resistant character."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Development of new varieties having better storability: Most small and marginal farmers have poor access to cold storage facility due to small quantity of produces and financial inability. They have to sell their potatoes to middlemen immediately after harvesting with lower price. Therefore, development of new varieties having better storability at home condition will be highly beneficial to the poor potato farmers."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Availability of irrigation water: Higher proportion of marginal and small farmers considered drought and heat to be potential threat for their future potato crops. In the study area entire irrigation is through DTW and STW. They have to buy water from others since digging tube well needs higher cost. Besides, irrigation charge is very high and sometimes unavailable when required. Therefore, the government should encourage cooperative tube wells through establishing self help groups of the farmers providing them financial assistance."}]},{"head":"Agricultural training:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The farmers of all categories believe that their current potato yield can be further increased through providing training on production technologies. Therefore, the DAE should arrange and provide hand-on training for the potato farmers on production technologies on a regular basis."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Availability of seed and fertilizer: Majority of the farmers also perceived that their potato yield can be further increased through making seed and fertilizers timely available and inexpensive. So, the government should take appropriate steps to make these inputs available and economic to the farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig Fig 1. Area, production and yield of potato, 1990-09. "},{"text":"FARMERS tremendous social, environmental, and economic impacts. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fourth assessment report mentions that climate change could decrease agricultural productivity in South Asia up to 30% by mid-21st century(IPCC, 2007). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Farmers' adoption practices of potato varieties in the study areas.  (% farms adopted) (% farms adopted)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Yield (t/ha) of different potato varieties in the study areas.  Year Marginal Farmers' category Small Medium Large All category YearMarginalFarmers' category Small MediumLargeAll category A. High Yielding Variety      A. High Yielding Variety Granula n =6 n =76 n =53 n =8 n =143 Granulan =6n =76n =53n =8n =143 2008-2009 19.437 17.613 14.582 18.067 16.750 2008-200919.43717.61314.58218.06716.750 2009-2010 20.924 22.907 22.528 22.654 22.669 2009-201020.92422.90722.52822.65422.669 Diamant n =0 n =12 n =11 n =1 n =24 Diamantn =0n =12n =11n =1n =24 2008-2009 -- 15.167 15.259 17.414 15.400 2008-2009--15.16715.25917.41415.400 2009-2010 -- 21.383 21.398 23.952 21.497 2009-2010--21.38321.39823.95221.497 Cardinal n =1 n =25 n =20 n =3 n =49 Cardinaln =1n =25n =20n =3n =49 2008-2009 8.347 16.759 13.485 14.733 14.888 2008-20098.34716.75913.48514.73314.888 2009-2010 20.441 22.406 22.679 23.886 22.568 2009-201020.44122.40622.67923.88622.568 B. Local variety      B. Local variety Ruma n =0 n =10 n =9 n =1 n =20 Ruman =0n =10n =9n =1n =20 2008-2009 -- 13.628 17.964 -- 15.796 2008-2009--13.62817.964--15.796 2009-2010 -- 16.444 17.109 16.467 16.744 2009-2010--16.44417.10916.46716.744 Pakri* n = 6 n = 75 n = 48 n = 7 n = 136 Pakri*n = 6n = 75n = 48n = 7n = 136 2008-2009 12.707 12.457 11.009 11.514 11.929 2008-200912.70712.45711.00911.51411.929 2009-2010 15.885 15.253 15.256 15.907 15.312 2009-201015.88515.25315.25615.90715.312 Dohazari n =7 n =45 n =26 n =2 n =80 Dohazarin =7n =45n =26n =2n =80 2008-2009 13.464 12.312 12.373 11.718 12.418 2008-200913.46412.31212.37311.71812.418 2009-2010 -- 16.686 16.071 14.408 16.266 2009-2010--16.68616.07114.40816.266 * Pakri variety includes Lalpakri, Fatapakri and Botpakri   * Pakri variety includes Lalpakri, Fatapakri and Botpakri  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Farmers' perceptions about potato yield increasing factors (multiple responses)  Factors of increasing Marginal farmer Farmers' Category Small farmer Medium farmer Large farmer All category Factors of increasingMarginal farmerFarmers' Category Small farmer Medium farmerLarge farmerAll category yield % responded Impor-tance % responded Impor-tance % responded Impor-tance % responded Impor-tance % responded Impor-tance yield% respondedImpor-tance% respondedImpor-tance% respondedImpor-tance% respondedImpor-tance% respondedImpor-tance Yield can further 100 -- 100 -- 100 -- 100 -- 100 -- Yield can further100--100--100--100--100-- increase           increase 1. Timely and sufficient 56.58 1.84 46.44 1.50 47.43 1.63 43.33 1.53 46.52 1.55 1. Timely and sufficient56.581.8446.441.5047.431.6343.331.5346.521.55 irrigation water           irrigation water 2. Soil reclamation (for 13.10 0.36 17.19 0.72 18.79 0.74 -- -- 16.82 0.68 2. Soil reclamation (for13.100.3617.190.7218.790.74----16.820.68 alkaline/saline/too           alkaline/saline/too acidic)           acidic) 3. High yielding potato 86.90 3.82 71.04 3.07 70.49 2.84 80.00 2.93 70.87 3.11 3. High yielding potato86.903.8271.043.0770.492.8480.002.9370.873.11 varieties           varieties 4. Drought resistant/ 48.25 1.91 58.70 2.22 72.65 2.68 70.00 2.67 61.13 2.34 4. Drought resistant/48.251.9158.702.2272.652.6870.002.6761.132.34 tolerant potato           tolerant potato varieties           varieties 5. Heat tolerant potato 61.34 2.12 57.04 2.04 49.54 1.69 56.67 1.83 53.60 1.94 5. Heat tolerant potato61.342.1257.042.0449.541.6956.671.8353.601.94 varieties           varieties 6. Salinity tolerance 44.68 1.15 31.99 0.54 27.80 0.68 46.67 0.70 31.97 0.66 6. Salinity tolerance44.681.1531.990.5427.800.6846.670.7031.970.66 7. Higher doses of 8.33 0.20 24.35 0.98 17.93 0.78 6.67 0.07 20.12 0.85 7. Higher doses of8.330.2024.350.9817.930.786.670.0720.120.85 fertilizers           fertilizers 8. Proper weed control 13.10 0.41 9.35 0.31 12.79 0.42 23.33 0.93 11.13 0.37 8. Proper weed control13.100.419.350.3112.790.4223.330.9311.130.37 9. Right insect/ pest 17.30 0.61 25.51 0.81 33.35 1.18 30.00 1.20 27.23 0.92 9. Right insect/ pest17.300.6125.510.8133.351.1830.001.2027.230.92 control           control  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cont'd Table 4. Farmers' responses on desirable and undesirable qualities of different potato varieties. Due to less number of responses in respect to various farm categories, the category wise analysis was not carried out. (ii) Bogra farmers abandoned potato varieties 2.22 years ago and Chittagong farmers 2.09 years ago. (% farmers responded) (% farmers responded)  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Level of preference of potato varieties against abiotic stresses in the near future.  Varietal quality Marginal Farmers' category Small Medium Large All category Varietal qualityMarginalFarmers' category Small MediumLargeAll category No. of n = 16 n = 136 n = 78 n = 10 n = 240 No. ofn = 16n = 136n = 78n = 10n = 240 respondents      respondents Heat tolerant 3.38 2.88 2.65 3.30 2.85 Heat tolerant3.382.882.653.302.85 Drought tolerant 3.69 3.63 3.47 3.60 3.58 Drought tolerant3.693.633.473.603.58 Saline tolerant 1.56 1.56 1.33 1.70 1.49 Saline tolerant1.561.561.331.701.49 Early maturing 4.31 4.50 4.45 4.20 4.46 Early maturing4.314.504.454.204.46  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Farmers' perceived relative importance of abiotic stresses on potato production.  Abiotic stress Farmers' category/Priority level Marginal Small Medium Large All category Abiotic stressFarmers' category/Priority level Marginal Small MediumLargeAll category A. Bogra n = 9 n = 91 n = 52 n = 8 n = 160 A. Bogran = 9n = 91n = 52n = 8n = 160 Draught 4.33 3.84 3.65 3.63 3.79 Draught4.333.843.653.633.79 Heat 3.00 3.10 2.90 3.25 3.04 Heat3.003.102.903.253.04 Salinity 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.50 1.05 Salinity1.001.001.001.501.05 B. Chittagong n = 7 n = 45 n = 26 n = 2 n = 80 B. Chittagongn = 7n = 45n = 26n = 2n = 80 Draught 3.14 3.22 3.23 3.50 3.23 Draught3.143.223.233.503.23 Heat 3.43 2.93 2.77 4.50 2.96 Heat3.432.932.774.502.96 Salinity 2.67 2.50 2.67 2.00 2.55 Salinity2.672.502.672.002.55 C. All Areas n = 16 n = 136 n = 78 n = 10 n = 240 C. All Areasn = 16n = 136n = 78n = 10n = 240 Draught 3.81 3.63 3.51 3.60 3.60 Draught3.813.633.513.603.60 Heat 3.19 3.04 2.86 3.50 3.01 Heat3.193.042.863.503.01 Salinity 2.25 2.03 2.25 1.67 2.08 Salinity2.252.032.251.672.08 Note: Level of priorities (range 1 to 5): 1= very low, 2= Low, 3= Medium, 4= High, and Note: Level of priorities (range 1 to 5): 1= very low, 2= Low, 3= Medium, 4= High, and 5= Very high      5= Very high  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Level of abiotic stress tolerances of different potato varieties as perceived by the sample farmers.  Variety Farmers' category/Level of tolerance Marginal Small Medium Large All category VarietyFarmers' category/Level of tolerance Marginal Small Medium LargeAll category A. Bogra n = 9 n = 91 n = 52 n = 8 n = 160 A. Bogran = 9n = 91n = 52n = 8n = 160 Granula 2.0 (3) 2.0 (22) 2.0 (17) 2.5 (4) 2.1 (46) Granula2.0 (3)2.0 (22)2.0 (17)2.5 (4)2.1 (46) Cardinal -- 1.9 (8) 1.7 (11) 2.0 (1) 1.8 (20) Cardinal--1.9 (8)1.7 (11)2.0 (1)1.8 (20) Diamant -- 1.8 (4) 2.0 (3) 1.0 (1) 1.8 (8) Diamant--1.8 (4)2.0 (3)1.0 (1)1.8 (8) Pakri 1.0 (3) 1.5 (32) 1.3 (29) 1.5 (4) 1.4 (68) Pakri1.0 (3)1.5 (32)1.3 (29)1.5 (4)1.4 (68) B. Chittagong n = 7 n = 45 n = 26 n = 2 n = 80 B. Chittagongn = 7n = 45n = 26n = 2n = 80 Diamant -- 2.0 (2) 1.8 (5) 1.0 (1) 1.8 (8) Diamant--2.0 (2)1.8 (5)1.0 (1)1.8 (8) Dohazari -- 1.0 (2) 1.2 (5) -- 1.3 (8) Dohazari--1.0 (2)1.2 (5)--1.3 (8) Lolita -- 2.0 (2) 1.5 (2) -- 1.7 (3) Lolita--2.0 (2)1.5 (2)--1.7 (3) C. All Areas n = 16 n = 136 n = 78 n = 10 n = 240 C. All Areasn = 16n = 136n = 78n = 10n = 240 Granula 2.0 (3) 2.0 (22) 2.2 (17) 2.5 (4) 2.1 (46) Granula2.0 (3)2.0 (22)2.2 (17)2.5 (4)2.1 (46) Cardinal -- 1.9 (8) 1.7 (11) 2.0 (1) 1.8 (20) Cardinal--1.9 (8)1.7 (11)2.0 (1)1.8 (20) Diamant -- 1.8 (6) 1.9 (8) 1.0 (2) 1.8 (16) Diamant--1.8 (6)1.9 (8)1.0 (2)1.8 (16) Pakri 1.0 (3) 1.5 (32) 1.3 (29) 1.5 (4) 1.4 (68) Pakri1.0 (3)1.5 (32)1.3 (29)1.5 (4)1.4 (68) Dohazari -- 1.0 (2) 1.2 (5) 2.0 (1) 1.3 (8) Dohazari--1.0 (2)1.2 (5)2.0 (1)1.3 (8) Lolita -- 2.0 (1) 1.5 (2) -- 1.7 (3) Lolita--2.0 (1)1.5 (2)--1.7 (3) Note: Figures in the parentheses are number of respondents   Note: Figures in the parentheses are number of respondents Level of abiotic stresses tolerance (range 1 to 5):1= Very high, 2= High, 3= Medium, 4= Level of abiotic stresses tolerance (range 1 to 5):1= Very high, 2= High, 3= Medium, 4= Low, 5= Very low      Low, 5= Very low  "}],"sieverID":"774211e1-4bf6-45fa-b589-298e15b48ddd","abstract":"The socio-economic information on variety development and abiotic stresses of potato cultivation at farm level are scarce in Bangladesh. Therefore, an attempt was made to assess farmers' perceptions about variety development and different abiotic stresses on potato cultivation. Primary data were collected from 240 potato farmers of Bogra and Chittagong district. The study revealed that Granula, Cardinal, and Lalpakri were the most preferred potato varieties in Bogra, while Diamant and Dohazari were the dominant varieties in Chittagong. Most farmers (70.87%) believe that the current potato yield (21.5-22.67 t/ha) can be further increased through introducing new HYVs. Drought and heat were two important limiting factors towards achieving the higher levels of potato yield. High yielding ability was considered as the most desirable varietal character and this was opined by almost 92.1% respondents, followed by drought resistant (61.13%), proper late blight control (58.75%), availability of adequate fund (57.77%), heat tolerant (53.60%), early maturity (61.5%), and good demand (44.5%) for HYV potatoes, whereas good test (81.7%), higher price (69.6%) and good storability (65.2%) were reported for local varieties. Low yield, susceptible to diseases, late maturity and low demand were the reasons for abandoning some potato varieties in the past. Dohazari variety for Chittagong and Lalpakri for Bogra have higher levels of tolerance against abiotic stresses. Finally, early maturity followed by drought tolerance, heat tolerance, and salinity tolerance were important attributes farmers wanted in new potato varieties."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09999660bdb0370ce8a6517d66fcdaef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/271d0950-6c69-4ab1-9e34-c9d3d04fbc88/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Context: More of the world is urbanised","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Towns and cities in the world's developing countries are growing on an unprecedented scale. In 1960, the global urban population was 34% of the total; however, by 2014 the urban population accounted for 54% of the total and continues to grow. By 2050, the proportion living in urban areas is expected to reach 66% (UNDESA). Sub-Saharan Africa's annual urban growth rate is 3.6%, almost double the world average."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The rapid growth of cities in the developing world, coupled with increasing rural to urban migration, has led to a boom in mega-cities. In 1990, there were ten mega-cities with 10 million inhabitants or more. In 2014, there are 28 mega-cities, home to a total 453 million people. Six mega-cities are predicted to exist in Africa by the year 2030 -Luanda (Angola), Lagos (Nigeria), Johannesburg (South Africa), Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) and Cairo (Egypt). There is one mega-city, Cairo, which has had a population of more than 10 million since 2000."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Currently, approximately one-third of the world's population is living in slums and informal settlements. If prevailing trends continue, this figure could reach 2 billion by 2030. Changes in climate, coupled with humanitarian crisis, add to challenges faced by cities and the urban poor. Agricultural production and urban food supply are increasingly affected by droughts and floods. More and more refugees and internally displaced persons are seeking refuge in urban neighbourhoods and demands for urban food are increasing."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Accelerated urbanisation is profoundly affecting our world in economic, social and environmental dimensions and oblige us to rethink how cities are provisioned with food and water. Cities which host over half the world's population have a strategic role to play in developing sustainable food systems and promoting healthy diets, and because while every city is different, they are all centres of economic, political and cultural innovation, and manage vast public resources, infrastructure, investments and expertise."},{"index":5,"size":198,"text":"Figure 1: Growth in the urban African population, 1950-2050  (Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems, 2017)  The task of feeding cities will face multiple constraints in terms of unbalanced distribution and access, environmental degradation, resource scarcity and climate change, unsustainable production and consumption patterns, and food loss and waste. 1 There has been an increasing separation between places of food production and those of consumption. Urban areas rely heavily on a multitude of food systems to meet their food needs. This makes them vulnerable to any crisis in the food supply chain. One corollary of this commentary is that cities will have to consider the issue of food security, including strategies on how to develop more localised food production systems, more carefully. 2 Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces. One of the main challenges in making cities safe and sustainable is ensuring access to safe and affordable housing, and upgrading slum settlements. It also involves investment in public transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and management in a way that is both participatory and inclusive (Sustainable Development Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities)."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"The concept of \"green cities\" -designed for resilience, selfreliance, and social, economic and environmental sustainability -is usually associated with urban planning in more developed countries. It suggests high-tech ecoarchitecture, bicycle greenways and zero-waste, \"closed loop\" industries."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"However, it has a special application, and significantly different social and economic dimensions, in lowincome developing countries. There, the core principles of greener cities can guide urban development that ensures food security, decent work and income, a clean environment and good governance for all citizens. (FAO)"}]},{"head":"The multifunctionality of urban agriculture","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"2.1. What is urban agriculture?"},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Urban agriculture (UA) 3 is defined as an industry located within (intraurban) or on the fringe (peri-urban) of a town, a city or a metropolis, which grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity of food and non-food products, reusing largely human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying human and material resources, products and services largely to that urban area ii (Luc Mougeot 1999:10)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Urban and peri-urban agriculture is a complete value chain that encompasses the supply of inputs, production, agro-processing, distribution through various marketing channels, and the management of waste and waste water all along the value chain."},{"index":4,"size":218,"text":"Typically, urban and peri-urban agriculture focuses on short cycle, high value and low input market crops; e.g. highly perishable leafy vegetables such as spinach, and cassava leaves; fruits and vegetables such as okra, eggplant, and mango. Looking at the medium and long term, productive returns can be expected on fruit tree systems and other tree-based systems from five years after planting, provided that land and resources accessibility and tenure are secure. The sustainability of other non-wood forest products, and wood used as fuel, is very important for communities. While often managed by forestry, rather than agricultural institutions, they are nonetheless relevant here. 4 UA 5 still is in many countries an informal activity quite difficult to characterize with accurate data and trends. Urban agriculture includes vegetable and fruit tree cultivation, as well as other specialized crops Growing food in the cities: Successes and new opportunities (e.g., medicinal and ornamentals), wood production, small-scale animal rearing (ranging from common, such as bovines and poultry, to local species, such as Guinea pigs), bee keeping, and also aquaculture (combined fish and plant culture). It is generally conducted near markets and occurs in limited spaces due to the high command. Urban agriculture uses city water and recycles organic discards. It has, therefore, a beneficial role in managing natural resources for a sustainable environment."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"As cities expand, and people from rural areas move to cities, the frontiers between urban, peri-urban and rural activities blur and merge, presenting opportunities to extend beneficial linkages. As there are no fixed definitions, an FAO report observes, \"The term peri-urban agriculture varies very widely, from the immediate city environs to up to 60km from a city. At the greater distances from a city, there is little or no difference between peri-urban agriculture and rural agriculture\"."}]},{"head":"The many forms of urban agriculture?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"UPA has moved far beyond the old fashioned image of \"backyard farming\". The industry has evolved from a largely informal activity into a more commercial and professional initiative in many countries, and there are often strong links with community improvement initiatives, and greening of the environment."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"However, there are few national and municipal legal frameworks in place to develop it rationally. Urban and peri-urban farmers often have little or no security of tenure, little recourse in case of theft or crop slashing, and no access to agricultural extension services. They often lack access to clean water for their agriculture, and systems for safely disposing of agricultural wastes, leading to negative implications for food safety, and public health. There is a lack of information on the types of jobs and working conditions that prevail in the sector and on the types of measures needed to strengthen labour markets and ensure good labour practices and conditions. 6 Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) takes various forms such as micro-gardens, micro-irrigated commercial gardening on urban peripheries, hydroponic microgardens in slum areas, green rooftops in densely populated city centres, organoponics and simplified soilless cultures.… UPA ranges from very basic family-type gardens to technology-driven top investments in vertical farming with high productivity and revenues."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Urban agriculture encompasses both \"intra-urban\" as well as \"periurban\" agriculture and includes a wide variety of production systems (including crop, fish and livestock production as well as of medicinal and ornamental plants for both home consumption or for the market). 7 Urban and peri-urban agriculture encompasses a complete value chain running from field to fork, so in addition to cultivation, it includes food processing, marketing and distribution. 8 Typically, urban and peri-urban agriculture focuses on short cycle, high value and low input market crops; e.g. highly perishable leafy vegetables such as spinach, and cassava leaves; fruits and vegetables such as okra, eggplant, and mango."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Vertical farms use high tech lighting and climate controlled buildings to grow crops like leafy greens or herbs indoors while using less water and soil. Because it is a closed growing system, with controlled evaporation from plants, this farms use 95% less water than traditional farms. At the same time, most vertical farms do not need soil because they use aeroponics or hydroponic systemsthese dispense nutrients needed for plants to grow via mist or water. This technique is ideal for meeting the challenges of urbanisation and the rising demand by consumers for high quality, pesticide-free food."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Commercialization of vertical farming is catching on in Asia, Europe, USA, Russia and now Africa. Many private companies are interested in growing crops in hydroponic, aquaponics and aeroponics systems in warehouses, greenhouses, containers and high scrapers. There is also a burgeoning interest in the production of medicinal plants in vertical farms. Feeding Africa's rapidly growing urban population will continue to be a daunting challenge, but vertical farming -and its variations -could be one of the most innovative approaches to grow fresh, healthy, nutritious and pesticide-free food for consumers. However, initial financial investments are very important as well as the need to have a reliable lighting (and electricity) power. Solar energy prototypes and low-tech versions are being developed."}]},{"head":"Who are the urban and peri-urban farmers and producers?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"While in most countries, urban and peri-urban agriculture is dominated by small-scale producers cultivating for daily consumption to achieve food security and earn some income for their families, there is no such person as a typical urban farmer."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Producers, for example, can be rich or poor, landed farmers or migrant workers. 9 In most developing countries, however, it appears that the majority of urban farmers are in low-income groups and are women. Frequently, they farm on a small scale on land they do not own, and work less than full time. For many, urban and peri-urban agriculture is a relatively long-term economic activity."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"The poor who have lived in the city for a number of years have better access to resources and greater familiarity with the market and the urban economy.\" Some urban producers are workers hired on a permanent, seasonal, casual, or day basis. Urban and peri-urban farmers may also produce for barter or be directly contracted by a retailer or food processing business. 10 Outsourcing of production is even becoming a feature of urban and peri-urban agriculture. As a report by the Agropolis notes, \"higher income individuals and groups are increasingly engaging in urban agriculture, where they employ or out-source production to a poorer, often female-dominated work force.\" 11 2.4. Challenges for UA While UPA offers opportunities and alternatives in growing cities, challenges remain. 12 -Tensions between 'traditional farmers' and 'new style' farmers:"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Traditional farmers (such as largescale dairy farmers and farmers running mixed arable farms) considered those promoting new farming initiatives a threat. The former may have the perception that the city is giving the new farmers advantages and that urban initiatives receive more policy support."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"-Pressure on open space and farmland: (i) land being irreversibly converted to urban use; (ii) counter-urbanisation, or migration from the towns and cities to the countryside (especially for new residential developments), which can have a significant impact on agriculture; (iii) within the agricultural sector itself, changes involving intensification, scale enlargement and diversification, as well as competition for land amongst farmers. There can be also competition from other building use, such as rooftop solar energy systems."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"-Skills and competences gap: Farmers were found to be lacking in experience and specific skills in areas such entrepreneurship, networking and marketing, and to have limited access to strategic information."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"-Lack of space and the poor quality of soils and unreliability of water supplies."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"-Economic viability (e.g. high capital costs of large-scale rooftop greenhouses) but also dependency on public funds, grants, donations, etc."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"-Potential impact on property values and displacement of marginalised low-income residents -Potential health risks, e.g., pollution or soil contamination due to industrial activity."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"-Legislation was identified as a source of complication in the development of urbanoriented farming initiatives. More particularly, this covered legislation relating to European competition policy, food safety as well as spatial planning."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"-The traditional challenges facing agriculture are to be found in UA: high cost of inputs, lack of quality seed, unavailability of credit to buy equipment…Furthermore, farmers in UA are rarely organised (i.e. cooperatives, associations and networks) and have limited access to markets."},{"index":12,"size":31,"text":"-Caution is also raised on the level of expectations that urban agriculture can realistically provide food for local communities, generate income for producers, and create jobs funded by profits from sales."}]},{"head":"Favourable policies and planning in cities to encourage UA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Food policies are closely related to many other urban challenges and policies, such as poverty, health and social protection, hygiene and sanitation, land use planning, transport and commerce, energy, education, and disaster preparedness, it is essential to adopt an approach that is comprehensive, interdisciplinary and interinstitutional."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Although many poor households benefit from urban agriculture, land cultivation and livestock production are actually illegal in many cities. Urban agriculture often occurs on \"unused\" land. Farmers lack legal rights and thus have less incentive to make costly improvements. For example, instead of installing costly irrigation, farmers often use wastewater irrigation that, if polluted, can pose health risks to consumers."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Given the potential benefits of urban agriculture, government policies for urban planning need to address land tenure for farmers and provide access to clean irrigation water, while also protecting public health. Urban food policies and plans need allocation of appropriate resources within city administration regarding food-related policies and programmes, strengthened municipal regulations and increased capacities for a more sustainable, healthy and equitable food system balancing urban and rural interests. There is a need to secure access and tenure to land for sustainable food production in UPA, including land for community gardeners and smallholder producers, land for local agricultural production and promote integration with land use and city development plans and programmes."}]},{"head":"Policy initiatives","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Global Agenda","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Following the 2007-2008 food crisis, a United-Nations high-level task force (HLTF) 14 called for a paradigm shift in urban planning to one that encourages urban and peri-urban food production and the professionalization of some of the actors involved."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Cities will be active in operationalising international processes such as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets in the post-2015 Development Agenda.   "}]},{"head":"Urban agriculture supporting food production, dietary diversity and nutrition","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"With increasing numbers of urban consumers, there is also a growing commercial sector in urban and peri-urban agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Urban livestock keeping and dairy farming, for example, has long been practiced in many towns and cities and is now expanding; it is often run by middle-income households as a response to growing urban demand and markets, and often using hired labour."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In addition, in some countries, the effects of the food crisis and global economic crisis pushed many middle-income households below the poverty line. As a result, these households have begun to produce their own food and in some cases have started up small and mediumsized enterprises in the sector."}]},{"head":"Food production","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Urban agriculture plays a significant role in feeding urban populations around the globe. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that 800 million people worldwide grow vegetables or fruits or raise animals in cities, producing what the Worldwatch Institute reports to be an astonishing 15 to 20 % of the world›s food. It is estimated that 130 million urban residents in Africa and 230 million in Latin America engage in agriculture, mainly horticulture, to provide food for their families or to earn income from sales (FAO)."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"It is urgent to promote and strengthen urban and peri-urban food production and processing based on sustainable approaches and integrate urban and peri-urban agriculture into city resilience plans."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"There is a need to provide services to food producers in and around cities, including technical training and financial assistance (credit, technology, food safety, market access, etc.) to build a multigenerational and economically viable food system with inputs such as compost from food waste, grey water from post-consumer use, and energy from waste etc. while ensuring that these do not compete with human consumption."}]},{"head":"-Improving (market) infrastructure, capacity strengthening and extension","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"In order to increase the income and employment benefits of urban agriculture, infrastructure needs to be improved so as to better connect local farmers to urban markets. Support is also needed to help increase the productivity and profitability of urban agriculture. Productivity in small-scale urban agriculture is still generally low as result of a lack of (or inappropriate) support services (extension, access to credit, infrastructure development), limited access to productive resources and secure land tenure. This would require improvement in technical capacity and extension capability in most case cities. Extension systems can also support the development of good crop and livestock practices among urban producers requires capacity strengthening and technical assistance."}]},{"head":"-Strengthening producer organisations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"A low degree of organisation hampers producers efforts to obtain a stronger market position, undertake processing and engage in direct marketing and limits the capacity to represent the political interests of producers. All studies call for strengthening of existing producer organizations and promoting the formation of new ones, to enhance their participation in policy lobbying and marketing. The formation of viable farmer groups and farmerbased enterprises with gender equity should be promoted, to enhance their knowledge, skills, and access to resources, and for stronger bargaining power in inputs, marketing and access to financing. Empowerment of women farmers requires priority attention, as highlighted in both the Lima and Bangalore studies. Formation of women farmer networks to deal with agriculture related activities can further strengthen the household economy. The strength of women's social networks and co-operative efforts offer opportunities for development strategies in the urban agriculture sector (Hovorka, De Zeeuw and Njenga 2009). Women's groups and their urban agriculture collective practices need to be promoted and supported so as to be recognised as social and political actors."}]},{"head":"Promoting market access","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"By shortening food chains, urban and peri-urban agriculture allows for substantial savings in energy and other post-harvest handling expenses. New marketing channels such as neighbourhood markets, producer-to-consumer networks and platforms, doorstep sales points and door-to-door marketing have evolved."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Urban farm produce can be sold directly to customers, to a wholesaler or intermediary, directly to local markets or retail outlets such as local supermarkets, processing facilities, restaurants, or street traders. Simpler distribution systems mean fewer intermediaries, and less complicated storage and post-production."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Food processing facilities are often located close to, or in, urban or peri-urban areas, slaughtering and canning facilities may purchase animals, fruits, and vegetables directly from local growers, or have a seasonal contract with outgrowers. Products that receive further processing have additional value added, particularly in cities where refrigeration is lacking in many homes."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"In this context, further support is needed on improved food storage, processing, transport and distribution technologies and infrastructure linking peri-urban and near rural areas to ensure seasonal food consumption with an emphasis on diversified small and medium scale food businesses along the value chain that may provide decent and stable employment."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Stronger food control systems are key to ensure that food producers and suppliers throughout the food chain operate responsibly and produce healthy food. Food safety trainings need to be delivered at scale."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Many urban agriculture policies still mainly focus on urban and periurban food production for reasons of food security, while commercial urban agriculture, agro-processing and value addition activities are often not well addressed (Dubbeling and Pasquini 2010). Further attention will be required from policy-makers to commercial agriculture."}]},{"head":"-Promoting direct producerconsumer marketing","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Several supermarkets and hypermarkets in the cities of Accra, Nairobi and Lima have started to link up with urban vegetable producers to source supply for their customers, including for organic vegetables in Lima. As this relationship expands, employment will be created and income levels of producers will rise. Results of a 2,5 year project to promote value chain development and direct marketing in 17 cities around the world (De Zeeuw 2010; Dubbeling 2011) show that local urban agriculture value chains do have a place in the urban food system, even though global products, markets and corporations increasingly dominate the system."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Local, safe and healthy production are the main reasons for urban consumers to buy produce that addresses their social and health concerns. This is best done by establishing direct relations with consumers and selling products in the following niche markets:"},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"-Vegetable box schemes to schools, international organisations and offices, as is done for example in Cape Town and Freetown, Sierra Leone -Producer kiosks, fairs and markets as in Lima and Accra -Sales to restaurants, traders and supermarkets, including use of marketing strategies that emphasise that the produce is local (or local varieties/breeds) and that make use of logos that stress product qualities, as in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe; Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso and Beijing, China, Amman, Jordan and Sana\"a, Yemen (an example is the \"Responsible Production Protocol\" used in Amman and Sana\"a, which provides guarantees on production location, ecological quality and ethical production standards)"}]},{"head":"Increasing access to financing","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Access to credit and other sources of financing (e.g. subsidies/grants) are crucial to further investment in agricultural production and/or processing and marketing activities."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Government grant schemes should be revised so that urban producers can apply, as is proposed in the new Indian Government policy. Proper administrative systems need to be set up and special capacity building programmes developed."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Other needs include:"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"-Better quantification of the demand for credit and finance among small urban producers -Better information about producers' repayment capacity -lessons could be learnt from successful small-scale loan schemes such as in Bangladesh, especially about methods for handling small loans and strengthening repayment."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"- "}]},{"head":"Promoting healthy nutrition","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Urban agriculture has the potential to promote sustainable diets through relevant education, health promotion and communication programmes, with special attention to schools, care centres, markets and the media, with a focus on poor communities."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"In this context, it can address noncommunicable diseases associated with poor diets and obesity, giving specific attention to increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables and non-processed foods."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Horticulture helps empower the urban poor, and contributes to their food security and nutrition and can help grow greener cities. There are parts of the world where urban and peri-urban agriculture account for 50-75% of vegetable consumption within that city."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Family farmers and smallholder food producers play a key role in feeding cities and their territories, by helping to maintain resilient, equitable, culturally appropriate food systems and sustainable diets, reconnecting consumers with both rural and urban producers. 18 Urban agriculture can offer another source of food as well as employment and income for urban dwellers. A recent analysis of 15 developing and transitional countries shows enormous variation in the share of urban households that participate in agriculture, ranging from 11% in Indonesia to 70% in Nicaragua and Viet Nam. 19 Still, urban agriculture accounts for only 5% to 15% of total agricultural production in the studied countries, and most households consume the food they produce rather than sell it. Although the contribution of urban agriculture to income is generally low (less than 10% in 10 of the 15 countries), urban farming is linked with improved dietary diversity in two-thirds of the countries."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Urban households involved in UPA are generally more food secure and benefit from a more diverse diet. Urban and peri-urban food production also helps increase the availability of healthy and affordable food, mainly fresh fruits, vegetables, eggs and dairy products, for a larger number of urban consumers. In order to assure that UPA contributes to improved urban food security, support in terms of access to land, technical guidance and training on good production practices and farmers and consumers' education is required."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Sustainable dietary guidelines to inform consumers, city planners (in particular for public food procurement), food service providers, retailers, producers and processors are needed as well as communication and training campaigns."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"4.5. Providing extra income and jobs"}]},{"head":"Income generation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Urban and peri-urban agriculture provides an additional source of income that can help reduce poverty and food insecurity. Workers and their families can make important savings on their food bills by growing and consuming their own fresh produce and in addition be better nourished. While selling surplus produce can help workers and their families, especially poor households, generate much needed cash income."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Food production, processing and marketing contribute to generating income and employment for many poor urban households (income generated by the informal food sector is often equivalent to or higher than the official minimum wage). The sector specifically provides an opportunity for social and economic integration of women, urban newcomers and youth. -Gender is also an important aspect of urban and peri-urban agriculture as many, and frequently the majority of, urban farmers and producers are women. Urban agriculture is not only offering women new opportunities but new ways of combining work, family and personal life."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Examples of job creation include:"},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"-Africa: In cities like Dakar, Bamako, Accra and Kumasi, depending on crop and season, between 60% and 100% of leafy vegetables consumed are produced within the respective cities with employment figures ranging from 1,000 to 15,000 jobs."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"-Bénin: Some 253 landless workers were growing organic vegetables along the runway at Cotonou airport."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"-Cameroon: In Yaoundé, pigs and poultry livestock production employed between 10,000 and 20,000 persons, including producers, retailers, processors, animal input and feed traders."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"-Cuba: in Havana, 117,000 jobs in Havana and income for 150,000 low-income families were directly provided by urban and peri-urban agriculture."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"-Democratic Republic of the Congo: An FAO project estimated that the urban and peri-urban agricultural programme \"has created some 40 jobs for every hectare, or 66,000 jobs, benefiting indirectly some 330,000 people.\" From a small plot, 100 to 250 people can get earnings, which exceeds the wage of a public employee."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"-Ghana: 90 % of Accra's fresh vegetable consumption is from urban and peri-urban production."},{"index":10,"size":78,"text":"-Malawi: A study of urban and periurban agriculture in Malawi's two main cities, Lilongwe and Blantyre, revealed two predominant types of household engaged in urban farming: i) low income, less educated, often female-headed households, who use urban agriculture as an insurance against income losses and who can employ skilled workers to support their livestock activities; and ii) middle and high income, often maleheaded households, that undertake urban agriculture for personal consumption and hire significant numbers of unskilled workers."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"-Senegal: 60 % of the country's vegetable consumption and 65 % of its poultry consumption comes from the city of Dakar. Within the city itself, 60 % of the milk consumed originated from urban and peri-urban farmers."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"-Tanzania: In Dar Es Salaam, at least 60 % of the informal economy was made up of urban agriculture, accounting for 20 % of jobs, making it the second largest urban employment sector."},{"index":13,"size":50,"text":"-West Africa: it is estimated that urban and peri-urban agriculture is practised by some 20 million urban dwellers in West Africa, mostly for subsistence. Market gardeners were mainly located in the open spaces in West Africa, and changed crops according to seasonal supply and demand, as well as market prices."},{"index":14,"size":43,"text":"-Uganda: in a vast urban slum area either side of the Kampala-Jinja highway, poor people used a variety of production strategies: growing cocoyams for food and income; keeping poultry and cattle for income; growing green vegetables, beans, maize and cooking bananas for food."},{"index":15,"size":50,"text":"As the agriculture chain is long and complex, urban and peri-urban farming has a wide multiplier effect, generating employment in related and supportive activities in production, input supply (i.e. production of compost from urban organic wastes, bio-pesticides), marketing, processing and equipment, and value addition from producer to consumer (packaging, marketing)."}]},{"head":"Youth and women's employment","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The Producing locally also reduces the need for long distance transportation of food, and thus reduces fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions. Urban farming cuts back on food miles -the energy required to get food to your plate -, which can be significant especially when fresh or packaged food is imported."}]},{"head":"Land use planning","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Urban agriculture needs to be understood in terms of the dynamics of city-or metropolitan-regions, embracing both urban and rural areas, in order to reach sustainable solutions to agriculture and food systems. The concepts of local and city-regional food systems however need further operationalisation. Metropolitan regions run across existing political boundaries, encompass various urban centres/ municipalities, have a complex mix of jurisdictions spreading across district, state and national governments which bear on regional land use and marketing and these different jurisdictions receive different pots of money from central government. There is therefore a need for planning and investment across boundaries."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"There is need for more regional food systems studies that analyse the potential of specific regions to reduce their ecological footprints, optimize localized food supply and examine comparative advantages of food production and supply in different parts of the region. This includes more research on the complementarity and interaction between rural and urban food supply and food markets."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"In order to build more resilient city-regional or local food systems, land planning policies need to be developed that are favourable for urban and peri-urban agriculture and preserve existing agricultural areas in intra-urban, peri-urban in transition and peri-urban areas. Formal recognition of urban agriculture as a legitimate use of urban land and of its value to city livelihoods and liveability is a crucial step towards effective planning for as well as regulation and facilitation of the development of urban agriculture. Research also highlights the potential social impact of urban agriculture for recreation and leisure time, social interaction, for education or health issues, or for disadvantaged people (i.e. migrants)."}]},{"head":"New opportunities for Urban Agriculture","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Urban and peri-urban agriculture is used as a strategy by many urban dwellers to improve their livelihoods and overall well-being. Firstly, UPA improves a household's access to food during times of shortage, instability or uncertainty (Bush,  2010; Zezza & Tasciotti, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Secondly, UPA can act as an income generating activity as farmers produce for markets or sell surplus, which contributes to a household's income security (Cohen & Garrett,  2010; Mougeot, 2005). Lastly, UPA contributes to improved health among the urban population by providing highly nutritious and fresh foods (Zezza & Tasciotti, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Despite these positive aspects of food security, livelihoods and access to nutritional foods, there are downsides to UPA. Some major problems are the increased risk for the spread of diseases from animals to humans as well as sanitary and environmental problems related to waste, water and manure (Bonfoh, et  al., 2010; Menzi et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"The major challenge with UPA in low-income countries as a driver for positive human development is to balance the pros and cons by wise regulations and incentives. "}]},{"head":"Africa","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Increased immigration into urban centers in the recent past was largely due to expectations of better lives in cities across the world, especially by unemployed youth. This coupled with general expansion of the population in Africa has caused immense pressure on food security and incomes of urban and peri-urban dwellers. This is exacerbated by low wages paid to both public servants and those employed in the private sector, even though recent reports suggest an expansion of the middle class. In order to meet these needs, there has been an expansion of urban and peri-urban agriculture to produce 15-20% of food consumed globally."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The major driver for this type of agriculture appears to be the need to meet individual household food requirements and as an income generating activity by selling to other urban dwellers. However, the individual urban farmers´ motives relates to domestic and export markets as well as to the organization of various value chains. Also, the balance between, and importance of, UPA for income generation and subsistence of food varies by gender, wealth and area of residence. Obviously, the issues for UPA also vary by these settings."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"There is limited information about the contribution of UPA to the export market."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"The importance of UPA cannot be overlooked. Farmers are engaged in various enterprises involving crops (especially fruits and horticulture crops), dairy and small ruminants, pigs, poultry as well as aquaculture."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Products from these enterprises provide urban dwellers with more food that is also of a higher nutritious quality to meet their health and growth requirements. Furthermore, UPA improves a household's security in times of uncertainty through having access to more stable food sources."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"While each of these enterprises comes with their own opportunities, the challenges facing production systems have also been clearly identified. Specifically, they include chemical and microbial hazards in horticulture diseases of livestock, shortage or unavailability of low cost feed products, lack of technological knowledge on various aspects of aquaculture production, as well as environmental and health concerns arising from poor waste management systems, to mention a few."},{"index":7,"size":110,"text":"Land access remains a major factor in urban and peri-urban production systems with a clear gender dimension and the uncertainty of land rights is an obstacle for longterm farming strategies. Land is becoming largely expensive and unavailable, leaving it to the rich who use it for capital developments and not agriculture. There is a need therefore to use intensification methods where more is produced from less land. This calls for use of fertilizers in crop production to increase land productivity as well as intensified poultry, piggery, small ruminant animal and dairy production methods; for example, the use of crop wastes to feed animals makes for a more efficient UPA system."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"Environmental and human health concerns take centre stage and have been a source of conflict between city authorities and urban farmers. Several of the current farming and handling practices contribute to negative environmental externalities."},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"Similarly, there are many diseases and pathogenic agents that can find their way into the food chain and cause harm to humans, for example via vegetables, eggs and milk. Hence, it is crucial to further explore the options to reverse the negative environmental impact and how to control the spread of pathogens in UPA."},{"index":10,"size":57,"text":"Consequently, waste management has also been raised as an important area that needs to be addressed. All of these production systems generate waste and wastewater that is not fully collected and treated, resulting in major impacts on the environment and health. There is need to develop low cost and simple treatment systems resulting in safe end products."}]},{"head":"i. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Ghana 28","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The majority of farming in the urban areas in Accra is located away from the house, 22% of it on highly insecure public spaces with eviction risk, whereas in the transition areas, farming is predominantly done in homestead gardens, with less commercial focus."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"Vegetable and maize production is the most important production system in urban Accra, with a smaller percentage of the producers growing staples or keeping small livestock. Crops produced by the respondents in peri-urban areas are mainly staples (maize, cassava, plantain and pineapple), while over a quarter of the respondents keep sheep and goats and/or poultry for commercial purposes. Livestock production is more dominant in the peri-urban areas as the free-ranging system of animal rearing can more easily be practiced there, while on the other hand theft and restrictive city bye-laws limit livestock keeping in urban areas. Farming plots range from very small plots (1 m2) to very large plots of 10 hectares or even larger. Nearly half (42%) of the first and second plots reported were less than 500 m2 with about 70% of plots smaller than 8000 m2. Farm sizes generally increase along the urbanperi-urban transect. A key enabler for developing the Nairobi Urban Agriculture Promotion and Regulation Act has been strong civil society activity over a sustained period of time, which led to a groundswell of community and media support and the establishment of trusting relationships with civil servants. This bottom-up pressure and preparatory work made the promotion of urban agriculture a powerful idea that captured the public imagination, and was critical for generating political commitment to promote and regulate urban agriculture once a conducive institutional environment was established."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"The policy process was participatory, involving NGOs and consultations with urban farmers, the latter having been empowered to defend their interests by being helped to organize into a collective lobbying group and through training."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Supportive civil servants who had been re-assigned to Nairobi's new agriculture department, as well as some politicians, served as champions for the policy through the County Assembly."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"While delivery is still in its early stages, it will be enabled by measures to educate civil servants within the city government and to break down prejudices around urban agriculture, as well as by drawing on the experiences of other cities to demonstrate the value -and improve the safety -of urban agriculture."},{"index":6,"size":133,"text":"Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Dakar, Senegal 30 In Senegal, 60% of the country's vegetable consumption and 65 % of its poultry consumption comes from the city of Dakar. Within the city itself, 60% of the milk consumed originated from urban and peri-urban farmers.  In particular, the lack of suitable land and water presents a major challenge to the long-term sustainability of UPA in Dakar. With the reduction of urban agricultural space and a decline in the supply and quality of ground and surface water, more intensive technologies-irrigation networks, drip irrigation and trailer pumps, etc.-are becoming increasingly necessary, which could further drive up costs of production and reduce profitability. The current challenges associated with land and water resources will become increasingly acute as urbanization pressures and climate change intensify in the coming decades."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"The socio-economic importance of UPA in the Dakar region is linked to the fact that 200 000-250 000 people derive a portion of their income from market-garden farming (Fall et al., 2003)  al., 2011; Di Falco and Marcella, 2012)."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"There is a need to create dialogue between the various actors-farmers, policy makers, financial institutions and researchers-in order to find relevant and operational strategies for funding UPA."},{"index":9,"size":93,"text":"The practice of urban or peri-urban agriculture is undertaken even when there is considerable instability of residence, in fact, in the case of Nairobi for example which has some of the highest levels of instability of the four cities examined in a RUAF study of urban agriculture including Accra, Bangalore and Lima (Prain G.  and Dubbeling M. 2011), farming may be the stable factor in the livelihoods of many households, continuing to be practiced on public spaces or other off-site locations even as they need to relocate to other leased or squatted accommodation."},{"index":10,"size":80,"text":"Nevertheless, though the practice of agriculture seems to provide some stability to households with unstable residence, plots themselves, especially in urban areas of Nairobi and Accra, are without secure tenancy and significant numbers of producers identify a risk of eviction. Nevertheless, large numbers continue to farm even under these circumstances, which indicates its central importance for the livelihoods of these poor households. With stronger policy support to increase security of tenure there could well be greater investment and higher productivity."},{"index":11,"size":75,"text":"Floriculture is increasingly gaining ground in urban and peri-urban Dakar. Since producers often do not have access to land, they squat on lands adjacent to major roads and in residential quarters. Floriculture is an important informal activity occurring in unclaimed areas with thick vegetative cover, which contrast sharply with the relative desert landscape of urban Dakar. These sites are better maintained compared to public green spaces that the municipal authorities struggle to keep and maintain4."},{"index":12,"size":25,"text":"To counter risks of flooding, flower producers have developed raised earthen platforms and have resorted to filling soils with gravel in order to improve drainage."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"Non-soil micro-market gardening is beginning to emerge in the Dakar area due to the unavailability of land."},{"index":14,"size":95,"text":"Practised by women and young people, it consists of growing crops in prefabricated containers (boxes, small wooden tables or basins) covered with a plastic layer and containing macro-enriched water and mineral oligo-elements or an inert solid bedrock composed of gravel, rice balls or groundnut shells (Mandiany, 2002). Micro-gardening practices also include growing vegetables in wooden boxes with liquid nutrients with or without bedrocks. Micro-gardening is a way of popularising gardening in urban households, though it is currently in an experimental phase and there have been no estimates of its potential to address household food needs."}]},{"head":"Policy support for urban and peri-urban farming","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The Participatory Urban Agriculture Project in Quito, Ecuador 32 The Enabling urban agriculture through constitutional change and civil society activism in Nairobi, Kenya. 34 Like many East African cities, urban agriculture has been practised by many poor residents of Nairobi since the late 1970s and 1980s. Yet, for many years, the city government vigorously opposed it and farmers' efforts to feed their families were regularly disrupted by law enforcers on public health and land ownership grounds. The Nairobi Urban Agriculture Promotion and Regulation Act 2015 represents a major reversal in municipal attitudes to urban food production."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"By training farmers, ensuring their access to organic waste disposal, developing marketing infrastructure and monitoring and regulating quality and hygiene standards, the Nairobi City Council has been able to boost food security in the city, promote job creation and value chain development, protect food safety and environmental health and regulate access to land and other resources."}]},{"head":"The Caribbean 35","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"A FAO study has confirmed that UPA is widespread in the region. It is practised, for example, by 40% of households in Cuba, and 20% in Saint Lucia. 36 In Haiti, 260 ha of land in and around Port-au-Prince and other towns are cultivated by 25 500 families. Among capital cities, the \"greenest\" is Havana, where 90 000 residents are engaged in some form of agriculture, whether backyard gardening or working in the city's commercial gardens and on livestock farms."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Urban agriculture in the region encompasses a wide range of activities suited to small spaces, from backyard vegetable gardening to intensive production of flowers and the raising of small animals for eggs and meat. School gardens and backyard family horticulture are the dominant forms of urban food production. Family gardens are common in urban areas of Cuba and in most Caribbean countries. They produce eggplant and okra in Antigua and Barbuda, carrots and coriander in Tegucigalpa, broccoli and quinoa in Quito, and spinach and strawberries on Bolivia's altiplano."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Urban farmers come from all age groups and walks of life. But most are from low-income households, and they take up farming as a means of reducing their spending on food and making extra income from sales."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"The main benefit, however, was improved access to food. Urban food producers and their families enjoyed a more diverse diet than other urban dwellers, and were more likely to consume fruit and vegetables regularly. Women are the driving force behind urban agriculture in many countries, and particularly in the Caribbean. A high proportion of urban farming families are female-headed: 86 % in Haiti and 70 % in Belize City. The main challenge facing farmers in the cities was lack of space, followed by the poor quality of soils and the unreliability of water supplies. For those interested in producing bigger surpluses for sale, the main constraints were the high cost of inputs, the lack of quality seed, and the unavailability of credit needed for buying tools and processing equipment. But higher yields were no guarantee of higher earnings -most producers had very limited access to markets."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"A strong trend in many UPA programmes in Latin America and the Caribbean is toward agricultural technologies and practices that produce more, and better quality, food while optimizing the use of natural resources and reducing reliance on agrochemicals."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"In Havana, the use of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide is prohibited by law. To keep soil healthy, the UPA programme provides green manure and vermicompost, and links gardeners to sources of manure, household wastes and agroindustrial residues for making compost."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Havana's gardens are so productive and cost-efficient that the national Ministry of Agriculture promotes agro-ecological production in rural areas as well."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"Many people practising UPA for home consumption also sell surpluses. The proportion of \"commercial producers\" was 26 % in Antigua and Barbuda, 40 % in Cuba, and 68 % in Dominican Republic. Cities with successful UPA programmes usually have well-organized marketing systems."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"Havana has fruit and vegetables sales points located within 5 km of production units and throughout the city's urban neighbourhoods, where producers sell directly to consumers."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"In 2013, sales amounted to 26 500 tonnes."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"Many urban and peri-urban farmers have been tapped as suppliers of institutional feeding programmes."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"In Havana, UPA provided in 2013 some 6 700 tonnes of food to almost 300 000 people in schools, public health centres, hospitals and other institutions in the city."}]},{"head":"i. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Havana, Cuba","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":349,"text":"The total area under agriculture in Havana is estimated at some 35 900 ha, or half the area of Havana Province. Production in 2012 included 63 000 tonnes of vegetables, 20 000 tonnes of fruit, 10 000 tonnes of roots and tubers, 10.5 million litres of cow, buffalo and goat milk and 1 700 tonnes of meat. In addition, 89 000 backyards and 5 100 plots of less than 800 sq m are used by families in the city to grow fruit, vegetables and condiments and to raise small animals, such as poultry and guinea pigs, for household consumption. In densely populated areas, food is produced in containers on rooftops and balconies. In all, some 90 000 Havana residents are engaged in some form of agriculture. Product marketing is based on direct exchange between the producer and the consumer. Fresh produce is marketed through a wide range of outlets, including sales points located within 5 km of production units and throughout Havana's urban neighbourhoods. In 2013, sales amounted to 58 000 tonnes. Almost half of that -26 500 tonnes -was sold to the public through local sales points, while state markets and fairs handled 21 000 tonnes. A further 6 770 tonnes were supplied through daily deliveries to almost 300 000 people in \"priority destinations\", such as schools, maternity homes, public health centres, hospitals and other institutions in the city. Many farmers, especially in the cooperative sector, market processed products, such as spices, and processed meats, fruit and vegetables, and have supply contracts with the tourist industry, which accounted for 3 500 tonnes of sales made in 2013. Innovations such as organoponics, along with technologies for the production of bio-fertilizers and the processing and conservation of seed, have been transferred abroad through technical assistance to urban agriculture programmes in more than 10 Latin American countries, including Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela and other countries of the Caribbean. The Ministry of Agriculture's national Institute of Fundamental Research in Tropical Agriculture (Inifat) has developed a three-year master's degree course in urban and peri-urban agriculture that has attracted students from Europe and Japan."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"ii. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Antigua and Barbuda"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Backyard gardens accounted for about 280 tonnes, or 7 % of the country's vegetable production."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"Another 620 tonnes came from peri-urban vegetable growers who have expanded their acreages and, thanks to the use of improved seed, integrated pest management and packaging, are supplying lettuce, spinach and other high-value crops to hotels and supermarkets, and making high-volume sales in public markets."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Home vegetable production is also seen as a food security bulwark in case of extreme weather events. When Hurricane Earl struck Antigua in August 2010, flooding \"drowned\" large fields of vegetables in rural areas and caused crop losses of around 20 %. However, backyard production was not significantly affected, since home gardens are smaller in size, more intensively managed and quick to regenerate."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"Total annual vegetable production has shown an increasing trend over the last 5 years. In 2010 there was a decline in production caused by the effects of hurricane on the Agricultural sector. In the same year however, production from UPA / backyard was not significantly affected as the home gardens are smaller in size, more manageable and quick to regenerate. Since 2008, UPA / backyard production as increased steadily due mainly to the expansion of the participant base across all parishes , which now include the religious organizations, community groups, para-military services and the schools. Lawyers, doctors, pilots, accountant, nurses, civil servant, businessmen, house wife and others in the program."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"In Antigua and Barbuda, there is no class distinction as to participation in the home-based food production and no issue of gender. But in reality, there are more women participants. Home-based production was dominated by females; they outnumbered their male counterparts by more than 3:1 ratio."},{"index":8,"size":64,"text":"The gardens are used to grow traditional local vegetables, such as eggplant, cucumbers, okra, thyme and chives, as well as tropical crops that are also imported, such as tomatoes, carrots, sweet peppers, onions and cabbage. Most vegetables are consumed fresh, with little or no processing, although hot peppers are often sundried or refrigerated, okra and spinach are blanched, and fruit is processed into drinks."},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"The amount of land being used for backyard gardening cannot be easily quantified. Most gardens are very small, ranging from 1 to 10 sq m, and many producers grow vegetables in recycled containers of various shapes and sizes. However, using an average productivity coefficient, the Extension Division calculates that urban and peri-urban gardening occupies a land area equivalent to about 20 ha."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"Of the 2 500 households engaged in backyard gardening, more than twothirds consume most of what they grow, and give some away to friends, colleagues and neighbours. The main benefits are savings on food purchases, and improved household nutritional status. Around 650 also use their gardens as a source of income, by selling produce at local markets and shops."},{"index":11,"size":41,"text":"Home production has also created jobs in the processing of produce into sauces, jams and jellies the production of seedlings, and grafting trees. As well as promoting vegetable gardening, the Extension Division encourages poultry keeping in schools and apiculture in backyards."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"Currently, UPA produce is divided up by how it is used:"},{"index":13,"size":19,"text":"-Cash sales at the local markets and shops in the communities. This is a source of income to participants."},{"index":14,"size":9,"text":"-Home-based consumption which contributes to improved nutrition of families."},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"-Gifts and donations among families and friends at workplace as well as within the communities."},{"index":16,"size":56,"text":"It The results of the study by Prain  G. and Dubbeling M. (2011) show that the advantage of agriculture in combining with other occupations also enables producers to benefit from more diversified income sources reducing vulnerability and enhancing the economic resilience of low income households, even if producers do not obviously benefit from overall higher incomes."},{"index":17,"size":95,"text":"Among the most pressing challenges faced by urban and peri-urban producers is urban expansion itself, which has already led to considerable conversion and disappearance of peri-urban cropland. Recent projections show that, by 2030, urban expansion will result in a 1.8%-2.4% loss of global croplands, albeit with substantial regional differences. About 80% of global cropland loss from urban expansions projected to take place in Asia and Africa (especially in China, Nigeria, and Egypt). 41 In both Asia and Africa, much of the cropland that will be lost is more than twice as productive as national averages."},{"index":18,"size":59,"text":"By 2030, projections also show a 3%-4% decrease in agricultural production, 80% of which will be in Africa and Asia. Managing the expanding boundaries of cities into peri-urban areas should therefore be given greater policy attention in some areas, especially when they could provide opportunities for intensive agriculture that would contribute high-nutrient-quality (fresh, perishable) foods to adjacent urban markets."},{"index":19,"size":70,"text":"There are several ways urban local governments can facilitate local food production, which is compatible with surrounding uses. 42 Municipalities around the world are increasingly incorporating land use for urban and peri-urban agriculture in their city planning. However, the contribution of urban food production to total food consumption remains very small. Finding ways to scale up production and productivity represents both a challenge and an opportunity in the decades ahead."},{"index":20,"size":13,"text":"Ideally, governments and policies should identify their priority goals when promoting urban agriculture. "}]},{"head":"Priorities for policymakers include:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"-Developing land use policies to enable urban and peri-urban agriculture to be recognised as an important use of land and viable economic activity, and promoting its integration into national and local agricultural development strategies, food and nutrition programmes and urban planning. 43 -Ensuring that water supplies used for agricultural production are not contaminated by urban run-off or poorly managed sanitation systems."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"-Identifying ways to incorporate private organisations in strategic planning and in achieving common goals."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Many urban agriculture policies still mainly focus on urban and periurban food production for reasons of food security, while commercial urban agriculture, agro-processing and value addition activities are often not well addressed (Dubbeling and Pasquini 2010). Though general agricultural policies and plans do focus on articulating production with (urban) markets, these aspects are dealt with in a general way and do not differentiate different types of production systems, such as rural, peri-urban and intra-urban. They therefore easily underestimate the contribution of urban and periurban production to income and employment generation."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Urban policies need to acknowledge the role of urban and peri-urban agriculture in urban development, ensure urban food supply and strengthen livelihoods of poor urban producers. This includes removing barriers and providing incentives for urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) as well as improving natural resource management in urban and peri-urban areas."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"In order to be sustainable and attract youth, the sector needs further enterprise development and entrepreneurial skills development, improved processing and marketing capacity, access to finance, identification of lucrative markets (i.e. organic…)."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"There is a need for capacity building of producers' organisations in order to professionalise the sector as well as facilitating access to land for urban production. Even when the urban farmers are not the owners of the land, they should feel encouraged through medium-to long-term investment strategies as contributors of multifunctional green infrastructure of the cities."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Food safety issues and traceability are key for all the actors of the chain and the end consumers."},{"index":8,"size":107,"text":"Increased recognition of the role that food can/does play in responding to various urban sustainability concerns provides new market and engagement opportunities for the private sector. Private sector players can fulfil an important role in speeding up and implementing scalable urban food system innovations. Because of their large consumer markets, more direct consumer relations, and close collaboration between various players in the food supply chain, city regions offer traditional and new private sector players some unique opportunities. 44 The greatest impact is achieved when a food system approach is advocated and support is provided to the entire network of city region producers, wholesalers, processors, caterers and shopkeepers."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"Integration with other sectors (logistics, recycling, urban planning) and various innovations in food production and marketing will drive the biggest change. 45 -To feed growing cities in a sustainable way, both public and private actors need to speed up design and implementation of innovative food system strategies at a city region scale."},{"index":10,"size":38,"text":"-Business opportunities exist in traditional food services (production, processing, retail), and increasingly also in resource recycling, development of new products and services, and technological innovations. This generates new opportunities for urban-and rural-based water, energy and other nonfood sectors."},{"index":11,"size":35,"text":"-Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) seem to have the highest potential for supplying city region markets and providing or sourcing city region products, while at the same time ensuring local job creation and social inclusion."},{"index":12,"size":39,"text":"-Local small-scale farmers and SMEs need to be supported in adopting specific business strategies to be competitive, through product aggregation, sharing of infrastructure and resources, pooling of consumer demand, and/ or integration of their products into mainstream distribution channels."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"- Up-to-date information on food supply sources, retail market and consumption trends is necessary."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"Businesses also need better knowledge of the availability of local products, the businesses that can help them with sourcing and support for these practices."},{"index":15,"size":112,"text":"Consumer awareness and education are also needed on the benefits of city region food supply. Catering certification schemes are proven mechanisms for driving systemic change. In order to enhance impact in various domains, it is important that -beyond provenance criteria -emphasis is given to aspects of health, social justice and inclusion, regional and youth employment and environmental sustainability. 47 In policy terms, there has been a call for greater recognition to be given to urban agriculture. In June 2013, the COST Action project issued the Barcelona Declaration71 on Urban Agriculture and the CAP. This made the point that urban agriculture had been largely neglected in Europe's policies and especially in the CAP."}]},{"head":"It had neither been institutionalised","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"within the EU administration level nor within the Member States. As a consequence, the declaration asked for a 'stronger consideration of urban agriculture' and its recognition as a 'driving force for innovation…'. Looking to the future, it remains to be seen how the current modernisation and simplification of the CAP and the ongoing discussions on the future of cohesion policy post-2020 will impact on future prospects for urban agriculture in Europe. A key challenge for urban agriculture is how to achieve the necessary integration across all EU policy areas. 48 "}]},{"head":"Monitoring of interventions","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"It would be important to monitor the impacts of the various proposed policy measures once they are put in place. The goals set for urban agriculture development in the various policy documents and plans should be regularly monitored to see if targets are achieved and to adjust intervention strategies were necessary."}]},{"head":"Glossary","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Aeroponics: the growing of plants by suspending their roots in the air and spraying them with nutrient solutions Allotment: A legally fixed form of (here: urban) gardens, tended individually by plot holders and their families Aquaponics: A system combining aquaculture and cultivation of plants in water Backyard garden: A private garden that could include balconies or terrace gardening."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Building integrated agriculture (BIA): the practice of locating high performance hydroponic greenhouse farming systems on and in mixed use buildings to exploit synergies between the built environment and agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Commercial Urban Farm: land used for agricultural purposes within an urban area from which the resulting products are sold for profit Community garden: Any piece of land (publicly or privately held) that is cultivated by a group of people rather than a single family or individual."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Community Farm: land gardened collectively by people for personal use, donation or sale."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Container Garden : plants grown in vessels rather than directly in the ground."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Farmer's Market : two or more farmer-producers that sell their own agricultural products directly to the general public at a fixed location, which includes fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, poultry, dairy products, and grains."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"Greenhouse: a building or structure whose roof and sides are made largely of glass or other transparent or translucent material and in which the temperature and humidity can be regulated for the cultivation of plants for personal use and/or for subsequent sale. A greenhouse may or may not be a permanent structure."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"Hoophouse or High Tunnel: high tunnels, also called high hoops or hoop houses, are temporary structures that extend the growing season. These covered structures are constructed in the field in order to protect crops from the weather (rain, wind, cool or warm temperatures), as well as in some cases, pests."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"Hydroponics: A method of growing plants without soil, using mineral solutions in a water solvent."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"Indoor farming: Often done to foster a controlled environment for whatever plants are being grown."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"It is a great method for growing all year all year around and hydroponics is often employed."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"LED Farming: The use of lightemitting diode technologies to support indoor farming."},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"Peri-urban: of or relating to an area immediately surrounding a city or town."},{"index":14,"size":84,"text":"Passive hydroponics: semihydroponics or passive subirrigation is a method of growing plants without soil, peat moss, or bark. Instead an inert porous medium transports water and fertilizer to the roots by capillary action. Water and fertilizer are held in a reservoir and conducted to the roots as necessary, reducing labor and providing a constant supply of water to the roots. In the simplest method, the pot sits in a shallow solution of fertilizer and water or on a capillary mat saturated with nutrient solution."},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":"Since routine maintenance is much simplified, passive hydroponics can reduce the labor required to maintain a large collection of plants."},{"index":16,"size":16,"text":"Permaculture: a method of horticulture that utilizes renewable resources in order to create a selfsustaining ecosystem."},{"index":17,"size":67,"text":"Rooftop farm/garden: A roof garden is a garden on the roof of a building. Besides the decorative benefit, roof plantings may provide food, temperature control, hydrological benefits, architectural enhancement, habitats or corridors for wildlife, recreational opportunities, and in large scale it may even have ecological benefits. Rooftop farming is usually done using green roof, hydroponics, aeroponicsor airdynaponics systems or container gardens. It is organised privately or collectively."},{"index":18,"size":19,"text":"Soil-less agriculture: broadly refers to, and is based on the concept that plants do not require soil to grow."},{"index":19,"size":16,"text":"A variety of methods are employed, all of them allowing for significant environmental benefits (see hydroponics)."},{"index":20,"size":23,"text":"Underground farm: a subset of BIA. This type of farm is located belowgrade, usually in urban centres. These farms utilize no natural light."},{"index":21,"size":39,"text":"Urban agriculture/urban farming: the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around a village, town, or city. Urban agriculture can also involve animal husbandry, aquaculture, agroforestry, and horticulture. These activities also occur in peri-urban areas as well."},{"index":22,"size":42,"text":"Urban agricultural architecture (UAA): is the practice of integrating organic, hydroponic, aeroponic or aquaponic farming technologies into buildings of all types. An example can be as small as building a lean-to-greenhouse on a singlefamily home and using it as a kitchen garden."},{"index":23,"size":35,"text":"Urban/city farm: Within the city or urban fringe of a city, operated by innovative entrepreneurs or charity organisations. Can provide social or environmental services, such as training and school gardening, as well as food production."},{"index":24,"size":25,"text":"Vertical Farming : vertical farming is the practice of growing food and/or medicine in vertically stacked layers, vertically inclined surfaces and/or integrated in other structures."},{"index":25,"size":7,"text":"Sources: FAO, RUAF, Association for Vertical Farming."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Scope of urban agriculture (Source: Urban agriculture in Europe, 2017) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" 15   "},{"text":"Growing food in the cities: Successes and new opportunities 3.1.2. Initiatives supporting UA across EU   young farmers; support through the young farmers; support through the  Community-led local development Community-led local development  tool (CLLD), which can address the tool (CLLD), which can address the The European Commission recognises issue of urban -rural linkages. 17 The European Commission recognisesissue of urban -rural linkages. 17 that 'city farms' could have a positive  that 'city farms' could have a positive impact on the environment, though For its part, the European Economic impact on the environment, thoughFor its part, the European Economic this depends on the farming practices and Social Committee (EESC) this depends on the farming practicesand Social Committee (EESC) adopted. However, the EU rural has acknowledged the need for adopted. However, the EU ruralhas acknowledged the need for development policy over the period peri-urban areas across Europe development policy over the periodperi-urban areas across Europe 2007 to 2013 did not include any to be given social, political and 2007 to 2013 did not include anyto be given social, political and specific support for city farms, urban administrative recognition, at an specific support for city farms, urbanadministrative recognition, at an farms could be subject to support early stage. The EESC recognises farms could be subject to supportearly stage. The EESC recognises in the framework of that policy but the role such areas play in the in the framework of that policy butthe role such areas play in the only insofar as they were located relationship between city and only insofar as they were locatedrelationship between city and on land fulfilling the respective country, as well as the specific on land fulfilling the respectivecountry, as well as the specific eligibility criteria established by difficulties they face and that PUA eligibility criteria established bydifficulties they face and that PUA the Member States. These could presents unique characteristics the Member States. These couldpresents unique characteristics potentially include aid for activities which must be exploited to the full potentially include aid for activitieswhich must be exploited to the full such as modernisation of agricultural such as the proximity to consumer such as modernisation of agriculturalsuch as the proximity to consumer holdings, development of new markets, growing demand for food holdings, development of newmarkets, growing demand for food products, processes and technologies quality and a social demand for new products, processes and technologiesquality and a social demand for new in the agricultural and food sector activities such as leisure, training, in the agricultural and food sectoractivities such as leisure, training, or for participation in food quality environmental education and or for participation in food qualityenvironmental education and schemes, as well as other forms ecotourism. schemes, as well as other formsecotourism. of aid, such as agri-environmental  of aid, such as agri-environmental measures. The Commission also C40 Food Systems Network, is a measures. The Commission alsoC40 Food Systems Network, is a confirmed in August 2012 that network of the world's megacities confirmed in August 2012 thatnetwork of the world's megacities support to urban farms was available committed to addressing climate support to urban farms was availablecommitted to addressing climate under both pillars of the CAP so change. C40 supports cities to under both pillars of the CAP sochange. C40 supports cities to long as the eligibility conditions collaborate effectively, share long as the eligibility conditionscollaborate effectively, share were met. The Commission has also knowledge and drive meaningful, were met. The Commission has alsoknowledge and drive meaningful, acknowledged that urban farming measurable and sustainable action acknowledged that urban farmingmeasurable and sustainable action could contribute to the objectives on climate change. could contribute to the objectiveson climate change. of sustainable development in an  of sustainable development in an area, so long as the principles of  area, so long as the principles of sustainable farming were followed.  sustainable farming were followed. Agriculture and Rural Development  Agriculture and Rural Development Commissioner, Phil Hogan, has  Commissioner, Phil Hogan, has also indicated that the operations  also indicated that the operations funded within the rural development  funded within the rural development programmes 2014-2020 could  programmes 2014-2020 could be used for the benefit of UA or  be used for the benefit of UA or PUA. These include: support to  PUA. These include: support to investments in agricultural holdings;  investments in agricultural holdings; agri-environmental measures;  agri-environmental measures; organic farming; quality schemes;  organic farming; quality schemes; co-operation actions, including  co-operation actions, including assistance towards involvement  assistance towards involvement in short supply chains; LEADER-  in short supply chains; LEADER- type projects; 16 support for fruit  type projects; 16 support for fruit and vegetable growers through  and vegetable growers through producer organisations; support for  producer organisations; support for  "},{"text":"The WHO European Healthy Cities Network consists  collected and made accessible online contributing to food security, job tourism, social care, kindergarten 3.1.3. Regionalization processes a political declaration and a set of research and innovation, in several working sessions and collected and made accessible online contributing to food security, jobtourism, social care, kindergarten 3.1.3. Regionalization processesa political declaration and a set of research and innovation, in several working sessions and in an Atlas of Urban Agriculture creation, environmental quality farms or nursery-school. strategic goals. The overarching goal international cooperation, etc...); produced a statement acquiring in an Atlas of Urban Agriculture creation, environmental qualityfarms or nursery-school.strategic goals. The overarching goal international cooperation, etc...); produced a statement acquiring Europe. or strengthening social ties and In October 2009, representatives of the current Phase VI (2014-2018) on advocacy to different European the recommendations of the Pact Europe. or strengthening social ties andIn October 2009, representativesof the current Phase VI (2014-2018) on advocacy to different European the recommendations of the Pact territorial solidarity between urban Eurocities is the main European of city governments, ministries of is implementing Health 2020 at the DGs (food and health, regional helping them to keep on working territorial solidarity between urbanEurocities is the main European of city governments, ministries ofis implementing Health 2020 at the DGs (food and health, regional helping them to keep on working The COST project's working and rural areas. According to the cities association, founded in 1986 agriculture, research institutes, NGOs local level. development, R&I, agriculture, on African specific challenges. Next The COST project's working and rural areas. According to thecities association, founded in 1986 agriculture, research institutes, NGOslocal level. development, R&I, agriculture, on African specific challenges. Next group 'Entrepreneurial models of FAO, a paradigm shift in both by the mayors of six large cities: and international organizations international cooperation); on forums will be organized by FAO in group 'Entrepreneurial models of FAO, a paradigm shift in bothby the mayors of six large cities: and international organizationsinternational cooperation); on forums will be organized by FAO in urban agriculture' involving some agricultural policies and urban Barcelona, Birmingham, Frankfurt, from 12 countries in Latin America The following two strategic goals of knowledge sharing during workshop 2018 in Durban (South Africa) and by urban agriculture' involving some agricultural policies and urbanBarcelona, Birmingham, Frankfurt, from 12 countries in Latin AmericaThe following two strategic goals of knowledge sharing during workshop 2018 in Durban (South Africa) and by 26 scientists, found that a range planning is nevertheless required Lyon, Milan and Rotterdam. It and the Caribbean met in Medellín, Health 2020 provide the overarching and meetings (Brussels, Birmingham, Italian NGOs in 2019 in Ouagadougou 26 scientists, found that a range planning is nevertheless requiredLyon, Milan and Rotterdam. It and the Caribbean met in Medellín,Health 2020 provide the overarching and meetings (Brussels, Birmingham, Italian NGOs in 2019 in Ouagadougou of business strategies had been in order to ensure the optimal is composed by 51 European Colombia, to develop strategies for umbrella of Phase VI: Valencia, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Tel (Burkina Faso) and Niamey (Niger). of business strategies had been in order to ensure the optimalis composed by 51 European Colombia, to develop strategies forumbrella of Phase VI: Valencia, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Tel (Burkina Faso) and Niamey (Niger). adopted by the initiatives they development and the sustainability cities. It brings together the reducing high rates of urban poverty Aviv). adopted by the initiatives they development and the sustainabilitycities. It brings together the reducing high rates of urban povertyAviv). examined. The strategies identified of this activity. local governments of over 140 and food insecurity across the -improving health for all and examined. The strategies identified of this activity.local governments of over 140 and food insecurity across the-improving health for all and included those based on: (i) cost of Europe's largest cities and region. They met as many countries reducing health inequities; and MADRE (Metropolitan Agriculture included those based on: (i) costof Europe's largest cities and region. They met as many countriesreducing health inequities; and MADRE (Metropolitan Agriculture reduction, (ii) differentiation, (iii) The MADRE project capitalises on a over 45 partner cities, that were emerging slowly from the for Developing an innovative, reduction, (ii) differentiation, (iii) The MADRE project capitalises on aover 45 partner cities, that were emerging slowly from thefor Developing an innovative, diversification, (iv) shared economy, set of knowledge, policies and pilot between them govern 130 million effects of global fuel and food price -improving leadership and sustainable and Responsible diversification, (iv) shared economy, set of knowledge, policies and pilotbetween them govern 130 million effects of global fuel and food price-improving leadership and sustainable and Responsible and (v) experiment and experience. actions carried out on the topic and citizens across 39 countries. inflation, which had pushed the participatory governance for Economy) is a European territorial and (v) experiment and experience. actions carried out on the topic andcitizens across 39 countries. inflation, which had pushed theparticipatory governance for Economy) is a European territorial Many cases were found where activate existing networks to enable cost of living beyond the resources health. cooperation project (Interreg Many cases were found where activate existing networks to enablecost of living beyond the resourceshealth. cooperation project (Interreg elements of more than one of effective transnational cooperation in The objective is to reinforce of many of the region's 160 million MED), which aims to change elements of more than one of effective transnational cooperation inThe objective is to reinforce of many of the region's 160 millionMED), which aims to change these strategies were used. These the Mediterranean. The objectives are: the important role that local urban poor. The Medellín meeting Both strategic goals reinforce the the metropolitan food supply these strategies were used. These the Mediterranean. The objectives are:the important role that local urban poor. The Medellín meetingBoth strategic goals reinforce the the metropolitan food supply findings demonstrate how urban governments should play in a proposed a new agenda for an urban strong standing commitment of model by capitalising on existing findings demonstrate how urbangovernments should play in a proposed a new agenda for an urbanstrong standing commitment of model by capitalising on existing agriculture has to adjust to the urban -To improve the innovation capacity multilevel governance structure the transition toward social inclusion, the WHO European Network to good practices, by empowering agriculture has to adjust to the urban -To improve the innovation capacitymultilevel governance structure the transition toward social inclusion,the WHO European Network to good practices, by empowering environments. Some businesses of metropolitan agriculture in the debate around food and cities is improved quality of life, equity and addressing equity and the social the different stakeholders in environments. Some businesses of metropolitan agriculture in thedebate around food and cities is improved quality of life, equity andaddressing equity and the social the different stakeholders in build on existing opportunities, Mediterranean territories; particularly dynamic and focused. sustainability. Its Medellín Declaration determinants of health and striving metropolitan and peri-urban build on existing opportunities, Mediterranean territories;particularly dynamic and focused. sustainability. Its Medellín Declarationdeterminants of health and striving metropolitan and peri-urban such as proximity to customers. urged national, state and local to improve governance for health agriculture, and by initiating a such as proximity to customers.urged national, state and localto improve governance for health agriculture, and by initiating a Others are able to differentiate their -To identify and evaluate the The Eurocities Working Group Food governments to incorporate urban and promote health in all policies. dynamic of transnational cooperation Others are able to differentiate their -To identify and evaluate theThe Eurocities Working Group Food governments to incorporate urbanand promote health in all policies. dynamic of transnational cooperation products from the main markets by economic, environmental and was established as a 'creative hub' and peri-urban agriculture, or in the MED region. products from the main markets by economic, environmental andwas established as a 'creative hub' and peri-urban agriculture, orin the MED region. distinguishing their product features social performance factors of for sharing information, ideas, good UPA, into their programmes for Phase VI is supported by Health distinguishing their product features social performance factors offor sharing information, ideas, good UPA, into their programmes forPhase VI is supported by Health from others, building on their direct metropolitan agriculture; practices and experimenting with eradicating hunger and poverty, 2020. Considered as an emerging from others, building on their direct metropolitan agriculture;practices and experimenting with eradicating hunger and poverty,2020. Considered as an emerging links to the consumer. Urban farms innovative solutions related to urban ensuring food and nutrition security, phenomenon, metropolitan links to the consumer. Urban farmsinnovative solutions related to urban ensuring food and nutrition security,phenomenon, metropolitan can diversify their business by -To identify and network food. It also focuses on priority EU promoting local development and COST is an EU-funded programme agriculture makes it possible to can diversify their business by -To identify and networkfood. It also focuses on priority EU promoting local development andCOST is an EU-funded programme agriculture makes it possible to offering services for example: agro-metropolitan agriculture calls for cities (policy development, improving the urban environment. enabling researchers to set up meet several urban challenges by offering services for example: agro-metropolitan agriculturecalls for cities (policy development, improving the urban environment.enabling researchers to set up meet several urban challenges by stakeholders;  interdisciplinary research networks in stakeholders;interdisciplinary research networks in  In 2016 the Dakar Forum was held in Europe and beyond. A COST action In 2016 the Dakar Forum was held inEurope and beyond. A COST action -To assess the feasibility, Senegal. The forum was attended by (or 'COST project') funded under this -To assess the feasibility,Senegal. The forum was attended by(or 'COST project') funded under this conditions and means of creating six West African cities of the Pact: programme ran from 2012 to 2016. conditions and means of creatingsix West African cities of the Pact:programme ran from 2012 to 2016. a transnational cluster of actors in Dakar, Abidjan, Brazzaville, Douala, Its publication, Urban Agriculture a transnational cluster of actors inDakar, Abidjan, Brazzaville, Douala,Its publication, Urban Agriculture of cities around Figure 3: Distribution of COST Urban Agriculture Europe projects metropolitan agriculture. N'Djamena, Nouakchott and the Europe, is the first comprehensive of cities around Figure 3: Distribution of COST Urban Agriculture Europe projects metropolitan agriculture. N'Djamena, Nouakchott and theEurope, is the first comprehensive the WHO European Region that are (Source: Urban agriculture in Europe, 2017) city of Milan. Cities were engaged trans-disciplinary publication on the the WHO European Region that are (Source: Urban agriculture in Europe, 2017) city of Milan. Cities were engagedtrans-disciplinary publication on the  committed to health and sustainable subject in Europe. committed to health and sustainablesubject in Europe.  development: nearly 100 cities and  development: nearly 100 cities and  towns from 30 countries. Healthy A pan-European network involving towns from 30 countries. HealthyA pan-European network involving  Cities is a global movement, with academics and professionals in the Cities is a global movement, withacademics and professionals in the  networks established in all six WHO areas of urban development and networks established in all six WHOareas of urban development and  regions. agriculture, its objective was to gain regions.agriculture, its objective was to gain   a deeper understanding of Europe's a deeper understanding of Europe's  They are also linked through national, different forms of urban agriculture They are also linked through national,different forms of urban agriculture  regional, metropolitan and thematic including its potential from a regional, metropolitan and thematicincluding its potential from a  Healthy Cities networks. A city joins European perspective. The project Healthy Cities networks. A city joinsEuropean perspective. The project  the WHO European Healthy Cities visited seven places exemplary of the WHO European Healthy Citiesvisited seven places exemplary of  Network based on criteria that are Europe's urban agriculture. These Network based on criteria that areEurope's urban agriculture. These  renewed every five years. covered the urban regions of renewed every five years.covered the urban regions of   Barcelona, Dublin, Geneva, Milan, the Barcelona, Dublin, Geneva, Milan, the  Each five-year phase focuses on core Ruhr metropolis, Sofia and Warsaw. Each five-year phase focuses on coreRuhr metropolis, Sofia and Warsaw.  priority themes and is launched with More than 200 case studies were priority themes and is launched withMore than 200 case studies were  "},{"text":" 31   "},{"text":" Interventions and policy instruments by governments and the larger and international private sector can vary from direct technical and financial support to creating favourable business environments in the city region. Local/regional sourcing and procurement possess potential for support. These interventions should address environmental and social sustainability criteria.46     Mobilising public and private sector Mobilising public and private sector investment investment Support mechanisms include legal Support mechanisms include legal and regulatory instruments, setting and regulatory instruments, setting of procurement standards and of procurement standards and targets, zoning and agricultural targets, zoning and agricultural land protection. They also include land protection. They also include financial instruments (public or financial instruments (public or public-private investment funds, public-private investment funds, taxes, subsidies). Communication taxes, subsidies). Communication and education, direct implementation and education, direct implementation or support to urban food systems or support to urban food systems projects (like urban farmer projects (like urban farmer markets) and provision of business markets) and provision of business support services (granting access support services (granting access to land, markets, infrastructure; to land, markets, infrastructure; offering training and advice) are offering training and advice) are complementary strategies delivered complementary strategies delivered by many governments and larger by many governments and larger (inter)national private sector. (inter)national private sector. Governments and the larger Governments and the larger private sector can also generate private sector can also generate large buyer demand for city region large buyer demand for city region products through their own public products through their own public procurement. Further business procurement. Further business support would need to evolve support would need to evolve around the setting up and improving around the setting up and improving of separate or shared processing, of separate or shared processing, storage centres or food hubs, ICT storage centres or food hubs, ICT services, commercial and logistics services, commercial and logistics training. training.  "}],"sieverID":"b347eb6e-563a-45b6-ab4a-0cba74d3a93c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09eb07297be88bbfa966ef1a513372ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/35fd8e58-1772-4fb2-8cf8-53b5b2428666/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Methodology for Hardening Large Numbers of In Vitro Cassava Plants","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Tissue culture, a technique used to micropropagate plants, has been successfully applied in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) for the massive production of disease-free in vitro plants, increasing productivity and, in certain cases, improving longevity. In vitro micropropagation is successfully used to produce cassava plantlets free of pathogens associated to diseases such as frogskin, cassava mosaic, and bacterial blight. Traditional micropropagation has low multiplication rates, which can be improved by using more efficient multiplication systems such as the automated temporary immersion device known as RITA ® or other automated temporary immersion systems (ATIS) 8 ."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"After 6 to 11 months in sterilized rooms under artificial conditions of light, temperature, moisture, and nutrients, the plantlets produced by such systems are like test-tube babies-weak and unadapted. As a result, they need to undergo a stage of acclimatization or hardening before they can be transferred to their final site in the field. In cassava, this process is very delicate, constituting a bottleneck in the massive production of cassava planting materials by tissue culture techniques."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Hardening massive numbers of in vitro cassava plants inevitably incurs in loss of plantlets, mainly when these are moved from the artificial to the natural environment (soil) and must adapt to new microclimatic conditions. Where the transfer is not carried out using the appropriate technology, the percentage of loss is very high (between 50%-95%), which affects the crop's agronomic progress while increasing the costs of implementing this alternative technology. It also discourages progressive farmers who would otherwise rapidly and safely produce disease-free planting materials or massively produce a new promising variety over a short period of time."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Other drawbacks of the acclimatization process are the cost and size of the facilities needed, such as greenhouses and screenhouses. These two factors reduce the feasibility of applying this new technologyand other similar ones-which could have a significant impact on agricultural production."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Researchers from the Latin American and Caribbean Consortium to Support Cassava Research and Development (CLAYUCA, its Spanish acronym), in association with others of Biotechnology of Colombia Ltd. (Biotecol, its Spanish acronym) and CIAT, have developed a methodology that enables the massive production of cassava planting materials, also known as plantlets. In 2001, a large number of plants were produced using ATIS. Through efforts described below, a sustainable and economic technology for functional hardening was achieved, significantly minimizing the percentage of plantlet loss during the hardening process (HP)."}]},{"head":"Stages of the Hardening Process","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The six stages required for an efficient and successful HP are as follows:"}]},{"head":"Stage 1: Pre-operational activities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"A successful HP demands prior planning, which includes preparing a detailed timetable of all activities integrating the process: definition of who will carry it out; selection and adaptation of facilities; laboratory tests; purchase of equipment, materials, and inputs; and confirmation from the biotechnology laboratory of the number of in vitro plants that can be \"hardened\" per week. A good rule of thumb is that approximately 300 cassava plantlets can be hardened per square meter of useful area of greenhouse or screenhouse."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Human resources. Labor should be qualified; if not, personnel should at least receive training in basic aspects of the HP methodology. The number of workers required will depend on their experience and the number of plants entering the process. A novice worker can handle about 200 plants per day while an expert can handle up to 600 (see below, \"Preparing for Transplanting\")."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Facilities. Facilities usually consist of a work area and either a screenhouse or a greenhouse, sometimes both. Select the best of what is available, then make any necessary adaptations."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"The work area comprises a depot for soil and sand, a small storage shed to keep materials and inputs, a \"soil patio\" for mixing, and a cool site for transplanting; the latter should be protected from direct sunlight and strong winds and should also have a washing area and table . The screenhouse should be roofed and adapted for automatic climate control. Microsprays should be suspended either over the tables or from the roof as well as installed along the floor to control temperature and relative humidity, especially during the first days of the HP. Although plantlet development is favored by good light, this should not come directly from the morning, noon, or afternoon sun during the first 8 days of acclimatization."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"A protective screen can be installed, using one of the following options: (1) sheets of polystyrene foam covered with aluminum foil; (2) venetian blinds externally covered with aluminum foil; and (3) polypropylene meshing externally covered with several sheets of aluminum foil (each 30 cm wide) and separated at 5-cm intervals. So far, CIAT has found the third option to be the best."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"The protective screen should be highly functional, installed on the sides of the screenhouse facing East (sunrise) and West (sunset), at least 1 or 2 m above the tops of the bags containing the plantlets. The screen should be withdrawn gradually as the sun traces its path through the sky to let light enter the facility. The aluminum foil reflects the sun's rays and prevents the heating of the area where the plantlets are being hardened."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"The maximum temperature within a screenhouse fluctuates between 33 and 38 ºC, and the minimum between 18 and 22 ºC. For details on the design and construction of a CIAT screenhouse type II, consult Roca and Mroginski (1991)."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"The greenhouse should have an automatic microspray irrigation system installed, which is controlled by a solenoid valve and control clock. This type of system reduces the cost of labor needed to irrigate the plantlets by 90%."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"Both the screenhouse and greenhouse should have a space set aside to acclimatize transplanted plantlets, which can be increased by as much as three times as the plants grow for 2 or 3 months after transplanting. The degree of increase will depend on the cassava variety, its growth rate, and plant development."},{"index":10,"size":62,"text":"For example, 10,000 plants are needed to plant 1 hectare of cassava. CLAYUCA's HP methodology initially places 10,000 plantlets in an area of 25 to 35 m 2 in the screenhouse or greenhouse, depending on the size and type of bags used for transplanting. Two months after transplanting, these 10,000 plants will need an area of 50 to 70 m 2 ."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"Laboratory tests. To correct any potential problem, all soil, sand, and water to be used should be first submitted to chemical and biological analyses."},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"Equipment, materials, and inputs. The following elements are needed to acclimatize the cassava plantlets:"},{"index":13,"size":126,"text":"• Soil mill, sieve and mixer; sterilizer; fumigator; protective equipment for fumigation and pesticides • Test tubes, balance, flask washer, scissors, plastic or bamboo trays • Wide container (e.g., tray) with agar to place plantlets removed from their flasks • Bucket, spade, wheelbarrow, and garden spades as well as a hose and irrigator • Black plastic bags (7 x 14 cm) with perforations for drainage as well as transparent plastic bags (1 x 1 m) • Field book, registration forms, indelible marker, pencil, and plastic mini-stakes for identification of plantlets All implements used should be disinfected to prevent possible contamination of plantlets. For example, if roots or leaves are cut with scissors, these should be disinfected in a soapy solution every time a cut is made."}]},{"head":"Stage 2: Operational or technical activities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The success of the HP depends on the comprehensive management of a series of operations that range from receiving the in vitro plants to their transplanting in the field."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Receiving in vitro plants. Boxes containing flasks with in vitro plants are received from the biotechnology laboratory. The flasks with plantlets are quickly removed from the boxes, placed at intervals in a cool place with artificial lighting or indirect sunlight, then counted and numbers recorded according to variety."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In this step, a pre-selection is also carried out, consisting of separating the flasks according to the height and vigor of the in vitro plants and eliminating those observed to be contaminated, broken, damaged, or malformed."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Pre-adapting the plantlets. If the transportation of the in vitro plants in closed boxes has taken several days, the flasks are placed as indicated in the previous step but left until the plantlets recover. Other option is to leave the in vitro plants for 1 or 2 days at the facilities where they will undergo the HP. This time can be used to make a second pre-selection of vigorous in vitro plants."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Preparing the substrate. To prepare the substrate in which plantlets will be grown, one part of previously pulverized and sieved black soil (i.e., from the non-clay arable layer) is mixed with three parts of washed and sieved coarse sand. The substrate should be steam-sterilized if the presence of nematodes and fungi is suspected. If no sterilization equipment is available, then:"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Place the sand in a metallic pipe or drum, add sufficient water and heat to 100 ºC."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"• Spread a thin layer of soil over black plastic, cover with a piece of transparent plastic, forming a hermetic seal between both plastics and leave for 1 week under direct sunlight."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"Preparing for transplanting. Before transplanting, make sure the facilities are fully disinfected. Fill the small black plastic bags for the in vitro plants with substrate, prepare the mixture of fertilizer and fungicide, and arrange trays and large bags for use in miniature humidity chambers."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"Likewise, retrain personnel in transplanting procedures. This exercise will determine the personnel's productive capacity. Skilled technicians can transplant about 600 plants per working day, while beginners can only handle about 200 plants."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"Disinfecting and cleaning the site. Rigorously disinfect the entire facility with sodium hypochlorite and organize equipment and implements to facilitate their use. Cleaning should also extend to the transplanting site and the screenhouse or greenhouse where the plantlets will be hardened."},{"index":11,"size":54,"text":"Preparing the bags. Fill either black or transparent plastic bags (7 x 14 cm) with the previously prepared mixture of sand and soil (see above) to three quarters their volume. Firmly press the mixture into the bag to obtain a compact substrate. Such compaction will later stimulate root growth, making them longer and thicker."},{"index":12,"size":58,"text":"Preparing the trays. Place the bags containing the already compacted substrate on the trays and prepare the following solution: mix 1 g of a soil fungicide (e.g., Banrot) and 2 g of a phosphorus-rich fertilizer (e.g., formula 10-52-10) in 1 liter of deionized water (or rainwater). Immediately irrigate each bag with 10 cc of this mixture (first irrigation)."},{"index":13,"size":57,"text":"Preparing miniature humidity chambers. Introduce the base of each tray into a transparent plastic bag (1 x 1 m when folded) that has been rolled down, concertina style, to its base in such a way that the bag can later be quickly unfolded upwards and its opening firmly tied shut. This will function as a \"humidity chamber\"."}]},{"head":"Stage 3: Transplanting","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Transplanting is traumatic for the plantlets, especially when carried out by unqualified or inexperienced personnel. Plantlets undergo microclimatic stress when moved from their flasks to the miniature humidity chambers, suffering dehydration; nutrient stress, as they change from a nutrient-rich substrate to one very poor in nutrients (soil/sand mixture); and almost unavoidable mechanical damage to several parts of the plantlet (e.g., root cap, absorbent hairs, roots, stem, and leaves). The success of the plantlets' acclimatization and survival mainly depends on the care with which transplanting is done."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Transplanting must be performed immediately after the in vitro plants are extracted from their flasks. When this process is carried out for the first time and the environmental conditions of the facilities are not well known, then transplanting should be carried out on a daily basis at 17:00 to prevent the plantlets from dehydrating."}]},{"head":"Transplanting activities include:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Selection. A first selection is carried out, choosing those flasks with the most vigorous plantlets (intense green color, erect, and between 5 and 7 cm tall)."}]},{"head":"Extracting the in vitro plants. This operation consists of the steps:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Remove the plastic tape and flask covers."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Add deionized water or rainwater to the flask to moisten the agar substrate and facilitate extraction of both plantlet and agar."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Hold the flask in one hand while gently smacking the flask with the other to loosen the agar from the flask's walls. If it does not separate, use a spatula, taking care not to damage the roots."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Carefully remove the plantlet by inclining the flask; do not use tweezers because the stem may suffer damage."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"• Place the plantlet in a wide container, such as a deep tray containing deionized water or rainwater. Use your hand to gently move the water to dislodge the agar."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Gently remove particles of agar still adhered to the roots with the flask washer."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• Conduct a second selection of vigorous plantlets to eliminate small, poorly formed, or weak plantlets."}]},{"head":"Transplanting into bags.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"With one hand, place the plantlet in a bag, introducing the roots and lower part of the stem. This hand must be held rigid to prevent breaking the absorbent hairs and roots. With the other hand, add a fourth of the substrate, ensuring that the roots remain in their \"normal position\" that is, as they were in the flask, thus preventing physical or physiological damage that could be caused by a change of position."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Once transplanting has been achieved for all the bags in the tray, the plantlets receive a second irrigation with 10 cc of the previously used fertilizer and fungicide mixture."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Humidity chambers and hardening. Now the real process of hardening the plantlets begins:"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Label the tray indicating the name of the variety, the number of bags, the date and hour of transplanting, and the transplanter's name."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"• Place each tray at the bottom of the large transparent bag (1 x 1 m) and tie the opening shut with a piece of rope, converting it into a miniature humidity chamber."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"• Transfer the humidity chambers to the facility where the HP will be carried out. Tie the string to a wire strung over the chambers to prevent the upper part of each chamber from folding over on top of the plantlets and damaging them."}]},{"head":"Stage 4: Maintaining the transplanted plantlets","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"In this stage, considerable attention must be given to the microclimatic changes occurring within the facility, the irrigation required by plantlets, their nutrition, and the presence of pests and diseases."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The bags containing the plantlets should not be moved during the first month after transplanting to avoid damaging the roots, especially the cap and absorbent hairs. These parts are particularly fragile in this early stage of development. Damage or breakage in root tissues increases the probability of pathogen invasion and slows down growth and development. Such care is also of considerable importance in Stages 5 and 6 of t h e H P."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Microclimate and humidity chambers. Between 8 and 12 days after transplanting (DAT), remove the string closing the humidity chamber-preferably in the afternoon-and completely open the large transparent bag to allow plantlets to adapt to the microenvironment of the facility."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"If a tendency to wilting is observed, then reclose the bag and continue the humidity chamber treatment."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"If plantlets have adapted well to the microenvironment by the second or third day after opening the large bag (i.e., 10 to 15 DAT), the bag is rolled down to the tray's base or removed altogether, leaving the tray exposed with its plantlets."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"During this step, plantlets must be protected from strong dehydrating winds."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Irrigation. If the plantlets have been irrigated with the correct amount of nutrient solution (see above) and the environment within the miniature humidity chamber is appropriate, plantlets will not need irrigation."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"However, if and only if, the first symptoms of physiological wilting appear in plantlets after being removed from the humidity chamber, apply a third irrigation to the substrate. To reduce the risk of attack of pathogens, take care not to wet the leaves. Irrigate each plantlet with 10 cc of a nutrient solution consisting of a mixture of 2 g of phosphorus-rich fertilizer to promote root formation (e.g., formula 10-52-10) and 1 g of Agrimins (a fertilizer rich in minor elements) per liter of deionized water (or rainwater)."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"Depending on the microclimatic conditions of the facility and the turgor of the plantlets, schedule one or two irrigations per day, each with 10 cc of water normally used to irrigate other plants."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"Between 21 and 25 DAT, install a microspray irrigation (MSI) system in the screenhouse, which significantly reduces labor costs. At CIAT, plantlets receive from 2 to 3 minutes of MSI in the morning and, if necessary, another 2 or 3 minutes in the afternoon."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• The use of MSI requires that plantlets be rigorously inspected to detect any pathological problems."},{"index":12,"size":66,"text":"• The \"secret\" of this operation, which is crucial to the success of the HP, is to apply irrigation when the first symptoms of physiological wilting are observed. This ensures an adequate moisture level of the substratum, thus preventing possible pathogen attack in the root area. It is important to remember that, at this stage, cassava plantlets are highly susceptible to excess moisture in the substrate."},{"index":13,"size":42,"text":"Fertilizer applications. The substrate used (1 part of soil to 3 parts of sand) is of low fertility, and the application of fertilizers is therefore indispensable. Every 8 days the plantlets will receive applications of macroand micronutrients to ensure their normal development."},{"index":14,"size":70,"text":"A phosphorus-rich compound (e.g., formula 10-52-10) is first applied to enhance root development. This application is alternated at 8-day intervals with a complete fertilizer containing macro and minor elements. If the formula 10-52-10 is not available on the market, it can be replaced by a combined formula including 10-30-10 and Agrimins. Fertilizer application is suspended once the color of the plantlets is normal for the varieties to which they belong."},{"index":15,"size":68,"text":"If symptoms of deficiency of any element appear, affected plantlets can be given an application of foliar fertilizer containing simple or complete fertilizers. Zinc deficiency tends to appear in plantlets during the first month and can be corrected by adding Zn to the soil in one of the irrigations at a rate of 3 g dissolved in 1 liter irrigation water and applied at 10 cc per plant."}]},{"head":"Stage 5: Separating the plantlets","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Between 30 and 34 DAT, the plantlets have now become plants and therefore need more light as well as higher temperatures to grow and develop. Plants are spaced at a greater distance, in an area double or triple that initially occupied."}]},{"head":"Stage 6: Transplanting plants to the field","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The plants remain in the screenhouse or greenhouse for 60 to 90 days before being taken to the field. In case of restricted space or labor, plants can be taken to the field 30-40 days after transplanting."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Transfer. When transporting the bags from the greenhouse (or screenhouse) to the field, protect plants from strong air currents that could cause abrasion or dehydration."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Adaptation and final transplanting. The plants should be grouped together and placed in the site chosen for planting and left for 3 to 6 days so that they can adapt to the new environment. Plants are then transplanted to their final field sites. For the next few days, the farmer should closely monitor the site for the appearance of any nutritional deficiency or presence of pests or diseases to apply the corresponding integrated management practice as required."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b673a2d2-6350-4ae0-bee3-17a9efdae2b3","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a1ea78729d3e8505a9d7b724fde3baf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9fdd43d6-cb80-48a5-9fb6-1a3638ea0f6b/retrieve"},"pageCount":43,"title":"Report on Malawi Inception and Planning Meeting for the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative 27 -29 September 2022, Mangochi, Malawi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives of the Planning and Inception Meeting","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The launch and planning meeting for the Sustainable Intensification-Mixed Farming systems (SI-MFS) Initiative in Malawi was convened in Mangochi, Nkopola lodge from 27 -29 September to lay the groundwork for implementation of activities by various in-country partners."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The three-year Initiative is one of the 32 new research and development initiatives by CGIAR that aims to provide equitable and gender transformative pathways to improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The meeting was attended by various partners in the Malawi agriculture sector, including National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), Malawi Agricultural Policy Advancement and Transformative Agenda (MwaPATA), Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resource (LUANAR), District Agriculture Officers, and many others."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"The event agenda and copies of presentations given during the meeting are accessible online at: https://live.eventtia.com/en/si-mfsmalawi"}]},{"head":"Day ONE [27 September]: Introducing the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The meeting was called to order at 9.00 AM by the Facilitator, Ms. Gloriana Ndibalema. She then invited participants to participate in a self-introduction exercise and share their expectations."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Self-introduction by participants. Photo credit: Gloriana Ndibalema/IITA. Gloriana Ndibalema welcomes participants to the meeting. Photo credit: Emmanuel Mwale/IITA. Dr. Christian Thierfelder, the co-country coordinator for the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems (Abbreviated as SI-MFS) in Malawi, introduced the goals and objectives of the meeting to participants. He highlighted the need to develop and propose several key activities for implementation in the short and longer-term deliverables. To agree on locations and the need for better communication between centers and initiatives."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Dr. Thierfelder also stressed the need for collective efforts to be vigorous in managing resources, linking, and building on existing programs and link to other initiatives like Excellence in Agronomy and several others."}]},{"head":"Welcome and opening remarks","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The opening remarks were given by CGIAR Malawi Country Convener Dr. Gbenga Akinwale; and DARS Senior Deputy Director Mr. David Kamangira. See below summary of their remarks."}]},{"head":"Dr. Gbenga Akinwale, CGIAR Malawi Country Convenor","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"*Full speech attached in the appendix."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• On behalf of CGIAR Centers in Malawi, I welcome you all to this inception and planning meeting."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"• CGIAR research programs over the years have delivered ground-breaking science and innovations that have improved food and nutrition security for the world's most vulnerable people and lifting millions out of poverty."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• In Malawi, the CG centers have been working with partners for over 42 years to conduct research and implement agricultural programs that aimed to improve farmers livelihood."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Global challenges facing agri-food systems are rapidly evolving and research in agriculture, particularly on food, land, and water systems is increasingly becoming more complex and interconnected, thus requiring integrated and unified structure and research strategy"},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"• There is a growing awareness/recognition that a more unified and integrated CGIAR has more potential to address the complex and rapidly evolving global challenges facing agri-food systems. This awareness led to the conceptualization of One CGIAR and formulation of new research strategy 'a new structure, a new research strategy for a new era'"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• One CGIAR is an integration of capabilities, knowledge, assets, people and global presences-leveraging our capabilities, assets, knowledge to address global challenges that are multi-disciplinary and interconnected"},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"• In pursuit of the new research agenda, a portfolio of 33 new game change initiatives were developed around five impact areas: nutrition, health and food security, poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs, gender equality, youth and inclusion, climate adaptation and mitigation, and environmental health and biodiversity. Seven (7) of these initiatives will be implemented in Malawi and SI-MFS is one of the seven initiatives designed to deliver evidence-based solution to drive sustainable productivity growth under the climate change scenario in Malawi."},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"• The One CGIAR presents a huge scope and opportunities to contribute to Malawi's Agenda 2063 on agricultural growth and development strategy through quality research and innovative partnership that recognize Malawi's research and innovation priorities, needs and demand. The transformation will make CGIAR research more accessible and responsive to local needs, opportunities and demands."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"• The new structure will strengthen synergies and open opportunities, for a more inclusive research agenda and developmental programs that reflect and integrate country's perspective and priority needs."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"• As CGIAR centers we are proud of your partnership, and we are confident that this initiative will provide a framework for collective actions"},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"• Thank you for your excellent cooperation and teamwork over the years and I wish you a fruitful and productive meeting."}]},{"head":"Mr. David Kamangira, DARS Senior Deputy Director","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Dr. Kamangira speaking during the event. Photo credit: Gloriana Ndibalema/IITA."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"• Smallholder farmers dominate the agricultural sector in Malawi on 0.5 to 5 ha land holdings. These farmers manage complex crop and livestock farming systems, needing to overcome many risks and challenges. To elaborate on the nature of these systems, which characterize many smallholder farms in Malawi, for example, you will find that in a typical smallholder farm, livestock provides draft power for crop cultivation and manure to fertilize the soil, while crop residues provide livestock feed. At the same time, livestock is also sold to compensate for low crop yields. So, everything is interconnected and related. Therefore, a problem in one aspect of the system invariably affects another."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"• These highly interlinked mixed farming systems face highly interconnected and complex challenges which can be mitigated through Sustainable Intensification to respond to the need for increased productivity without having a negative impact on other essential aspects like the environment, socio-economic factors such as gender, equity, and livelihoods, as well as human elements like nutrition."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"• I am delighted that the meeting kick-starts implementing the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative in Malawi. A CGIAR research initiative will contribute to Pillar 1 of Malawi's agricultural development priority agenda designed to increase agricultural productivity and commercialization as set out in the Malawi vision 2063. As Government, we look forward to seeing collaboration among the CGIAR and the national partners across these Initiatives to address the challenges related to hunger, poverty, and malnutrition."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• I acknowledge the donors' support in developing the agricultural sector in Malawi."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Hereby, I declare the launching of the Initiative and officially mark the opening of the three-day deliberation."}]},{"head":"Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems: An overview presentation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Fred Kizito, ABC/IITA"},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"• Before proceeding with the presentation on the overview of the Initiative, I would like to take this time to thank the organizing team for the great work and commitment they have put into making this meeting a success. I thank the country convenor for CGIAR in Malawi and you all for finding time to attend this meeting despite your busy schedules."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• 2022 is a critical year for reforms and African transformation systems, as we now have only eight harvests before reaching the 2030 SDG targets. We have experienced the COVID-19 pandemic, conflict, commercial pressure, and climate change. These will continue impacting the food system globally."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"• In reference to Thornton et al., 2.5 billion Ha of land in mixed crop-livestock globally and the Tropics are considered to supply around 75% of milk, 60% of the meat, and between 40 and 86 % of the maize, rice, sorghum, and millet consumed."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• With SI-MFS, we must deliver critical outcomes resulting in multiple scale impacts, minimize sectoral trade-offs, and leverage/maximize synergies."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• Highlights of the prioritized geographical selection of MFS covering Malawi, Ghana, Ethiopia, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Laos."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• An overview of how the ongoing efforts within SI in branding and reaching out to various partners with activities will be reinforced and strengthened."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"• Africa needs to change and set a clear trajectory to meet the SDGs and increase the intensity of operations to meet food systems and safe, sufficient, nutritious food. Otherwise, we may likely not reach the SDGs. SDG1, SG 2, SDG5, and SDG13 by the said target."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• Africa is expanding in terms of agriculture and health care needs, taking place at the expense of a fragile ecosystem, climate change, and environmental changes."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"• We need to intensify farming on the same land without increasing the space and harvest more yield, looking at mixed farming systems as the best approach."},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"• The five Work Packages of the Initiative include: i."},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"Status, trends, and future dynamics of MFS ii."},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"Building methods and tools (M&T) for SI of MFS iii."},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":"Participatory co-design of MFS with evidence-based validated SI innovation packages iv."},{"index":15,"size":8,"text":"Advancing and supporting the scaling of innovations v."},{"index":16,"size":7,"text":"Capacity building for MFS design and analyses"}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"• Balancing resources to make a difference: Thinking about maize is not bad; however, think about how you can use maize or cowpea by providing feed, fuel, fibre, food, and farm income. Even pigeon peas can do the same. Along lines that can help improve yield under the pressure of land availability, Producing more on the same piece of land."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"• The cropping season starts in Mid-November, and others are now planning surveys within that period; from the outcomes of this meeting, we should have an action plan that starts Friday (immediately after the conference) so we do not miss any season. Together, as a team, we collate and move fast and think of interconnectivity with various departments in harnessing knowledge in doing what is needed for Malawi."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• We need to engage policy institutions and governance to map actions that can unlock our farmer's capabilities to upgrade commercial farmers within the MFS framework."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"o Response: 98% of the land is smallholder farmers, and 70% of the food comes from it. By 2050, more than 7 billion people will depend on smallholder farmers. We can visualize our marketing approach."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Intensification will be the way forward."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"o Response (additional): •We may not have diversification in all farms. Some could have diversification, and others can use a different approach. 98% of the land is smallholder farmers, and 70% of the food comes from there. By 2050, more than 7 billion people will be dependent on smallholder farmers. We can therefore imagine; commercialization might not even happen. Intensification will be the way to go."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"o Response (additional): Commercialize even when people have a smaller land. Smallholder farms are also able to commercialize through intervention. Mechanisms like promoting farmer organizations in promoting corporations and groups. In the age of digitization. There is potential to commercialize even for smallholder farmers. I am looking at farming as a business."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• Not all farming interventions may need intensification. What is the definition of MFS?"}]},{"head":"Unpacking the work packages","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Participants were introduced to the five work packages of the Sustainable Intensification of mixed farming Systems Initiative."}]},{"head":"Work Package 1: Status, trends, and future dynamics of mixed farming systems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Francis Muthoni, IITA"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Took the participants through the definition of MFS to involve growing crops and rearing livestock and classified based on groups, based on ecology and production orientation."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Showed evidence of environmental changes. Like in Malawi, the land is becoming drier, while in Zambia is getting wetter; our duty is to put up the proper recommendation of what variety can work."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• Highlighted the strategies to cope with changing situations and identified drivers of change constraints and opportunities on MFS. e.g., significant changes in rainfall extremes in Malawi from 1981-2018."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Shared some of the entry points for social and technical innovations to mitigate the impact of change."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Highlighted the planned activities for Work Package 1 and the anticipated linkages between WP1 and other WPs."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• Noted that implementation plans with discussions at country inception meeting will focus on Identifying key partners at the site or operations with the participants."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Participants are encouraged to visit the initiative website to understand and think of the WPs. There are also detailed maps for Malawi of where maize is grown and where intercropping is practiced that we can draw lessons from."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• There is a need to develop other maps. This is to get some tangible potential evidence that could be used for targeting SI innovations."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Other districts of Ntcheu and Dedza are just mentioned as examples, but the final sites will be decided during the planning session on Day 2 of the meeting."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• The need to use more modern technologies, e.g., drones, to map up the sites instead of satellite data, like what the Africa RISING project did in some districts like Machinga."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• Start with what is available: Build on the available data and complement it. Some drones could fly 2KM away, like Ethiopia and Malawi, under the Africa RISING project."}]},{"head":"Work Package 2: Building methods and tools (M&T) for SI of MFS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Santiago Lopez, CIMMYT"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• This is a methodological work package. We're developing the basic concept for improving the sustainability of farming systems."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• The systems approach is critical for the SI-MFS Initiative. It ensures that various goals for sustainability are achieved at multiple levels, like farm, field, and landscape levels."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Therefore, SI-MFS will try to steer systems to maximize beneficial interactions among elements to get the most efficient and sustainable use of resources (e.g., crop-livestock integration, multi-purpose crops, etc.)"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"• The work package will also focus on systems analysis for the assessment design of more sustainable mixed farming systems and will apply the DEED cycle approach."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• We use the DEED cycle approach to develop methods and tools adapted to different conditions where mixed farming systems prevail."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Building capacity in WP2: One thing is identifying student knowledge enhancement."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Even in WP5, there is Capacity building to emphasize master students."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Because of the period of the project, we won't work on PhD Students. Institutional and technical knowledge and capacity building will be a priority."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• A series of the workshop is being run in Malawi to build capacity both in SI-MFS and Excellence in Agronomy"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• We need to explore stakeholders' different tools for a participatory approach."}]},{"head":"WP 3: Participatory co-design of MFS with evidence-based, validated SI innovation packages","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Presenter: Santiago Lopez, Download the recorded video presentation here:"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"• WP3 will answer questions of opportunities, constraints, and preferred entry points for improving equity, resilience, and efficiency along SI pathways; and which features of social and technical innovation packages for SI of MFS to enhance uptake and improve sustainability, resilience, and equity of MFS. WP3 will also check the most scalable SI innovation packages that improve sustainability, resilience, and equity in the selected FS."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Think about co-locations not only between WP because that's where we build synergies."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"• Will all the goals be achieved in two years? o Response: In the period of change that runs up to 2030, as we walk together with partners to 2025, some of these outputs could potentially strike through to other years depending on whether we design short or long deliverables building on the ten years of Africa RISING."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"• • Are there some farmers' insights we are missing that we can co-create with partners and then bring on board in this Initiative? From the sites already selected, then we can see which activities could be brought to which site. e.g., Mangochi, and Zomba, as they are not so recognizable with maize farming systems. Mangochi is about fishing."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"o Response: No site has been selected for the activity yet. The aim of the meeting is also to identify and know where we can work correctly."}]},{"head":"WP 4: Advancing and supporting scaling of innovations","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Haroon Sseguya, IITA"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• This will focus on scaling and will highlight four objectives during the meeting."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• The WP will enhance enabling environment by making strategic partnerships in generating and identifying context-specific socio-technical SI innovations with an emphasis on gender transformative approaches."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• The WP has four primary focus areas: (i) Enhances enabling environment, (ii) Makes strategic partnerships, (iii) Generates and identifies context-specific socio-technical SI innovations, (iv) Emphasizes gender transformative approaches"}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"• Where are we scaling? o Response: We need to consult with the country operating partners; with the country convenor/focal point. This will be unshelled during the meeting and agreed upon after this meeting. But partners and NARS will normally tell where to scale."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Regional initiatives are tasked to reach a large-scale technology release, and they must be geared toward scaling readiness."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"• What to scale, constraints, and opportunity? o Response: Many have been submitted, but we can't do all. We need to prioritize country-level readiness and strategies. Then we will look at policies, markets, and organization. Once scaling is done, it will address other challenges that may exist."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Country-focal people know what is happening on the ground. Digitized platforms that link directly with regional scaling hubs."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"o Response: Country focal people know what is happening on the ground. Digitized platforms that link directly with regional scaling hubs. How do we operationalize the digital platforms? They must link into the Initiative so we can reach a much wider audience."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"• How will partners know? o Response: partners are vehicles for scaling. Once innovations are provided, characterization provides a special map of potential areas that are good for scaling. We will use modelling as one of the tools."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"• Would scaling up start sooner, or we start with WP1, WP2, and WP3 first? o Response: We need to prioritize the constraints and scaling innovation at the country level; then plan when to start scaling up in an organized way. WP4 will be implemented along with the other WPs"},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"• Are we scaling up to diverse contexts? o Response: Partners are free to scale up SI innovations they are interested in."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"• Scaling readiness? After discussing with all partners, we need to develop a plan for scaling up the approach and package. This can be done on Day 2"},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"• Scaling up innovations with the SI MFS initiative or regional initiatives o Response: In terms of implementation or scaling up, the partners need to coordinate with the country Focal person and country convenor."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• Once characterization has been done, we will need to prioritize SI innovations."},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"• What criteria will we use for site selection to scale the SI innovations?"},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"• At the CGIAR level, do you have any interaction or support from the CGIAR team working on scaling up readiness?"},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"o Response: We have support from the CGIAR scaling team. • We do things from our convenience but not from the people's needs."}]},{"head":"WP 5: Capacity building for MFS design and analyses","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Fred Kizito, ABC/IITA"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• This WP is one of the two SUPPORTING work packages for the SI-MFS"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Initiative. The other one is WP 2."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• As indicated by the WP title, we will focus on building the capacity of CGIAR and other researchers from Governments (local and national), donors, Farmers, and local partners (NGOs, private sector) to apply mainstream systems approaches. "}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• Do we have platforms available in Malawi to access information about farmers and farmer profiles? Some info on farmer profiles could be available for soybean farmers"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• How are you going to design activities to address the research questions? Response: plan to send a capacity-building questionnaire to Malawi partners to capture the specific needs."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Interaction of crops and livestock data is available for Malawi (contact J. Chikoti)."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Proposal to conduct a needs assessment for Malawi, to do it on day 2 of the meeting."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Who determines the need for capacity building?"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• What indicators will be used to evaluate the capacity building WP?"}]},{"head":"Unpacking the cross-cutting work streams","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Participants were introduced to the cross-cutting work streams of the Sustainable Intensification of mixed farming Systems Initiative, including -scaling readiness, MELIA, Communications and knowledge management, and Gender integration."}]},{"head":"Scaling readiness","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Presenter: Haroon Sseguya, IITA Key points from the presentation."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• The scaling readiness team will be focused on determining which sociotechnological innovations proposed by partners for the Initiative are ready for scaling or otherwise."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• The scaling readiness team has got three objectives: o To carry out a detailed characterization of the core mixed farming systems innovations."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"o Diagnose their current readiness and use (WP2, WP3); and o Lay the foundation for strategies to overcome bottlenecks for scaling. WP3, WP5"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"• Reminder on the scaling readiness stepwise approach where implementers critically reflect on how ready the innovations are for scaling. And reveal key bottlenecks while strategizing that need to pursue accurate further scaling."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• A CGIAR scaling readiness book is now developed with guidelines. Other initiatives are using the same."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"• Listed the number of innovations for SI of FMS: these are available on the website. Seed systems are one of the innovations being talked about. Credit may be available, but how many farmers are accessing it?"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• Lay the foundation for strategies to overcome bottlenecks for scaling WP3 and WP5."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Potential linkages with other initiatives. Scaling readiness assessment."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"• The key actions that were presented. Team formation, brief guidelines, and tools refinement liaison with other initiatives and interventions-planning and implementation and feedback and adaptation."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• The M & E team in the Ministry of Agriculture in Malawi will be crucial to handle the Baseline survey, and there will be training on survey solutions in Malawi."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Strengthening collaboration with NARS for M&E. there will be M & E staff in all countries to support."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"• Participatory aspect in the Initiative. There will be focus groups to engage with farmers, discuss issues to do with MFS, and get their insight on the impact on their lives. How to improve research for NARS. The Initiative will include the NARS at all levels. Think of a quick way of forming an MOU in putting resources in their bucket in terms of resources. Will schedule a meeting with DARS and map a way forward."}]},{"head":"Monitoring, Evaluation, Learning and Impact Assessment (MELIA)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Hope Webber, IITA"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• MELIA's goals in SI-MFS are to contribute to measuring the impact of the Initiative and increase the Initiative's impact to track the progress of its outputs and outcomes, among many other goals listed. "}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"• In preparation for the planting season in Malawi, as this is the first year and we are late in terms of baseline for MELIA, can scientists working on other packages go-ahead to identify farmers and the MELIA team come later?"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Request to include the M&E personnel from DARS in Malawi and the Department of Planning in Malawi not included in the MELIA team."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"o Response: the MELIA team will collaborate with the relevant local institutions; they are also planning to recruit an M&E officer in Malawi."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Suggest an MOU with the local partners and the ministry (DARS) that can support the Initiative M&E activities together with MELIA."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• Different initiatives are coming up with various baseline surveys, are there meta-level coordination on MELIA baselines?"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Do you have indicator definitions for CGIAR?"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• USAID has developed several indicators; have you checked on this? The resources available for use for free]"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• For livestock production, do you still use \"area\" as an indicator?"},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• How will you address the impact of the high cost of farm inputs such as fertilizers in the MELIA process?"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• How will the beneficiaries be involved in the monitoring of indicators?"},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• How are you planning to involve NARS or DARS in monitoring indicators?"}]},{"head":"Gender integration in the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Presenter: Million Gebreyes, ILRI Key points from the presentation."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Global challenges like population growth, land pressure, soil degradation, and climate change have deepened social inequalities in the mixed farming systems due to inequitable norms like resource access, labour burdens, etc."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to reverse the above inequalities."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"• There is still a gap in SI research, primarily work and studies examining how introducing new technologies could reproduce inequalities. We are therefore interested in establishing what is the social impact of sustainable intensification innovations while at the same time ensuring that SI innovations introduced by the Initiative don't promote/enhance inequalities."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Our work within the Initiative will focus on the two concepts of gender and social inclusion. We shall approach this by combining gender and other socioeconomic criteria to ensure an accurate depiction/characterization of farmers' needs."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• A gender transformative approach will be applied, which addresses the underlying causes of inequality and (in the uptake of innovations) including norms and power relations."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"• In 2022, the gender team will be focused on the following activities: o Establishing a criterion for the selection of suitable innovations o Focus on co-designing/bundling 1-2 innovations per country with gender-transformative approaches."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"o Meet with each country's team and partners to discuss the selection results and how to coordinate the efforts."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"o Co-design socio-technical innovation bundles in interdisciplinary teams."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• There is a vacant position for WP4; what are the requirements for this position?"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• What is gender transformation?"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• On gender equity and distribution, are we also considering other societal norms, e.g., division of labour in the household?"},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"• It appears that on gender, you lean on women only and not men. In Malawi, for example, in some areas, we have a matrilineal system where a woman controls land; how do we research gender to address the issues affecting both men and women? [feedback: in this study, we will also look at social inequalities if they exist.]"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• When we arrest gender equity/equality, are you considering the division of labour?"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• Society is structured along sex, age group, ethnicity, and religion. It needs to be addressed when it affects a particular group based on societal constraints."}]},{"head":"Communications and Knowledge Management in the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Presenter: Jonathan Odhong, IITA Download the recorded presentation here:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• The Communications and Knowledge Management (CKM) team for the Initiative will be focused on the following: "}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Do we have the Initiative communication guide? Please share with us the link where we can access the communication templates"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• Does the communication team have a budget for communication activities: o Response: Yes, there is a budget for communication to provide that tailored support to respective country groups but, more importantly, around operation support."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• Let's think of communication at the onset and not as an add-on when things are already running. Issues of scaling, media, communication, and gender must come instantly at the onset. If you think there is a way that we can build a local communication team."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Scientists must be trained to communicate their findings in simple and understandable ways to other agricultural stakeholders, including farmers and policymakers."}]},{"head":"Systems Integration","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Fred Kizito, IITA"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• As hinted at in the presentation for Work Package 2, we will need to design interlinked activities with a systems approach to guide us."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• I will present an example that can be adapted for crop-livestock integration in Malawi."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Our systems integration will aim to answer vital fundamental questions: o How to increase crop-livestock productivity in an agroecological gradient?"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"o What are the interactions that happen during crop production, livestock production, vegetable production and how do they link with each other across Malawi in the context of land and water management issues?"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"o How can we improve forage water uptake for increased biomass? o The key is to quantify the magnitude of the variables associated with the inter-linking arrows (Green: Positive interaction; Red: Negative interaction)."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Fred Kizito presented a slide on activity interlinkages. Photo credit: Emmanuel Mwale/IITA."}]},{"head":"Partnership building and planning progress","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The SI-MFS Initiative Lead, Fred Kizito, introduced the planning session. His presentation highlighted the following key points, which served as an introduction for partners to the planning process for activities in the country."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Participants shared a template for the planning meeting with participants, and they were asked to nominate candidate technologies that build on previous investments for the SI-MFS Initiative."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• The national partners and stakeholders requested to review the proposed list of activities for them to provide their insights."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"• Partners, particularly NARS, were urged to contribute to the formulation of activities and innovations and to come up with a list of potential partners and sites where the Initiative will work, who to work with, and what activities will be worked on."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Through the World Cafe process, the WPs leads explained to participants how they envision implementing the activities, then both the leads and participants went ahead to brainstorm and proposed several one-liner topics on innovations for each WP. These one-liner topics provided the basis for discussion where partners expanded on them and added more details for coherent activities during the reporting back session. See annexes on the WP activities workplans."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"The Work Package leads moderated the discussions within the world cafés. At each World Café table, there was also a designated rapporteur nominated from the NARS representatives who helped take note of the talks. A template for capturing the conversations was provided to all world café groups."}]},{"head":"Key issues raised:","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• We, as DARS, would like to visit the WPs as a team instead of being divided into numbers."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"o Response (Fred Kizito): Thank you for your comments and concerns. I completely understand your concern about wanting to visit the tables as a group so that all your ideas can be well represented since you all have different specialties. So here is my proposal. It will be a give-andtake. We shall first concentrate on two WPs (WP 2 and WP 3), which are DARS main interests; after we finish giving all our ideas to these WPs, we will divide into three groups to complete the other WPs."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"o Response: We are all ok with that; let's start with the two WPs and then continue with the rest as planned."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Participants discuss plans for implementing Initiative activities in Malawi. Photo credit: Gloriana Ndibalema/ IITA."}]},{"head":"Plenary reporting back from work package operational discussions","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"After the World Café process, each Work Package group provided feedback on the discussions. Below is a summary."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"* See appendix 3 for detailed discussion by groups on WP1, WP2, WP3, wp4, and WP5."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Crop Livestock Integration and legume intercropping are some farming systems used in Balaka."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Mixed farming systems: farmers keep goats, Chickens, and ducks, with some keeping cattle."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• They don't have feed problems during the rainy season, but during the dry season, pasture is rare."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• The SI is going to assist because of the drought. In some cases, there are floods reported in certain areas"},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"• The maize-seed system here is more popular than the legume-seed system. Maize hybrids are on high demand in the area but access to these hybrids and affordability of the seeds is an issue."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"• Farmers grow maize and pigeon peas, land holding size is very small, and it is not feasible to plant maize and pigeon peas on a larger scale because of the limited availability of land."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• Drought is the major constraint in Balaka, happens almost every year."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"• Availability of livestock markets was cited as second major constraint."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"• Livestock in the area is in the form of goats, pigs and chicken as well as rabbits, guinea fowl and aquaculture. There could be opportunities for using concentrates and cassava silage as feed."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"• Interventions coming with other stakeholders are helping farmers to cope with challenges."},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"• SAPP has built an abattoir at Phalula EPA, especially for goats. They would have loved to replicate this within other EPAs in the district."},{"index":14,"size":25,"text":"• Development partners like CIMMYT have been working in Balaka since 2004 and have trials, especially in agriculture, and they work with other partners well."},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"• Balaka is one of the best districts following decentralization. It is like a model in Malawi because they work well with other partners and create competition among stakeholders, which helps to build a strong agriculture base."},{"index":16,"size":18,"text":"• CIMMYT, World Vision, SAPP, find your Feet, CGIAR, and CONCERN WORLDWIDE are some organizations working in Balaka."},{"index":17,"size":19,"text":"• During drought, farmers experimenting Hydroponic fodder from sorghum and pigeon peas, and farmers here farm lots of this."},{"index":18,"size":9,"text":"• They grow legume trees like Gliricidia and Leucaena."},{"index":19,"size":24,"text":"• Deforestation is a big issue and most of the landscapes are bare. The charcoal value chain has been the biggest driver for deforestation."},{"index":20,"size":6,"text":"• Climate change issues affect yield."},{"index":21,"size":13,"text":"• The need to preserve land by avoiding bushfires and conserving the environment."}]},{"head":"Third stop at Dedza","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Presentation given by Michael Chimatiro, District Director of Agriculture, Environment and Natural Resources Initiative Lead, Fred Kizito in a discussion with other participants. Photo credit: Emmanuel Mwale/ IITA."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• A lot of farmers are into maize and potato production."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• There are around 161 sections that make up EPAs."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• 229462 cultivatable land, and 2000 ha is under estate."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• The Government has introduced mega-farms, and we might use idle land to produce more."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• Potato is done under irrigation supported by CIP. Cassava, soybean and cowpea are mostly grown in the lake shore valley region."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• Under livestock, farmers are rearing goats, cattle, sheep and poultry."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• District Agriculture is now called the Directorate of agriculture, Environment and Natural Resources."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• There is a need to protect the environment."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"• Activities of crops and livestock systems are well managed."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"• There is a need for proper coordination between CGIAR and extensions; innovations being promoted must undergo necessary processes."},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"• Agriculture commercialisation and corporative."},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"• Public works, climate-smart agriculture looking at issues of land degradation."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"• Sites were selected based on population as we use intensive labour."},{"index":15,"size":4,"text":"• Double row planting."},{"index":16,"size":15,"text":"• The Initiative would like to work and complement government initiatives like affordable input programs."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"• The major constraint of livestock is marketing."},{"index":18,"size":14,"text":"Pacsu Simwaka and Ruth Magreta reporting back partner-led WP discussions. Photo credit: Gloriana Ndibalema/IITA. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Who are we co-designing with? o Response: Let us first see what the farmers need and consider what others are doing. It will be much easier to build something based on what exists.  "},{"text":"• There are set of impact areas indicators calculating the number of people benefitting from CGIAR innovations. Stakeholder consultations and documentation • MELIA will monitor the SI-MFS indicators to track progress semi-annually and use WPs outputs and outcomes indicators to design a questionnaire with the development of the MELIA database. o Nutrition, health and food security o Gender equality, youth, and social inclusion o Nutrition, health and food security o Gender equality, youth, and social inclusion o Climate adaptation and mitigation o Climate adaptation and mitigation o Environment, health, and biodiversity o Environment, health, and biodiversity • Highlighted five ends of Initiative (global) outcomes measurable within three • Highlighted five ends of Initiative (global) outcomes measurable within three years in different quarters starting in 2022. years in different quarters starting in 2022. • RTC approach will include o Baseline surveys • RTC approach will include o Baseline surveys o o  "},{"text":" Enhancing the Initiative's external communication (informing and engaging with its stakeholders). o Contributing to translating initiative outputs into outcomes and o Contributing to translating initiative outputs into outcomes and getting knowledge into use. getting knowledge into use. o Enriching intra-initiative learning, interaction, and exchange. o Facilitating capturing, organizing, and disseminating research products o Enriching intra-initiative learning, interaction, and exchange. o Facilitating capturing, organizing, and disseminating research products and outputs; and, and outputs; and, o Ensuring that the Initiative stays in lockstep with the broader One CGIAR goals. o Ensuring that the Initiative stays in lockstep with the broader One CGIAR goals. • As a team, the CKM group is also: • As a team, the CKM group is also: o Embedded into the One CGIAR Communication and Outreach task forces contributing to the broader strategy. o Embedded into the One CGIAR Communication and Outreach task forces contributing to the broader strategy. o Providing support for other One CGIAR Initiatives. o Providing support for other One CGIAR Initiatives. o The current team comprises ten members drawn from five CGIAR Centres: IITA, ILRI, IRRI, CIMMYT, and ABC. o The current team comprises ten members drawn from five CGIAR Centres: IITA, ILRI, IRRI, CIMMYT, and ABC.  "},{"text":"Technology Criteria Scala bility Diversi fy Relev ance Yield gap Gen der Import ance PP Aver age  cassava silage improves milk yield 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.0 3.1 2.7 3.0 cassava silage improves milk yield2.93.03.03.73.03.12.7 3.0 Maize-cassava-legume intercrop 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.9 3.4 3.7 3.1 3.5 Maize-cassava-legume intercrop3.73.33.43.93.43.73.1 3.5 Maize/sorghum-pigeonpea intercrop 3.9 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.0 3.4 2.8 3.5 Maize/sorghum-pigeonpea intercrop3.93.73.94.03.03.42.8 3.5 Double up legume system 3.8 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.8 2.9 3.8 Double up legume system3.84.24.13.93.73.82.9 3.8 Maize legume rotation 4.3 3.8 4.3 4.1 3.8 4.2 3.6 4.0 Maize legume rotation4.33.84.34.13.84.23.6 4.0 Integrated nutrient management 4.0 3.8 4.2 3.9 3.1 4.0 3.2 3.7 Integrated nutrient management4.03.84.23.93.14.03.2 3.7 Agrobiofortication 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 3.1 2.8 2.3 2.7 Agrobiofortication2.72.72.82.83.12.82.3 2.7 maize-Agroforestry 2.9 3.2 3.1 3.6 2.8 3.2 2.4 3.0 maize-Agroforestry2.93.23.13.62.83.22.4 3.0 CA, gender, nutrition 3.6 3.4 3.8 3.4 4.0 3.4 2.8 3.5 CA, gender, nutrition3.63.43.83.44.03.42.8 3.5 Afaltoxin, FAW 3.9 3.3 3.7 3.8 3.3 3.4 3.1 3.5 Afaltoxin, FAW3.93.33.73.83.33.43.1 3.5  "}],"sieverID":"acfafbb5-1fde-4e22-a7cb-f8c8d8ccf180","abstract":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agro-ecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a441326662febc97dafeb9db1fce2f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d631aa5-b450-47e0-b413-784362b9272e/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"The world's energy policies -due for a major review by April 2001 -have been very, very wrong. Food barely features in them. What shall we eat if we have nothing to harvest?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"context where many ACP countries must almost double their recent rises in production to above 4%, there is no real alternative to making greater and more efficient energy inputs. Each input of energy, whether fossil fuel or human muscle power, can result in wildly different outputs in different farming systems. In the heavily mechanised and fertilised fields of California, the yield of energy in the rice harvest is 1.6 times the energy input, while in the Iban region of Borneo it is 7.0 -there the only input is people's labour. Does this mean victory for the lowenergy input school of thought? Not necessarily, since the resulting yields per hectare are three times lower than in California: put starkly, if you can put more energy into cultivation, you can probably harvest more."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Where can the additional energy come from? For much of sub-Saharan Africa, the classical answer, consistently promoted by the FAO, is to increase the use of manufactured fertiliser, and of irrigation (each of these inputs is energy dependent: inorganic fertilisers require energy to synthesise them, and energy is required to lift irrigation water. Africa's average annual fertiliser use is only 20 kg per hectare against a world average of 96 kg, and only 6% of its arable land is irrigated against a world average of 17%. To make any significant increase upon such levels of input -with associated increases in mechanisation -will have a tremendous impact on the energy bill, on farming practices and potentially on social structures, most notably on gender equity."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Energy conservation -the stayput part of the equation -is a key factor. Great improvements can be made by better recycling of soil nutrients, through better tillage, inter-cropping and the use of green manures and organic fertilisers. Similarly, low-cost water inputs such as drip irrigation, and the use of direct solar and wind power for water lifting, can have great effect."}]},{"head":"Diversifying energy sources","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"With the market ever more urban, the energy demands of harvesting, processing and transport are also set to rise sharply. It is on the way from the farm gate to market that an 'energy transition' starts to take real shape. Such a transition to sustainable energy systems, according to FAO, would be characterised by a move from the present levels of subsistence use of energy, based on human labour, animal power and fuelwood, to situations where household, services and farming activities use diversified energy sources. A contributing factor here is the yet-to-be-calculated 'energy impact' of the way HIV/AIDS has decimated working populations."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"As the mechanisation of production and processing continues, there will be a need for more small-scale equipment, and energy to power it. Similar needs are growing for water pumping and processing and storage of foods, alongside other uses in communal, educational and health facilities, not to mention the fast-spreading networks of telecentres in virtually all ACP countries. How will this be fuelled? Increasingly, the focus is on electrification -powered by fossil fuels, and gas from biomass and gasification."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The use of so-called renewable energies is finally becoming financially viable, after decades of research, and extensive outreach programmes in, for example, the Sahel, Zimbabwe and the Pacific. Another source of energy for agriculture can be agriculture itself, in the form of biomass from agricultural and forest waste, and energy crops. Bioenergy comes in many forms: biogas digesters using animal waste, gas from gasified wastes or liquid fuels, such as ethanol, distilled from sugar cane and other crops."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The next step could be biomass plantations of wood for local gasification and production of commercial fuels, largely for transportation. Under the 'Renewables-Intensive Global Energy Scenario' project of the UN Development Programme, one third of Africa's fuel needs in 2025 could be met by locally produced biofuels, using largely marginal land and with a minimal 'food or fuel' conflict about land. Here lies an area for ecological debate and, perhaps, a business opportunity for rural entrepreneurs."}]},{"head":"Change needed in macro-policy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"The energy requirements of sub-Saharan agriculture could triple by 2020. That is indeed a tall order, and requires macropolicy initiatives at national and regional levels. Yet agriculture is not part of the mindset of most energy planners. In most ACP countries, it accounts for less than 4.5% of energy consumption. It is barely visible on the 'energy balance sheet'. Clearly ACP agriculture should become part of national energy policy initiatives. Undoubtedly its potential as a supplier of bioenergy will earn more attention. A policy text on renewable energy, adopted in March 2000 by the Joint Assembly of the ACP and the European Union in Abuja, Nigeria, emphasised the key role of energy in rural development strategies."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Talk of energy to a scientist, and you see the ideas spark: there are plans, well advanced, by some Western energy companies to beam concentrated solar power from space to collector panels, often in ACP countries, for transmission to the world's cities. Could part of that power stay in the locality? There are ideas, some say more than that, of producing energy through fusion techniques which extract power from controlled explosions of atoms, even in a glass of water. Fantastic? Maybe. Totally separated from ACP agriculture if not? Maybe not. Although the fruits of his fantasy are still only available to a small minority of rural populations today (8%), the scientist Michael Faraday 'discovered' electricity over 100 years ago. He wrote then: 'Nothing is too wonderful to be true'. So let's get agriculture onto the energy agenda. "}]},{"head":"F","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"or decades it has been clear that education, in the widest sense of the term, is the backbone for the multitude of approaches, whether they be cultural, social, economic or political, which determine how a country can develop. This is the case for all developing countries, including the ACP States. A study by the International Institute for Applied System Analysis of literacy among women in Cape Verde demonstrates this vividly: the higher the level of literacy the lower the birth rate, with all the implications this has for women in using their energies and, for a country, in changing its population growth rates."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"While literacy rates in some ACP countries are crippingly lower than anywhere else, efforts are being made to improve them through developing policies of universal education, often under the exhortations of international agencies. Such approaches are well intended, but they are not rooted in everyday realities. For generations, in rural areas where access to education has been limited or even non-existent, the benefits of literacy are not part of the fabric of development. This explains why illiteracy is so high in largely agricultural societies: according to the Canadian International Development Research Centre, in 1999 70% of people in Burkina Faso were illiterate, 60% in Mali and 57 % in Senegal."}]},{"head":"Functionality, proximity and flexibility","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Functional literacy should not be seen as a replacement for formal education. It is simply an extension of the formal approach, in a more focused way, both in terms of the audience it is aimed at (more often than not rural adults) and of its methods. The three key elements are functionality, proximity and flexibility, as exemplified by campaigns in Zimbabwe, where functional literacy workers are selected from the 'target community' itself, in order to best respond to the expressed needs of the 'students'."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Given the variety of situations and target groups, there is also a great variety of educational methods and subjects. Nonetheless, they nearly always follow the same blueprint. They start with a series of steps to win the confidence of the students and to persuade them of the value of a better life through being able to read, write and count. They build on that by enabling the beneficiaries themselves to develop their own learning programme, by making it functional and letting it evolve gradually, linking it continually to the realities of their daily lives."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The success of functional literacy approaches depends a great deal on the extent to which an individual can identify with it. Increasingly, local languages are taken as the basis for branching out into learning the national language. The underlying method here is, to use the jargon, that of 'intercultural complementarities', linking one reality to another."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Whether applied in Papua New Guinea, Burkina Faso or Côte d'Ivoire, the method consists of becoming literate in a person's mother tongue, through mastering its spelling, reading and use, before moving on to the official national language and learning its basic vocabulary and syntax."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The successes of functional literacy can only be sustained and developed if a favourable literate environment is established. It is with a firm eye on the 'after-literacy' phase that the International Reading Association (IRA) provide technical assistance in teaching methods to organisations in, for example, Nigeria, Tanzania, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The IRA (see page 10) is organising a Pan-African conference ([email protected]) in Nigeria in October 2001 on the topic of \"Building Communities Where Literacy Thrives\"."},{"index":6,"size":150,"text":"In the Dominican Republic, the government's RADECO programme of radio assisted community basic education, which is backed by USAID, uses interactive radio to build upon functional literacy work by broadcasting special programmes in nonformal education for isolated communities. Another approach lies in producing bilingual publications to consolidate the benefits of functional literacy. Indeed, many functional literacy workers would like to pursue the approach even further and insist on using bilingualism in official forms and traffic signs. That, though, may be seen as making functional literacy a goal in itself, which is not a sound attitude. As a report of the Department of Education, Training, Community and Cultural Development of Tasmania in Australia puts it: \"Literacy means learning to read, and to write your name. Functional literacy means learning to read and write enough to do everyday things. But we want more than that for our children of the next millennium\"."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"Sooner or later, we shall have to build schools and technical training centres for the beneficiaries of functional literacy campaigns to be able to become the true developers of the rural world."}]},{"head":"W","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"elcome to the point of no return. This is the point where, as one Zimbabwean agriculturist put it, the fear of the unknown ends and the big bold leap forward begins. This is the point where we agree that, impotent as we are to redistribute overnight the world's food supply, we must now grow more food, sustainably, in ACP countries. And that GMOs will become part of the scenery."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The most recent surge in world food production came with the Green Revolution of the 1960s. It never took hold in Africa, principally, it is argued, for institutional reasons. Now its gains elsewhere are running out, as world demand for food continues to grow. It is time for higher yields per unit of land, water, energy and time, according to M S Swaminathan, one of the architects of the 1960s breakthrough (see Spore 84 Millennium issue). For most agricultural scientists, genetic modification (see box) is the way forward. It was once just an evolutionary process before mankind -a species in nature, remember -created agriculture. Why is it now unleashing such controversy?"},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"The stakes are high: economics, emotions, ethics and survival itself are all involved. The real culprit is not progress itself, but the alarmingly rapid increase in the pace of progress -a common enough complaint these days. splicing genetic material from a coldwater fish into tomato pollen. It withstood temperatures below -4°C for six hours, allowing it to survive late frosts. Its seeds were cold-resistant and could be planted out earlier. Potential benefits, to be sure. But fish and tomatoes don't interbreed in nature, and many people started to worry, despite the acceptance in their daily lives of a great many unnatural processes."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Among other potential benefits of genetic engineering (GE) are increased resistance to drought and to disease and pests, which, together with storage problems, cause losses of up to 40% of some harvests in ACP countries. The very idea of decreasing reliance on pesticides not only promises less pollution of soils and groundwater: it also opens the way to enhancing biodiversity. There are also possibilities for enhancing other physiological characteristics of plants. In March 2000, scientists from the USA and Japan announced how they had increased yields by inserting genetic material from maize: \"We took maize photosynthesis genes and introduced them into the rice plant from Japan. That increased their photosynthetic capacity [the process plants use to make their life-giving sugars] and grain yield.\""},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"At the consumer end of the chain, as well as possibilities of adding dietary supplements to certain plants, crop quality improvements will have the potential to reduce losses in transport and to prolong shelf-life."}]},{"head":"Not all risks are equal","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"These persuasive benefits are weighed down by potential risks -often presented to the public as fact, despite the very The difficulty in assessing these and other risks is that there is very little sound experimental work on which to base conclusions. Uncertainty pervades the food industry: food giants like McDonald's fry GM-free potatoes in vegetable oil made from GM crops. Similar ambiguities abound amongst consumers who see organic products as alternatives to GMOs, unaware that the next generation of higher-yielding organic crops will need to undergo intensive modification and selec-tion, if not engineering. Traditional breeding simply will not keep up with market requirements."}]},{"head":"Genetic modification","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grains of truth","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Regulation, not avoidance","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"We are well into the engineering chapter of genetic modification and it is difficult to see what purpose would be saved by turning back the pages and trying to introduce bans or suspensions. Extensive research is underway (see box) and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research recently made a bold call for increased public and private biotechnology research. The importance of African involvement in GMO research has been widely stated (see box) -Jamaica recently expressed similar concerns -and will require investment in research infrastructures."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"An even greater challenge for Third World countries will be to set up and run regulatory mechanisms for GMO research and applications, a hard task even in the West. Exacting standards are required for laboratory testing and releases, assessing environmental impact and evaluating food safety. As well as raising complex issues of institutional development, finance and control, the operation of regulatory bodies in ACP countries will require, according to the Overseas Development Institute of London, access to regulatory and market information from all over the world. A recent seminar of the South Pacific Commission stressed the need for inter-country cooperation."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Information sharing is also key to the Biosafety Convention signed early in 2000 by 150 signatory states of the World Convention on Biodiversity. It allows a country to dictate how it adopts GMOs (if at all) by denying entry to any product labelled as \"may contain GMOs\" under the protectionist 'precautionary principle'. However, the Convention still needs to be fully harmonised with the rules of the World Trade Organisation."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"In this era of globalisation, it is not only governments and their alter egos in civil society who make the running. Virtually all commercial GM research is in the hands of six multinational corporations: Astra-Zeneca, Aventis, Dow, Dupont, Monsanto and Novartis. Whilst this worries some people, there is a growing opinion that such giants can in reality be more accountable -to the market and to shareholders -than many a government or NGO."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"There must be dialogues and partnerships on GMOs between public and private research and between government and civil society, in ACP countries as elsewhere. There is no evil intent on the part of any stakeholder, but there is much at stake. As one GMO campaigner, Jeanot Minla Mfou'ou of the Cameroonian group 'Agriculture -Farmers -Modernisation' put it, it is a question of \"Food for all\". And \"the means of production\" for all too, Jeanot? "}]},{"head":"We are centres of excellence too","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Mother Nature knew best?"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"True, Mother Nature has indeed always looked after the genetic development of organisms: and has produced some pretty nasty ones along the way, which we tend to forget. Farmers, plant and animal scientists have produced crop plants and farm animals using genetic modification of a kind: but the important factor in modern genetic engineering is that organisms can be created that would never occur in nature or as a result of using 'traditional' methodologies."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The current phase of modification is based on our knowledge about DNA, the genetic material of all cells, which has increased phenomenally since the 1960s."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Modern genetic modification refers to the insertion of an alien gene into a commercially valuable plant to give it useful new traits such as a tolerance of herbicides or the ability to kill insects that feed on it."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The gene in question may come from another plant, an animal, a virus or a bacterium; it is this 'unnatural' aspect that worries many people."}]},{"head":"Culture","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Placing gene in the plant genome","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Photo FAO"}]},{"head":"• Genetic modification","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock without frontiers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"s "}]},{"head":"What future for perennial crops?","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"s The decisive factors for investing in perennial crops such as coffee, rubber, oil palm or fruit trees will be the central topic of an international conference being organised by the Government of Côte d'Ivoire, CIRAD and the Free University of Amsterdam. In brief"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"s How about producing high quality coconut oil at home in 1 1 / 2 hours? Dan Etherington, an Australian agricultural economist, has developed Direct Micro Expelling (DME), a process using a cold pressing unit for making virgin coconut oil. More than 70 units are now operational in ACP States."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Whilst working in Mozambique in 1992, Etherington was asked by a village soap maker to come up with a method of producing oil directly from his community's coconuts. Etherington later discovered that the people of a Tuvalu island had long ago developed a way of cold pressing from sun dried coconuts. He refined the technology to make it suitable for all weather conditions and units are now marketed through the Kokonut Pacific company."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"One unit is in Samoa, where the Women in Business Foundation has supported and monitored a DME programme for some years. Nine families have been given a DME unit and family members have been trained to operate it. The two best sites currently produce 200 litres of coconut oil a week. Value-added products include soap, insect repellent and cooking oils. The residue goes for baking and livestock feed."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Experience shows that operating a DME unit requires 3 to 5 persons and functions best if vested in a family rather than a communal setting."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Each DME kit costs US$3,100 ( E 3,260) and consists of a press, electric graters, various acces-sories and a detailed trainer's manual. Building material for a shed and a solar drier for the copra is also available for about US$ 1,200 ( E 1,260). Shipping of the equipment, which weighs around 60 kg, is not included. "}]},{"head":"A glut of coconut? Milking an opportunity in Mali","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Less cholesterol and sugar, more minerals, Vitamin C and protein than cow's milk","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"s Locally produced fresh camel milk and sweetened yoghurt are now on sale in Timbuctu, Mali. A group of Touareg families have formed the Salamett Albadan association and run a herd of camels exclusively dedicated to milk production. The project started in 1998 with an investment of FCFA 2 million ( E 3048), ten milking camels and ten calves."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"Every morning the animals are led to their pasture several kilometers outside the town, and they are milked when they are brought back in. Daily herd yields average 15 litres. There are two distributors who deliver 14 litres of fresh milk (at FCFA 500 -E 0.76-a litre) and 15 litres of yoghurt to customers' homes. They have recently started to sell cow's milk from a neighbouring cooperative, which is pasteurised in the Salamett Albadan plant. The enterprise is performing well, and is expanding: it employs four people and generates a net monthly profit of FCFA 165,000 ( E 252). It has invested in a second herd and has plans to start a second pasteurising unit. More improvements will be necessary though, in particular in raising milk yields (one herd of ten animals should be able to produce 50 litres per day), and monitoring microbiological quality. The satellite image showed that the nutrients were not coming solely from agricultural runoff, but largely from lowlying, deforested \"riparian\" zones (meaning the banks of rivers and lakes) and at river mouths. One coping strategy focuses on reintroducing trees in these areas."}]},{"head":"Women and land","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"s More ACP women have won the right to own land -one of the breakthroughs needed for women to reap the fruits of their work in agriculture. The United Nations conference 'Women 2000', held in New York in early June 2000, reviewed progress by member states on achieving gender equality. The governments of Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe all reported on new legislation recognising this right."}]},{"head":"Tsetse sits down and dies","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"s Until recently, trypanosomiasis transmitted by the tsetse fly was the most widespread animal disease on the island of Zanzibar. Pesticides had had little effect. Then it was decided to release 8 million sterile male flies over a period of four years, and this stopped the insects' reproduction. Now, thanks to the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), not a single tsetse fly is reported on the island. -FAO"}]},{"head":"• In brief","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"s Over 2500 plants punish their predators by producing poison when they are eaten by catalysing cyanogenic glycosides. The best known is cassava. Analysing and determining the levels of toxicity in plants is often constrained by a lack of required chemicals, equipment, money or expertise. Together with colleagues, Howard Bradbury from the Australian National University has developed a range of practical kits that can be used by an unskilled person for looking at cyanide levels in cassava roots and products, as well as other cyanogenic plant parts such as sorghum leaves, bamboo shoots and flax seed meal. The general principle is that a small sample of the plant or product is placed in a container with filter paper containing the required catalyst and a piece of picrate paper that reveals the amount of poison produced. The bottle is left overnight at room temperature. Next morning, when the breakdown to poisonous gas is completed, the colour of the picrate paper indicates the level of toxicity."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The researchers have also developed a similar kit for determining the amount of cyanide ingested after consuming cassava or other cyanogenic plants. Ingested cyanide is converted in the body to thiocyanate, which is excreted in the urine."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The kits are available free of charge to health workers and agriculturalists in developing countries, through funding from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)."}]},{"head":"J H Bradbury Division of Botany & Zoology Australian National University","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Fax: +61 2 6249 0775 Email: [email protected]"},{"index":2,"size":247,"text":"The colour betrays the poison s Those old 'enemies' Town and Country, whose relationships are often tinged with rivalry and scorn, actually have very dynamic links affecting each other, as much in the North as in the South. It was in order to study their mutual linkages that a seminar was held in Senegal from 26 to 28 January 2000 on \"Ruralurban interactions: the flows and organisation of resources\". It was organised by the Euro-African Association for the Anthropology of Development and Social Change (APAD), IRD (the former ORSTOM) and CTA. One hundred sociologists, economists, agronomists and geographers from twelve West African and European countries came together in the northern city of Saint-Louis, a town with a key role in the country's policy of decentralisation, itself a major topic at the meeting. The seminar aimed at strengthening exchanges between Southern and Northern researchers on the theme of rural-urban interaction in Africa, forming working groups and identifying lines of research and methodologies for their joint studies. Among the topics singled out for special attention was the 'return' to the countryside of prodigal sons and daughters, sometimes from the diaspora, and the impact of their new ideas and unused capital funds. These non-farming rural dwellers, who are often viewed with suspicion, are keen to inject new life into rural areas. Migrants returning to their home country often have an important role to play as hubs in the agrifood chain, a factor, which is stimulating the growth of secondary towns."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The expanding process of 'ruralising' the town, where agriculture and small-scale livestock development is taking hold merited special interest, as did issues of land tenure, in which increased urbanisation is pitting the State against traditional land authorities, migrants against native, farmers against herders, and young against old."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"In examining governance and local development, the process of decentralisation, which is intended to improve town-country links, may also rekindle the old fire between local urban and rural bodies, since authority has sometimes been transferred to them without the concomitant means to exercise it."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"These dynamic relationships between town and country, expressed in the mobility of goods, people and resources, have considerable implications in terms of behaviour, profound change and improvements, and will feed more study."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"The main contributions and case studies of the seminar will be published in the APAD bulletin. There they find recommendations about sugar varieties and information about soil, fertilisers, weather data, marketing, market prices and links all over the world."},{"index":7,"size":377,"text":"For those farmers who cannot obtain the computers, a network of fifty cooperatives with Web access will do searches on request, for a small fee. They put together a technical dossier for the interested farmer. There is no stopping progress!  One method is to raise fish, preferably tilapia, in the shrimp ponds, in a netted-off area comprising ten per cent of the total area. This increases the amount of nitrogen in the water, which encourages the growth of less toxic micro-organisms than normal. Then air is pumped into the water through a series of pipes; this helps plankton to grow, and improves the shrimps' diet; it also helps the water flow around, bringing in less polluted effluents from the edge towards the centre of the pond. There a central collector removes them regularly. The result: shrimps grow almost as fast as in the traditional intensive system, but their survival rate has risen from 70% to 85%, and the mangrove ponds are no longer asphyxiated. Choosing a plot close to a riverbed, Kasimo subdivided his garden into many smaller raised beds about 15 cms high, 1 1 / 2 m wide and 6 m long. Raised beds, shaped by digging deep to raise the soil, have good soil texture and drainage properties, temperature regulation is optimal and weeding requirements are limited. The raised soil is then slightly compacted and sprinkled with water to make the soil firm. Before the soil dries, square holes measuring about 10-15cm wide and 20 cm deep are carefully made, using a plastic container. Compost is then added in each hole and the bed is left to dry completely for one day. Before transplanting vegetable seedlings into the holes, some water is put in to them. This gives enough moisture for the new seedlings to start growing. After planting, each hole is mulched using grass. The holes are watered once a week, thus conserving water. The plant canopy limits the undergrowth of weeds and also reduces evaporation from the soil. Finally, manure is applied very efficiently, since it is put directly where the crops' roots are. In a good season Kasimo is able to sell US$295 ( E 310) worth of vegetables from a plot of less than 1/8 acre (500 m 2 ). "}]},{"head":"Karité gets organised in Burkina s","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The growing karité sector in Burkina Faso is shaping itself up to maximise returns for producers, processors and traders. Among the steps underway are the provision of manual presses to groups of women producers (since the return on karité butter is better than on the bean), setting up a sales office with a presence on the Web, and trade missions to Europe. "}]},{"head":"Alexandre","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Functional literacy","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Plugging into the energy grid Publications s A vet can cure a single cow and also an entire herd, but nationwide control and eradication of livestock diseases are the responsibility of national veterinary services. Whether it concerns a sudden local outbreak of an insect-borne disease or a slumbering killer from a neighbouring country, it is important to be prepared. FAO recently published two manuals that can be of help. One manual (number 6) provides valuable information on the prin-ciples and coordination of preparedness planning for animal diseases. It explains how to organise veterinary services during emergencies and how to set up early warning and early reaction systems. It deals with the problems of remote and marginalised areas, explains the use of radio stations and other media, and shows how to set up specific disease contingency plans."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Special attention is warranted in case rinderpest emerges in a country that had been previously declared free of the disease and infection. For this disease in particular, FAO has published another manual (number 7) that provides information on the nature of rinderpest and on the principles and strategic options relating to the control and elimination of the disease. It provides guidelines for individual countries to formulate their national policy on rinderpest control and eradication. "}]},{"head":"Be prepared for livestock diseases","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"s In most ACP countries, largescale expansion of irrigation is not a significant option: water is not available, and diverting rivers or pumping groundwater is expensive and impractical. Furthermore, whilst more than 80% of the world's agriculture is rainfed, in Africa the average is 95%. Hence the importance of making better use of surface and sub-surface runoff water."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"In Alternative Irrigation, Christopher Barrow describes runoff agriculture as the practice of concentrating runoff for crop cultivation, pastures and trees. He covers practically all tillage methods, planting patterns, and techniques that delay and retain runoff, increase infiltration and counter erosion. He adds other techniques such as constructing ridges, small dams, hedges and terraces, fog harvesting and flood and swamp agriculture. It is a persuasive package that shows that, by being rooted in soil and water conservation principles, runoff agriculture is a sustainable and low-cost alternative for improving subsistence and smallholder farms."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Barrow introduces not only the techniques and strategies, but also the challenges of this approach. The effects of runoff measures are often only tangible in the long run, and although the costs of the techniques are low, so are the profits. For commercial producers, returns on investments in irrigation are more profitable, but that is not always available. More support is needed for runoff agriculture, but with its low returns, such support will have to come from the public sector, governments and NGOs. They now have an interesting and important book to read first. "}]},{"head":"• Publications","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"s Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the incidence of cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD) in Uganda and, more lately, in Kenya and Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Whereas it has always been prevalent in some areas and its characteristic leaf symptoms are regarded as a normal feature of cassava plants, it has now become a pandemic and requires more thorough control measures."}]},{"head":"This detailed overview of The Current Pandemic of Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease in East","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Africa and its Control is written in a lengthy, but accessible and conversational style. It reviews in documentary style the spread of the disease, and early efforts to develop CMD-resistant varieties and the rehabilitation of plots. One such measure is to reduce inoculum pressure in the area by removing severely diseased plantings before introducing \"clean\" planting material."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Overall, the clarity of the book will help the extension worker and scientist (who should, it urges, be involved through CMD control measures) to pursue their long task of controlling this scourge. They will need patience too: the book warns that \"there are likely to be acute problems and severe hardship over the next few years as the pandemic continues to spread and before adequate supplies of resistant material become available\". Sampling pests and taking action s For maths-minded readers familiar with pests and their interaction with crops, this book covers the statistical concepts of sampling in agricultural pest management. It focuses on how to obtain sample data from the field and how to use them in decisionmaking, where options include introducing natural enemies, spraying with pesticide, or adopting a wait-and-see approach. "}]},{"head":"Subsisting in the mountains","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"s Although, the term 'parklands' is widely used, it is somewhat confusing to find that it refers to a common African land-use system, whereby trees are deliberately retained on cultivated or recently fallowed land. Trees are part and parcel of the parklands farmingsystem, which is the most widespread agroforestry system in sub-Saharan Africa. It incorporates crop cultivation and animal production, and provides fuel, fodder, fruits and medicine from the trees."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan Africa reviews the status of our knowledge of these systems and the experiences relating to the biophysical, socio-economic and policy aspects of their management."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"It identifies research needs and possibilities for improving their management, conservation and development. The main emphasis is on West African parklands, with occasional references to other regions. "}]},{"head":"Africa's parklands","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Around 2.4 million people in the mountain areas of Papua New Guinea depend on subsistence farming. For a long time this way of farming has been avoided, and sometimes derided, by many authorities and 'developers' worldwide. Shifting cultivation and slash and burn techniques, in combination with population pressure, was leading to deforestation and soil degradation. The general belief was that investing in such a farming system wouldn't get us anywhere. Not so, say the authors of Subsistence agriculture improvement, whose practical manual has won many admirers since it was published 10 years ago. Now available to CTA's subscribers, it offers a worthy collection of ways to improve subsistence farming. It explains how to build an A-frame for making terraces and contour-ridges and how to recognise zinc deficiency in cit-rus, beans and potatoes. In between it provides information about composting, crafting, drying, cooking, planting and protecting. In addition it contains a section on commonly known plants for the mid-mountain subsistence garden. All in all, a manual useful for other tropical mountainous areas as well. Finally, Sally Shaw did a great job with the many attractive, clear and clarifying illustrations. "}]},{"head":"How to obtain these publications","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"s Know that feeling? All that faraway talk, even in your trusted Spore, about the new \"Information Age\" and how it is going to liberate everybody. It might still seem a long way away from the perspective of an ACP agriculturist."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"And yet, at each stage of our waking, working day, we find ourselves having to deal with information. Sometimes we do not have enough to take a wise decision, in which case the experts call us 'informationally deprived'. At other times we have too much information and are unable to pick out the right bits, in which case we are 'informationally overloaded'."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"It is a problem faced by any manager in a development organisation, and it is especially for these managers that Mike Powell, himself such a person, put together this dense work on Information Management for Development Organisations."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"For a reader who is professionally aware of information systems, the logic of libraries, computers and personnel policy as well as what really happens in the village, this is a comforting and informative guide through a sometimes bewildering area. Terms like 'information architecture', 'mapping and monitoring' and 'learning organisations' rain down on you, but if you can handle that, you will find this book a sound professional companion as you draw up and implement your detailed information policy."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"There are lighter sections of the book, where Powell shines in communicating common sense. If you want to understand the needs of your user, he says, don't just study them, socialise with them, go to social events, chat don't talk, listen don't gawk. It is a shame that he made some of his messages so hard to get at; they deserve to be shared among more people than the community of \"information professionals\". "}]},{"head":"Between us •","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The next steps T he CTA seminar 2000, held in Paris from 29 May to 2 June 2000, was the fifth milestone event in the history of CTA to involve all key stakeholders in shaping its major policy directions. Following on from the Montpellier I and II and Wageningen I and II seminars held in 1984, 1995, 1984and 1996 respectively, the Paris seminar had as its theme \"information for agricultural and rural development in ACP countries: new stakeholders, new media and priority themes\"."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Globalisation and the rapid growth and adoption of ICTs (information and communication technologies) were seen as the principal factors driving the need for CTA to modify its future role, programmes and priorities. The raft of stakeholders is widening: it includes producers, service-providers and processors, decision-makers and consumers. Collective organisations in the private sector (rural producers' associations and NGOs) have partly replaced the role formerly played by governments in the management of rural development and are now \"co-decision makers\". This has implications for their ICM (IC management) skills and resource needs and for their relationships with other stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Broader policies, stronger grassroots","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"In future, participants felt, the thematic content of CTA's work should include enhanced emphasis on strategic information for policy makers in the context of a broader and more cross-sectoral interpretation of agriculture and rural development. There are new needs for timely information regarding marketing and meteorological data and the mitigation and management of natural disasters. Whilst the concepts of \"mobilising civil society\" and \"strengthening national agricultural systems\" may require less emphasis, the promotion of mechanisms to support small farmers and grassroots organisations have become a priority. Other existing priorities should be retained. Finally, a new priority area covered ICTs themselves, a topic on which the seminar received significant input from the third consultative expert meeting of CTA's Observatory on ICTs, held the previous week in Wageningen. ICT applications should be enabled and encouraged, in part through greater accessibility, with appropriate combinations of new and conventional media. CTA should encourage ACP organisations to adopt a 'Web-readiness' strategy, and should encourage coordination of ICM policies among international development organisations."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Information management programmes need to strengthen the capacity of ACP partners to produce more food and develop more appropriate policies for food security and poverty reduction. More support for partner networks will be needed from CTA, so that they can play a more significant role in global networking."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The seminar was attended by more than 70 participants from almost 30 ACP countries and from other resource bodies. The availability of the full report will be announced in a later Spore. The seminar's recommendations will be taken into account in the formulation of CTA's new Strategic Plan (2001Plan ( -2005)).  "}]},{"head":"Recent advances I","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"n 1996 CTA drew up a five-year Mid-Term Plan (MTP) to help the Centre reorient its activities to reflect the changing needs of its ACP partners. By the end of 1999, CTA's programme had expanded considerably, comprising 228 separate projects, implemented through four technical departments. During the MTP implementation period, a clear trend has been an expansion of the range of projects and partners, in particular in 'non-State' sectors. The notion of partnership as a process which embraces the sharing of both risk and success has taken root, through approaches ranging from decentralisation of services to co-publishing with ACP publishers."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"A recent external evaluation of the MTP draws attention to the \"problem of dealing with a large number of stakeholders with different agendas and objectives\". Pointing out that the Centre's activities have been implemented with only limited increases in financial resources and no change in the overall staffing level of 40, the evaluation urges greater empowerment of staff."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Question 1: Are they doing well? -the Spore reader may ask. The evaluation thinks so, referring to a high level of appreciation among partners, in particular for their improved technical capacity, although goals such as reduced dependency on external support and financial autonomy have not been widely attained. Question 2: Could they do better? Yes! More focus is needed in targeting the poor (stated as the key beneficiaries of CTA's programmes), in measuring impact and in the sincere inclusion of gender issues."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Looking forward, the evaluators say CTA needs to make choices: breadth vs. focus; innovation vs. implementation; and proactive agenda-setting vs. reacting to demand. Perfectly timed for the current debates about policy development described on this page."}]},{"head":"LDU","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Phosphates galore: handle with care s Eduardo Miller Mendez, Director of the 'Société sénégalaise des phosphates' in Thiès, Senegal, has pointed out that we illustrated the article about phosphates on page 7 of Spore 86 with a photo of his company while \"the offending products mentioned in the article are from the company 'Industries chimiques du Sénégal'. Our company has been involved in the addition of phosphates to the soil with a(nother) product known as 'Phosphal', which is a calcium aluminium fertiliser\"."}]},{"head":"Pushing away threat to sweet potato","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"s Joseph Ndunguru of the Plant Protection Division in Mwanza, Tanzania, urges more action in dealing with sweet potato virus disease (SPVD). \"Farmers attempt to control SPVD by selecting disease-free planting material. However, selection is difficult, because most farmers (90%) lack superior, resistant cultivars. The Uganda National Programme is breeding high-yield SPVD-resistant varieties.\" Work is also in progress, he adds \"to exploit local phy-tosanitation and cultural practices. Those international, regional and national bodies who do not believe in a miracle that SPVD will just disappear by itself should pool their resources to support the effort totame the disease in East Africa.\""}]},{"head":"Health is the first wealth","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"s The article on organic agriculture in Spore 85 drew a lot of comments, including one from Dr Gezahegu Shirmako in Hagere-Selam, Ethiopia. He is dismayed that 'nowadays, teratological disorders [deformations] among domestic animals are mushrooming and the numbers of bees roaming around and fish in the water are gradually declining. The environment and the agro-ecosystem are in the process of spoilage, and human health is deteriorating. Inorganic agriculture is one of the causes of all this, and a safe future has to be built through organic agriculture. Let us fertilise the land organically, to harvest healthy and sound produce.'"}]},{"head":"Keep on planting!","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"s Joseph Feulefack, coordinator of the Forest Tree and Environment Club in Kumba, south-west Cameroon tells us of FOTEC's work in creating an 'arboretum' of trees as a teaching aid for schools. Since 1994 \"more than 3000 trees were planted, from 33 different local tropical forest species, over 26 plots covering 2 hectares. The success rate is about 78%. This has reduced the budget needed for study visits to the Forestry Department. Students now have next to their classrooms tree species that used to be studied hundreds of kilometres away.\""}]},{"head":"Spore reader Joseph Feulefack, coordinator of FOTEC, welcomes a new student with a two-year old sapling of the Ceiba pentandria tree, also known as Fromager.","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Spreading the words of Spore","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Greening in the Caribbean?"},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"s T Goguey, Head of the Fruit Trees Programme of CIRAD, France, is keen to correct our news item on citrus greening or Huanglongbing in Spore 82: \"Regarding your information about the arrival of greening in the Caribbean, I would like to point out that it is the vector of this disease which has arrived, and not the disease itself. Greening is one of the most serious c i t r u s diseases, and is caused by the bacterium Liberobacter. The bacteria are transmitted by psyllid insects or biting suckers (Trioza erytreae and Diaphorina citri), which feed on citrus tree sap. Greening causes costly damage […] It is not present in the Caribbean but the D. citri psyllid has been indentified in Guadeloupe. Its arrival in a zone free of greening means that there is a potential risk of the disease spreading if it is released by accident…\" I n Ghana, the government has been responsible for the provision of veterinary services to animal owners freely or at subsidised levels since independence. However, there have been arguments against continued free provision or subsidy because the government is facing budgetary and financial difficulties. Another argument is that over-employment is over-extending the ability of government to provide quality services, and that some of those employed by the government have to go into the private sector to ease the burden. A project to help privatise veterinary services was launched in 1993, encouraging veterinarians to go into private practice. However, one factor critical to the success of the privatisation effort is the willingness of livestock farmers or animal owners to pay the full cost for animal health services. Their willingness to pay is to a large extent influenced by the livestock market structure, since services have to be paid for with cash in most cases."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"There is, though, no well-defined livestock marketing structure in Ghana. Livestock producers and consumers are therefore at the mercy of middlemen whose aim is to maximise profits by buying animals cheaply and selling meat at high prices to consumers. No formal market structures exist at present. Sometime back, the government set up a Meat Marketing Board that was charged with buying livestock from farmers and processing the meat to sell at reasonably competitive prices. However, the Board is now defunct partly because of low farmer patronage."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"One reason was that farmers were not paid on time and payments were on a carcass weight basis, which was not attractive. The alternative was for livestock owners to sell on the hoof to middlemen for ready cash."}]},{"head":"Middlemen too dominant","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The middlemen -they are mainly butchers and influential people from livestock producing communities -have a monopoly and therefore dictate what to pay for animals and what the price of meat is. Livestock farmers are not well organised, and therefore lack strong bargaining power to deal with the hegemony of the middlemen. If the prevailing market structure is left to stand, livestock farmers will continue to receive low prices for their animals and will therefore not have the financial power to pay for services rendered by private veterinarians. The effect is that private practice will not be profitable and will thus discourage other veterinarians from going in."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Another factor in the market structure with implications for privatisation of services is the value system of livestock owners. Farmers are more concerned about numbers than quality. They are reluctant to sell animals. Animals are therefore sold only when the farmers are in dire need of money or when there is drought or disease. This has serious implications. When animals are sold to get cash for a pressing need, farmers are willing to accept any price, sometimes well below the market value; they therefore lose substantially. Since they do not receive a fair price for their efforts, they tend to be unwilling to invest in their animals. The other implication is that when animals are sold during drought, or when they are in poor shape as a result of poor nutrition or disease, farmers are unable to demand good prices. There is therefore the need to put in place facilities to help farmers know when to cull animals and how to market their animals."}]},{"head":"Bring in premium prices","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"To help solve the problems of the market structure, livestock farmers should be encouraged to form livestock producer cooperatives, without political prodding or control. These cooperatives can provide inputs more cheaply (on the basis of economies of scale) and also help in marketing. They could also retain veterinarians on a part-time or full-time basis, which could encourage the privatisation efforts. Such an association could also lobby for fair marketing legislation, especially where monopolies abound."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Another recommendation for market restructuring is to introduce payment of premium prices for quality. At the moment there is no price differentiation to encourage production of quality goods that will fetch higher prices. There is an urgent need to restructure the market so that farmers will be paid for quality products and will be more willing to invest in their animals knowing that they will be rewarded with higher prices. Once they receive premium prices, they may be more willing to pay for services like health, knowing that they stand to benefit in the end."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"The last recommendation is to educate farmers on the need to keep quality animals instead of keeping large numbers for social prestige. This can be done through livestock producer associations and through premium pricing. It may be helpful to work with rural anthropologists/ sociologists to help redirect societal values from quantity to quality. These, it is believed, will help in privatisation of veterinary services in the long term. \" livestock farmers should form livestock producer cooperatives \""},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"In many developing countries there has been, and still is, a strong move for the government to give up or reduce its involvement in ventures that the market can take care of. The ideological basis for this hinges on the belief that the government should not provide goods and services that the private sector is willing and able to provide. Rather, the government should be concerned with providing goods and services that are public in nature but have the potential for market failure. This has been behind the moves for privatisation of veterinary services all over the world."}]},{"head":"Veterinary services privatisation","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"We need better values"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Traditional plant breeding techniques to produce new varieties are slow and continuous affairs, involving mass gene transfers between plants. Since the 1970s scientists have been able to engineer the genetic composition of plants by inserting a specific gene from another organism. The feasibility of producing 'transgenic' plants was illustrated in May 1998, when China announced the development of a frost-resistant tomato plant which had been produced by SPORE 88 • PAGE 4 "},{"text":" Photo Orstom/L. Emperaire "},{"text":"s After a boom decade in the 1980s, world production of cultivated shrimp has fallen sharply due to intensive and polluting methods of cultivation, which encourage diseases (see Spore 82, page 4 & 5). Some say it would be best to stop such methods. But the question arises, what would happen to the shrimp farmers who have invested in the sector? In the Philippines, three new simpler methods are being tested which are less polluting. "},{"text":" @cabi.org And now the video: s The video to accompany the book of the participatory Promoting Farmer Innovation programme (see Spore 86) is now available for US$ 15 or E 15.80 RELMA, PO Box 63403, Nairobi, Kenya. Fax: +254 2 52 07 62 Email: [email protected] Growing in Malawi? s A new quarterly magazine on horticulture has earned a spot on the reading table. In one year, Horticulture in Malawi has developed into a full colour, informative and practical magazine, with information on spices, herbs, vegetables and fruits: how to grow them, sell them, process or prepare them. (see also Spore 82, p 11) 50MWK • E 1.10 (in Malawi) Horticulture in Malawi PO Box 31131, Lilongwe 3, Malawi Fax: +265 780 413 Email: guenterbaumanngtz@ malawi.net Publications • "},{"text":" The opinions expressed in Viewpoint are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of CTA.Dr Paa Kobina Turkson is senior lecturer and acting head of the Animal Science Department of the School of Agriculture at the University of Cape Coast in Ghana. His doctoral thesis was on privatisation in Ghana and Jamaica. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Biogas plants fed with waste cannot meet growing rural energy needs. More research is needed on gasification and fuels from energy sources planted for the purpose.  No energy, no harvest • No energy, no harvest • Agriculture is not Agriculture is not part of the mind- part of the mind- set of most ener- set of most ener- gy planners. In gy planners. In most ACP coun- most ACP coun- tries, it accounts tries, it accounts for less than for less than 4.5% of energy 4.5% of energy consumption consumption See page 10 for Links on Energy Information See page 10 for Links on Energy Information Linking food security Linking food security and energy and energy In April 2001, the UN Commission on Sus- In April 2001, the UN Commission on Sus- tainable Development will draw up new tainable Development will draw up new global guidelines for sustainable energy global guidelines for sustainable energy policies. These points of key interest to policies. These points of key interest to ACP agriculture (see article) are already ACP agriculture (see article) are already on the agenda: on the agenda: • diversification of energy sources • diversification of energy sources • security of supply • security of supply • rural electrification • rural electrification • solar, wind and biomass-based tech- • solar, wind and biomass-based tech- nologies nologies SPORE 88 • PAGE 2 SPORE 88 • PAGE 2  "},{"text":"The world has listened to several years of acrimonious and zealous debate about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in which some politicians, scientists, consumers and corporations have done little justice to truth or to themselves. It is time for them to stop. Let us move on, indeed back, to the core business of making science work safely and effectively for us -for the ACP producer and the consumer.  Capacity building Capacity building UNESCO's Biotechnology Action Council UNESCO's Biotechnology Action Council reported in 1998 that agricultural biotech- reported in 1998 that agricultural biotech- nology research was underway in 19 coun- nology research was underway in 19 coun- tries in sub-Saharan Africa. Whilst a few tries in sub-Saharan Africa. Whilst a few laboratories in South Africa, Nigeria, and laboratories in South Africa, Nigeria, and perhaps Kenya, have the capacity to pro- perhaps Kenya, have the capacity to pro- duce transgenic plants, they lack the abili- duce transgenic plants, they lack the abili- ty to «commercialise» the product, or to ty to «commercialise» the product, or to ensure that these plants reach the end user, ensure that these plants reach the end user, i.e. the African farmer. To bridge this gap, i.e. the African farmer. To bridge this gap, it is necessary to form partnerships with it is necessary to form partnerships with seed companies, producer organisations or seed companies, producer organisations or government institutions which can ensure government institutions which can ensure that the sophisticated technology can be that the sophisticated technology can be delivered in the form of the most well- delivered in the form of the most well- known and accepted technology known to known and accepted technology known to farmers -the seed. farmers -the seed. Africa's opportunity Africa's opportunity \"The African continent, more than any \"The African continent, more than any other, urgently needs agricultural biotech- other, urgently needs agricultural biotech- nology, including transgenic crops, to nology, including transgenic crops, to improve food production. African countries improve food production. African countries need to think and operate as stakeholders, need to think and operate as stakeholders, rather than accepting the 'victim mentality' rather than accepting the 'victim mentality' created in Europe. Africa has the local created in Europe. Africa has the local germplasm, the indigenous knowledge, germplasm, the indigenous knowledge, local field ecosystems for product develop- local field ecosystems for product develop- ment, capacities and infrastructure required ment, capacities and infrastructure required by foreign multinational companies. by foreign multinational companies. Africa's crop production per unit area of Africa's crop production per unit area of land is the lowest in the world. The pro- land is the lowest in the world. The pro- duction of sweet potato, a staple crop, is duction of sweet potato, a staple crop, is 6 tonnes per hectare. There is the poten- 6 tonnes per hectare. There is the poten- tial to double African production if viral tial to double African production if viral diseases are controlled using transgenic diseases are controlled using transgenic technology.\" technology.\" -Florence Wambugu, Director, ISAAA -Florence Wambugu, Director, ISAAA  "},{"text":"Five steps of genetic modification Extraction of the gene of interest Removal of plasmid from bacterium Insertion of gene with promoter and marker   Illustration S. Dessert/Science & Vie Illustration S. Dessert/Science & Vie considerable lack of experimental considerable lack of experimental evidence. There is an risk of evidence. There is an risk of genetic pollution where GE genetic pollution where GE crops contaminate neighbouring crops contaminate neighbouring non-GE crops. Here the fear of non-GE crops. Here the fear of small farmers is that GE crops will small farmers is that GE crops will destroy their own traditional destroy their own traditional seed supply systems, a con- seed supply systems, a con- cern that must be cern that must be addressed. Behind the addressed. Behind the debate on seed supply debate on seed supply is the issue of owner- is the issue of owner- ship, of indigenous ship, of indigenous intellectual property intellectual property rights. This goes rights. This goes beyond current beyondcurrent GMO concerns, GMOconcerns, and is being resolved and is being resolved at global governance at global governance level, through multi- level, through multi- party stakeholder dialogues party stakeholder dialogues under United Nations aus- under United Nations aus- pices.  pices.  "},{"text":"To know more:  Biotechnology Advisory Center Biotechnology Advisory Center Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) Box 2142, S-103 14 Stockholm Box 2142, S-103 14 Stockholm Sweden Sweden Fax: +46 8 723 03 48 Fax: +46 8 723 03 48 Website: www.sei.se Website: www.sei.se International Service for the Acquisition of International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA AfriCenter), Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA AfriCenter), Regional African Office, c/o CIP Regional African Office, c/o CIP PO Box 25171 PO Box 25171 Nairobi Nairobi Kenya. Kenya. Fax: +254 2 631 599 Fax: +254 2 631 599  "},{"text":" The need to encourage more professional exchanges on a professional exchanges on a regional basis was one of the regional basis was one of the key recommendations arising key recommendations arising from a study visit on livestock from a study visit on livestock and the meat trade in West and the meat trade in West and Central Africa, organised and Central Africa, organised by CTA in Burkina Faso and by CTA in Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire at the end of Côte d'Ivoire at the end of March 2000. The 19 March 2000. The 19 participants, who were from participants, who were from the livestock sector and the livestock sector and governmental bodies in six governmental bodies in six countries, visited various countries, visited various markets and studied issues of markets and studied issues of market modernisation, the market modernisation, the excesses of middlemen (see excesses of middlemen (see also Viewpoint, page 16), also Viewpoint, page 16), marketing, finance, marketing, finance, transborder payments and transborder payments and transport, and taxation. The transport, and taxation. The livestock trade is the best- livestock trade is the best- established sector with regard established sector with regard to regional trade. As a model to regional trade. As a model for other sectors, many for other sectors, many participants thought it participants thought it deserved encouragement, deserved encouragement, through more training and a through more training and a reduction in customs duties. reduction in customs duties.  "},{"text":"Farmers go surfing in Mauritius Valued nuts inventory s From times immemorial Canarium spp. nuts (\"Nangai\"  Canarium spp. nuts (\"Nangai\" in Vanuatu) have been  in Vanuatu) have been selected, tended and cultivated  selected, tended and cultivated in Melanesia for their  in Melanesia for their abundant and tasty nuts, which  abundant and tasty nuts, which are also sold as confectionary  are also sold as confectionary and as source of oil. However,  and as source of oil. However, their genetic and cultivated  their genetic and cultivated diversity is under threat due to  diversity is under threat due to logging, changing food  logging, changing food production systems, lack of  production systems, lack of replanting and loss of  replanting and loss of ethnobotanical knowledge.  ethnobotanical knowledge. The South Pacific Regional  The South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic  Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) has just  Resources (SPRIG) has just ended a targeted survey and  ended a targeted survey and collection of nut morphotypes  collection of nut morphotypes of Canarium indicum and C.  of Canarium indicum and C. harveyi on Vanuatu in order to  harveyi on Vanuatu in order to conserve germplasm in-and ex-  conserve germplasm in-and ex- situ. Seedlings of selected trees  situ. Seedlings of selected trees are now being propagated at a  are now being propagated at a field station of the Ministry of  field station of the Ministry of Forestry. (See also related news  Forestry. (See also related news item in Spore 85, p. 7)  item in Spore 85, p. 7) Source: Pacific Islands Forests  Source: Pacific Islands Forests & Trees, March 2000  & Trees, March 2000 Green fingers get  Green fingers get professional  professional s As part of a programme to  s As part of a programme to improve horticultural  improve horticultural production in Marsabit in  production in Marsabit in northern Kenya, the Ministry of  northern Kenya, the Ministry of Agriculture and GTZ have  Agriculture and GTZ have organised training for  organised training for \"horticulture service  \"horticulture service providers\". So far, eight people  providers\". So far, eight people have been trained and are from: Syfia 133, February 2000 have been trained and arefrom: Syfia 133, February 2000 working, on a cash payment basis, with neighbouring producers. Their training covered diagnosing and MSIRI Réduit, Mauritius Fax: + 230 454 19 71 working, on a cash payment basis, with neighbouring producers. Their training covered diagnosing andMSIRI Réduit, Mauritius Fax: + 230 454 19 71 treating diseases on flowers, Email: [email protected] treating diseases on flowers,Email: [email protected] fruit and vegetables, and Website: msiri.intnet.mu fruit and vegetables, andWebsite: msiri.intnet.mu handling plants with organic or  handling plants with organic or no-risk chemical substances.  no-risk chemical substances. They are provided with basic  They are provided with basic equipment of clothing, tools  equipment of clothing, tools and plant health products. A  and plant health products. A similar programme has been  similar programme has been started with beekeeping.  started with beekeeping. Kioko Mutuku  Kioko Mutuku Ministry of Agriculture  Ministry of Agriculture PO Box 54  PO Box 54 Marsabit, Kenya  Marsabit, Kenya Let's get together and  Let's get together and feel all right  feel all right s A computer-mediated  s A computer-mediated information system was  information system was launched in May 2000 for the  launched in May 2000 for the benefit of some 50,000 small  benefit of some 50,000 small farmers in Jamaica. It will  farmers in Jamaica. It will provide them with better  provide them with better access to useful, timely and  access to useful, timely and accurate agricultural market  accurate agricultural market information. The emphasis is  information. The emphasis is on domestic food crops.  on domestic food crops. Operated by the Rural  Operated by the Rural Agricultural Development  Agricultural Development Authority, the project plans to  Authority, the project plans to share information with the  share information with the Jamaican Export Association,  Jamaican Export Association, Agri-Business Counsel and the  Agri-Business Counsel and the Jamaica Agriculture Society  Jamaica Agriculture Society (a new CTA partner, see  (a new CTA partner, see Between Us, p. 14).  Between Us, p. 14).  "},{"text":"• In brief Zaï and the half-moon  s Two techniques -zaï (an The Burkinabé researcher replacing the scarce manure, or s Two techniques -zaï (anThe Burkinabé researcherreplacing the scarce manure, or ancestral method of the Mossi in Robert Zougmoré had the idea of even scarcer chemical fertilisers, ancestral method of the Mossi inRobert Zougmoré had the idea ofeven scarcer chemical fertilisers, Burkina Faso, mentioned in combining the two methods and with other organic matter such as Burkina Faso, mentioned incombining the two methods andwith other organic matter such as Spore 87, page 15) and      harvest wastes and com- Spore 87, page 15) andharvest wastes and com- 'half-moon' (which is very current in Cape Verde) -are well-known measures Crusted surface a. Cross-section Zaï earth moved  post. According to farmers approach, it required more who had tried out this 'half-moon' (which is very current in Cape Verde) -are well-known measuresCrusted surface a. Cross-sectionZaïearth movedpost. According to farmers approach, it required more who had tried out this against soil degradation in      work, but yields rose. Sur- against soil degradation inwork, but yields rose. Sur- arid and semi-arid zones.      face water was retained arid and semi-arid zones.face water was retained The zaï method is used on crusted soils and consists  silt 30 50-100 cm 30 better, and soil quality improved. Termites, nor- The zaï method is used on crusted soils and consistssilt3050-100 cm30better, and soil quality improved. Termites, nor- of digging small hollows at b. Positions    mally such awesome ene- of digging small hollows atb. Positionsmally such awesome ene- regular intervals, filling them with manure and covering them with a thin layer of earth. They are sown at the time of the first rains. The half-moon method is used on sloping land where the soil dug out from the hollows is built up around them to form small dikes. Illustration Louma productions from Rochette 50-100 50-100 in aligned rows in staggered rows Slope @messrs.gov.bf mies, lent a helping hand, by excavating their subter-ranean galleries, which allowed water to penetrate the soils more deeply. R Zougmoré INERA, 03 BP 7192, Ouagadougou 03 Burkina Faso Fax: +226 34 02 71 Email: robert.zougmore regular intervals, filling them with manure and covering them with a thin layer of earth. They are sown at the time of the first rains. The half-moon method is used on sloping land where the soil dug out from the hollows is built up around them to form small dikes.Illustration Louma productions from Rochette50-10050-100in aligned rows in staggered [email protected] mies, lent a helping hand, by excavating their subter-ranean galleries, which allowed water to penetrate the soils more deeply. R Zougmoré INERA, 03 BP 7192, Ouagadougou 03 Burkina Faso Fax: +226 34 02 71 Email: robert.zougmore       Kabre Kabre       01 BP 3440, 01 BP 3440,       Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso       Fax: +226 36 07 52 Fax: +226 36 07 52       Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]       Website: www.fasonet.bf/karite Website: www.fasonet.bf/karite       Zambian roses bloom Zambian roses bloom       s In a mere five years, Zambia s In a mere five years, Zambia       has become the third largest has become the third largest       African producer and exporter African producer and exporter       of cut flowers, catching up of cut flowers, catching up       with the leaders Kenya and with the leaders Kenya and       Zimbabwe. Currently 135 Zimbabwe. Currently 135       hectares are used for hectares are used for       floriculture, principally floriculture, principally       occupied by more than 40 occupied by more than 40       kinds of roses. Zambia exports kinds of roses. Zambia exports       more than 90% of its flowers more than 90% of its flowers       to the Netherlands. to the Netherlands.       Zambia Export Growers Zambia Export Growers       Association Association       Airfreight Village, International Airfreight Village, International       Airport, PO Box 310245, Lusaka, Airport, PO Box 310245, Lusaka,       Zambia Zambia       Fax: +260 1 271167 Fax: +260 1 271167       Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]  "},{"text":"Research helps a tree of gold Waste not, want not  Links •     Links • t the April 2000 meet-ing of the World Edu-cation Forum (WEF) A in Dakar, Senegal, the delegates of the World Bank in 1988. ADEA, 7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris, France -Fax: +33 1 45 03 39 65.  vrière. Elan-développement, 01 BP 12 86 Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso, and AEPJLN, Association des éditeurs et publi- t the April 2000 meet-ing of the World Edu-cation Forum (WEF) A in Dakar, Senegal, the delegatesof the World Bank in 1988. ADEA, 7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris, France -Fax: +33 1 45 03 39 65.vrière. Elan-développement, 01 BP 12 86 Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso, and AEPJLN, Association des éditeurs et publi- of 181 countries adopted a Unesco is also one of the  cateurs de journaux en langues of 181 countries adopted aUnesco is also one of thecateurs de journaux en langues framework of action for gov- founders of an innovative adult  nationales, 01 BP 1197, Oua- framework of action for gov-founders of an innovative adultnationales, 01 BP 1197, Oua- ernments to provide basic edu- education programme in Tan-  gadougou, Burkina Faso. In ernments to provide basic edu-education programme in Tan-gadougou, Burkina Faso. In cation for all. It emphasises the zania known as Integrated  Senegal the CPE centre for cation for all. It emphasises thezania known as IntegratedSenegal the CPE centre for need to reach all those who Community Based Adult Edu-  herder education is a public sec- need to reach all those whoCommunity Based Adult Edu-herder education is a public sec- continue to be excluded from cation. ICBAE was launched in  tor body, with customised func- continue to be excluded fromcation. ICBAE was launched intor body, with customised func- education opportunities. Press 1997/1998 with projects in  tional literacy services for farm- education opportunities. Press1997/1998 with projects intional literacy services for farm- service of the WEF: Email: four provinces, and seeks to Faso, the ALFAA method is ers and herdsmen. CPE -BP service of the WEF: Email:four provinces, and seeks toFaso, the ALFAA method isers and herdsmen. CPE -BP [email protected] -Website: respond to the literacy needs of used to teach French on the 10, Linguière, Senegal. Finally, [email protected] -Website:respond to the literacy needs ofused to teach French on the10, Linguière, Senegal. Finally, www.education.unesco.org/efa adults, basing itself on the suc- basis of functional literacy the International Council for www.education.unesco.org/efaadults, basing itself on the suc-basis of functional literacythe International Council for The World Bank and Unesco cessful concept of co-driven work, and is aimed at adults and Adult Education (Website: The World Bank and Unescocessful concept of co-drivenwork, and is aimed at adults andAdult Education (Website: (Website: www. unesco.org) are development. ICBAE, Anthony young people beyond school www.web.net/~icae) brings (Website: www. unesco.org) aredevelopment. ICBAE, Anthonyyoung people beyond schoolwww.web.net/~icae)brings among the international organ- Ntilema, Ministry of Education age. They are taught writing, together NGOs working on among the international organ-Ntilema, Ministry of Educationage. They are taught writing,together NGOs working on isations most active in support- and Culture, Dar es Salaam, reading and the use of local lan- proximity education with isations most active in support-and Culture, Dar es Salaam,reading and the use of local lan-proximity education with ing functional literacy pro- Tanzania. guages -Mooré and Dioula - adults, while the International ing functional literacy pro-Tanzania.guages -Mooré and Dioula -adults, while the International grammes in ACP countries. Among other local initiatives, and then a 'basic' French. The Reading Association has a grammes in ACP countries.Among other local initiatives,and then a 'basic' French. TheReading Association has a World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, some NGOs merit special method is provided by the multi-facetted pan-African pro- World Bank, 1818 H Street NW,some NGOs merit specialmethod is provided by themulti-facetted pan-African pro- Washington DC 10433, USA- attention. ALOZ, the Adult Lit- organisation Elan-développe- gramme under its strategy of Washington DC 10433, USA-attention. ALOZ, the Adult Lit-organisation Elan-développe-gramme under its strategy of Fax: +1 202 522 1500 Website: eracy Organisation of Zimbab- ment, which provides bilingual Reading for all, a Pan African Fax: +1 202 522 1500 Website:eracy Organisation of Zimbab-ment, which provides bilingualReading for all, a Pan African www.worldbank.org The Asso- we, develops functional literacy publications and advisory ser- voice for literacy. (IRA, PO Box www.worldbank.org The Asso-we, develops functional literacypublications and advisory ser-voice for literacy. (IRA, PO Box ciation for the Development of tools in Shona, Ndebele and vices, and is supported by the 8139 Newark, DE 19714-8139, ciation for the Development oftools in Shona, Ndebele andvices, and is supported by the8139 Newark, DE 19714-8139, Education in Africa, for exam- English. ALOZ, Box 4480, Swiss adult education NGO USA, fax : +1 302 731 1057 - Education in Africa, for exam-English. ALOZ, Box 4480,Swiss adult education NGOUSA, fax : +1 302 731 1057 - ple, was set up on the initiative Harare, Zimbabwe. In Burkina OEuvre suisse d'entraide ou- Website: www.reading. org). ple, was set up on the initiativeHarare, Zimbabwe. In BurkinaOEuvre suisse d'entraide ou-Website: www.reading. org). ou will often get the best information on the use and conservation of Y energy from people and organi- steam and other technologies for decentralised power pro-duction, and in their use in rural processing activities. microhydro power and wind turbines. IT Power, The Warren, Bramshill Road, Eversley, Hamp-shire RG27 0PR, England. - makers. As well as working on energy for the urban poor, energy sector reform and cli-mate change, it is specialised in ou will often get the best information on the use and conservation of Y energy from people and organi-steam and other technologies for decentralised power pro-duction, and in their use in rural processing activities.microhydro power and wind turbines. IT Power, The Warren, Bramshill Road, Eversley, Hamp-shire RG27 0PR, England. -makers. As well as working on energy for the urban poor, energy sector reform and cli-mate change, it is specialised in sations working in your specific DESI Power c/o Development Fax: +44 118 973 0820 - renewables, focussing on inno- sations working in your specificDESI Power c/o DevelopmentFax: +44 118 973 0820 -renewables, focussing on inno- field of interest, such as in the Alternatives, B-32 Tara Cres- Email: [email protected] vative mechanisms and best field of interest, such as in theAlternatives, B-32 Tara Cres-Email: [email protected] mechanisms and best manufacture of organic fertilis- cent, Qutab Institutional Area, A broader network of practi- practices (economic, infras- manufacture of organic fertilis-cent, Qutab Institutional Area,A broader network of practi-practices (economic, infras- er, vegetable canning or refrig- New Delhi, India -110016. - tioners is INFORSE, the Infor- tructural and social) for the er, vegetable canning or refrig-New Delhi, India -110016. -tioners is INFORSE, the Infor-tructural and social) for the erated transport.  mation Network delivery of rural energy ser- erated transport.mation Networkdelivery of rural energy ser- More general information  for Sustainable vices. AFREPREN, PO Box More general informationfor Sustainablevices. AFREPREN, PO Box on the generation of power for  Energy. It has 30979, Nairobi, Kenya. -Fax: on the generation of power forEnergy. It has30979, Nairobi, Kenya. -Fax: agricultural and rural applica-  skills in rural +254 2 561 464 -Email: agricultural and rural applica-skills in rural+254 2 561 464 -Email: tions is available from two  a p p l i c a t i o n s , [email protected] - tions is available from twoa p p l i c a t i o n s ,[email protected] - superbly located organisations,  with a special Website: www.afrepren.org superbly located organisations,with a specialWebsite: www.afrepren.org which are highly active in glob-  emphasis on re- The emerging community of which are highly active in glob-emphasis on re-The emerging community of al networks of rural power  newable energy biomass and bioenergy pro- al networks of rural powernewable energybiomass and bioenergy pro- practitioners. DESI Power is  in small islands. jects is best served by the practitioners. DESI Power isin small islands.jects is best served by the an Indian organisation which  Its secretariat is Biomass Taskforce, 7 Grassmere an Indian organisation whichIts secretariat isBiomass Taskforce, 7 Grassmere sets up joint ventures with vil-  hosted by the Road, Killara, NSW 2071, Aus- sets up joint ventures with vil-hosted by theRoad, Killara, NSW 2071, Aus- lages and local entrepreneurs as  Danish Forum tralia. -Fax: +61 2 9416 9246 lages and local entrepreneurs asDanish Forumtralia. -Fax: +61 2 9416 9246 independent rural power pro-  for Energy and -Email: steve.schuck@bigpond. independent rural power pro-for Energy and-Email: steve.schuck@bigpond. ducers to operate small power-  Development. com. This is a well energised ducers to operate small power-Development.com. This is a well energised plants of 100 to 500 Kw capac-  INFORSE, Blegdamsvej 4 B 1, network with worldwide links plants of 100 to 500 Kw capac-INFORSE, Blegdamsvej 4 B 1,network with worldwide links ity using local renewable  DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Den- to project developers, resource ity using local renewableDK-2200 Copenhagen N, Den-to project developers, resource resources. The plants generate  mark. Fax: +45 35247717 - managers, energy projects and resources. The plants generatemark. Fax: +45 35247717 -managers, energy projects and electricity by gasification of  Email: [email protected] -Web- sources of finance. Its detailed electricity by gasification ofEmail: [email protected] -Web-sources of finance. Its detailed non-forestry biomass; the pro-  site: www.inforse.dk website and newsletter (also non-forestry biomass; the pro-site: www.inforse.dkwebsite and newsletter (also ducer gas is fed into normal  AFREPREN, the African on paper) are jewels in the ducer gas is fed into normalAFREPREN, the Africanon paper) are jewels in the diesel generators. DESI Power  Energy Policy Research Net- biomass crown: www.users.big- diesel generators. DESI PowerEnergy Policy Research Net-biomass crown: www.users.big- also has experience in the use  work, has a wide network of pond.com/Steve.Schuck/ABT/ also has experience in the usework, has a wide network ofpond.com/Steve.Schuck/ABT/ of solar, wind, minihydro,  energy researchers and policy Newsletters  of solar, wind, minihydro,energy researchers and policyNewsletters  "},{"text":"Vegetable and Spice Capsicums  Crop Production Crop Production Science in Horticulture Science in Horticulture Series, No. 12. P Bosland and Series, No. 12. P Bosland and E Votava, New Mexico State E Votava, New Mexico State University, USA. 1999. CABI University, USA. 1999. CABI Publishing. 216 pp. Publishing. 216 pp. ISBN 0 85199 335 4 ISBN 0 85199 335 4 CTA number 976. CTA number 976. 40 credit points 40 credit points Now available from CTA Now available from CTA (see Spore 85 for a short (see Spore 85 for a short description of this book) description of this book)  "},{"text":"Overwhelmed by all that info? Mainstreaming gender: what it means  s It may come as a surprise to the Guide to Gender-Analysis  s It may come as a surprise tothe Guide to Gender-Analysis some, but mentioning the word Frameworks in Oxfam's Skills  some, but mentioning the wordFrameworks in Oxfam's Skills gender in every fifth line of a and Practice series. It brings  gender in every fifth line of aand Practice series. It brings  together the best-known analyti-  together the best-known analyti-  cal frameworks for gender-sensi-  cal frameworks for gender-sensi-  tive research and planning and  tive research and planning and  offers bibliographic references in  offers bibliographic references in  case you want to know more.  case you want to know more.  The guide is aimed at non-spe-  The guide is aimed at non-spe-  cialists who seek to incorporate  cialists who seek to incorporate  gender analysis into their work.  gender analysis into their work.  It is clear and well structured,  It is clear and well structured,  with instructions for using the  with instructions for using the  frameworks and summaries of  frameworks and summaries of  their advantages and disadvan-  their advantages and disadvan-  tages in particular situations.  tages in particular situations.  A Guide to Gender-Analysis Information Management for A Guide to Gender-AnalysisInformation Management for  Frameworks. C March, I Smyth and Development Organisations. Frameworks. C March, I Smyth andDevelopment Organisations. speech or report is not enough to mainstream gender issues. To move beyond paying lip service M Mukhopadhyay. Oxfam. 1999. 96 pp. ISBN 0 85598 403 1 GBP 6.95 • E 11.10 Oxfam GB M Powell. Oxfam GB. 1999. 160 pp. ISBN 0 85598 410 4 US$ 14.95 • GBP 8.95 • E 15.75 Oxfam GB speech or report is not enough to mainstream gender issues. To move beyond paying lip serviceM Mukhopadhyay. Oxfam. 1999. 96 pp. ISBN 0 85598 403 1 GBP 6.95 • E 11.10 Oxfam GBM Powell. Oxfam GB. 1999. 160 pp. ISBN 0 85598 410 4 US$ 14.95 • GBP 8.95 • E 15.75 Oxfam GB and take gender issues into 274 Banbury Road 274 Banbury Road and take gender issues into274 Banbury Road274 Banbury Road account by integrating them in development work is not easy. One tool that can be of help is Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK Fax: +44 1865 313 925 Email: [email protected] Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK Fax: +44 1865 313 925 Email: [email protected] account by integrating them in development work is not easy. One tool that can be of help isOxford OX2 7DZ, UK Fax: +44 1865 313 925 Email: [email protected] OX2 7DZ, UK Fax: +44 1865 313 925 Email: [email protected]  "},{"text":"More partnership agreements After Lomé: the next 20 years O   n June 23 2000, a new Partnership n June 23 2000, a new Partnership  Agreement was signed in Agreement was signed in  Cotonou, Benin, between the Cotonou, Benin, between the  ACP States and the European Community ACP States and the European Community  and its Member States. The agreement suc- and its Member States. The agreement suc-  ceeds the Lomé Convention, within whose ceeds the Lomé Convention, within whose  framework CTA operates. By linking the framework CTA operates. By linking the  Agreement to international and UN Agreement to international and UN  pledges on such areas as social and sustain- pledges on such areas as social and sustain-  able development, its authors have steered able development, its authors have steered  ACP-EU relationships into a new age of ACP-EU relationships into a new age of  maturity -declaring it to be for a twenty- maturity -declaring it to be for a twenty-  year period. The future role of CTA will be year period. The future role of CTA will be  shaped by the Agreement; it will be shaped by the Agreement; it will be  described in more detail in Spore 89. described in more detail in Spore 89.  The African The African Co-operative Action Trust (Eastern Cape) Co-operative Action Trust (Eastern Cape) will consolidate its wide spread of rural will consolidate its wide spread of rural strategies, including appropriate technol- strategies, including appropriate technol- ogy and credit approaches, through ogy and credit approaches, through publishing, networking and marketing publishing, networking and marketing strategies. strategies. The sixty-year The sixty-year young Jamaica young Jamaica Agricultural Agricultural Society will Society will enter a new enter a new phase of ser- phase of ser- vice to select- vice to select- ed members in ed members in its 80,000- its80,000- strong constituency, through a newsletter, strong constituency, through a newsletter,  "}],"sieverID":"cbe32970-d253-4478-b07e-b835e2a37260","abstract":"here is a scientific law, the Law of Conservation of Energy, that says that the total amount of energy in the Universe is fixed -energy can neither be created or destroyed, it can only change from one form to another. As far as ACP agriculture is concerned, whatever way you look at it -energy inputs, energy stayputs or energy outputs -the amount of energy involved is not enough. Not enough is being used to grow crops or raise livestock, and not enough is being eaten or sold to be eaten.No country, no field, no farmer is the same but, in general, the small-scale practices which dominate ACP agriculture have long followed another law, this time the economic Law of Diminishing Returns. So much effort is made through muscle power, both human and animal, that there is little more to be given; only minor design changes in handheld or animal-drawn equipment are going to squeeze any small gains in productivity. And the levels of soil replenishment, by whatever means, are too low to stop the process of 'soil mining', whereby a soil's fertility is not replaced by new inputs. The demand for increased food supply leads us inexorably to more intensive forms of agriculture, but not necessarily in more intensive inputs alone; we can also have more intensive care of soils and plants, and more intensive harvesting, storage and transport. They will all cost more energy.Energy is an expensive commodity, as anyone familiar with the price of oil in the second half of 2000 will testify. Yet in a SPORE 88 • PAGE 1 Energy and agriculture No energy, no harvest 1 Functional literacy Learning from your surroundings 3 Genetic modification Grains of truth 4"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a56ccbf1d7240a2556f4f1ff7660267","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H041022.pdf"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List if Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Acronyms and Abbreviations","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction and Objectives","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"This assessment was undertaken as part of the Wastewater Agriculture and Sanitation for Poverty Alleviation in Asia (WASPA Asia) project, which aims to improve the livelihoods of peri-urban and urban farmers who are using wastewater. Identifying key stakeholders and building learning alliances among them is at the centre of the project focus. Thus, the overall project objectives outline a series of assessments, along the wastewater generation to user pathway, including the consumers of the agricultural produce. The hygiene behavior and sanitation assessment undertaken here is one of them."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"It is intended that the information gathered in this study will be combined with findings in other linked studies on water quality, industrial pollution, agriculture and institutional issues."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Together these findings will be used directly in planning interventions with the community members. The studies were therefore not extensive but were targeted specifically to this purpose. They will also be followed by discussions with community members and other stakeholders to check the findings and recommendations made. These meetings will be used to plan intervention activities with stakeholders. It is envisaged that the project outputs will result in better waste management and environmental sanitation in the study area."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The overarching goal is to study the impacts of wastewater on downstream communities whose livelihoods depend on it."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The specific objectives of this study are: i."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"To identify the polluters (major polluters);"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"ii."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"To identify the communities affected by urban wastewater; and iii."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"To assess the sanitation and hygiene behavior of communities that depend on wastewater for their livelihoods, one way or another."}]},{"head":"Background","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The background information on the project area is given in the baseline report of Rajshahi (Clemett et al. 2006). This report provides a brief description of the hygiene behavior and sanitation status of the country and more specifically the health and sanitation issues in The key findings of the recent MICS study were that average household size for Bangladesh was 4.8 in the 62463 households that were successfully interviewed. The majority of households (91%) were headed by males. Of the women interviewed 68% lived in rural areas; 34% had no education; and 79% were married. In the area of water and sanitation, the Government of Bangladesh has taken great strides to provide latrines and drinking water to its people (Quazi 2006). Access to an improved drinking water sources is almost universal (98%) in both urban and rural areas. Latrine coverage however is significantly lower at just 39% for the country as a whole and 38% in Rajshahi Division (Figure 1, BBS-UNICEF 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"However, the country still lags behind in issues relevant to environmental sanitation. A number of case studies have assessed and pilot studies have been launched to address the issue of environmental sanitation (Quazi 2006). "}]},{"head":"Study Area","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The study area was selected within the Rajshahi District of Rajshahi Division (latitude 24° 25' N, longitude 88° 34' E) which is a primarily agricul tural area. The extent of the study area encompasses, the RCC area of 96.69 km 2 and has a population of 383655 (census 2001) and Paba Upazila which covers 280 km 2 and has a population of 262251(BBS 2001) 1 ."}]},{"head":"Surface Drainage system within the study area","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The city has a network of 10 main stormwater drains and many smaller drains feeding this."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Two of these flow through the project area and irrigate agricultural land, namely the Circuit House Drain also known as Basuar Beel Drain because it drains through Bashuar Beel; and"},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"Dargapara Drain, also known as the Cantonment Drain because it flows through the cantonment agricultural area (Figure 2).  Although these drains were designed to carry storm water, in reality they contain a mixture of predominantly domestic wastewater, storm water, and industrial effluent to a greater or lesser extent depending on the specific drain. Despite this the drainage water is regularly used for irrigation and observations have been made of people bathing and washing household items in some parts of the drains, on the outer edges of the city. The sanitation survey was undertaken in a down stream community (Bashuar Village) that utilizes water from the drains. Bashuar Village is located in Horogram Union of Paba Upazila in Rajshahi District and borders a large beel (Bashuar Beel, 13 acre), around which agricultural activities are carried out on 98 ha of land. One of its immediate borders is the RCC area and therefore this area can be considered as a peri-urban village."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Data were collected from structured questionnaires and direct observation of daily lives (Annex I); in depth interviews and key informant interviews; transect walks (Annex II); stakeholder analysis; and during water quality monitoring studies. Guidance notes on activities were prepared prior to undertaking the assessments and final methodologies were developed from these guidance notes."},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"The village selection was done after the transect walks. There were two possible locations for further research based on where agricultural practices were taking place that included the use of wastewater for irrigation. Bashuar Village was selected because it was a reasonably contained unit from which a random sample could be obtained that included farmers; other users of the drainage water; and households who disposed of waste to the drains. The cantonment area would also have been an appropriate study site but it is more developed and more densely populated, and it was felt that undertaking household level research here would not readily yield results. Perhaps more importantly it was deemed to be a higher income area and part of the project purpose is to reduce poverty by improving livelihoods, hence it was felt that it would be more appropriate to work with the lower income community."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Initially the project team contacted some key community members and managed to obtain a simple road map of the village (Figure 4)."}]},{"head":"Figure 4: Mapping Bashuar Village","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The questionnaire was piloted in Bangla, modified and re-tested. When the team was satisfied it was finalized. The team was also trained on how to undertake the observation part of the survey and some adjustments were made to this also. The responses from the questionnaire were recorded in Excel as this was felt to be a simple yet useful format for both numeric data and descriptive responses."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The sanitation assessment was not limited to the communities but also included wastewater from industries. A short checklist of questions was developed and 10 of the 86 industries in the BSCIC area were visited that week. This was to complement the water quality and industrial work already being undertaken. The findings from these components of the project are reported on separately but will be combined in a comprehensive project report."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The village has nine small ponds or pagars (approximate size 0.5 -0.75 acre) out of which two were receiving the overflow from house hold latrines and were therefore not used for any other purposes. The community has two mosques and also two schools (Primary and Secondary) where the children can study up to the 12 th grade."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The village community engaged in a number of livelihoods, because they live close to the city center. Although agricultural activities appeared to dominate as a livelihood, not all farmers lived close to their cultivated lands and many other farmers from near-by villages also engaged in agriculture in the fields near the village, using the water from the drains and beel."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The other livelihood activities that were evident were, livestock rearing for meat and dairy products, daily paid labor, service sector jobs, small businesses, teaching, driving and skilled labor or artisanal activities."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Of the households selected (n=87), 29% were headed by females. The average household comprised of four members and the male to female ratio was 52:48 (Figure 5). Some households were clustered within a compound with common utilities; usually because the sons and daughters had built houses next to their parents. In such cases there was overcrowding and general disregard for the cleanliness of the immediate environment. "}]},{"head":"Number of members in a household Number of households","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The insides of the houses were observed to be clean only in 37% of those visited with 6% being recorded as being unclean. The surroundings were clean in 30% of households but the rest had a lot of debris, animal droppings and general lack of concern for the immediate environment."}]},{"head":"Access to water","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Ground water is the only source of drinking water in the village, which is obtained via deep (250 -300 m) and shallow tube wells (60 -70 m). The majority of households surveyed had deep tube wells that were well maintained (68%) and 23% had shallow tube wells; for the remaining households they were not sure of the depth or ownership and use practices could not be satisfactorily established. Most tube wells had concrete platforms (90%) and the general cleanliness was acceptable. The 10% of the tube wells that did not have a concrete platform were not maintained well and the surroundings were not kept clean. The excess water at the tube well sites was diverted to a pond or Bashuar Beel, but many had it collecting at the site itself. Tube well water was used exclusively for drinking and cooking purposes and was by far the preferred source of water for all domestic activities (Figure 6). The system of ponds appeared to be popular for bathing, washing clothes and utensils but the ponds also collected the discharged water from drainage outlets of tube well sites. Where there were houses close by, even the grey water discharges were directed to these ponds and the community did not perceive this as an unhygienic practice. It was observed that sometimes the inhabitants used Bashuar Beel for domestic purposes even though it receives the overflow from latrines and wastewater from the city ( Figure 7;"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Figure 8)."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"During in-depth interviews it was revealed that the communities preferred to carry out the final wash of clothes and utensils with the tube well water and the statistics presented in Figure 6 clearly show that tube well water is widely used for all purposes. As a consequence it is likely that the beel is quite heavily polluted, but water quality testing also suggests that some improvement of water quality takes place between the drain and the beel either due to dilution, sedimentation or bacterial processes (see Dissanayake et al. 2007). Nearly 36% of households were located close to the beel, these members were observed to use the beel for a number of domestic purposes. This pilot study shows that the activities of daily life have an impact on the surface waters, especially with regard to pollution. These observations need to be discussed with the community members, to heighten their awareness of the environment and to teach methods for safeguarding and the sustainable use of their natural resources."}]},{"head":"Access to Latrines","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The types of latrines in the area varied: the survey showed that the majority (62%) used sanitary latrines, 37% used pit latrines and 1% used hanging latrines. The interviewers observed that overall 50 households had access to sanitary latrines, which was a little low compared to the responses given by the household members but in some cases households perceive their latrine to be a sanitary latrine even if it does not quite conform with the definition. It was observed that the sanitary latrines had septic tanks but a few had ring pits with overflow pipes connected to Bashuar Beel. Similarly, the hanging latrine and a few pit latrines were also connected to Bashuar Beel."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Thus, every household had access to a toilet, which they either owned or shared with others."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Within a household, men, women and children all had equal access to the latrines, but children less than four years of age tended to defecate in the household compound and parents removed the faeces. Around 59% latrines were owned by the households interviewed, of which 58% were sanitary latrines and 41% were pit latrines (Figure 9). There were no public latrines in this area but it appeared that sharing of latrines was common. Sharing was usually with fewer than 10 people, although in some instances more than 20 people used a single latrine (Figure 10).  "}]},{"head":"Percentage","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Fewer than half the toilets were clean (43%) and the rest were badly maintained, foul smelling and with flies. Some of the sanitary latrines (9%) were clean but had flies in them, which may have been because they were close to garbage dumps. Overall, the study showed that the latrine maintenance was not satisfactory. This was in part because of the sharing since the responsibility for cleaning the toilets was not shared equally, and the importance of doing so was not understood nearly as well as the importance of having clean water."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"The distance between the latrines and tube wells ranged from 1 to 20 m. A very high percentage (63%) of households used a tube well that was 1-5 m away from a toilet, which is below the standard set by the health authorities and UNICEF. Only 10 tube wells were placed at distances of greater than 20 m. The direct effects of latrines will be mostly felt in shallow wells which were not observed during this study. Without testing the water quality in the tube wells it is difficult to comment on the relative quality between the shallow and deep tube wells. Nearly 40% of latrines were between 1 and 10 m from a pond: this could be a potential health hazard, but a more in-depth study is required to asses the real impact. Only eight households had no water body close to a latrine; the rest were 10 -60 m away from a water body."}]},{"head":"Hygiene Practices","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The habit of washing hands was common among the adults and children and also when the adults handled feces of children. Soap and water were the popular choice for all categories, and less than 10% used either water only or a mixture of water and ash (Figure 12). Records made by the interviewers included observations that 56% of the households did not have any soap or ash near the toilets; 24% had soap but it was dry and did not appear to be used regularly; and only 10 households had signs of soap being used. Six households had soil and water near the toilets, but none of the households mentioned that they used this for washing their hands. Of the households interviewed 40% had children under the age of 4 and therefore adults disposed of children's faeces, however only 10% of households used latrines for this and the rest threw them onto dumps or into bushes, or buried them (Figure 13). "}]},{"head":"Percentage","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Health services","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"In order to understand the health issues of the village it is important to see how the health system operates in the country and filters down to the grass root level communities. The description that follows looks at the health related issues in the country, Rajshahi District, Paba Upazila and the project village."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"In Bangladesh health related activities are carried out by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), which, at the national level, is responsible for policy, planning and decision making at macro-level. Under the MOH&FW there are four Directorates: Directorate of General of Health Services; Directorate General of Family Planning; Directorate of Nursing Services; and Directorate of Drug Administration (http://www.mohfw.gov.bd/hnppp.htm accessed 24.09.07). Together, they contribute to the health delivery system of the country."}]},{"head":"The Primary Health Care System and How it Works","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Bangladesh is a signatory to the Alma Ata Declaration on Primary Heath Care (PHC), and since 1988, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has adopted the PHC approach in developing its health care delivery system. In its initial launching 12 Districts were selected for the program and since then, eight other Districts have been included. Rajshahi District is one of the districts where this system has been adopted (ibid)."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Primary Heath Care operations are based on training staff on the elements of PHC and on the provision of basic essential equipment and supplies to facilitate effective preventive and curative care, and promotion and rehabilitative services to the vulnerable, the disadvantaged and the poor. In Bangladesh the Upazila, Union and Ward levels constitute the operational levels of PHC, while District, Divisional and National levels provide managerial support and technical backstopping to the operational levels. Primary Heath Care Covers 109 Upazillas with a combined estimated population of 48268000 (ibid)."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"At national level, the Directorate of Primary Health Care and Line Director of Essential Service Package is responsible for the planning and implementation of PHC activities assisted by a deputy director and three assistant directors of PHC. At District level the Civil Surgeon and the District team provide technical and administrative support by way of periodic supervision to the Upazila Health and Family Planning Officer (HFPO) and team. They also coordinate management of referrals from Upazila level and below."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"The Upazila constitutes the first level of referral in the PHC System. Health Inspectors, Sanitary Inspectors and Assistant Health Inspectors are responsible for providing curative care and supporting preventive services. The Upazila HFPO is the overall administrative and technical head of the Upazila Health Complex, as well as all health services up to the community level through the Union level facilities, which are run by field level health and family welfare workers."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Community participation, which is one of the pillars of PHC development, is established through Village Health Volunteers nominated by the community and trained under the intensification project. These volunteers work under the leadership of the Upazila HFPO."}]},{"head":"Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Health infrastructure and disease status in the RCC area","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"According to a household survey for the Rajshahi Metropolitan Development Plan, 11% of people in the RCC area suffer from dysentery and 10% suffer from diarrhea. Levels are slightly higher in the extended area around the city, reaching 14% for dysentery and 12% for diarrhea (RDA 2004). Data obtained from the Chief Health Office of the RCC for 2005 based on patients seen, records a total of 1093 patients with diarrhea in all 30 wards, with only one death reported. The number of reported cases of Giardiasis, which is a diarrheal disease, was 143 for the same period. Vector borne disease prevalence appeared to be low, with only three cases of Dengue reported. Figures provided by the same source report no cases of Dengue in 2003, five in 2004 and six in 2005, of which three were from the RCC area."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"However it can be assumed that the numbers of these diseases may be higher as many people would not attend the hospitals or PHC Centers unless they had severe symptoms."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Health care facilities are reasonably good in the RCC area with one general hospital, the RMCH and three specialized hospitals, including a TB hospital and an infectious diseases Perhaps as a result of the good access to medical facilities, people appeared to be aware of the need to seek good health advice, with 70% reporting in the survey that they visit qualified doctors and 16% visiting government hospitals. Outside the RCC area only 48% of the households visit qualified doctors because they are less available and because people cannot afford them (RDA 2004)."}]},{"head":"Health Indicators in Paba Upazila","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"There are 37 notable diseases that are reported at the Union hospital of Paba Upazila, including diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal parasites, abdominal pain, skin diseases, malnutrition, anemia, ear and eye infections which were all reported in relatively high numbers. Malaria, filariasis and Kala azar were not reported although other parts of the District are affected with these three diseases. A national level program covering treatment for filariasis is present within the District, but no sufferers were found in the project survey."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"During the period of July 2006 to June 2007, just 1% of the population, amounting to 2926 people, was reported to have diarrhea cases and 2427 to have dysentery. There is no obvious seasonal pattern in the reporting of cases although September and March seemed to be slightly lower for diarrhea, whilst August was slightly higher. For dysentery September was also when the lowest number of cases was reported, and the highest in May and June."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"There is no clear seasonal pattern for the reported cases of intestinal parasites and abdominal pain but the trend appears to be similar for the two.  "}]},{"head":"Health Issues in Bashuar Village","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The responses to the survey revealed that none of the interviewees in Bashuar Village received treatment from the Upazila level health facilities. The majority (45%) of the households visited the RMCH for treatment, because the treatment was provided for a nominal charge. However, this was difficult to trace at the hospital as no records were kept on a day to day basis at the outpatient department. The RMCH has the capacity to treat approximately 1150 -1200 patients per day with 530 beds available. This also shows that that the health figures given for areas can be confounded by the health seeking behavior of the people of the constituent divisions. In this case, the Bashuar Beel community received treatment elsewhere because of its close proximity to the town."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"A similar percentage (43%) of respondents went to a local doctor or took treatment from the pharmacy. Only 6% sought treatment at private clinics and 5% went to more than one treatment facility. Although the community has a government lady health worker, from the responses given by the community, it was evident that she was not regarded as an important person who could advise them on their health problems. The government health care system has deployed these health workers for the purpose of health education and giving the first line of care for combating diarrheal diseases until such time as medical advice is sought."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"The people interviewed were not very aware of health problems that afflicted the community in general. Many of the major vector borne diseases (Malaria, Dengue and Kala Azar) reported for the District were not reported in the village. When asked through a set of structured questions, only 4% of household reported that any of the adults and 6% reported that the children had suffered an episode of diarrhea within the last two weeks. Of the 87 households interviewed 38% reported that the community did not have a special health problem to report. However 48% reported fever to be a particular problem for the community, 20% diarrhea and 29% coughs. A few households also reported skin diseases (4), measles"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"(2) and pneumonia (2) as problems."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The peri-urban community involved in the survey, engaged in a number of domestic and income generating activities that brought them into direct contact with wastewater. This includes not only irrigation but also bathing and washing household items in open water bodies that may be polluted either by drainage water from the city or from the village itself."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"There appeared to be little connection made between the disposal of wastewater into ponds (especially from tube wells) and possible negative impacts on health. It was however evident that there was a preference for tube well water not only for drinking but also for rinsing items that had already been washed in ponds or the beel. It was not clearly established why this was the case but it provides a good entry point to encouraging the use of tube well water and of disposing of wastewater into appropriate sites that are not used for other purposes that may result in a health risk."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Despite these concerns there was no clear connection made between the wastewater and actual health impacts within the village. Certain diseases were present within the community and the wider area, but within the village only a very few households reported diarrhea within the past two weeks and 38% of interviewees stated that there were no particular health problems in the area. The problem with such a short survey however is that people tend not to remember short periods of illness, only major illnesses, and many health problems such as worms can lead to sub-clinical effects which may not be diagnosed or even noticed by the infected person. For example, worms can result in anemia but whilst a person may feel tired they may not necessarily attribute it to a health problem."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Consequently although a better understanding of the health situation may be preferable it is clear that certain interventions could have a beneficial outcome; for example, involving the lady health worker in a campaign on hygiene and diarrhea prevention. Specific areas of activity could include: hand washing; appropriate disposal of children's faeces; demarcation of ponds for bathing and others for disposal of wastewater. The latter is particularly important as the water quality analysis revealed microbial contamination of the drain and beel and the presence of various parasites."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"The use of tube well water for most domestic purposes appears to be preferable in terms of water quality (though not necessarily ease of use as people often choose to bathe in open water) but the observations of proximity between tube wells and latrines suggests that for the shallow wells at least there may be the potential for contamination. It is very important that the relevant authorities (including the Department of Public Health Engineering) carry out analysis of the tube well water and introduce remedial measures if necessary. The community members should also be advised not to construct new latrines or tube wells within the UNICEF minimum recommended distance of 15m."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"Solid waste disposal is also an issue in the village which did not come out explicitly in the survey but has been observed on several occasions. This attracts flies which spread diseases and generally impacts on the village environment. Linked to this the observations of unclean homesteads and toilets suggests that more work needs to be done to understand the behavioral characteristics within the cultural, religious and educational contexts. It is clear that improvements can be made through awareness programs coupled with some of the basic requirements for sanitation (environment) that have to be addressed by the government."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Mothers and children were viewed as key target groups for intervention."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"Health record keeping was poor in the hospital system. To develop a health information system at the RMCH, where a larger number of patients seek treatment will be useful. This will serve as an early warning system for the authorities, for better preparedness to address outbreak illnesses and to deal with emerging diseases."},{"index":9,"size":59,"text":"The campaign to combat filariasis appears to have been effective. The programme includes the provision of anthelminthic drugs and given the fact that parasites were found in the drains (Dissanayake et al. 2007) it could be beneficial to learn from this programme and to ensure that the mass scale deworming continues and is extended to areas not currently covered. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 24 Introduction and Objectives...................................................................1 Objectives .................................................................................................................. Background .............................................................................................2 Study Area ................................................................................................................. 3 3 Methodology............................................................................................5 Results and Discussion..........................................................................7 Access to water.......................................................................................................... 8 Access to Latrines...................................................................................................... 9 Hygiene Practices .................................................................................................... 11 Health services ........................................................................................................ 12 Health Indicators in Paba Upazila............................................................................ 14 5 Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................. 16 Annexes Annex I: Sanitation Assessment................................................................................................. I Annex II: Transect Walk ........................................................................................................... VI "},{"text":"Figure 1 : 2 Figure 2 :Figure 3 :Figure 5 :Figure 6 :Figure 8 :Figure 9 : Figure 1: Access to improved sanitation facilities, Bangladesh 2006 ...................................... 2 Figure 2: Project area and drainage system that flow through it ............................................... 3 Figure 3: Irrigating with wastewater after the two drains converge ........................................... 4 Figure 4: Mapping Bashuar Village ........................................................................................... 5 Figure 5: Composition of households in Bashuar Village.......................................................... 7 Figure 6: Source of water used for various domestic activities ................................................. 8 Figure 7: Using the beel for washing clothes ............................................................................ 9 Figure 8: Using the beel for other domestic purposes............................................................... 9 Figure 9: Ownership of latrines................................................................................................ 10 Figure 10: Number of members sharing of latrines within the community .............................. 10 Figure 11: The use of latrines by children as cited by adults of the household ...................... 10 Figure 12: Habit of washing hands among the adults after using the toilet ............................ 11 Figure 13: Disposal of feces of children .................................................................................. 12 Figure 14: Cases of intestinal parasites and abdominal pain reported in Paba Upazila from July 2006 to May 2007 ............................................................................................................ 14 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Access to improved sanitation facilities, Bangladesh 2006 "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Project area and drainage system that flow through it "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Irrigating with wastewater after the two drains converge "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5: Composition of households in Bashuar Village "},{"text":"Figure Figure 6: Source of water used for various domestic activities "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Using the beel for washing clothes "},{"text":"Figure Figure 9: Ownership of latrines Figure 10: Number of members sharing of latrines within the community "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: The use of latrines by children as cited by adults of the household "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Habit of washing hands among the adults after using the toilet "},{"text":"Figure Figure 13: Disposal of feces of children "},{"text":" Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR) is the national institute for conducting disease surveillance and outbreak investigation. It works under the Directorate General of Health Services of the MOH&FW. The objectives of the IEDCR are: disease surveillance: disease control; and research. The activities of the Institute include: investigation of disease outbreaks and rapid response; investigation of known and unknown diseases throughout the country; management of the outbreak (http://www.iedcr.org/). "},{"text":" hospital. The RCC has also established seven PHC Centers, which are run by NGOs, as part of a project with the Asian Development Bank (ADB), to provide health services to women and children. They also have a Nursing Training Institute and a Family Welfare Visitors Training Institute. In addition to the government facilities there were 25 private clinics in the city in 1998 and this number has been increasing. Consequently the patient to bed ratio in Rajshahi City was approximately 1:354 in 2004, compared to 1:1265 in Khulna City in 2001 and 1:2951 nationally (RDA 2004). "},{"text":" Figure14). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 14: Cases of intestinal parasites and abdominal pain reported in Paba Upazila from July 2006 to May 2007 "},{"text":" you get drinking water every time you need it or do you store it in the house? 1. Store 2. Collect fresh every time "}],"sieverID":"21af8c5d-8d28-459c-9e90-2264b5ec75d6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a7164ffdaddc82e12caa025f087bca7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d81d305c-435c-4493-946f-c9aa5f142cd6/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[". ~#i~ ,<~~.' ' : _ -: ~. :-~ ~ , , ' . ~ ':~~-:'{il ~ \":.'t.'*\" ~' . !! -~(~Q ~ ~ \\' . ' 't\"","'-\\ :~ --c","' ,~,,' .. :~_ ,\\'! ' , . . . . ~,~\" ~. ~ 'U t ' 1 ' ,.' '",", ,, r:~tT ......... ,.",", • \".,. ~'-' . . . . < , ',' ~, \\-o.~~• -~'). .... ~,\\.","tl \"\\ I • • \\ ,.t,•f'",", ' _ ' . .... \"\".,A .{ I\" C i.,,",".-''\"\"_v..,,.","t: _ cj","~:~:\"'~.\" ~t:..:.~ .. . '.:",".~,-.' ~~ ~I \" , ' \",,:.rill' 'v', , .. .. -.... \" I .•\" .':. ..... } .• '"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Plusieurs maladies som causees par de minus• cules organismes vivants appeles parnogenes. Ces derniers som si minuscules qu'il vous est impossible de les voir meme a I'aide d'une loupe de poche. Comme exemples de patho. genes. on peut citer les virus. les bacteries et les champignons. Lorsqu'un pathogene s'anaque a une plante. il se multiplie et se repand sur ou dans la plante qu'il detruit progressivemem. La plante presentera des signes (symptomes) d'anaque. Les symptomes des degats causes par res maladies du manioc apparaitrom sur les feuilles (Figure I). res tiges (Figure 2). et les racines (Figure 3). On reconnait les maladies du manioc par leurs symptomes tels que la decoloration des feuilles, les \"lesions\" sur les tiges et la decol• oration des racines tubereuses. D'autres maladies que vous verrez peut.etre sur Ie manioc sont causees par des organ• ismes non vivants. Par exemple. Ie fletrisse• ment provoque par la secheresse et une mauvaise croissance vegetale due a des sols peu ferti les. Quelles sont les maladies courantes du manioc?"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Les maladies courantes du manioc sont 121 mosa• 'que, 121 bac:teriose, I'anthracnose, 121 necrose du bourgeon et les pourritures des rac:ines. Certaines de ces maladies s'attaquent aux feuilles et aux tiges des plants de manioc tandis d'autres s'en prennent aux rac:ines tubereuses."}]},{"head":"Les maladies des feuilles et des tiges","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Les maladies des feuilles et des tiges les plus repandues du manioc sont 121 mosarque, la bacteriose, I'anthracnose, 121 necrose du bourgeon et 121 maladie des stries brunes."}]},{"head":"La mosa'ique du manioc","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La mosa• ique du manioc est causee par un virus qui s'i ntroduit dans les feuilles et les tiges du manioc."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Symptomes : Les feuilles de manioc atteintes se decolorent et presentent des taches vert clair, jaunes ou blanches (Figure 4). Cette decoloration est appelee chlorose. Les zones chlorotiques peuvent etre confondues avec des degats causes par I'alimentation de I'acarien vert (Figure 5 Autres cultures attaquees : La mosa\"lque du manioc ne s'attaq ue qu'au manioc.  8). Les feuilles gravement brulees f1etrissent (Figure 9), meurent et tombent provoquant la defoliation et Ie dieback (Figure 10), ou la mort definitive de la pousse. La brulure folia ire se manifeste d'abord sur Ie limbe, puis atteint progressivement Ie pthiole. Ce dernier prend une position horizontale avant la chute de la feuille (Figure 9), a la difference des feuilles endommagees par I'anthracnose dont la chute est precedee par un affaissement des petioles (Figure 12). Autres cultures attaquees : La bacteriose du manioc ne s'atuque qu 'au manioc.   "}]},{"head":"La cercosporiose","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"La cercosporiose du manioc est causee par des champtgnons. On distinzue trois types de cercosporiose : cell. qUi recouvre les feuilles de taches blanches, celie qui se manifeste par des taches brunes, et celie qui provoque la brOlure foliaire."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Sympt6mes : La. cercosporiose a taches ~anches se manifeste par de petites taches circulaires de couleur blanche ou jaune brOnacre sur Ia f.tce sl4Perteure de la feuille (Figure 15).   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FigureFigure 3 : Figure I : Plant de manioc endommage par la mosarque "},{"text":" ). En cas d'attaque severe de 121 mosa• 'que, les feuilles deviennent tres petites et deformees et les plants rabougris . Les symptomes sont plus remarquables chez les jeunes plants, generalement de moins de 6 mois (Figure I) , que sur les plants ages. Mode d e propagation: Les pieds de manioc contamines et I'aleurode Bemisia rabaci (Figure 6) sont les princ:ipaux vecteurs du virus de 6 121 mosa• 'que du manioc. Le virus se trouve dans 121 salive de I'aleurode qUi Ie transmet aux feuil les du man ioc en s'alimentant. Le virus se multiplie et se retrouve en nombres importants aussi bien dans les feuilles que dans les tiges. La transmission de 121 mosarque se fait aussi par des boutures provenant de plants contamines. "},{"text":"Figure 7 :Figure 8 : Figure 7 : Feuille de manioc presentant des taches foliaires angulaires causees par la bacteriose "},{"text":"Fig Fig ure I I : Chancres de I'anthracnose du manioc sur petiole fo liaire "},{"text":" Lutte contre les maladies du manioc sources de matt~riel de plantation pour combaure la mosalque du manioc. Meme si ces plants repartent sans 13 mosalque mais subissent son auaque plus tard , ils se de . . . . elopperont en plants plus sains que ceux issus de boutures malades.Si vous avez du mal a vous procurer des quantites suffisantes de tiges saines pour la plantation. alors traitez les boutures contre certaines maladies. Par exemple. trempez les boutures qui presentent des chancres dans des solutions diluees de Benlate (un fongicide). afin de les debarrasser du champignon responsable de I'anthracnose. En cas d'emploi de (ongicides. consultez Ie mode d'emploi ainsi que res in• structions qui vous permettront d'eviter les dangers que pose leur emploi pour vous et pour I'environnement. En decoupant les dges de manioc en boucures a planter, choisissez les parties centrales enveloppees d'une peau brune. Ces parties , connaitront une bonne reprise et donneront des plants plus vigoureux que ceux issus des parties suptkieures vertes des tiges. Celles•ci se dessechent rapidement et som treS vulnerables aux degats causes par les maladies. II est conseille de planter tot au debut de la saison pluvieuse. En plan tam tOt, vous aurez des plants qUi connaitront une croissance plus vigoureuse et une meilleu re resistance aux maladies en saison seche. que Sl la plantation imervient plus tard. Par exemple, apres la recolte des tubercules. vous devez detruire les tiges de manioc qui prese• ntent une necrose apicale. des chancres. des myceliums, des striures au tout autre symp• tome. Les debris de racines. de feuilles et de tiges de manioc qui presemem ces symp• tomes offrent un abri aux pathogenes. lis doi. vent donc etre detruits afin de freiner la propagatjon des maladies. Les outils agricoles doivent etre nettoyes avant et apres Ie labour pour limiter la transmission des champignons responsables des pourricures suite a I'utilis• ation d'instruments contamines par Ie patho• gene.Si les symptomes ne sont presents que sur quelques pousses seulement iI est conseille de les arracher et de les rem placer par des boutures saines. On parle d'epuration. L'epu. radon des plants de manioc est plus conseillee au bout de 3-4 semaines apres bouturage lars des traitements contre la mosalque du manioc. Comment pourrai-je mieux  Comment pourrai-je mieux lutter contre les maladies du manioc? ploitations agricoles. Le guide de terrain \"Comment demarrer un champ de manioc .. vous propose une demarche generale pour Ie lutter contre les maladies du manioc?ploitations agricoles. Le guide de terrain \"Comment demarrer un champ de manioc .. vous propose une demarche generale pour Ie La meilleure methode de lutte comre les maladies consine en la plantation de boutures choix de boutures de manioc saines. Cette demarche vous aidera a hiter les boutures La meilleure methode de lutte comre les maladies consine en la plantation de boutureschoix de boutures de manioc saines. Cette demarche vous aidera a hiter les boutures saines. Ceci est d'autam plus vrai que les virus. les bacteries et les champignons qUi provo• contaminees (Figure 25) comme materiel de plantation et donc. a cultiver un manioc sain. saines. Ceci est d'autam plus vrai que les virus. les bacteries et les champignons qUi provo•contaminees (Figure 25) comme materiel de plantation et donc. a cultiver un manioc sain. quem ces maladies som invisibles. Une culture Au moment du choix du materiel de planta- quem ces maladies som invisibles. Une cultureAu moment du choix du materiel de planta- saine de manioc passe donc par une technique tion, evite2 les pieds de manioc qUi presement saine de manioc passe donc par une techniquetion, evite2 les pieds de manioc qUi presement de combinaison des pratiques de production une decoloration ou une chlorose fo liaires de combinaison des pratiques de productionune decoloration ou une chlorose fo liaires et de protection vegetale. (Figures 4 et 18). la brulure et Ie f1etrissemem et de protection vegetale.(Figures 4 et 18). la brulure et Ie f1etrissemem  des feuilles (Figures 9 et 12). une gommose. des feuilles (Figures 9 et 12). une gommose. Pratiques de lutte integree des chancres. des myceliums et des striures Pratiques de lutte integreedes chancres. des myceliums et des striures pendant Ie bouturage sur la tige (Figures II . 14. et 19). de meme que pendant Ie bouturagesur la tige (Figures II . 14. et 19). de meme que I'apex (Figure 10). La reprise des boutures 101 defoliation et la necrose de 101 pousse ou de Fi gu r e 25 : Bouwres de manioc comaminees Un grand nombre de pratiques de Lutte I'apex (Figure 10). La reprise des boutures 101 defoliation et la necrose de 101 pousse ou de Fi gu r e 25 : Bouwres de manioc comaminees Un grand nombre de pratiques de Lutte integree contre les ravageurs (IPM) peut etre prelevees sur ces pieds. si elle a lieu. donnera integree contre les ravageurs (IPM) peut etreprelevees sur ces pieds. si elle a lieu. donnera deploye contre les maladies du manioc lors du des plantules malades. deploye contre les maladies du manioc lors dudes plantules malades. bouturage. Ces pratiques englobem Ie choix  bouturage. Ces pratiques englobem Ie choix du site. I'amendement du sol, Ie choix de Oans la lutte contre la mosa' ique, vous pouvez du site. I'amendement du sol, Ie choix deOans la lutte contre la mosa' ique, vous pouvez varietes et de materiel de plantation appro• choisir un materiel de plantation adequat et varietes et de materiel de plantation appro•choisir un materiel de plantation adequat et pries. Elles som abordees dans Ie gUide de reduire Ie niveau de contamination de votre pries. Elles som abordees dans Ie gUide dereduire Ie niveau de contamination de votre terrain \"Comment demarrer un champ de manioc\". Le tableau I fournit la liste de champ en suivane d'autres etapes. O•abord. en presence de varietes de manioc a POrt terrain \"Comment demarrer un champ de manioc\". Le tableau I fournit la liste dechamp en suivane d'autres etapes. O•abord. en presence de varietes de manioc a POrt quelques varietes de manioc qui offrent une ramifiant. prene2 tes rameaux comme sources quelques varietes de manioc qui offrent uneramifiant. prene2 tes rameaux comme sources meilleure resistance aux attaques parasitaires. de materiel de plantation. La plupart des meilleure resistance aux attaques parasitaires.de materiel de plantation. La plupart des Un tableau similaire peut etre elabore par les boutures provenant des rameaux germeront a Un tableau similaire peut etre elabore par lesboutures provenant des rameaux germeront a chercheurs et tes vulgarisateurs pour d'autres I'abri de 101 maladie. Par contre. la plupart des chercheurs et tes vulgarisateurs pour d'autresI'abri de 101 maladie. Par contre. la plupart des varietes de manioc adaptees a des localites Figure 26 : Bouwre de manioc ayant repris avec la boutures prelevees sur la tige principale varietes de manioc adaptees a des localites Figure 26 : Bouwre de manioc ayant repris avec la boutures prelevees sur la tige principale specifiques. Au moment du choix des varietes mosa' ique donneront de jeunes pousses malades (Figure specifiques. Au moment du choix des varietes mosa' iquedonneront de jeunes pousses malades (Figure sur 101 base de la resistance aux maladies. 26). En ce qui concerne les varietes de manioc sur 101 base de la resistance aux maladies.26). En ce qui concerne les varietes de manioc pense2 aussi aux autres caracteristiques desirees. qui ne ramifient pas. eVite2, pour la meme raison, de couper votre bouture a 101 base de la pense2 aussi aux autres caracteristiques desirees.qui ne ramifient pas. eVite2, pour la meme raison, de couper votre bouture a 101 base de la  tige. Oeuxiemement. apres Ie bouturage. tige. Oeuxiemement. apres Ie bouturage.  observez de pres 101 reprise des boutures. En observez de pres 101 reprise des boutures. En  principe, la reprise surviem au bout de 3-4 principe, la reprise surviem au bout de 3-4  semaines apres bouturage. Etiquetez tous les semaines apres bouturage. Etiquetez tous les  plants qui reprendront sans la maladie. A plants qui reprendront sans la maladie. A  101 nkolte. selectionnez ces plants comme 101 nkolte. selectionnez ces plants comme  "}],"sieverID":"c977f339-5051-4574-8396-ee4e4c984702","abstract":"Lutte contre les maladies du manioc Quels sont le s objectifs de ce gu ide ? Ce guide de terrain a ete elabore afin de vous aider a : 4 reconnaitre les maladies res plus courames du manioc et a preciser leurs causes. montrer comment les maladies end om• magent les plants de manioc, idemifier les sources des maladies du man• ioc. et comprendre comment elles se pro• pagem. et utiliser une combinaison de pratiques appr• opriees pour combattre les maladies et cultiver un manioc sain."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b4983a2d2eb342ba1c715e29980cfc3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H033299.pdf"},"pageCount":15,"title":"POVERTY ACROSS DISTRICTS IN IRRIGATED PUNJAB, PAKISTAN","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Understanding the phenomenon of poverty is imperative in order to curb its expansion and raise the welfare level of the population. Government of Pakistan (2002) has claimed the extent of poverty as 28 percent with recognition of higher poverty incidence in rural areas (32 percent) than in urban areas (19 percent). This indicates that the poor living standards would be fatal for rural population, if necessary measures were not taken. In a country like Pakistan where around 70 percent of the population resides in rural area and depend on agriculture directly or indirectly, curtailment and declining poverty require serious efforts."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Though poverty in rural areas is directly correlated with productivity of agriculture, the variation in incidence of poverty can be experienced across different ecological zones based on variation in cropping pattern, availability of surface water supplies, quality of groundwater available and other socio-economic characteristics of the area. As different areas differ with respect to their reliance on agriculture for income, the composition of their income sources also play a critical role in assessing the poverty status of the households. In general, the areas in upper part of Punjab are well developed as compared to the areas in the lower part of Punjab, Pakistan. Similarly, a higher incidence of poverty would be expected in lower Punjab areas as compared to the upper Punjab areas."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"The agriculture sector, in general, experience unstable earnings owing to inequities in land distribution. Fragmentation of landholding (due to law of inheritance) decrease the availability of sufficient hectares of land needed to be used as viable and sustainable unit as a source of income to meet the basic needs of the households. This results in decrease of productivity and makes agriculture uneconomical for such landholding. Another important aspect that affects the productivity is the availability of surface irrigation water supplies. The insufficiency, inequitable distribution, and unreliability at the time of need are the main characteristics of the prevalent surface irrigation system. This hampers the income generating capacity of the farm households, resulting in lower productivity and profitability especially when the groundwater available is also of poor quality. Due to these two factors, the risk of falling into poverty trap increases and shows significant increase over the recent years."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Poverty has various dimensions. In-depth perception of these dimensions is useful in understanding the phenomenon of poverty and differentiating between the myths and realities attached with it. Incidence of poverty is directly dependent on income/expenditure of the households, which are not constant over all the months in a year. Moreover, good or poor harvest in different years are due to various agro-climatic and management factors. Incomes/expenditure fluctuate over times and so does the incidence of poverty. It is also empirically established that incidence of poverty varies across different areas."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"The vulnerability of households to fluctuation in output produced and prices fetched increase the risk of earning low income in the agricultural sector. Even a good harvest may result in lowering of the farm incomes and increasing the risk of poverty. Degree of this risk varies spatially as the cropping pattern changes. In this context, it would be interesting to analyze the depth and severity of poverty in order to dig out the real root causes of poverty. Keeping in view these facts, incidence of poverty and its various dimensions are analyzed spatially for better comprehension of the phenomenon, which would lead to suggestions/policy implications for poverty reduction."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"The current paper is divided into five parts. Methodology is described in part II. General results are discussed in part III of the paper while in part IV, the determinants of poverty are assessed. The paper ends with conclusions and implications made on the basis of current study."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"The study was conducted in the Upper Chaj Doab (comprising Gujrat and Mandi Bahauddin districts) irrigated by Upper Jehlum Canal (UJC); Lower Chaj Doab (comprising Sargodha district) irrigated by Lower Jehlum Canal (LJC); Rechna Doab (comprising of Jhang and Toba Tek Singh districts) irrigated by Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) East, and tail part of the Hakra irrigation system (comprising Bahawalnagar district) irrigated by Hakra canal system (Figure 1). Total geographic area of the Chaj Doab, Rechna Doab and Hakra area is reported to be 1.2 million hectares, 2.98 million hectares and 20,000 hectares, respectively. The salient features of irrigation system in the study area are shown in Table 1. Since there were variations in irrigated systems in terms of cropping patterns and nature of perennial and non-perennial irrigation water supplies, therefore at the second stage, distributaries were selected on the basis of the agro-ecological characteristics based on cropping patterns, nature of water supplies (perennial/non-perennial) and location of the watercourses across head, middle and tail of the distributary. According to this criteria, the entire study area was divided into seven cropping zones, and ten distributaries were selected that irrigated areas in five different districts. While each distributary was fairly homogenous within its boundaries in terms of above characteristics, however, there could be intra-distributary variations especially in terms of access to water (head, middle and tail) due to differences in availability of water resulting from locational differences. These intra-distributary variations were captured through sampling across head, middle and tail within a distributary by selecting a watercourse. Households from each of the selected watercourses were selected through systematic random sampling from a complete sampling frame for each watercourse (i.e. list of all households on the watercourse). Landless households were selected from the voters' list through systematic random sampling, based on their proportion in total number of households on each selected watercourse. Equal allocation method was adopted for selecting distributaries and watercourses across head, middle and tail reaches of the selected distributaries and the sample households across each of the selected watercourses. A well-represented sample of 1224 farm households was selected for collecting information from the field through a well-designed pre-tested questionnaire. Details of sample size are provided in Table 2. "}]},{"head":"Monetary Measures of Poverty","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The measurement of income poverty involves specification of an indicator of well being such as income/expenditure, and specification of an income level or threshold below which a person or household is considered poor -the poverty line, and construction of poverty measures."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of measures are the most commonly used measures of poverty, which capture three aspects of poverty: incidence, depth/intensity, and severity of poverty. These measures are the Head Count Index, the Poverty Gap Index and the Squared Poverty Gap Index."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Headcount Index is defined as the share or proportion of the population which is poor, or whose income is below the specified poverty line. This is a measure of incidence of poverty. Suppose in a population of size n, there are q number of poor people whose income y is less than the poverty line z, then head count index can be defined as:"},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Head Count Index (HC) = q/n Poverty Gap Index is defined as the mean distance separating the population from the poverty line. This can be interpreted as a measure of depth of poverty. Non-poor is given a distance of zero. This measure can be mathematically represented as following:"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Where z is the poverty line, y i is the income of the individual or household i, and the sum is taken only on those individuals who are considered poor (below the poverty line)."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"The poverty gap can also be defined as the product of the income gap and the head count index ratio, represented as following: "},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"Both Poverty Gap Index and the Squared Poverty Gap Index put more emphasis on those people who are further away from the poverty line. The general formula for all three measures is given below, which depends on parameter α, and takes a value of zero for the Head Count Index, one for the Poverty Gap Index and two for the Squared Poverty Gap Index:"},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"The above measures can be analyzed for various socio-economic groups and different geographic locations (within irrigation systems)."},{"index":9,"size":115,"text":"Poverty Line Used for Current Study. For the analysis of poverty situation in the present study, a rural poverty line of Rs. 676.31 per capita was used, which was established by Qureshi and Arif (1999) by using HIES survey data in 1998-99 prices on basic need basis. This was inflated to the prices of 2001, which resulted as inflated poverty line of Rs. 730.78 per person monthly. It should be noted that this poverty line in terms of money is almost equal to official poverty line (Rs 673.54 per capita for 1998-99 prices) as announced by the Government of Pakistan. Additionally for sensitivity analysis, another poverty line was also used as Rs. 530.78 per person."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Monetary measures of poverty were estimated for each of the five districts that encompass ten distributaries representing different physical, hydrological, agricultural, socio-economic, and institutional characteristics. Table 3 indicates poverty indices for each district based on household expenditure. The head count index based on poverty line I (PL I) shows that about 59 percent of the sample households were living below the poverty line. The highest proportion of poor household belonged to the Hakra 4-R system (Bahawalnagar district) while the lowest head count was observed among households living in the command area of Upper Jehlum Canal in the Gujrat district. Similarly, highest incidence of poverty across distributaries was estimated (77%) in case of Khadir distributary in Sargodha district while lowest count was found (40 percent) for 10-R Dhup Sari distributary in Gujrat district."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Sensitivity analyses show that at lower poverty line (PL-II) 43 percent of the households were poor indicating a sharp decrease of 16 percent in total poor households from PL-I estimates. These estimates conveyed that about 43 percent of households were chronic poor in nature, whereas about 16 percent households were on the verge of poverty line waiting for a productive push to convert them from poor to non-poor category."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"However, the highest proportion of the poor (60%) was estimated for Sargodha district whereas the lowest proportion (21.5%) was found in case of Gujrat district. The comparison of head count poverty across all selected districts is shown in Figure 2. These results were consistent with other studies. Ahmad (1998) reported 47 percent poverty in 1992-93 and 50 percent in 1995-96 in Punjab, by using basic need poverty approach. Similarly, Bhatti et al. (1999) also reported that 50 percent of rural population was living below the poverty line. "}]},{"head":"Poverty Gap and Squared Poverty Gap","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Table 4 shows the figures for the poverty gap according to PL-I, the overall poverty gap was estimated to be around 42 percent, indicating that poor households needed an additional 42 percent of the present expenditures to attain minimum basket of basic needs. Comparison of districts shows that the incidence of poverty was higher in Mandi Bahauddin district as compared to Gujrat district; however, depth of poverty was lowest in Mandi Bahauddin (28.9%), while slightly high estimate was calculated for Gujrat (29.3%). The estimated depth of poverty was 17, 19.4, and 19.6 percent higher in Toba Tek Singh, Sargodha and Bahawalnagar districts than Mandi Bahauddin district, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"The application of PL-II revealed that the highest poverty gap of 38.7 percent was estimated for Bahawalnagar district while lowest gap of 20.5 percent was computed for Mandi Bahauddin district. It is also clear that poverty gap was lower in case of distributaries for Mandi Bahauddin where it ranged between 17.9 percent in case of 13-R Saroki distributary to 24.6 percent in case of Kakowal distributary. Comparison of poverty gap using PL-I and PL-II reveals an overall decline of 8.6 percent. Highest decline in depth of poverty was estimated for Sargodha district (11.9%) while the lowest was estimated for Gujrat district (7.4%). The difference of poverty gap square estimated by using PL-I and PL-II showed the decline in severity of poverty across districts while using different poverty lines. The highest decline in severity of poverty estimate was observed 9.8 percent in case of Sargodha district. On the other hand, lowest decline in squared poverty gap estimate was estimated 4.9 percent for Gujrat district. Overall decline in severity of poverty was worked out 6.8 percent for all the sample households in the study area. The change in poverty gap and squared poverty gap across districts, using both poverty lines, is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively. "}]},{"head":"Sources of Income of Households","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"It was found that on an average, the highest annual income earning households were concentrated in Toba Tek Singh district indicating an average annual income of Rs.100394 while the lowest annual income was reported for the households in Gujrat district (Rs. 59940) as shown in Table 5. Furthermore, it is evident that the households in the Gujrat and Mandi Bahauddin districts reported lowest annual income. However, a critical view reveals that the households in Gujrat district were heavily dependent on the non-crop income (80 % of annual income) for meeting their basic needs. It was due to the fact that one or more members of the households were settled abroad and the rest of the members were receiving remittances from them. Moreover, crop income constituted only 17.63 percent of the income for the households in Gujrat district whereas it was about 43.61 percent of income for the households in Sargodha district. Income from selling animals was high for the households in Sargodha district while it was lowest for the households in Gujrat district. Income from renting out of agricultural assets was very low across all the households in the five districts, though it was highest for the households in Bahawalnagar district. "}]},{"head":"Determinants of Poverty","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Efforts to curtail the expansion of poverty are needed to address the key issues that are confronting the households. In order to determine the effects of different factors on poverty, Logit modeling was employed. Logit modeling technique is used when dependent variable is binary with values 1 or 0. The coefficients of independent variables tell about the probability of happening or not happening of one of the two possibilities of the dependent variable. "}]},{"head":"Education of Household Head","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Higher education leads to higher earning potential by better management of the household resources. It was expected to have a negative impact on poverty. Consequently, more education of household head would lead the household out of vicious circle of poverty. Therefore, expected sign for the coefficient was negative."}]},{"head":"Net Landholding","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The entitlement of more landholding was expected to result in more crop production and higher incomes. It was expected that increase in net landholding would decrease the probability of the household to become poor. So, a negative sign was expected for the coefficient of net landholding indicating inverse relationship with poverty."}]},{"head":"Gross Value of Production per Hectare","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Gross value of production was indicative of performance of individual farm households."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Higher land productivity would result in higher annual income of the household that would eventually improve the ability of the household to provide all the basic needs to the family members by spending more. It was expected that with increase in gross value of production per hectare, poverty would decrease. Therefore, a negative sign was expected for the coefficient of gross value of production per hectare."}]},{"head":"Location of the Households","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The location of the households in different ecological zones reflected variation in access to surface irrigation water, groundwater quality, and relatively different socioeconomic situation prevailing in these areas. Thus, it was expected that these households had lower probability to become poor as compared to the households in other districts. The dummies used for different zones would explain the effect on poverty."}]},{"head":"Model Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":399,"text":"The results of the Logit regression are presented in Table 6. Signs of all the explanatory variables were in conformity with a priori expectations. All the coefficients except dummies for Mandi Bahauddin, Toba Tek Singh and Sargodha districts were found significant at 99 percent level. However, dummies for Mandi Bahauddin and Toba Tek Singh districts were significant at 95 percent level. Dummy for Sargodha district was found insignificant. It was found that one member increase in family would increase the probability of household being poor by 0.026 due to the fact that higher family size required more income to meet the basic needs of the household members. One unit increase in dependency ratio would increase the probability of being poor by 0.283. It was according to this perception that if dependency ratio increases, additional burden of the new dependent would also be shared by limited number of earners, who were already taking care of other family members. Education of the household head was found as a tool to decrease the probability of the household to be poor since education enhances the capabilities of household head in making optimal and rational decisions. One more completed year of household head's education would decrease the probability of household being poor by 0.014. Similarly, land being the most important factor in agricultural production and income was found important to reduce the probability of household to be poor. It was found that one-hectare increase in net landholding would reduce the probability of being poor by 0.034. The improvement of the welfare in case of rural household is directly attached with higher productivity and profitability of crops grown. It was estimated that an increase of one thousand rupees in gross value of production per hectare would diminish the probability of being poor by 0.012. Owing to the variation in family size, dependency ratio, and education, especially of the household head, and other members in general, lactation of household was found having a significant impact in ascertaining the probability to be or not to be poor. It was also found that probability of being poor decreases by 0.175, 0.115, 0.121, and 0.04, if household were located at Gujrat, Mandi Bahauddin, Toba Tek Singh, and Sargodha districts, respectively, instead of Bahawalnagar district. It clearly indicates that probability to be poor was minimum if households was located in Gujrat district when compared to a household in Bahawalnagar district. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Implications","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"• Incidence of poverty was highest in Bahawalnagar district while it was lowest in Gujrat district. • Higher proportion of the households in Mandi Bahauddin district was lying on the verge of poverty line showing high sensitivity to variation in poverty line. • Depth of poverty (poverty gap) was found highest for Bahawalnagar and Sargodha districts."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Severity of poverty was highest for households in Bahawalnagar district."},{"index":3,"size":190,"text":"• Higher proportion of annual income was captured by non-crop income for the households in Gujrat district as compared to other districts. • The households in Sargodha district were heavily dependent on crop income as compared to the households in other districts. • Annual income per household was highest in Toba Tek Singh district while it was lowest for the households in Gujrat district. • An increase in family size was found to increase the probability of household to be poor. More investment in population planning was evident. • Increasing size of landholding would reduce the probability of being poor for any particular household. This requires a new round of land reforms as well as legislation to stop further defragmentation of land into uneconomical unit size. • Higher education to the head of the household would reduce the probability of household to become poor. More investment on education, especially on improving and strengthening the already prevailing setup, would impart its benefits quickly and efficiently. • Measures to increase the productivity of land would decrease the probability of household to become poor as reflected by gross value of product per hectare."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Location of the Chaj Doab, Rechna Doab & Hakra 4-R area in the Punjab, Pakistan. "},{"text":"PG income of the poor.Squared Poverty Gap Index is a measure of severity of poverty. The poverty gap takes into account the distance separating the poor from the poverty line, while the squared poverty gap [PG] 2 takes into account the square of the distance. The squared poverty gap index gives more weight to the poor, by taking into account the inequality among the poor, greater weights are given to larger gaps and the weights are simply the poverty gaps. It is represented as following: Squared Poverty Gap ( ) "},{"text":"Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 3: Poverty gap across irrigated districts using PL-I and PL-II. "},{"text":" The model specifications are as follows:Poverty = β0 + β1 * FS + β2 * DR + β3 * Edu_HH + β4 * NLH ++ β5 * GVP_Ha+ β6 * DG+ β7 * DM + β8 * DS+ β9 * DT + e "},{"text":"Table 1 : Salient features of the selected irrigation systems in Punjab. Outlets Outlets  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Number of watercourses and sample household in selected distributaries. District Distributaries No. of No. of Total DistrictDistributariesNo. ofNo. ofTotal   watercourse household Number watercoursehouseholdNumber Gujrat 9-R, Khoja and 10-R Dhup Sari 12 30 180 Gujrat9-R, Khoja and 10-R Dhup Sari1230180 Mandi Bahauddin 13-R, Saroki, 14-R Maggowal, Phalia, and Kakowal 24 60 360 Mandi Bahauddin13-R, Saroki, 14-R Maggowal, Phalia, and Kakowal2460360 Sargodha Lalian and Khadir 18 38 342 SargodhaLalian and Khadir1838342 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi 9 19 171 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi919171 Bahawalnagar Hakra 4R 9 19 171 Bahawalnagar Hakra 4R919171  Total Sample 72 166 1224 Total Sample721661224  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Estimates of poverty head count indices for households in irrigated areas (based on annual expenditure).    PL-I = Rs. 730 per capita PL-II = Rs. 530 per PL-I = Rs. 730 per capitaPL-II = Rs. 530 per     per month capita per month per monthcapita per month District  Distributary Non Poor Poor Non Poor Poor DistrictDistributaryNon PoorPoorNon PoorPoor Gujrat  9-R Khoja  0.578 0.422 0.800 0.200 Gujrat9-R Khoja0.5780.4220.8000.200   10-R Dhup Sari 0.598 0.402 0.770 0.230 10-R Dhup Sari0.5980.4020.7700.230   Group Total  0.588 0.412 0.785 0.215 Group Total0.5880.4120.7850.215 M.B. Din 13-R Saroki  0.584 0.416 0.787 0.213 M.B. Din13-R Saroki0.5840.4160.7870.213   14-R Maggowal 0.489 0.511 0.711 0.289 14-R Maggowal0.4890.5110.7110.289   Phalia  0.500 0.500 0.721 0.279 Phalia0.5000.5000.7210.279   Kakowal  0.568 0.432 0.773 0.227 Kakowal0.5680.4320.7730.227   Group Total  0.535 0.465 0.748 0.252 Group Total0.5350.4650.7480.252 Sargodha Lalian  0.367 0.633 0.482 0.518 SargodhaLalian0.3670.6330.4820.518   Khadir  0.226 0.774 0.315 0.685 Khadir0.2260.7740.3150.685   Group Total  0.296 0.704 0.398 0.602 Group Total0.2960.7040.3980.602 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi  0.310 0.690 0.450 0.550 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi0.3100.6900.4500.550 Bahawalnagar Hakra 4-R  0.294 0.706 0.424 0.576 BahawalnagarHakra 4-R0.2940.7060.4240.576 All Cases   0.411 0.589 0.568 0.432 All Cases0.4110.5890.5680.432 Figure 2: Head count poverty across irrigated districts using PL-I and PL-II Figure 2: Head count poverty across irrigated districts using PL-I and PL-II    Head Count Poverty Head Count Poverty  0.8     0.8 Head Count 0.2 0.4 0.6     Head Count0.2 0.4 0.6  0     0   Gujrat M.B. Din Sargodha T oba T ek Bahawalnagar GujratM.B. DinSargodhaT oba T ekBahawalnagar      Singh Singh     Districts  Districts     PL-I PL-II PL-I PL-II  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Estimates of poverty gap and squared poverty gap in irrigated areas -based on annual expenditure.   PL-I = Rs. 730 per PL-II = Rs. 530 per PL-I = Rs. 730 perPL-II = Rs. 530 per   capita per month capita per month capita per monthcapita per month District Distributary Poverty Squared Poverty Squared DistrictDistributary PovertySquaredPovertySquared   Gap Poverty Gap Gap Poverty Gap GapPoverty GapGapPoverty Gap Gujrat 9-R Khoja 0.281 0.108 0.225 0.069 Gujrat9-R Khoja0.281 0.1080.2250.069  10-R Dhup Sari 0.307 0.122 0.213 0.063 10-R Dhup Sari 0.307 0.1220.2130.063  Group Total 0.293 0.115 0.219 0.066 Group Total0.293 0.1150.2190.066 M.B. Din 13-R Saroki 0.270 0.099 0.179 0.050 M.B. Din13-R Saroki0.270 0.0990.1790.050  14-R Maggowal 0.291 0.115 0.203 0.058 14-R Maggowal 0.291 0.1150.2030.058  Phalia 0.285 0.110 0.194 0.057 Phalia0.285 0.1100.1940.057  Kakowal 0.307 0.129 0.246 0.089 Kakowal0.307 0.1290.2460.089  Group Total 0.289 0.113 0.205 0.063 Group Total0.289 0.1130.2050.063 Sargodha Lalian 0.457 0.248 0.347 0.159 SargodhaLalian0.457 0.2480.3470.159  Khadir 0.504 0.286 0.377 0.179 Khadir0.504 0.2860.3770.179  Group Total 0.483 0.269 0.364 0.171 Group Total0.483 0.2690.3640.171 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi 0.459 0.247 0.357 0.161 Toba Tek Singh Khikhi0.459 0.2470.3570.161 Bahawalnagar Hakra 4-R 0.485 0.276 0.387 0.192 Bahawalnagar Hakra 4-R0.485 0.2760.3870.192 All Cases  0.415 0.215 0.329 0.147 All Cases0.415 0.2150.3290.147 In case of PL-I, the lowest estimate of squared poverty gap of 11.3 percent was In case of PL-I, the lowest estimate of squared poverty gap of 11.3 percent was computed for Mandi Bahauddin district while the highest was estimated for computed for Mandi Bahauddin district while the highest was estimated for Bahawalnagar district (27.6%), showing relatively high severity of poverty in Bahawalnagar district (27.6%), showing relatively high severity of poverty in Bahawalnagar district as compared to Mandi Bahauddin district. Employing PL-II, the Bahawalnagar district as compared to Mandi Bahauddin district. Employing PL-II, the highest severity of poverty was found to be 19.2 percent for households in highest severity of poverty was found to be 19.2 percent for households in Bahawalnagar district while the lowest (6.3%) was estimated for Mandi Bahauddin Bahawalnagar district while the lowest (6.3%) was estimated for Mandi Bahauddin district.     district.  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Various sources of household income across irrigated districts.   Gujrat M.B. Din Toba Tek Sargodha Bahawal- All Gujrat M.B. Din Toba TekSargodha Bahawal-All     Singh  nagar Singhnagar Crop income 10569 23635 29803 36448 21125 25788 Crop income105692363529803364482112525788   (17.63) (33.25) (29.69) (43.61) (24.69) (32.60) (17.63)(33.25)(29.69)(43.61)(24.69)(32.60) Non-crop income 48138 43012 64805 38993 55200 47463 Non-crop income 481384301264805389935520047463   (80.31) (60.51) (64.55) (46.66) (64.52) (60.00) (80.31)(60.51)(64.55)(46.66)(64.52)(60.00) Income from      Income from selling animals 946 3158 3248 6940 6271 4333 selling animals94631583248694062714333   (1.58) (4.44) (3.23) (8.30) (7.33) (5.48) (1.58)(4.44)(3.23)(8.30)(7.33)(5.48) Income from      Income from agricultural      agricultural Assets  287 1273 2539 1191 2960 1523 Assets28712732539119129601523   (0.48) (1.79) (2.53) (1.42) (3.46) (1.93) (0.48)(1.79)(2.53)(1.42)(3.46)(1.93) Total annual      Total annual income  59940 71078 100394 83571 85556 79108 income5994071078100394835718555679108   (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)(100.00)(100.00) Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages   Note:Figures in parentheses are percentages  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Regression results for farm households across irrigated districts.  Variable Coefficients Std. Error Sig. Marginal VariableCoefficients Std. ErrorSig.Marginal      Probability Probability Constant 1.318 0.29 0.00** 0.290 Constant1.3180.290.00**0.290 Family size (Number) 0.116 0.023 0.00** 0.026 Family size (Number)0.1160.0230.00**0.026 Dependency ratio (ratio) 1.286 0.294 0.00** 0.283 Dependency ratio (ratio)1.2860.2940.00**0.283 Education of the household head    Education of the household head (Years) -0.066 0.016 0.00** -0.014 (Years)-0.0660.0160.00**-0.014 Net landholding (ha) -0.156 0.021 0.00** -0.034 Net landholding (ha)-0.1560.0210.00**-0.034 Gross value of production per    Gross value of production per hectare (thousands) -0.055 0.005 0.00** -0.012 hectare (thousands)-0.0550.0050.00**-0.012 Dummy for Gujrat district -0.796 0.271 0.003** -0.175 Dummy for Gujrat district-0.7960.2710.003**-0.175 Dummy for Mandi Bahauddin    Dummy for Mandi Bahauddin district  -0.523 0.241 0.03* -0.115 district-0.5230.2410.03*-0.115 Dummy for Toba Tek Singh    Dummy for Toba Tek Singh district  -0.548 0.274 0.046* -0.121 district-0.5480.2740.046*-0.121 Dummy for Sargodha district -0.179 0.243 0.46 -0.040 Dummy for Sargodha district-0.1790.2430.46-0.040 -2 Log likelihood = 1184.536   -2 Log likelihood =1184.536 Cox & Snell R Square = 0.276   Cox & Snell R Square =0.276 Nagelkerke R Square = 0.379   Nagelkerke R Square =0.379 Chi-Square = 389.278 Df = 9 Sig. = 0.00**  Chi-Square = 389.278Df = 9Sig. = 0.00** * Significant at 95 percent significance level   *Significant at 95 percent significance level ** Significant at 99 percent significance level   **Significant at 99 percent significance level  "}],"sieverID":"5ae7d0a7-d6b9-44f9-a244-016205037346","abstract":"Poverty is one of the main issues that is worrying most of the third world nations. These nations have focused their efforts towards the welfare of their people. A wide variation in incidence of poverty is experienced across countries and within countries across different regions. Similarly, the determinants of poverty also vary spatially and temporally. Poverty is a complex phenomenon and it is difficult to analyze and find out specific reasons that escalate it. A significant proportion of Pakistan's irrigated area, consisting of different agro-ecological zones, is also coping with poverty, which is menacing the material welfare as well as dignity of the affected people. A number of studies have attempted to estimate its incidence, depth, and severity showing large variation. However, it can be generalized that poverty is higher in the rural areas than in urban areas. Present study is also an attempt to analyze the variation in incidence of poverty across different districts of Punjab province of Pakistan, presenting different agro-ecological zones. A relatively lower poverty incidence was measured for Gujarat and Mandi Bahauddin districts as compared to Sargodha, Toba Tek Singh, and Bahawalnagar districts. Landholding, family size, dependency ratio, education of household's head, and gross value of production per hectare were found as major determinants of poverty in irrigated areas of Punjab, Pakistan."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b4af47cd82d34e24d47c2cbfa508275","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9eaa5648-bf50-4c10-a55e-dae7d5120354/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"Farmers' Guide to Management of Aflatoxins in Maize and Groundnuts in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Aflatoxins are chemical poisons produced by fungi belonging to Aspergillus section Flavi, primarily Aspergillus flavus. Those poisons cannot be seen with naked eyes and do not have a particular taste or odour. Hence, it is difficult to convince farmers and consumers about their presence in foods and feeds. The majority of farmers, traders and consumers in Africa are not aware of aflatoxin contamination of food and feed and its implications on trade and both human and livestock health. Aflatoxin contamination begins in the field, and increases during storage and transportation. Factors influencing aflatoxin contamination include cultural crop handling practices, weather conditions during crop growth, plant susceptibility, and storage conditions."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Maize and groundnut, staple crops for millions across West Africa, are the most susceptible crops to aflatoxin contamination. Awareness and sensitization on aflatoxins to farmers and all the stakeholders are therefore an important part of any intervention strategy to manage the problem. Increased awareness will help enhance the adoption of aflatoxin biocontrol technology ''aflasafe'' and other management practices available to minimize aflatoxin contamination."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Development and distribution of training manuals, flyers and brochures in major languages, conducting training, workshops, and use of media are major sources of information dissemination. A more effective method of controlling aflatoxins requires a combination of technologies and improvement on existing cultural practices by subsistence farmers."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"In order to monitor aflatoxin contamination in Nigeria, local personnel need to be trained to control factors that induce aflatoxin contamination. Documentation of farmers' current practices and training them on the code of practice of maize and groundnut production will improve crop quality. This requires monitoring and adoption of Good Management Practices (GMP) from pre-harvest to post harvest measures that improve food quality both at household and market levels should be encouraged and implemented by stakeholders especially the policy makers."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"It is recommended that resources be directed to emphasizing the Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) at the pre-harvest level and during drying and storage and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) during the processing and distribution of various products. The implementation of the guidelines contained in this manual will minimize aflatoxin contamination of maize and groundnuts through adoption of biocontrol technologies and other preventive or control measures in the production, handling, storage and processing of the crops. "}]},{"head":"How do aflatoxins harm us?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Aflatoxins cause liver cancer, suppress the immune system, retard growth and development of children, among other health problems."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated food and feed decreases productivity in humans and animals; sometimes it is fatal."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Aflatoxin-contaminated crops typically are forced into low-value markets."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Aflatoxins damage our health and reduce both crop value and business opportunities."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Can we see aflatoxins?"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Aflatoxins are colourless chemicals and cannot be seen. "}]},{"head":"Can we reduce aflatoxin contamination?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Yes, by using aflasafe, a highly cost-effective, environmentally safe biocontrol product developed by IITA and partners. aflasafe products should be used along with other management practices."}]},{"head":"Occurrence of aflatoxins","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"About 25% of maize and groundnut become contaminated with aflatoxins. Over 2.5 billion people are regularly exposed to dangerous aflatoxin concentrations."}]},{"head":"Effect of aflatoxins on health","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Aflatoxins are linked to: cancer (especially of the liver), immune-system suppression, child stunting, impaired food conversion, kidney toxicity, and when consumed in large quantities, can cause death. • Exposure to aflatoxins may start before birth; mothers can pass aflatoxins to the fetus through the umbilical cord."}]},{"head":"Effect of aflatoxins on trade","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":" Because of dangerous effects on human and animal health aflatoxins are strictly monitored in crops sought by domestic and international premium markets.  When containing aflatoxins above tolerance limits crops have reduced commercial value and should be destroyed.  European nations have set a limit of 4 parts per billion (ppb) for crops destined for food. The limit in the US is 20 ppb. Across Africa it varies from 10 to 20 ppb.  Trade and income of farmers is affected as a result of rejection of contaminated crops."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Broilers fed with: good quality, aflatoxin-safe feed (left) and aflatoxin-contaminated feed (right)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"In Nigeria, groundnut export market has been lost as a result of failing to meet safe, premium standards."}]},{"head":"Awareness campaigns in farmer's fields across African nations.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Awareness in the field with regulators (left) and farmers (right)."}]},{"head":"Awareness and sensitization","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Awareness campaigns through meetings and simple communication messages provide valuable aflatoxin management related information to stakeholders in the maize and groundnut value chains (consumers, farmer groups, extension services, marketers, and food/feed industries), governmental and large non-governmental stakeholders (e.g. policy makers, quarantine officials, among others)."}]},{"head":"Aflasafe","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"IITA, the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and partners have developed several biocontrol products under the trade name aflasafe. Use of aflasafe products results in 80 to 99% less aflatoxin levels in maize and groundnut in comparison to untreated crops."}]},{"head":"What is aflasafe and how does it work?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Aflasafe products contain four atoxigenic A. flavus strains native to the target nation."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Roasted, sterile sorghum grains serve as carrier and nutritive source for the atoxigenic strains."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Spores of the strains are coated onto sorghum using a polymer sticker. A blue food dye is used to distinguish aflasafe from regular sorghum."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• Aflasafe is broadcasted on fields at a rate of 10 kg/ha. In maize, aflasafe is applied 3 weeks before flowering. Groundnut fields are treated 30-45 days after planting."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Within 2-3 days, atoxigenic strains sporulate on sorghum and displace aflatoxin-producing fungi."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Maize farmer broadcasting aflasafe across her field. Treated crops have significantly less aflatoxins than untreated crops; aflatoxin-safe crops have higher chances to be commercialized in premium markets."}]},{"head":"Maize, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Use improved varieties","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Contact extension agents to know which varieties perform better in your area."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Plant maize varieties recommended in your area."}]},{"head":"Contact extension agents","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"for advice."}]},{"head":"Sources of seeds","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Resistant or adaptable varieties. Obtain seeds for planting and other inputs from a reliable source, such as an agro-dealer. Follow good agronomic practices to grow the crop."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Farmers must buy high quality seeds from reliable companies (left). High quality chemicals must be used (right)."}]},{"head":"During crop growth","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Time of planting:  Plant at the right time to enable crop disease escape, and have enough rain for growth and maturity towards the end of the season.  Do not plant too early to avoid crops maturing during the rains.  Planting on time and timely application of inputs will enable maize to grow healthy and resist pest and diseases."}]},{"head":"Maize with correct inputs applied (left). Maize with low quality inputs and delayed weeding (right).","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Apply fertilizer and other inputs","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Crops grown under stress are more susceptible to infestation by the aflatoxin-producing fungi that cause contamination. Applying fertilizer and other key inputs reduces crop stress."}]},{"head":"Farmer applying fertilizer on his maize field (left).","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Maize where no fertilizer was applied (right)."}]},{"head":"Insect damage","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Control insects, particularly stem borer, during crop growth."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Insects create wounds on the crop that lead to invasion by fungi. Sometimes insect attack may completely damage the crop."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Maize plants with insect damage."}]},{"head":"Weeding","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Undertake timely control of weeds to avoid them competing with the crop."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Weed control can be done manually with a hoe, bull, tractor, or herbicide. Ensure that the crop is at the right stage before aflasafe application."}]},{"head":"Before aflasafe application","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Before aflasafe application ensure that all agronomic practices (weeding, last dose of fertilized applied, etc.) have been completed."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Weed fields on time before aflasafe application."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Right stage of the crop for aflasafe application."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"The beneficial strains of aflasafe require moisture to grow, therefore apply aflasafe after rains, when rains are expected or when the soil is wet. When there is adequate moisture in the soil, aflasafe atoxigenic strains grow rapidly on the sorghum grain carrier which serves as their food."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Ensure that aflasafe is distributed uniformly in the field during application."}]},{"head":"aflasafe application","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Apply aflasafe in maize fields at 2-3 weeks before flowering. Broadcast at the rate of 10 kg/ha."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"After the initial reproduction cycle, the atoxigenic strains will colonize organic matter in the field before moving to the target crops. This will prevent toxigenic fungi to become associated with the treated maize."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The atoxigenic strains of aflasafe produce spores on sorghum grains 2-3 days after application."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Application of aflasafe has carryover effects and is beneficial for maize and groundnut intercrop. The atoxigenic A. flavus strains of aflasafe do not have negative effects on other crops."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Application of aflasafe in mixed cropping."}]},{"head":"Wrong stage of aflasafe application","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Maize plants already flowered; application of aflasafe at this stage will not be effective in reducing aflatoxin accumulation."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"x Delayed weeding is not proper for aflasafe application."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"x USE PRECAUTIONS Do not apply with fertilizers, insecticides, or fungicides. Apply aflasafe only when the possibility for drift to potential sensitive areas (e.g., residential areas, water bodies, known habitat for threatened or endangered species) is minimal. "}]},{"head":"STORAGE AND DISPOSAL","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize, harvest and post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management Harvesting","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Timely harvest of crops limits aflatoxin contamination."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Harvest immediately after the crop is mature."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Pluck the cobs off the plant and dry to less than 13% moisture content without delay."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Harvest maize ears while the plants are still standing."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Delayed harvesting may lead to infestation by dangerous moulds."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"x x"}]},{"head":"Lodging","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Maize plants that are fallen on the ground should be lifted up and tied together."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Plants should remain erect during harvesting (left); plants lying on the ground should be lifted and tied in groups (right)."}]},{"head":"Sorting of damaged cobs","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"During harvesting, remove cobs damaged by birds or rodents. Damaged crops may have been infected by aflatoxin-producing fungi and may contain high aflatoxin concentrations."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"x x"}]},{"head":"Heaping","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Farmers often heap the maize plants in the field and allow for drying."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The heaps should remain erect in the form of a cone."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Heaps that are too big or fall on the ground are likely to accumulate moisture at its center."}]},{"head":"x x x","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Do not heap plants that have been lying on the ground for a long period and/or have signs of animal/insect damage."}]},{"head":"Dehusking","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Dehusk the cobs directly into a bag and avoid contact with the soil."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Cobs should be plucked into bags."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Do not put cobs in bare ground."}]},{"head":"x x","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Drying","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"During drying, sort to remove immature cobs, infected cobs/grains, debris and broken cobs. x Avoid contact with soil during drying."}]},{"head":"x x","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Avoid crops to become in contact with water during drying."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"x"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"x"}]},{"head":"Sorting during drying","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Do not dry grains with symptoms of infection or diseased along with healthy ones. Separate the healthy cobs from immature, insect damaged or diseased cobs."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Healthy, good looking maize cobs."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"x"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"x Unhealthy, infested cobs should be separated from healthy cobs."}]},{"head":"Determining safe moisture content","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Use a moisture meter to know moisture content of your maize. Alternatively, farmers can test for properly dried maize by cracking kernels between the teeth. If it shatters then kernels are dry. If it is sticky then kernels are not dry. Also, farmers can throw maize up and down their palms, or inside a bottle. Dry maize will produce a rattling noise, compared to maize that is not well dried."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Use a standard moisture meter to read moisture content of your maize."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"If the grain shatters then the moisture content is safe but if it is sticky then it is not safe to store."}]},{"head":"Threshing","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Use well calibrated threshers in order to maintain good grain quality in maize."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Thresh on tarpaulin and maintain good hygiene during threshing and bagging of maize."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Calibrate machine before threshing."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Whole grains of good quality after threshing."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"x Do not thresh maize by beating with sticks; this may increase proportions of broken kernels (see inset)."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"x Do not thresh maize on bare ground."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Poorly calibrated threshers damage kernels (see inset)."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"x"}]},{"head":"Storage","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Clean, repair and disinfect the storage structure before bringing in new harvest."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Fumigate the storage structure to control insects and rodents."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Storage structure should have well-built wall and roof to prevent rain seepage and excess moisture."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• The structure should be well ventilated, with low relative humidity."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Do not mix new crops with old crops."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Good sanitation in the storage."},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"Good looking storage structure."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"29"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Poor storage structure."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"x"},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"Poor sanitation practices in the store."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"x"},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"x Groundnut, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management"}]},{"head":"Use improved varieties","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Contact extension agents to know which varieties perform better in your area."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Plant groundnut varieties recommended in your area."}]},{"head":"Contact extension agents","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"for advice."}]},{"head":"Sources of seeds","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Resistant or adaptable varieties. Obtain seeds for planting and other inputs from a reliable source, such as an agro-dealer. Follow good agronomic practices to grow the crop."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Farmers must buy high quality seeds from reliable companies (left). High quality chemicals must be used (right)."}]},{"head":"During crop growth","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Time of planting:  Plant at the right time to enable crop disease escape, and have enough rain for growth and maturity towards the end of the season.  Do not plant too early to avoid crops maturing during the rains.  Planting on time and timely application of inputs will enable groundnut to grow healthy and resist pest and diseases."}]},{"head":"Apply fertilizer and other inputs","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Crops grown under stress are more susceptible to infestation by the aflatoxin-producing fungi that cause contamination. Applying fertilizer and other key inputs reduces crop stress."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Groundnut with correct inputs applied (left). Groundnut with low quality inputs and delayed weeding (right)."}]},{"head":"Insect damage","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Control insects during crop growth."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Insects create wounds on the crop that lead to invasion by fungi. Sometimes insect attack may completely damage the crop."}]},{"head":"Weeding","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Undertake timely control of weeds to avoid them competing with the crop."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Weed control can be done manually with a hoe, bull, tractor, or herbicide."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Weed fields on time with hoe or bull to avoid weeds competing with the crop. If available, use herbicides or tractor."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Groundnut plants with insect damage; both photographs from mississippi-crops.com."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Ensure that the crop is at the right stage before aflasafe application, as shown in the picture."}]},{"head":"Before aflasafe application","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Before aflasafe application ensure that all agronomic practices (weeding, last dose of fertilized applied, etc.) have been completed."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Weed fields on time before aflasafe application."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Use of tied ridges (left) and mulching practices help to conserve moisture and reduce stress in the plant. Both practices aid in reducing aflatoxin contamination. Photographs from Dr. Sam Ngoroje, ICRISAT."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"The beneficial strains of aflasafe require moisture to grow, therefore apply aflasafe after rains, when rains are expected or when the soil is wet. When there is adequate moisture in the soil, aflasafe atoxigenic strains grow rapidly on the sorghum grain carrier which serves as their food."}]},{"head":"aflasafe application","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Apply aflasafe in groundnut fields 30 to 45 days after planting. Broadcast at the rate of 10 kg/ha."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"After the initial reproduction cycle, the atoxigenic strains will colonize organic matter in the field before moving to the target crops. This will prevent toxigenic fungi to become associated with the treated groundnut."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Ensure that aflasafe is distributed uniformly in the field during application."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"The atoxigenic strains of aflasafe produce spores on sorghum grains 2-3 days after application."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Application of aflasafe has carryover effects and is beneficial for groundnut and maize intercrop. The atoxigenic A. flavus strains of aflasafe do not have negative effects on other crops."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Application of aflasafe in mixed cropping."}]},{"head":"Wrong stage of aflasafe application","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Groundnut plants already flowered; application of aflasafe at this stage will not be effective in reducing aflatoxin accumulation. Photograph from jardinage.ooreka.fr."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"x Delayed weeding is not proper for aflasafe application."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"x Groundnut, harvest and post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management"}]},{"head":"Harvesting","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Avoid delayed harvesting; harvest groundnut immediately after it have reached maturity."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Timely harvest prevents fungal infection."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Good quality groundnut pods at maturity."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Delayed harvesting promotes fungal infection and subsequent aflatoxin production."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"x"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"If left on the field longer than necessary, some groundnut varieties can germinate especially if it is still raining. Pods break and allow moulds to infect the grains."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"x Avoid mechanical injury on pods during harvesting. Harvest with care."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"Pick the pods into a container.    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Weed fields on time with hoe (left) or bull (right) to avoid weeds competing with the crop. If available, use herbicides or tractor. "},{"text":" Sort to remove diseased or infested cobs during drying. Dry grains on polyethylene sheets or tarpaulin. Dry maize in elevated platforms. Cover with polyethylene sheets if rain is about falling. Do not dry grains on bare ground either in the field or at home. "},{"text":" groundnut plants together and place on the ground with the pods facing upward for fast drying.Let the pods be facing upward for fast drying.Do not dry groundnut in a heap. The surface may look dry but the center may accumulate moisture. "},{"text":" Clean, repair and disinfect the storage structure before bringing in new harvest.  Fumigate the storage structure to control insects and rodents.  Storage structure should have well-built wall and roof to prevent rain seepage and excess moisture.  The structure should be well ventilated, with low relative humidity.  Do not mix new crops with old crops. Store threshed groundnut in bags and on pallets. "},{"text":" not be put on the ground nor touching walls (left); storage of bags should not be done in a disorganized way (right). "},{"text":" groundnut beyond the production season. Prolonged storage results in groundnut deterioration and increased aflatoxin content (left and right). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Introduction What are aflatoxins?  i Introduction i Introduction What are aflatoxins? What are aflatoxins? How do aflatoxins harm us? How do aflatoxins harm us? Can we see aflatoxins? Can we see aflatoxins? Where and how are aflatoxins produced? Where and how are aflatoxins produced? Can we reduce aflatoxin contamination? Can we reduce aflatoxin contamination? Occurrence of aflatoxins Occurrence of aflatoxins Effect of aflatoxins on health and trade • Aflatoxins are poisons produced by the fungus Awareness and sensitization (mould) Aspergillus flavus and closely related Effect of aflatoxins on health and trade • Aflatoxins are poisons produced by the fungus Awareness and sensitization (mould) Aspergillus flavus and closely related ii Aflasafe moulds. ii Aflasafe moulds. iii Maize, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management • A. flavus resides in soils and both dead and Use improved varieties Source of seeds decaying organic matter. iii Maize, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management • A. flavus resides in soils and both dead and Use improved varieties Source of seeds decaying organic matter. During crop growth • Aflatoxins contaminate 25%+ of maize and Apply fertilizer and other inputs Insect damage groundnut produced in Sub-Saharan Africa. During crop growth • Aflatoxins contaminate 25%+ of maize and Apply fertilizer and other inputs Insect damage groundnut produced in Sub-Saharan Africa. Weeding • Other affected crops include chillies, cassava, Before aflasafe application Aflasafe application sorghum, and rice. Weeding • Other affected crops include chillies, cassava, Before aflasafe application Aflasafe application sorghum, and rice. Wrong stage of aflasafe application • Aflatoxins pose health risks to both humans Use precautions and animals even at low concentrations. Wrong stage of aflasafe application • Aflatoxins pose health risks to both humans Use precautions and animals even at low concentrations. iv Maize, post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management iv Maize, post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management Harvesting Harvesting Lodging Lodging Sorting of damaged crops Sorting of damaged crops Heaping Heaping Dehusking Dehusking Drying Drying Sorting during drying Sorting during drying Determining safe moisture content Determining safe moisture content Threshing Threshing Storage Storage iv Training iv Training v Groundnut, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management v Groundnut, pre-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management Use improved varieties Use improved varieties Sources of seeds Sources of seeds During crop growth During crop growth Apply fertilizer and other inputs Apply fertilizer and other inputs Insect damage Insect damage Weeding Weeding Before aflasafe application Before aflasafe application Aflasafe application Aflasafe application Wrong stage of aflasafe application Wrong stage of aflasafe application vi Groundnut, post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management vi Groundnut, post-harvest recommendations for aflatoxin management Harvesting Harvesting Drying Drying Sanitation Sanitation Storage Storage vii Transport vii Transport  "},{"text":"Green growth of Aspergillus fungi on maize (left) and groundnut (right).   "},{"text":" • Colour of Aspergillus flavus is yellow/green. • Grains without visible signs of A. flavus may • Grains without visible signs of A. flavus may contain high amounts of aflatoxins. contain high amounts of aflatoxins. • Aflatoxin concentrations are determined with • Aflatoxin concentrations are determined with laboratory tests. laboratory tests. Where and how are aflatoxins produced? Where and how are aflatoxins produced? • Aspergillus moulds produce aflatoxins when • Aspergillus moulds produce aflatoxins when infect grains before and/or after harvest. infect grains before and/or after harvest. • Insect damage increases fungal growth and • Insect damage increases fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination. aflatoxin contamination. • Drought and high temperatures increase • Drought and high temperatures increase aflatoxin production as do improper pre-harvest, aflatoxin production as do improper pre-harvest, post-harvest, and storage practices. post-harvest, and storage practices.  "}],"sieverID":"b52f994f-28ed-44f2-a8b3-479833113de0","abstract":""}

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data/part_3/0bc25e13e1e20bf347b3b8e147e6bc3b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bc25e13e1e20bf347b3b8e147e6bc3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f6e02b3-083a-4a21-8623-d0b199d00501/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"PROMOTING MEDICALLY RATIONAL AND RESPONSIBLE USE OF ANTIMICROBIALS for healthy and productive livestock","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Rising occurrence of anti-microbial use (AMR) is making infections in humans and animals harder or impossible to treat and is threatening gains in key areas of global health, food security, economic growth and development (World Bank, 2019). The global livestock sector is a major user of antimicrobials and contributes significantly to the emergence of AMR (Tiseao et al., 2020). Improper use of antibiotics, such as use for disease prevention, as growth promoters or without a proper diagnosis, drives AMR development, particularly in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) (IACG, 2019). Legislation is one tool to address inappropriate AMU but is more effective when combined with capacity for enforcement and strong incentives on the ground to bring about sustainable change."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"In 2015, the Global Action Plan on AMR (GAP) was endorsed by the World Health Assembly and provides a framework for developing national action plans (WHO, 2019). By 2021, most LMICs have developed multi-sectoral National Action Plans (NAP) to tackle emerging AMR in human and animal health, food production, food safety and the environment. However, knowledge gaps, such as knowing which interventions to implement, prioritization of actions and practical examples on what works, are hampering progress on implementing the NAPs in LMICs."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Our work addressed some of these knowledge gaps, drawing on all the five strategic objectives in the GAP, by improving the understanding of rationales for AMU and AMR situation in livestock in selected LMICs in Sub Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia and on designing and implementing locally adapted manuals, trainings, and tools to change the improper antibiotic use."}]},{"head":"APPROACHES AND RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"From 2018 to 2021, the Animal Health Flagship under the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock conducted research on how to promote medically rational and responsible use of antibiotics to curb the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in support of the program's goal to provide research-based solutions to drive the transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive small-scale enterprises that will help feed future generations."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The work contributed to the development of several tools and outputs:"},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"1. AMUSE is a tool to measure antimicrobial use that consists of a core set of questions for attempting a harmonised approach to data collection on AMU in various livestock systems, which was applied in Benin, Ethiopia, Kenya, Vietnam and Uganda (Gemeda et al., 2020;Wieland et al. 2019). The tool was developed to better understand how antimicrobials are accessed, used and by whom, and how these factors contribute to misuse of antimicrobials. It was designed to enable collation and comparison of data from different production systems and species in diverse countries."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"Piloting of AMUSE revealed that most farmers regularly use antimicrobials in livestock including drugs intended for human use. Differences were reported between locations and production systems in terms of 1) access, 2) types of antimicrobials used and 3) when they were used. Antimicrobials were most commonly accessed by livestock owners from veterinarians and private suppliers, and in some locations, almost half of the respondents reported problems with drug access. Improper use of antimicrobials, mostly use without a proper diagnosis, was observed among 70-80% of livestock keepers and a majority were unaware of withdrawal periods of milk and meat after antibiotic treatment to avoid antibiotic residues in food intended for human consumption."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"In Ethiopia, AMUSE was followed-up with community conversations as a training approach which addresses perceptions and gender differences in AMU and together with communities agreed on action points to prevent AMR. Agreed actions included to consult a veterinarian before buying and using drugs, improve disease prevention practices and to stop using human drugs for animals (Lemma et al 2019;Alemu et al., 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"2. Assessments of the antimicrobial drug supply chain and AMR occurrence in livestock was done in Benin, Ethiopia and Uganda. These studies found low levels of training on veterinary medicine amongst antimicrobial supply chain actors, particularly the drug retailers. Additionally, high overall AMR occurrence were detected in food handlers, live animals and food of animal origin (Gemeda et al 2020;Gemeda et al. 2021;Dione et al 2020 ;Dion et al 2021 )."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"3. In Uganda, interactive trainings for animal health professionals, farmers and traders on livestock production with low antibiotic use were developed and implemented. The trainings combined teaching with social learning, using mixed group discussions to deliberate on local knowledge. The trainings resulted in piloting of interventions for disease prevention to reduce the need for antibiotics. Measures involved record keeping, stringent farm biosecurity, vaccination, and batchwise raising of animals. Lessons learned were captured in manuals on prudent AMU targeting farmers and veterinary professionals."},{"index":8,"size":90,"text":"4. In a pilot study, a laboratory team developed a diagnostic assay using biomarkers in pigs to discriminate between viral and bacterial infections. This assay has the potential to be used to guide a more precise and medically rational use of antibiotics in animals by differentiating between bacterial infections that may be susceptible to antibiotics, and viral infections that can't be cured with antibiotics. The method is a starting point, paving the way for further development of a rapid field test or point of care test (Hjertner et al 2021)."}]},{"head":"-Policy brief / Rational and responsible use of antimicrobials","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Training a group of farmers on responsible antibiotic use.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Photo by Justine Alinaitwe Did you know? Antimicrobials are drugs that act on a range of microbes (bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa) that cause disease. Antibiotics, on the other hand, specifically target bacteria and are only effective against bacterial infections. Photo ILRI/Biruk Gemeda"}]},{"head":"Development of diagnostic test to discriminate between viral and bacterial infections will","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The AMR agenda requires effective governance and commitments from local, on-the-ground practitioners, to central level policymakers. This may be achieved by combining bottom-up and top-down approaches. The following recommendations have come forward as key to tackle emerging AMR in the livestock sector in LMICs:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Support farmers with disease prevention and improved herd health as means to reduce the need for AMU"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Strengthen the capacity of animal health services in disease prevention and on treating diseased animals in a medically correct way"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Improve farmers' access to antimicrobials of adequate type and quality and to affordable professional animal health services for guiding diagnosis and treatment of diseased animals"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Involve farmers, animal health professionals and other relevant stakeholders in defining locally feasible interventions and targets to refine AMU in livestock"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• Develop affordable and field-adopted assays and tools to guide treatment of animals and evaluate AMU interventions"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" guide a more precise and medical rational use of antibiotics. CONCLUSION The work within the CRP Livestock highlighted several pressing issues on AMU in livestock that can serve as guidance in prioritizing actions to curb AMR in LMIC. • Most livestock farmers across countries and production systems practice improper use of antimicrobials • Livestock keepers and drug retailers have limited awareness and knowledge on AMR • The occurrence of AMR is high in animals and animal source foods • Veterinary practitioners are only occasionally consulted by farmers on disease prevention and treatment • Actors along the livestock value chain lack affordable and accessible tools to guide proper use of antimicrobials Policy brief / Rational and responsible use of antimicrobials -3 Medical rational use of antibiotics supports the production of safe animal source foods. Photo ILRI/Paul Karaimu A veterinarian discuss with a farmer how to use an antibiotic appropriately. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4894ca36-c8d0-45ed-bcac-f8bce45858cb","abstract":"• Growing global anti-microbial resistance is a looming threat that could lead to devastating health consequences and scale back food security, economic and development gains.• Most livestock farmers across LMICs and production systems practice improper use of antimicrobials, resulting in high occurrence of anti-microbial resistance (AMR) in animals and animal source foods.• Livestock keepers and drug retailers in LMICs have limited awareness on AMR, often due to a combined lack of access to knowledge and affordable tools to guide the proper use of antimicrobials.• Reinforced legislation alone is insufficient to promote medically rational and responsible anti-microbial use in livestock and to address the rise of AMR.• Incentives on the ground are imperative for change and should focus on supporting disease prevention as a means to reduce the need for antimicrobials. This requires increased access by farmers to professional animal health services and affordable veterinary medicines of adequate type and quality."}

data/part_3/0be6bb8ef8ea5f1c437eeb4cb583f508.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0be6bb8ef8ea5f1c437eeb4cb583f508","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36026aed-d464-4679-813c-ac2312a53d23/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Reporte del Taller de Género de Livestock and Fish, Nicaragua, 21-22 de enero 2014","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objetivos del taller","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objetivo general","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Proporcionar procesos y metodologías que faciliten entre los participantes la comprensión e implementación del enfoque de género en sus áreas de trabajo vinculadas a la cadena de valor de ganadería de doble propósito."}]},{"head":"Objetivos específicos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"1. Generar oportunidades para reflexionar acerca de la manera en que se comprende y se trabaja el tema de género desde lo personal hasta lo organizacional a. Conceptos básicos y percepciones personales-Equidad e Igualdad de género y percepciones personales b. Estadísticas de participación por sexo en ganadería y datos sobre brechas entre mujeres y hombres en el sector en Nicaragua c. Diagnóstico organizacional y transversalización 2. Proporcionar conocimientos de lo que implica la implementación de la perspectiva de género en las cadenas de valor."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"a. Una perspectiva de género en el trabajo con cadenas de valor b. Experiencias del trabajo de género con cadenas de valor de ganadería en Nicaragua c. Metodologías (revisión general de enfoque de género de herramienta, indicadores de género y ejercicio práctico)"}]},{"head":"Actividades y Resultados del Taller","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Conocimientos y habilidades que los y las participantes esperan obtener del taller."}]},{"head":"Conocimientos Habilidades","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":" Métodos y técnicas de diagnóstico e investigación (variables e indicadores) de CV con enfoque de género."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":" Conceptos generales de igualdad de género y conocimientos acerca del debate de género."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":" Situación actual de la ganadería en el país y los avances de género en el área rural  Compartir experiencias y conocer organizaciones que trabajan en género  Cadenas de valor con enfoque de género  Educación en género   Herramientas para el análisis de la cadena de valor y diagnósticos con enfoque de género  Metodología y análisis de género de Livestock and Fish"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":" Estrategias de implementación del enfoque de género en programas y proyectos de desarrollo e investigación en ganadería"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":" Comunicación e interacción con grupos mixtos."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":" Dinámicas grupales para abordaje del tema con hombres, mujeres y familias  Reconocer/Valorizar roles del trabajo de las mujeres y la familia en la finca  Comprender qué es género en las familias.  Cálculos estadísticos  Incorporar enfoque de género en diagnósticos de fincas."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":" Incorporar enfoque cadenas de valor en proyectos de desarrollo rural Interpretación de afirmaciones acerca de la construcción social del género  Grupo 1: \"La colonización introdujo diferencias de género, donde anteriormente no existía ninguna\" (Lugones, M. 2008)."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Opinión grupal: Anteriormente existían, incluso antes de la colonización, ya que las mujeres tenían un papel doméstico mientras que los hombres trabajaban más en la agricultura, pero la colonización exacerbó estas diferencias a través del sistema patriarcal impuesto por los españoles, también por la religión. La cultura indígena casi desapareció. Esto ha resultado en una invisibilización y falta de reconocimiento del papel de las mujeres que aún vivimos."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":" Grupo 2: \"El sistema opresivo de género que fue impuesto en la sociedad yoruba (África) a través del colonialismo… abarca la subordinación de las hembras en todos los aspectos de la vida\" (Oyewumi, 1997)"},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"Opinión grupal: Las mujeres subordinadas representan una posición inferior en todos los aspectos de la vida, ya que la subordinación siempre es una posición inferior, impuesta por el sistema colonial. Un sistema opresivo se impone como una relación de poder. El autor percibe que es una situación negativa (diferenciación) y la califica como opresiva."},{"index":11,"size":115,"text":" Grupo 3: \"Muchas comunidades tribales de Nativos Americanos eran matriarcales…y entendían al género en términos igualitarios, no en los términos de subordinación que el capitalismo europeo les terminó por imponer\" (Allen P.G., 1986;1992) Opinión grupal: El autor está dando a entender que en una sociedad matriarcal las decisiones las tomaban las mujeres, y en estas sociedades la relación era más equitativa. Se impuso un modelo de subordinación y/o se adoptó por imposición externa. Nos hacemos la pregunta que ¿Cuándo hablamos de matriarcal es género en términos igualitarios? ¿En una sociedad matriarcal se promoverá la igualdad? ¿Un sistema regido por mujeres es más justo o promueve relaciones igualitarias más que un sistema regido por varones?"},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":" Grupo 4: \"La imposición del sistema de estado europeo es el legado más duradero de la dominación colonial europea en África. La exclusión de las mujeres de la esfera pública es una tradición que fue exportada al África durante este periodo\"… \"La transformación del poder del Estado en poder masculino se logró excluyendo a las mujeres de las estructuras estatales. Esto se mantuvo en un profundo contraste con la organización del Estado Yoruba, en la cual el poder no estaba determinado por el género\" (Oyewumi, 1997)."},{"index":13,"size":53,"text":"Opinión grupal: La construcción social es una imposición europea, tomando en cuenta que en África las mujeres tenían cargos de poder. y no había diferencias basadas en el género ni prácticas excluyentes hacia las mujeres habiendo en esa época mujeres que ocupaban sitio de reinas. La colonización llevó la exclusión femenina a África."},{"index":14,"size":109,"text":" Grupo 5: \"La estructura social (entre los Nativos Norte americanos) incluía una jefa interna y un jefe externo. La jefa interna presidía la tribu, la villa o el grupo, ocupándose de mantener la armonía y administrar asuntos internos. El jefe macho rojo, presidía las mediaciones entre la tribu y los que no pertenecían a ella\". \"La mayoría de los individuos encajaban dentro de los roles de género tribales en base a propensión, inclinación y temperamento. Los Yuma tenían una tradición para designar el género que se basaba en los sueños; una hembra que soñaba con armas se transformaba en macho para todo tipo de propósitos prácticos\" (Allen, 1986;1992)."},{"index":15,"size":63,"text":"Opinión grupal: Los sueños son utilizados para compartir roles y decidir. La afirmación indica que en la estructura social de los nativos norteamericanos, los roles están previamente definidos en su estructura social, asumidos por hombres y mujeres (interno y externo). Los sueños se utilizaban para decidir, la mujer no ostentaba derecho de ser guerrera sin soñarlo, pregunta del grupo ¿Cómo comprobar el sueño?"}]},{"head":"Conclusiones de la facilitadora:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":" Existen aún en muchos lugares sistemas matriarcales, que indican que la línea de sucesión es matrilineal con determinadas características, entre ellas el poder de toma de decisiones de las mujeres. Matriarcal no quiere decir que las mujeres tienen el poder sobre los hombres, sino que las mujeres (especialmente las madres), en algunas poblaciones originarias, como es el caso de los garífunas, tienen el rol de liderazgo en aspectos importantes de la vida. Se requiere estudiar cada contexto para entender qué significado tiene lo matriarcal en cada población específica."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":" En el caso de los Yoruba, lo importante es que además de los sueños, que era una tradición para elegir los roles, lo importante es que se decidían en base a propensión, inclinación y temperamento, no se definían por sexo. Hay cosas ancestrales que no las adaptamos a nuestra realidad, y por eso interpretamos los roles de mujeres y hombres según nuestra educación en género y nuestra propia experiencia y aplicamos esto en los grupos sociales con los que trabajamos; es por eso que es importante estudiar y conocer el contexto social donde vamos a trabajar o investigar. Debemos comprender cuál es la estructura social que estudiamos para poder analizar las asignaciones de género."}]},{"head":"Razones y argumentos para trabajar la igualdad de género","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Presentación por Patricia Lindo (facilitadora del taller y experta en género y cadenas de valor)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"El trabajo por la igualdad de género gira en torno a tres argumentos: criterio de justicia social, criterio alivio a la pobreza y seguridad alimentaria y criterio empresarialcompetitividad. El primer criterio sostiene que los beneficios del crecimiento y desarrollo deben ser distribuidos equitativamente entre hombres y mujeres, ya que ambos están aportando. El segundo criterio resalta que las mujeres son actoras importantes para el alivio a la pobreza ya que cuando los recursos son administrados por ellas, la nutrición, salud y educación de las familias mejoran considerablemente."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"El tercer criterio se basa en que la desigualdad de género tiene costos económicos elevados ya que las mujeres generar crecimiento económico a partir de sus aportes laborales. Finalmente, debe de existir un balance entre los criterios expuestos, para evitar mercantilizar la igualdad."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Barreras de género en las Cadenas de Ganaderíahallazgos a partir de estudios de caso"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Presentación por Mieke Vanderschaeghe (experta en género y cadenas de valor)"},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"En Nicaragua, las estadísticas del sector ganadero tienden a invisibilizar el trabajo de las mujeres. Por ejemplo, el CENAGRO indica que el 23% de los productores entrevistados, son mujeres, pero en la realidad, están involucradas en un porcentaje mucho mayor, ya que la producción ganadera se basa en una economía familiar donde el trabajo y aportes de las mujeres son fundamentales."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"Las mujeres participan en la mayoría de los eslabones de la cadena, pero enfrentan muchas barreras. Entre las principales, la dominancia masculina en la ganadería, que impide que las mujeres sean visibles, valoradas e incluso auto reconocidas como actoras en el sector, lo cual limita su poder de decisión y control sobre los ingresos generados y los recursos necesarios para producir."},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":"Además, existen barreras para las mujeres en los servicios a la cadena, ya que el crédito, asistencia técnica y los proyectos tienden a enfocarse en el primer eslabón y en intereses masculinos, desvalorando los negocios de las mujeres en el procesamiento de leche."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"Los casos estudiados para generar estos datos fueron: conglomerado ganadero en León y Chinandega (CRM) en 2006, la cadena de leche y productos lácteos en el triángulo minero (GIZ-OXFAM) 2009 y la cadena de leche íntegra para red de frío en occidente (APEN) 2013."}]},{"head":"Observaciones sobre las barreras de género en la ganadería","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Existen factores culturales fuertes que influyen la manera en que se diseñan las encuestas e invisibilizan el papel de las mujeres, como por ejemplo los datos del CENAGRO que no incluyen datos de la familia."}]},{"head":"Transversalización del enfoque de género en programas y proyectos","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Presentación por Patricia Lindo La palabra transversalización fue traducida al español de la palabra anglosajona mainstreaming, que significa corriente principal. Significa integración y surgió durante la IV conferencia mundial sobre la Mujer en Beijing, 1995. Dos años después, la transversalización de género fue adoptada por las Naciones Unidas como enfoque en políticas y programas. Para entender la transversalización hay que entender la igualdad, tanto jurídica como de hecho (no discriminación, como responsabilidad estatal y de resultados o substantiva)."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Una estrategia de transversalidad de género implica que las preocupaciones de mujeres y hombres se integren en todas las políticas y proyectos, y que existan actividades específicas encaminadas al empoderamiento de las mujeres. Esto conlleva una transformación institucional."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Entre los aspectos que han favorecido la transversalización, está la presencia de sanciones y procedimientos obligatorios para integrar el género en una institución o proyecto, o que la igualdad es considerada \"un buen negocio\". Si bien el objetivo final de estos aspectos no es la igualdad, si vemos el vaso medio lleno, concluimos que \"es mejor que nada\"."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Finalmente, es importante ver el género como un cambio de actitud, debemos comenzar desde nosotros(as) mismos(as) en nuestros espacios laborales a transversalizar el género."}]},{"head":"Experiencias de transversalización de género en las organizaciones participantes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":" Heifer  Se logró incorporar el enfoque de género en varios proyectos pero a veces la transversalización ha invizibilizabado a las mujeres. La organización hace un año estableció una teoría de cambio con 5 ejes, uno de estos es género."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":" UNA  En algunas universidades (UPOLI, UCA y la UNA) se ha realizado una transversalización de género en los perfiles de estudios."}]},{"head":" CATIE","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":" A nivel de CATIE, hay una política de género desde 1995 que no se ha actualizado, pero recientemente se elaboró una estrategia de género en el programa MAPNoruega a nivel de territorio. Es difícil que las organizaciones entiendan acciones específicas para las mujeres."}]},{"head":" Nitlapán","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":" A nivel de institución, no tenemos política de género pero se han realizado esfuerzos desde el 2007. Algunos proyectos integran el enfoque de género, las cuales son pinceladas ya que no es una línea institucional."}]},{"head":" CRS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":" Solo 1 de 9 programas tiene política de género (PROGRESA) y a pesar de que es una organización católica, se están realizando cambios. Uno de los mayores logros es que la institución designe un presupuesto exclusivo para mujeres (25% está destinado para mujeres-capacitación, tecnología)."}]},{"head":" CIAT","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":" CIAT tiene una larga historia con género. Hace 10-15 años hubo un programa dedicado a género e investigación participativa y otro programa grande con investigadores/as pero después desapareció. Ahora hay más énfasis en género porque hay exigencias fuertes de incluir género en un 20% de los programas para poder recibir la plata. El riesgo del mainstreaming es que puede invisibilizarse a las mujeres, es por eso que es mejor que se integre de manera más concreta."}]},{"head":" INTA","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":" Al analizar la constitución, la igualdad entre las personas está planteada más hacia las instituciones del estado pero no para que la sociedad civil la implemente."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Visión general de la Estrategia de género de Livestock and Fish"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Presentación por Kathy Colverson, líder del tema de género del programa Livestock and Fish."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"El enfoque del programa de investigación Livestock and Fish es Incrementar la productividad en sistemas de pequeña escala:"},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Uno de los componentes transversales del programa es género, el cual cuenta con una estrategia que persigue alcanzar cuatro principales resultados: Desarrollo de capacidades, mejorar el acceso y control de las mujeres a recursos en cadenas de valor de ganadería y pesca, desarrollar estrategias y enfoques transformadores de género y promover un mayor nivel de equidad en el consumo de alimentos derivados de animales en los hogares."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Durante el 2013, se han realizado diferentes actividades enfocadas a los diferentes resultados. Entre los principales logros: se desarrollaron capacidades en 4 países, se desarrolló una caja de herramientas para el análisis de la cadena de valor con enfoque de género, se crearon indicadores de monitoreo y evaluación y propuestas enfocadas a estrategias de género transformadoras."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"Para el 2014, el componente de género del programa persigue continuar realizando alianzas con socios locales y desarrollando sus capacidades a través de diferentes actividades de capacitación. También en este año, se evaluará la efectividad de las herramientas con enfoque de género para el análisis de la cadena de valor (incluyendo datos acerca de consumo) y se desarrollarán propuestas que incorporen el GTA (Enfoque de género transformador)."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":" 'por las personas en situación de pobreza'  reducción de pobreza  'para personas en situación de pobreza'  seguridad alimentaria La estrategia de género de Livestock and Fish y mi trabajo-acciones que realizan las organizaciones y que pueden vincularse con los resultados de la estrategia de género. Aportes, contribuciones y acciones de las mujeres a la cadena de valor Ejercicio en grupo para identificar las principales desigualdades y aportes de las mujeres en la cadena de valor, cómo estos aportes pueden contribuir al el cumplimiento de los resultados de la estrategia de género y qué tipo de acciones se pueden realizar para potenciar dichos aportes y disminuir las desigualdades."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Aportes de las mujeres en la Cadena de Valor de ganadería doble propósito."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"Como contribuir al logro de resultados de la estrategia de género Acciones para potenciar aportes  Cuido y reproducción humana."},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":" Asegura la alimentación de familias y trabajadores de la finca."},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":" Crianza de especies menores."},{"index":13,"size":9,"text":" Participación activa en la administración de los recursos."},{"index":14,"size":37,"text":" Apoyo diario en el proceso productivo de lácteos (especialmente en  A partir de su conocimiento empírico pueden contribuir al incremento de la productividad y calidad de producción de lácteos, para mejorar el acceso a mercados."},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":" Desarrollo de sus capacidades, talentos y habilidades  Organizar a las mujeres.  Realizar actividades de empoderamiento para mujeres."},{"index":16,"size":7,"text":" Trabajar temas de emprendedurismo y mercadeo."},{"index":17,"size":11,"text":" Orientar capacitaciones según aportes de las mujeres en las CV."},{"index":18,"size":11,"text":" Impulsar procesos de capacitación a nivel directivo de las cooperativas."},{"index":19,"size":9,"text":" Contribuir con políticas de género en las cooperativas."},{"index":20,"size":18,"text":" Ampliar su participación con otros actores de la CV.  Diferencias en nivel de educación (capacitación técnica)."}]},{"head":" Limita su participación en las","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"CV y en acceder a beneficios obtenidos."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":" Limita su acceso a tecnología.  Las mujeres tienen menos recursos, menos oportunidades  Aumentar la capacidad en la toma de decisiones, conocimientos y habilidades a través de empoderamiento."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":" Mecanismos/políticas que permitan el acceso a factores  Limitado acceso a información para incorporarse a las oportunidades y a organizaciones constituidas."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":" Bajo nivel de autoestima y reconocimiento de su propia participación y capacidades genera desigualdad."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":" La división de trabajo y asignación de roles y participación no es equitativa. para capacitarse, menor acceso a mercados. de producción."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":" Crear alianzas entre instituciones (Livestock and Fish)  Identificar los roles de las mujeres en las cadenas de valor y fortalecer sus capacidades en base a sus roles."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":" Fortalecer los conocimientos en la temática de género para técnicos y participantes de la CV."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":" Asignar los recursos a nombre de mujeres o mancomunados."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":" Realizar estudios de caso para contar con más información."}]},{"head":"Género y Cadenas de valor","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Presentación por Patricia Lindo Las mujeres están en las cadenas de valor agropecuarias principalmente en productos principales, procesamiento para la venta al detalle y a pequeña escala, en empresas individuales de subsistencia y en comercialización de actividades de post-cosecha."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Está claro que las mujeres agregan valor pero en condiciones desfavorables ya que su trabajo es considerado como \"artesanal\", de carácter informal, por lo tanto sin apoyo de políticas de fomento, crédito y asistencia técnica."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"A pesar de que las mujeres estén presentes en toda la cadena, el estatus de productor lo ostenta el hombre, así como también el estatus de socio y representante de la familia."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Para poder trabajar con enfoque de género las CV, se debe desmitificar la concepción tradicional de la familia en el desarrollo, ya que los miembros de una familia tienen intereses diferentes y las relaciones intradomésticas son gobernadas por relaciones de dominación ya que los hombres controlan el trabajo familiar, la producción y los ingresos que se generan gracias al aporte de todos y todas."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Es por lo anterior que esta metodología propone una nueva mirada a la familia, en la que se promueva la jefatura doble y el poder de negociación de las mujeres. También es importante que se visibilice el trabajo de las mujeres como parte integral en los procesos de las cadenas de valor."}]},{"head":"Estudio de caso","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Ejercicio en grupos basado en un estudio de caso. El objetivo es adquirir habilidades en el personal profesional de organizaciones que trabajan la cadena de ganadería para el abordaje de la igualdad en grupos mixtos, familias, mujeres, hombres y jóvenes sobre sus aportes y beneficios en las cadenas. Se basa en un caso desarrollado en una cooperativa en el municipio de Siuna donde el Programa MASRENACE-GTZ y PRODER de OXFAM-GB, ambos en Nicaragua, desarrollaron una alianza para fomentar cadena de lácteos a partir del año 2008."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Este caso trata de un taller realizado en el año 2009 donde un equipo de consultoras facilitó la integración de género en la cadena de lácteos de una cooperativa en Siuna en un proceso de alrededor de cuatro meses. Para el taller se convocó a los socios/as y sus esposas/os con el objetivo de:"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"1. Contribuir al que hombres y mujeres visualicen la competitividad de su producto en el contexto de la competitividad de la cadena, y la capacidad de articular la misma."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"2. Contribuir al reconocimiento del aporte de mujeres y hombres a la cadena de lácteos."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"3. Contribuir a la reflexión sobre el control de los beneficios de esta participación en la cadena de lácteos."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"4. Contribuir a creación de conciencia sobre la importancia de toma de decisiones y control conjunto sobre productos del trabajo (productivo y reproductivo), particularmente ingresos generados en lácteos."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"En el taller se realizó el mapeo de la cadena de lácteos, y posteriormente se hizo un ejercicio con la Herramienta: Visualización de aportes de hombres y mujeres a la calidad del producto y brechas de género en los beneficios (Vanderschaeghe y Lindo, 2009). Se les pidió a las/los socios de la cooperativa trabajar en grupos separados hombres y mujeres en base a la siguiente guía de preguntas:"},{"index":8,"size":75,"text":" ¿Cuál es el aporte de las mujeres a la calidad de la leche?  ¿Cuál es el aporte de los hombres a la calidad de la leche?  ¿Cuáles son los beneficios de las mujeres por su trabajo en la leche?  ¿Cuáles son los beneficios de los hombres por su trabajo en la leche?  ¿Son parejos los beneficios?  En caso de no: ¿Cómo se podría mejorar los beneficios para las mujeres?"},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"En el Taller de Género de Livestock and Fish se dividió al grupo de participantes en dos subgrupos para que hagan una lectura de las respuestas que hombres y mujeres de la cooperativa dieron y a partir de esa lectura hagan una reflexión sobre cómo abordan las diferencias y similitudes en las respuestas marcadas por roles de género. La guía de preguntas que las y los participantes del taller de género de Livestock and Fish debían responder es la siguiente:"},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"-¿A partir de las respuestas de hombres y mujeres de la cooperativa, cómo ustedes van a facilitar el debate en este grupo de productores y productoras?"},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"-¿Qué preguntas harían para lograr visibilizar, reconocer y valorar a las mujeres, y generar cambios en las concepciones de las personas?"},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"-¿Qué mensajes clave dirían Uds. a este grupo que motiven cambios en las concepciones de las personas?"},{"index":13,"size":4,"text":"-¿Cómo cerrarían este ejercicio?"},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"Resultados del ejercicio: Grupo 1"},{"index":15,"size":40,"text":"El primer paso que tomó el grupo es analizar cómo enfrentar el debate, las incoherencias en las respuestas de hombres y mujeres. Una vez resuelto esto su propuesta es comenzar con las siguientes preguntas al grupo de productores y productoras:"},{"index":16,"size":51,"text":"¿Por qué hay diferencia de opiniones en cuanto a los ingresos y beneficios? ¿Por qué las mujeres no son socias de las cooperativas y no son parejos los beneficios? ¿Cómo es que logran las mujeres realizar tantas actividades en el día? ¿Los hombres estarían dispuestos a colaborar en el trabajo doméstico?"},{"index":17,"size":100,"text":"Después del debate, el grupo propone es decir al grupo de productores y productoras algunos mensajes clave: i) Integrar opiniones y percepciones sobre las labores de hombres y mujeres, es decir, compartir percepciones diferentes de hombres y mujeres; ii) Que valoricen las experiencias positivas de hombres, ejemplo cuando estos aportan a las labores domésticas, iii) Que una pareja comparta su experiencia de compartir tareas domesticas Finalmente proponen como cierre: Realizar con los productores y productoras un sociodrama de cómo se desarrolla el ordeño, cómo se prepara la familia para el ordeño, cómo las mujeres se levantan para iniciar sus labores…etc."}]},{"head":"Grupo 2.","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"El grupo propone comenzar el abordaje con el grupo de productoras y productores planteando tres preguntas generadoras ¿Qué opinan de estas opiniones? es decir de las respuestas de las mujeres, ¿qué opinan de estas otras opiniones?, es decir de las respuestas de los hombres. ¿Se ajusta a la realidad de cada grupo? El objetivo es lograr la validación de las respuestas de parte de hombres y mujeres productores (as) Preguntar a los hombres. ¿Qué hacen Ud. si se enferman y no pueden realizar las actividades del día? ¿Cuánto le pagarían a esa persona?"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"El objetivo es que, de esa forma valoren económicamente las actividades de las mujeres. El segundo paso, según la propuesta del grupo 2 es cerrar también con mensajes: \"Tenemos una gran labor, si no está ahí, deberías pagar el trabajo que hacen las mujeres\". Recomiendan formular preguntas que toquen a ambos lados."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones de la facilitadora:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Al grupo 1 le sugiere que en procesos de facilitación no es recomendable comenzar o hacer preguntas que inicien con ¿por qué? Particularmente en procesos de carácter psicosocial en que están implicadas actitudes, hábitos, prácticas culturales, la interrogante ¿por qué? tiene un sentido de juicio, y hay que evitar en toda circunstancia que las personas y grupos se sientan juzgados por lo que hacen, dicen o piensan. Con respecto al tercer paso, felicita al grupo por facilitar la integración de opiniones de mujeres y de hombres, sin que eso quiera decir que deben lograr que sean iguales. El grupo de productores y productoras tienen derecho de pensar diferente y eso hay que validarlo. También les felicita por estimular y reconocer las buenas prácticas de hombres que asumen labores del hogar."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Al grupo 2 le felicita por comenzar con preguntar a ambos (mujeres y hombres) su opinión con respecto a los resultados del otro grupo. No es tanto por validar sino porque es importante fomentar el diálogo, y este comienza con que ambos géneros (en este caso hombres y mujeres productores de lácteos) expresen su sentir con respecto a las opiniones diferentes que se plantean con respecto a un mismo tema."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"En conclusión, las y los facilitadores deben hacer reconocimiento y estímulos positivos a las buenas prácticas de las mujeres en las cadenas (reconocer constantemente sus aportes), como medio para incrementar su autovaloración y auto-estima, así como a las practicas equitativas que realizan los hombres y las mujeres."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Revisión de herramientas de análisis de la Cadena de Valor de Livestock and Fish"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Principales observaciones de las y los participantes acerca de la herramienta de análisis de Cadena de valor para productores y productoras:"},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":" Para obtener información acerca de los medios de vida, es recomendable utilizar otros métodos de investigación diferente al grupo focal, por ejemplo, encuestas."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":" El formato de la herramienta parece para una entrevista, no grupo focal.  La herramienta es muy larga  Para datos cuantitativos, es mejor utilizar otros métodos más puntuales."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":" No se describe cómo abordar al grupo, tal vez se pueden identificar otras dinámicas con respecto a la visión del mundo."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":" Hay ejercicios muy complicados (Calendario estacional por ejemplo) y que podría simplificarse."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":" La herramienta parece ser para un taller, no para un grupo focal, ya que aborda temas muy específicos y no un intercambio general de opiniones."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":" Previo al ejercicio para identificar medios de vida, se debe de construir el concepto."}]},{"head":"Evaluación del taller","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Al finalizar el taller, cada participante completó una encuesta individual y anónima para evaluar el taller y proporcionar valiosa retroalimentación. El 93% de los y las participantes consideraron que el formato, la agenda y horario del taller fue excelente."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"El 100% indicó que la temática del taller fue de relevancia para su trabajo y que tanto los conocimientos de la facilitadora como la interacción con los participantes fueron excelentes."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"En cuanto a los contenidos aprendidos en el taller, entre los más importantes se mencionaron: ver lo poco visible (el trabajo de las mujeres), las iniciativas y trabajos que se están realizando en el tema de género en Nicaragua, herramientas para el análisis de género en cadenas de valor, conceptos, metodologías y datos cuantitativos de análisis de género."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"La mayoría coincidió en que lo mejor del taller fue la libertad para expresarse e interactuar con la facilitadora, lo cual permitió una mayor fluidez de los temas y un rico intercambio de experiencias."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Por otro lado, el tiempo fue un factor limitante que las y los participantes identificaron al preguntarles lo que menos les gustó del taller."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Todos y todas las y los participantes expresaron que asistirían nuevamente en un taller similar."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"¡Yoga para energizar al grupo!"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Desigualdad en cuanto al acceso a recursos (tierra, animales, fierro, crédito). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f04650af-94d9-4b72-bdb9-608564318fc5","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c3a3065ad09fe1d3bdb0330c948fabe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3efcca4d-10ed-4e97-9481-7518b849976b/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"CCM,MTI BIBLIOTECA 50938","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Este boletín ha sido preparado con el objeto de ofrecer en forma resumida la informaci6n actualizada sobre la utilizaci6n de semilla integral y de la hanna o torta de soya en alimentación de cerdos . Se presenta como material de referencia, para porcicultores y especialistas en producci6n porcina, incluyendo los resultados de trabajOS recientes que ofrecen una revisión breve sobre la si.tuaci6n actual de la investigaci6n con frijol soya (Glycine max) en nutrici6n porcina."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"En la primera parte del trabajO se analizan algunos aspectos generales sobre el valor nutritivo de ambos productos y sobre los cambios que se logran mediante los diferentes sistemas de procesamiento. La parte complementaria del trabajo está dedicada a prcsentar los resultados de varias investigaciones utilizando torta o semilla de soya como fuente proteínica en raciones para cerdos, especialmente durante las fases de crecimiento y acabado."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"La mayor parte de la información presentada se basa en los resultados de experimentos efectuados mediante proyectos de cooperaci6n entre el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA) y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). La soya es la semilla oleaginosa que ofrece mayor cantidad y mejor calidad de proteiha entre los productos vegetales utilizados en alimentación animal."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Generalmente la semilla integral contiene, en promedio, 38 por ciento de proteína cruda, 18 JX>r ciento de grasa y 5 por ciento de fibra."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Las exigencias agronómicas de este producto limitan su cultivo comercial a unas pocas regiones de América Latina, que incluyen principalmente a Brasil (2.2 millones de toneladas). México (150.000 toneladas). Colombia (130.000 toneladas), Argentina (60.000 toneladas) y Paraguay (52.000 toneladas). La pro-ducci6n total de semilla de soya en Latinoamérica es aproximadamente igual a la producci6n de semilla de algodón (3 millones de toneladas por año), pero el volumen en términos de protefna es superior para la soya, gracias a la mayor concentraci6n de proteína cruda en esta semilla."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"En rrutrici6n animal existe la posibilidad de utilizar la semilla de soya en dos formas principales: como semilla integral antes de ser procesada o como torta (harina) de soya. subproducto resultante después de haber extraído el aceite a la semilla. Para la eficiente utílizaci6n de la semilla de soya en nu-trici6n de cerdos, se requiere que sea tratada por medio de calor. con el fin de destruir los factores inhibido res de la tripsina, presentes en la semilla cruda."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Debido a que el valor nutritivo tanto de la semilla de soya cocida como de la torta de soya es excelente. la decisi6n para utilizar cualqUiera de estos dos productos depende fundamentalmente del aspecto econ6mico."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"VALOR NUTRITIVO DE SEMILLA Y TORTA DE SOYA En el Cuadro 1 se presenta la composici6n qurmica para la semilla de soya integral y para dos tipos de torta de soya comercial con diferente contenido proternico. Las principales diferencias entre estos productos se refieren . al contenido de proterna y grasa. La torta de soya tiene mayor con-centraci6n de proteiha y menor contenido de extracto etéreo que la semilla de soya. Po~ el contrario, la semilla integral contiene alrededor de 18 por ciento de grasa y 38 por ciento de proteína, por lo cual es un producto con mayor valor energético y menor valor proteínico."}]},{"head":"Proterna","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Tanto la semilla integral como la torta de soya procesadas en forma adecuada, contienen proterha de excel e nte calidad nutritiva. Seg11n el proceso utilizado en la extracci6n del aceite, la torta de soya debe contener entre 42 y 51 por ciento de protefha cruda. La semilla integral contiene generalmente entre 37 y 38 por ciento de proterna."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Estos productos tienen un buen balance de aminoácidos , exceptuando la metionina, que es el primer aminoácido limitante para cerdos, en ambos ca-Cuadro 1. Composici6n qurmica de torta y semilla integral de soya."}]},{"head":"Semilla Torta de Soya","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Componente s ( %) Los aminoácidos restantes abo proporcionalmente superiores a los requerimientos del cerdo cuando la soya se utiliza para suministrar toda la protef'ha de la raci6n. Sin embargo. el balance de aminoácidos en la raci6n depende de la mezcla de ingredientes que se estén utilizando en combinaci6n con soya. A medida que se reduce la cantidad de proterna aportada por la soya."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"otros aminoácidos p1eden resultar limitantes en caso de que no sean aportados en cantidad sufictente por los demás ingredientes. Desp1és de la mettonina, pueden resultar limitantes la listna, el triptofano y la treonina en la protet'na aportada por la soya."}]},{"head":"Energra","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Debido a la mayor concentraci6n de acette (18 por ciento), la semilla integral aporta una mayor cantidad de energl'a (4.500 Kcal. de energl'a dlgestible/kg) que la torta de soya (3.800 Kcal. de energl'a digestible/kg). El mayor nivel de ene~ gía digestible o metabolizable en raciones a base de semilla integral es la principal explicaci6n para la mejor eficiencia de conversi6n alimenticia que se observa en cerdos en crecimiento y acabado alimentados con este tipo de raciones."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Por otra parte el aceite de la semilla de soya contiene gran cantidad de ácidos grasos no saturados (especialmente ácido linoleico), lo cual influye en la grasa de depdsito del cerdo. Las canales de cerdós alimentados con semilla de soya generalmente tienen menos firmeza, un mayor rndice de yodo (mayor contenido de ácidos grasos no saturados) y grasa de consi.stencia blanda. La grasa de estos animales contiene menos ácido aleteo y md:s ácido linoleico que la de cerdos alimentados con torta de soya."}]},{"head":"Alteraciones en el valor nutritivo","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Los principales problemas para la utilizaci6n de los productos de soya se presentan debido a un deficiente procesamiento o por adulteraci6n con otros productos de baja calidad, incluyendo la adición de cascarilla de soya, 10 cual ocasiona un incremento en la fibra cruda. que en condiciones normales no debe ser superior a 6-7 por ciento en la torta y 5-6 por ciento en la semilla."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"La mejor indicaci6n del grado de calentamiento en los productos de soya se logra mediante la determinaci6n de la ureasa. Esta prueba permite medir la ureasa residual a través de cambios e n el pH. En -eemllla sin grasa que tenga un incremento en el pH por e ncima de 0.3 puede sospecharse de que haya si do sometida a un calentamie.nto deficiente. Si el incre mento es menor de 0.02, puede sospecharse de un calentamiento excesivo."}]},{"head":"METOOOS DE PROCESAMIENTO","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Semilla integral de soya La se milla c ruda conti e ne sustancias antimetabolicas (antitripsina), que inhiben los procesos proteoliticos normales dl,lrante la digesti6n del aHmento."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Un tratamiento térmico adecuado destr uye estas antienzimas, además de inhibir la acci6n t6xi ca de la hemaglutinina e incrementar l a disponibilidad de los am inoác idos cistina y metionina, gracias a una más rápida liberación mediante la acci6n enzimática."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"La intensidad de la te mperatura y la duraci6n del tratam ien to cal6ri co influyen directa me nte en los cambios de la calidad proteica del producto. Un tratamiento demasiado severo destruye los efectos favorabl es que se pueden lograr con un tratamiento moderado. El tratamiento ideal debe proporcionar la temperatura y condiciones adecuadas que permitan l a de strucci6n de las antienzimas, pero que no afecten la disponibilidad de aminoácidos o r esulten en al-teraci6n de otros componentes nutritivos en la semilla de soya ."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Existen diversos métodos para procesar la semilla de soya, que incluye n tratamie ritos con calor hl1medo o calor seco. Entre los sistemas más util izados se pueden mencionar la s imple cocci6n en agua. por vapor caliente, calentamie nto con rayos infrarrojos y la extrusi6n (combinaci6n de presi6n y calor)."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Por 10 general. el equipo industri. al más utilizado para e l calentamiento de la semilla se basa en e l calor seco, usando llama de gas o calor infrarrojo. También el proceso de extrusi6n está siendo utili zado cada vez con mayor ' frecuencia. En este sistema se obtiene calentamiento adecuado mediante la fricci6n resultante de forzar e l paso de la semilla cruda a través de pequeños orific ios."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"En la mayorra de los procesos l a te mperatura que produ ce los mejores resultados en términos de r endimiento es de 12G-150 °C . Tempe raturas supe-riOl'es o inferiores ocasionan disminuci6n en el rendimiento y menores coeficientes de digestibilidad. El tiempo de duraci6n del calentamiento no debe ser superior de 2 a 3 minutos, ni menor de 1 minuto, siempre y cuando se obtengan las temperaturas ya anotadas en la superficie del grano. En el caso de que l~ temperatura empleada sea inferior (lOO-120°C), el tiempo de cocci6n debe prolongarse hasta 4-5 minutos. Cuando la semilla se cocina en agua (lOO°C) se requiere mayor tiempo de cocci6n , generalmente entre 10 y 15 minutos."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"En experimentos realizados por Olsen~!. al. (1975) se ha comparado el tratamiento térmico en la semilla entera y en la s~milla molida en partrculas de diferente tamaño. No se observ6 diferencia en el rendimiento asociada con el tamaño de la partrcula. por lo cual no parece aconsejable econ6micamente la molienda fina de la semilla antes de ser procesada."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"Para poder decidir sobre el silStema de procesamiento que conviene utilizar. deben tenerse en cuenta tanto consideraciones sobre costo del equipo como de' la eficiencia del proceso."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"La inversi~n inicial en maquinaria y en facilidades para procesamiento de semilla de soya a nivel de granjas porcinas es aproximadamente de US$3.500 a 5.000 para una unidad que p~ocese entre 300 y 500 kg de soya por hora. De acuerdo con un estudio econ6mico realizado por Zimmerman ~ al. (1970), el costo del procesamiento. además de costos fijos y variables. se ha estimado en t\"S$7.50/toll para procesar 100 toneladas por aM y en US$3.00/ton para poder procesar 400 toneladas por año."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"Tor:a dc~~ En el tratamiento de la semilla de soya para extraer el aceite y obtener e l subproducto con mayor concentraci6n de proteína (torta o harina), pueden utilizarse tres m6todos principales:"},{"index":11,"size":49,"text":"El sistema de prensa hidráulica o prensa de tornillo, que se basa en la <.:ombinaci.6n de calor y prcsi6n para extraer el aceite. Este método puede original' una gran producci6n de calor, el cual afecta la calidad de la torta al destruir o disminuir 13 disponibilidad de algunos aminoácidos."},{"index":12,"size":52,"text":"EJ sistema de solventes e s el más utilizado para procesar la semilla, hns6ndose en la extracci6n del aceite con un disolvente volátil, después de un proceso de calentamiento y trituraci6n de la semilla., En este dltimo sistema se obtiene mayor cantidad de aceite que en los sistemas de presi6n mecáni ca."},{"index":13,"size":71,"text":"Gene ralme nte, la torta de soya obtenida por e l método de sol ventes contiene alrededor de 1 por ciento de aceite, mientras que el subproducto obtenido mecánicamente, ... conti ene de 4 a 6 por ciento de aceite. La torta procesada me di ante solventes debe someterse a un proceso de tostado o calentamiento moderado que propGrcione el calor necesario para destruir los compue stos inhibidores de la tripsina."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"Por dltirno, puede emplearse una combina ci6n de los sistemas de solventes y extracci6n por presi6n, para obtener un subproducto de calidad intermedia ."}]},{"head":"RACIONES PARA CERDOS A BASE DE SEMILLA O TOnTA DE SOYA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"A continuaci6n se incluye un r esumen sobre una serie de trabajos realizados con el prop6sito de evaluar la utilizaci6n de torta o semilla de soya en raciones para ce rdos."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"En la primera parte se exponen los trabajos r e alizados por varios autores utilizando la torta de soya y la semilla de soya procesada en diferentes tipos de equipo."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"La segunda parte demuestra los resultados de los experimentos realizados en el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario ([CA), en que se compara el valor de la torta y la semilla de soya en combinaci6n con diversas fuentes energéticas. La semilla de soya utilizada en estos experimentos fue sometida a un proceso muy rudim entario de procesamiento: la semilla fue cocinada en agua e n ebullici6n (lOO•q durante un perrada de 20-30 minutos. luego secada mediante exposici6n a los rayos solares y triturada en un molino de martillo."}]},{"head":"Torta de soya","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"La combinaci6n de torta de soya con marz o millo proporciona una ra-ci6n de excelente calidad para cerdos de todas las edades. Cuando se utilizan rangos de proterna e ntre 11 y 17 por ciento de proterna para cerdos e n crecimiento y acabado, el nivel de proterna no es tan crrtico como lo es la calidad de la proteína utilizada. En estudios realizados por Smith 2S.!!l. (1967). se observ6 que el rendimiento de los cerdol3 fue igual cuando se alimentaron con raciones que conteman 11 . 3, 12.8, 14.3 Y 17.2 por ciento de proteína, siempre y cuando la protefna suministrada fuera aportada por 60 por ciento de torta de soya y 40 por ciento de maíz (Cuadro 2). En contraste, el rendimiento de los cerdos no fue igual cuando todas las raciones tenían el mismo nivel de proteína (12.8 por ciento), pero el maíz aportaba 60, 50 Y 40 por ciento de la proterna a expensas de un menor aporte proteico de la torta de soya (Cuadro 3)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"En otro estudio reportado por Clawson et al. (1963), se utilizaron raciones con 10 por ciento de proteína para cerdos en crecimiento y acabado, en las cuales la torta de soya s610 aport6 12.5, 25 Y 50 por ciento de la proteína y el maíz el porcentaje restante. Los resultados (Cuadro 4), demostraron que solamente cuando la torta de soya proporcionaba el 50 por ciento de la proteína, los rendimientos en crecimiento y eficiencia de conversi6n alimenticia fueron aceptables para cerdos de esta edad. A medida que la torta de soya aportaba menos proteína en la dieta, los rendimientos fu eron inferiores."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"En experimentos conducidos por Corzo ~1 Q.l: (1968) se compararon tres niveles de proteína (13, 16 Y 19 por ciento) en dietas con 15, 22.5 6 30 por ciento de melaza y con torta de soya CO mo fue nte principal de proterha."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Cuadro 2. Efecto de diferentes niveles de proteína e n raciones con un aporte constante de proteína suministrada por la torta de soya .•"}]},{"head":"•","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"..  Cuadro 5. Varios niveles de melaza en dietas con 13 por ciento de proterna a base de torta de soya para ce rdos en crecimiento y acabado (20-90 kg      ' \" Peso inicial, 32 kg¡ peso final, 90 kg."}]},{"head":"Se observ6 un mejor aumento","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Fuente: Noland et al. (1970). Cuadro 12. Semilla de soya molida tostada en remplazo de torta de soya para ce rdos en crecimiento y acabado. '\" • Peso inicial, 27 kg¡ peso final, 100 kg .   Cuadro 19. Dietas a base de melaza, azdcar y semilla de soya para cerdos en crecimiento.   tes del procesamiento ca16rico. Se obtuvieron mejores rendimientos mediante el proceso de ebullici6n en agua debido posiblemente a la mayor temperatura lograda. La prdcttca de moler la semilla antes de cocinarla no influyó en forma consistente para aumentar los rendimientos en peso de los cerdos."}]},{"head":"Producci6n anual","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Cuadro 23. Efecto del procesamiento de semilla de soya sobre e l aumento de peso de cerdos en crecimiento.  La semilla procesada puede remplazar en forma total o parCial a la torta de soya u otras fuentes de proterna en la raci6n lográndose resultados altamente satisfactorios. Generlllmente se obtiene un rendimiento igualo superior utilizando semilla de soya en remplazo de la torta de soya para r ac iones de cerdos en crecimiento y acabado. Sin embargo, en lechones y cerdos con peso inferior a 30 kg, se ha observado mejor r e ndimiento con dietas a base de torta de soya, por 10 cual resulta conveniente utilizar l a semilla integral únicamente para cerdos con peso superior a 30 kg Y para hembras Efl gestación o lactancia ."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Otra manera de inhibir los efectos adve rsos de las antienzimss prt;sentes en l a semilla cruda, se log ra mediante ebullici6n en agua durante 10 a 15 minutos. La semilla cocida en agua puede secarse y posteriormente incorporarl a e n forma de harina como componente energético y proternico de la raci6n. Aunque el rendimiento que se obtiene en los ce rdos puede ser ligeramente inferior al que se logra con semilla procesada con temperatura más alta, en muchas zonas donde se carece de maquina ria ndecuada, ésta puede ser una alternativa econ6mi camente viable."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Como en otros casos, la decisi6n final para utilizar semilla o torta de soya en raciones para cerdos depende en gran parte del aspecto econ6mico."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"La torta de soya de buena calidad generalmente tiene un precio superior al de otras materias primas convenciona l e~ utilizadas como fuente de proterna, exceptuando la harina de pescado . Esta situaci6n es razona1¡le debido a la alta cantidad y calidad de la proterna presente en los productos derivados de la soya ."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"El precio de la semi Ua de soya procesada debe ser inferior al de la torta de soya para que s u utilizaci6n en raciones concentradas resulte ventajosa econ6micamente . Al contener menor concentraci6n proternica que la torta de soya, es necesario utilizar mayor cantidad de semilla integral para alcanzar el nivel de protefna deseado en la raci6n. A pesar de su mayor riqueza energética, la diferencia no alcanza a compensar económicamente la disminuci6n en el contenido de proterna. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"* Fuente: Clawson ~.I.(1963). "},{"text":" zar torta de soya. El rendimiento de cerdos en crecimiento y acabado alimentados con semilla de soya procesada en forma adecuada es generalmente igual o superior al de cerdos alime ntados con torta de soya (Jiménez..!U !!l., 1963; Comba ~ al., 19GB; Young et al.. 1970). Gracias al desarrollo de equipo para procesamiento de semilla a bajo costo se ha estimulado una mejor utiliza-ci6n en la producci6n comercial de cerdos con este producto. Un resumen sobre los resultados más recie ntes se incluye en el Cuadro 10. Los trabajos realizados por Noland 2!. al. (1970). Zimmerman jll al. (1970), Jianson!:.t al . (1970), Olsen (1971) y Dellis y Brooks (1975) describen ejemplos de los resultados obtenidos con raciones a base de semilla de soya procesada me diante varios métodos.Cuadro 7. Varios niveles de melaza en dietas con 19 por ciento de protefna a base de torta de soya para cerdos en crecimiento "},{"text":"base de semilla de soya. Tanto durante el perfodo de crecimiento como en el acabado se observ6 un incremento de peso de los cerdos y una mejor eficien'cia alimenticia, a medida que aument6 e l nivel de proterna. Los cerdos que consumieron torta de soya demostraron un rendimiento igual al de cerdos que consumieron semilla de soya con el mismo nivel de protefna.La utilización de semilla de soya integral e.n raciones para lechones no ha producido respuestas tan favorables como las que se observal\". en cerdos en crecimtento y acabado. Las ganancias de peso generalmente no son iguales a las que se obtienen cuando se utiliza la torta de soya como fuente de protefna. En el Cuadro 18 se presenta un ejemplo de un trabaja realtzado por Ztrnrnerman.!.!!!: (1970) en que se utiliza semilla de soya integral tostada mediante rayos infrarrojos y torta de soya en ractones con varios niveles de energra y protefna para lechones pequeí'los (6 kg de peso promedio).Cuadro 10. Valor nutritivo de la semilla de soya procesada por calor (SS) en comparaci6n con la torta de soya (1'8) en raciones para cerdos. "},{"text":" de peso en los lechones que consumieron la ra-ci6n mafz-torta de soya. La re13ci6n proterna: energra, no afect6 el rendimiento en crecimiento. En una serie de trabajos realizados en el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (lCA) se procedi6 a evaluar la utilizaci6n de semilla de soya integral cocida en agua. La semilla fue introducida en agua en ebullici6n durante 20-30 minutos aproximadamente y luego secada mediante exposici6n al sol du-Tante 4-6 horas aproximgdamente. Posteriormente la semilla seca se tritur6, en un molino de martillo para mezclarla en forma de harina con los dem~s constituyentes de la raci6n. Con este material se realizaron evaluaciones en nutrici6n de cerdos durante las fases de crecimiento, acabado y lactancia.En el primer estudio se procedi6 a utilizar la semilla de soya cocida como fuente Ilnica de proterna en raciones a base de aztIcar y melaza como componente energético. Estas raciones fueron comparadas con un tratamiento testigo (marz-torta de soya) y con raciones a base de torta de soya, azdcar Cuadro 11. Utilizaci6n de varios niveles de semilla de soya procesada para cerdos en crecimiento y acabado. "},{"text":"Fuente Fuente: Hanson, & al. (1970). "},{"text":"* Fuente:OIsen(1971 ).En un trabajo posterior se realiz6 l a evaluación de la semilla de soya en combinación con varias fuentes de carbohidratos para cerdos en crecimiento. En el Cuadro 21 se describen las raciones. Las fuentes de carbohidratos "},{"text":" de l os cerdos con tratamientos con semilla de soya, fue inferior al crecimiento obtenido en e l grupo testigo. La adici6n de melaza au-ment6 la diferencia en todos los tratami entos . El menor rendimie nto puede explicarse parcialmente como resultado de la e dad y el peso de los animales utilizado&: los lechones con pesos inferiores a 20 kg no respondieron satisfactoriamente a raciones con semilla de soya. Por otra parte, los niveles altos de me la za afectaron en forma más drástica a los cerdos pequeños . La combina-ci6n de ambos productos, semilla de soya y melaza, puede flume ntar e l problema. Entre los productos carbohidratados que mejores resultados demostraron en combinaci6n con la se milla de soya , puede mencionarse e l ma(z común y e ntre los que menor rendimiento mostraron puede citarse l a harina de yuca . En el Cuadro 23, se presentan los resultados de una observaci6n en e l crecimiento de cerdos que consumieron raciones en l as cuales el componente proteico 10 suministr6 la se mill a de soya procesada e n varias formas: cocida e n agua versus tos tnda en horno a 80 °C y procesada e nte ra versus molida an-Cuadro 22. Semilla de soya con diferentes fuentes energética. en dietas para cerdos en crecimiento. "},{"text":" contiene entre 37 y 38 por ciento de proterns, mientras que la torta de soya contiene entre 42 y 51 por ciento de proterna, segdn el método de procesamienlo.Los dos proructos anteriores puedenutilizarse eficientemente en nutrición porcina. La torta de soya puede emplearse como fuente parcial o total de proterna en la ración para cerdos de todas las edades. A medida que aumenta la proporción de proterna proveniente de la torta de Boya, generalmente se obtiene un mejor rendimiento en peso y eficiencia de conversi6n alimenticia de cerdos en crecimiento y acabado. La semilla integral de soya constituye una buena Cuente protelbtca (37-38 por ciento) y energética (18-20 por ciento de aceite). que puede ser incorporada en las raciones siempre y cuando su procesamiento sea adecuado. Es necesario efectuar un calentamiento moderado (120•C-150•C) oorante 1 a 3 mi-nutos para inhibir la acción de las antienzimas presentes en la semilla cruda. "},{"text":"protefna a base de torta de soya para cerdos en creci- ). Testigo Testigo 15% Melaza 15% Melaza 22.5% Melaza 22.5% Melaza Melaza 30% 30% Melaza Testigo Testigo15% Melaza 15% Melaza22.5% Melaza 22.5% Melaza Melaza 30% 30% Melaza DIETAS (Porcentaje) DIETAS (Porcentaje)      DIETAS (Porcentaje) DIETAS (Porcentaje) Melaza Mel aza O O 15. 00 15.00 22.50 22.50 30.00 30.00 Melaza Mel azaOO15. 00 15.0022.50 22.5030.00 30.00 Torta de soya Torta de soya 8 . 55 16 . 05 11. 72 19.30 13.30 20.70 13.87 22 . 40 Torta de soya Torta de soya8 . 55 16 . 0511. 72 19.3013.30 20.7013.87 22 . 40 Marz amarillo Marz amarillo 88 .75 80 . 75 70.58 62 . 87 61.50 54.10 53.43 44.90 Marz amarillo Marz amarillo88 .75 80 . 7570.58 62 . 8761.50 54.1053.43 44.90 Harina de huesos Harina de huesos 2.00 2.00 2.00 2. 00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2. 00 Harina de huesos Harina de huesos2.00 2.002.00 2. 002.00 2.002.00 2. 00 Sal yodada Caroonato de calcio 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.13 0.50 0.50 Sal yodada Caroonato de calcio0.50 0.500.50 0.130.500.50 Minerales y vitaminas Sal yodada RENDIMIENTO Minera les y vitaminas 0.20 0.50 0 . 20 0.20 0. 50 0. 20 0.20 0.50 \" <-0.20 0.20 0. 50 0. 20 Minerales y vitaminas Sal yodada RENDIMIENTO Minera les y vitaminas0.20 0.50 0 . 200.20 0. 50 0. 200.20 0.50 \" <-0.200.20 0. 50 0. 20 Aumento diario, kg RENDIMIENTO  0.69 0.74 0.71': 0.75 Aumento diario, kg RENDIMIENTO0.690.740.71':0.75 Consumo alimento diario, kg Aumento diario, kg 2.24 0.72 2.79 0. 82 2.51 0. 74 2.86 0.69 Consumo alimento diario, kg Aumento diario, kg2.24 0.722.79 0. 822.51 0. 742.86 0.69 AH mento / ganancia Consumo alimento diario, kg 3.25 2. 44 3.77 2.57 3.54 2.76 3.82 2.47 AH mento / ganancia Consumo alimento diario, kg3.25 2. 443.77 2.573.54 2.763.82 2.47 Alimento/ganancia 3 . 39 3.13 3. 73 3.58 Alimento/ganancia3 . 393.133. 733.58 Fuente: Corzo E. al. (1968).      Fuente: Corzo E. al. (1968).  "},{"text":"por ciento de la prote~a de torta de soya por proterna de semilla de soya procesada en un horno del tipo infrarrojo con temperatura de 120°C durante 2 minutos . También en el Cuadro 12 se resumen los resultados de trabajos rea- li zados por Hansao !!..!l. (1970) donde la prote rna de torta de soya es rem- plazada por semilla de soya molida y tostada en proporci6n del 100 y del 50 por ciento, respectivame nte . En el Cuadro 13 se presentan los estudios con semilla procesada me- diante el método de e xtrusi6n (combinaci6n de presi6n y calor). La semilla fue calentada a 100°C y sometida a alta presi6n mecánica a través de orifi- cios  , y acabado (20-PO kg).    ,y acabado (20-PO kg).   Testigo 10: 56 15% Melaza Relacion melaza: azúcar 22.5% Melaza Melaza 30% 20:46 30: 36 40: 26 Testigo 10: 5615% Melaza Relacion melaza: azúcar 22.5% Melaza Melaza 30% 20:46 30: 36 40: 26 DIETAS (Porcentaje) DIETAS (Porcentaje)    DIETAS (Porcentaje) DIETAS (Porcentaje) Melaza Melaza  O 10.00 15.00 20 . 00 22.50 30.00 30.00 40.00 Melaza MelazaO 10.0015.00 20 . 0022.50 30.0030.00 40.00 Torta de soya Azdcar 23.55 56.30 26.70 46 . 30 28 . 30 36 . 30 29 . 90 26.30 Torta de soya Azdcar23.55 56.3026.70 46 . 3028 . 30 36 . 3029 . 90 26.30 Mafz amarillo Torta de soya 73.25 30.00 55.50 30.00 46.50 30.00 37.40 30.00 Mafz amarillo Torta de soya73.25 30.0055.50 30.0046.50 30.0037.40 30.00 Harina de huesos Sal yodada 2.00 0.50 2.00 0.50 2.00 0.50 2.00 0 . 50 Harina de huesos Sal yodada2.00 0.502.00 0.502.00 0.502.00 0 . 50 Carbonato de cal cio Harina de huesos 0. 50 3. 00 0.10 3.00 3.00 3. 00 Carbonato de cal cio Harina de huesos0. 50 3. 000.10 3.003.003. 00 Sal yodada Mine r ales y vitaminas 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.20 Sal yodada Mine r ales y vitaminas0.50 0.200.50 0.200.50 0.200.50 0.20 Minerales y vitaminas 0.20 0. 20 0.20 0.20 Minerales y vitaminas0.200. 200.200.20 RENDIMIENTO    RENDIMIENTO RENDIMIENTO Aumento diario, kg 0.80 0. 81 0. 80 0.66 RENDIMIENTO Aumento diario, kg0.800. 810. 800.66 Aumento diario, kg Consumo aUmento diario, kg 0.77 2.38 0.74 2.43 0.74 2.34 0.72 2.16 Aumento diario, kg Consumo aUmento diario, kg0.77 2.380.74 2.430.74 2.340.72 2.16 Consumo alimento diario. kg Alime nto/ganancia 2.55 2.97 2.56 3.00 2.53 2. 93 2.52 3.27 Consumo alimento diario. kg Alime nto/ganancia2.55 2.972.56 3.002.53 2. 932.52 3.27 Alimento/ ganancia 3.31 3.46 3.42 3.50 Alimento/ ganancia3.313.463.423.50 Fuente: Buitrago~.!!.. (1975).    Fuente: Buitrago~.!!.. (1975). Fuente: Corzo É al . (1968).    Fuente: Corzo É al . (1968). En 01 Cuadro 11 se describe el resultado de r emplazar O, 50 6 100 Los resultados de otro estudio, en el cual se usaron raciones a base En 01 Cuadro 11 se describe el resultado de r emplazar O, 50 6 100 Los resultados de otro estudio, en el cual se usaron raciones a base de semilla y/ o torta de soya. balanceadas para aportar diferentes niveles de de semilla y/ o torta de soya. balanceadas para aportar diferentes niveles de energfa y proterna para cerdos en crecimie nto y acabado, se re sume n e n el energfa y proterna para cerdos en crecimie nto y acabado, se re sume n e n el Cuadro 14 .     Cuadro 14 . Mediante la utilización de equipo sencillo para procesamiento a nivel Mediante la utilización de equipo sencillo para procesamiento a nivel de granjas porcinas, utilizando calor seco (temperatura de salida de la soya, de granjas porcinas, utilizando calor seco (temperatura de salida de la soya, 110°C), se han logrado r endimie ntos s atisfactorios al comparar la semilla de 110°C), se han logrado r endimie ntos s atisfactorios al comparar la semilla de soya con harina de pescado como fuentes exclusivas de proterna (Cuadro 15). soya con harina de pescado como fuentes exclusivas de proterna (Cuadro 15). (Bellis y Brooks, 1975). Estos mismos autores calcularon los cos tos de (Bellis y Brooks, 1975). Estos mismos autores calcularon los cos tos de proce sami ento de la soya a ni ve l de granja, utilizando equipo fabri cado en proce sami ento de la soya a ni ve l de granja, utilizando equipo fabri cado en  "},{"text":"Utilización de torta de soya, melaza y 8zdcar como dntca fuente de proterna y energra para cerdos en acabado (50-90 kg).   Relacl6n melaza: azdcar  Relacl6n melaza: azdcar  10:61 20:51 30:41 40:31 10:6120:5130:4140:31 DIETAS (Porcentaje)     DIETAS (Porcentaje) Melaza 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 Melaza10.0020.0030.0040.00 Azdcar 61. 30 51.30 41.30 31.30 Azdcar61. 3051.3041.3031.30 rorta de soya 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 rorta de soya25.0025.0025.0025.00 Sal yodada 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Sal yodada0.500.500.500.50 Harina de Huesos 3.00 3.00 3. 00 3.00 Harina de Huesos3.003.003. 003.00 Minerales y vitaminas 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 Minerales y vitaminas0.200.200.200.20 RENDIMlENTO     RENDIMlENTO Aumento diario, kg 0.85 0.90 0.87 0.85 Aumento diario, kg0.850.900.870.85 Consumo alimento diario, kg 3.25 3.51 3. 44 3.76 Consumo alimento diario, kg3.253.513. 443.76 Alimento/ ganancia 3.83 3.90 3.95 4.43 Alimento/ ganancia3.833.903.954.43  "},{"text":"Torla de Soya tostada     Soya tostada Soya tostada  soya (100% de protellla) (50% de proterna) soya(100% de protellla) (50% de proterna) Aumento diario, kg 0.79 0. 80 0.80 Aumento diario, kg0.790. 800.80 Alimento/ganancia 3.43 3.32 3 . 38 Alimento/ganancia3.433.323 . 38 Aceite consumido, kg 8.44 16.10 12.10 Aceite consumido, kg8.4416.1012.10 Espesor grasa dorsal, cm 3.48 3.76 3.43 Espesor grasa dorsal, cm3.483.763.43 Acido linoleico, % 11. 7 20.2 16.3 Acido linoleico, %11. 720.216.3  "},{"text":"El nivel de protefna se rebaj6 en 1 por ciento durante la fase de acabado en todos los tratamientos. Cuadro 17. Efecto del nivel de proterna en raciones' a base de semilla de soya tostada para cerdos en crecimiento y acabado.   SOIs tostada '\" Torta de SOIs tostada '\"Torta de  14-13 16-15 19-18 Soya 14-1316-1519-18Soya Crecimiento     Crecimiento Proterna en la dieta, % 13.9 16.5 19.1 16 . 1 Proterna en la dieta, %13.916.519.116 . 1 Aumento diario, kg 0.56 0.61 0.64 0.61 Aumento diario, kg0.560.610.640.61 Alimento/ganancia 2. 94 2.56 2.32 2.56 Alimento/ganancia2. 942.562.322.56 Acabado     Acabado Protelha en la dieta, % 12.9 15.4 18.0 15.1 Protelha en la dieta, %12.915.418.015.1 Aumento diario, kg 0.85 0.88 0.90 0. 87 Aumento diario, kg0.850.880.900. 87 Alimento/ganancia 3.70 3.57 3.45 3.45 Alimento/ganancia3.703.573.453.45 '\"     '\"  Tamaño de la piara Costo/ tonelada Tamaño de la piaraCosto/ tonelada (toneladas) (No. de hembras) (US$ ) (toneladas)(No. de hembras)(US$ ) 25  98 14.3  259814.3 50  195 11.1  5019511.1 100  390 9.5  1003909.5 150  585 8.9  1505858.9 200  780 8.7  2007808.7 300  1170 8.4  30011708.4  "},{"text":"Hervida en agua auante 30 minutos. Secada al sol.  Ingrediente a (%) Testigo Torta de s0,l!L 30% 40% Semilla de aoya 30% 40% Ingrediente a (%)TestigoTorta de s0,l!L 30% 40%Semilla de aoya 30% 40%   miel miel miel miel mielmielmielmiel Marz 82.8     Marz82.8 Melaza  30.0 40.0 30.0 40.0 Melaza30.040.030.040.0 Azllcar  36.8 26.8 26.8 16.8 Azllcar36.826.826.816.8 Torta de soya 14.0 30.0 30.0   Torta de soya14.030.030.0 Semilla de •soya*    40.0 40.0 Semilla de •soya*40.040.0 Sal yodada 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sal yodada0.50.50.50.50.5 Harina de mesas 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 Harina de mesas2.52.52.52.52.5 Minerales y vitaminas 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Minerales y vitaminas 0.20.20.20.20.2 Fuente: Bultrago y Portela (sin publicar).   Fuente: Bultrago y Portela (sin publicar).  "},{"text":"utilizadas fueron: marz amarillo carolln, sorgo, marz opaco, harina de yuca y melaza. La cantidad de semilla de soya necesaria para satisfacer el re- querimiento de proterns vari6 desde 22 por ciento hasta 38 por ciento, Begdn la fuente de energra utilizada. Los resultados (Cuadro 22) permiten observar Cuadro 20. Rendimiento de cerdos en crecimiento con dietas 8 base de melaza, azt.1car y semilla de soya.    Torta de soya Semilla de soya Torta de soyaSemilla de soya Parámetros Testigo 30% 40% 30% 40% ParámetrosTestigo30%40%30%40%   mt e l miel miel miel mt e lmielmielmiel Peso inicial 19.20 19.65 19.60 19.50 19.40 Peso inicial19.2019.6519.6019.5019.40 Peso final 48.28 47.10 51.56 54.95 50.60 Peso final48.2847.1051.5654.9550.60 Aumento dlarlo/kg 0.603 0.612 0.668 0.723 0.637 Aumento dlarlo/kg0.6030.6120.6680.7230.637 Allmento/ gananc!a 2.96 3.47 3.33 3.13 3.64 Allmento/ gananc!a2.963.473.333.133.64  "},{"text":"Fuente: Buitrago y Portela (sin publicar). Cuadro 21. Semilla de soya en comblnacl6n con varias fuentes de carbohidratos  "},{"text":"para cerdos en crecimiento.  Ingredientes Composlcl6n de las racion es (%) IngredientesComposlcl6n de las racion es (%) Marz amarillo 80.3 75 . 3   37 . 3 Marz amarillo80.3 75 . 337 . 3 Sorgo 75.3    37.3 Sorgo75.337.3 Marz Opaco  75.3   37.3 Marz Opaco75.337.3 Harina de yuca   59.3  29.3 Harina de yuca59.329.3 Melaza    30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 Melaza30.0 30.030.0 30.0 Torta de soya 17. O    Torta de soya17. O Semilla de soya 22 . 0 22.0 22.0 38.0 30 .0 30.0 30.0 38.0 Semilla de soya22 . 0 22.0 22.038.030 .030.0 30.0 38.0 Sal 0.5 0 . 5 0.5 0. 5   Sal0.5 0 . 5 0.50. 5 Harina de huesos 2.0 2.0 2.0 2 . 0   Harina de huesos 2.0 2.0 2.02 . 0 Miner. & Vitam. 0. 2 0.2 0.2 0 . 2   Miner. & Vitam.0. 2 0.2 0.20 . 2 Fuente: Buitrago y Jiménez (sin publicar) .   Fuente: Buitrago y Jiménez (sin publicar) .  "},{"text":" Finalmente. du .... nte la fase de lactancia también se reallz6 una evaluación en el rendimiento de las hembras y sus camadas cuando las madres consumieron raciones a base de semilla de soya (cocida en agua) como fuente pr~ tetea y melaza y marz COmo componentes energéticos (Cuadro 24). Al analizar 108 resultado8 .. en el Cuadro 25. se observan pesos inferiores en los lechones provenientes de hembras que consumieron raciones con semilla de soya, pero el tamafto de la camada fue superior para estos tratamientos, lo cual explica parcialmente la diferencia en el peso individual. Además, se observó que los lechones consumieron parte dr. la ración de 188 hembras, especialmente en el tratamiento con melaza, lo que también pudO afectar su crecimiento. El incremento de peso en las hembras durante la lactancia también fue menor en los tratamientos a base de semilla de soya. Parámetros Testigo M.rz-Torta  Semilla de Soya ParámetrosTestigo M.rz-TortaSemilla de Soya  de soya Marz Marz + Melaza de soyaMarzMarz + Melaza Hembras      Hembras Peso .1 parto, kg 161.3 144.1  145.6 Peso .1 parto, kg161.3144.1145.6 Peso al destete, kg 185.4 162.0  157.4 Peso al destete, kg185.4162.0157.4 Consumo diario, kg 4.4 5.0  5.7 Consumo diario, kg4.45.05.7 Progenie a! parto      Progenie a! parto No. lechones  9.6 10.2  9.8 No. lechones9.610.29.8 Peso IDdlvidua!, kg 1.22 1.09  1.16 Peso IDdlvidua!, kg1.221.091.16 Progenie a los 40 Mas      Progenie a los 40 Mas No. lechones  6.5 6.7  8.5 No. lechones6.56.78.5 Peso Individua!  7. 39 5.65  6.34 Peso Individua!7. 395.656.34   Testigo    Testigo Ingredientes (%) Marz-Torta  Semilla de Soya Ingredientes (%)Marz-TortaSemilla de Soya   de soya Mafz Marz + Melaza de soyaMafzMarz + Melaza Mafz  81. 8 76.8  36.8 Mafz81. 876.836.8 Melaza     30.0 Melaza30.0 Torta de soya Marz-15. 0    Torta de soyaMarz-15. 0 Semilla de soya'\" Torta de Cocida en a~a 20.0 Tostada en horno 30.0 Semilla de soya'\"Torta de Cocida en a~a 20.0Tostada en horno 30.0 Harina de huesos soya Entera 2.5 Molida 2.5 Entera Molida 2.5 Harina de huesossoyaEntera 2.5Molida 2.5EnteraMolida 2.5 Peso inicial, kg Sal 23 . 43 22.81 0.5 23.25 0.5 23.25 22.93 0.5 Peso inicial, kg Sal23 . 4322.81 0.523.25 0.523.2522.93 0.5 Peso final, kg Minerales y vitaminas 71.25 69.25 0.2 74.37 Q.2 61 .• 37 54.12 0.2 Peso final, kg Minerales y vitaminas 71.2569.25 0.274.37 Q.261 .• 3754.12 0.2 Aumento diario, kg 0.79 0.77 0.85 0.63 0.52 Aumento diario, kg0.790.770.850.630.52  "}],"sieverID":"1820c993-be31-483c-8257-000b09e23695","abstract":"El C IAT es una institució n Sin á nimo de lucro, dedicada al desa rrollo agrícola y económico de las lonas bajas tr opica les. Su !>ede princi pal ocupa un terren o de 522 hectá reas, propiedad del Gobierno de Colombia, el cua l en su ca lidad de país anfitrión. brinda a poyo a las actividades del C IA T. La subse de de Quilichao, situada cc rca de Sant ande r de Quilichao, Departamento del Cauca. tiene una ex tensión de 184 hectáreas y es propiedad de FES (Fundación pa ra la Educación S uperior), la cual arrienda clterreno al C IAT, El Ceotro trabaja eo cola bo ració n con el Inst ituto Colom biano Agropecua rio (ICA) en va rias de sus estac iones experimentales y U'lmb lén con agencias agrícola s a nivel naci onal en otros países de América Latina . Vari os miembros del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícoln Inte rnacio nal finanCian los programas del C IA T. Los d onantes en 1979 so n: la Agencia Estadounidense para el Desarro llo Int ernacional (USA ID), la Fundación Rockefeller. la Fundación Ford. la Fundac ión \\V.K . Kcllogg, la Agencia Canadi ense para el Desa rrollo Int er nac ional (CIDA), el Banco Internaciona l de Reconst rucc ión y Fomento (BIRF) por intermedi o de la Asociación Intcrnacional del Desa rrollo (IDA), el Banco Interamerica no de Dcsarro llo (810). la Comunidad Económica Europea (EEe) y los gob iernos de Austra lia, Belgiea, la República Federa l Alema na, Holanda . el J a pón. Noruega, Suiz:a y el Reino U nido. Además, algunas de estas entidad es. el Centro Internacional de Investigación para el Desarrollo del~ Canadéi. (lDR e), y el Programa de las Na ciones Unidas para el Desa rroll o (PNUD), fina ncian pro yectos especIales. La InformaCión y co nclusiones cOnlenidas en eSla publicaóó n no renejan necesa ria mente la posició n de ninguna de las in slit uclones. fundacion es o gobie rnos mencionados, , COLECClO N HISTORIC A I _ _ _ ~, Semilla y torta (harina) de soya en alimentación de cerdos"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c7e2a786b326998b425104df01e182a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/72883957-5be8-492b-885e-b2057656bdd2/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"What is NATURE+?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The CGIAR Initiative on Nature-Positive Solutions aims to re-imagine, collaboratively create and implement nature-positive solutions for agrifood systems that equitably support food and livelihoods and ensure that agriculture is a netpositive contributor to biodiversity and nature."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"The CGIAR Initiative on Nature-Postive Solutions in Burkina Faso works in the provinces of Bazèga, Boulkiemdé, Kadiogo and Oubritenga. Kadiogo is home to the nation's major urban center and capital, Ouagadougou, while the other provinces are primarily Through the NATURE+ Initiative, we can build more resilient and adaptable farming and seed systems. The Initiative is exposing farmers to more crop varieties; improving their capacity to save and access good quality seeds and planting materials; providing a decision-support tool to assist the planting of appropriate tree species and selection of adapted seed sources for tree-based restoration; and enhancing their capacity in several circular bioeconomy solutions such as recovering nutrient, animal feed and energy from agricultural and other organic waste streams. There is strong support for food system transformation from actors throughout the system."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"Burkina Faso faces multiple challenges across its food system: Neglected crops -Lack of sustainable value chains for neglected and underutilized species. Lack of autonomy and seed dependence -There is a need to work with farmers on traditional crop seeds to optimize production and reduce dependence on outside, often expense, sources. Quality planting material -There is a need to build a demand for high-quality tree planting material, well matched to the current and projected conditions at planting sites, and there is a need to build capacity to deliver this material to the stakeholders who need it. Recycling -There is a need for biofertilizer and biopesticide. Demand and raw material exist but these features of a circular bioeconomy need support and incentivization. Capacity building -There is a need for training on agroecological and the whole spectrum of naturepositive practices. Malnutrition -Burkina Faso produces enough food but it does not yet produce enough diversified and nutritious foods. Water -Burkina Faso has a long dry season and not enough offseason crops can be cultivated due to a lack of irrigation and reliable water sources. In 2023, they trained more than 400 farmers on the production and use of compost and biochar."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"• A collaboration with an NGO on three themes: the inclusion of NUS in farms run by women's cooperatives; a study of food procurement in elementary schools to explore needs and barriers to including NUS in school meals; and the creation of experimental fields to study specific NUS varieties chosen by farmers. • Bioeconomy capacity building to target farmers, women, youth and small businesses. Additionally, the Initiative aims to pilot context-specific bioeconomy interventions, identify local champions who can positively influence the uptake of practices, and monitor and report on adoption rates. • Continued collaboration with an international and national discussion group to develop policy proposals for food systems and nature-positive solutions in Burkina Faso. • Continued outreach to schoolchildren and their families about NUS and their dietary importance. Training and research will continue on bioeconomic activities. Capacity building will target farmers, women, youth and small businesses. NATURE+ aims to pilot context-specific interventions, identify local champions to influence the uptake of practices, and monitor and report on adoption rates and associated metrics."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"NATURE+ expanded the tree species catalog in D4R to 100 to cover the most used species in restoration. We surveyed 480 small-scale tree nurseries to understand their capacity needs and to provide technical assistance. Multiple collaborations included farmer training, assessment of the quality of planting material, and work with government organizations to support their efforts to use a diverse range of native trees in restoration."},{"index":6,"size":289,"text":"The Initiative will continue improving D4R to support decision-making on where to plant specific species, in ongoing collaborations with the government and NGOs to promote native trees and develop related value chains. The Initiative will expand research on private small-scale informal suppliers of tree planting material, update the species catalog of the National Tree Seed Center and develop a guide on pre-sowing practices for tree species. In 2024, NATURE+ will continue collaborating with an international and national discussion group to develop policy proposals for food systems and nature-positive solutions. The Initiative will collaborate with Mani Tese -a prominent NGO dedicated to human rights, food NATURE+ and partners completed an analysis of value chains and markets for prioritized neglected and underutilized (NUS) crop species; this work will soon be published in a peer-reviewed journal. Two other papers will also result from this work: one on value chains and another on farmer communities and traditional seed systems. The Initiative produced Community Diversity Registries to identify farmers who are custodians of NUS. The registry identified community seed banks and current practices related to NUS and seed bank operation, including the propagation and sharing of seeds. This work is designed to strengthen community seed systems to address climate, nutritional and agrobiodiversity challenges. In collaboration with SIMAgri (a Burkina Faso online platform for agricultural value chains) and The International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies, NATURE+ worked toward building an app and a biodiversity cataloging platform for the valorization of local markets and market information. The system will be designed to strengthen the supplydemand chain and reinforce the inter-country dialogue, scale up nature-positive activities, and incentivize greater collaboration between food system actors. Seed kits that focused on NUS were prepared and distributed across communities."},{"index":7,"size":210,"text":"Our approach focuses on shared learning to enhance the research and innovation capacities of key actors and stakeholders in various naturepositive solutions. These include capacity building and awareness-and value chain-creation for neglected and underutilized species (NUS); support for tree-based restoration through the Diversity for Restoration (D4R) tool; circular bioeconomy approaches that are participatory, inclusive and responsive to gender and age. We are also committed to policy development to support nature-positive activities. The NATURE+ approach sovereignty and environmental justice -on three themes: the inclusion of NUS in farms run by women's cooperatives; a study on how to include NUS in school meals; and the creation of experimental fields to study NUS chosen by farmers. These activities aim to spur research on value chains, enhance the role of NUS in the country, improve food security for children, increase onfarm NUS conservation and improve livelihoods. In collaboration with Slow Food and Afrique Verte, the Initiative plans to develop a community seedbank. In collaboration with the NGO WATINOMA, NATURE+ gave classes to schoolchildren about the importance of local crops and vegetables in their diets. The children were given a homework assignment: to interview their grandparents about recipes and agrobiodiversity when they were children. The Initiative will work on a manual to systematize this methodology."}]},{"head":"How NATURE+ works in","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Communication activities in Burkina Faso","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Please contact us for more information:"},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. In addition to continual communication with our many partners and stakeholders in Burkina Faso, NATURE+ is exploring the creation of a Storytelling Lab that targets groups of young people (farmers, students, and local NGOs), teaching them the skills to effectively tell stories about agrobiodiversity. The idea is to train young storytellers in writing, photography, and scripting for videos and filming. The aim is for them to tell personal stories that can be shared widely on social media platforms. A related project would provide similar training to value-chain actors and civil society. Radio is a key medium of communication for farmers in Burkina Faso. In 2024, NATURE+ will continue sharing stories on neglected and underutilized crop species, which have been shared in previous years. The pieces will be updated and redistributed to radio stations. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Research conducted for three upcoming peerreviewed papers: an analysis of value chain and markets for prioritized neglected and underutilized (NUS) crop species; food system value chains; and farmer communities and traditional seed systems. • Production of Community Diversity Registries to identify farmers who are custodians of NUS crops, to identify community seed banks and current practices related to NUS and seed bank operation. • Expansion of the Diversity for Restoration tool to include the 100 most used tree species in restoration projects. • A survey of 480 small-scale private tree nurseries to understand capacity-building needs and to provide technical assistance. • Training of trainers (ToT) in bioeconomy practices. "},{"text":" Learn more about this Initiative here Learn more about the CGIAR Research Portfolio here © 2024 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved. (CC BY-NC 4.0) Blogs, publications, reports Partners and tools December 2023 | NATURE+ in Burkina Faso Report 2023 & Outlook 2024 "}],"sieverID":"2f94c306-d31c-4429-a5c6-d6354eb292fe","abstract":"The CGIAR Initiative on Nature-Positive Solutions in Burkina Faso works in the provinces of Bazèga, Boulkiemdé, Kadiogo and Oubritenga. Because of the predicted challenges associated with environmental factors such as climate change, soil degradation and rainfall variability, which negatively impact the viability of smallholder agriculture, the transition toward sustainable and resilient agricultural and food systems is paramount. Nature-based solutions can play a major role in this transition."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cfb2787cb7f4440f045aa193887ff59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57c272b5-3a76-4dc1-9e6a-4a809d9b0b4b/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Tools and training materials to help mainstream gender in Humidtropics innovation platforms: Needs, priorities and perceptions module -Key terminology and background information","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction to this series","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Through this series of tools and training materials to help mainstream gender in Humidtropics activities, we will be learning about four important concepts regarding gender relations and equality that contribute to our community development endeavours. Before we name and discuss the gender related concepts in detail, we should briefly discuss why they are considered important. We believe these genders related concepts are important because of the positive impact they will have on your community. The way in which these concepts are important to your community has to do with your community's economic, social and political development."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"When your community increases its economic, social and political output, your whole community gains more resources per year. To that end, when your community can produce a lot more resources, every person in your community will benefit. More resources will improve your community's overall health, education level, production level etc."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"These are the four concepts we will be learning about and how they will improve the overall welfare of every member of your community:"}]},{"head":"Power and Decision-Making (PDM)","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Needs, Priorities and Perceptions (NPP)","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Barriers to Participation (BtP)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"It is important that we do more than simply claim that these concepts will improve your community."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Therefore, throughout the learning process, you will learn exactly how implementing changes related to the four gender concepts will improve the welfare of every member of your community and why they work so well."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Changing traditions and social standards can be challenging, but we will explore how traditions sometimes are not always the most productive and that identifying the inefficient traditions and changing them can result in more happiness for all."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"Overall, we are going to learn about how increasing women's decision-making and control over assets can create more money for the whole community. We will also learn about how our current perceptions can create unnecessary, but very real barriers for women. These things result in less economic, social and political output, as well as money for the whole community. In essence, unlike men, women are commonly underutilized as an economic asset in their communities. It is our goal to impart the knowledge of four major concepts to you so that your community can take necessary steps that will allow the women to not only create much more money for the entire community but also give them their much-deserved voice in their communities. This, in, turn will benefit all of your children, men and ."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The practical use of gender analysis frameworks must be based on the clear understanding of their central concepts. The terms below pertain to the concepts: Needs, Priorities and Perceptions."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The following concepts and terms are to help you in your work but bear in mind that in reality all of the concepts and terms do not fit into neat categories."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"To understand how NPP is balanced between men and women, it is important to understand the concepts and terms. These terms are more than rote definitions, they are also nuanced concepts that require regular re-visitation and consideration."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Most importantly, understanding these terms as concepts gives way to understanding how institutional structures impact the gender relations within a given community."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":" Needs: require (something) because it is essential or very important rather than just desirable (Oxford Dictionaries)."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":" Priorities: the fact or condition of being regarded or treated as more important than others (Oxford Dictionaries)."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":" Perceptions: the way in which something is regarded, understood or interpreted (Oxford Dictionaries)."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"Each term has its own separate meaning, but the correlation is significant. For example, the way gender equality is perceived can directly impact how significant (or insignificant) it is, as well as how it is prioritized."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Other important terminology to support understanding of different types of needs for women:"},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":" Strategic gender needs (SGN) are the needs women identify because of their subordinate position in society."},{"index":11,"size":112,"text":"Strategic interests/needs may include changes in the gender division of labour (women to take on work not traditionally seen as women's work, men take more responsibility for child care and domestic work), legal rights, an end to domestic violence, equal wages and women's control over their own bodies. Women themselves do not as easily identify them as their practical needs, therefore, they may need specific opportunities to do so. Practical and strategic gender interests/needs should not be seen as entirely distinct and separate, but rather as a continuum. By consulting women on their practical gender needs entry points to address gender inequalities in the longer term (strategic gender interests/needs) can be created."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":" Practical gender needs (PGN) are the needs women identify in their socially accepted roles in society."},{"index":13,"size":70,"text":"Women and men can easily identify these needs as they often relate to living conditions. Women may identify safe water, food, health care and cash income as immediate interests/needs that they must meet. Meeting women's practical gender needs is essential in order to improve living conditions, but in itself, it will not change the prevailing disadvantaged (subordinate) position of women. It may, in fact, reinforce the gender division of labour."}]},{"head":"How does gender analysis factor into NPP?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The gender analysis of women's needs, priorities and perceptions is very important. These terms have underlying impacts on gender equality and when left unanalysed and unquestioned it can maintain current socializations of gender equality balance. Because gender systems are learned through socialization, the way gender needs, priorities and perceptions are influenced has the power to change or maintain gender socializations."}]},{"head":"What does this mean for Innovative Platform (IP) planners?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"An IP planner must be gender aware or, in other words, they need acknowledge their perceptions of gender. This is to ensure that the nature of women's involvement is sensitive to their different needs (strategic and practical), interests and priorities."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"This also means that IPs needs to anticipate how the interest, priorities and needs of women may sometimes conflict with those of men."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"It is strongly encouraged to routinely question how their plans incorporate the needs and priorities of women and men; these two concepts, when not reflected authentically, can result in maintaining current socialization of gender relations."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Lastly, developing programs that encourage women to be advocates for their needs by speaking out should also be prioritized."}]},{"head":"What does FAO have to say about NPP?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"FAO Policy on Gender Equality: 'Women's ability to articulate their needs and priorities will facilitate the ability of rural institutions in member countries to address women's needs and become more accountable to both women and men farmers' (5). 'FAO's major contributions towards achievement of its gender equality goal and objectives will come from: building and disseminating knowledge on rural women's needs and priorities in all of FAO's areas of work; ensuring that rural women's needs and priorities are documented, heard and addressed in all the processes that FAO leads and supports…' (5)."}]},{"head":"What does the MBGF have to say about NPP?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"'Know her. Programs should take into account the context and circumstances of women farmers."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Our grantees must investigate women's needs, constraints, responsibilities, and priorities and anticipate how programs will affect women's labor, time, current practices, and resources.'"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"5a897de9-6e81-431a-865c-242031caec87","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}

data/part_3/0d48099a3b459c0b97230b26977bbf86.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d48099a3b459c0b97230b26977bbf86","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7247eff-659e-4f1f-8b52-b8409b54df73/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"The Viability of Cattle Ranching Intensification in Brazil as a Strategy to Spare Land and Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions Working Paper No. 11","keywords":["Climate change mitigation","REDD","agricultural productivity","avoided deforestation","cattle ranching intensification","land use intensification","Brazil","marginal lands","agricultural statistics","cattle ranching and deforestation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The potential for interventions to reduce the pressure of agriculture on forests has become central to debates over the future of biofuels and has become an explicit focus of negotiations on Reducing Emissions for Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). One proposal is land sparing, the concept of boosting outputs from agricultural lands and/or steering agricultural expansion onto low carbon content lands to make room for forests and other productive uses. This paper examines the viability of one intervention that intends land sparing-cattle ranching intensification programs (hereafter CRIPs) in Brazil. We define CRIPs as interventions for reducing GHGs by increasing the quantity of cattle product output per unit of pastureland."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Momentum for Brazilian CRIPs may have originated with livestock researchers (Serrao & Toledo 1990;Arima & Uhl 1997) but it now comes from a variety of sources including NGOs, governments and the scientific community (UK Renewable Fuels Agency 2008; Sajwaj et al. 2008;Nepstad et al. 2009;Ecofys & Winrock International 2009;Manzatto et. al. 2009;Searchinger & Amaral 2009;Embassy of Brazil 2010;Gouvello 2010;Angelsen 2010;Boucher et al. 2011;Amend et al. 2011;Ecofys 2011;Pinjuv 2011). It is reflected in Brazil's Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), which, up until now are the best hint of how climate mitigation policies in Brazil might develop (Embassy of Brazil 2010). 1   As part of eleven billion tons of potential GHG mitigation between 2010 and 2030, Brazil's NAMAs pledge roughly one billion tons of annual climate mitigation during the year 2020. 2   The NAMAs commit just 10% of total mitigation to come directly from changes in cattle ranching practices. However, we estimate that roughly 90% of the mitigation proposed would come from reduced land use change and changes in output and production practices in agricultural systems that could hinge on increased cattle ranching productivity 3 . As the report detailing the NAMAs describes it, \"Increasing …intensification of livestock-raising can play an essential role in reducing the need for land…, while releasing the land required for expansion of other activities\" (Gouvello 2010:28)."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The ranching focus of Brazil's NAMAs may emerge from a typical, but questionably accurate model representation of cattle ranching systems in a World Bank report closely linked to NAMAs. 4 To depict GHG-reducing CRIPs, the World Bank team imposes a constraint on the total area of land available for use as pasture in Brazil and caps total Brazilian livestock and agricultural output at reference levels. By imposing the land constraint, the team \"frees\" land in the simulation for forests and crops. Together, the two constraints cause the simulation of substantially lower GHG emissions in the low carbon scenario than in the reference scenario."},{"index":4,"size":313,"text":"The simulation demonstrates the greenhouse gas mitigation potential of cattle ranching intensification in Brazil under these model constraints, but it is unclear how to design interventions to elicit analogous effects in practice. We take up this question of CRIPs design via a literature review. We first define key terms used in our analysis and then present premises, both explicit and implicit, that underlie the mental and mathematical models that suggest CRIPs as promising GHG mitigation strategies. We close by describing activities that should begin now to advance the potential for CRIPs to be an effective GHG mitigation strategy. 3 The NAMAs letter does not explicitly state which mitigation actions CRIPs facilitate, but the NAMAs targets are nearly identical to targets published in Gouvello (2010), a report clearly stating the central role of land sparing for facilitating most GHG mitigation it proposes. The following passage is the best summary: \"To avoid emissions from deforestation, ways would need to be found to reduce global demand for land, while maintaining the same level of products supply as in the reference scenario. In systemic terms, the mitigation of emissions through land-use change could be achieved by absorbing the expansion of these activities via the increased productivity of other ones. Brazil's major [crop] agricultural activities already show high levels of productivity and consequently do not offer opportunities to increase productivity on the scale required to absorb these additional levels of demand for land. Beef-cattle farming shows much greater potential for increasing productivity per hectare, which can be applied to a much larger pasture area, since pastures occupy 207 million ha compared to 70 million ha for agricultural activities in 2030 in the reference scenario. Consequently, increasing the technological level and the intensification of livestock-raising can play an essential role in reducing the need for land for this activity, while releasing the land required for expansion of other activities.\" "}]},{"head":"CRIPs","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"In this section we define the terms cattle ranching intensification, land sparing and CRIPs. In the case of cattle ranching systems, intensification can be used to mean anything from a slight increase in intensity of extensive pasture systems to a switch to feedlots from open grazing. Note that in cases of production systems involving supplemental feed, the land used to produce the supplemental feed is not always accounted in the intensity metric. 5 The role agricultural land quality in the expression of agricultural inputs and outputs is actually quite complex and variant."}]},{"head":"Intensification","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Some analyses consider the financial value of inputs and outputs to be the functional unit for accounting production; other studies use physical quantities and others use hybrid and/or inferred measures (Hubacek & Van Den Bergh, 2006). Thus, an increase in the value of the land input could actually be associated with a decrease in the area of the land input under appreciating land prices or a shift towards higher quality land. Land quality can vary without the quantity of the land input varying if the quantity of the land input is expressed in area or some other metric independent of quality. When land price is the metric for land inputs then the quantity of land inputs would vary with both land quantity and land quality. Note also that changes to land quality can result from excessive or insufficient use of other non-land inputs."}]},{"head":"Land Sparing","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The concept of land sparing is based on the theory that aggregate increases in agricultural yields over time can reduce the overall area of agriculture lands from what would have been needed without the increase in yields. These increases could occur through either the use of degraded, marginal, and abandoned lands or through increases in yields on lands currently in cultivation. The land sparing concept has been applied to scales ranging from local to global."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The earliest discussion of land sparing centred on the potential for intensification to alleviate and prevent hunger, but the discussion has expanded to also address indirect environmental externalities including deforestation, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, (Green et al. 2005;Balmford et al. 2005;Matson & Vitousek 2006;Fischer et al. 2008) and more recently GHG emissions (Burney & Lobell 2010;Rudel et al. 2009;Angelsen 2010;Gouvello 2010)."}]},{"head":"Cattle Ranching Intensification Programs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Few CRIPs exist yet, but we define them as any sort of intervention with the intent of reducing GHGs by increasing the intensity of cattle product output per unit pastureland. This CRIPs could take many forms. For example, CRIPs might work by rewarding intensiveness or by penalizing for extensiveness. By definition CRIPs seek to alter the intensification trend."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"In period zero each ranch might be of average, above average, or below average productivity."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In addition, each might be trending flat, intensifying, or extensifying over the period prior to the CRIPs. Note that the productivity can be compared to the national averages, but also to regional averages. In this way, benchmark intensification could be absolute or relative to local biophysical and economic conditions."}]},{"head":"Seven Premises on Which the Efficacy of CRIPs","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Depends","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The conceptual model underlying CRIPs is more complex than the literature sometimes suggests. The Gouvello (2010:27) report, for example, explains the CRIPs concept this way:"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"[CRIPs] reduce global demand for land, while maintaining the same level of products supply as in the reference scenario. In systemic terms, the mitigation of emissions through land-use change could be achieved by absorbing the expansion of these activities via the increased productivity of other ones."},{"index":3,"size":273,"text":"This seems to suggest that GHG mitigation = (original area needed -original area needed/yield improvement index) * average GHG savings per area of land spared. given level of production and this must come from increased productivity. By definition the \"increased productivity\" must be sparked by some intervention without which it would not have otherwise occurred. It cannot have been increased productivity that would have happened anyway. Next there is the matter of \"absorbing the expansion\". This requires something like a market that conveys the impacts of the increased productivity production systems on the business as usual production systems. In this case, the market is for the products of both the intensive and extensive systems types. Therein the increased productivity systems must outcompete the business as usual systems on cost and thus reduce overall prices. These price are intended to lead to a reduction in the demand for cattle ranching land by reducing the area of land over which ranching is profitable. This reduction, then \"spares\" land for other uses including the conservation of natural vegetation and crop agriculture. A subset of this crop agriculture could then be biofuels that under some circumstances could deliver further GHG benefits via displacement of fossil fuel. The shift from intensive to extensive ranching should also contribute to reduction in the direct GHGs associated with the cattle sector. The direct and indirect GHG benefit together would then need to exceed GHG costs of these changes, including potential soil carbon flux from LUC caused and potential increases in direct agricultural and land use change emissions due to increased cattle product consumption under lower cattle product prices. Finally, these net"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"CRIPs GHG benefits would need to be worth the implementation costs."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"In this section we explore the components and the plausibility of the The GHG Benefits From CRIPs Will Exceed Implementation Costs. We examine the strengths and weaknesses of each premise, we highlight reasons for concern and optimism, and we identify opportunities to improve the likelihood that CRIPs deliver GHG benefits."}]},{"head":"Premise One: Intensive Ranching Technologies are Already in Commercial Use","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"An initial premise for CRIPs is the existence across Brazil of pockets of \"proven and mature\" cattle production technologies that offer substantially lower direct emissions and higher land intensity and than typical production systems (Pinjuv, 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Improved diets, genetics, and management can reduce enteric fermentation per unit feed consumed and per unit weight gained (Thornton & Herrero, 2010). Together these combine to reduce methane emissions from enteric fermentation per unit cattle product. In semiindustrialized systems, waste management can also be a means to reduce nitrous oxide and methane emissions. Over the past decade, the average lifespan of Brazilian cattle, a key indicator of direct emissions, has dropped significantly (Association of Brazilian Beef Exporters, 2011). However, the aggregate decline is not due to uniform efficiency gains in the industry, but rather a vanguard of advanced regions (Gouvello, 2010). The hope is that other regions could now follow suit."},{"index":3,"size":315,"text":"Increases in land intensity if associated with proportional decreases in deforestation, have the potential to be a much bigger source of mitigation from ranching than reductions in direct emissions (Cederberg et al. 2010). Widespread adoption of numerous land use intensification strategies can be found across Brazil. Several broad categories of ranching practices influence the land productivity of cattle systems (1) intensive pasture management, (2) supplemental feeding, and (3) improved health and sanitation. Intensive pasture management relies on increased use of inputs, capital, and genetic resources during the establishment phase and to some extent during maintenance phases relative to more extensive management. The combination of land grading, liming, and seeding of grasses or grass/legume combinations such as varieties of Brachiaria sp. which are heartier and more digestible than native grasses, also requires more labor than traditional pasture management, which relies more heavily on pasture rotation and seasonal burning to control overgrazing, suppress weeds, and restore soil nutrients (Vosti et al. 2001;Angelsen and Kaimowitz 2001;Euclides et al. 2010). More intensive pasture management may be more labor intensive than traditional pasture management, which relies more heavily on pasture rotation and seasonal burning to control overgrazing, suppress weeds, and restore soil nutrients. Supplemental feeding and improved health and sanitation practices can also improve system productivity and contribute to the success of more land-intensive systems. In contrast to confining cattle to feedlots, supplemental feed can be used to promote weight gain and shorten the life-cycle, to supplement pasture forage during the dry season, or to increase cattle stocking densities (Sampaio et al. 2001). In Brazil, animals are often fed grass, hay, or sugar cane grown on-site if forage becomes scarce, and some ranchers buy similar supplemental feeds. Supplemental feeding of mineral salts (as opposed to simple salt supplements) or salts in which bovines are known to be deficient can also improve animal health and growth rates (Malafaia et al. 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Improved health and sanitation practices include the treatment of parasitic infections through periodic de-worming or topical insecticides, as well as vaccination campaigns against diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis, anthrax, and rabies."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Critiques of this premise center around the limitations of productivities per unit area as a metric for the GHG performance of any given cattle ranch. We expect, for example that yields will vary according to climate, biophysical constraints and socio-economic factors relating to the farm and its location. Short-run anomalies could arise from climatic and economic variation and longer-run anomalies could arise from the ability of ranchers to improve or worsen their lands and also as the socio-economic circumstances of each ranch changes."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"Therefore questions emerge about whether intensities are best expressed in absolute terms or relative to some local and/or ranch specific benchmarks. Research is needed to develop CRIPs-relevant cattle production intensity performance metrics. Finally, as described in our conceptual model, markets mediate the relationship between interventions in cattle ranching intensification and GHG mitigation and this adds an additional layer of complexity. We address these issues in the following premises."}]},{"head":"Premise Two: Accelerating Intensification is Straightforward","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"A body of literature has emerged arguing that relatively cheap investments could accelerate the adoption of a suite of proven and reasonably widespread cattle ranching technologies (Thornton & Herrero 2010;Cerri et al. 2010;Euclides et al. 2010). Even though the technologies are already preferred on some ranches, proponents argue that investments are needed to offset high logistics costs, degraded or low productivity soils, and lack of access to capital. The theory is that CRIPs might facilitate more rapid dissemination of intensive technologies."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The central critique of this premise is that because adoption of technologies varies by ranch characteristics and geography, it may be wrong to compare technologies across and even within regions. As a result, it can be hard to prove the additionality of a policy if too little is understood about the broader determinants of the ex ante intensity trend. Here we first theorize the adoption process, then outline some of its ranch level and geographic determinants and conclude with remedies to make measuring and managing adoption easier."},{"index":3,"size":199,"text":"Theoretically, ranchers will adopt intensive practices when their expected future profits less their conversion costs exceed expected future profits of business as usual (see Lubowski 2002 for a model example). The attractiveness of any intensification technology will vary across space, time and ranch characteristics. Variable input and output prices and the ratio of the cost of inputs to the value of outputs will affect producers' choices about what input mix to use in current and future periods, strategic decisions about when to slaughter, and the returns to ranching. The expectation about future input and output prices when combined with any risk or uncertainty about prices will also impact decision-making; stable, high output prices and several years of profit may make a rancher more likely to invest in land or capital to dedicate to ranching, or shift toward more input-intensive types of production. Input and output prices vary at both the local and regional levels and are mediated by supply, demand, infrastructure, physical geography, and regulation. Macro-level, local, and regional characteristics such as labour, land, and credit market conditions, current and expected transport costs, land quality, risk perception, and land use policies influence where and when producers adopt intensive technologies."}]},{"head":"Labour & Land","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Labour and land markets are important determinants of profitability. Incomplete labour markets or shortage of labour supply (particularly in remote regions) may make producers more likely to choose relatively more land-or capital-intensive types of production."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Competition for land among various uses, such as soybean production, cattle ranching, and sugar cane production, may drive up the land price-and the expectation that competition between land uses may happen at some point in the future and cause land values to appreciate may cause producers to ranch large tracts of land extensively in hopes that the land will be profitable in some other land use in the future (Hecht 1985;Margulis 2004;Arima et al. 2005;Cattaneo 2008;Walker et al. 2009)."}]},{"head":"Credit","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Credit availability at reasonable interest rates is essential for ranchers to adopt many new technologies, including more productive grass varieties and other types of pasture productivity improvements, or to buy the capital necessary to manage land more intensively (e.g. tractors, fences, etc.). The transition from more land-extensive to more land-intensive forms of ranching requires some combination of increased input usage in the form of fertilizer, lime, grass seed, supplemental feed, mineral salt etc.; upfront investments in machinery; infrastructure and pasture reformation; and increased labour costs. While the returns over the long run to more intensive practices may make their adoption rational, many ranchers and particularly small producers may struggle to obtain credit or access to the necessary financial capital to purchase inputs or machinery. Conversely, cheap or subsidized agricultural credit may encourage ranchers to make larger-than-optimal outlays for land or capital and could result in either greater-than-optimal extent of extensive ranching or intensive ranching, depending upon the confluence of other market characteristics (Margulis 2004)."}]},{"head":"Transport Costs","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Transportation costs underlie ranching profitability because they affect both the cost a rancher pays to get beef and/or dairy products to market (or to pay someone to pick up animals and transport them to slaughterhouses) and the prices of inputs. As such, regions with high transport costs such as remote regions of the Amazon are inherently less profitable for many forms of agriculture, including ranching. This means that reductions in transportation costs, such as the construction of new roads or the paving of existing roads that allow commercial trucks to transport products to and from market even during the height of the rainy season will have important implications for the profitability of different production types and for the adoption of more intensive technologies which are more input-dependent (Arima et al. 2005;Pfaff et al. 2007;Walker et al. 2009;Angelsen 2010). The prior shape and extent of transportation infrastructure can strongly influence how a change in infrastructure influences the competiveness of different land uses (Pfaff et al. 2007), and changes in transportation costs play an important role in determining land and labour market conditions. Changes in transportation costs can result in out-or in-migration, and affect the wage rate/opportunity cost of labor (Pfaff et al. 2007). Exogenous increases in transportation infrastructure/decreases in transportation costs will be internalized to land values in the areas affected by the change, thereby causing land rent to accrue to producers in the region."}]},{"head":"Policy Context: Property Rights","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Policies and enforcement can affect production intensity in numerous nuanced ways. Here, we focus on the role of land tenure and property rights policies and their enforcement. Property rights and or land tenure policies or enforcement might contribute to either under-or overinvestment in cattle ranching intensification relative to a case of tenure security (Hecht 1993;Faminow 1997;Angelsen 1999;Araujo et al. 2009). One key determinant of the effect of tenure on intensity is whether tenure is exogenous (independent of any actions of the landowner) or endogenous (produced as a result of some combination of landowner actions), and if endogenous, how landowner behaviours will contribute to tenure security."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"Underinvestment in intensification may occur when ranchers are reluctant to adopt risky technologies or make investments on their property as a result of some risk that they will lose their land and associated investments in the future. On the other hand, overinvestment may occur in the case where land tenure is endogenous. In the case of endogenous property rights, investment in intensive technologies or property improvements gives the landowner a stronger claim to the land, either by demonstrating productive use, or by deterring land grabbers. The types and quantities of investments landowners make may increase the probability of retaining the land over the long-run. The use of cattle to establish both de facto and de jure properties rights over recently-cleared land is an example of a tenure endogenous production technology that may be a major driver of extensive ranching on the Brazilian Amazon frontier (Binswanger 1991;Hecht 1993;Margulis 2004). Wherever clearing one's land is not only essential to obtaining/retaining tenure, but is also insufficient without the use of cattle to maintain the claim, we would expect more extensive land-use relative to a situation where tenure is secure. In such a system, the optimal density of cattle on the landscape for tenure establishment might be lower or higher than the density to maximize production 7 ."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Where questions exist about the performance of an intensification technology, the probability of adoption for the marginal rancher may depend on the frequency of previous adoption. A new technology may be more appealing for a rancher if the rancher's neighbour has already used it and can recommend how much to apply, and can demonstrate increased profitability through its use. A notable implication is that, all else equal, prior adoption may reduce the marginal cost of adoption by lowering risk alone."}]},{"head":"Farm Size","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Farm size may have several implications for the propensity to adopt intensive technologies."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"First, we might expect that the optimal farm size for production systems that are more labourintensive when compared to other systems (e.g. systems that involve dairy) is smaller."},{"index":3,"size":181,"text":"Because labour requirements for these systems will vary directly with herd size, even pasturebased dairy systems are likely to be smaller and more intensive than systems that are more focused on beef production. On the other hand, large producers might be more likely to adopt intensive ranching practices if there are increasing returns to scale associated with using particular types of capital or with pasture reformation or feed storage (Angelsen and Kaimowitz 2001;Somwaru and Valdes 2004). Large farms located in regions where the opportunity cost of land is low, however, may be less likely to intensify, particularly if establishment of property rights still occurs through clearing and occupation/productive use (Binswanger 1991;Margulis 2004). Finally, it seems likely that access to credit is tied to existing farm size. If it is true that producers with larger farms and/or significant capital accumulation can more easily gain access to credit, we might expect that large and successful ranchers will be most likely to adopt more intensive technologies before these technologies diffuse to smaller and potentially more risk-averse farmers that are less able obtain agricultural credit."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Understanding technical adoption patterns across space and ranch characteristics can be improved by conducting randomized control trials to measure the effects on cattle rancher behaviour. Doing this would allow for scientific observations of the propensity of ranchers to adopt management practices and further changes to production systems that could increase or decrease forest pressure. When synthesized with robust technical descriptions of production systems and base ranch and geographic data, a knowledge base could be created that would serve as an essential element to demonstrate the extent of CRIPs impacts and additionality."}]},{"head":"Premise Three: Increasing Intensive Ranching Can Reduce Cattle Product Prices","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"The third premise underlying the CRIPs concept is that interventions that cause increased production of intensively produced cattle products can reduce the cattle product producer prices germane to the extensive cattle industry of Brazil. For this to be true, there must be a linkage between markets for the intensive and extensive cattle products. Until quite recently, large isolated markets persisted in the North and Center West of Brazil. Now infrastructure improvements have greatly increased market interconnectivity across Brazil (Faminow 1997;Association of Brazilian Beef Exporters 2011). Some barriers to market integration do still remain. Some areas of Brazil are still not able to participate in export-oriented markets. They are inhibited for a variety of reasons. For example, they may lack certification demonstrating that they are free of hoof and mouth disease or they may lack the ability to demonstrate that the full supply chain complies with forest laws. As Brazil's beef exports rise, we should assess the market for Brazilian beef as part of a global beef market of increasing size. Given this scale, the extent of price effects in Brazil from an increase of intensive beef in Brazil could be dampened. 8 The formation of livestock prices under an intensification intervention could depend on a number of indirect effects driven by associated inputs prices such as both fertilizer and land. Such indirect price effects could both magnify and dampen the price effects of increased output for intensive cattle systems. Research to quantify the price effects of increased intensive output should be a part of CRIPs pilot projects."}]},{"head":"Premise Four: Reducing Cattle Product Prices Can Reduce Pasture Area","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The fourth premise is that a decline in germane cattle product prices could reduce the area of Brazil over which extensive ranching is profitable. The mechanism would be that the increase in supply could reduce cattle product prices enough that for some meaningful fraction of extensive cattle ranches, revenues would no longer exceed costs (Kaimowitz & Angelsen 2008). Over time the reduction could take the form of both a reduction in the expansion of extensive cattle ranching and the abandonment of existing extensive areas. This premise could hold true in sufficiently small markets where a small intervention could have a meaningful price effect or in large markets where a sufficiently large intervention is undertaken."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The activities of land users at the Brazilian forest frontier cannot be explained by agricultural profit maximization alone. First timber and non-timber forest products can be important sources of household income. Second, not all frontier actors are profit maximizers, some may seek to maximize utility in ways such that they do not maximize profit. If it were leisure, higher production prices would mean greater profitability per unit area and a decline in the area required to satisfy the leisure objective (Angelsen & Kaimowitz, 2001). Of even greater salience, however, is ample evidence suggesting that Brazilian ranchers hold land not only to produce cattle products, but also to secure tenure, obtain access to government subsidies, and to speculate on increases in land values (Kaimowitz & Angelsen, 2008). Each of these considerations could dampen the extent that cattle product price declines lead to declining area of extensive ranching."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"A further consideration is extent to which demand for cattle products varies as prices vary. If a price decline leads to an increase in demand, this too would dampen the land-sparing phenomenon. Of note is not only the own price elasticity of demand, but also cross price elasticities of consumption substitutes. Supporting CRIPs means assuming that demand for cattle products is sufficiently inelastic such that when yields increase, areas will decrease enough to spare land. Inelastic demand may apply to staples and to food in aggregate. In this way, higher efficiency food production may escape Jevon's Paradox-i.e. the circumstance where the more efficient the production process of goods with elastic demand becomes, the more demand arises for the goods (Alcott 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Demand for beef might be quite price elastic however (Andreyeva et al. 2010). Also, the central tendency of an increase in the share of food from beef would be substantial increases in GHG emissions from food consumption. 9 The best solution to the problem would be two pronged: research the relationship between cattle product prices and ranching extent, and in the meanwhile design corrective taxes such that CRIPs to keep consumer prices for beef at equal or higher levels."}]},{"head":"Premise Five: Reducing Extensive Cattle Ranching Can Deliver GHG Benefits","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The fifth premise is that reduced extensive cattle ranching can have three effects relative to business as usual-reduce direct emissions, avoided deforestation and land spared for other productive uses."}]},{"head":"Reduced Direct Emissions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"As we mention in Premise One, if a unit of beef is produced using the semi-intensive technologies available in Brazil it is most likely that these emissions will be measurably less than emissions from typical extensive production. If land is in fact spared, questions do arise, however, about the soil carbon that could be lost in the conversion from pasture to cropland (Fargione et al 2008)."}]},{"head":"Avoided Deforestation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Another part of the premise hinges on the idea that extensive cattle ranching is the cause of a substantial fraction of the deforestation on the land that it occupies and, as result, reduced"},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"9 Further research is needed on the contribution to land use change of an addition or subtraction of a marginal unit of livestock products. Such analysis depends on the extent to which land were functionally equivalent to produce beef and other feed products. To the extent that land is suitable for use as either rangeland or cropland beef and other ruminant meat would be by far most climate intensive food. Meat of monogastrics and other livestock products would much better than beef, but somewhat worse than vegetable products (Weber & Matthews 2008). To the extent that beef is produced on land unsuitable for other livestock and agricultural production, perhaps this hierarchy changes. Further research is needed on the contributions to the suitability of land attributes such as yield potential, governance, and levels of market access."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"extensive ranching would reduce deforestation. Ranching has been identified as strongly correlated with recently deforested lands in Brazil and this has been widely and liberally interpreted to suggest that ranching in fact is the cause of this deforestation (Kaimowitz et al. 2004;Government of Brazil 2004;Wassenaar et al. 2007;Bustamante et al. 2009;Cederberg et al. 2010). In its action plan for prevention of deforestation of the Amazon (2004:10), the Government of Brazil asserts that, \"Cattle ranching is responsible for almost 80% of the total deforestation in the legal Amazon.\" 10 In response to the rapid growth of the industry and allegedly associated deforestation and GHG emissions in Brazil, a number of government and non-government initiatives have sought to curb ranching expansion. This includes the Cattle Agreement for traceability to prevent sourcing from recently deforested ranches, the Brazilian government's embargoed municipalities list, and efforts by several Brazilian public prosecutors to limit credit for cattle sector actors that don't follow forest laws (Walker et al. 2010). The theory is that CRIPs too can curb ranching expansion."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Perhaps the best know study on the environmental impacts of livestock also presumes correlation of pasture and recently deforested land indicates that the pasture has caused the deforestation. Steinfeld et al. (2006) base their estimate of aggregate LUC emissions caused by livestock on Wassenaar et al. (2007). In Wassenaar the authors clearly state that they have simulated the likely future location of cattle ranching based on biophysical characteristics of current cattle ranching. They then overlay this on a simulation of deforestation conducting using similar criteria. As Wassenaar et al. (2007) explain, the relationship that they simulate is correlative, not causal."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Another approach is employed by Cederberg et al. (2010). They \"present a model to distribute emissions from land use change over [cattle] products…\" produced in the Brazilian Amazon."},{"index":6,"size":142,"text":"The Cederberg team first uses a land use change Markov model developed by Fearnside (1996) and presented in Ramankutty et al. (2007) to estimate the deforestation emissions that they attribute to all Brazilian cattle ranching. They use an estimate of the proportion of deforested land in Brazilian Amazon eventually occupied by pasture in the \"final land use stabilized after ~50 years i.e. the equilibrium state\". Since the Markov land transition model on which the study is based imputes no causality it follows that the Cederberg paper concludes with a discussion on the \"beef [that] should carry the burden of the emissions.\" In this portion of the paper they describe three options, beef from recently deforested land in the Amazon, all beef from the Amazon, and all beef from Brazil. They do not, however, suggest which of these options makes the most sense."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Cattle ranching is a cause and perhaps it is even the largest cause of Brazilian deforestation."},{"index":8,"size":177,"text":"Some of this deforestation includes some or all of the forest lost at the location of the cattle ranching itself. Interventions that reduce the area of ranching in Brazil could directly and/or indirectly reduce the amount of deforestation in Brazil. It is not necessarily true, however, that avoided deforestation would occur where the ranching is lost or in proportion to the area of ranching lost. The management practices of each ranch, it agronomic resource endowments, its isolation from markets and its market and regulatory context will affect the net influence of the ranch on agricultural extent and forest cover. For this reason, it is crucial to base policy in a strong understanding of the relationship between forests and extensive livestock. One consequence of not doing this could be to overestimate the GHG benefits from reducing extensive ranching extent. This is because if extensive ranching in general and in particular demand for extensively ranched cattle products is not causing all the deforestation it is occupying, reducing extent of extensive ranching might not create a corresponding decrease in deforestation."},{"index":9,"size":74,"text":"Since the drivers of deforestation are global, it is not possible to use replicates to control for the effects on forests of programs to reduce extensive ranching. Therefore, the best remedy for this problem is to improve land use change models by incorporating understanding of the technical and socioeconomic characteristics, and the regulatory and market contexts of cattle ranching. These data are of the sort to be collected to remedy problems one and two."}]},{"head":"Increased Productive Uses","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The third portion of this premise is that by occupying a very large area in Brazil, cattle pasture is monopolizing land that could be put to more productive land uses. "}]},{"head":"Premise Six: CRIPs Will Deliver Environmental & Social Benefits","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A fundamental premise for promoting CRIPs is that unintended environmental and social costs of the program do not erase the benefits gained from GHG mitigation."}]},{"head":"Non-Climate Environmental Effects of CRIPs","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The environmental benefits of agricultural intensification are of debated size because it can be difficult to compare local loss of environmental quality with global land sparing. Serious environmental impacts are associated with a number of forms of agricultural intensification and in particular with industrial livestock production (Naylor et al. 2005). Water use and pollution are especially pressing and costly problems and their effects are magnified in regions with poor environmental governance. With the exception of the United States and Europe, the cattle sector has not seen the same levels of industrialization as other livestock sectors. Intensification need not be associated with more local environmental costs, however."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Opportunities for environmentally friendly intensification exist, suggesting that under some circumstances local environmental quality vs. global land sparing is a false choice (Matson et al. 1997;Tscharnke et al. 2005)."}]},{"head":"Social Effects of CRIPs","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"At the country level, some argue that agricultural intensification may be a necessary but not sufficient condition for development. Yet to more specifically examine when and how agriculture contributes to development, more empirical research is necessary, and/or modeling that better incorporates non-linear systems, threshold effects and other complex aspects of the problem (Lee & Barrett 2001). Perhaps such work could help to identify priority intensification opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"When we consider the distributional implications of CRIPs, it is important to consider several key factors: the existing policy landscape, the dynamics of the adoption process associated with more intensive technologies, the costs, benefits, and externalities associated with ranching and other competing land uses, and the relative cost-effectiveness of ranching intensification as a GHG mitigation strategy. Whether future intensification or policies designed to encourage intensification result in welfare gains or losses depends on the broader land use policy landscape (Zilberman et al. 1991). For example, productivity improvements (and the resulting shift in supply) in ranching could be social-welfare-improving if the government subsidizes producers via credit programs, but it depends on the opportunity cost of the subsidy. Conversely, there may be a net social welfare loss (through price pass through to consumers) in the absence of government interventions, but this could be offset by the opportunity for government spending on other more socially beneficial things."},{"index":3,"size":190,"text":"Adoption of intensification technologies may require up-front capital investments and potentially exhibit economies of scale so wealthier producers might more quickly adopt intensification technologies. This trend, however, might result in a reduced cost of implementation of the technologies for intensified production and some learning-by-doing for smaller or less-wealthy producers. Smaller producers might still adopt, but lag behind larger producers. This would result in potential welfare improvements for different types of producers at different points in the adoption process. If larger producers adopt first, there is also the potential for concentration of landholdings, however, as larger producers accumulate capital more quickly and take advantage of any economies of scale that might not be available to smaller landholders. Even if we assume that extending TerraClass to the entire country would require extending PRODES-style satellite monitoring to whole country, monitoring of pasture area during the NAMAs period could cost as little as $1 billion total. Moreover, since the systems leverages remote sensing, perhaps it would be reasonable to also develop assessments on the productivity of pasturelands. Knowing productivity potentials could be helpful to identify land-conserving management practices and establish performance metrics for CRIPs."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"An excellent complement to improved monitoring of area and quality of pastureland would be Thus in all, cattle traceability could cost $50 billion dollars over the course of mitigation period. This is an untenably high figure as it comprises a 50% increases in CRIPs implementation costs and would mean that CRIPs costs would exceed CRIPs benefits. Its cost would need to be reduced by a half in order to enter the feasible range. Streamlining seems a reasonable expectation. If instead of a census a random sampling approach were employed, cost savings could be dramatic."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"The GHG impacts of CRIPs cannot be directly measured because they intend to impact global land cover and there is therefore no way to control for other influences on land use change."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"However, better modeling of the GHG benefits could be accomplished through further data, and science. We specify a number of research and agricultural statistics priorities in this section and at the end of each of the first six premise sections. Publicly-available, spatiallyexplicit agricultural input and output price data, scientific data on the propensity of adoption of intensive practices and data on the influence of environmental regulations on production practices would all be essential to parameterize a model of CRIPs impacts on GHGs. A great deal of this data collection would be best accomplished by designing the early stages of CRIPs as randomized control trials. This would be the most straightforward way to improve the science of agricultural technology adoption and ultimately the potential to manage GHG emissions from the Brazilian cattle sector."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"For Brazil to reduce its climate emissions, like many Southern countries it must reduce emissions from land use. These dominate all anthropogenic emissions. Given its large area, cattle ranching will surely play a role in future of land use and hence climate policy. For this reason and the many premises we outline, CRIPs have become central to discussions on strategies to address agricultural drivers of deforestation and develop climate-friendly biofuels policies. As we have demonstrated, however, a number of these premises could lead to unintended climate costs from some CRIPs approaches. For now, it is best to proceed cautiously with CRIPs, to begin by collecting data on cattle systems and to develop trials to build scientific understanding of rancher technology adoption. Even with better science and data, the viability of CRIPs for climate mitigation will be contingent on factors beyond the cattle sector like forest governance, and beyond Brazil's borders like global demand for cattle products. In the meanwhile using CRIPs to close data and science gaps can pay dividends not only as preparation for CRIPs, but also by enabling better management of cattle ranching for broader social and environmental benefits."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Cattle ranching intensification is a subset of land use intensification and agricultural intensification. Neither land use intensification nor agricultural intensification are wholly subsets of the conventional notion of industrial intensification employed in production economics. Industrial intensification is the use of more of any production input relative to other inputs per a given quantity of output. By contrast, land use intensification generally refers to changes in agricultural production practices that lead to more agricultural outputs per area of land input. This most commonly means boosting non-land inputs in ways that boost output. It could also mean an increase in factor productivity through the adoption of new, more efficient technologies. Alternatively, because land quality can vary, agricultural intensification can also mean boosting the quality of the land input by changing the land area farmed through acquisition, sale or swapping.5 The former form of land use intensificationchanged production practices-is the version of intensification typically envisioned by proponents of CRIPs for land sparing. "},{"text":" can include early stage efforts to trial or pilot solutions. CRIPs comprise direct interventions in the cattle sector like credit, input taxes and subsidies, research & development, and output taxes and subsidies. They also comprise indirect interventions like agricultural infrastructure construction and planning, and even trade and fiscal policies. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: One CRIPs Conceptual Model "},{"text":" per year system to monitor deforestation across the 320 million hectares of the Legal Amazon (G1 News Brazil 2011; Bitencourt 2011; Brazilian Ministry of Science & Technology 2011). "},{"text":" to monitor the location and movements of the national cattle herd. Traceable radio frequency identifier chips are already implanted in some cattle in Brazil to prevent sourcing from illegally deforested lands. Traceability could also greatly aid measurements of cattle ranching productivity. Baseline levels of productivity are, in turn, critical to estimate the extent of intensification a CRIP causes. Early experience from the cattle industry indicates that traceability can be expensive. While the hardware costs $4/animal life, one industry source estimates total private costs of approximately $30/animal life (Dias Lopes 2011). Since animal lives are roughly three years this would mean costs of roughly $10/animal/year. For 200 million animals over 20 years this would mean $40 billion in private costs of tracing cattle. Private traceability initiatives are prone to fraud and so government enforcement would be needed. This too could be substantial. Cattle ranches cover one quarter of Brazil's land area and enforcement in these areas has been lax. If it has been zero enforcement up until now and if enforcement varies with area, this could increase the budget for environmental enforcement in the country by 25% or roughly $500 million annually (Senate of Brazil 2010). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Brazil's Proposed NAMAs: Pledged Emissions Reductions for the year 2020 Mitigation potential (mt CO2) % of total mitigation  Restoration of grazing land 83-104 9%-11% Restoration of grazing land83-1049%-11% Integrated crop livestock systems 18-22 2% Integrated crop livestock systems18-222% Total ranching targeted 101-126 10%-12% Total ranching targeted101-12610%-12% Reduction in Amazon deforestation 564 54%-58% Reduction in Amazon deforestation56454%-58% Reduction in cerrado deforestation 104 10%-11% Reduction in cerrado deforestation10410%-11% No-till farming 16-20 2% No-till farming16-202% Biological N2O fixation 16-20 2% Biological N2O fixation16-202% Biofuels use 48-60 5%-6% Biofuels use48-605%-6% Total ranching related 748-768 74%-77% Total ranching related748-76874%-77% All Ranching Contingent 849-894 85%-88% All Ranching Contingent849-89485%-88% Energy Efficiency 12-15 1% Energy Efficiency12-151% Hydroelectric power production 79-99 8%-10% Hydroelectric power production79-998%-10% Other alternative energy 26-33 3% Other alternative energy26-333% Total non-ranching related 117-147 13%-15% Total non-ranching related117-14713%-15% Grand total 966-1041 100% Grand total966-1041100%  "},{"text":" In 2006, at last count, cattle ranching occupied roughly 200 million hectares of Brazil, more than one fifth of the land surface of Brazil (seeIBGE 2010). By contrast, all of crop agriculture in Brazil combined occupies just 62 million hectares (seeIBGE 2011).Ricardo (1891) andVon Thunen (1966), theorize that the quality of land and its isolation from markets can influence it value and its use. With a potential for value to now be placed on land use changes emissions and/or emissions reductions from reforestation, a third consideration for CRIPs would thus be the GHG value of each piece of land. Such a value could correspond to the GHG benefits of maintaining an ecosystem and/or the greenhouse gas costs of converting it (Anderson-Teixeira & DeLucia 2010). The relative significance of these three distinguishing characteristics, however, has not been rigorously examined and it is not a typical component of discussions on the fate of Brazil's 200 million hectares of cattle pastures. For CRIPs, research is needed to develop a new functional unit for land that takes into account land quality, isolation from markets, and GHG value.  "}],"sieverID":"d0780002-7ac6-41ca-b151-ffab95625ab7","abstract":"The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these agencies, nor the official position of the CGIAR or ESSP."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d5e766b551a4177ec660ab4b21f07b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ae12dd7b-f46f-43a9-9ba6-73a78a624ee8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"New barley variety Guldeste released by National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in Turkey","keywords":["P650 -Product Line 3","2","2: Cereal and legume germplasm with superior food, feed and fodder traits"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b8dd961d-0773-42a8-b4f6-a93dfa7fa0cb","abstract":"Description of the innovation: High yielding and disease resistant six-row naked barley variety ideal for high input conditions released in Turkey by NARS New Innovation: No Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds) Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Defined> Country(ies): • Turkey Description of Stage reached: The variety has been released and will be available to farmers Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • TAGEM -General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies Milestones: • 3.4.5 Identified dual-purpose crops (food and feed), superior to local feeds made available by development partners, government agencies and the private sector and applied by 150,000 farmers in at least one country and at least one new additional dual purpose cultivar will be released and 3 new promising cultivars tested in 3 new countries Sub-IDOs: • 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas"}